CHAPTER 8:

MECHANICAL FAILURE
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves.
Adapted from Fig. 8.0, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.0 is by Neil Boenzi, The New
York Times.)
thermal loading. loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 18.11W(b), Callister Adapted from Fig.
6e. (Fig. 18.11W(b) is courtesy of 17.19(b), Callister 6e.
National Semiconductor Corporation.)
Chapter 8- 1
 DUCTILE VS BRITTLE FAILURE
Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister 6e.

%AR or %EL: Large Moderate Small

Ductile Ductile: Brittle:
fracture is warning before No
desirable! fracture warning

Chapter 8- 2
 EX: FAILURE OF A PIPE

Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.

Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical
Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b),
p. 66 John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987.
Used with permission.

Chapter 8- 3
 MODERATELY DUCTILE FAILURE
Evolution to failure:
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and linkage at surface

Resulting 50
50m
m
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 m
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
(2nd ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Roehrig, CC Technologies,
nucleation Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. Dublin, OH. Used with
sites. source: P. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., permission.
Vol. 6, 1971, pp. 347-56.) Chapter 8- 4
 BRITTLE FRACTURE SURFACES
Intergranular Intragranular
(between grains) 304 S. Steel (within grains)
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
from "Metals Reprinted w/ permission
Handbook", 9th ed, Fig. from "Metals
633, p. 650. Copyright Handbook", 9th ed, Fig.
1985, ASM 650, p. 357. Copyright
International, Materials 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph International, Materials
by J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph
Olsen, Oak Ridge
160m
4 mm by D.R. Diercks,
National Lab.) Argonne National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ Reprinted w/ permission
permission from R.W. from "Failure Analysis
Hertzberg, "Defor- of Brittle Materials", p.
mation and Fracture 78. Copyright 1990, The
Mechanics of American Ceramic
Engineering Society, Westerville,
Materials", (4th ed.) OH. (Micrograph by
Fig. 7.35(d), p. 303, R.M. Gruver and H.
John Wiley and Sons, Kirchner.) 3m
1 mm Inc., 1996.
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Chapter 8- 5
Vol. 3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
 IDEAL VS REAL MATERIALS
Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
perfect matl-no flaws
E/10 TSengineering<< TSperfect
carefully produced glass fiber materials materials

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1
Reprinted w/
DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... permission from
R.W. Hertzberg,
--the longer the wire, the "Deformation and
smaller the load to fail it. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
--flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc.,
1996.
--Larger samples are more flawed!
Chapter 8- 6
FLAWS ARE STRESS CONCENTRATORS!
Elliptical hole in Stress distrib. in front of a hole:
a plate: o a
max o 2 1
t

2a
t

Stress conc. factor: Kt max / o

Large Kt promotes failure:

NOT
SO Kt=3 BAD! Kt>>3
BAD
Chapter 8- 7
 ENGINEERING FRACTURE DESIGN
Avoid sharp corners!
o max
Stress Conc. Factor, Kt =
o
w
max 2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from
G.H. Neugebauer, Prod.
Eng. (NY), Vol. 14, pp.
82-87 1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
Chapter 8- 8
 WHEN DOES A CRACK PROPAGATE?

t at a crack
tip is very
small!

Result: crack tip K

tip tip
stress is very large. 2 x

Crack propagates when: increasing K

the tip stress is large
enough to make:
distance, x,
K Kc from crack tip

Chapter 8- 9
 GEOMETRY, LOAD, & MATERIAL
Condition for crack propagation:
K Kc
Stress Intensity Factor: Fracture Toughness:
--Depends on load & --Depends on the material,
geometry. temperature, environment, &
rate of loading.
Values of K for some standard loads & geometries:

units of K :
MPa m
2a a
2a or ksi in
Adapted from Fig. 8.8,
Callister 6e.

K a K 1.1 a
Chapter 8- 10
 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS K metals
c

increasing
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers comp
Alloys fibers
Semicond Kc
100
C-C(|| fibers)1
poly
70
60
Steels
Ti alloys
K cer
c Kc
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B5,
KIc(MPa m0.5)

Callister 6e.
20 Composite reinforcement geometry
Al/Al oxide(sf)2
is: f = fibers; sf = short fibers; w =
Y 2O 3/ZrO2(p)4 whiskers; p = particles. Addition
10 C/C( fibers)1 data as noted (vol. fraction of
Al oxid/SiC(w)3 reinforcement):
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w)5
7 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM
Al oxid/ZrO2(p)4 Int., Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w)6
5 PET 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
Al oxide Waltham, MA.
4 Si nitride
PP 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum
3 PVC Press (1986). pp. 61-73.
4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
2 PC 5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development
of Ceramic Matrix Composites for
Application in Technology for Advanced
Engines Program", ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2,
1 ORNL, 1992.
<100>
Si crystal PS Glass6 6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng.
<111> Sci. Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
0.7 Glass-soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete Chapter 8- 11
0.5
DESIGN AGAINST CRACK GROWTH
Crack growth condition: K Kc

Y a
Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Result 1: Max flaw size --Result 2: Design stress
dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
2

Kc 1 K c
design a max
Y a max Ydesign

amax

fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture
Chapter 8- 12
 DESIGN EX: AIRCRAFT WING
Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure stress = ?
Kc
Use... c
Y a max
Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

c a max A c a max B
Answer: c B 168MPa
Reducing flaw size pays off!
Chapter 8- 13
 LOADING RATE

Increased loading rate... TS
--increases y and TS y larger
--decreases %EL TS
Why? An increased rate y
gives less time for disl. to smaller
move past obstacles.
Impact loading: sample (Charpy)
--severe testing case
--more brittle
--smaller toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.11(a) and
(b), Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.11(b)
is adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
final height initial height
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)
Chapter 8- 14
 TEMPERATURE
Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc
Ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT)...

( e.g ., Cu, Ni)

s
FCC metal
Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials (y>E/150)

Adapted from C. Barrett, W. Nix,
and A.Tetelman, The Principles
of Engineering Materials, Fig. 6-21,
Temperature p. 220, Prentice-Hall, 1973.
Electronically reproduced by
Ductile-to-brittle permission of Pearson Education,
transition temperature Inc., Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey.
Chapter 8- 15
 DESIGN STRATEGY:
STAY ABOVE THE DBTT!
Pre-WWII: The Titanic
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p.
262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig.
source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Discovery of
the Titanic.)
Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.
WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p.
262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig.
source: Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of Engineering
Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci., Nat. Res. Council,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)
Chapter 8- 16
 FATIGUE
Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top
Adapted from Fig. 8.16,
Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.16
bearing motor counter is from Materials
bearing Science in Engineering,
4/E by Carl. A. Keyser,
flex coupling Pearson Education, Inc.,
tension on bottom Upper Saddle River,
NJ.)

Stress varies with time.

max
--key parameters are S and m S
m
min time
Key points: Fatigue...
--can cause part failure, even though max < c.
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.

Chapter 8- 17
 FATIGUE DESIGN PARAMETERS
S = stress amplitude
Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)

Sfat
safe
Adapted from Fig.
8.17(a), Callister 6e.

103 105 107 109

N = Cycles to failure
Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero! S = stress amplitude
case for
unsafe Al (typ.)

safe Adapted from Fig.

8.17(b), Callister 6e.

103 105 107 109

N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8- 18
 FATIGUE MECHANISM
Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
da m
dN

K
~ a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster if
increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.19, Callister
crack gets longer 6e. (Fig. 8.19 is from
loading freq. increases. D.J. Wulpi,
Understanding How
Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials
Park, OH, 1985.)
Chapter 8- 19
 IMPROVING FATIGUE LIFE
1. Impose a compressive S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
surface stress Fig. 8.22, Callister 6e.

(to suppress surface near zero or compressive m

cracks from growing) moderate tensile m
larger tensile m

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators. Adapted from
Fig. 8.23, Callister 6e.
bad better
Chapter 8- 20
 CREEP
Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tmelt
Deformation changes with time.

strain,
INCREASING T

tertiary
0 t
primary secondary

elastic T < 0.4 Tm

time
0 Adapted from
Figs. 8.26 and 8.27,
Callister 6e.

Chapter 8- 21
 SECONDARY CREEP
Most of component life spent here.
Strain rate is constant at a given T,
--strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
. n
Q
s K 2 exp c activation energy for creep
strain rate RT (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
Strain rate 200 Stress (MPa) Fig. 8.29, Callister 6e.
427C (Fig. 8.29 is from
increases 100 Metals Handbook:
Properties and
for larger T, 538C Selection: Stainless
40 Steels, Tool Materials,
and Special Purpose
20 Metals, Vol. 3, 9th ed.,
649C D. Benjamin (Senior
10 Ed.), American
Society for Metals,
10-2 10-1 1 1980, p. 131.)
Steady state creep rate s (%/1000hr)
Chapter 8- 22
 CREEP FAILURE
Failure: Estimate rupture time
along grain boundaries. S 590 Iron, T = 800C, = 20 ksi
g.b. cavities 100
Adapted from
Fig. 8.45, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.45 is from F.R.
Larson and J. Miller,
applied

Stress, ksi
20 Trans. ASME, 74, 765
stress (1952).)
10

data for
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of S-590 Iron
Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, 1
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: 12 16 20 24 28
Pergamon Press, Inc.)
L(103K-log hr) 24x103 K-log hr
Time to rupture, tr
T(20 log t r ) L T(20 log t r ) L
temperature function of 1073K
applied stress
time to failure (rupture) Ans: tr = 233hr
Chapter 8- 23
 SUMMARY
Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
Failure type depends on T and stress:
-for noncyclic and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
increased maximum flaw size,
decreased T,
increased rate of loading.
-for cyclic :
cycles to fail decreases as increases.
-for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):
time to fail decreases as or T increases.
Chapter 8- 24
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 8- 0