2011 Environmental Change in A Barrier Estuarine System

The Development of a Sediment-Based Methodology for the Identification
of High Resolution Late Holocene Environmental Change in a Barrier
Estuarine System: Pescadero Marsh, San Mateo County, California
Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of The University of Liverpool for the
degree of Doctor in Philosophy by David William Clarke
August 2011
"We went on, and entered the valleys of San Pedro Regalado (Pescadero
and Butano), in which we found two very large arroyos containing a
good volume of water and well grown with cottonwoods, alders,
willows, live oaks, and some thick groves of redwoods in the side
canyons of the valley. Besides the two large arroyos there are other
smaller ones with running water and lagoons grown with good patches
of tule. These valleys have much good arable land which could be easily
irrigated with the water from the arroyos. There are good pastures,
much firewood, and timber for building" Padre Juan CrespI, 1774
Abstract
Pescadero Marsh is a back-barrier wetland environment located on the central coast of
California. In an attempt to reconstruct sub-annual trends in back-barrier environmental
change over the late Holocene, driven by the presence and integrity of a coastal barrier
system, carefully targeted sections of the sediment record from this site were analysed at
high resolution (2mm) for their grain size and geochemical characteristics. Where possible,
diatom analysis supplemented these data. The sediment record, and the methodology
employed, proved to be sufficiently sensitive for this purpose by distinguishing between a
series of barrier estuarine and lagoonal sedimentary environments.
Grain size data were the primary basis for environmental interpretation. At this resolution,
the grain size distribution curves of individual samples revealed sensitive environmental
information regarding deposition through different transport processes, i.e. saltation vs
suspension loads. Distinctions between samples were driven by the interaction of the
lagoonal pool, tidal ingress, river flow and the integrity of the barrier system. Geochemical
data indicated sediment provenance, distinguishing between samples primarily sourced by
marine and terrestrial waters, and grain size related controls on many geochemical
characteristics. Diatom assemblages reflected high energy inputs from the ocean and the
feeding creeks whilst recording limited change in the salinity of the back-barrier
environment. A confident chronology was constructed for Euro-American era sediments,
with a sedimentation rate of 144.2 days per 2mm sample established above a 1963
'weapons testing' peak in 137CS. A similar rate was demonstrated to continue to at least
1900 through the presence of geochemical markers of anthropogenic activity (pollution,
catchment destabilisation and development of infrastructure). This represented a marked

increase above the prehistoric rate ("'0.8mm per year).
During the late-Holocene period of relative sea-level stability, the environmental trends
established are characteristic of a morphologically resilient coastal system. A barrier
estuarine environment persisted, despite changing boundary conditions and a perturbation

of very high magnitude/low frequency, and was observed to shift though a series of 'static
equilibrium' operational states. From wavelet analvsis, the ENSOphenomenon emerged as
the likely principal driver of variability in the most recent of these static equilibra. The
research presented greatly improves understanding of the sites prehistoric functioning and
suggests significant anthropogenic impacts on the system during the Euro-American era.
Such information can inform management of this and other analogous sites.
Acknowledged for their help and support (in no particular order, and with apologies for any
omissions) are:
Sara, my mother and father, friends, people who have contributed to this research,
particularly Joanne Kerbavaz and Javier Lario, the kids in California (and I suppose Ed, Phil
and Dave!). The academics that have shown faith in me and presented me with
opportunities: John Boyle, Jan Bloemendal, Jason Kirby and Richard Chiverrell. My
'academic peers' in the Geography Department: Andy, Tim, Angel, Ashley, lan, Katherine,
Sarah, Becky among others. The very helpful'Roxby Building people': Hilda, Bob, Irene,
Alan, Sandra, Suzanne, lan, Bob, Tinho, Jayne, Claire, Andrea, Dave. My benefactor: John
Lennon (If I don't believe in Beatles, I just believe in me", thanks John!). And last but not
least, Andrew James Plater without whom none of this would have been possible.
List of Contents
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction and aims 1
1.1lntroduction 1
1.2 Aims 3
1.3 Introduction to the study site 5
CHAPTER TWO: Coastal Wetlands and Coastal Management 8
2.1 Coastal Wetland Environments 8
2.1.1 The Value of Coastal Wetlands to Society 8
2.1.2 Management Priorities for Coastal Wetland Environments 11
2.1.3 Data Used to Inform Management of Coastal Wetland Environments 16
2.2 Coastal Management 17
2.2.1 The Development of Coastal Management 17
2.2.2 Coastal Management in California 19
2.2.3 Areas for Progress in Coastal Management 21
2.2.4 Fostering Sustainability in Coastal Wetland Environments 22
CHAPTER THREE: Estuarine and Barrier Estuarine Environments 25
3.1 Holocene Estuarine Environments 25
3.1.1 Holocene Estuarine Evolution 26
3.1.2 Drivers of Holocene Estuarine Evolution 26
3.1.2.1 Sea level 27
3.1.2.2 Antecedent Topography 28
3.1.2.3 Sedimentation 28
3.1.2.4 Climate Factors 29
3.1.2.5 High Magnitude / low Frequency Events 29
3.1.2.6 Human Activity 30
3.2 late Holocene Barrier Estuarine Environments " 31
3.2.1 Barrier Formation 32

3.2.2 Barrier Response to Sea-Level Change 32
3.2.3 Barrier Opening and Closure 33
3.2.4 Sedimentation in Drowned River Valley/Barrier Estuarine Environments 35
3.3 Mesoscale Behaviour of Estuarine and Barrier Estuarine Environments 39
3.4 Holocene Evolution of a Barrier Estuarine System on the California Coast: Elkhorn
Siough 41
CHAPTER FOUR: Study Site: Pescadero Marsh 45
4.1 The Environment of Pescadero Marsh 45
4.1.1 Formation 45
4.1.2 Climate 45
4.1.3 Geology 46
4.1.4 Tectonics 46
4.1.5 Vegetation 47
4.1.6 The Barrier Estuarine Environment of Pescadero Marsh 47
4.1.7 Present-Day Barrier Regime 48
4.2 Management of Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve 50
4.3 Present-Day Issues at Pescadero Marsh 52
4.3.1 Flooding 52
4.3.2 Maintaining Habitat for Rare Species 53
4.3.3 Fish-kill Events 55
4.3.4 Barrier Regime 56
4.4 A History of Human Land-Use in and Around Pescadero Marsh 59
4.4.1 Native American Occupation 59
4.4.2 The Spanish/Mexican Era 60
4.4.2.1 The Spanish Period: 1769 - 1822 61
4.4.2.2 The Mexican Period: 1822 -1848 61
4.4.3 The Euro-American Era 62
4.4.3.1 Euro-American Era Timeline of Potential Human Impacts on Pescadero Marsh 63
ii
4.5 Time Series of Maps and Aerial photographs Depicting Pescadero Marsh 67
4.5.11854 68
4.5.2 1928 70
4.5.3 1940 73
4.5.4 1956 74
4.5.61977 -1978 -1980 79
4.5. 71986 80
4.5.8 1993 84
4.5.92000 - 2001 - 2002 - 2003 84
4.6 High Resolution Core Sites 86
CHAPTER FIVE: Methodology 88
5.1 Holocene Stratigraphy 88
5.2 Short Core Methodology 88
5.2.1 Sampling 88
5.2.2 Grain Size Analysis 89
5.2.3 X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) 90
5.2.4 loss On Ignition (lOI) 91
5.2.5 Diatom Analysis 92
137
5.2.6 CS and 210Pb Dating 93
5.2.7 Radiocarbon Dating 93
5.3 Grain Size Analysis for Environmental Reconstruction 94
5.3.1 Progress in Grain Size Analysis 94
5.3.2 Grain Size Analysis of Intertidal, Estuarine and Back-Barrier Sediments 97
5.3.3Issues to Consider for the Interpretation of Grain Size Analysis Data 101
5.4 Format of Following Chapters 105
CHAPTER SIX: Late Holocene Stratigraphy of Pescadero Marsh 106
6.1late Holocene Stratigraphy 106
iii
6.1.1. Butano Creek Floodplain Stratigraphy 108
6.1.2 Stratigraphy Between Creeks 110
6.1.3 Lobe Stratigraphy (figure 77) 111
6.1.4 North Marsh stratigraphy 114
6.2 Interpretative Model 116
6.2.1 Drivers ofthe Late Holocene Stratigraphy 117
6.3 Site Specific Environmental Sequences 120
6.3.1 Butano Creek Floodplain Transect 120
6.3.2 Between Creeks Transect 121
6.3.3 Lobe Transect 122
6.3.4 North Marsh Transects 123
6.4 Discussion of Late Holocene Stratigraphy 123
6.5 Conclusions 127
CHAPTER SEVEN: PM08R Chronology 129
7.1 Chronological Indicators 129
7.1.1 Weapons Testing and Caesium 137 129
7.1.2 Motoring, Transport Routes and Atmospheric Lead Pollution 129
7.1.3 Titanium vs Potassium Ratio 132
7.1.4 Further Potential Dating Methods 133
7.2 Composite Chronology 133
7.3 PM08R Chronology below Euro-American Era Sediments 136
CHAPTER EIGHT: Grain Size Analysis of the PM08R Core 137
8.1 Summary Statistics Calculation Method 137
8.2 Modal vs. Mean Grain Size 137
8.3 Skewness, Sorting and Kurtosis 139
8.4 Down-Core Trends in Mean Grain Size 141
8.5 Relationships between Summary Statistics 145
iv
8.5.1 Mean and Sorting 145
8.5.2 Mean and Skewness 148
8.5.3 Mean and Kurtosis 150
8.5.4 Sorting and Skewness 152
B.S.S Sorting and Kurtosis 153
8.5.6 Skewness and Kurtosis 155
S.6 Interpretation of Relationships between Summary Statistics 156
B.6.1 Mean Grain Size Groups 156
8.6.2 Principle Component Analysis of summary statistics 157
8.6.3 Zonation of Summary Statistic Scatter Plots Informed by Grain Size Groups 160
B.6.3.1 Background Sample Group (>64 160
8.6.3.2 Intermediate Sample Group (6-44 162
8.6.3.3 Elevated Energy Sample Group (4-24 167
8.6.3.4 Peak Energy Group Samples 24 168
B.6.4Interpretation of Mean Grain Size Sample Group Characteristics 170
S.7 Principle Component Analysis of Summary Statistics for Individual Base level Sections 172
S.S Grain Size Distribution Frequency Curves 174
B.B.1 Mean Grain Size Base Level Sections 174
B.8.1.2 Surface 174
8.B.1.3 MGSBl A 175
B.B.1.4 MGSBL B 181
B.B.1.S MGSBL C 183
8.8.1.6 MGSBl D 183
B.8.1.7 MGSBl E 187
B.B.l.8 MGSBl F 187
8.8.1.9 MGSBl G 189
B.B.2 High Energy Episodes 191
v
8.8.2.1 Intermediate High Energy Episode 1.. 191
8.8.2.2 Intermediate High Energy Episode 2 191
B.B.2.S Intermediate High Energy Episode 5 192
8.8.2.7 High Energy Episode 7 194
8.9 Frequency Curves and Summary Statistics 200
8.10 Interpretations 202
8.10.1 Summary statistics 202
8.10.2 Differential Frequency Curves 204
8.10.3 Grain Size Distribution Evidence of Interaction between Tidal Action and the Barrier
System? 212
8.10.4 Consistent Occurrence of Multiple Modes within the Characteristic Grain Size
Distribution styles 213
8.10.5 Hypothetical Sub-Populations Driven by a Changing Depositional Energy Regime 220
8.11 Surface Contour Plots: A Potential Rapid Methodology for Addressing the Prominence
of Multiple Modes 230
B.11.1 Surface Plots and PM08R Data 231
B.11.1.1150-160cm 232
8.11.1.2 103-113cm 232
8.11.1.3 50-60cm 235
8.12 Reproducibility, Organic Digestion and Present-Day Samples 237
8.12.1 Reproducibility 237
B.12.2 Organic Digestion 238
8.12.3 Present-Day Samples 243
8.12.3.1 BG1 Distribution Style 243
vi
8.12.3.6 INT 1 Distribution Style 245
8.12.3.7 INT 2 Distribution Style 246
8.12.3.8 Distribution Style 246
8.12.3.9 HEl Distribution Style 246
8.13 Replication of the Grain Size Signal: PM09S 248
8.14 Grain Size Analysis Summary 256
CHAPTER NINE: Geochemical Analysis of the PM08R Core 257
9.1 Element Groups 257
9.1.1 Group 1. 262
9.1.2 Group 2 262
9.1.3 Group 3 263
9.1.4 Group 4 263
9.1.5 Group Names 264
9.2 Down Core Geochemical Zones 264
9.2.1 Minerogenic Group Elements 265
9.2.2 Organic Metal Group and LOI 265
9.2.3 Shell Group Elements 266
9.2.4 Salinity Group Elements 267
9.2.5 Geochemical Zones and Mean Grain Size Base Level Sections 271
9.3 Mean Grain Size Base Level Sample Clusters 272
9.3.1 MGSBL A 273
9.3.2 MGSBL B 276
9.3.3 MGSBL C 277
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9.3.4 MGSBl D 279
9.3.5 MGSBl E 280
9.3.6 MGSBl F 281
9.3.7 MGSBl G 282
9.4 Associations between Geochemistry and Grain Size Summary Statistics 283
9.5 End-Member Samples 285
9.5.1 MGSBl A 286
9.5.2 MGSBl B 288
9.5.3 MGSBl C 289
9.5.4 MGSBl D 290
9.5.5 MGSBL E 291
9.5.6 MGSBl F 292
9.5.7 MGSBl G 293
9.5.8 End-Member Distinctions 294
9.6 Geochemical Signatures of End-Member Samples 297
9.6.1 Categorising the Degree of End-Member Group Distinction 297
9.6.1.1 MGSBL A 303
9.6.1.2 MGSBL B 304
9.6.1.3 MGSBL C 304
9.6.1.4 MGSBL D 304
9.6.1.5 MGSBL E, F and G 305
9.6.2 Summary of End-Member Sample Distinction Group Tables 310
9.7 Geochemistry Discussion 311
CHAPTER TEN: PM08R Diatom Assemblages 317
10.1lnterpretive context 317
10.2 Comparison of High and Low Energy Samples 319
10.2.1 MGSBL A 319
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10.2.2 MGSBl 0 327
10.2.3 MGSBl G 334
10.3 MGSBl A Stratigraphic Series Assemblages 340
10.3.1 Series 1 340
10.3.2 Series 2 344
10.3.3 Series 3 346
10.3.4 Cluster analysis of stratigraphic series assemblages 350
10.4 Discussion of Diatom Assemblages 354
CHAPTER ELEVEN: Discussion 357
11.1 Environmental Evolution of Pescadero Marsh 357
11.1.1 Holocene Context 357
11.1.2 High Resolution Record 358
11.1.3 Interpretative Model of Back-Barrier Evolution during the late Holocene 358
11.1.4 PM08R Environmental History 360
11.1.4.1 Where Does the late Holocene High Resolution Record Begin? 360
11.1.4.2 MGSBl G 362
11.1.4.3 MGSBl F 363
11.1.4.4 High Energy Episode 7 364
11.1.4.5 MGSBl E 364
11.1.4.6 MGSBl 0 365
11.1.4.7 MGSBl C 366
11.1.4.8 MGSBl B 367
11.1.4.9 MGSBl A 367
11.2 Implications ofthe late Holocene Barrier Regime History 369
11.3 Further Work 379
CHAPTER TWELVE: Conclusions 381
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: References 385
ix
APPENDIX 416
Appendix 1: Report on the radiometric dating of a sediment core from Pescadero Marsh,
California 416
Appendix 2: Report on the radiocarbon dating of sediment cores from Pescadero Marsh,
California 421
x
List of Figures
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction and aims
Figure 1.1: Location of Pescadero Marsh and the Pescadero and Butano Creek watershed in
relation to the State of California and the United States of America (amended from ESA,
2008) 6
Figure 1.2: USGSmap of Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve, boundary indicated by dashed
red 7
CHAPTER TWO: Coastal Wetlands and Coastal Management
Figure 2.1: Reproduced from the Millennium Ecosystems Assessment (2005). Darker arrows
signify higher potential for mediation by socioeconomic factors while wider arrows signify
stronger linkages between ecosystem services and human well being 11
CHAPTER THREE: Estuarine and Barrier Estuarine Environments
Figure 3.1: The output of four models of global ice melt since the last glacial maximum
presented as eustatic sea-level change (reproduced from Shennan, 2007) 28
Figure 3.2: Illustration of hypothetical open estuarine, tidal lagoon and lagoon inlet
configurations and back-barrier tidal action (partly modified from Wood roffe, 2007) 35
Figure 3.3: Illustration of salt-marsh sedimentation highlighting the contribution from

vegetation through trapping of sediments and biological productivity (adapted from
Fitzgerald et al., 2008) 37
CHAPTER FOUR: Study Site: Pescadero Marsh
Figure 4.1: Diagram to show the two main mechanisms thought to controllCOll /SOTI
opening and closure (reproduced from Ranasinghe et al., 1999) 48
Figure 4.2: Illustration of extremes in back-barrier water level which can occur on a
seasonal basis. The photographs to the right show the same area of the site in 'open' and
'closed' conditions (amended from Sloan, 2006) 49
Figure 4.3: The first (1941-1991) and second (post 1991) Highway1 Bridge over Pescadero
Lagoon (reproduced from Sloan, 2006) 57
Figure 4.4: U.S. coast Survey map of Pescadero Marsh, 1854 (source: ESA, 2008) 69
Figure 4.5: Key environments of Pescadero Marsh (2003 photograph source: Pescadero
Marsh web resource) 71
Figure 4.6: '1928 aerial photograph'. It is unclear whether the image was actually produced
in 1928 or 1929 (source: UCSCSpecial Collection) 72
Figure 4.7: 1940 aerial photograph (source UCSCSpecial Collection) 76
xi
Figure 4.8 and 4.9: 1941 and 1948 aerial photographs (Source UCSCSpecial Collection) 76
Figure 4.10: 1953 aerial photograph (source UCSCSpecial Collection) 77
Figure 4.11: 1956 aerial photograph (source ESA, 2008) 78
Figure 4.12: Increasing agricultural land use on and around Pescadero Marsh (Adapted from
Viollis, 1979) 79
Figure 4.13: 1977 aerial photograph (source Pescadero Marsh web resource) 81
Figure 4.14: 1978 aerial photograph (source Pescadero Marsh web resource) 82
Figure 4.15: 1980 aerial photograph (source UCSCspecial collection) 83
Figure 4.19: High resolution core locations (aerial photography taken in 2003) 87
CHAPTER SIX: Late Holocene Stratigraphy of Pescadero Marsh
Figure 6.1: Transect locations on Pescadero Marsh. The North Marsh and Butano Creek
flood plain sites comprise three transects each (photograph taken in 2003, source:
Pescadero Marsh web resource) : 106
Figure 6.2: Stratigraphy of Butano Creek floodplain transects 109
Figure 6.3: Stratigraphy of transect between the Pescadero and Butano creeks 111
Figure 6.4: Stratigraphy of the lobe transects 113
Figure 6.5: Stratigraphy ofthe North Marsh transects 115
Figure 6.6: Late Holocene sea-level curve for southern San Francisco Bay, corrected for
isostatic and tectonic land movements (amended from Schwartz et al. 1986) 118
Figure 6.7: Diagram to show model of lagoonal/barrier estuarine versus floodplain

deposition 119
CHAPTER SEVEN: PM08R Chronology
Figures 7.1: Down core trends of Pb concentration, Ti/K concentration ratio and mean grain
size. Suggested chronological indicators are show 131
Figure 7.2: PM08R upper core chronology. Signals in proxy indicators are plotted at the
depth they occur at the age of the event they likely correspond to. Dates quoted in bold are
those back calculated for the depths using the sedimentation rate establish above the 137CS
xii
peak. Marker sizes have been manipulated to give a rough indication of the relative
confidence in each date 135
CHAPTER EIGHT: Grain Size Analysis of the PMOSR Core
Figure 8.1: Basic stratigraphy of PM08R core 137
Figure 8.2: Mean grain size (cp) and primary mode (<P) plotted down core for PM08R
samples 138
Figure 8.3: Mean grain size <p plotted down core for PM08R samples with high energy
episodes numbered and MGSBL sections lettered. Approximate base level and regular
fluctuation range is illustrated 141
Figure 8.4: Down core plot of mean grain size (<P), sorting (cp), skewness and kurtosis. High
energy episodes are numbered and MGSBL sections lettered 146
Figure 8.5: Scatter plot showing the relationship between mean grain size and sorting 147
Figure S.6: Scatter plot showing the relationship between mean grain size and skewness ......... 148
Figure 8.7: Scatter plot showing the relationship between mean grain size and kurtosis 150
Figure 8.8: Scatter plot showing the relationship between sorting and skewness 152
Figure 8.9: Scatter plot showing the relationship between sorting and kurtosis 154
Figure 8.10: Scatter plot showing the relationship between skewness and kurtosis 156
Figure 8.11: Principle component analysis of PM08R summary statistics with distinct
populations indicated 159
Figure 8.12: Scatter plot showing the relationship between mean grain size and sorting with
grain size groups and thresholds indicated 162
Figure 8.13: Scatter plot showing the relationship between mean grain size and skewness
with grain size groups and thresholds indicated 162
Figure 8.14: Scatter plot showing the relationship between skewness and sorting with grain
size groups and thresholds indicated where possible 163
Figure 8.15: Scatter plot showing the relationship between mean grain size and kurtosis
with grain size groups and thresholds indicated 163
Figure 8.16: Scatter plot showing the relationship between kurtosis and sorting with grain
size groups indicated 164
Figure 8.17: Scatter plot showing the relationship between kurtosis and skewness with
grain size groups indicated 168
Figure 8.18: The Hjulstrum Curve (Hjulstrum, 1934) 170
xiii
Figure 8.19: Principle component analysis of PM08R summary statistics with the
distribution of samples from the different MGSBL sections indicated 173
Figure 8.20: Scatter plot of mean grain size versus sorting with samples from individual
MGSBL sections distinguished 174
Figures 8.21-26: differential frequency curves for samples 2.0-2.2, 2.6-2.8, 5.0-5.2, 16.4-
16.6,35.6-35.8 and 37.8-38.0cm 176
Figures 8.27-32: differential frequency curves for samples 17.4-17.6, 28.4-28.6, 25.0-25.2,
16.4-16.6,35.6-35.8 and 37.8-38.0cm 179
45.6-45.8,41.2-41.4 and 44.6-44.8cm 180
83.8-84.0,85.2-85.4 and 92.4-92.6cm 182
104.6-104.8,112.2-112.4 and 102.4-103.6cm 185
Figures 8.51-56: differential frequency curves for samples 108.8-109.0, 103.6-103.8, 104.4-
104.6,117.6-117.8,116.6-116.8, and 118.0-118.2cm 186
142.6, 143.0-143.2,158.0-158.2 and 153.0-153.2cm 188
Figures 8.63-68: differential frequency curves for samples 147.2-147.4,163.4-163.6,166.0-

166.2,176.4-176.6,183.6-183.8 and 180.6-180.8cm 190
Figures 8.69-74: differential frequency curves for samples 7.2-7.4, 6.6-6.8, 7.4-7.6, 11.8-
12.0,14.2-14.4 and 34.4-34.6cm 193
Figures 8.75-80: differential frequency curves for samples 34.8-35.0,38.6-38.8, 76.8-77.0,

77.0-77.2, 76.2-76.4 and 76.6-76.8cm 196
142.2,140.0-140.2,139.6-139.8 and 138.8-139.0cm 197
139.4,138.2-138.4,132.8-133.0 and 131.6-131.8cm 198
130.0,129.6-129.8,129.4-129.6 and 167.6-176.8cm 199
Figure 8.99: differential frequency curves for sample 170.2-170.4cm 200
Figure 8.100: Bivariate plot of mean grain size versus sorting including environmental
domains informed by Tanner (1991) and Lario et al. (2002) 203
Figure 8.101: Hypothetical model of back barrier sedimentation (suspension vs saltation) ......... 210
xiv
Figure 8.102: Hypothetical water level and flow velocity in a back barrier area with differing
barrier levels of barrier coherence 211
Figure 8.103: Illustration of the impact of barrier coherence on peak velocity in the back
barrier area and potential impacts on GSDs 213
Figure 8.104: Hypothetical subpopulations of the BGl distribution style 226
Figure 8.105: Hypothetical subpopulations of the BG2 distribution style 226
Figure 8.108: Hypothetical subpopulations of the BGS distribution style 228
Figure 8.109: Hypothetical subpopulations of the INTl distribution style 228
Figure 8.110: Hypothetical subpopulations of the INT2 distribution style 229
Figure 8.111: Hypothetical subpopulations of the INB distribution style 229
Figure 8.112: Schematic diagram of the relationship between a GSD frequency curve and a
surface contour plot (reproduced from Beierle et al., 2002) 230
Figure 8.113: Surface contour plot and summary statistics reflecting a sequence of two
annual varves from Bear Lake (reproduced from Beierle et al. 2002) 231
Figure 8.114: Surface plot of raw grain size analysis data for 150-160cm subsection of mean
grain size base level F, key relates to class weight (%) of total distribution. Mean grain size ~
is also shown for the section 233
grain size base level 0, key relates to class weight (%) of total distribution. Mean grain size
~ is also shown for the section 234
Figure 8.116: Surface plot of raw grain size analysis data for SO-60cm subsection of mean
grain size base level A, key relates to class weight (%) of total distribution. Mean grain size
~ is also shown for the section 236
Figure 8.117: Differential frequency curves for PM08R core sample 183.4-183.6cm
(analysed twice and overlaid) 237
Figure 8.118: Differential frequency curves for PM08R core sample 1.43.6-1.43.8 (analysed
twice and overlaid) 237
Figure 8.119: Differential frequency curves for PM08R core sample 88.4-88.6cm (analysed
twice and overlaid) 238
Figure 8.120: Differential frequency curves for PM08R core sample lS3.2-1S3.4cm both
prior to and following treatment with H202 and both curves overlaid 239
xv
Figure B.121: Differential frequency curves for PMOBR core sample 22.0-22.2cm both prior
to and following treatment with H202 and both curves overlaid 239
Figure B.122 Differential frequency curves for PMOBR core sample S2.G-S2.Bcm both prior
Figure B.123: Differential frequency curves for PMOBR core sample 107.0-107.2cm both
Figure B.124: Differential frequency curves for PMOBR core sample 10S.G-10S.Bcm both
Figure B.12S: Differential frequency curves for PMOBR core sample 38.8-39.0cm both prior
Figure 8.126: Differential frequency curves for PM08R core sample 110.0-110.2cm both
Figure B.127: Differential frequency curves for PMOBR core sample 112.B-113.0cm both
Figure 8.12S: LOI versus mean grain size in all PMOSR samples 242
Figure 8.129: Differential frequency curves for surface sample (:06:22 and core sample
PMOSR 37.8-38.0cm and both curves overlaid 243
PM08R 1.0-1.2cm and both curves overlaid 244
PM08R 35.6-35.Scm and both curves overlaid 245
Figure S.134: Differential frequency curves for surface sample C:06:1S and core sample
Figure S.135: Differential frequency curves for surface sample (:OS:19 and core sample
PMOSR O.G-O.Scmand both curves overlaid 246
Figure S.13G: Differential frequency curves for surface sample (:OS:19 and core sample
PM08R G.6-G.8cm and both curves overlaid 246
xvi
Figure 8.138: Down core mean grain size trend for PM09S and PM08R wavelet analysis
sections 249
Figures 8.139 and 8.140: Examples of GSDs from the PM09S core. Figure 8.139 resembles
the BG3 distribution while figure 8.140 resembles BG4 but for the impact of organic
contamination 249
Figure 8.141: Down core Loss on Ignition for PM09S and PM08R wavelet analysis sections ........ 250
Figure 8.142: Results of wavelet time series analysis for mean grain size data from the
upper 70cm of core PM09S 251
upper 75cm of core PM08R 252
Figure 8.144: Results of wavelet time series analysis for San Francisco rainfall data from
2007-1850 255
Figure 8.145: Wavelet analysis of 1,100 year North American tree ring derived EN50
variance series (reproduced from Li et al. 2011) 246
CHAPTER NINE: Geochemical Analysis of the PM08R Core
Figure 9.1 (a-g): Down core concentrations (PPM) ofTi, AI, Rb, Si, Zr, K and down core trend
of mean grain size (<I 259
Figure 9.1 (h-k): Down core concentrations (PPM) of Br, Fe, Zn and down core trend of loss
on ignition (%) 260
Figure 9.1 (I-m): Down core concentrations (PPM) of Ca, Sr and Mn 261
Figure 9.1 (n-p): Down core concentrations (PPM) of 5, Cl and Pb 261
Figure 9.2: Principle component analysis of the PM08R geochemical data set. Groups of
associated elements are indicated 262
Figure 9.3 (a-g): Minerogenic group with down core zones indicated. 3a shows a general
impression of the concentration trend of the group as a whole 268
Figure 9.4 (a-f): Organic/metal group with down core zones indicated. 4a shows a general
Figure 9.5 (a-d): Organic group with down core zones indicated. 4a shows a general
Figure 9.6 (a-c): Salinity group with down core zones indicated. 4a shows a general
Figure 9.7: Diagram showing the down-core zones of differing element groups and their
relation to mean grain size base level sections 272
xvii
Figure 9.B: peA analysis of PMOBR geochemical data set. MGSBl sample groups are
indicated 273
Figure 9.9: peA analysis of PMOBR geochemical data set. MGSBl A samples are indicated .......... 274
Figure 9.10: peA analysis of PMOBR geochemical data set. MGSBl A samples are indicated
with coarser samples in red ellipses and finer samples in blue ellipse 275
Figure 9.11: Down core mean grain size <p and loss on ignition with MGSBl sections
indicated 275
Figure 9.12: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set. MGSBl B samples are indicated ........ 276
Figure 9.13: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set. MGSBL B samples are indicated
with coarser samples in red ellipse and finer samples in blue ellipse 277
Figure 9.14: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set. MGSBL e sample Figure 277
Figure 9.15: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set. MGSBL C samples are indicated
with coarser samples in red ellipse and finer samples in blue ellipse 278
Figure 9.16: PCA analysis of PMOBR geochemical data set. MGSBL D samples are indicated ....... 279
Figure 9.17: PCA analysis of PMOBR geochemical data set. MGSBL D samples are indicated
with coarser samples in red ellipse and finer samples in blue ellipse 2BO
Figure 9.1B: PCA analysis of PMOBR geochemical data set. MGSBL E samples are indicated ........ 2B1
Figure 9.19: PCA analysis of PMOBR geochemical data set. MGSBL F samples are indicated ........ 282
Figure 9.20: PCA analysis of PMOBR geochemical data set. MGSBL G samples are indicated ....... 283
Figure 9.21: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set and grain size summary statistics.
MGSBl sample clusters indicated 284
Figure 9.22: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL A with end member samples indicated 287
Figure 9.23: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL B with end member samples indicated 2B9
Figure 9.24: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL C with end member samples indicated 290
Figure 9.25: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL D with end member samples indicated 291
Figure 9.26: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL E with end member samples indicated 292
Figure 9.27: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL F with end member samples indicated 293
Figure 9.28: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL G with end member samples indicated 294
Figure 9.29 and 9.30: Si plotted against Cl for MGSBL D samples and Rb plotted against Br
for MGSBL C samples 299
xviii
Figure 9.31 and 9.32: Zr plotted against Sr for MGSBL C samples and Ti plotted against AI for
MGSBL D samples 299
Figure 9.33 and 9.34: Fe plotted against Ti for MGSBL A samples and K plotted against Sr for
MGSBL D samples 300
Figure 9.35 and 9.36: K plotted against S for MGSBL C samples and K plotted against AI for
MGSBL D samples 300
Figure 9.37 and 9.38: Ti plotted against Mn for MGSBL A samples and Cl plotted against Pb
Figure 9.39 and 9.40: K plotted against Ti for MGSBL C samples and S plotted against Cl for
MGSBL A samples 301
Figure 9.41 and 9.42: Mn plotted against AI for MGSBL A samples and K plotted against Mn
Figure 9.43 and 9.44: Fe plotted against Mn for MGSBL F samples and Ti plotted against Mn
for MGSBL B samples 302
Figure 9.45 and 9.46: Ca plotted against Pb for MGSBL C samples and Mn plotted against Rb
for MGSBL B samples 303
CHAPTER TEN: PM08R Diatom Assemblages
Figure 10.1: MGSBL A high and low depositional energy samples. Sample depths, grain size
distribution style and grain size distribution differential frequency curve shape are shown 320
Figure 10.2: MGSBL A 'low energy' end-member, fine mean grain size sample diatom
diagram (sample GSD styles are indicated) 322
Figure 10.3: MGSBL A 'high energy' end-member, coarse mean grain size sample diatom
Figure 10.4: Constrained cluster analysis of the MGSBL A high and low energy end member
diatom assemblages 326
Figure 10.5: MGSBL 0 high and low depositional energy samples. Sample depths, grain size
distribution style and grain size distribution differential frequency curve shape are shown 328
Figure 10.6: MGSBL 0 'low energy' end-member, fine mean grain size sample diatom
Figure 10.7: MGSBL 0 'high energy' end-member, coarse mean grain size sample diatom
diagram (sample GSD styles are indicated 331
Figure 10.8: Constrained cluster analysis of the MGSBL 0 high and low energy end member
diatom assemblages 333
xix
Figure 10.9: MGSBL G high and low depositional energy samples. Sample depths, grain size
distribution style and grain size distribution differential frequency curve shape are shown ........ 335
Figure 10.10: MGSBL G 'low energy' end-member, fine mean grain size sample diatom
diagram (sample GSD styles are indicated} 336
Figure 10.11: MGSBL G 'high energy' end-member, coarse mean grain size sample diatom
diagram (sample GSD styles are indicated} 337
Figure 10.12: Constrained cluster analysis of the MGSBL G high and low energy end
member diatom assemblages 339
Figure 10.13: MGSBL A series 1 samples. Sample depths, grain size distribution style and
grain size distribution differential frequency curve shape are shown 341
Figure 10.14: MGSBL A series 1 diatom diagram (sample GSD styles indicated) 343
Figure 10.19: Constrained cluster analysis of stratigraphic diatom assemblage series 1.. 351
Figure 10.20: Constrained cluster analysis of stratigraphic diatom assemblage series 2 352
Figure 10.21: Constrained cluster analysis of stratigraphic diatom assemblage series 3 353
CHAPTER ELEVEN: Discussion
Figure 11.1: Diagrammatical representation of environmental equilibrium states (modified

from Wood roffe, 2007) 369
xx
List of Tables
CHAPTER SIX: late Holocene Stratigraphy of Pescadero Marsh
Table 6.1: Radiocarbon dates for North Marsh cores 124
CHAPTER SEVEN: PM08R Chronology
Table 7.1: PM08R chronological indicators. Inferred date is calculated with the 144.2 days
per 2mm rate 134
CHAPTER EIGHT: Grain Size Analysis of the PM08R Core
Table 8.1: Terminology of skewness, sorting and kurtosis 139
Table 8.2: Size range of mean grain size groups 157
Table 8.3: Eigen values and % variance for principle component analysis of summary
PM08R statistics 158
Table 8.4: Characteristic GSD frequency curve styles found throughout the PM08R core 207
Table 8.5: Table to show the occurrence of characteristic grain size distribution styles across
mean grain size base level sections 208
Figure 8.6: Table to show the occurrence of characteristic grain size distribution styles in
high energy episodes 209
Table 8.7: Table showing the presence and prominence of recurring modal grain sizes in
characteristic distribution styles 215
Table 8.8: Characteristic deposition styles of the PM08R core found in present-day surface
environments 247
CHAPTER NINE: Geochemical Analysis of the PM08R Core
Table 9.1: Eigen values and % variance for principle components 1-4 in PCA analysis of the
geochemical data set 257
geochemical data set and grain size summary statistics 285
Table 9.3: Upper and lower mean grain size limits used to identify high and low energy end
member samples in each MGSBl core section 286
MGSBl A geochemical data set .. 287
MGSBl B geochemical data set 288
xxi
MGSBL C geochemical data set 289
MGSBL D geochemical data set 290
MGSBL E geochemical data set 291
MGSBL F geochemical data set 293
MGSBL G geochemical data set 294
Table 9.11: Correlation matrix and division groups for geochemical elements in MGSBL A
samples 306
Table 9.12: Correlation matrix and division groups for geochemical elements in MGSBL B
samples 306
Table 9.13: Correlation matrix and division groups for geochemical elements in MGSBL C
samples 307
Table 9.14: Correlation matrix and division groups for geochemical elements in MGSBL D
samples 307
Table 9.15: Correlation matrix and division groups for geochemical elements in MGSBL E
samples 308
Table 9.16: Correlation matrix and division groups for geochemical elements in MGSBL F
samples 308
Table 9.17: Correlation matrix and division groups for geochemical elements in MGSBL G
samples 309
Table 9.18: Summary of MGSBL section geochemical and grain size characteristics and
degree of 'openness' 314
CHAPTER ELEVEN: Discussion
Table 11.1: Summary of key findings informing conclusions regarding depositional

environments in the PM08R core 361
xxii
llntroduction and Aims
1.1lntroduction
Coastal wetlands are valuable but increasingly rare and threatened environments which
play an important role in global biodiversity (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005;
Zedler and Kercher, 2005; Constanza et al., 2008; Bromberg-Gedan et al., 2009). These
environments are also valued for many more locally specific reasons such as their role in
food production (Boesch and Turner, 1984), coastal defence (Klien et al., 1998), leisure
(Zedler and Kercher, 2005) and the provision of diverse 'ecosystem services' (Plater and
Kirby, 2006).
Coastal wetlands occur in many different contexts. Of principle relevance to this research
are those occurring in back-barrier environments of barrier estuarine systems. Such
environments are dynamic and ephemeral over Holocene time-scales (Viles and Spencer,
1995), yet have often been considered as static and permanent by stakeholders (Kay and
Alder, 2002). Over the latter half of the zo" Century, the scientific and management
communities became increasingly aware that these environments are indeed dynamic and
should be managed as such (Nicholls and Branson, 1998). During this period, and
increasingly toward the present-day, coastal management has moved from resisting natural
processesto working with them (Cooper and McKenna, 2008). It is now recognised that as
opposed to being based on arbitrary human timescales the management of coastal

resources should be attuned to natural spatial and temporal scales of coastal system
operations (McKenna and Cooper, 2006; Wood roffe, 2007). Attuning management in this
manner represents the best method for achieving sustainability and coastal resilience,
particularly given the threat posed by a future of uncertain sea-level rise and climate
change (Michener et al., 1997; Wood roffe, 2007; Fitzgerald et al., 2008).
Following many decades of monitoring, record keeping and direct management, short-term
processesoperating in estuarine systems are well understood, as is the Holocene evolution

of these environments (see section 3.5). However, it is processes operating over decades,
centuries and millennia which are necessarily of most relevance to promoting sustainability
over periods of the same duration (Cooper, 2009). A considerable gap in knowledge exists
in this middle ground, with the need for data of sufficient spatial and temporal resolution
over this temporal scale (the 'mesoscale') acknowledged in the literature (Cooper et al.,
2007; Cooper, 2009; French and Burningham, 2009). Where barrier estuary systems are
1
concerned, the back-barrier sediment record is a potential archive for such data if analysed
at sufficient resolution. Quaternary paleo-environmental research is becoming increasingly
focussed on finer temporal resolutions (Joosten and de Klerk, 2007) with significant
progress having been made in the high resolution analysis of Holocene estuarine sediments
(Allen, 2004; Allen and Dark, 2007; Stupples and Plater, 2007).
After investigating the Holocene stratigraphy of Pescadero Marsh, the research presented
utilised sediments from carefully targeted areas of the marsh, with the aim of producing a
record of sub-annual environmental change in the back-barrier area extending over
multiple centuries or millennia. It was hoped this would further the existing understanding
of the barrier system, both in terms of its prehistoric persistence and regime, but at a level
of detail that matches data on the current behaviour of the system. However, it was
acknowledged that the sediment record would not necessarily be sensitive enough to
record back-barrier environmental change at a sufficient resolution for this purpose and
indeed, if it were, retrieving such information may not have proved to be a practical
possibility. In this manner, the research presented can be seen as a test of the sensitivity of
the sediment record and also a test of the methodology employed.
The methodology was essentially traditional in its approach, based on long-established
techniques, and should therefore be broadly reproducible. Grain size analysis was the
primary focus of the research. A wealth of grain size data is provided by modern grain size
analysis techniques. However, the majority of these data are largely overlooked in favour of
basic interpretations of limited summary statistics. Differential frequency plots of individual
grain size distributions are a particularly poorly exploited resource. These plots offer, in a
readily interpretable manner, a combined visualisation of, and the interplay between, the
standard suite of summary statistics, i.e. mean, mode, sorting, skewness and kurtosis
(Hartman, 2007). In addition, further features of grain size distributions which are not
revealed, or are even obscured by, summary statistics can be identified from these plots.
Grain size analysis was supported by geochemical analysis and, where possible,
reconstructions of fossil diatom assemblages in an attempt to further environmental
interpretations and constrain sediment provenance.
The location of the study site, on the central coast of California, was chosen specifically to
investigate the relative importance of different drivers of coastal evolution. A prehistoric
background of minimal human impact on the natural systems of California's central coast is
juxtaposed with the intensive impact of imported land management practices which have
2
characterised the Euro-American era (Gordon, 1996). The onset of the Euro-American era
came as a rapid shift rather than a slow transition, with the subsequent human activity
having been largely well documented. Conversely, in Europe the natural evolution of back-
barrier environments is often difficult to isolate from the impacts of human activity (Long et
al., 2006; Ghilardi et al., 2008). The short, well constrained, historical period in California
facilitates both the identification of a natural 'background' state and also the extent of
human impacts on the system. Indeed, an increase in the rate of sedimentation was
envisaged for Euro-American era sediments (Mudie and Byrne, 1980; Patch and Jones,
1984) which would allow a higher resolution reconstruction of back-barrier environmental
change during the historical period.
Pescadero Marsh is currently experiencing a number of intensifying problems. It is often

suggested that these issues result from Euro-American impacts on the systems functions
and therefore a forced diversion from the site's 'natural state' (Williams, 1990; O'Doherty,
2008). A major obstacle preventing progress in addressing these issues is the lack of
knowledge as to what actually constitutes a natural condition at this site (Kerbavaz, 2007).
Data regarding past functioning of the barrier system, over mesoscale timeframes could
certainly contribute to an understanding of the prehistoric system enabling the recognition
of a pre-impact baseline condition and thus informing important decisions regarding the
future management of the resource. If successful, the methodology could then be applied
at other sites.
1.2 Aims
A number of specific research aims were identified prior to commencing work on the short-
core sediments of Pescadero Marsh. The high resolution analysis of recent sediments
primarily represented a methodological test. Perhaps the most fundamental question for
the methodology was whether the sediment record was sensitive enough to record
environmental change in the back-barrier area at a spatial and temporal resolution
sufficient to reflect sub-annual trends? Grain size data was the primary environmental
proxy considered. The use of high resolution grain size data in this manner represents an
attempt to link sedimentation in the back-barrier area to the geomorphology of the barrier
system with specific regard to barrier integrity. Thus the approach aimed to bridge long-
term 'stratigraphic' and short-term 'process' studies. In addition to grain size analysis, in an
effort to elucidate source and support environmental interpretations, i.e. brackish/marine
vs freshwater a combination of geochemical, diatom and pollen analysis was attempted
3
(Brush, 1989; Vos and de Wolf, 1993; Cundy et aI., 2006). If the sediment record proved
sensitive enough for this purpose, it then remained to be established whether the results
were representative of the broader back-barrier environment or simply reflected a very
localised environmental signal. This latter issue could be addressed by demonstrating that
any environmental trend established from one core was repeatable in another.
A further key question related to the practicality of the methodology employed. Assuming
that the sediment record proved to be sensitive enough in relation to the first aim, would
the methodology be viable as a tool for informing management programs at other

analogous sites? Furthermore, it was important to establish just what use could be made of
data generated in such a fashion. It may well be the case that sub-annual data could be
obtained on the nature of back-barrier sedimentation, and hence some environmental

significance attached to this, but could trends in these data be linked to specific drivers and
therefore used in a practical manner to inform planning for the future of the wetland
resource. In terms of causal factors, the impacts of high magnitude/low frequency events,
climate and human activity were thought likely to be prominent (Williams, 1990; Cooper
1994; Woodroffe, 2002; Woolfolk, 2005). If a sub-annual record of back-barrier
environmental change could be established, and any high magnitude/low frequency events
were identified, constraining the frequency of incidence and the response time to events of
differing magnitude would contribute greatly to any understanding of the system (Plater
and Kirby, 2011). As would the identification of any variability in the record linked to known
climate phenomenon (Masters and Aiello, 2007). Indeed, constraining the response time of
the system to 'regular' climate driven extreme events, i.e. the ENSOphenomenon, could
reflect how the system would cope if the frequency of these events increased in the future.
In addition, the selection of a site, on the west coast of the USA,means that any potential
impacts from human activity on the system should be well documented (Mayers, 2001).
Finally, a more general aim of the project was to engage with theoretical literature
regarding coastal system behaviour over the mesoscale. Barrier estuarine systems are well
understood in terms of both long-term evolution and short-term geomorphic processes.
However, the middle ground is poorly understood (French and Burningham, 2009). The
behaviour of coastal systems over the mesoscale is often cited as key to the sustainability
of these environments, yet limited direct evidence is available to support such suggestions
(Cooper, 2009). The time period that the Pescadero Marsh short cores were intended to
cover, the resolution of the analysis and the envisaged environmental/process data
dictated that, should the sediment record prove to be sensitive enough to document sub-
4
annual environmental change and to be representative of the wider back-barrier area, the
results generated would be capable of informing our understanding of mesoscale trends
and thus engaging with concepts of persistence and resilience in the coastal zone (Nicholls
and Branson, 1998; Woodroffe, 2007).
1.3 Introduction to the Study Site
Pescadero Marsh is a coastal wetland in California, on the west coast of the United States of
America, located in San Mateo County approximately 50 km north of Santa Cruz and 40 km
south of San Francisco. The site is the largest wetland found on the central coast of
California between San Francisco Bay and Elkhorn Slough (Griggs et al., 2005b), see figure
1.1. The marshland is found in the back-barrier area of a barrier estuary system formed
where the confluence of the Pescadero and Butano Creeks meet the Pacific Ocean. The
marshland at Pescadero along with the lower reaches of the Pescadero and Butano Creeks
and the immediately surrounding area have been designated as Pescadero Marsh Natural
Preserve (see figure 1.2). This area is owned and managed by the California State Parks
service who began a program of land acquisition at the site in 1958 (Viall is, 1979).
The Pescadero-Butano watershed drains an area of approximately 210 km2 with elevation
ranging from sea level to over 750 m (ESA, 2008). Enclosed by the almost impassable cliffs
of Waddell and Devil's Slide on the south and north, and the steep ridges of the Santa Cruz
Mountains on the east, the watershed is remarkably isolated. Since westward migration
accelerated following the discovery of gold at Sutter's Fort in 1848, this isolation has slowed
and dampened the wave of anthropogenic change that came elsewhere in California
(Griggs et al., 2005b; ESA 2004). The watershed remains sparsely populated, with the only
settlements being the small town of Pescadero and the unincorporated community of Lama
Mar, which have a combined population of less than 2,500 (ESA, 2008). Despite the limited
number of occupants there is a clear contrast in land-use before and after the settling of
European Americans.
Land-use has long been directly linked to the area's natural resources. Shell and bone
middens found at analogous local wetland sites suggest that Pescadero Marsh provided a
plentiful hunting ground for local Native Americans who fed omnivorously on shorelife
(Gordon, 1996). The name itself, Pescadero, derives from the Spanish for 'fishermen' which
reflects how Spanish missionaries perceived the people of the area. Numerous accounts of
the town as a bountiful fish and game resort were written during the early European-
5
American Era and by the 1870's the area had even become a popular holiday and
honeymoon destination (Alexander & Hamm, 1916). The more organised and potentially
detrimental exploitation of the catchment has been driven by the timber, pasture, climate
and fertile soils present. Agriculture, grazing and logging were all being practiced in the
watershed by the mid-to late is" century (Curry et al., 1985).
San
Francisco
Bay 8m Frarldlltil
Elkhorn
Slough
Figure 1.1: Location of Pescadero Marsh and the Pescadero and Butano Creek watershed in
relation to the State of California and the United States of America (amended from ESA,
2008)
Today the site of Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve is primarily valued by stakeholders as a
natural landscape of great aesthetic value and a rare habitat supporting indigenous wildlife.
Management issues for California State Parks centre on promoting a natural and
sustainable environment, providing habitat for species federally listed as threatened or
6
endangered and being a 'good neighbour' by limiting adverse impacts on the local
community. These goals have often proven problematic and to some extent incompatible
with each other. Many issues associated with the resource such as flooding and the
preservation of rare species have intensified over recent decades (Cook, 2002; Smith, 2002;
ESA, 2004; Sloan, 2006; Kerbavaz, 2007; O'Doherty, 2008). There is growing pressure from
various stakeholder groups for State Parks to intervene in a more proactive manner,
however State Parks wish to more fully understand the issues they are dealing with before
taking significant action as it is not their want to implement short term gain at a long-term
coast to the resource (DPR, 1990; Kerbavaz, 2007). Promoting sustainability of the
resources at Pescadero in the long-term is an overarching goal for the site (DPR, 1990). An
improved understanding of the environment over recent centuries would aid the process of
planning for the coming centuries and potentially help to identify the real priorities for
management of the resource.
lKm

Figure 1.2: USGSmap of Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve, boundary indicated by dashed
red line
7
2 Coastal Wetlands and Coastal Management
2.1 Coastal Wetland Environments
2.1.1 The Value of Coastal Wetlands to Society
Estuaries, coastal lagoons and salt-marshes are among the most biologically productive and
severely altered ecosystems on Earth (McLusky & Elliot, 2004; Van Dyke and Wasson, 2005;
Bromberg Gedan et al., 2009). Until recent decades, coastal wetlands were often regarded
as "wastelands" suitable only for reclamation or waste disposal (Carter, 1989). Now coastal
wetlands are globally recognised as a valuable, yet rapidly diminishing resource. Large areas
of Europe and North America were scattered with wetlands until a century ago. However
national, regional and local authorities along with private land owners sought to create new
dry land through drainage and channelization both at the coast and inland (Hansson et al.,
2005). Approximately 1% of global coastal wetland stock was lost each year during the zo"
Century and a further 5-20% loss is predicted by the 2080's depending on sea level rise
scenarios (Nicholls, 2004).
Biodiversity is perhaps the primary argument for the value of coastal wetland
environments. In some parts of the world coastal wetlands host extremely diverse
vegetation communities while in others they are dominated by only a few species, yet in all
cases those species present are largely confined only to these environments (Adam, 1990).
Animal species are limited in terms of strict residents but plentiful in terms of transients
with the majority of species spending only a limited part of each year or life cycle in coastal
wetland environments. However this period is usually fundamental to the life cycle of the
creature concerned (Lefeuvre et al., 2003). Coastal wetland systems cannot be considered
as isolated ecosystems as degradation or loss of individual sites can impact on biological
chains which extend for thousands of kilometres, e.g. the migratory bird and fish runs of
America's Pacific coast (Goodwin and Williams, 1992).
In addition to their important role in global biodiversity, coastal wetlands are also areas of
high primary and secondary productivity (Beck et al. 2001) where soils and sediments
effectively sequester carbon (Kathilankal et al., 2008). Salt-marshes not only accrete carbon
rapidly but also store organic carbon at greater depths than typically sampled terrestrial
8
soils and release much smaller amounts of greenhouse gasses, such as CH4 and N02, than
freshwater wetlands (Brevik and Homburg, 2004). As the general scientific consensus now
points firmly toward an anthropogenic role in the accelerated warming of the planet (The
Copenhagen Diagnosis, 2009), efficient long-term carbon sinks are of increasing importance
[Cacador et al., 2004). However, as a result of projected accelerating sea-level rise, most
likely a direct feedback of anthropogenic global warming (IPee, 2007), salt-marsh
environments are in many instances under increasing threat of submergence and erosion
(Morris et al., 2002).
The overwhelming majority of projected sea level scenarios agree on a rise over the next
century with the only debatable ground being the amount. The IPee fourth assessment
report suggested a global relative sea-level rise between 18-59 cm by 2100 (IPeC, 2007).
Subsequent revisions suggest that a rise could be much greater, with figures up to 2m
within the boundaries of sensible predictions (The Copenhagen Diagnosis, 2009). While the
rate of coastal wetland response to rising sea-level remains debatable, being dependent on
numerous geographical features (Morris et al., 2006), it is certainly the case that coastal
wetlands are more responsive to sea-level change than 'hard engineering' structures in the
coastal zone (French, 2006). Coastal wetlands by their nature adjust to sea-level driven
migration of the coast line (Pethick, 1980) and provide natural defence from coastal
hazards such as flooding and hurricanes to inland infrastructure (Constanza et al., 2008).
Utilizing wetland environments for coastal defence is more sustainable and cost efficient in
the long-term than fixed defensive projects (Klien et al., 1998). However, past and
projected losses of wetland environments through the process of coastal squeeze, the
reduction of the intertidal zone between rising sea water and solid structures (Pethick,
1993), have reduced the availability of this defence mechanism in many urbanised coastal
areas. Managed realignment, the tactical removal of coastal defences and abandonment of
land to the sea, would now be required before this natural resource could be utilised in
many coastal areas (French, 2006).
Coastal wetland environments playa major role in commercial aquaculture. lagoons, tidal
channels and flooded salt-marshes provide spatially complex environments which offer
protection from predators and readily available nutrition for juvenile fish and crustaceans
during key stages of their life cycles (Boeschand Turner, 1984; Whitfield and Kok, 1992). As
9
such coastal wetland environments are often considered to be nursery environments and
are fundamental to the fishery economies of many countries (Padedda et al., 2010). They
are also prominently used for recreational purposes as many people perceive great
aesthetic and cultural value in these environments (CCC,1987; Zedler and Kercher, 2005).
As with coastal environments in general, recreational use and tourism brings potential
impacts to coastal wetlands, particularly trampling, littering and collecting (Davenport and
Davenport, 2006), but also brings financial gains for local communities (Turner et al., 2000).
Coastal wetlands can also be deliberately and directly exploited in less obvious and less
potentially detrimental ways. Wetlands and salt-marshes have become recognised as

ecohydrological management tools with which to regulate hydrology, sedimentation,
nutrient status and pollutant sequestration and the conservation of biodiversity (Wolanski
et al., 2004). In addition to sustainable management solutions, coastal economies may also
be diversified through the sustainable exploitation of resources such as reeds, peat,
wildfowl, wildlife, fish and salt along with eco-tourism (Plater and Kirby, 2006).
The beneficial features of coastal wetland ecosystems described represent only a small
range of the ecosystem services they provide. Coastal wetland environments are often
valued and utilised in differing ways dependent on specific locations. The full value of the
'ecosystem services' these environments offer to humanity is potentially enormous
(Constanza et al., 1997; Wolanski et al., 2004; French, 2006). The value of coastal wetland
environments can be more fully appreciated with the aid of the figure 2.1 which depicts the
strength of linkages between commonly encountered categories of ecosystem services and
components of human well-being. Also included is the potential for socia-economic factors
to mediate the linkage i.e. if a degraded ecosystem service can be replaced. The strength of
linkages varies regionally depending on the level of influence ecosystem services have on
human well being and the level of influence other factors exert Le. economic, social,
technological and cultural (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). The provision of a
coastal flood buffer zone, improved estuarine water quality, regulation of water levels and
residence time, diversification of coastal economies, and reduced erosion provide some
examples of the role coastal wetlands play in delivering ecosystem services (Plater and
Kirby,2006).
10
CONSTITUENTS OF WELLBEING
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Security
PERSONAl SAFETY
Provisioning SECURE RESOUACE ACCESS
FOOD SECURITY FROM DISASTERS
FRESHWATER
WOOD AND FIBER
FUEL
Basic material
for good life Freedom
ADEOUATE LIVELIHOODS of choice
Supporting Regulating SUFFICIENT NUTRITIOUS FOOD and action
CLIMATE REGULATION SHELTER
NUTRIENT CYCLING OPPORTUNITY TO DE
ACCESS TO GOODS

FlOOD REGULATION
SOIL FORMATION ABlE TO ACHIEVE
DISEASE REGULATION
PRIMARY PRODUCTION WHAT AN INDIVIDUAL
WATER PUHIFICAOON VALUES OOING
... Health AND BEING
SmENGTH
FEELING WELL
Cultural ACCESS TO CLEAN AIR
AESiltETlC AND WATER
SPIRITUAL
EDUCAnONAl
RECREATIONAL Good seeiel relations
SOCIAL COHESION
MUTUAL RESPECT
ABILITY TO HELP OTHERS
LIFE ON EARTH - BIODIVERSITY
Figure 2.1: Reproduced from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Darker arrows
signify higher potential for mediation by socioeconomic factors while wider arrows signify
stronger linkages between ecosystem services and human well being
2.1.2 Management Priorities for Coastal Wetland Environments
Having addressed the major benefits of coastal wetland environments to human society,
some site specific examples of management priorities are explored below. It must be
remembered that the identification of management priorities is dependent on the
stakeholder consulted and on their relationship with the resource. The priorities described
in the case studies presented largely reflect those identified by the scientific community
working in partnership with or aiming to inform management programs.
Waterfowl populations are a management priority at many coastal wetlands sites. The El
Yali coastal reserve in Central Chile is a good example of such a site. Here a lagoon and
associated wetlands host 115, largely migratory, species of birds. As a result the site is
protected by the Ramsar Convention which aims to preserve wetlands of international
importance focusing primarily on waterfowl habitat (Ramsar Convention, 1971; Dussaillant
et al. 2008). The availability and distribution of suitable habitat for feeding and shelter is a
key factor in the number of birds observed at the site each year which is known to differ
significantly. The distribution of habitat is linked to trends in water level in the lagoon which
11
result from the interplay between river flow and sea level. Research at this site has
focussed on inter-annual changes in hydrology with the potential impacts of climate change
and sea level rise being key considerations (Vilina and Lopez Callejas, 1996; Dussaillant et al.
2008; Farin et al. 2009).
The Ebro Delta, Spain, the Nariva Swamp, Trinidad and the Red River Delta, Vietnam are
further examples of coastal wetlands designated as Ramsar sites where waterfowl are a
management priority (Mateo et al. 1997; Pemberton and Madder-Charles, 2005; Seta and
Fragkiasc, 2007). Perez-Arteaga et al. (2002) identified 34 wetland sites in Mexico, the
majority coastal, which qualify as wetlands of international importance but are not
designated as Ramsar sites. At these sites waterfowl are already a management priority
however designation would lead to further funding and the strengthening of management
programs.
Along with bird and fish (section 4.3.2) species, rare amphibians are often associated with
coastal wetland environments. The natterjack toad is such a species, one of only four
amphibians in the UK protected by the international Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP UK,
2007). Between 1970 and 1990 populations were identified in wetlands associated with the
Solway, Esk, Duddon, Ribble, Alt, Dee, Humber estuaries and in coastal wetlands of North
Norfolk and Morecombe (Banks et al. 1994). In areas where the species is present,
preservation of populations and habitat is a management priority. Similarly the Red Legged
Frog is a threatened and federally listed amphibian associated with coastal wetland
environments on California's central coast. Scott Creek and Pescadero Marsh are two sites
where this species is found and is therefore a management priority (Smith and Reis, 1997;
Bulger et al. 2003).
The promotion of specific rare habitats can be a priority in the management of coastal
wetland environments. 'Grazing marsh' is an example of such a habitat having been
recognised as an important but threatened in the UK, and included within the Biodiversity
Action Plan (UK Biodiversity Steering Group, 1995). Grazing marsh is not a naturally
occurring habitat instead resulting from long-term enclosure of salt-marsh areas. However,
grazing marsh supports a unique assemblage of species. Mountford et al. (2006) describe
the use of national vegetation data basesand frameworks, such as English Nature's 'Natural
Areas', through which sites for restoration of this habitat were targeted.
12
The promotion of specific habitat more commonly involves inhibiting or removing invasive
species. Exotic species can out compete indigenous species and degrade existing
ecosystems. Where the Yangtze River meets the Pacific Ocean in China the introduction of
Sportino olternifloro, a North American marsh grass is having this effect. Sportino
alterniflora was initially introduced to enlarge islands for agricultural purposes but rapidly
spread beyond the intended areas (Chen et al., 2008). Invasive Sportino alternifloro
populations are also a problem in other areas of China with the Wanggang tidal-flat on the
Jiangsu coast and Dongtan wetland of Chongming Island being examples (Xie and Gao,
2009; Gan et al. 2009). Similarly, combating the spread of Sportino onglico, an invasive
hybrid marsh grass species, became a management priority at many British coastal wetland
sites in the mid zo" century (Huckle et al., 2004).
The opening and closure of barrier systems in southern California coastal wetland systems
has also been researched in terms of impact on adjacent beaches. Stone (2001) suggest
that when these barrier systems are open erosion of adjacent beaches is increased.
However, Elwany et al. (2003) could not identify a statistically significant link between the
two. The beaches of southern California play an important role in the state's tourism and
coastal recreation economy, thought to be worth $14 billion in 1997 (King and Potepan,
1997). Impacting on this resource is clearly not desirable and must be considered in
wetland management programs. Avoiding impacting on other local resources is therefore a

further priority for the management of these sites. Moreno et al. (2010) also present
research related to the opening and closure of a coastal wetland barrier lagoon system.
One of the major priorities for the management of this lagoon, next to the town of Zahara
de los Atunes, Southern Spain, was again the impact on the local tourist economy. As a
direct result of the trade in tourism, the population of the area rises from 2,000 to 20,000 in
the summer time. The lagoon is adjacent to a popular beach. A key concern in the
management of the lagoon is that the swarms of insects and unpleasant odours which
accompany eutrophic conditions are not present during summer. The lagoon is artificially
opened at the beginning of summer to avoid adverse effects of the tourist trade.
In the Caribbean, wetlands have been extensively managed to promote tourism. However,
here filling and drainage to control biting insects and to accommodate infrastructure were
initially deemed to be the most efficient methods (Bacon, 1987). Subsequently restoration
13
and preservation through ecotourism has become a favoured method (Weaver, 1993;
Pemberton and Madder-Charles, 2005; Gibbes et al., 2009). Evidently coastal wetland
environments can play an indirect and a direct role in the tourist industry. California is a
good example of an area where coastal wetlands are valued as recreational resources. With
many coastal wetlands now managed by California State Parks who aim to preserve,
protect, restore, interpret and manage these environments as natural, aesthetic and scenic
resources making them available to the public for their educational, inspirational and
recreational benefits (California State Parks, 2000). These wetland environments are
utilised by local people but also attract visitors from around the globe as part of California's
coastal tourism economy (CCC, 1987; King and Potepan, 1997; Griggs et al., 200sa).
The eastern Macedonian region of Northern Greece provides many examples of coastal
wetland environments where aquaculture is a management priority. Commercial fishing is
of great importance to the economy of this region (Tsihrintzis et al., 2007). As a result sites
such as the Vassova and Vistonis lagoons are managed primarily to manipulate water
quality in order to promote fish stocks. This involves maintenance of channels and
automated barriers in operation at the lagoon mouths (Markou, 2007; Tsihrintzis et al.,
2007). While management in this manner serves certain stakeholder priorities in the short
term, the long-term impacts of modifying the hydrological regime on the wetland complex
as a whole cannot be fully known given the potential impacts on features of the
environments such as thresholds, storage effects, saturation and depletion, self-reinforcing
feedback, self-limiting processes, competitive feedbacks, multiple modes of adjustment,
self-organization and hysteresis (Phillips, 2003). The Pearl River Estuary, China, Patos
Lagoon on the southern Brazilian coast and the Tam Giang-Cau Hai lagoon, Vietnam, are
further examples of sites where wetland systems are managed with aquaculture as a
priority (U et al. 2010; Tagliani et al. 2003, Tuan et al. 2009). However, wetland
environments where aquaculture is not directly promoted are also of great importance to
the fishing industry as approximately two thirds of the fish consumed by human beings
depend on wetland environments at some stage of their life (Uzarski et al., 2009).
Restoration can, in itself, be a management priority for degraded coastal wetlands with the
expectation that the delivery of ecosystem services will be maximised by restoring natural
and healthy environments. Balletto et al. (2005) describe an initiative by the Public Service
Enterprise Group, a nuclear power generation company, to restore 4000 ha of degraded
salt-marsh in an attempt to offset the environmental impacts of their water cooling system.
14
Similarly 6000ha of former commercial salt ponds were restored in San Francisco Bay with
the primary motive of restoring natural habitat (Shoreline Study, 2005). In many coastal
areas marshland is created through dredging and planting to offset previous loss. However
it is still debatable whether created wetlands are ever functionally equivalent to natural
marshes (Bromberg-Gedan et al., 2009).
Dependent on the priorities identified, restoration of coastal wetland environments can
demonstrate considerable success. Lewis et al. (1999) present the case of Tampa Bay,
Florida, where uncontrolled dredging and sewage disposal had resulted in poor water
quality and other pollution symptoms. The actions of local people lead to the development
of a formal integrated coastal zone management program. By the late 1990s regulated
dredging and sewage treatment had resulted in water quality targets being met and the
steady recovery of seagrass communities. This bottom up approach rapidly resolved the
initial problems identified and progressed to develop public education and habitat
restoration as priorities.
Priorities for coastal wetland management are, however, subject to change through
circumstance. The Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, and Restoration Act (CWPPRA),
was passed by congress in 1990 with the primary goal of restoring Louisiana's coastal
wetlands from a habitat and ecology perspective (Steyer and Llewellyn, 2000). Following
the impact of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans, reducing the impacts of storm surge
events has becoming an increasing focus in coastal wetland management in this area of the
USA (Wamsley et al., 2010)
In certain circumstances management priorities for coastal wetland environments may not
relate to the contemporary environment. Romney Marsh, south east England, is a coastal
wetland complex where, in addition to habitat preservation, management is strongly
influenced by the desire to protect the fossil geomorphology of the sediment record. Sites
of Special Scientific Interest are designated on this basis (Natural England, 2007). The focus
of coastal management in this area is the desire to preserve the record of past coastal
evolution with the aim of furthering our understanding of coastal response to sea level
change, storms and anthropogenic activity during the late Holocene. The importance of this
lS
record is demonstrated by Long et al. (2006). The Severn Estuary, United Kingdom and the
Thessaloniki Plain, Greece are other examples of coastal wetland sites where preservation
of sedimentary records of geomorphological evolution and human occupation are priorities
for management (Bell, 2000; Ghilardi et al., 2008).
2.1.3 Data Used to Inform Management of Coastal Wetland Environments
While a diverse array of priorities drive the management, of coastal wetland sites in
different geographical settings around the world, the data used to inform management
planning and practice is largely gathered through various forms of monitoring. Parameters
monitored include water flow and level (Williams and Lyon, 1997; Dussaillant et al., 2008;
Farin et al. 2009), water quality and pollutants [Hernandez-Romero et al., 2004; Tsihrintzis
et al., 2007; Brantley et al., 2008), distribution of vegetation (Byrd and Kelly, 2006; Watson,
2008; Gilmore et al., 2008), numbers of species and individuals (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1991;
Hubbard and Dugan, 2003; Bulger et al., 2003), composition of bottom sediments (Evanson
and Ambrose, 2006; Markou et al., 2007; Li et al., 2007), remote sensing (Kent and Mast,
2005; Pengra et al., 2007; Seta and Fragkiasc,2007) satellite imaging and LlDARtechnology
(Rossoet al., 2006; Chust et al., 2008, Collin et al., 2010), global positioning surveys and GIS
(Williams and Lyon, 1997; Zharikov et al., 2005; Rebelo et al., 2009). Monitoring data
establishes present day trends and processes in system functions identifying inter-annual
patterns and divergence from the norm over the monitoring period.
Time-series of existing land surveys, maps, aerial photographs and historical records are
also commonly used to interpret longer term environmental changes at coastal wetland
sites (Corlay, 1993; Williams and Lyon, 1997; Swetnam et al., 1999; Van Dyke and Wasson,
2005; Zharikov et al., 2005; Byrd and Kelly, 2006; Cooper et al., 2007; Burningham, 2008;
Levin et al., 2009). However the resolution of this type of data tends to improve toward the
present, inevitably, becoming of limited use at any given site beyond a certain point in the
past. Both monitoring and time series image data reflect only limited periods of coastal
wetland system operations which are not truly representative of these environments over
the late-Holocene.
16
2.2 Coastal Management
2.2.1 The Development of Coastal Management
Human activity in the coastal zone can intervene in the operation of coastal systems which
leads largely, but not exclusively, to detrimental impacts. Management of the coastal zone
is often concerned with minimising negative impacts on both the natural environment and
human populations. Natural processes operating in the coastal zone are also a concern for
management as they too can impact on the value human society places on a coastal system
(Haslett, 2009). Central to the issues of coastal management are the juxtaposition of the
natural dynamic equilibrium achieved by coastal systems and human perception of the
coastal zone as static (Wood roffe, 2002).
Humans have deliberately modified the coastal environment and exploited its resources for
thousands of years, however deliberate intervention to preserve components of its natural
character or ecological integrity are much more recent. From the late is" Century various
human endeavours impacting coastal areas such as ecological management, resource
management, engineering intervention and urban/industrial development operated
relatively independently of each other. In the 1960s and 1970s these disciplines were first
combined in coastal zone management programs in order to address increasingly urgent
problems. By the 1980s and 1990s coastal zone management had become proactive rather
than reactive, and has become progressively so ever since (Kay and Alder, 2005). Kay and
Alder (2005) give a good general review of the development of coastal planning and
management strategies providing examples from around the world.
Coastal management consists of three broad areas: policy (the regulating political and
administrative framework), planning (the allocation of resources) and practice (the
implementation of planning decisions, restorative and remedial works). These three areas
form a feedback loop with the performance of management in practice used to inform
further policy and planning (Carter, 1988; Masselink and Hughes, 2003). All three aspects
are included under the banner 'Integrated Coastal Zone Management' (ICZM), a term
coined at the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit of 1992, which has since become the dominant
paradigm in the western world. ICZM is defined by the IPCC as 'the comprehensive
assessment,setting of objectives, planning and management of coastal systems and
17
resources, taking into account traditional, cultural and historical perspectives and
conflicting interests and uses' (Woodroffe, 2002). An extensive contemporary review and
critique of ICZMcan be found in Krishnamurthy et al. (2008).
The practical methods employed for management of the coastal zone have also progressed
over recent decades. 'Hard engineering' projects, the use of solid timber, concrete and
rock structures as sea defences and to combat erosion, have largely been replaced, where
viable, with 'soft engineering'. Soft engineering utilises naturally occurring properties of
coastal environments as a more cost-efficient and sustainable management solution

(Masselink and Hughes, 2003). The rise in soft engineering reflects the growing realisation
amongst policy makers, particularly in light of projected sea-level rise scenarios, that the
coastline is not static. French (2001) comprehensively reviews soft engineering in the
coastal zone with a good account of managed realignment, the most high profile of these
techniques currently employed in the coastal zone. Soft engineering through managed
realignment is significant not only as a valuable tool for coping with rising sea levels but
also as a prominent embodiment of a shift toward working with natural processes,a notion
which has permeated all aspects of coastal management (Cooper and McKenna, 2008).
Differing legislative bodies preside over coastal management in different countries and
regions. By the late 1980's the development of integrated coastal management could be
sufficiently summarised by two approaches, 'bottom up' and 'top down'. The development
of coastal management in the USAand Britain provides examples of these two approaches.
The British approach has primarily developed from the 'bottom up' almost by default. The
reason can be traced back to English Common Law of the Middle Ages which did not
recognise the coastal zone as a distinct entity. As such, the management of coastal
resources has traditionally fallen to the authority responsible for the adjacent land (Carter,
1989). Sea defence had been a public responsibility dating back to Victorian times prior to
the Coast Protection Act of 1949 (Carter and Hooke, 2005). Subsequently British coastal
management has continued to centralise, particularly under the influence of European
Union directives in recent decades, however the piecemeal basis on which the
contemporary management framework was developed has created a legacy of continuing
administrative problems which negatively impact on broader progress in coastal
management (Carter and Hooke, 2005; McKenna and Cooper, 2006). Critiques of
18
contemporary ICZM from a Europe-wide perspective are given by given by McKenna et al.
(2008) and McKenna and Cooper (2006).
The USapproach to management of the coastal zone has been more formal and top-down,
both in modern ICZM and earlier initiatives. Early coastal zone management in the USAwas
interventionist in character and primarily concerned with improving port and navigation
facilities. Following the Rivers and Harbours Act of 1899, the US Army Corps of Engineers
has been empowered to issue or refuse permits for construction or modification of
structures in or adjacent to navigable waterways. This authority has since been interpreted
widely to include shorelines, wetlands, dunes, rivers and seaways (Carter, 1989). After
19S0, increasing coastal population concentrations, pressure on coastal resources and
environmental degradation resulted in pressure for improved coastal land and water
management (Godschalk, 1992). Loss of wetlands, disappearing beaches, oil spills and
falling fish catches were among issues which caused concern (Carter, 1989). Coastal
management in the USA was formalised nationwide by the US Coastal Zone Management
Act of 1972. The act encouraged states and/or tribes to preserve, protect, develop, and
where possible, restore or enhance valuable natural coastal resources (EPA, 2007).
Compliance with the act itself was voluntary but financial incentives successfully
encouraged participation. Coastal states were asked to 'prepare management programs to
balance needs for resource protection against needs for economic growth and
development'. In addition state specific bodies are allowed authority over the federal
government in instances where federal activities are deemed to negatively impact their
coastal resources (Keller and Causey, 200S). While the Coastal Zone Management Act
instigated a program of coastal protection governed by centralized guidelines, the success
of the program owes a great deal to the deferring of sufficient authority to individual states
in order for each program to be sensitive to the specific resources it covers.
2.2.2 Coastal Management in California
California provides an example of the top-down US system of coastal management in

practice as the authority given to the state by the federal government is delegated to local
governments authorities. The California Coastal Commission (CCC)was founded in 1972
and the California Coastal Act (CCA)passed in 1976. The CCAmade permanent a program
of coastal protection which had essentially begun as a temporary citizen's initiative. Under
19
the CCA, local governments prepare Local Coastal Plans (LCPs). These plans are made by 15
individual coastal counties. Multiple LCPs have been created corresponding to specific areas
of coastline within the majority of coastal counties. The state of California retains some
control over local coastal policy with each LCP being subject to initial approval and
subsequent five yearly reviews by the CCC (State of California Coastal commission, 2001).
Priorities for management of the coastal zone in the State of California are diverse,
encompassing hazards, leisure and environmental economic and economic issues. Informed
by these priorities and by specific requirements stated in the national Coastal Zone
Management Act, the CCC dictates that the following policies are incorporated into each
individual LCP:
Protection and expansion of public access to the shoreline and recreational
opportunities and resources; including commercial visitor-servicing facilities.
Protection, enhancement and restoration of environmentally sensitive habitats,
including intertidal and nearshore waters, wetlands, bays and estuaries, riparian
habitat, certain wood and grasslands, streams, lakes and habitat for rare or
endangered plants or animals.
Protection of productive agricultural lands, commercial fisheries and
archaeological resources.
Protection of the scenic beauty of coastal landscapes and seascapes.
The establishment, to the extent possible, of urban-rural boundaries and directing
new housing and other development into areas with adequate services to avoid
wasteful urban sprawl and leapfrog development.
Provision for the expansion, in an environmentally sound manner, of existing
industrial ports and electricity-generating power plants, as well as for the siting of
coastal-dependent industrial uses.
Protection against loss of life and property from coastal hazards.
In addition to the State Park Authorities, who are directly responsible for the management
of Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve, multiple other bodies are involved in issues of coastal
management e.g. private landowners, state and federal flood management authorities,
port, airport and state and regional transportation authorities, state and federal wildlife
protection agencies and the State Lands Commission amongst others. Informed by these
bodies along with state and nation wide legislation; regional and state structures exist to
20
regulate coastal investments, to develop and spread information, to acquire sensitive lands
and to facilitate planning and adaptive responses (Hanak and Moreno, 2008). In summary, a
fully operational and state-wide integrated coastal zone management program is in place.
However, with so many stakeholders involved and a high degree of overlap between
national, state wide and local legislation, management of the California coast is somewhat
convoluted.
2.2.3 Areas for Progress in Coastal Management
'Successful management of coastlines, including mitigation of adverse impacts, must be
based on an understanding of natural patterns of change.' Woodroffe (2007)
In theory coastal management has progressed in recent decades, becoming proactive

rather than reactive, holistic as opposed to fragmented, working with instead of against
natural processes, and prioritising the preservation of naturally functioning systems over
the development of infrastructure. However, in practice it is acknowledged that many
problems still persist.
Due to the inclusive nature of ICZM, multiple issuesaffect the processesof decision making,
planning and delivery of coastal management programs. McKenna and Cooper (2006) list
development pressures, consultation and obtaining consensus, weakness of enforcement,
project based focus, funding basis and arbitrary time frames as key issues limiting the
successof ICZM programs. They are particularly scathing with regard to the 'ineffectual and
unsustainable, bottom-up approaches' to ICZM characteristic of Europe. Which they
suggest may be resolved through the establishment of a new top-down administrative
framework.
More universal issuesarise as a result of the wide range of interpretations of 'working with
natural processes'. The aim to work with natural processes is widely cited in coastal
management plans yet stretches from the 'engineering perspective', i.e. deliberate
manipulation of the shoreline to satisfy human need, to the 'ecosystems perspective', i.e.
permitting sufficient space for coastal adjustment to changing natural circumstances
(Cooper and McKenna, 2008).
21
Prominent in resource management literature are emergent management frameworks and
tools which have the potential to address these issues over the long-term by removing
stumbling blocks and improving understanding. Methods of participatory and adaptive
management combined with social learning are much theorised (van den Hove, 2000; van
Asselt Marjolein and Rijkens-Klomp, 2002; Stringer et al., 2006; Pahl-Wostl, 2007; Ison et
al., 2007; Q'Riordan et al., 2008) and increasingly practised (for example King and Adeeln,
2002; Tansey et al., 2002; Nunneri and Hofmann, 2005; Simonovic and Akter, 2006;
Steyaert et al., 2007). Given time to fully develop and being sufficiently inclusive, these
methods should enable broader perspectives to be considered, decisions to be more readily
made, rapid adaptation informed by experience, the free transfer of knowledge between
stakeholders, and outreach to/education of the general public. In short, such techniques
should facilitate the identification of the real priorities in coastal zones and a genuine will to
address them in a sustainable manner.
2.2.4 Fostering Sustainability in Coastal Wetland Environments
Through inclusive management, social learning and scientific outreach, the desire for long-
term sustainability at the lowest cost and greatest benefit to society must emerge as the
primary goal in the management of coastal wetland systems. This goal can be best
addressed by fully adopting an ecosystems approach to management. This requires
abandoning all specific management priorities in favour of promoting naturally functioning

environments. Anything else must necessarily be considered short-sighted. The greatest
return of ecosystem services and therefore the greatest benefit to society from coastal
wetland environments can only be gained by enabling true long-term sustainability

(Constanza et al., 1997; Klien et al., 1998; Turner et al., 2000; Simenstad et al., 2006).
However, it is unlikely that such an approach could be universally adopted, and while
restoration in its purest form may already be a theoretical goal at some sites this rarely
translates unmodified into policy (Pethick, 2002). Should such goals be prioritised,
methodologies must be established to enable realisation. Treating the cause rather than
the symptoms of issues in coastal wetland environments, or taking a 'Hippocratic'
approach, by removing all obstacles to natural functions, fluctuations, shifts and

reorganisations is undoubtedly the best way to proceed (Arnold, 2004). However,
circumstances where such an aim is fully achievable are rare given the far reaching impacts
22
of human activity on coastal wetland environments from all areas of the catchment and the
adjacent coastal sea (Wolanski et al., 2006a; Lotze et al., 2006).
At present ecosystem approaches to coastal wetland management are primarily informed
by short-term monitoring projects and historic or 'pre-impact' images (Simenstadt et al.,
2006). When considered from a long-term perspective, informed by the documented
persistence of coastal wetland environments for many millennia (e.g. Brevik and Homburg,
2004; Nichol et al., 2007), this approach appears piecemeal. Management informed by data
reflecting such contextually limited periods will not support sustainability over the true
long-term as this approach requires the environments in question to be essentially static
over the period envisaged for preservation. This is a problem which emerges due the
timescales of human perception; a problem which is acknowledged by but also engrained in
contemporary management frameworks (Simenstadt et al., 2006; McKenna and Cooper,
2006). A revised approach is required.
Coastal wetland environments must be considered over the full duration of their late
Holocene persistence, rather than the small window of this period over which records are
available and our perceptions are formed. In addition to the microscale processes
understood through monitoring programs, these environments are forced and respond
over timescales of years, decades and centuries often in a non-linear fashion. The ability to
sensitively respond to environmental forcing over these temporal, and the associated
spatial, scales is characteristic of morphologically resilient coastal environments and
fundamental to the late Holocene persistence of coastal wetlands (Woodroffe, 2007;
French and Burningham, 2009; Cooper, 2009). As such, longer more representative periods
of or proxies for observational data are required to characterise the full range of
environmental processes which operate in and are fundamental to these systems over their
own natural life spans.
In short, the management of these resources must be attuned to the spatial and temporal
scales over which the systems themselves operate, this must be informed by genuinely
representative periods of the late Holocene or indeed longer when paraglacial coasts are
considered. Producing data adequately reflecting the forcing and response of barrier
estuarine environments over suitable time periods and at suitable resolution for this
purpose represents a challenge for the relevant research communities. This is a challenge
23
which must be met in order for the future management of coastal wetland resources to be
more fully informed.
24
3 Estuarine and Barrier Estuarine Environments
3.1 Holocene Estuarine environments
A widely used and sufficiently broad definition states that an estuary is 'a semi-enclosed
coastal body of water having a free connection with the open sea and within which sea
water is measurably diluted with freshwater derived from land drainage' (Cameron and
Prichard, 1963). 'The various possible combinations of coastal processes (river, waves and
tide), together with some additional processes that are uniquely estuarine, result in a rich
variety of estuary types. As estuaries fill their valleys, an evolving morphodynamic regime
further increases the variety' (Masselink and Hughes, 2003). Fairbridge (1980) offers
perhaps the most satisfactory classification scheme of estuarine environments.

Documented here are fjords, rias, coastal plain estuaries, delta front estuaries, bar built
estuaries, blind estuaries and structural/tectonic estuaries. However, no universal
classification scheme has been adopted to describe or define estuarine sub-groups. This is
perhaps due to the recognition of similarities between environments being dependent on
the spatial and temporal scale of understanding. The present-day system at Pescadero is
best described as a barrier estuary, following (Ray et al., 1994), however, the site is
assumed to have been a more open estuarine system prior to adopting this late-Holocene
configuration.
Estuaries are often highly dynamic environments where geomorphological change can
occur over a range of timescales varying from almost instantaneous (e.g. during river
floods), to progressive change such as sediment infill (Cooper, 2001). Cowell and Thorn
(1994) offer a useful spatial and temporal framework for understanding changes in coastal
environments. They suggest the shortest timescale is that of the 'instantaneous' scale
where sediment moves in response to prevailing energy inputs over seconds to years and
10-1to 101 metres. The 'event' scale (days to centuries, 10-1-103 metres) cover sequences
such as tidal cycles and seasonal changes in wave climate and beach morphology. The
'engineering' scale, referred to as the 'planning/societal' scale by Woodroffe (2002) covers

human interactions with the coast over decades to centuries (10-lOs years, 101_10S
metres). The rate and nature of change in coastal environments varies significantly over this
scale which is characterised by non-linear responses. The largest scale is the 'geological'
scale (104-108 years, 104_106 metres) which covers long-term coastal evolution in response
25
to processes such as Quaternary climate and sea-level changes (Plater and Kirby, 2011).
There is a considerable degree of overlap between theses scales.
3.1.1 Holocene Estuarine Evolution
In terms of their configurations, present-day estuarine environments are products of the
initial parameters which dictated their inception and subsequent 'evolution' over multiple
millennia (Carter and Woodroffe, 1994). A basic model of estuarine evolution over the
Holocene would see the drowning of an embayment due to sea-level rise followed by a
transition from open water to dry land, resulting from sediment infill, and eventual delta
progradation (Lucke, 1934; Dalrymple et al. 1992; Haslett, 2009). However while this basic
model is sufficient to generalise the overarching trend of Holocene estuarine evolution it is
often of limited relevance to specific environments. The smaller the timescale an estuarine
environment is considered at, the less closely it will be seen to follow this blueprint (e.g.
barrier estuaries may be considered to form instantaneously in response to barrier
breaching).
Following Schumm and Lichty (1965), to all intents and purposes estuarine environments
can be considered static at the geological timescale. They are ephemeral environments
which exist due to momentary conditions. Momentary conditions are a favourable
combination of boundary conditions the most fundamental of which being sea level. Over
the course of the Holocene, estuarine environments are known to reorganise and
reconfigure in response to broadly cyclical and non-linear changes in boundary conditions.

The general trajectory of evolution may well be toward infill however a complex and
interrelated suite of drivers and feedbacks operating across the engineering, event and
instantaneous scales make deviation from this path common (Carter and Wood roffe, 1994;
Plater and Kirby, 2011).
3.1.2 Drivers of Holocene Estuarine Evolution
The parameters dictating the locations of estuarine environments and subsequent

evolution can be referred to as boundary conditions (Cowell and Thom, 1994). The
boundary conditions described here are considered to be the most fundamental operating
over the Holocene inter-glacial period. While they are discussed individually, complex
interactions are apparent and as such the list is only vaguely hierarchical.
26
3.1.2.1 Sea Level
Over the Holocene the global sea-level trend has been the most important boundary
condition. Following the last glacial maximum melt water from terrestrial ice has
consistently contributed to global eustatic sea-level rise. Deglaciation accelerated around
14,000 years ago when orbital forcing, combined with feedback systems, dictated a switch
to inter-glacial conditions. Rapidly rising sea-levels characterised the early Holocene until a
global ice minima approached around 6,000 before present (Goodwin, 2003). Over the
millennia which followed, global sea level largely stabilised. Following this Holocene marine
transgression, estuarine environments formed in locations close to those of the present
day.
Changes in sea level since the Holocene marine transgression have also been fundamental
in the development of present-day estuarine environments playing a key role in
morphodynamic evolution. However, while the large-scale Holocene sea-level trend is well
established, subsequent smaller scale variations are less well resolved. Two prominent
Holocene sea-level curves, presented by Fairbridge (1961) and Fairbanks (1989), disagree
over whether the late Holocene has been characterised by a smooth gradual rise or
significant fluctuations in sea level. The results of calibrated global ice mass models suggest
that post-glacial global eustatic sea-level rise was largely complete by 6,000 years ago (see
figure 3.1). Sea level has changed significantly and differently in different locations
following the Holocene marine transgression, however it would appear that these are
localised trends in relative sea-level driven by glacio-isostatic adjustment and tectonic
activity rather that eustatic sea-level change (Shennan, 2007).
The Pacific coast of the USA is particularly prone to significant changes in relative sea level
over the late Holocene, being one of the most geologically active regions of the world. Here
the eustatic transgression of the Holocene briefly reversed a longer term regressive sea-
level trend driven by the continuing uplift of the coastline (Fairbridge 1961). As a feature of
this long-term trend of emergence both tectonic uplift and subsidence is liable to affect
"'1,300 km of the California coast between the Gulf of California and the Mendocino
Fracture Zone due to the San Andreas transform fault system located between the
Pacific and North American plates (Pirazzoli, 1994). The San Andreas Fault system is
comprised of multiple sub-systems and strands offering potential for many localised
readjustments in the coastline over the late Holocene (Dickinson et al., 2005). Whether
27
a sea-level rise is driven by a fall in the level of the land or a rise in the level of the sea, the
effect on coastal morphology does not change (Pethick, 1984).
-20
-40
~o
E
-80
_ . _. Peltier 2004 ICE 5G
-100 -t3-- Fleming et al. 1998

-- Bassett et al. 2005
_____ Pettler 1998 ICE 4G
-120
-140
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
kyr BP
Figure 3.1: The output of four models of global ice melt since the last glacial maximum
presented as eustatic sea-level change (reproduced from Shennan, 2007)
3.1.2.2 Antecedent Topography
The role of antecedent topography in estuarine location and evolution is almost as critical
as that of sea level. On the geological scale Holocene estuarine environments can be
regarded as short lived features of a longer term erosional cycle that began in essence with
the Pleistocene glaciations (following Schumm and Lichty, 1965). Following the Holocene
marine transgression it was existing erosional topography that dictated where estuarine
environments could occur and to some extent the nature of the processes operating within
them (Belknap and Kraft, 1985). Antecedent topography continues to dictate the shape and
volume of an estuarine basin as relative sea-level changes and is therefore, closely linked to
the morphodynamic and hydrological evolution (Dalrymple and Zaitlin, 1994).
3.1.2.3 Sedimentation
Sediment accretion in estuarine environments is an important factor in evolution as it
impacts relative sea level. Nichols (1989) describes states of deficit, surplus and equilibrium
28
where sediment accretion is outpaced by, outpaces and keeps pace with sea-level rise. If
the rate of sedimentation is not in equilibrium with sea-level rise then the volume and
shape of the basin will change. This, in turn, impacts on tidal prism, tidal range and
morphodynamic evolution (Cooper, 1994; Fitzgerald et al. 2008).
3.1.2.4 Climate Factors
Climate factors include wave, tide and current along with precipitation and temperature
regimes. Wave or tide dominance is often used as the primary basis for division of
estuarine environments. A scheme using this basis was proposed by Dalrymple et al. (1992).
Distinctions between wave-dominated and tide-dominated environments largely emerge in
depositional energy regimes and are therefore expressed in characteristic zones of specific
sedimentation styles. Wave dominated states are likely to lead to the formation of barrier
estuary systems. Precipitation and temperature playa key role in determining the salinity
of an estuarine environment which impacts on water density, stratification and in turn
sedimentation. The rate of fresh water delivery to an estuarine environment also impacts
on sediment delivery and the maintenance of communication with the ocean (Reading and
Collinson, 1996). Indeed, waves, tides, currents, precipitation and temperature all playa
role, to a greater or lesser extent, in determining how 'open' an estuarine system is by
facilitating or removing accumulations of clastic material at the mouth (Woodroffe, 2002).
3.1.2.5 High Magnitude I Low Frequency Events
High magnitude / low frequency events such as storms, hurricanes and tsunami affect the
evolution of estuarine systems. This is especially true of barrier estuarine environments
where barrier dynamics are heavily influenced by such extreme events (Wood roffe, 2002).
Such events can markedly impact the prevailing hydrodynamics of coastal systems both
during and after their occurrence. The larger the magnitude of these events, the greater the
impact on coastal systems is likely to be. Some such events which have impacted estuarine
evolution are of magnitudes so large that no contemporary or historical analogues exist. An
example of such an event is provided by prominent tsunami deposits identified in many
Scottish estuarine systems resulting from a tsunami generated by the Storegga slides on the
Norwegian coast over 7,000 years ago (Smith et al., 2004). The aperiodic switching of
dynamic forcing, prevailing sediment transport pathways and coastal morphology associate
with events of high magnitude and low frequency means that coastal change over
timescales of decades to centuries can be considered in terms of erosion during storms and
29
recovery during the inter-storm period if other boundary conditions are unchanged (Plater
and Kirby, 2011).
While rough return intervals may be estimated for extreme events at some sites (Andrade
et al. 2004), phenomena such as the ENSO can result in an approximate regularity of
storminess in areas affected (Storlazzi and Griggs, 2000). The ENSO is known to impact the
climate of central California (Plater et al., 2006). Already discussed in terms of impacts on
relative sea level, tectonic activity is another extreme event known to impact estuarine
evolution in this area (Williams, 2003; Koehler et al., 2005). A further and potentially
related extreme event characteristic of the California coast is that of tsunami which can
occur due to local tectonic or far field forcing (Eisner et al., 2001).
3.1.2.6 Human Activity
Human activity can impact directly on estuarine systems through the modification of
morphology and hydrology while also indirectly impacting on boundary conditions such as
river flow and sediment delivery through activity in the catchment area. In areas where
human activity is thought to have been an active agent in Holocene estuarine evolution it is
often difficult to untangle the impacts of human activity from those of natural forcing
factors (Woodroffe, 2002). Romney Marsh, England, provides an example of a back-barrier
barrier estuary environment where for over a millennium human land-use, largely through
reclamation of wetlands, use has provided a control over environmental evolution (long et
al., 2006). Indeed human attempts to 'fix' naturally variable coastlines have long seen
human infrastructure working in opposition to nature in the coastal lone.
Human activity is a more prominent factor in estuarine development over recent centuries
as human impacts on estuarine systems have generally intensified with proximity to the
present (French, 1997). Many human impacts on estuarine evolution may not yet be fully
realised due to complex feedbacks and thresholds within these systems. Wolanski (2006)
suggests that human impacts on many of the macro-tidal estuaries of the Pacific Rim are
having the effect of unbalancing the sediment budgets of the systems to a point where
their longevity is reduced.
30
3.2 Late Holocene Barrier Estuarine Environments:
With present-day estuarine environments in mind, a conceptual model of estuarine youth,
maturity and old age is perhaps more fitting than one of evolution through infill and
eventual progradation. Discussing the macro-tidal estuaries of the Pacific Rim, Wolanski
(2006) suggests that estuaries can be considered in 'youth' following the Holocene marine
transgression. This period incorporates initial inception and subsequent rapid infill.
'Maturity' is reached when a configuration resultant from and balanced with local boundary
conditions is adopted. The mature configuration can persist in a loose equilibrium while
boundary conditions remain relatively steady. 'Old age' comes when thresholds are crossed
and the equilibrium between sediment accretion and sea-level is lost. This latter movement
toward loss through infill or erosion is often linked to human activity.
Barrier systems comprise approximately 15% of the world's coastline and are found on
every continent except Antarctica, in every type of geological setting, and in every type of
climate (Fitzgerald et al., 2008). Barrier estuarine environments, estuaries afforded some
degree of shelter from the ocean by a barrier system, have been prominent in many
geographical locations during late Holocene maturity. A major concern for present-day
coastal management is the impact of human activity pushing these environments toward
morphological old age. The barrier estuarine systems of south-east Australia, South Africa
and west coast USAare among the more thoroughly researched (e.g. Swift, 1975; Roy 2001;
Cooper, 2001). However site-specific factors are more important than regional factors in
dictating the presence and evolution of these environments.
Barrier estuarine environments comprise barrier beaches, barrier islands, inlets, ebb and
flow deltas, lagoons and back-barrier wetlands. While these elements can be considered in
isolation there is a high degree of inter-dependence and mutual response to forcing factors
(Oertel, 1985; Fitzgerald et al., 2008). A broad range of variation exists within present-day
barrier estuarine environments (Davis, 1994; Roy et al. 1994; Cooper, 2001; Roy et ai,
2001). The common element which they share is that which distinguishes them from other
estuarine environments; the barrier system. This is evidenced by the factors listed by
Cooper (1994) as mediating the Holocene inception and development of barrier estuarine
and lagoonal environments:
31
Geology Tectonic setting
Basement topography (on- and off-shore)
Lagoonorientation
Climate
Sea-level
Barrier morphology
Barrier grain size
Wave energy
Tidal range
Sediment supply
3.2.1 Barrier Formation
Barriers tend to form a little way offshore, oriented parallel to the shoreline, in areas where
clastic material is available and vertical accumulation and landward transport is facilitated
by 'climate' factors, antecedent topography and coastline shape (Davis, 1994; Ray et al.,
1994; Nicholls, 1999). As such barrier systems are most prominent in micro- or meso-tidal
wave-dominated settings, particularly in lower latitude low gradient transgressive or
embayed rocky coasts where there is an adequate supply of sand, gravel or carbonate
debris (Hayes, 1979; Reinson, 1992, Cooper, 1994).
The emergence of offshore bars, the breaching of sand spits and the detachment of
mainland beaches during sea-level rise are the three principle processes of barrier
formation (Oertel, 1985). These processes were recognised prior to the end of the is"
Century (Oertel, 1985). Extensive subsequent research has largely served to support the
prominence of these mechanisms whilst highlighting the considerable degree of overlap
between them (Schwartz, 1971; Oertel, 1985). Indeed, the more pragmatic view of
"multiple causality" has since prevailed as most favourable (Carter, 1989). Barrier systems
are characteristic of North America's Pacific coast.
3.2.2 Barrier Response to Sea-Level Change
Over the geological timescale barrier systems can become regressive and even abandoned
due to falling sea level; however response to rising sea-level is much more relevant to the
contemporary barrier systems of the late Holocene (Roy et al. 1994). Barrier systems have
responded to slow and steady late Holocene sea-level, along with more pronounced local
32
rises, in two principle ways. The first is barrier migration by rollover which is a smooth,
continuous process, and the second is overstepping which is disjointed and stepwise.
Barrier migration by rollover results primarily from the overwashing of sediment from the
barrier shoreface along with cross-barrier sediment transport through aperiodic tidal inlets
(Plater and Kirby, 2011). These processes intensify as the barrier system becomes
submerged, meaning that sea-level rise provides the mechanism for barrier migration (Roy
et al., 1994). As a result the barrier system is maintained at an equilibrium water-level
unless the topography of the coastline or net loss of substrate becomes an intrusive factor
(Fitzgerald et al., 2008). Barrier overstepping occurs when the rate of sediment transfer to
the back-barrier is not sufficient to match the rate of sea-level rise. The result is drowning in
situ of the barrier system while the shoreline advances inland (Carter, 1988). An
overstepped barrier system may be reworked to contribute to a subsequent barrier system
at a new location (Roy et al., 1994). Conversely, barrier translation by rollover is more likely
to be continuous while sea level is rising rapidly. The likely hood of overstepping is
increased when sea-level slows as overwashing can be restricted by superimposed dune

formation (Roy et al., 1994).
3.2.3 Barrier Opening and Closure
The back-barrier areas of barrier estuarine environments by definition feature some degree
of regular water exchange with the ocean through inlets or breaches in the barrier system.
long-term closure or very limited exchange with the ocean would classify the environments
as lagoons. Barrier estuarine systems can be described as open or closed depending on
their inlet status (Roy et al., 2001). These inlets may be multiple or singular and relatively
short- or long-lived, in any case opening or closure results from wave, tide, current, stream
flow and storm action or a combination of these factors. Over increased timescales climatic
cycles and events of extreme magnitude may also be important factors in inlet opening
(Williams and Goodwin, 1992; Rayet al., 2001; Houser et al., 2008).
Breaching or opening predominantly occurs as a result of inundation from the sea and wave
action often during storms, elevated water levels in the back-barrier area causing 'piping'
and liquefaction and reduction of sediment supply to the barrier (Kraus, 2003). Closure of a
barrier inlet usually accompanies low stream flow, the largest regularly experienced waves
and is driven by longshore transport, wave overtopping and sediment overwashing
(Baldock et al., 2008). Breaching in present-day barrier estuarine systems is also often
manual with artificial breaching performed to relieve flood risk in the back-barrier area, to
33
aid navigation, to manage salinity and water quality, and to allow the free migration of
marine organisms (Kraus et al., 2002).
Once a barrier breach is established it is rapidly expanded until equilibrium dimensions with
the prevailing wave, tide and stream flow climate are achieved. Ephemeral barrier breaches
generally open to approximately mean sea level while more permanent inlets become
deeper (Kraus, 2003). The depth of a barrier inlet relative to the tidal frame can significantly
affect the velocity of tidal water entering the back-barrier area. Kraus (2003) and Baldock et
al. (2008) give details of the specific mechanisms which translate the forcing factors listed
into inlet opening and closing events.
Along the central California coast the basic barrier regime is one of closure in summer
under conditions of low stream flow and winter opening as a function of increased rainfall
and storm waves (Smith, 1990). The timing of opening and closure can vary significantly
(Elwany et al. 1998). The timing of barrier closure significantly effects the back-barrier
environment. After sandbar closure freshwater inflow raises the level and increases the size
of the back-barrier lagoon. The lagoon is also freshened by this process (Luftkin, 1990).
Kraus et al. (2008) suggest that breaching from the landward side of the barrier is a major
driver of inlet opening in California. They identify a critical ratio between barrier width and
the height of the water head in the back-barrier relative to that of the ocean. Elwany et al.
(1998) also identify fluvial forcing as a key factor in barrier breaching. While they
acknowledge the role of multiple contributing factors they identify a statistically significant
relationship between 'wet' and 'dry' years and the likelihood of barrier opening in the
predominantly closed systems of Southern California. With climate identified as a major
control on the opening and closure of barrier systems in California, it is likely that the El
Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)affects barrier regime to some extent over multi-decadal
timescales (Storlazzi and Griggs, 2000). ENSOperiodicity has been evidenced in rainfall and
sediment records from central California (Plater et al., 2006). Precipitation, with varying lag
times, converts to stream flow in estuarine systems and, therefore, also in to sediment
delivery which may impact the availability of sand for barrier building (Roy et al., 2001).
Additionally, El Nino storms generate high waves which rapidly erode beach sands resulting
in diminished barrier systems and possible loss of sand from sediment cells (Masters and
Aiello, 2007).
34
3.2.4 Sedimentation in Drowned River Valley/Barrier Estuarine Environments
Based on an understanding of relevant lagoonal, barrier, and intermittently open estuarine
environments (Duffy et al. 1989; Cooper, 1994; Ray et al., 1994, 2001; Wood roffe, 2002,
2007) and specifically with Pescadero Marsh and other local analogous environments in
mind (Williams, 1990; Smith, 1990; Elwany et al., 1998; ESA, 2004; Sloan, 2006; ESA, 2008;
Rich and Keller, 2010), the back-barrier environment of a drowned river valley/barrier
estuarine environment with an intermittently open barrier system can be summarised by
two end-member states. These are 'closed lagoon' and 'open estuary'. The closed lagoon
state emerges when barrier inlets are absent and water levels in the back-barrier area rise
to cover the site, to a greater or lesser extent, with a non-tidal lagoonal pool. The open
estuarine state occurs when the barrier inlet or inlets are sufficient to drain the lagoonal
pool and allow full tidal action in the back-barrier area. Under these conditions the lagoonal
pool is reduced to a tidal channel and the areas it had covered become inter-tidal rather
than consistently submerged. Between these two end-member states there is a great deal
of middle ground in which a tidal lagoon will exist covering a reduced portion of the back-
barrier area (see figure 3.3). Within the tidal lagoon the tidal wave is distorted (Carter,
1989), however attenuated tidal action will characterise the marginal areas inundated as
the tide raises water level above that of the level of the lagoon.
Drowned river
valley barrier
Hypothetical operational states
estuarine range
Open Estuary Tidal Lagoon Lagoon
Open
inlet
u... Closed
inlet
~
Unrestricted No tidal
tidal action action
I I
~ --------11
Figure 3.2: Illustration of hypothetical open estuarine, tidal lagoon and lagoon inlet
configurations and back-barrier tidal action (partly modified from Wood roffe, 2007)
In barrier estuaries the lagoonal state is distinct from permanent lagoonal environments
due to its intermittent presence, however when present, the characteristic processes are
analogous to those of more persistent lagoons. Closed lagoons are quiet water, low energy
35
sedimentary environments (Nichols, 1999). Accreted sediments are predominantly fluvially
sourced clastic mud and autochthonous organic material (Wood roffe, 2002). Wind-derived
waves may locally and periodically increase depositional energy in lagoonal waters,
however the main sources of higher energy deposition are wave washover and river inflow
at the respective marine and terrestrial ends of the system (Reading and Collinson, 1996).
Marine washover leads to the formation of sand deltas behind the coastal barrier a process
which, along with the percolation of water through the barrier, also impacts on the salinity
of a closed lagoonal environment (Carter and Orford, 1984). Salinity is an important factor
as deposition through flocculation is enhanced in brackish water, if the lagoonal waters

become fresh then clay size grains repel rather than attract each other and take much
longer to settle out of suspension (Pethick, 1984). The delivery of water from a fluvial
source to a lagoonal pool is responsible for the development of a fluvial delta which
accretes through saltation. A 'fluvial jet' penetrates further into the lagoon containing finer
material which is widely dispersed as it gradually settles (Bird, 1994). This closed lagoon
condition is closely analogous to a river-fed lake as fluvial input is the primary sediment
source and settling from suspension is the primary process of sedimentation in most areas
(Nichols, 1999).
In contrast to the closed barrier lagoonal configuration, the back-barrier area in the open
estuarine configuration becomes intertidal with sedimentation dictated by tidal inundation.
On short timescales, sedimentation is controlled by tidal action and the suspended

sediment load, as suspended sediment is deposited during high slack water (Fitzgerald et
al., 2008). The intertidal back-barrier area can be conceptualised as a tidal ramp which is
inundated to a greater or lesser extent at each specific location (Reading and Collinson,
1996). Here the flood tide moves water onshore from low to high tide, and the ebb current
moves water offshore as water levels return to those of low tide. The distribution of
vegetation with varying salinity tolerances illustrates the areas which are more regularly
inundated (Adam, 1990).
The combined regularity, depth and duration of tidal inundation can be referred to as the
'hydroperiod', at any specific location hydroperiod changes with astronomical tidal cycles
(Pratolongo et al., 2010).Tidal velocity at the peaks of high and low tide is lost and the
water becomes still. As the tide turns, the water starts to move and increases in velocity
until a peak is reached at approximately mid-tide (Pethick, 1984). As a result, while settling
out of suspension is a potential driver of sedimentation in all intertidal areas during periods
of slack water, sediment transport and deposition by saltation is only prominent lower
36
down in the tidal frame where tidal action is of sufficient velocity. In areas where velocity
enables sediment transportation and deposition through the process of saltation there is
also potential for reworking of the finer component of non-consolidated sediments by the
ebb tide (Christiansen et al., 2000).
It is well established that the particle sizes present in the clay fraction of the suspended
sediment load require days to settle over distances of less than a meter in experimental
conditions (Pethick, 1984). Evidently there is a large contrast with the minutes of slack
water experienced at high and low tide. However in the intertidal zone the settling of this
component is aided by flocculation, high concentration and through trapping by a thin layer
of viscous flow close to the bed. These factors also facilitate deposition of this fraction in
slow moving water. It is clear through innumerable analyses that clay-size particles are
deposited in the intertidal zone and that a hydroperiod driven energy gradient exists
whereby sediments become finer higher in the tidal frame (Pethick, 1984; Christiansen et
al.,2000).
Figure 3.3: Illustration of salt-marsh sedimentation highlighting the contribution from
vegetation through trapping of sediments and biological productivity (adapted from
Fitzgerald et al., 2008)
The role of vegetation further complicates the accretion of sediments in back-barrier
intertidal areas. Vegetation becomes denser in the intertidal zone as hydroperiod is
reduced (Adam, 1990). Yet vegetation facilitates deposition by actively trapping sediments
37
which would otherwise remain in transport. Vegetation also contributes to the
accumulation rate by providing detrital and in situ organic material (Fitzgerald et al., 2008).
The role of vegetation can be considered a feedback mechanism which maintains the rate
of sedimentation both despite and resulting from reduced hydroperiod. As hydroperiod is
reduced in the upper areas of the tidal frame so is the time available for sediment
deposition through suspension, yet the role of vegetation in supplying and trapping
sediments can offset this loss (Pratolongo et al., 2010). Figure 3.4 illustrates the role of
vegetation in sedimentation in salt-marsh environments common to the upper intertidal

zone.
A further complication of sedimentation in back-barrier intertidal areas is the role of creeks.
Creeks dissect the intertidal area and emerge at low tide. As the tide rises water flows up
creek systems and eventually spills out on to the tidal flats. Velocity is rapidly reduced
resulting in increased deposition and the deposition of a larger grain size fraction directly
adjacent to the creeks (Adam, 1990). Christiansen et al. (2000) suggest that deposition
through flocculation is also enhanced with proximity to tidal creeks.
Despite the complications apparent, tidal action remains the primary driver of
sedimentation in intertidal areas, even those behind barrier systems where the tidal signal
is likely dampened (Pethick, 1984; Rienson, 1992; Christiansen et al., 2000; Fitzgerald et al.,
2008). However, perhaps the most convincing evidence for this is, given the appropriate
conditions for rapid accretion required, the preservation of tidal rhythmites in intertidal
back-barrier settings (Stupples, 2002; Plater et al., 2009).
The two end-member configurations of drowned river valley/barrier estuaries with
intermittently open barrier systems offer a clear contrast in their back-barrier

environments. The primary contrasts are water salinity, sediment source and depositional
energy. In a closed lagoon environment the lagoonal pool is likely brackish or fresher,
dominated by sedimentation through settling from suspension and predominantly sourced
with fluvial sediments. In a barrier estuarine environment the same locations will instead be
inundated by tidal waters but not permanently submerged, with said water being brackish
to marine or more saline after mixing with river water. Sedimentation is likely to be the
mixed product of saltation and suspension processes with spatial energy gradients
apparent. What sediment is accreted has the potential to be sourced from both the land
and sea. There is evidently a great deal of middle ground between these two states,
38
however they provide an adequate basis for an understanding of the environmental range
which is experienced.
If these environments were considered at a reduced temporal resolution or the two distinct
end-member environments persisted on average for longer than the sub-annual periods
observed, then an alternate classification to barrier estuary would be required. However,
over the late Holocene, a coastal environment regularly switching between two end-
member configurations at such a temporal scale can be considered as one operational
mode persisting in a dynamic equilibrium which encompasses multiple configurations
(Woodroffe, 2007). Regular sub-annual changes between states are primarily forced by
drivers operating over the instantaneous scale. Over longer time periods it is likely that the
proportion of time spent in each end member configuration, and the various states
envisaged in between, varies due to longer term trends in forcing factors over multiple
years, decades and centuries. Forcing factors on this scale will also include response to non-
linear impacts of high magnitude/low frequency events. The forcing and sensitive response
of coastal systems at this 'mesoscale' is suggested to be of great importance to the natural
morphological resilience and, therefore, late Holocene persistence of these environments

(Cooper, 2009).
3.3 Mesoscale Behaviour of Estuarine and Barrier Estuarine
Environments
Estuarine environments are well understood in terms of evolution over the Holocene epoch
(e.g. Roy et al., 1980; Schwartz et al., 1986; Duffy et al., 1989; Brush, 1989; Woodroffe et
al., 1989; Fletcher et al., 1990; Rienson, 1992; Boyd et al., 1992; Dalrymple et al., 1992; Ray,
1994;Dalrymple and Zaitlin, 1994; Nelson et al., 1996b; Slosset al., 2005; Long et al., 2006;
Wolanski, 2006; Dalrymple and Choi, 2007; Plater et al., 2009; Schweikhardt et al., 2010).
The microscale processes operating in back-barrier environments and coastal wetlands are
also well understood over years and decades through the monitoring of various aspects of
their contemporary functions (see section 2.1.3). These two scales of understanding
estuarine and barrier estuarine environments are by no means firm divisions but serve to
adequately summarise the two major knowledge basesregarding the development of these
environments. This is a point firmly acknowledged by French and Burningham (2009) who
go on to state that our understanding of processes operating over the event and
engineering scales is somewhat limited. Cooper (2009) also acknowledges this gap in
understanding and suggests that processes operating over what can be termed the
39
'historical' scale or the 'mesoscale' (Cooper et al., 2007) are the most important
consideration in managing coastal resources for long-term sustainability. However, Cooper
(2009, p. 129) also points out that mesoscale records of most shorelines are fragmentary
and of variable quality, going on to suggest that 'interpretation of (mesoscale) coastal
behaviour requires a combined deductive and inductive approach in which all available
evidence of change and potential driving forces is compiled and interpreted in the context
of knowledge of coastal processes that is often derived from short-term observations or
experiments'. As attempts to reconstruct coastal trends at suitable resolutions and
durations to adequately reflect mesoscale behaviour have thus far been limited, many
potential sources of evidence are yet to be fully explored and exploited.
A movement toward bridging this gap in knowledge is emergent in recent literature.

Perhaps the best established method of identifying environmental change in the coastal
zone at this scale is the use of historical maps and aerial photographs often combined with
historical records. However this approach is often limited by the poor availability of such
archives (Cooper, 2009). Many historic aerial photograph, map and record studies focus on
the morphodynamics of back-barrier areas and coastal wetlands. For example, Van Dyke
and Wasson (2005) mapped the changing distribution of intertidal habitats and topography
over a lSD-year period in the back-barrier area of Elkhorn Slough, California. Here the
redistribution of back-barrier features could be linked to known human adjustments of the
site's hydrology. Watson (2008) employed a similar approach for the Calaveras Point
wetlands, South San Francisco Bay. A record of shoreline progradation and erosion in
response to climatic, anthropogenic and coastal processes was produced for a period of
longer than 50 years.
The dynamics of barrier systems and tidal inlets have also been a focus of aerial
photograph-based reconstructions of mesoscale coastal change. Cooper et al. (2007)
produced a 170-year record of cyclical change at Trawbreaga Bay, Ireland. Sand movements
in the bay mouth saw the system oscillate between two 'attractor states' characterised by
different configurations of the ebb tidal delta. Burningham (2008) mapped the dynamics of
the main tidal inlet channel in two immediately neighbouring sand dominated estuaries in
North West Ireland. Over 172 years behavioural discontinuities were identified between
the two sites resulting largely from their differing antecedent topographies.
To date less use has been made of the intertidal sediment record, however this archive has
great potential. Some examples are provided by Culver et al. (2006) who used high
40
resolution foraminifera and sedimentological data to reconstruct a 1,000 year record of
inlet dynamics and overwash on a barrier island in North Carolina. Storms and
anthropogenic activity were identified as the primary drivers. Brooke et al. (2007)
reconstructed a record of shoreline progradation and erosion over 1,700 years at
Beachmere, Queensland. This reconstruction was based on Optically Stimulated
Luminescence dating of erosional contacts where relict beach ridges encroached into
intertidal flat sediments. Nichol et al. (2007) revealed responses in a New Zealand back-
barrier wetland linked to the imported land-use practices of European settlers and
subsequent tourism, along with a high resolution record of volcanic activity and sea-level
rise over a 6,000 year period using multiproxy sediment analysis. A more extensive review
of literature and progress in this field is given by French and Burningham (2009). Cooper
(2009) also discussesa number of mesoscale coastal behaviour reconstructions from sites
in South Africa and Ireland.
As demonstrated, the sediment record has great potential for preserving evidence of
environmental change in the coastal zone, with sediments from stable back-barrier
environments among the most valuable (French and Burningham, 2009). Such an approach
appears to offer particular value for sites where historical archives and aerial photographs
are limited. However, even where these resources are freely available, the sediment record
has the potential to extend much further back in time allowing high resolution
environmental change to be reconstructed and appraised over prolonged periods of the
late Holocene. Where this potential is realised, sufficient temporal context may be provided
to further our understanding of mesoscale variability in estuarine systems. However, as
framed in the research aims (section 1.2) the sediment record may not prove sensitive
enough to record environmental change at an appropriate spatial and temporal resolution.
3.4 Holocene Evolution of a Barrier Estuary System on the California
Coast: Elkhorn Slough
Elkhorn Slough, central California, is the state's second largest estuary (see figure 1.1). This
site provides a well documented case study of estuarine and barrier estuarine evolution in
response to the Holocene marine transgression, continuing rising sea-level, antecedent
topography, sediment supply, climatic factors, high magnitude/low frequency events and
latterly human intervention.
41
At the time of the last glacial maximum, drainage in Elkhorn valley had incised a stream at
least 29m below present day sea-level draining into what is now the Monterey Bay
submarine canyon (Schwartz et al., 1986). At this time the shoreline of Monterey would
have been S-8km west of its current location with sea levels 120-130m lower than today
(Hornberger, 1991; Lambeck and Chappell, 2001). By 1O,000BP the Holocene marine
transgression had begun and ocean water had started to enter river channels on the
California coast. Around this time the mouth of Elkhorn Slough was colonised by oysters
suggesting a brackish or marine environment (Hornberger, 1991). By 8,000BP sea-level had
risen to the extent that Elkhorn Slough had become a high energy tidal inlet (Schwartz et
al., 1986). Over the next 2,000 years the rate of sea-level rise slowed becoming outpaced by
sedimentation. As a result mud flats and fringing salt-marsh began to appear in areas of the
site which had previously been occupied by open water (Schwartz et al. 1986; Lambeck and
Chappell, 2001). As early as 4,000BP the inter-tidal zone at Elkhorn Slough had emerged
and terrestrialized to a point that encroaching mudflats and salt-marsh vegetation
constricted a network of tidal channels and freshwater marsh vegetation had begun to
colonise the landward north eastern portion of the site (Hornberger, 1991). Sediment
accretion continued to outpace sea-level rise and by 2,000BP salt-marsh vegetation had
colonised the remaining mud flats, and freshwater marsh was continuing to encroach from
the back of the site (Van Dyke and Wasson, 2005). Clay deposits from around this time,
found near the mouth of the slough, suggest a low energy depositional environment
possibly no longer directly communicating with the ocean (Schwartz et al., 1986).
Land surveys and historical records made in 1854 document the slough emptying into the
Salinas River with the two sharing a common mouth. This mouth was characterised by an
intermittently open sand barrier which prompted the formation of lagoonal pools in the
Elkhorn Slough site (Woolfolk, 2005). Powerful winter storms in 1909 re-routed the final
stretch of the Salinas River away from the opening to the Pacific Ocean that it had shared
with Elkhorn Slough. Elkhorn Slough persisted as a tributary to the old Salinas River channel
losing its direct connection to, and severely limiting communication with, the ocean.
Following this development it is thought likely that within 2,000 years the wetland
environment of Elkhorn Slough would have evolved into a dry alluvial valley via a
freshwater wetland. However, in 1946 a new direct link between the Slough and the Pacific
Ocean was re-established when a jetty was constructed in Moss Landing harbour and an
artificial tidal inlet created (Woolfolk, 2005). As a result of the tidal flushing which this
action enabled, salt-marshes retreated and an estuarine embayment re-emerged. The
42
future of Elkhorn Slough will now likely be controlled by relative sea-level changes,
sediment supply and further human activity (Schwartz et al., 1986).
The Holocene evolution of Elkhorn Slough followed a straightforward trajectory from open
water to terrestrialization until direct human alteration of the sites hydrology became a
factor. The role of the Holocene marine transgression and antecedent topography is clear in
the initial inception of the site. The rate of subsequent sea-level rise, particularly in relation
to the rate of sedimentation, is also clear, and the topography of the drowned river valley
provided an important control on the morphodynamic evolution which accompanied infill.
High magnitude/low frequency events, in the form of the 1909 winter storms, can be seen
to have impacted the evolutionary trajectory of the site and have likely also done-so prior
to historical records. In the early historical period the mouth of the slough was
characterised by a sand bar. This was a product of the availability of suitable material but
also the wave, current and tide climate and the limited fluvial flushing of the entrance. In
addition to directly modifying the hydrology of the system by re-establishing a tidal inlet, is
also likely that human activity, in the form of imported Euro-American land-use practices,
accelerated the rate of sedimentation in the back-barrier area. Such impacts have been
identified in the sediment record of other local wetland sites and interpreted from aerial
photographs at Elkhorn Slough (Mudie and Byrne, 1980; Van Dyke and Wasson, 2005).
Native Americans utilised the resources of Elkhorn Slough for thousands of years previous
to the Euro-American era, however their land-use practices appear to have had limited
impact on the site (Patch and Jones, 1984).
Of the major Holocene drivers of estuarine evolution on North America's Pacific coast only
changing relative sea-level due to tectonic realignment is not documented in the Elkhorn
Slough record. Tectonic subsidence is often recorded in estuarine sediment records from
America's Pacific Northwest coast (Long and Shennan, 1994; Nelson et al. 1996a; Nelson et
al. 1996b). Bolinas Lagoon, Marin County, central California is an estuarine environment
local to Elkhorn Slough and Pescadero Marsh where a direct tectonic influence has been
documented. Bolinas Lagoon is actually located in a rift valley on the San Andreas Fault
system. Euro-American land-use in the historical era accelerated sediment delivery to the
lagoon leading to rapid marsh accretion (Williams, 2003). The 1906 earthquake caused the
base of the lagoon to instantly subside by over one foot. The effect was to offset
anthropogenic impacts on the lagoon system. Multiple such incidents over the late
Holocene are suggested to account for the persistence of open water environments of
Bolinas Lagoon (Williams, 2003). Many other coastal sediment records of tectonic
43
subsidence have also been identified in central California, sites at Seal Cove and Pillar Point
Marsh provide examples (Simpson et al. 1997; Koehler et al. 2005).
44
4 Study Site: Pescadero Marsh
4.1 The Environment of Pescadero Marsh
4.1.1 Formation
At the time of the last glacial maximum the shoreline of California was between 10 and 20
miles west of its present location (Griggs et al., 200Sa). The current site of the town of
Pescadero was located in a canyon, perhaps 30m deep and approximately 2Skm inland
(Viollis, 1979). During the Holocene marine transgression coastal plains, river valleys and
embayments were drowned along the American Pacific Coast (Fairbridge, 1992) including
the canyon location of present-day Pescaderowhere marine and fluvial sediments began to
fill the basin (Williams, 1990). The rapid sea-level rise continued until around 5,000 years
ago when global sea-level largely stabilised. Smaller scale fluctuations in sea level and an
overall gradual rise continue along the American Pacific Coast (Coe, 2003).
Around the time of sea-level stabilization, the back-barrier and barrier estuary complex at
Pescadero likely began to approximate its current form at a location close to that of the
present day (Williams, 1990). Subsequent adjustments in boundaries and morphology have
likely characterised the site since. Pescadero Marsh will prove to be an ephemeral landform
over geologic time whether this is due to a glacial sea-level fall, failure to keep pace with
the rapid sea-level rise predicted in various global warming scenarios, tectonic realignment
or simply due to a gradual infilling of accommodation space followed by terrestrialization
(Emmett et al., 2000).
4.1.2 Climate
The California coastline occurs in a transition zone between the North Pacific westerly and
the southerly semi-arid Mediterranean zone. The boundary between these two climatic
regimes has repeatedly shifted abruptly north and south throughout the Holocene primarily
in response to the distribution of ocean currents (Fairbridge, 1992). At present the

Pescadero-Butano watershed experiences a Mediterranean climate typical of the Central
California Coast over the historical period. Mean annual temperature for the region is lrC
with a mild, wet winter season generally lasting from November to April and a warm, very
dry, summer season running from May to October. The watershed receives on average
~l,OOOmm of precipitation each year. Close to 100% of this falls during the sixth-month
long wet season, often during intense storm events (PCWS,2003; Hedlund et al., 2003). The
45
quantity and duration of rainfall during storm events is a major factor influencing
geomorphic processes in the Pescadero-Butano watershed. Low frequency, high magnitude
storms have been observed to cause widespread mass wasting in the catchment as well as
flooding in the lower basin, particularly in the area of Pescadero Marsh (ESA, 2008).
In addition to being seasonally variable, precipitation is interannually variable. A significant
component of interannual variability over the late Holocene can likely be explained by the
extremes of the El Nino / Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon (El Nino and La Nina).
Both El Nino and La Nina are driven by extreme sea surface temperatures in the eastern
Pacific Ocean and the resultant anomalies in atmospheric circulation. El Nino and La Nina
events feature warmer than usual and colder than usual sea surface temperatures
respectively (Schoner and Nicholson, 1989). Precipitation levels and storm frequency can
both be affected with the degree varying between events. El Nino events have regionally
specific impacts which generally increase precipitation in the southern portion of western
USA while reducing precipitation in the northern portion. La Nina has the opposite effect
however these events are generally less pronounced (Cayan et al., 1999). Increased
precipitation during El Nino events is the most apparent impact of the ENSO on the area of
the central coast where the Pescadero-Butano catchment area is located however some
events have no influence on precipitation whatsoever (Varnal and Diaz, 1986; Schaner and
Nicholson, 1989; Redmond and Koch, 1991; McCabe and Dettinger, 1991; Piechota et al.,
1997). Palaeo-limnological studies of the Holocene climate in central coastal California such
as Plater et al. (2006) reveal a high degree of sensitivity in the nature of sedimentation to
changes in precipitation.
4.1.3 Geology
The Pescadero-Butano watershed is underlain by two principle types of geology.
Shale/mudstone is one of these, with the Santa Cruz mudstone, characteristic of the Santa
Cruz Mountains, being prominent. Coarse grained marine sandstones are the other type.
The former has a moderate erodibility rating while the latter is moderate to very high (ESA,
2008). The erodible underlying geology makes it likely that land clearance in the catchment
would be accompanied by a high degree of erosion.
4.1.4 Tectonics
Some tectonic influence is liable to affect "'1,300 km of the California coast between the
Gulf of California and the Mendocino Fracture Zone due to the San Andreas transform fault
46
system located between the Pacific and North American plates (Pirazzoli, 1994). The
Pescadero-Butano watershed is bisected by two principle fault lines. The San Gregorio
Fault, itself a sub-system of the San Andreas fault, cuts through the watershed from
southeast to northwest (ESA,2008). The Butano Fault connects the San Andreas and San
Gregorio fault zones following the route of PescaderoCreek (PCWS,2003).
In addition to the principle fault lines affecting the watershed, strands of the Frijoles Fault,
a small localised anastomosing branch of the San Gregorio Fault system, run directly
through the area of Pescadero Marsh. Exact locations of these strands have not been
established (Mazzoni 2003; Bay Nature, 2006). The presence of the Frijoles Fault allows for
the possibility of variable uplift and subsidence across the surface of Pescadero Marsh.
While the overriding tectonic trend for the area is uplift other local estuarine sediments
have recorded evidence of subsidence events (Koehler et al., 2005).
4.1.6 Vegetation
Most of the Pescadero-Butano watershed is and has historically been heavily wooded, with
Redwood/Douglas Fir forest dominant. Loggingof these forests has been a significant factor
in the development of the catchment but the impact has been limited in relation to other
California sites (see section 4.4.3.1). Mixed conifer/oak woodland also occurs in the
watershed. As do areas of chaparral/scrub vegetation on south facing slopes. Pescadero
Marsh is covered by wetland vegetation graded due to salinity and tidal hydroperiod (ESA,
2008).
4.1.7 The Barrier Estuarine Environment of Pescadero Marsh
The Holocene intertidal environment at Pescadero can be referred to as a drowned river

valley (Wood roffe, 2002). Over the late Holocene the environment is more accurately
described as a barrier estuary system. Multiple definitions of barrier estuaries can be found
in the literature, here the term refers to embayments in which lagoons or estuaries occupy
drowned river valleys impounded by coastal sand barriers which are described by Roy et al.
(1980). The description of wave-dominated estuaries offered by Dalrymple et al. (1992) is

also closely relevant. They suggest that 'wave-dominated estuaries' are typically divided in
to three zones: a marine sand body comprised of barrier, washover, tidal inlet and tidal
delta deposits; a fine-grained (generallv muddy) central basin with associated mud flats and
marsh; and a bay-head delta that experiences tidal and/or salt-water influence.
47
Mechanism 1 Mechanism 2
Winter hsgh streamflow Winter high streamflOON
ser",:\! i~l.et ~rren~ : " ' ' t sv~g_ mlet cU.rrent. . .
large longshore transport

~ -- -- .t __l--_-L_J
:::_:~'!.'~"-'-'-'_':
t.- _L_ J
"':-:::'-:.:'~ ,:'~-,:",'~'._-'_';_'.:
t_
offshore transport and bar formatJon
Summer Summer
~!ow streamflow ~ low streamflow
onshore bar migration
Figure 4.1: Diagram to show the two main mechanisms thought to controllCOll / SOTI
opening and closure (reproduced from Ranasinghe et al., 1999)
Over the historical period more specific terminology can be applied to the site. The term
'Intermittently Closed or Open lake or lagoon' (ICOll) has emerged recently in the relevant
literature (Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi, 1998; Ranasinghe et al., 1999; Dye and Barros, 2005;
Gale et al., 2006; Haines et al., 2006; Everett et al., 2007).The Pescadero system has much
in common with these environments. less prevalent in the literature but of more direct
relevance to the study site is the term 'Seasonally Open Tidal Inlet' (SOTI). SOTls are a sub-
division of ICOll systems which open and close on a seasonal basis (Ranasinghe &
Pattiaratchi, 1998). long shore transport driven by currents, and onshore transport driven
by waves are cited as the two main mechanisms of closure (see figure 4.1). SOTIis the most
accurate classification of the contemporary Pescadero system based on its observed
behaviour.
4.2.1 Present-Day Barrier Regime
On the Pacific coast of America the wave dominated regime has built sand barriers across
many drowned coastal plains blocking the mouths of drowned valleys (Fairbridge, 1992).
This is the case at Pescadero where the barrier-building process is supported by a southern
littoral drift of sand, driven by the dominant California Current (Emmett et al., 2000), which
is 'captured' by an outcrop of headland south of the barrier beach (Smith, 1990). A sand
barrier was documented at Pescadero in the first coastal survey of the area in 1856 while
Holocene intertidal sediments from the site suggest that a barrier system has also
48
characterised significant periods of recent millennia (Viollis; 1979, Williams, 1990; Griggs et
al., 200Sb; Clarke, 2006).
California barrier estuary systems are very different to classic estuaries in terms of the
opening and closure regime of the barrier, the strength of wave forcing on barrier
morphology, the seasonality of rainfall and river inflow and the small size and steepness of
watersheds (O'Doherty & Rutten, 2007). During the zo" century the barrier inlet at
Pescadero has largely been observed to close in late spring/early summer, when rainfall
and stream flow are limited and wave action is constructive, with opening occurring in late
autumn driven by increased rainfall, stream flow, storm activity and destructive high energy
waves (Elwany et al., 1998; Emmett et al., 2000; ESA, 2004; Sloan, 2006).
Potential
contemporary
seasonal changes
berrter/potennat lagoon
Figure 4.2: Illustration of extremes in back-barrier water level which can occur on a
seasonal basis. The photographs to the right show the same area of the site in 'open' and
'closed' conditions (amended from Sloan, 2006)
While a regular seasonal regime has characterised the barrier inlet over the last century,
earlier historical reports suggest that the timings of opening and closure were much more
variable than at present (O'Doherty, 2008). Furthermore, since the mid-1990s the 'barrier
regime' is thought to have changed again with the inlet now being known to close as late as
October and remain closed until early winter if not manually breached (Sloan, 2006;
Kerbavaz, 2007; ESA, 2008).
49
It is likely that the adoption of European-American land-use practices and the development
of infrastructure in the Pescadero-Butano catchment have progressively impacted on the
sensitivity of the barrier system to climate factors (Sloan, 2006; Kerbavaz, 2007; ESA,2008).
Inlet closure, and the timing of inlet closure, has a fundamental affect on the back-barrier
environment, driving a transition from an intertidal barrier estuary environment to a low
energy brackish lagoon. The earlier the barrier system closes, the larger the subsequent
lagoonal pool is likely to be (Smith, 1990). The range of seasonal changes in back-barrier
water level is depicted in figure 4.2.
4.2 Management of Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve
The US Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that approximately 45,000 km2 of USwetlands
have been destroyed in the is" and zo" centuries (Goodwin & Williams, 1992). The
majority of coastal wetland losses during the historical period in the United States can be
traced directly to population pressures and changes along the coast. Coastal populations
have increased steadily since 1970 and currently more than half the population of the
United States lives in coastal counties, at densities five times greater than those of non-
coastal counties (NOAA,09).
California has lost over 80% of its historic wetlands over the twentieth century, with an
estimated 90% lost in total (Coats et al., 1989). Agriculture, housing and urban
developments occupy the majority of former wetland sites (Emmett et al., 2000).
California's remaining wetlands are still threatened by alterations to their natural
hydrology, pollution and sea-level rise (Goodwin & Williams, 1992). As the importance of
wetlands has become increasingly understood, attention has been focused on how best to
restore, enhance, or manage the remaining wetlands (Coats et at., 1989).
Diking, channelization, reclamation, and excessivesedimentation have dramatically altered

the size and character of Pescadero Marsh over the past 150 years (ESA,2004). Between
1900 and 1960 the size of the delta/open water area of the marsh decreased by over 50%,
primarily due to reclamation of marshland for agriculture (Viollis, 1979). Pescadero Marsh
Natural Preserve was classified in 1954. The State of California began a program of
purchasing marshland in 1958. In 1979, what was regarded to be the final privately owned
area of PescaderoMarsh was purchased and added to the preserve (Viollis, 1979). The site
is now managed by California State Parks.State Parks have jurisdiction over the land within
the reserve but federal and state regulations still apply.
50
The specific management goals of State Parks for Pescadero Marsh are listed as follows:
Utilise an 'ecosystem approach' to management and restoration promoting a
sustainable, functional wetland rather than any individual species.
Restore to a condition prior to human impact and manage in a long-term, low cost
and low-technology manner.
Develop solutions to reduce the need for management of lagoon water level which
promote maximum lagoon levels during barrier closure.
Restore unrestricted tidal action to historic wetland where possible.
Consider the impacts of restoration actions on federally listed species.
Manage to replicate historical vegetation and eliminate exotic species.
Co-exist with adjacent agricultural land-uses by isolating hydrological functions thus
controlling flooding and eliminating agricultural run of entering the marsh
Reduce flooding at Pescadero Road bridge.
Consider restoration alternatives which limit the need for channel maintenance.
Coordinate management of the Marsh with that of the feeding creek watersheds.
Educate the public
Be consistent with the Local Coastal Plan.
(DPR Management Plan, 1990).
These goals were formally recorded in 1990 but remain essentially unchanged (Kerbavaz,
2007). Simply stated, the management goals of State Parks for Pescadero Marsh are to
'manage the preserve to be as natural a system as possible, and to be a good neighbour.
However, it is acknowledged that many of the stated goals are in fact conflicting (see
section 4.3).
To date the main direct action taken by State Parks has been to remove human
infrastructure from the site. A major restoration plan for the marsh was completed on
behalf of State Parks by Phillip Williams and Associates (1990). The restoration plan
advocated removing obstructions to natural hydrology. A number of 'preferred alternative'
actions were proposed, several of which were acted on. As a result, between 1990 and
1997, hundreds of meters of levees and drains were removed in an attempt to restore
more natural hydrology to areas of the marsh (Sloan, 2006). However, due to the
preservation of habitat for federally listed threatened and endangered species, some
51
sections of levee were left in place and additional sluice gates installed to promote basking
and fresh water environments (ESA,2008).
Joanne Kerbavaz,State Parks senior Resource Ecologist for Pescadero Marsh, identifies the
conflicting priorities of many management goals, and the pressure from various stake
holder groups to achieve each one, as a fundamental problem in directing the future
management of the resource. State Parks are often criticised by local interest groups and
communities for their lack of direct action and insistence on further research. However,
Kerbavaz believes that it is much better to be fully informed before acting to avoid causing
long-term detriment to the system for short term gain (Kerbavaz, 2007). It is clear that
when decisive action is taken certain issueswill have to be prioritised over others. The key
issues at present are the flooding of private property and Pescadero Road, the Steelhead
Trout and Coho Salmon runs, preserving specific marsh habitat for federally listed species
and the opening and closure regime of the sand barrier at the mouth of Pescadero lagoon.
These issues are fundamentally interconnected and cannot all be resolved in a favourable
manner.
4.3 Present-day Issues at Pescadero Marsh
4.3.1 Flooding
The community of Pescadero has experienced episodes of flash flooding throughout its
history. Prior to the last few decades flooding has largely been associated with extreme
climatic events (Curry et al., 1985) and accepted as a hazard of living in a floodplain. The
magnitude and frequency of flooding has increased dramatically over the past few decades
to a point where flooding is now an annual occurrence. This is thought to be a direct result
of the decreased carrying capacity of the creek and the marsh systems (Cook, 2002).
However, the reason for this dramatic infilling over recent decades is the root of the
problem. In short, Euro-American land management in the Pescadero-Butano catchment is
to blame.
Pescadero Creek and Butano Creek, are impaired by accelerated rates of erosion and
sedimentation believed to result from natural geological and climatic processes,augmented
by land-use practices. The largest anthropogenic sources of sediment are believed to be
active and abandoned roads on unstable slopes near stream channels; and hillside gullies
on agricultural lands in the lower watershed (CCA, 2006). However, while increased
sediment delivery to the system is directly responsible for increased flooding, disruption of
52
the natural hydrology has brought the current flooding problem to a head. There are
directly implementable solutions to the problem of re-routed hydrology.
The most significant single factor cited in assessmentsof flooding at Pescadero is the infill
of the Butano Creek channel (Swanson, 1999, Cook, 2002., FPCP,2003). The size of the
channel by 1990, at the site of the Pescadero Road Bridge, was less that 2% of that
indicated on the 1854 map (Williams, 1990). The Pescadero Road Bridge is the epicentre of
the current flooding problem. Butano Creek has long been disconnected from its primary
western floodplain. It seems apparent that the two are linked (Williams, 1990). Three
previous studies, Pescadero Marsh Management, A Plan for Persistence and Productivity
(Curry, 1985); the Pescadero Marsh Watershed Analysis (Osterling, 1987); and the
Hydrological Enhancement Plan for the Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve (Williams, 1990)
all promote restoration of the natural hydrology of the marsh as a method of combating
increasing sedimentation. In the decades following these reports, efforts have been made
to restore natural hydrology and reconnect former floodplains (Kerbavaz, 2007) however
the large historical flood plain of Butano Creek is now the site of the local Fire Station and
remains completely detached.
In previous decades an additional issue of flooding concerned agricultural land at the back
of the marsh complex which was affected by large summer lagoonal pools. This problem
became so severe that law suits were brought against State Parks on a number of
occasions. Failure to mechanically breach the sand barrier blocking the mouth of Pescadero
lagoon and, therefore, reduce back-barrier water level was alleged to be negligent on the
part of State Parks. This problem was addressed by State Parks purchasing the affected
areas and incorporating them within the preserve. However, there is no further marginal
land to be purchased at the back of the site should the issue re-surface, which must be
considered given projected climate and sea level scenarios (Kerbavaz, 2007).
4.3.2 Maintaining Habitat for Rare Species
Six species listed as threatened or endangered are found at Pescadero Marsh: steelhead
trout, Coho salmon, California red-legged frog, San Francisco garter snake, tidewater goby,
and brackish water snail. Federal status is designated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Federally listed Endangered and Threatened species are protected under the provisions of
the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended through the 100th Congress. Species
listed as endangered are "in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of
its range" while species listed as threatened are those "likely to become an endangered
53
species within the foreseeable future". Despite the Local Coastal Plans of California legally
being able to overrule federal legislation deemed detrimental to local coastal resources,
State Parks understandably feel that protecting and preserving these species befits their
stewardship of the site.
California's remaining wetlands are subject to increased pressure to sustain sensitive
species. At Pescadero Marsh the need to maintain habitat of rare species is juxtaposed with
the overarching goal of managing the preserve to be as natural a system as possible.
Deliberately promoting specific habitats beyond the level to which they occur naturally
must to some degree constrain the functions of the wider system and instil a level of
human control on the site. An 1854 map of Pescadero Marsh (see figure 4.5.1) is seen as a
blueprint for restoration by State Parks as the site is detailed in a 'pre-impact' state (DPR,
1990; Kerbavaz, 2007). However, removing structural obstacles to hydrology is more
important to the restoration of a wetland system than replicating an historical
configuration, particularly if the site is to be self-sustaining over the long-term (Simenstadt
et al. 2006).
A central issue at Pescadero is the need for freshwater habitat for the red-legged frog and
garter snake populations. Suitable habitat would historically have been marginal to the
marsh complex. However, following human modification of the site's hydrology to facilitate
agriculture in the first half of the 20th century, fresh water habitats have encroached onto
the main marsh (see section 4.5). When State Parks began to actively manage the site, the
areas where marginal freshwater habitats would occur were instead occupied by
agricultural land. As a result managed freshwater habitat was maintained in the marsh
interior. The maintenance of these habitats was a feature of the program of action which
followed the 1990 restoration plan by Phillip Williams and Associates (Williams, 1990) as
the natural preserve was still directly bordered by modified land. While hundreds of feet of
artificial levee and drainage were removed during the 1990s many stretches were
deliberately left in place to provide freshwater marsh for both species and also basking
areas specifically for the snakes. While this solution adequately addresses the goal of
maintaining specific habitat in the short term, over the long-term constraining the
hydrology of the system may compromise its ability to respond sensitively to changing
boundary conditions and therefore its ability to persist.
54
4.3.3 Fish-kill Events
Perhaps the most prominent of the rare species at Pescadero Marsh are the anadromous
fish which have adapted to the strong seasonal hydrology of the regions creeks, migrating
up-stream and spawning during the wet season and rearing over the summer in deep cool
pools (PCWS, 2003). Historically, Pescadero Creek and many of its tributaries supported
substantial runs of Coho Salmon. This species is no longer observed at the site on an
annual basis. Annual steelhead trout runs do however persist, the promotion of which
being a particularly contentious issue between State Parks and the local fishing community
(Kerbavaz, 2007; ESA, 2008). These salmonid fish are highly valued for sporting reasons but
also treasured as a symbol of the wilderness, a heritage which many Californians have a
strong desire to preserve (Luftkin, 1990). Pressure is great at Pescadero as an 80% decline
has been recorded in California's anadromous salmonid fish over the last century with
many coastal creeks no longer their historical runs (Luftkin, 1990; Smith, 1990).
In recent years, the steelhead trout run has been greatly reduced and is regularly impacted
by the death of multiple juveniles when the sand barrier dividing the back-barrier lagoon
from the ocean breaches in winter (Sloan, 2006). For seven of the eleven years prior to
2007 a 'fish-kill' event has occurred at Pescadero Marsh. Such an event has been
documented every year between 2004 and 2009. A study by State Parks concluded that
anoxia associated with mixing of stratified lagoonal water layers is the most likely cause of
the fish-kills (O'Doherty & Rutten, 2007). Prior to the emergence of regular fish-kill events;
the steelhead run was already greatly reduced from the documented abundance of the
mid-1860's. This was due to the impacts of Euro-American land management in the
catchment.
The recent fish-kill events are not historically unprecedented at Pescadero (Smith, 1990),
however, the magnitude and frequency has greatly increased over the past two decades to
the point where there is genuine concern over the sustainability of the remaining steelhead
run (Roberts, 2004; ESA, 2008). While the contemporary fish-kills are related to the annual
winter barrier breaching event the previously observed, less regular, fish-kill events at
Pescadero occurred mainly due to prolonged barrier closure. These events affected smaller
numbers of both adult and juvenile fish (Smith, 1990). The anoxic conditions most likely
responsible for the contemporary fish-kills result from stratification of the lagoonal water
body after barrier closure which has become an almost annual occurrence (ESA, 2008). Less
dense fresh water sits on top of a salt water lens. The salt water becomes anoxic as a result
55
of warming and biological oxygen demand. When the barrier is breached water layers
rapidly mix with anoxic salt water causing fish to suffocate (Sloan, 2006).
While State Parks have concluded that anoxia is the cause of recent fish-kills there is an
alternative and subtly different theory which also implicates the opening of the barrier as
the causal mechanism. Hydrogen sulphide, a product of anaerobic decomposition, is
thought to build up in the bottom sediments of the lagoon, becoming the agent responsible
for fish deaths when a barrier breach occurs. Autopsy results of dead specimens collected
after kills are consistent with both anoxia and hydrogen sulphide being the cause of death
(ESA,2008). Some local people are of the opinion that the reconnection of areas of historic
floodplain since 1990 has contributed to this problem. It is suggested that the re-
connection of floodplains has lead to increased productivity of marsh vegetation such as
Tule and Cattails adding to the volume of decomposing biomass producing hydrogen
sulphide (Roberts, 2004). In this instance it would appear that the restoration of natural
functions in this area of the marsh has not served the best interests of the salmonid
population.
The timing of the barrier closure is a key component of both these related theories, and an
element of the wider system which appears to have been affected by human activity,
prompting the stratification required for this style of fish-kill event. The suggestion is that
late barrier formation, which has become common-place over the past two decades, results
in less fresh water being trapped in the lagoon. As a result the lagoon does not become
sufficiently fresh to be well mixed. The resulting stratification is the cause of the problems
experienced when the barrier opens and water layers mix rapidly (Smith, 2002). While the
barrier of Pescadero Lagoon is known to have consistently opened and closed seasonally
during recent decades, the timing of opening and closure has likely changed to some
degree over the historical period. State Parks management of the complex is often
questioned by local people due to their unwillingness to manipulate the barrier inlet.
4.3.4 Barrier Regime
At Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve the major issues relating to the barrier regime are
salmonid fish-kills and general salmonid habitat provision, flooding of infrastructure and
real estate due to raised lagoon water levels, the degree of tidal flushing and forced
divergence from a natural opening and closure regime. It is illegal to drain the lagoon by
manually breaching the barrier (see figure 4.2); however in recent years the barrier has
56
opened with a suspicious degree of regularity on or close to the first Sunday of December,
immediately prior to fishing season.
Historically the barrier regime at Pescadero Marsh has not been closely documented.
However, the general consensus among long time local residents is that a significant change
in regime has occurred since 1991 when major modifications of the Highway 1 Bridge were
completed (ESA, 2004). The regime in place prior to 1991 is thought to have characterised
the period following construction of the original Highway 1 Bridge which was completed in
1941 (Kerbavaz, 2007). The regime before construction of the initial bridge is the subject of
a great deal of debate between Pescadero residents with 'local lore' split over whether the
estuary was more open to the ocean with greater tidal flushing (O'Doherty, 2008). Figure
4.3 shows both of the bridge configurations.
Between 1941 and 1991 the sand barrier closed annually, with the timing centred on the
month of May. The timing of opening is less clear, particularly as artificial breaches have
been common place during the historical era; however the inlet was usually open again by
December. Literature from early explorations and settlers can be interpreted to suggest
that the barrier closed chaotically over a six month period before the system was
significantly modified by human activity (Hollaran, 2002; Kerbavaz, 2007).
Figure 4.3: The first (1941-1991) and second (post 1991) Highway1 Bridge over Pescadero
Lagoon (reproduced from Sloan, 2006)
The new Highway 1 bridge, completed in 1991, was designed to have a wider span and
therefore be less restrictive to the natural processes operating at the inlet mouth than its
predecessor. It seems that a shift from a regular pattern of closure and opening to a more
chaotic regime resulted. The post-1991 regime likely represents a return to more naturally
variable conditions which are primarily driven by inter-annual variations in climate rather
than forced by constriction of the inlet. The post-1991 regime is likely to be closer to the
pre-Highway 1 (pre-1941) conditions which differing accounts suggest was disorderly and
57
difficult to summarise. The issue with the post 1991 regime is that most local residents
consider the prior operating state i.e. that of 1941-1991, to be the norm.
While the initial installation of a road bridge over the mouth of Pescadero Creek and the
subsequent modification of this bridge appear to have significantly impacted the barrier
closure regime at Pescadero, there are many other potential modifications to consider. The
most intriguing possible impact on the barrier regime could be little more than a local myth
or alternatively the most fundamental alteration to the mouth of the channel to date. Since
the original Highway 1 Bridge was built, stories have persisted that construction materials
were left in place blocking the channel mouth. There is known to be a bedrock sill at the
point where Pescadero Creek meets the Pacific Ocean (Williams, 1990), the most enduring
version of the story has it that rip-rap style concrete blocks were laid across this area to
form a 'haul road' which was never fully removed (Viollis, 1979; ESA,2008). CALTRANS,the
company responsible for the bridge construction, have subsequently drilled bore holes at
the suggested location and found no evidence of such structures (Williams, 1990). Were
these blocks to exist, it is unlikely that their effect could be unravelled from that of the
bridge itself as both were positioned at the same time. Ron Duarte, a long time local
resident, recalls that following the construction of the road, tide generated waves which
had previously travelled inland as far as the intersection of the Pescadero and Butano
Creeks became absent. The subsequent shift in barrier regime following the installation of
an open span bridge in 1991 has not been accompanied by the return of tidal wave action
(ESA,2004).
A further potentially influential modification involves a rocky outcrop of headland to the
south of the barrier inlet channel which captures longshore sand drift driven by the
California current. Following a drought in 1898, and a prolonged period of barrier closure, a
tunnel was drilled into this headland in an attempt to allow sand and lagoon water to
escape. This modification was intended to reduce the risk of flooding on adjacent
agricultural land, and largely deemed unsuccessful (Smith, 1990; ESA,2004). This project
was also a potential disruption to the natural operation of the barrier system. Even a small
contribution, made by a simple structural modification like this, could be enough to push
the delicately balanced closure regime across an operational threshold. For example, such a
mechanism could be triggered by the small amount of additional water mixing and drainage
made possible by this hole.
58
Aside from these direct modifications to the mouth of Pescadero Creek, hydrological
modifications in the marsh, creeks and catchments may also have impacted on the barrier
regime as stream flow is fundamental to the opening regime of coastal sand bars in
California (Elwany et al., 1998). Upstream water diversions, sedimentation of channel beds,
removal of large woody debris, the introduction of beavers and the disconnection of
floodplains by drainage and dyking schemes are amongst numerous factors which may have
played a role (ESA,2004).
4.4 A History of Human Land-Use in and Around Pescadero Marsh
The location of Pescadero town is variously described as part of Northern California,
California's central coast, the greater San Francisco Bay Area and the greater Monterey Bay
Area. During the Euro-American Era, the site initially came under the jurisdiction of Santa
Cruz County before subsequently becoming part of the newly-formed San Mateo County.
The documented human history of Pescadero differs significantly from accounts of the
surrounding areas primarily due to its isolation (ESA,2004). However, human activity in
California greatly pre-dates the arrival of Europeans.
4.4.1 Native American Occupation
Archaeological evidence, including radiocarbon dating, suggests that the earliest human
occupancy of coastal California began at least 10,000 years ago, with immigrants who were
primarily hunters. A strong dependence on shoreline resources and seed-gathering
developed some time later, about 7,500 years ago (Meighan, 1965; Patch and Jones, 1984;
Gordon, 1996). The density of pre-Columbian people in California was, much like today,
greater than most other parts of the West. Densities were highest and most widely
dispersed along the coast and throughout the coastal foothills and valleys averaging
between 1 and 8 persons per km2 Most, if not all, valleys with seasonal water flow were
inhabited for part or all of the year (Keeley, 2002).
The Pescadero area was thought to have been first occupied by several groups of native
people termed the Ohlone, who were a sub-division of the Coastanoan 'Indians' (ESA,
2004). The Coastanoans, whose name was derived from the Spanish for 'Coast People',
practiced no agriculture and raised no domesticated plants or animals, except for the dog.
Their subsistence was based on gathering and hunting, and their economy was
predominantly biotechnic. The littoral zone appears to have supplied much of the gathered
59
part of their diet. Old habitation sites can be located today by 'kitchen midden' deposits
(Gordon, 1996).
Pescadero was first entered into recorded history by the Portola Expedition. His party
travelled north along the San Mateo County coast in October of 1769, documenting a grass-
covered landscape with only a few trees growing in the deeper arroyos. In the vicinity of
present-day Pescadero, Padre Juan Crespi wrote "Only in the watercourses ore any trees to
be seen; elsewhere we saw nothing but grass, and that was burned" (ESA,2004).
First-hand accounts of 'Indian burning' and a low frequency of lightening fires in the
California coastal ranges suggest that the Ohlone were the primary force responsible for
the bare landscape (Keeley, 2002). The naturally occurring shrubland vegetation provided
limited resources for Native Americans. Thus there was ample motivation for degrading this
vegetation using fire. The result was an open mosaic of shrubland/grassland, similar to the
agropastoral modification of ecologically related shrublands in the Mediterranean Basin.
There is certainty no clear soil or climate factor which explains grassland and shrubland
distribution in the area (Keeley, 2002). The landscape that the Spaniards found at
Pescaderoin 1769 was already a managed one with the principle tool of management being
fire.
4.4.2 The Spanish/Mexican Era
"Within a century following the beginnings of Spanish settlement, coastal California had
experienced a botanical transformation comparable in magnitude to that undergone
gradually by Europe in its long transition from a paleolithic to a Neolithic economy"
(Gordon, 1996). The Spanish mission system and its accompanying ranching and agriculture
fundamentally changed the natural and cultural landscape of California on a timescale so

small as to be incomparable with any natural processes.
Unlike the onset of the Spanish period, the beginning of the Mexican period was not a step
change in the history of California. The Spanish and Mexican periods are often discussed
together as a discrete cultural phase (Gordon, 1996; Mayers, 2001; Plater et al., 2006). The
transition between the two was gradual and primarily political. In terms of land
management, the Mexican period to all intents and purposes was a continuation of the
Spanishperiod.
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4.4.2.1 The Spanish Period: 1769 - 1822
The establishment of the San Diego mission in 1769 marked the start of California's Spanish
period (King, 1956). The Spanish had invaded Mexico 250 years previously and along with
their land-use practices they had imported alien plant species. Species such as Erodium
cicutarium, Rumex crispus and Sonchus asper are thought to have colonised California's
grasslandswell in advance of the Spanish missionaries (Mensing & Byrne, 1998). Timing and
distribution is unclear but European impact on California, at least in this manner, was not as
slow to follow first contact as demographic trends suggest (Mensing & Byrne, 1998).
The Spanish period began for Pescadero in 1791 when the area came under the jurisdiction
of the newly established Mission at Santa Cruz. Prior to this the local Ohlone population
had been actively recruited by missionaries from San Francisco and Santa Clara (ESA,2004).
The physical isolation of Pescadero resulted in no livestock being grazed in the area until
1797 despite the San Francisco Mission being short of pastoral land and the Santa Cruz
Mission actively expanding its ranching (ESA,2004).
In the following decades the Santa Cruz and San Francisco Missions developed productive
economies. Cattle became a major industry, old world crops were cultivated and new
species of grassesand weeds spread rapidly along the West Coast (Gordon, 1996). By 1827,
according to the diary of a French sailor, the eighteen leagues of coastline between San
Francisco and Santa Cruz had become one long pasture for immense herds of cattle, sheep
and horses (ESA,2004).
4.4.2.2 The Mexican Period: 1822 - 1848
In 1822 Mexico became independent from Spain and Spanish California became an
extension of Mexican territory (King, 1956). The remaining Missions were secularised,
maintaining nominal authority over their territories at least until the Mexican Government
approved applications for land grants in these areas. land grants, or ranchos, were
awarded to Spanish speaking settlers the majority of which came from cattle ranching areas
of Mexico (Gordon, 1996). Relatively few land grants were awarded until the 1830's when
the Mexican government began to distribute them on a lavish scale. By 1846, over 800
ranchos existed averaging 10,000 acres each; but with many much larger (Fehrenbacher,
1964).
Following the secularization of the Santa Cruz Mission, Pescadero was all but abandoned.
The area officially remained under the control of the new Mission regime. However, in 1833
61
when Juan Gonzalez asked to be granted the Pescadero Valley the priest in charge, Father
Antonio Real and the Mexican Government agreed on the basis that the area was now
unoccupied by and unnecessary for the Mission's dwindling cattle herds (ESA, 2004).
The Pescadero Grant was confined by the Pompino and Butano Creeks to the north and
south, the ocean to the west and the Santa Cruz Mountains to the east, totalling over 1,300
hectares. Gonzalez took possession of the land with 700 cattle; by 1840 this had become
4,000 cattle accompanied by 500 horses (Viollis, 1979). The cattle roamed Pescadero and
the foothills occasionally gathered and slaughtered for the tallow and hide trade. Gonzales
built an adobe house near Pescadero Creek for himself and a wood frame house near
Butano Creek for his 'vaqueros'. Wood for house construction and for general ranch needs
was cut from the mountains of Pescadero Creek and hauled by oxen down trails which
made numerous crossings of Pescadero Creek (ESA, 2004).
In 1838 a Butano Grant was also approved. This was a smaller scale affair. The grant was
one league's distance along the coast and half a league inland. Portions of land along the
Butano were fenced, planted, and a house was built. By 1861 there were over 400 cattle
and a handful of horses on the estate. It is unclear which specific areas were utilised (ESA,
2004).
During the Mexican Period neither Grant was particularly desirable due to the physical
distance and obstacles separating them from the economic action which was at the time
centred on the landings of Monterey Bay. Pescadero had a rocky coastline with no harbour
and the route south to Santa Cruz still included a dash along the beach at low tide to get
around the mudstone bluff adjacent to Waddell Creek (ESA, 2004).
4.4.3 The Euro-American Era
During its time as a Mexican province California's American population was largely
restricted to transient traders driven by demand for pelts in Asia and Europe. Marine
mammals and beavers drew these 'grizzly mountain men' to the wider Monterey Bay area
(Caughey, 1961; Gordon, 1996). 1841 marked the arrival of the first parties of overland
emigrants from the United States who intended to make California their permanent home
(Stewart, 1988). The profile of California had been raised and the land became increasingly
desirable to the United States. The Mexican-American War was fought for numerous
reasons, largely pertaining to Texas. However, when the 1846-48 conflict was finished, the
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United States firmly had the upper hand in California. In 1850, California was admitted to
the union as the thirty first state (Fenerbacher, 1964).
Statehood rapidly followed the discovery of gold at Sutter's Fort in 1848. Gold had been
discovered in small amounts prior to 1848 but not on this scale. The 'Gold Rush' which
followed this discovery instigated a new economy in California (Caughey, 1961). Logging,
ranching, mining and agriculture became vital to the population of the central coast as
commodities for consumption, trade and for export. The activities and land-use practices
which accompanied and supported the Gold Rush laid the foundations of modern day
California establishing an economy which outlived the gold reserves.
Following statehood and the Gold Rush, the population of central California expanded
rapidly. However, the coast north of Monterey Bay continued to develop slowly and fitfully.
San Mateo County remained sparsely populated mainly due to the physical barrier of the
Santa Cruz Mountains. Most of coastal San Mateo County, south of Half Moon Bay, is still
relatively sparsely populated for the same reasons. Barriers to overland transportation
were so great that lumber and farm produce from this area were shipped to San Francisco
and Monterey Bay on small coastal schooners that were loaded by wire cables from long
piers or from staging areas on high coastal bluffs. While San Francisco and Monterey Bay
became major economic centres, the barriers physically isolating the coast in between also
served to greatly impede development (Griggs, et al., 2005; Santa Cruz Public Libraries,
2009).
4.4.3.1 Euro-American Era Timeline of Potential Human Impacts on Pescadero Marsh
(Based on information from Alexander and Hamm, 1916; Viollis,1979; Williams, 1990; Cook,
2003; ESA, 2004; Kamman, 2006; Kerbavaz, 2007; O'Doherty and Rutten, 2007; O'Doherty,
2008; ESA, 2008)
1850: Santa Cruz County created, included Pescadero - south of San Gregorio
Creek.
A coast road evolved along the Portola trail. The road looped inland avoiding
Pescadero Marsh and crossing the narrower sections of the Butano and Pescadero
Creeks. The first formal road was laid eastward up Pescadero Canyon and westward
along Butano Creek.
1852: Pescadero and Butano Grants changed hands and boundaries. Changes in
ownership and divisions continued with the Pescadero Grants rapidly comprising
63
multiple subdivisions and the Butano Grant expanding and remaining intact. The
intact Butano grant served as an effective barrier blocking access to timber in the
canyon.
1853: Permanent bridge built across Butano Creek and another across Pescadero
Creek (unspecified date and location).
1856: The town of Pescadero grew up at the junction of Pescadero Creek and the
coast road and was officially established in 1856. The location like many other
central coast creek towns was a mile or so inland avoiding direct impacts from the
ocean, lagoons and marshes.
From the 1850's cultivation of wheat, oats and barley primarily in the lower
Pescadero watershed dominated early farming in the former Pescadero Grant.
There is evidence of wheat and potato production in the lower valleys while some
livestock continued to wander the hills.
When viewed from above in 1861, the valley had become a patchwork of crop
fields interspersed with orchards and dotted with white buildings. The re-emerging
importance of livestock was also noted in this account and by 1867 pigs and beef
cattle were raised in 'immense' and 'large' numbers, respectively.
1859: One steam-powered saw mill listed in Butano watershed, estimated to be
cutting 3,000 m of lumber per day.
1859: Two saw mills listed in the Pescadero watershed.
Early logging activity was limited by practicalities. The focus was on the eastern
crest of the Santa Cruz Mountains as products were more easily transported to
ports on San Francisco Bay. The western crest was more densely forested but
presented greater obstacles to the movement of lumber.
By the mid 1860's Pescadero had become a popular vacation destination for San
Franciscans. The Pescadero Valley was famed for its natural beauty, old growth
redwood stands, sports fishing and pebble beach. Around this time trout fishing
began to assume economic importance.
1867: Injunction filed against saw mills for polluting Pescadero Creek with saw dust.
1868: In response to the continued difficulties in communication with Santa Cruz,
all but a small portion of the Pescadero watershed was transferred to the
jurisdiction of the San Mateo County.
The mid 1870's saw flax become a major crop which covered 4,000 acres by 1880.
64
1876-77: This rainfall year brought drought to the central coast. There is evidence
to suggest that as a result of this drying attempts were made to bring an area of the
back marsh in to production although few further details remain.
By the late 1870's homes and businesses had encroached on to stream side
terraces in creek bends. Riparian vegetation was removed as this was believed to
relieve the severity of the irregular flooding experienced in these areas.
1876: 'Cleland's Mill' sawmill opened approximately 1.5 km up Butano Creek
canyon. Operations are believed to have continued until 1909. During operation
the mill cleared an area of valley floor subsequently known as the Butano Tract.
1876: Campaigning against the logging of redwood in Butano Canyon emerges.
1877: The California Fish Commission in cooperation with local residents
distributed 9,000 juvenile non-indigenous brook trout in Pescadero and Butano
Creeks.
1880: A fish farm consisting of a series of dams and ponds was constructed on
Butano Creek approximately 6 km upstream of Pescadero.
1898: A tunnel was drilled in the rock headland at cost of $200 to local farmers,
aiming to alleviate flooding on agricultural land from backing-up of lagoonal waters.
It rapidly became permanently plugged with sand.
Late is" Century until WW2, clearing of marginal willow lands for agriculture.
1901: Big Basin State Park created to preserve old growth Redwoods, a small
section of the site was in Pescadero Canyon.
1902: Multiple saw mills opened in upper Pescadero Creek watershed. Timber was
still exported over the mountain ridge to the east. Calls for government protection
of trees in Butano Canyon were ignored, however the continued physical isolation
of the site ensured logging was kept to small operations 'nibbling away at the
edges'.
1908: The 'Ocean Shore Railroad' reached Swanton to the south and Tunitas Creek
to the north of Pescadero but progressed no further.
1912: The 'Butano Tract' sub-divided and sold for housing, by 1920 dozens of
holiday homes were located in the area which had become popular with motor
vehicle owning San Franciscans.
1920's agriculture had diversified to include lettuce, broccoli, sprouts, sugar beets,
flax, hay, oats, barley, tomatoes, artichokes, peas, beans and pumpkins.
65
1937 or 38: 'Half a dozen' beavers released in the lower Butano by California
Department of Fish and Game with the intention of creating ponds for use by
farmers. The species became established and is thought to have exacerbated
flooding.
1938-41: Construction of 'Highway l' across the mouth of Pescadero Creek.
1945: After World War Two the sand bar was manually breached annually at the
start of 'fishing season' for an unspecified period.
1945: Post-war building boom increases demand and production of redwood.
1952: The Santa Cruz Lumber began logging the upper Butano catchment (above
Butano Fails). The company worked rapidly for fear that permission would soon be
rescinded and created a large network of dirt roads.
1955: Legislation to save 1,262 hectares of forest in North and South Butano creeks
is vetoed. Cutting of large old growth trees begins.
1955: Unprecedented siltation in Butano Creek and its pools following a major
flood event. "Hundreds, and possibly thousands of landslides" were observed in the
upper Butano at this time by Bud McCrary from his private plane.
1958: First area of Pescadero Marsh purchased by The State of California.
1959: Cultivation of flax.
1961: Butano State Park is dedicated comprising 881 hectares. The park contains
only 127 of 4450 hectares of old growth which various parties had campaigned to
save since 1876.
1969: The Santa Cruz lumber ceased work in the upper Butano. The area became
popular with off-road motorcyclists to whom a great deal of erosion is attributed.
1979: Final area of privately owned marshland purchased by State of California.
1979: Big Creek Lumber began active management of the upper Butano. Efforts
were made to restrict access to motorcyclists. Roads were abandoned. Selective
harvesting was practiced and log crossings were removed from the Butano,
returning stream flow to the original stream bed.
Mid 1980's: State Parks breach levees along Butano Creek in several places
intending to enhance and protect both tidal and freshwater habitats within the
complex.
1993: A selection of 'preferred alternatives' identified by the Philip Williams and
Associates restoration plan (1990) were carried out. A new system of levees and
channels including gated culverts was installed to control flow in and out of the
66
north marsh and north pond with the aim of promoting fresh water habitat for
listed species.
1997: Approximately 300m of levee removed from the back marsh between both
creeks with the aim of promoting exchange between Butano Creek and the
marshland.
2001: Beaver dams manually removed from lower Butano Creek.
2003: 17,000 hatchery raised juvenile Coho salmon released in Pescadero Creek. A
healthy run is not re-established.
2003: State Parks perform further small-scale levee breaches and excavations.
2005: Approximately 200m of levee removed from the banks of Pescadero Creek in
the vicinity of Round Hill proposed.
2000's: Despite manual breaching of the sand bar being prosecutable under state
law, the lagoon opens annually immediately prior to the start of fishing season with
regularity.
4.5 Time Series of Maps and Aerial photographs Depicting Pescadero
Marsh
A U.S. Coast Survey map dated 1854 is the earliest accurate depiction of Pescadero Marsh
(figure 4.4). An earlier Spanish map, thought to have been drawn in the 1830's, is also
available but bears little resemblance to the site, bar for the most rudimentary details
(Viollis, 1979). The 1854 map was based on a geodic network and produced by careful
surveyors. It is seen by many to represent the site as 'pre-impact' naturally functioning
hydraulic system. The detail of this map is such that subtleties of the marshlands, channels
and dune systems can be seen (Williams, 1990). The next available source depicting the
area to this level of detail is an aerial photograph mosaic from 1928 (figure 4.5). Further
maps were produced during this interval but none sufficiently detailing the barrier estuary
environments. Following the 1928 image a time series of composite aerial photographs
documents human infrastructure and environmental distribution in the back-barrier area

st
through to the 21 century.
Images from the years 1928, '40, '41, '48, '53, '60, '77, '78, '80, '82, '87, '94 and 2001 were
available in the University of California Santa Cruz special collection. Further images from
the years 1931, '77, '78, '80 '86, 2000 and 2003 have been made available through a
67
Pescadero Marsh web resource. In addition photographs from 1931, 1943, 1956 and
alternate or expanded versions of some of those listed above are discussed in a thesis by
Viollis (1979), a restoration plan by Phillip Williams and Associates (1990), a report entitled
the Flood Protection Corridor Program (FPCP,2003), and assessments by environmental
consultants ESA(ESA, 2004 & 2008). The images deemed to best reflect the important
changes to the landscape during the historical period are discussed at length, informed by
personal observations and points made in the above and other relevant documents. This
material serves to compliment and contextualise some aspects of the documented human
activity in the local area. This data set was also of enormous value in identifying areas of
marsh land which have not been directly impacted by infrastructure and reclamation and
therefore informing site selection. To aid this discussion of the physical changesobserved, a
map is provided (figure 4.5) detailing the major marsh environments and land marks and
the names for them which are used here. Photographs from the years 1931 and 1943 were
not available in sufficient quality to merit reproducing.
4.5.11854 (figure 4.4)
The 1854 map shows an environmental distribution fundamentally similar to that of today.
The same major environments are present and have a configuration reconcilable with that
of recent years but the most immediately obvious differences are the wider channels of
Pescaderoand particularly Butano Creek, both in the upper and the lower reaches included
in the map. It is thought that the wider and deeper channels allowed tidal water to
penetrate much further inland. This may have helped to maintain the size of channels by
reducing sediment accretion and the encroachment of fresh water vegetation (Williams,
1990). large tidal and stream channels with unobstructed accessto their flood plains would
allow the pre-impact system to accommodate significant flooding events (FPCP,2003;
Swanson, 1999; Williams, 1990).
In 1854 a bridge already crossed Butano Creek near the location of the current Pescadero
Road bridge. Here Phillip Williams & Associates (1990) estimated that the channel was
reduced to a tenth of its width and depth equating to ~2% of its pre-impact size by 1990.
Subsequently a smaller scale reversal of this trend has been suggested with the channel
bed being up to 30 cm deeper at several locations downstream of the bridge (ESA,2008).
This recent trend may be in part due to the removal of beaver dams from the site in 2001
(Cook,2003).
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Figure 4.4: U.S. coast Survey map of Pescadero Marsh, 1854 (source: ESA, 2008)
Both the Butano and Pescadero creeks follow much the same course today as in 1854.
However the configurations of various meandering channels on the marsh surface in 1854
0
suggest this has not always been the case. It does appear that the 90 bend of Pescadero
Creek has become sharper and the section of the creek between here and the town
straighter due to adjacent land-use. The latter section of the creek is not visible in the 1854
map but appears particularly straight in subsequent photographs and possible former
meanders can be seen.
The area of the present day lagoon is actually smaller in 1854. In this specific location the
lagoon is reduced by an extension of the Pescadero beach dune system which hooks
69
around the western edge of north marsh into the area of the present-day lagoonal pool.
However the larger tidal channels, particularly the lower reaches of Butano Creek, mean
that during closed barrier conditions the potential lagoonal portion of the site is much
larger than that of today. The configuration of the sand dune system as a whole is also
worth noting. The northeast to southwest configuration suggests the prevailing wind
direction is unchanged (Viollis, 1979).
Vegetation is not described well on the 1854 map. However, from early accounts of the
area (see section 4.4.1) it can be said with confidence that outside of the marsh, shrub and
grassland dominated the area of the map bar for riparian corridors. While early use of
portions of the catchment had already begun, the 1854 map reveals little further evidence
of anthropogenic activity in the back-barrier area. There is the bridge crossing Butano Creek
with its accompanying trail and another trail marked on what is thought to be a natural
levee north of Pescadero Creek. At this stage there is no evidence of reclamation,
agricultural activity or major route ways.
4.5.2 1928 (figure 4.6)
In the time between the taking of this photograph and drawing of the 1854 map human
infrastructure has clearly begun to encroach on to the marshland. The town of Pescadero
was established in 1856. The topography of the settlement belies that it was built on
former marshland. However there is no record of reclamation and it is safe to assume that
full emergence and terrestrialization had already occurred leaving flat and fertile land to
attract agriculturalist occupants. As the settlement expanded local land was increasingly
brought into cultivation (see section 4.4.3.1).
The 1854 map clearly details the extent of active marshland and by 1928 it can be seen that
reclamation was well underway. The regular shapes and straight lines of farm fields can be
seen at the back of the marsh between the Pescadero and Butano creeks with a large lobe
of former marshland now appearing to be under the plough. Round Hill can be used as a
point of reference between the two images.
70
o 305 610 1.220 Meter~
Figure 4.5: Key environments of Pescadero Marsh (2003 photograph source: Pescadero
Marsh web resource)
71
Figure 4.6: '1928 aerial photograph'. It is unclear whether the image was actually produced
in 1928 or 1929 (source: UCSCSpecial Collection)
It would seem likely that levee and drainage systems would have been used to enable the
conversion of marshland to agriculture yet there is little evidence of such structures in the
1928 photograph. It could be the case that marginal areas of the back-marsh denoted in the
1854 map were all but meadow at this point. The dryness of the back-marsh is supported
by the fact that areas in the southeast, presumably north of the Butano, were used for
baseball in the 1920's (Viollis, 1979). However the '28 photograph also records evidence of
72
agriculture on the marsh proper. In the eastern extremity of north marsh, dikes and drains
can clearly be seen separating areas of tilled land.
In addition to the agriculture being practiced on former marshland, the raised marine
terrace to the left of the picture was now largely covered with ploughed fields. The 1928
image appears to reflect a time when surrounding land had been claimed and the initial
phase of reclamation had begun. Further noteworthy features here are the buildings of the
Pescadero settlement, the numerous roads and trails now in the area, the appearance of
what seems to be a sandy area in north marsh and the eucalyptus grove growing on the
adjacent elevated ground. The sand dune intruding in to the lagoonal area remains
prominent while the major channels already appear reduced in width.
4.5.3 1940 (figure 4.7)
A 1931 image, presented by Viollis (1979), shows no observable advance of farming on to
the marshland and this largely remains the case in 1940. However, there has been a marked
increase in artificial drainage and levee systems. Ditches or levees now run the length of
Butano Creek from the tip of the northeast meander to Pescadero Road while another
drainage ditch or a track appears to run along the southern bank in this section. Pescadero
Creek also looks to be ditched for the majority of its visible length. The natural levee at the
bottom of north marsh, detailed in the 1854 map, has been reinforced and a track runs
around the northern limit of this area. Although specific evidence cannot be seen in the
photographs, at some point in the early 1940's the expanding levee system isolated the
drainage of the north pond from north marsh and indeed both of these from the rest of the
system (ESA,2008).
Further prominent levee systems can be seen extending from Round Hill. One connects
Round Hill to the Butano Creek and the other isolates a significant portion of marshland
adjacent to PescaderoCreek. The former meets Butano Creek at the extent of its northeast
meander. All of the flat land between the two creeks to the southeast of this boundary now
shows evidence of ploughing. The land closest to the boundary shows parallel furrow marks
yet is not divided into obvious fields and relict meandering drainage channels are clearly
visible. The partitioning of the section adjacent to PescaderoCreek was clearly a significant
undertaking yet the land inside appears as yet unchanged. At this time it seems that an
expanded phase of farming on the marshland was beginning.
73
Despite the above little significant change appears to have taken place in the main channels
since 1928. However the image does confirm that a degree of encroachment has been
experienced by certain sections of the lower Butano since 1854. It also appears that
riparian vegetation has been cleared from sections of the Butano and Pescadero creeks.
The sandy area of north marsh is now filled with standing water and the encroaching sand
dune in the lagoon has receded close to its present-day configuration.
Another major change between 1928 and '40 is the appearance of Highway 1 which now
skirts the coastline and crosses the mouth of the barrier estuary close to where it meets the
ocean before extending north across the dune system behind Pescadero Beach.The bridge
across the lagoon mouth would likely have some impact on the functioning of the
hydrological system and may well have had a role in the new dune configuration. The road
also annexed a small corner of the north pond while the remainder of which, on the
landward side, would certainly have had its lagoonal functions compromised by the
development. The construction 'haul road' is also visible.
While Highway 1 was the most significant transport development around this time,
photographs were also taken in 1941 and 1943 with the notable difference between the
two being the improvement of Pescadero Road. Viollis (1979) suggests that the road was
widened and paved at some point during the late 1930's or early 1940's. The contrast
between the 1941 and 1943 photographs suggests that the improvements clearly took
place between the dates of these two images. The 1943 image is not available in a suitable
quality for reproduction. The improvements to Pescadero Road are highlighted between
the 1941 and '48 images (figures 4.8 & 4.9).
4.5.41956
Images are available for the years 1941, '43, '48 '53. The changes observed throughout
these photographs represent a continuation of the reclamation trend (e.g. figures 4.8-4.10).
This trend had peaked by 1956 (figure 4.11). Some areas of the marsh under cultivation in
1956 were yet to be exploited by '53 (figures 4.9 and 4.11). However by '56 (figure 4.11)
small parcels of reclaimed land were already lying fallow (Viollis, 1979). In 1958, the State
of California began a program of purchasing marshland at Pescadero (Kerbavaz, 2007) and
by 1960 several fields closest to the remaining active marsh appeared neglected in
comparison to those closer to the town. A summary of agricultural land-use on and around
PescaderoMarsh up to the 1950's peak is shown in figure 4.12.
74
In the 1956 image (figure 4.11) a levee system now runs all the way around north marsh
clarifying the separate drainage of this area along with the north pond from the rest of the
site. In the north marsh itself the surface of the previously partitioned land in the north east
corner is now clearly contrasting with the marshland suggesting cultivation. An additional
corridor of the north marsh adjacent to Pescadero Creek is also being used for the same
purpose. Land behind the dikes North West of Round Hill is also now being exploited in this
manner. The land between both creeks in the south east of the pictured area, which
previously showed some evidence of being prepared, is in active use as distinct fields and
furrows can be seen. For the first time the land between Butano Creek and Pescadero Road
is also clearly subject to artificial drainage. Dykes now surround the parcel cutting it off
from the main marsh and interfering with a meandering natural channel which feeds into
Butano Creek. Another dike dissects this area lengthways with the land on the north side
having the appearance of being cropped (these features are detailed in figure 4.11). The
encroachment of farming is now significant with over 50% of the area labelled as marsh in
1854 now artificially drained and around two thirds of this having being ploughed.
Changescan also be seen in the natural channels. The more inland sections of both creeks
appear narrowed. This could be due to the recovery of previously cleared riparian
vegetation. However a lobe of new land is emerging in the area directly north west of the
main confluence where a network of smaller channels was previously found. In addition the
stretch of Butano Creek on the active marsh has clearly contracted from both banks as
marsh vegetation now occupies previous areas of high water channel. Ponds on the marsh
surface to the south of the confluence which had been prominent in the earlier
photographs now appear diminished. This trend continues in subsequent photographs and
could represent a drying trend on the marsh surface. It would appear that the effects of the
post-war logging boom and the reduced tidal flushing following the construction of the first
Highway 1 bridge were beginning to manifest in the form of accelerated infill of channels
and ponds.
Following 1956 no further land claims were made on the marsh and the trend became a
gradual removal of the more obvious human impacts on the historic marsh. In 1979 the
final area of privately owned marshland was purchased by the State of California (Viollis,
1979). Figure 4.12 summarises land-use in the back-barrier area up to the 1960s.
75
Figure 4.7: 1940 aerial photograph (source UCSCSpecial Collection)
Figure 4.8 and 4.9: 1941 and 1948 aerial photographs (Source UCSC Special Collection)
76
Figure 4.10: 1953 aerial photograph (source UCSCSpecial Collection)
77
Figure 4.11: 1956 aerial photograph (source ESA, 2008)
78
Pre 1900's 1920's - 1930's
1940's 1950's - 1960's
ROUND HILL
~
~ Marsh l:;:j Cultivated
... ~\,~"\
Levee
I
1 Mile
I
Figure 4.12: Increasing agricultural land use on and around Pescadero Marsh (Adapted from
Viollis, 1979)
4.5.6 1977 - 1978 - 1980
By 1977 (figure 4.13) previously farmed land in the eastern corner of north marsh had been
abandoned as had fields in the area between Pescadero Road and Butano Creek. The
appearance of smaller dyke systems which had delineated specific fields in these areas was
now fading, yet drainage systems surrounding the larger areas remained intact. In the latter
location the ditch which had dissected the area was no longer visible having been replaced
with a new levee running at 900 to the previous and isolating the North West quarter.
Another new levee system was in place by 1977 which also remains to this day (see figure
79
4.13}. It seems to represent an attempt to confine Butano Creek to a narrower channel on
its south bank between the north east meander and the confluence. The '77 image shows
flood water having overtopped the embankment and subsequent photographs revealed a
new narrow channel running parallel to this section on the other side. There is some
confusion over the origin of these new drainage systems in the various available reports.
Cook (2003) reports a drag line being used to create ditches in this area in 1960 which
seems a plausible explanation as neither is present in '56. Whatever the origin and the
purpose, these modifications have persisted and been utilised by State Parks to promote
specific habitats in later years.
Little change can be observed between the 1977 and '78 images (figures 4.13 and 4.14).
The 1980 image (figure 4.15) reveals that the fields north west of Round Hill and between
the two creeks were still actively farmed as prominent fresh lines of crops or furrows were
present in contrast to the 1978 image (see figures 4.14 and 4.15). By 1980, the lobe of new
land North West of the confluence had emerged to a point where it resembled the present
configuration.
4.5.71986
Significant changes have taken place on the site between 1980 and 1986. On the 1986
aerial photograph (figure 4.16), agriculture has withdrawn from the marsh with only a small
area of historic marshland at the back of the site still in active use. The areas which were
previously farmed now have the appearance of being abandoned and to differing degrees
had begun to approximate marshland again. Farming has also significantly retreated from
the elevated area of flat bedrock to the south of the tidal inlet and from a narrow corridor
north of PescaderoCreek to the east of Round Hill.
Most of the levee systems are still visible on the 1986 photograph, however many had now
been breached by State Parksto restore the potential for tidal and lagoonal waters to enter
previously isolated areas of the back-marsh (ESA,2008). Artificial drainage patterns still
played a large role in the hydrology of the complex in 1986. Both the north pond and north
marsh appear to be filled with standing water which is not readily draining into the rest of
the site. The narrow parallel channel running alongside the Butano was still present and the
recovery of marsh vegetation in the section adjacent to Pescadero Road appears to have
been slowed by the continuing presence of the drainage system which was earlier used to
isolate it (see figure 4.16).
80
Figure 4.13: 1977 aerial photograph (source Pescadero Marsh web resource)
81
Figure 4.14: 1978 aerial photograph (source Pescadero Marsh web resource)
82
Figure 4.15: 1980 aerial photograph (source UCSCspecial collection)
83
4.5.81993
An image from 1993 is available however the resolution is poor and the area shown limited
(see figure 4.17). Little in the way of change from the 1986 image can be observed.
4.5.9 2000 - 2001 - 2002 - 2003

There is little in the way of change to observe between these photographs and indeed little
fundamental change between this series and the images from 1986 and 1993. Only the
2001 aerial photograph is displayed (figure 4.18) as the quality of the image and the degree
of coverage are superior to those of the other three years. The main observations are the
removal of agricultural fields from the final part of the back-marsh. The continued recovery
of marsh vegetation on formerly reclaimed land particularly in the area adjacent to
Pescadero Road. One major change apparent by the 2001 image, also observable in the
2000 image, is the appearance of a channel connecting the north pond to PescaderoCreek
just inland of the confluence. This channel also aids the drainage of the north marsh. This
channel had been created as part of the restoration measures taken in 1993, however the
culverts rapidly deteriorated and their use was soon abandoned (ESA,2008). Although it
could be coincidental due to the time of year at which these photographs were taken, it
appears that by the turn of the century the north marsh had become a much drier
environment in comparison to earlier decades.
By the year 2001 the site had largely assumed its present appearance. The remaining
human infrastructure impacting the marsh was largely in the form of drainage systems,
some being management tools to promote specific environments and others being
remnants of past reclamations. Highway 1 and the associated bridge still played a role in
constricting the mouth of the lagoon, particularly by restricting the movement of sand in
the area.
84
85
4.6 High Resolution Core Sites
There is one areas of the site which is not mentioned in this discussion of the aerial
photograph time series. This is for the simple reason that no direct human impact has been
observed in that area. While human modifications to the hydrology of the site in general
will doubtlessly have had some effect there has been nothing in the way of land
management practiced here. The area referred to is a lobe of salt-marsh vegetation the
shape of which is defined by a meander of Butano Creekjust prior to the confluence of the
two creeks (figure 4.19). In the contemporary regime this area is emergent under open inlet
conditions and submerged in the lagoonal pool when the barrier is closed (see section
4.1.3). This site was selected as the location of the first high resolution core, PM08R, on the
basis that sedimentation here would reflect changes to the barrier regime over, and for
some time prior to, the historical period. Any trends in sedimentation may be in part the
result of human activity in the wider area but human activity will not have directly impacted
the sediment record either through disturbance or by instigating an artificial hydrological

regime.
Another area identified as not directly impacted by human activity was the wedge of land
between both creeks immediately prior to the confluence. A comparison core, PM09S, was
taken from this site as it too is subject to the same seasonal submergence in the lagoonal
pool. Much of the land in this area was newly emergent since 1854. A second core was
taken from this site with the aim of producing a correlating record from a more marginal
location (figure 4.19)
86
Figure 4.19: High resolution core locations (aerial photography taken in 2003)
87
5 Methodology
5. 1 Holocene Stratigraphy
Over numerous field seasons (March/April 2004-2009) the late Holocene stratigraphy of
Pescadero Marsh has been sampled and recorded. Stratigraphy has been consistently
sampled with a 1m hand-driven Eijkelkamp gouge corer and described following the Troels-
Smith classification scheme (Troels-Smith, 1955). The Troels-Smith scheme utilises semi-
quantitative descriptions and assumes that sediments are made-up of a limited number of
major components. Troels-Smith analysis is often used and highly appropriate for field
descriptions of coastal stratigraphic sequences (Long et al., 1999). Data to calculate
elevations of core sites were collected using ranging poles and an electronic levelling
device. All transects sites were levelled to fixed monuments of known heights.
5.2 Short Core Methodology
5.2. 1 Sampling
Two short cores, PM08R and PM09S, both 185cm in length were cut from top to bottom
into 2mm slices. Established sedimentation rates from analogous local environments
suggested that a 2mm resolution would be sufficient to capture sub-annual sedimentation
trends in those sediments corresponding to the Euro-American era (Mudie and Byrne,
1980). These cores were taken with a 1m-hand driven Eijkelkamp gouge corer. The
chamber of which had a diameter of 4cm as opposed to the standard 2cm. Both core sites
were selected on the basis of a time-series of aerial photographs available for the site (see
section 4.5). Prior to retrieving master cores for laboratory sampling, adjacent cores were
taken and the stratigraphy recorded using the Troels-Smith sediment description scheme
(Troels-Smith, 1955).
In the laboratory each core was cut into 5cm sections. These sections were marked at 2mm
intervals before being divided into individual centimetres. Each section was subsequently
held on a chopping board between two small sheets of plastic and cut into 2mm slices with
a fine sheet metal blade lessthan 0.5mm in width. After each slice was cut all contaminated
pieces of equipment were cleaned and rinsed in double distilled water. Samples were
bagged and labelled individually. Subsequently all samples were homogenised before being
divided into aliquots for the various analyses which would be performed.
88
Slicing the cores at this resolution was deemed to be at the limit of practicality without the
use of specialist equipment, although each individual sample was not a perfect 2mm slice.
Sub-dividing the core first into centimetre units ensured that any cutting error did not
accumulate. Throughout the core the high resolution sampling technique proved
satisfactory yet excessively labour intensive. Specialist equipment exists for slicing core
material at this, or finer, resolution (Joosten and De Klerk, 2007b), however the approach
used was the most practical available.
5.2.2 Grain Size Analysis
The rationale and theoretical framework for the grain size analysis of sediments from the
PM08R and PM09S cores is discussed in section 5.3. The practicalities of the grain size
analysis performed are described here.
Perhaps the most important methodological aspect of the grain size analysis undertaken
was the decision not to digest the organic material present in the samples using a H202
solution. Codeposited organic material, the fraction which cannot be removed by hand with
tweezers, can be considered an important component of a grain size distribution.
Furthermore, the grain size distributions of estuarine sediment samples with low organic
content may be affected little by the removal of this co-deposited fraction (Allen and
Thornley, 2004). This issue is discussed at length in sections 5.3. The decision not to digest
samples was based on selected preliminary samples which underwent loss on ignition and
both digested and undigested grain size analyses. These samples are discussed in section
8.12.
Aliquots of each homogenised sub-sample of the PM08R core were disaggregated on a
watch glass in a solution of Calgon which prevents coagulation. Using a small spatula and
tweezers, as much organic material as possible was removed. When no visible plant
fragments remained, the extraneous organic material was deemed to be removed and the
sample was ready for analysis. Particle size analysis was carried out using a Coulter laser
Granulometer (Coulter lS200). The Gradistat program was used to calculate summary
statistics for each sample from the raw data output from the laser granulometer (Blatt and
Pye, 2001). Samples from the PM09S core were also analysed in this manner to a depth of
70cm at which paint the core was dominated by coarse sand reflecting a channel rather
than a marsh environment. Beyond this depth no comparisons could be made with the
PM08Rcore and, therefore, analysis stopped.
89
The Coulter LS200 determines the dimensions of individual particles between 0.375 urn-
2000 urn using a laser diffraction technique. This methodology for establishing grain size
distributions is both rapid and accurate (Pye and Blott, 2004). The merits of various modern
methods of grain size analysis are discussed by Sperazza et al. (2004), McCave et al. (2006)
and Hartman (2007). In the case of the results presented here, the same equipment and
procedures were used consistently for each sample analysed. Therefore, regardless of the
any limitations of the Coulter LS200, the grain size analysis results for the PM08R and
PM09S cores can be directly and objectively compared and interpreted in relation to one
another.
5.2.3 X-ray Fluorescence (XRF)
The basis of XRF analysis is the photoelectric fluorescence of characteristic secondary X-rays
from a sediment sample. The energies of these X-rays are characteristic for the elements
present, with the rate of emission largely being a function of the concentration of the
element and absorption of the outgoing X-rays by the sample (Boyle, 2001). In short, XRF
analysis can obtain accurate geochemical data from sediment samples. Such data are well
established as a valuable tool in the interpretation of environmental histories from lake
sediments and river floodplains in addition to being utilised successfully as part of a multi-
proxy approach to the interpretation of coastal and estuarine sequences (Engstrom and
Wright, 1984; Collins et al. 1997; Thoms et al. 1999; Boyle, 2001; Cundy et al., 2006;
Alvarez-Iglesias et al., 2009). Combined with additional data sets, relating down -core
trends in the relative abundance of selected elements to specific sediment sources,
depositional mechanisms and post-depositional processes through known geochemical
associations offers an opportunity to further an understanding of the parameters that
controlled deposition. The value of geochemical data from coastal sediments in a combined
approach of this nature has only begun to be fully explored in recent years (Cundy et al.,
2006).
Each 2mm sample of the PM08R core was subjected to XRF analysis. Sample aliquots were
first freeze dried. Freeze drying lowers the risk of losing volatile elements by providing a
powder rather than a hard aggregate (Loring and Rantala, 1992). Each dry sample aliquot
was lightly disaggregated using a pestle and mortar. Where possible approximately 2ml of
each aliquot was transferred into a labelled sample holder which was lined with spectre-
certified polypropylene film. On occasion the limited availability of a sample dictated that
less material was used. Once in a sample holder, aliquots were compacted with a brass
90
plunger. A Bruker AXS S2 Ranger energy-dispersive XRF spectrometer machine was used for
the analysis. Before each use the machine was calibrated using a copper standard disk. In
addition, further standard samples from known sedimentary environments (river, stream,
pond and marsh) were also analysed to provide a control for the core sample results.
Every sample was measured for 27 major and trace elements (Si, AI, Ca, Mg, P, K, Ti, Fe, Mn,
S, Cl, As, Ba, Br, Co, Cr, Cu, Ga, Nb, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, V, V, In, lr). Absolute geochemical
concentrations were determined by the PASCAL computer program DECONV (Boyle, 2000).
Samples were adjusted for organic matter using loss on ignition (LOI) percentage
measurements and forced through a sediment calibration data set before being selected
for interpretation. Details of the accuracy of detection limits in XRF analysis are discussed
by Boyle (2001). The machine measures some elements more accurately than others. Those
elements deemed to be recorded at sufficient quality and of most potential relevance to
back-barrier and barrier estuary environmental change were Ti, AI, Rb, Si, lr, K, Br, Fe, Cl,
In, S, Ca, Sr, Mn and Pb.
5.2.4 Loss On Ignition (LOI)
An impression of the total organic component of each sample was gained using the loss on
ignition (LOI) method. This information can contribute to an understanding of down-core
changes in depositional environment. LOI data are of particular use as a companion to an
XRF data set as knowing the approximate organic content of each sample can be useful
when interpreting sample associations with element groups.
Due to the limited availability of sediment, material which had already been subject to non-
destructive XRF analysis was utilised again to establish LOI. With the samples already
freeze-dried and disaggregated an aliquot of approximately 19 from each was placed into a
labelled crucible of known weight. Again the availability of sediment occasionally led to
reduced volumes being used. All crucibles were then oven dried at 105C overnight.
Following a period of cooling while housed in a desiccator, each crucible was accurately
weighed. The crucibles were next put in a furnace at 550C for a minimum of 6 hours. The
subsequent weight was again recorded following cooling in a desiccator. The information
gathered for each sample now allowed for the calculation of a LOI % figure using the
following equation which relates to the weight of each aliquot and crucible:
((Oven dry- ignited) / (oven dry- weight of crucible)) X 100 = LOI %
91
Depending on the purpose for which lOI results will be used, the temperature of ignition
can be important. The merits and limitations of igniting samples at 375C and 550C in
terms of the specific materials which are removed from the sample at each temperature
are discussed by Boyle (2004). Ignition at 375C may lead to an underestimation of the
organic content as some material will not be removed. At 550Csubtle over-estimation may
result from dewatering of minerals. 550C was selected and used consistently. In addition
to reflecting changing organic content down-core, the lOI % for each sample was also used
in the process of correcting the XRF output. Using lOI % values for this purpose is
preferable to estimating the organic content of a sample.
5.2.5 Diatom Analysis
The choice of samples on which to perform diatom counts was guided primarily by
interpretation of the grain size analysis results. Diatoms are microscopic, unicellular and
sometimes colonial algae found in virtually every habitat where water is present. They
produce intricate species specific glass-like cases called frustules which are impregnated
with silica. Different diatom species are found in water of differing conditions (Stoermer
and Smol, 1999). Isolating diatom frustules from sediment samples and counting the
observed assemblages can provide useful information regarding past water quality,
temperature and salinity from both autochthonous and allochthonous communities (Vas
and de Wolf, 1988, 1993). In the samples of the PM08R core the relative proportion of
fresh, brackish and marine frustules was of primary interest as this would likely be driven at
least in part by the integrity of the barrier system.
After samples were selected for diatom analysis, a "'O.5ml aliquot of each was placed into a
30% H202 solution in a labelled beaker. Any plant material present was digested over a 3-
hour period of gentle heating. The solution was then reduced in volume and smeared onto
microscope slides which had been cleaned with ethanol. The slides were then dried on a
hot plate and mounted in Naphraxwhich had been heated on cover slips. This preparation
is in keeping with accepted standard procedures (Bates et al., 1978; Scott & Medioli, 1980;
Battarbee, 1986; Battarbee et al., 2001).
Once prepared, slides were counted using 1000x magnification. Species were largely
identified with reference to Van der Werff and Huls (1976) and Hendey (1964). Preservation
of diatom frustules proved poor in the sediments of Pescadero Marsh and generally
became worse with increasing depth below the surface. For a" slides counted, broken
frustules made up the vast majority of the total diatoms identified. Broken or fragmented
92
frustules were only counted if they could be confidently identified to species level. As
broken frustules were so common, a record of broken versus intact frustules was not kept.
Such information may be used to suggest which diatoms were in situ when sampled. This
was not a practical option with the diatoms of the PM08R core. Counts of unidentified
fragments were also logged.
Achieving counts of 300 frustules per slide was desirable and often achieved. However, for
a large proportion of slides counts totalled only 200 due to the sparse appearance of
frustules and the associated slow progress. For a small number of slides counts of 200 could
not be achieved. In most cases this was rapidly acknowledged and the slide was
abandoned. Alternatively when progress was possible but slow, if a count could not reach
150 frustules then the slide was abandoned as statistically insignificant. If one species made
up over 25% of the count for a particular slide then a minimum of 150 frustules of other
species were counted before the count was deemed to be complete. The total of assigned
diatoms for each slide can be read from the diatom diagrams presented in the results
section. Diatom diagrams were plotted using the Tilia and Tilia Graph programmes
developed by Eric Grimm.
5.2.6 137Cs and 210Pb Dating
A 137CS peak was identified in the PM08R core to contribute to the chronology. Dried
sediment samples from the Pescadero Marsh core PM08R were analysed. The absolute
efficiencies of the detectors were determined using calibrated sources and sediment
samples of known activity. Corrections were made for the effect of self absorption of low
energy y-rays within the sample (Appleby et al. 1992). These procedures were carried out
by P.G. Appleby and G.T. Piliposyan in the Environmental Radioactivity Research Centre,
University of liverpool. 210Pbanalysis was also undertaken but activities were insufficient to
secure a 210Pbchronology (for full137Cs and 210Pbreport see Appendix 1).
5.2.7 Radiocarbon Dating
Three radiocarbon dates for the late Holocene sediment record of PescaderoMarsh were
kindly made available by Dr Javier Lario, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo. The
rationale for sample selection was not informed by the research presented here.
Organic sediments and shell material were used for dating. Samples were analysed by
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) at Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory,
93
Miami, Florida. The 14Cresults are quoted in accordance with the Trondheim convention
(Stuiver and Kra, 1986). Calibration to calendar years has been calculated using Calib rev
6.0.0 (http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/calib.html; Stuiver and Reimer, 1993) and the INTCAL09
calibration curve of Reimer et al. (2009). The 14Cmeasurements are reported as calibrated
years BP (cal. years BP), giving the two standard deviation calibrated ranges (95%
confidence), with the end points rounded outwards to 10 years (Mook, 1986). The full
laboratory report, including individual sample calibration curves, pretreatments and all
additional relevant information, is presented in Appendix 2.
5.3 Grain Size Analysis for Environmental Reconstruction
Sediments from differing depositional environments may possess distinctive particle size
distributions resulting from different erosion, transport and deposition processes. If the
particle size distribution of a sediment can be determined then it is possible to hypothesise
about the dynamics of the environment of deposition. In this manner sediment records can
be used as a tool for environmental reconstruction. A large body of research has attempted
to establish connections between particle size characteristics and depositional
environments e.g. see summary in Lario et al. 2002. However, while paleo-environmental
reconstruction on the basis of grain size analysis has progressed immeasurably since the
first half of the zo" century, research in this field has often yielded confused and
contradictory results. This is not surprising when considering the complexity and overlap of
the processes involved in addition to the lithological, mineralogical and source material
controls on sedimentation (Gale and Hoare, 1991; Lario et al., 2002).
5.3.1 Progress in Grain Size Analysis
George Gabriel Stokes' Law of 1851 provides an initial basis for the understanding of
sedimentation. The size, shape and density of an object all contribute to the rate at which it
will fall in a given fluid. Grain size is the most fundamental property of a sediment particle
as it affects entrainment, transport and deposition (Pye & Blott, 2001). Progress toward
environmental reconstruction on the basis of grain size analysis began in earnest with
papers in 1937 and 1938 by Krumbien which are primarily concerned with accounting for
log normality in grain size distributions. Other early landmarks soon followed, a 1946 paper
by Doeglas identified grain size distributions as comprising several sub-populations related
to transport processes. Inman (1949) first recognised suspension, saltation and surface
creep as the three fundamental modes of transport governing these processes. In 1956,
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Bagnold published an article regarding the fluid mechanics of sediment transport, and most
critically deposition, which provided a basis for much subsequent research. Then a 1964
paper by Tanner first attempted to separate the individual components of grain size
distributions from cumulative log probability curves. Visher (1969) offers an excellent
review of early progress in the field. The development of grain size analysis continued
throughout the zo" century, accelerating as computer technology and laser granulometry
replaced graph paper and sieving. Two key texts, cited in the majority of environmental
reconstructions utilising grain size analysis, are those by Folk and Ward (1957) and Visher
(1969).
Folk and Ward's 1957 paper 'Brazos River Bar: a study in the significance of grain size
parameters' acknowledged and explained the environmental significance of polymodal

sediments by relating the changing relationships between summary statistics to differing
deposltlcnal processes. A four dimensional relationship between the cited summary
statistics was concluded to be a function of the relationship between the two modes
present in these sediments. Through this paper the vagueness surrounding trends in mean
and sorting was removed and variations in skewness and kurtosis were afforded meaning.
In short Folk and Ward (1957) successfully accounted for statistical trends rather than
merely describing them.
Visher (1969) attempted to further the understanding of distinctions between grain size
distributions characteristic to different depositional environments. Following Tanner (1964)

who showed that a mixture of two unimodal populations can produce three straight line
segments in a cumulative frequency plot, Visher saw the potential for a 'truly genetic
classification of sedimentary textures'. He demonstrated that breaks in the slopes of
cumulative frequency plots for individual samples could be related to approximately log-
normal sub-populations deposited through suspension, saltation and surface creep. While
both the existence of sub-populations within grain size distributions and the roles of the
three transport processes were already known, Visher brought these concepts together
satisfactorily for the first time. He was however forced to conclude that definitively
isolating individual populations within a grain size distribution was not possible as the
graphical techniques used were too imprecise and subjective to identify a definitive
solution for any given sample.
These two seminal papers can be linked directly to two major 'approaches' taken when
applying grain size analysis to environmental reconstruction. Folk and Ward (1957) and the
95
literature which followed can be directly implicated in the proliferation of grain size
summary statistics as part of a multi-proxy approach to environmental reconstruction. Folk
and Ward served to demonstrate how accessible and readily interpretable summary
statistics can be. Innumerable sediment-based environmental reconstructions now report
grain size summary statistics, despite grain size technology providing high-resolution data,
with many more simply utilising the mean or primary mode of samples to aid their
interpretations (Church, 2003). In these instances summary statistics have become a
valuable, quick and simple tool to aid environmental interpretation. However, the degree
to which summary statistics are indeed representative of a particular environment is

seldom questioned. When utilised in such a manner, the value of summary statistics can be
overplayed as, beyond the mean and mode(s), summary statistics from non-log-normal or
multimodal grain size distributions may not directly relate to environmental parameters
(Pye and Blott, 2001). Furthermore, computer programs such as Gradistat which are used
to calculate summary statistics from laser granulometer output provide a wealth of
additional, easily accessible and potentially valuable information about each sample which
is often completely overlooked (Pye and Blott, 2001). This approach represents the general
acceptance of grain size analysis as a proxy for depositional environmental conditions.
Alternatively, more specialist researchers are still asking further questions of grain size
analysis and the results it provides, in effect following on from where Visher left off.
This second and much less prominent branch of environmental research utilising grain size
analysis focuses on the grain size data itself with numerous workers still attempting to
identify specific features of depositions which are characteristic to different depositional
environments (Middleton, 1976; Ashley, 1978; Sun et al., 2002; Weltje and Prins, 2003; Xiao
et al., 2009). Following Visher (1969), attempts to identify sub-populations in bulk grain size
distributions have continued with mixed success (Weltje and Prins, 2007). Initially sub-
populations approximating log-normality and corresponding to the three principle modes
of sediment transport were addressed (Middleton, 1976). Subsequently, sub-populations

have been identified corresponding to multiple modes within samples (Xiao et al., 2009)
and on the basis of mathematical models (Sun et al., 2002) with few consistent principles
dictating where sub-populations can be found or how they interact. As with grain size
analysis in general; advancing technology has enabled rapid progress, or at least more rapid
analysis, in this field. While some workers report a level of successin specific circumstances
(Weltje and Prins, 2003; Xiao et al., 2009) establishing a universal basis for definitively
determining the overlapping components of polymodal sediments remains impossible (Sun
96
et al., 2002). It is, however, the case that theoretical partitioning can still produce useful
information regarding transport and depositional processes(Sun et al., 2002).
If the two fields of environmental grain size analysis described above are taken to represent
the ends of the spectrum, an enduring grain size analysis technique which sits somewhere
in between is the use of bivariate plots. Plotting bivariate parameters, specifically summary
statistics, of grain size distribution sample sets can rapidly cluster analogous samples.
Plotting multiple variations of summary statistics allows distinctions between samples to be
made on a basis which adequately reflects the characteristics of each individual grain size
distribution. Mean grain size plotted against sorting has proven to be a particularly useful
diagnostic plot. Using this methodology a number of workers have identified graphic
envelopes in which samples from specific depositional environments tend to cluster (i.e.
Mason and Folk, 1958; Freidman, 1961, 1967; Moiola and Weiser, 1968; Buller and
McManus, 1972). Bivariate plots have been used to distinguish between environments such
as beaches, dunes and rivers. These distinctions have often proved over-simplistic, however
this methodology remains relevant if used appropriately (Tanner, 1991; Duck, 1994) and
has been applied successfully to estuarine sediments (Lario et al., 2002). It must be stressed
that while this technique can be useful for illustrating sample clusters within large
populations, the location of a single sample on a bivariate plot of grain size summary
statistics should never be considered as completely diagnostic.
5.3.2 Grain Size Analysis of Intertidal, Estuarine and Back-Barrier Sediments
Some level of grain size analysis data is presented in almost all sediment-based research on
estuarine environments. This ranges from qualitative descriptions of sediment units made
in the field to repeat measurements of individual grains using technologically advanced
laboratory equipment. In the back-barrier environment of Pescadero Marsh, the coherence

of the barrier system is deemed to be the key feature moderating energy regime and
therefore sedimentation. Some relevant articles to the high resolution grain size analysis of
the short cores analysed from Pescadero Marsh are discussed below.
It is well documented that energy gradients evidenced by progressively fine sedimentation
characterise progression 'inland' across the intertidal zone (Pethick, 1984). Hydroperiod is
the primary driver although localised impacts of factors such as antecedent topography,
fluvial flows, the winnowing of fine material, vegetation, barrier integrity and climate
factors are also apparent. Dalrymple et al. (1992) present models of estuarine
sedimentation which reflect the intertidal energy gradient in addition to the influence of
97
such additional factors. Grain size analysis has been used to quantify and map spatial
variations in estuarine sedimentation.
The sensitive response of sedimentation along intertidal energy gradients is demonstrated
by Bartholoma and Flemming (2007). This paper presents grain size analysis data from
closely and regularly spaced surface samples taken along a nearly 2km long transect moving
away from a tidal channel bank on the back-barrier intertidal flats of Spiekeroog Island,
German Wadden Sea. An energy gradient was present along transects sampled in three
separate years, as evidenced by the primary mode of the samples. In the data sets from the
early 1990s the decreasing mode is accompanied by decreases in the level of sorting and
fine skew. The energy gradient is still apparent in the 2002 data set yet skew now
remained consistent and a distinct contrast in sorting was apparent between the coarser
and finer ends of the transect. The contrasting trends in the early 1990s and 2002 data sets
were accounted for by an increase in the energy of the wave climate which had the effect
of winnowing more fine material from the coarser end which would account for the
statistical trends observed. Stronger winds prior to 2002 was identified as the overall driver
revealing the one of the ways in which climate factors can influence back-barrier
sedimentation patterns over multi-annual timeframes. Allen (1971) and Yang et al. (2007)
give further grain size-based accounts of spatial variation in estuarine sedimentation, with
the former focussing on estuary bed sands and the latter on finer sedimentation in tidal
wetlands environments. Dalrymple and Choi (2007) offer a comprehensive overview

relating energy gradients to processesand sub-surface sediments.
Further to environmental gradients across estuarine sites, contrasts in sedimentation can
also be identified between back-barrier sites. Such contrasts may be clarified through
carefully targeted grain size analysis. Molinaroli et al. (2009) analysed back-barrier surface
sediments from the lagoon of Venice and the lagoon of Cabras, Italy. This paper highlights
the value of comparing environments with different hydrodynamic energies. The lagoon of
Venice is subject to pronounced tidal action and can be considered a tidal basin whereas
the lagoon of Cabras is more satisfactorily described as a coastal lake with wind is the main
influence on hydrodynamics. The principle differences between sediments from the two
sites were sand content, silt/clay ratio and apparent distinctions in the size fractions
involved in flocculation which were consistent across each site. The latter discontinuity is
inferred by a deficiency in particles of different sizes at each site (....

20~m and ....
8~m
respectively) considered to be representing the transition from floccs to non-cohesive

particles. This paper is relevant to paleo-environmental reconstructions of PescaderoMarsh
98
where such hydrodynamic variation is considered over time rather than space. Further
comparisons of contrasting intertidal sedimentation regimes are given by Frihy et al. (1999)
who use grain size analysis to map textural and compositional features of differing surface
environments characteristic with varying levels of fluvial and marine influence in the Nile
Delta. arpin and Woolfe (1999) designated distinct depositional environments in the Great
Barrier Reef lagoon on the basis of depositional processes interpreted from grain size
distribution curves, and Malik (1976) compared grain size distribution characteristics from
lagoons in differing geographical settings, relating discontinuities to substrate, transport

pathways and wind and wave climates. Furthermore, Schneider et al. (2010) compare and
contrast sedimentation in analogous estuarine environments over the course of the late
Holocene by applying a multi-proxy approach, including grain size analysis, to the paleo-
sediment record.
Indeed, in addition to spatial variations in sedimentation, temporal variations can be

explored through grain size analysis of subsurface sediments. Grain size analysis is a key
component of Holocene and late Holocene environmental reconstructions of estuarine and
back-barrier environments. Many studies use low resolution, simple summary statistics,
often just mean or mode to complement semi-quantitative sediment descriptions and
reflect changing depositional energy during sequences of Holocene evolution e.g. Peterson
et al., 1984; Boyd and Honing, 1992; Liu et al., 2010; Schneider et al., 2010. Grain size
analysis can also be used in more subtle ways over shorter timescales.
Of particular relevance to the Pescadero Marsh study is a paper by lario et al. (2002) who
performed grain size analysis on sediments from back-barrier settings of the Romney Marsh
complex, south east England, and the Guadalquivir and Guadalete marshes, south west
Spain. They found bivariate plots of summary statistics to be a very powerful means of
determining past open and closed conditions in these back-barrier environments. The
interpretation offered was based on graphic envelopes of the mean grain size versus
sorting plot, as proposed by Tanner (1991), which reflect 'closed basin settling' and 'river'
sediments. Stratigraphic context and knowledge of the study sites led to a suggested
revision of these envelopes. The 'river' classification was expanded to include tidal channel
and storm episode sediments, and a transitional envelope encompassing an evolutionary
progression from open to closed conditions was identified. The approach used makes it
possible to identify abrupt changes in barrier integrity and aperiodic high energy events
embedded in late Holocene evolutionary sequences. The results presented also illustrate
that trends in mean grain size and sorting are relatively consistent in back-barrier
99
sediments from varying geographical areas. There is potential for this methodology to be
applied at as high a resolution as the sensitivity of the sediment record will allow. A similar
approach to clarifying past back-barrier environments and identifying extreme events was
employed by Switzer et al. (2005) in a sheltered coastal embayment of New South Wales,
Australia, and had previously been utilised by Spencer et al. (1998) again at Romney Marsh.
The resolution of temporal environmental change in back-barrier and estuarine
environments is only limited by the sensitivity of the sediment archive to record such
change and the ability to sample at fine resolution. Multiple studies in recent decades have
analysed estuarine sediments at increasingly fine resolution (Allen, 2004). A notable body
of high resolution research into temporally variable estuarine sedimentation is that
regarding textural banding in the Severn Estuary, south west England. This research has
been driven by J. R. l. Allen (Allen, 1990a, 2004; Allen and Haslett, 2002, 2006, 2007; Dark
and Alien, 2005a; Alien et al., 2007; Alien and Dark, 2008), not exclusively based on grain
size analysis but the use of granulometry has made an important contribution, combined
with palynology and geochemistry, to identifying recurring bands of coarser and finer
sediment as annually deposited. Utilising a multiproxy approach it has been possible to link
the coarser component of these bands to cooler and windier winter conditions while the
fine grained component can be explained by the prevailing warmer and calmer summer
conditions of the site.
Sub-annual trends in estuarine, salt-marsh and back-barrier sedimentation have been

increasingly identified in recent years. Mohd Lockman and Pethick (2001) also identified
contrasts between winter and summer salt-marsh sediments in the Humber estuary, east
England. Again these trends were driven by the effects of temperature on the viscosity of
sediment-bearing water. In this instance the skewness of a sediment sample was found to
be the key parameter rather than any summary statistic reflecting central tendency such as
the mean or modes. Over multiple years, summer peaks in temperature were found to
correlate well with a reduction in the skewness of sediments as the water becomes more
viscous and therefore maintains more of the finer component of its sediment load in
suspension. These observations were confirmed by laboratory simulations of sedimentation
in water of differing temperatures.
In some cases the cause of sub-annual trends in estuarine sedimentation may be less
straight forward than some authors have suggested. Chang et al. (2006) found that tidal
flats in a back-barrier basin of the German Wadden Sea are draped in fine grained
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sediments in summer and sand in winter. However, further analysis of the grain size data
set led them to conclude that the finest component of the summer sediment was actually
deposited in floccs which are hydraulically equivalent to the coarser winter sands. The
implication being that the pronounced contrast between winter and summer was in fact a
product of sediment source and chiefly the breaking down of floccs which occurs during the
preparation of samples for grain size analysis. However, it remains questionable the degree
to which a flocculation population can confidently be identified in this manner. The
seasonal nature of sub-annual banding in estuarine sediments also disputed with Stupples
(2002) identifying laminated fill in an abandoned tidal channel on Romney Marsh as tidal
rhythmites attributed to equinoctial high tides, while Allen (2004) suggests these deposits
were actually seasonally deposited annual bands. Allen (2004) identifies direct grain size
analysis of tidal rhythmites, beyond textural description, as a potential method for
clarifying such issues.
The relevant grain size analysis-based literature suggests that given an appropriate rate of
sedimentation and a suitable location on the site, the sediment record from Pescadero
Marsh should be capable of revealing temporal environmental change in the back-barrier
area at a sub-annual resolution, reflecting the envisaged changes in state between closed
lagoon and open barrier estuarine configurations.
5.3.3 Issues to Consider for the Interpretation of Grain Size Analysis Data
The development of computer technology and automated grain size analysis instruments
has rapidly advanced methodological approaches in grain size analysis in recent decades.
However, complementary interpretive models have advanced at slower pace (Lario et al.,
2002). A major issue for interpreting grain size data is the necessity to consider which
further parameters are reflected beyond simple hydraulic transport and deposition.
Hartman (2007) reviews a number of persistent issues with grain size analysis and
interpretation. Some of the most prominent issues, with the potential to have significant
impacts on the grain sizedistributions of analysed samples, are discussed below.
Just as multiple variations on sieving and settling tube techniques are capable of producing
subtly different grain size distributions and statistics for the same sample material; so are
the more modern and automated methodologies which have become commonplace over
recent decades. Such techniques, utilising settling velocities, resistance pulse counters and
laser particle sizers, produce subtly different results as they are each more accurate and
efficient at measuring different size fractions and particle shapes (McCave et al., 2006). In
101
addition the choice of calculation techniques used on raw grain size data will also be
expressed in the final projection of the results (Folk, 1966). Evidently these considerations
raise issues of comparability between data sets of recent analyses and earlier studies on
which many principles still accepted today are based. The establishment of a universally
consistent methodology for grain size analysis is desirable (Hartman, 2007); however this is
not practical due to the range of equipment and techniques already in use.
Sperazzaet al. (2004), Pye and Blott (2001, 2004), McCave et al. (2006) and, indeed, Folk
(1966) deal in detail with relevant issues of methodology, instrumental uncertainty,

calculation procedures, comparisons of data sets and the repeatability of results. In all
environmental reconstruction studies which utilise grain size analysis there has to be an
acceptance that while the data produced may not be a perfect representation of the
material analysed it is adequate for the purpose. While not addressing the broader issues,
the use of consistent methods and equipment within a study allows for appropriate
comparisons to be made between samples of the same data set. Any persistent issueswith
the techniques adopted are then at least consistent for all samples.
In addition to the practicalities of analysis, physical environmental factors are also a
consideration. Source material can be a fundamental issue; if grains of a particular size
range are not abundantly sourced to an area of sediment accretion then this will be
reflected in the overall grain size distribution. The impact of size fractions available in
source material is illustrated by Folk and Ward (1957) in which the bimodality they identify
in the sediments of the Brazos River bar is the product of a dearth of material of sizes
between 0.5 and 2mm.
The role of vegetation in back-barrier intertidal sedimentation has been discussed in
section 3.3.1. Vegetation has the effect of trapping particles which would otherwise have
remained in transit in the inundating tidal waters (Fitzgerald et al., 2008). While the basic
mechanism of trapping is well documented, quantifying the impact it has on individual

sediment samples is not a practical possibility. The contribution of particles trapped in this
manner to the sediment record does not clearly reflect the hydraulic transport processesof
suspension, saltation and traction. Therefore the role of vegetation must be a considered a
further complication for grain size analysis results.
Vegetation or more specifically detrital and in situ organic matter incorporated in the
sediment record is a further issue. Organic matter is incorporated into the sediment column
by vegetation growing down from marsh surfaces along with plant material which grows
102
above the surface before dying and being incorporated as detritus. A further pathway
through which organic matter enters the sediment record is water-borne delivery from
further afield. This source can be considered an important feature of the sedimentary
regime at a specific site. However, pieces of organic material corresponding to silt, clay and
sand fractions in size do not adhere to the same hydraulic settling rules. The removal of
organic material from sediments prior to grain size analysis is often practiced (Gray et al.,
2010). Material large enough to be removed visually with tweezers during a thorough visual
examination of an aliquot is primarily extraneous debris which does not reflect broader
deposltional processes. Conversely the smaller organic matter which remains is
predominantly that which has been co-deposited alongside minerogenic material (Allen and
Thornley, 2004). This latter fraction is commonly removed through treatment with
hydrogen peroxide. Removal of this component removes uncertainty regarding hydraulic
settling but also removes a valid part of the sediment load which had been deposited at the
site.
Using samples from an estuarine setting, Allen and Thornley (2004) demonstrate that
failure to remove co-deposited organic material has little impact on the modal values
calculated for predominantly minerogenic samples. Rahman (2010), using recent salt-marsh
sediments, demonstrate that little difference is made to the overall grain size distribution of
samples with a low overall organic component Le. <10% (the organic component being
established through LOI analysis). Gray et al. (2010), working with alluvial and marsh
sediments, found that repeatability of grain size analysis results using a Coulter was
improved when hydrogen peroxide treatment was applied to samples. They advocate the
adoption of a standardised treatment procedure which at present is not in place. However,
similarly to Allen and Thornley (2004), they note that the impact of hydrogen peroxide
treatment on the modal value of samples with a low to moderate organic component is
minimal in the vast majority of samples they analysed. While they promote hydrogen
peroxide treatment as preferable, their results do serve to demonstrate that the impact of
co-deposited organic matter on a grain size distribution can commonly be identified when
frequency curves rather than summary statistics are inspected. Whether samples are
treated in this manner or not, the impact of the inclusion or exclusion of co-deposited
organic material presents a further issue for the interpretation of grain size analysis data.
Re-suspension of previously deposited sediments by moving water is a relatively well
understood process in terms of the general principles and specific mechanisms. Intertidal
environments have particular potential to be impacted by the re-suspension of finer
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sediments as high tide slack water is a key period for deposition, particularly from the
suspended sediment load, which is immediately followed by the ebb tide which increases in
velocity as it moves down the upper tidal flats. Dyer (1986) and Shi (2010) give good
technical reviews of re-suspension in an estuarine context. The 'Hjulstrbm Curve'
(Hiulstrom, 1935) is an enduring model of sediment re-suspension or entrainment which
provides a generalised basis for understanding. The process of re-suspension does not only
affect the size fraction associated with the suspended load; grain sizes transported through
the processesof saltation and traction can also be re-entrained into a flow if the velocity is
sufficient. Indeed the key feature of Hjulstrbm's re-suspension curve is the increasingly
disproportionate velocity required to re-suspend the finer particles as the smaller grain
sizes become cohesive. While the general principles of re-suspension are clear, as with the
trapping of sediments by vegetation, it is not possible to quantify the impacts of re-
suspension on those sediments which are preserved in the record. Where re-suspension
does have an impact, grain size summary statistics are significantly affected.
Modern grain size analysis equipment offers an accurate reflection of the finer components
of a sample aliquot (Pye and Blatt, 2004). However, it is likely that a significant proportion
of this finer material included in estuarine sediments has been deposited in the form of
aggregated floccs rather than as individual particles settling out of suspension (Pethick,
1984). Flocculation is particularly prominent in estuarine environments where sediment-
laden freshwater mixes with marine water as increasing salinity causes fine particles to
attract rather than repel each other (Dyer, 1986). The process of flocculation primarily
affects the clay and fine silt fractions of the suspended sediment load yet there is no
defined upper size limit for particles which are involved in flocculation (Molinaroli et al.,
2009). The role of flocculation in intertidal sedimentation is a further complication to a

hydraulic interpretive model of grain size analysis data. Despite no standardised
methodology being employed for grain size analysis, the disaggregation of samples is
almost exclusively practiced in one form or other. When floccs are broken down into
individual components, prior to grain size analysis being performed, this leads to reduced
and therefore less accurate interpretations of paleo-depositional energy (Chang et al.,
2006). Quantifying the impacts of flocculation on individual sediment samples is at best

difficult and potentially impossible. Numerous workers claim to have identified the upper
limit of particles involved in flocculation at specific sites, primarily by observing a consistent
dearth of particles at a suitable size interval within grain size distributions (Christiansen et
al., 2000; Chang et al., 2006; Molinaroli et al., 2009). However these observations do not
104
allow for the distinction of particles within the flocculation size range which were in fact
deposited by settling from suspension.
Despite the numerous issues limiting the appropriateness of an interpretive model of grain
size trends based on the depositional processes of suspension, saltation and traction, the
existence of a corresponding energy gradient is well documented in intertidal environments
(Pethick, 1984). When using such a model it is important to be aware of the issues raised
above and to consider them in interpretations wherever possible. While these issuesdo not
fundamentally undermine a hydraulic interpretive model they do dictate that a judgement
is made regarding the appropriate level of detail at which grain size data is considered
when forming conclusions. While the general trends reflected must be considered to
primarily reflect hydraulic conditions, more specific features of individual grain size
distributions may equally be driven by alternate factors. Consideration of the shape of high-
resolution grain size distribution differential frequency curves has the potential to reveal
such complications to an entirely hydraulic interpretation.
5.4 Format of Following Chapters
The following results chapters each include interpretations, discussions and conclusions
based on the dataset being dealt with. These interpretations are subsequently revisited and
brought together in the discussion chapter. Following a discussion of the late-Holocene
stratigraphy of the site the remaining results chapters are concerned with high resolution
analysis of the PM08R short core. On occasion reference is also made to the PM09S short
core. The location of these core sites is depicted and accounted for in section 4.6.
105
6 Late-Holocene Stratigraphy of Pescadero Marsh
6.1 Late-Holocene Stratigraphy
The transects described are located in four geographically distinct areas of Pescadero
Marsh (see figure 6.1), suggested to be representative of the main sub-divisions of the
marsh area. The back-barrier marshland is largely planar, where there is rarely more than
20cm difference in the surface elevation between any two adjacent core sites.
Figure 6.1: Transect locations on Pescadero Marsh. The North Marsh and Butano Creek
flood plain sites comprise three transects each (photograph taken in 2003, source:
Pescadero Marsh web resource)
106
The sediment units encountered recurred with depth across the site. Nine characteristic
lithofacies were identified. The core diagrams are displayed using these units which are
described below.
Unit 1: 'Grey-brown peaty silty clay':
A brown to grey clay with a high proportion of partly humified plant matter from the roots
and stems of the surface saltmarsh vegetation. This unit often contained traces of sand and
mottling resulting from iron oxidation.
Unit 2: 'Brown-grey-blue silt/clay':
A brown to grey unit often with a blue-tinge predominantly comprised of clay with silt,
however on occasion both occurred in approximately equal parts. This unit also contained
traces of organic matter and often traces of sand. Oxidation mottling characterised the
majority of these sediment units.
Unit 3: 'Brown-grey-blue silt':
A brown to grey silt often with a blue-tinge. Traces of clay, organic matter, sand and
oxidation mottling are also common features.
Unit 4: 'Brown-grey-blue sand':
A brown to grey sand unit often with a prominent silt trace and a blue-tinge. Small traces of
clay and organic matter were also found on a regular basis. Oxidation mottling, gravel and
shells are indicated when they were present as traces.
Unit 5: 'Grey-brawn-green silty clay':
A grey to brown clay unit often with a prominent silt trace and a distinctive green-tinge of
varying intensity. Small traces of sand and organic material are also common. Oxidation
mottling and calcareous concretions are indicated when they occur.
Unit 6: 'Grey-brown-green silt':
A grey to brown silt unit often with a prominent clay trace and a distinctive green-tinge of
varying intensity. Organic matter and sand traces are often found within this unit.
107
Unit 7: 'Grey-brawn-green sand':
A grey to brown sand with a distinctive green-tinge of varying intensity. Small traces of
organic material and clay may be present. A prominent silt trace is observed in some units
but absent from others. The presence of gravel and shells is indicated in some examples.
Unit 8: 'High energy coarse clean sand':
A clean coarse sand unit encompassing all sand grades which required high energy
conditions to account for their deposition. Gravel and wood fragments are often associated
with this unit. The colouration of this unit is variable.
Unit 9: 'Grey-black-green silty clay':
A grey to black dense clay unit often with a prominent silt trace and a distinctive green-
tinge of varying intensity. Small traces of sand and organic material are also common.
Calcareousconcretions are indicated when they occur.
6.1.1 Butano Creek Floodplain Stratigraphy (figure 6.2)
The most landward of the transects is that of the Butano Creek floodplain which ran
between Butano Creek and Pescadero Road heading toward the ocean. This 'transect'
comprises three smaller transects. The first (FPTl) heads into the marsh from Pescadero
Road in a north-easterly direction and then bends to follow the course of Butano Creek
(cores FPl-15). Two further cores (FPT'06)were recorded along the course of this transect
but at locations too distant to warrant direct correlations (cores FP20-21).The final leg of
this transect (FPT2)was located further west running parallel to Butano Creek (cores FP16-
19). The location of each of these transects is shown in figure 6.1. A common pattern is
observed across the Butano Creek floodplain site but with localised differences.
The upper sections of all cores are dominated by unit 1 passing down into unit 2 (grey-
brown peaty silty clays and grey-brawn-blue silt/clay). These sediments are interrupted on
occasion by unit 4 (brown-grey-blue sand) which is generally mottled due to iron oxidation.
Below a depth of around 1m above sea level (ASL), the brown-grey-blue peaty silt-clay units
are replaced by lithofacies with a distinctive green-tinge (units 5, 6, 7 and 9). The initial
depth at which these units appear is not uniform but the transition is present in all of the
cores from this site.
108
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While an overriding transition to green-tinged sediments is observed, these lithofacies are
locally variable. Along the transects units of clay, silt and sand (units 5, 6 and 7) comprise
this distinctly green 'zone' within the stratigraphy with shifting depositional energy levels
observed in most cores. In many of the cores there are small and not clearly correlated
layers of blue-tinged silty clay (unit 2) embedded within the green-tinged sequences. In
addition, along the whole transect, as in the upper brown-grey-blue sediments, brown-
grey-blue sand units occasionally also appear embedded within the green-tinged sections.
These sand units are most common in the FPT2 which is in the closest proximity to a wide
section of the present-day Butano Creek.
Many of the deeper cores of FPTl finish in a unit only found at this site. This lithofacies is a
grey-black-green dense silty clay (unit 9). It is very similar to the green-tinged clay unit also
found at this site (unit 5) but darker and denser. Where present, this layer occurs between
....
0.5 and l.sm below sea level (BSL).
To summarise, the transect is characterised by blue-tinged silty clay in the upper sections,
which is replaced by green-tinged sediments varying spatially and temporally with little
obvious trend from clays to silts to sands. These green-tinged sediments often include
traces of calcium carbonate. Beneath this transition green-tinged clay, silts and sand are
intercalated with occasional localised blue silt/clay units.
6.1.2 Stratigraphy Between Creeks (figure 6.3)
Moving toward the marine end of the Pescadero Marsh site, the next transect lies between
the Pescadero and Butano Creeks. This transect runs west to east, beginning inland from
the bank of Butano Creek on a meander upstream of the confluence with Pescadero Creek
(see figure 6.1). Again a broad pattern can be observed in the sediment sequences. Here
the upper core sections are dominated by the brown-grey-blue silt-clay (unit 2) with brown-
grey peaty silty clay (unit 1) found immediately below the surface. A transition down into
grey-brown-green silty clay (unit 5) is observed in the majority of cores at a depth of
between 0 and 1m BSL. Exceptions are core B(2, where the transition occurs at ....2m BSl,
and several cores in the middle of the stratigraphy where blue-tinged silts and sands (units
3 and 4) are found between the two distinct silty clay sections. These higher energy
deposits dearly correlate between cores and also indude some dean grey coarse sand
sections (unit 8) and some gravel clasts. Some additional sand layers are also observed
higher up in the blue silty clay units (unit 4) of cores BC3, 4 and 5 with some evidence of a
common depth.
110
At this site a much clearer transition from blue to green-tinged units is observed. Here the
lower green-tinged unit is comprised exclusively of silty clay (unit 5), suggesting a more
stable and lower energy depositional environment for the green-tinged lithostratigraphy
compared with the Butano Creek floodplain transect.
2.0
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Core spacing: 15m

Unil 1 Grey-brown peaty silty day Gravel
Unit:2 Brown-gray-blue silty clay

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El Unit I High energy coarse clean sand
mm Unit t GreY-D~8C'kgreen$~ty eta)'
Figure 6.3: Stratigraphy of transect between the Pescadero and Butano creeks
6.1.3 Lobe Stratigraphy (figure 6.4)
The saltmarsh lobe created by a meander of Butano Creek adjacent to the confluence has
been the subject of multiple coring transects. The data presented are derived from one
coherent transect running south-south-east from the lagoon bank toward Butano Creek.
The cores of this transect were discontinued at a depth of 3m below the marsh surface,
cores L16, L17 and L19 are exceptions with the former two continued to significantly
111
greater depths (see figure 6.1). Supplementary descriptions from deeper reconnaissance
cores are also given.
The shallow stratigraphy of all cores is dominated by brown-grey-blue silty clay (unit 2)
topped with brown-grey peaty silty clay (unit 1). There is a distinct band of clean coarse
sand (unit 8) in all of the cores, at a depth of around O.Sm ASL, which can clearly be
correlated between cores across the whole site. Other high energy sand bands are also
present in the upper two meters of several cores. The shallow core transect features two
distinct areas of blue-tinged banded silt and sand deposits (units 3 and 4 - cores L2-13,
banding denoted by diagonally divided unit). In cores L11 and 12 these units are overlain by
shallow green-tinged silty clay deposits (unit 5). A thin isolated band of this green clay is
also found in core L18 at -O.Sm ASL. Cores L16 and 17, the deeper cores presented for this
site, are not directly adjacent to each other and therefore should not be expected to
correlate closely. They both reveal the presence of green-tinged sediments further below
the surface at this site. Between 3.5 and 4m BSL, core L16 comprises a shallow green clay
section and a green-tinged sand (units 5 and 7). Core L17 becomes exclusively green clay at
-2m BSL,directly above the green-tinged silt (unit 6) is found in small sections either side of
a brown-grey-blue silt/clay (unit 2). The green clay units at this site are often noted to
contain concretions of calcium carbonate. Records from other deep cores taken from this
site, close to the shallow core transect, also reveal the upper stratigraphy to be dominated
by brown-grey-blue silt/clay. The presence of the consistent coarse sand unit (-O.Sm ASL) is
again noted in these additional core descriptions as is the appearance of a green-tinged clay
unit in a thin correlated band at around 4m below sea level (varying from "'20 to -SOcm in
thickness across three cores). Another of these additional core descriptions records a long
sequence of green clay continuing for at least a further l.Sm from a depth of around 2m
BSL, similar to that found in core L17. Calcium carbonate concretions are again noted in the
green clays of these cores.
The overall pattern from this site is not dissimilar to those described elsewhere. The upper
units are largely brown-blue-grey silt-clay with higher energy blue-tinged sand and silt
intrusions. Here there is a distinct coarse grey sand layer which is documented across the
lobe in both directions. With depth, green-tinged units begin to appear. At this site green-
tinged sediments are common below 2m BSL, however a limited number of these units are
also observed above.
112
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6.1.4 North Marsh Stratigraphy (figure 6.5)
Cores from three separate transects are presented for this site. Each transect ran toward
the middle of the North Marsh from a location close to the southern levee which runs
parallel to the final stretch of Pescadero Creek (see figure 6.1). The first and longest of
these transects (NMTl) is the eastern-most of the three (cores 1-13). Here the background
sediment unit for the upper Sm was brown-grey-blue silt/clay (unit 2) overlain at each site
by brown-grey peaty silty clay (unit 1). Where the cores attained a depth of ~3m BSl, a
grey-brawn-green silty clay (unit 5) appears in a consistent layer. Only two cores on NMTl
penetrated below this layer where a blue-tinged silt (unit 3) was found in both, underlain by
a green clay unit in core NM12 and a blue-tinged silty clay unit in NM13.
Blue-tinged sands and clean coarse sands (units 4 and 8) make up a large proportion of the
upper 3m of the sediment record in NMTl and often include gravel clasts and wood pieces.
These units are most prominent at the closest end of the transect to the levee, diminishing
into thinner layers as the transect progressed toward the centre of North Marsh. The
adjacent transect (NMT2) contains only two cores (NM14 and 15), both of which reveal a
similar record of sedimentation. These cores have more in common with the tail end of
NMTl both in terms of their distance from the levee and of their stratigraphy. They are
dominated by brown-grey-blue silt-clay with occasional blue-tinged sand and silt layers
(units 3 and 4). The closer of the two cores to the bank of Pescadero Creek, NM14, also
includes two thin grey-brawn-green silty clay bands.
The final transect (NMT3) includes three cores (NM16, 17 and 18) which have similar
stratigraphy to cores NM1-9. Beneath the brown-grey-blue peaty silty clay surface layer
(units 1 and 2) is a predominant blue-tinged sand (unit 4). NM17 includes green-tinged
sands (unit 7) first appearing -sm BSl. NM18 included limited sediments of units 1 and 2
between 0 and 1m BSl, with a green-tinged sand (unit 7) in the middle of this sequence; a
further green-tinged sand layer also appears between ~2.5 and 3m BSl being located above
a section of banded blue-tinged silts, clays and sands.
The general pattern of stratigraphy in this area of the site appears to be one of brown-grey-
blue silt-clay with high energy intrusions from blue-tinged sands. Green-tinged units appear
at 1m BSl in a non-uniform pattern. Occasional isolated and small lenses of green-tinged
lithofacies are also seen higher up in selected cores. Again at this site the green-tinged
sediment units often include traces of calcium carbonate.
114
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6.2lnterpretative Model
Cross-core correlations between sediment layers are limited in terms of grain size trends in
the stratigraphy of Pescadero Marsh. There is also limited correlation below the surface
units, and little correlation between trace components of sediment units. Correlations
between these parameters reduced further with depth. A clear stratigraphic trend in
sediment colouration did, however, emerge.
Below a thin brown peaty silty clay surface layer (unit 1), the upper sections of all transects
are dominated by brown-grey-blue silty clay (unit 2). This silty clay unit often features
higher energy intrusions of blue-tinged silts and sands (units 3 and 4). Green-tinged silt, clay
and sands (units 5, 6 and 7) appear with depth acrossthe site. In most areas these units are
not directly correlated in discrete layers. However, the depth at which these green-tinged
lithofacies appear is relatively consistent across each transect site. Below the transition to
predominately green-tinged sediments, numerous intrusions from blue-tinged units (3 and
4) are recorded. The depth of the transition from blue-tinged to green-tinged sediment
units was staggered across the site, rising in a landward direction.
It appears that the Holocene stratigraphy of PescaderoMarsh can be summarised by an up-

core transition from dominant green-tinged sediment units, with blue-tinged intrusions, to
dominant blue-tinged sediment units. The transects have been described from the
landward end of the site moving toward the ocean, when viewed in sequence the initial
appearance of consistently green-tinged sediments becomes deeper below the present-
day surface with proximity to the ocean. Where possible, colouration as a basis for
interpretation would be avoided due to the potential role of post-depositional processes.
However, when interpretation of the stratigraphy was guided by colouration,
corresponding trends in grain size and trace materials also emerged.
The upper blue-tinged units were consistently silts and clays with occasional high energy
intrusions. This contrasted with the intercalated regularly changing clays, sands and silts of
the deeper green-tinged units. This contrast must result from a higher degree of spatial and
temporal environmental complexity in the lower green-tinged sequences. A further
distinction between the blue-tinged and green-tinged sediments can be made on the basis
of shell material versus calcium carbonate traces. The blue-tinged sediment units regularly
included shells or shell fragments but not traces of calcium carbonate concretions,
conversely the 'green' units commonly included calcium carbonate traces but not shells.
116
This could be the result of the break-down and reconstitution of biogenic shell material in
the green-tinged units which does not occur in the blue-tinged units (El Albani et al., 2001),
or indeed an absence of shell material in the green-tinged units but a tendency to
precipitate CaC03. Either scenario invokes differing diagenetic processes between these
sediments. However, given that green-tinged units, containing CaC03 concretions, are
found both above and below blue-tinged units, containing shell fragments, the process
responsible is not simply related to depth, or age, and therefore more reduction linked to
any redox front within the stratigraphy. It is suggested that the contrast in shell
preservation and calcium carbonate traces results from differing diagenetic processes
which are dictated by a mineralogical or chemical distinction imposed by the depositional
environment. Furthermore, it is suggested that the contrast in colour between the two
sedimentary groups is the product of differential sediment source, due to the presence or
absence of a particular mineral component, the nature of the depositional environment
itself and the distinct processes operating within it, or as a result of post-depositional
processesdictated by the environment of deposition. The contrast is suggested to be driven
by the relative influence of marine and river water on deposltlon. Green-tinged sediment
units are thought to be deposited under a high freshwater influence, primarily as floodplain
deposits but also as channel deposits and marginal fill. Blue-tinged units are thought to be
deposited under the influence of brackish to marine water within a back-barrier/lagoonal

area.
Counts of diatom assemblages were attempted on samples from a number of deep cores
that included both green-tinged and blue-tinged units. However, the poor preservation of
frustules prevented statistically significant counts being achieved. The reconstruction of
fossil diatom communities would be an ideal method with which to resolve this
interpretation (Vos and de Wolff, 1993). In the absence of diatom assemblages, the
stratigraphic pattern of occurrence for the different coloured units can be interpreted to
support the terrestrial/marine influenced model.
6.2.1 Drivers of the Late-Holocene Stratigraphy
The Holocene marine transgression created the estuarine environment of PescaderoMarsh
by drowning a former river valley (Williams, 1990). There is a large degree of variation in
relative sea-level on the Pacific coast of North America due to the localised tectonic trends
(Emery and Aubrey, 1991). So much so that a definitive Holocene sea-level curve has not
emerged. Figure 6.6 depicts the curve presented by Atwater et al. (1977) for the southern
117
San Francisco Bay area which was corrected for isostatic and tectonic land movements. The
curve corresponds closely to sedimentation rates over the same period at Elkhorn Slough,
Monterey County, (Schwartz et al. 1986) and should serve as a relatively accurate reflection
of late-Holocene relative sea-level trend at Pescadero.
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Figure 6.6: Late-Holocene sea-level curve for southern San Francisco Bay, corrected for
isostatic and tectonic land movements (amended from Schwartz et al. 1986)
Holocene sea level, along with local topography, has dictated the coastline at Pescadero
and, therefore, the location where river water meets the ocean. The Holocene marine
transgression saw sea level rise rapidly, before stabilising and continuing a gradual rise from
~S,OOOBP (see section 3.1.2.1). Following the Atwater et al. (1977) curve, this stabilisation
occurred closer to 3,000 BP in the vicinity of Pescadero. As sea level began to stabilise, an
estuarine system was likely established at or close to the site of present-day Pescadero
Marsh, with continued sea-level rise resulting in landward migration (Viollis, 1979). The
wave-dominated climate of the California coast facilitates the building of coastal barrier
systems (Emmett et al., 1998). The formation of a barrier system at Pescadero would likely
have accompanied the stabilisation of sea level, with the presence of a barrier system
resulting in an expansive back-barrier area prone to tidal inundation, i.e. barrier estuary,
and inclusion in a lagoonal pool. In response to continued sea-level rise, such a barrier
system would migrate landward through rollover or progressive episodes of failure and
rebuilding (Carter, 1988). Landward migration of the barrier system would result in the
118
progressive inclusion of former valley floor/floodplain in the intertidal/back-barrier area
(Ray et al., 1994). Barrier migration can be more continuous during periods of relatively
rapid sea-level rise but may become intermittent when the rate of rise slows down. Yet
ultimately barrier stabilisation is a function of sediment supply in relation to the rate of sea-
level rise and, therefore, generally occurs when sea level stabilises (Plater and Kirby, 2011;
Ray et al. 1994).
The staggered replacement of green-tinged units with blue-tinged units, occurring at
greatest depth closest to the ocean suggests a progressive landward increase in marine
influence as floodplain sedimentation was replaced by barrier estuarine/lagoonal
sedimentation (see figure 6.7). Indeed, the interchanging of blue- and green-tinged units
during this transition may be related to early episodes of barrier building and barrier failure
when sea level was still rising.
Lagoonal/Barrier Floodplain
Estuarine deposits deposits
Figure 6.7: Diagram to show model of lagoonal/barrier estuarine versus floodplain

deposition
The rapid spatial and temporal shifts in depositional energy characteristic of the deeper
green-tinged stratigraphy may not initially seem compatible with a floodplain environment.
However, as the transects presented are highly unlikely to be aligned with the course of any
paleo-channels that operated in the area, the sequences of intercalated and poorly
correlated green-tinged sands, silts and clays identified in 'floodplain' sediments are
suggested to result from the transects cutting through sequences of channel and overbank
deposits. Indeed, rising sea levels and the formation of a back-barrier lagoonal pool at the
marine end of the site would accelerate reorganisations in the channels feeding the back-
barrier area.
The characteristic silts and clays of the upper blue-tinged stratigraphy are compatible with
sheltered back-barrier 'estuarine mud' facies (Reinson, 1992). The higher energy units
(units 4 and 8) present are interpreted as tidal paleo-channels or high magnitude/low
119
frequency event deposits driven by numerous potential mechanisms i.e. storms, floods,
tsunami (Woodroffe, 2002; Koehler et al., 2005). The upper blue-tinged stratigraphy, in the
majority of cores described, is topped by a thin organic layer (unit 1) which lacks a blue-
tinge. These units can only relate to recent centuries when all coring sites became
encompassed in the back-barrier area. The lack of a blue-tinge in these sediments presents
an issue for the interpretive model. The characteristic brown colouration of this unit
appears to result from a high content of partially decomposed saltmarsh vegetation along
with prominent oxidation mottling. This unit may relate to a third distinct depositional
environment, that of emergent saltmarsh. limited sections of this sediment unit are noted
at depth across the site, potentially indicating localised emergence. Diatom counts
performed on short cores from the site, from recent sediments in which preservation was
better, demonstrate that these sediments represent brackish saltmarsh environments (see
section 10) yet whether this environment is distinct from that of the blue-tinged units
below remains unclear.
In the absence of extensive diatom counts from the deep stratigraphy, the interpretation
offered remains tentative. However, if the interpretative model is assumed to be correct,
the inferred environmental progressions from each of the transect sites appear compatible
with a sea-level rise-driven landward migration of marine influenced depositional

environments.
6.3 Site Specific Environmental Sequences
On the basis of the interpretations offered the sediment sequences from each transect site
can be reconstructed in terms of brackish (lagoonal/barrier estuarine) versus fluvial

depositional environments.
6.3.1 Butano Creek Floodplain Transect
The first and most landward site described was that of the Butano Creek floodplain. Here
the environmental sequence recorded differs subtly from the landward to the marine end
of the floodplain site. In chronological order, from the bottom of the sequence up, this site
was a floodplain environment prior to being included in the area of the lagoonal
pool/intertidal zone. The transition from floodplain to brackish sediments occurs at a
relatively consistent depth below surface along each transect, however cores FP6 and 15
disrupt this trend. This transition is deepest in FPT2,the site which is closest to the ocean,
and shallowest in the FPT'06 which is more peripheral to the present-day lagoon. FPT'06
120
records little in the way of brackish intrusions in the floodplain sediment sequence. The
deepest brackish silt and clay units in FPT'06and FPTl continue to ~lm BSL.In FPTl some
of the brackish units correlate across cores while others appear isolated. Across the Butano
Creek floodplain site, above the floodplain to brackish transition the sediments remain
consistently brackish silt clays often with a high organic content (units 1, 2 and 3). Some
correlated brackish blue-tinged sands (unit 4) are observed in cores FP4-8 of the first
transect appearing to capture a small tidal palaeo-channel at a depth of between 2.5 and
l.Sm ASL. This site appears to have converted from a floodplain to a lagoonal/barrier
estuarine depositional environment, with the marine end of the site changing earlier than
the terrestrial end. Prior to the site being dominantly lagoonal/barrier estuarine some time
was spent under this transitional regime. The initial and poorly sustained phase of barrier
estuarine sedimentation was most prominent at the locations sampled on the least
landward of the three transects. Following the second apparent switch to lagoonal/barrier
estuarine sedimentation, the resultant environment persisted to the present. There is
evidence of tidal palaeo-channels operating in this area but little evidence of episodic high
energy sedimentation by brackish or saline water.
6.3.2 Between Creeks Transect
The sequence from the site located between the Butano and Pescadero Creeks reveals a
corresponding but much clearer trend where the underlying sediment is also floodplain in
origin. Here the floodplain sediments lie below a depth of ~lm BSl, with only core BC2
being significantly out of step, and are consistently silt-clay to a depth of ~3m BSL.The
underlying fluvial sediments are all of low energy, suggesting deposition in a marginal
floodplain or ponded environment. A consistently lagoonal/barrier estuarine sequence is
found above the floodplain deposits. The only complication at this site comes from the
blue-tinged sand and silt units (3 and 4) which are present. There are seemingly two series
of correlated higher energy saline brackish units. The smallest, found between "'1 and Om
ASl in cores BC2, 3, 4 and 5, appears to depict a small tidal palaeo-channel. The second
series, present between ~Oand Sm BSl, correlates through all but the first three cores and
again appears to describe a tidal palaeo-channel, only this time larger and embedded
within fluvial sediments. It is possible that this channel was once an active part of the
Butano Creek floodplain which became replaced by the intermittent lagoonal pool and,
therefore, subsequently in-filled with lagoonal muds and channel deposits under brackish
conditions. The overall pattern at this site is a consistent transition from a low energy fluvial
depositional environment to a stable lagoonal/barrier estuarine environment. Again at this
121
site high energy deposits are not prominent, but do appear intermittently in the
lagoonal/barrier estuarine sequence while evidence of palaeo tidal channels can also be
seen.
6.3.3 Lobe Transect
The shallow stratigraphy of the lobe site is also consistent with the trends identified
elsewhere reflecting a lagoonal/barrier estuarine environment. Here high energy sands
(units 4 and 8) are relatively prominent, most of which can be correlated over small areas.
There is one particularly prominent sand layer which can be clearly traced across all cores
at a depth of ~O.5m ASL. It is clear that this layer was uniformly deposited across the whole
of the local area by an event of unusually high magnitude. The origin of this event is
however unclear. There is no obvious trend of fining in any direction to suggest the
potential source direction. The sand layer itself is consistently logged as unit 8, coarse clean
sand, and is dark grey with neither a blue nor green-tinge. Further high energy deposits
(unit 4) are common within the blue-tinged silt-clay (units 2 and 3) sequence. These
deposits can be correlated across cores in the transect from this site. The alignment
suggests two distinct tidal palaeo-channels. The first runs from the start of the transect to
core L9, below "'O.Sm ASL, the second runs between cores L10 -13 between ~O.Sm ASL and
3m BSL.
The deep stratigraphy presented for the lobe site is limited but is supported by incomplete
descriptions of additional deep cores taken from this site. The overall impression is that
lagoonal/barrier estuarine sediments continue to dominate the lower sequence yet
irregular and poorly correlated units of fluvial sediments are encountered below a depth of
~lm BSL. The presence of blue grey silt (unit 3) inter-bedded with blue-tinged silt/clay (unit
2) at depth also suggests a more variable regime of depositional energy in this part of the
lagoonal/barrier estuarine area. Prior to the emergence of stable lagoon/barrier estuarine
conditions fluvial depositional environments were intermittently present and spatially
variable. While fluvial units characterise the lower stratigraphy in the more landward
transect sites, here poorly correlated episodes of fluvial deposition are imprinted on a
lagoonal/barrier estuarine background in much the same way as the reverse is observed at
the Butano Creek floodplain site. Tidal paleao-channels are again found at this site, and
with the closer proximity to the contemporary lagoon mouth high energy interruptions to
the blue grey silt/clay sequence become increasingly more prominent. An unusual feature
of this site is the presence of thin layers of green-tinged sediments implying fluvial
122
deposition between "'0 and 0.5 ASLin cores L11 and 12 of the first transect and core L3 of
the second.
6.3.4 North Marsh Transects
The final location in the progression to the seaward end of the site is that of the North
Marsh. Here lagoonal/barrier estuarine lithofacies dominate to at least 3m BSL.Below "'3m
BSLthere is a mix of fluvial and barrier estuarine/lagoonal units with the dominant style
being unclear. Apparently anomalous, or at least out of context, units of green-tinged

sediment (units 5 and 7) can also be seen higher up in cores NM13, 14, 18, possibly
indicating aperiodic fluvial deposition in the lagoon/barrier estuarine environment. A
distinctive feature of the North Marsh site is the prominent and regular intrusion of
predominantly blue-tinged sands (unit 4) which are present in all cores and can be seen to
thin out along NMTl. All three transects progress into the North Marsh from a natural levee
which is adjacent to PescaderoCreek/the permanent lagoon and barrier system (see figure
6.1). These high energy intrusions may represent a former meander of the main Pescadero
Creek channel in its tidal lower reaches, the bed of a formerly more extensive permanent
lagoon or overbanking flood deposits. There is also potential for aeolian dune sands to have
been deposited in the North Marsh.
The overall pattern emerging from the North Marsh site is that of a switching fluvial and
lagoonal/barrier estuarine environment below 3m BSLwith a consistent lagoonal/barrier
estuarine environment above. The fluvial to brackish transition occurs deeper in the
sediment record at this site than those previously discussed. The up-core transition from
fluvial to brackish sediment units is, however, less clear at this site than the others due to
the abundance of high energy intrusions in the stratigraphy. The abundance of high energy
intrusions suggests that the site has long been in close proximity to potential high energy
inputs such as the ocean, the main tidal channel and the barrier/dune system which remain
close by today.
6.4 Discussion of late-Holocene Stratigraphy
Any interpretations offered for the characteristic lithofacies and the different sequences
encountered across the site could be greatly aided by a chronology. Three radiocarbon
dates were available from the North Marsh site (see table 6.1 and figure 6.5). These dates
were obtained from decomposed plant matter ('organic sediments') and an unbroken shell,
all were assumed to be in situ, Le. surrounded by sediments of a similar age. This is a
123
problematic assumption as organic material of this nature is often moved and re-deposited
(Lowe and Walker, 1997). When this is the case an anomalously older age can be attributed
to a sediment layer.
Laboratory Core site Depth Dated 13C/12C Calibrated Conventional

code (transect) below material ratio Radiocarbon Radiocarbon
surface Age (2 sigma) Age
Beta - NM15 3.46m organic -26.0 4,650-4,960 4270 +/- 40
209120 (NMT2) sediment Cal BP BP
Beta - NM18 4.05m shell -24.3 2,340-2,120 2790 +/- 40
209121 (NMT3) Cal BP BP *
Beta - NM15 organic
5.38m -1.3 6,220-6,440 5540 +/- 50
209122 (NMT2) sediment Cal BP BP
Table 6.1: Radiocarbon dates for North Marsh cores
* A marine carbon reservoir correction of -300 years was applied (http://calib.qub.ac.uk/marine/; Robinson and
Thompson, 1981)
A problem of this nature could well affect the dates available here. The two cores dated
were located in close proximity yet the dates obtained do not correlate well. The 2790 +/-
40 BP date from NMT3, in terms of depth below surface, sits between the two considerably
older samples in the NMT2 transect. Initially, it would appear sensible to assume that the
older dates of core NM15 are anomalous and that the material dated from core NM18 was
in fact in situ. However, when the stratigraphy and locations of the dated cores are
considered it seems more likely that the sand-dominated NM18 core has been part of an
active dune system which has advanced and retreated over the late-Holocene. The time-
series of aerial photographs and 1854 map (see Section 4.5) suggest that the dunes which
terminate at the mouth of Pescadero Lagoon were more mobile prior to the construction of
Highway 1. Indeed the 1854 map of the site suggests that the dune system previously
hooked inland incorporating the western extent of North Marsh. There is potential for
mobile dune sands to have been both eroded from and deposited in this area on a large
scale accounting for the apparently 'young' date. In contrast the silt and clay-dominated
NMls core located further inland appears much better placed to give a more accurate
reflection of average water borne sedimentation rates in the back-barrier area.
The NM18 date implies an average sedimentation rate of l.5mm per year. In contrast the
NMls dates convert to average rates of 0.81 and 0.97mm per year respectively.
Sedimentation rates from the nearby Elkhorn Slough, informed by several radiocarbon and
amino acid dates from multiple cores, were estimated at 2.8mm per year between 8,000
and 5,000 BP, 1.6mm per year between 5,000 and 3,000 BP and 1.0mm between 3,000 BP
124
and the present (Schwartz et al. 1986). The sedimentation rates implied by the NM18 and
NM15 dates are both reconcilable with the published Elkhorn Slough rates. However, the
NM15 dates appear to be the more plausible. Furthermore, if a rate of O.9mm per year is
assumed above the deepest NM15 date (at 5.38m) and a 2.8mm rate is assumed below, in
keeping with the trend of Elkhorn Slough, then the lower limits of the deepest cores
presented, i.e. at ~8m, date to ~6,500 BP as opposed to ~10,OOOBP which is not feasible
when the Holocene sea-level trend is considered (see figure 6.6).
If the sediment record presented here does indeed begin ~6,500 BP this would mean the
record captures the latter part of the Holocene marine transgression (Fairbridge, 1992).
Rates of sea-level rise would be slowing down from something of a maximum during this
time and potential would exist for early incarnations of the barrier system to have formed
or to be forming seaward of the current location. Trends in sedimentation observed in the
above ~5 or 6 meters would likely reflect the increasing stabilisation and continued smaller
scale rise of sea level. Any coastal systems in the vicinity of what is now Pescadero Marsh
would likely then be young, dynamic and prone to regular reorganisation. The sequences
observed suggest a progression from a predominantly fluvial lowland river floodplain
depositional environment to a predominantly lagoonal/barrier estuarine environment.
The lack of direct correlation between lagoonal/barrier estuarine and fluvial sediment
layers may require further explanation. The underlying topography of the local area prior to
becoming incorporated in the back-barrier area could account for some discontinuities in
barrier estuarine/lagoonal and fluvial sediment units. The same applies to other localised
factors such as migrating channels, ponding events, levees, standing pools and high
magnitude/low frequency events in what would likely have been a highly dynamic
environment. Uniform and widespread transitions are unlikely to be recorded at any stage
of the late-Holocene evolution in a site of this nature and less likely still during periods of
major readjustment. It is clear from the stratigraphy that following this period of
intermittent readjustment, a stable lagoonal/barrier estuarine environment became
persistent across the site as a whole. Using the NM1S sedimentation rate of ~O.9mm per
year, the North Marsh stratigraphy, whilst remaining prone to localised high inputs,
suggests this site has been predominantly marine influenced since ~6,OOOBP. This
assumption is based on the consistent appearance of barrier estuarine/lagoonal (unit 2)
sediments above fluvial (unit 5) sediments at ~S.Sm below the modern marsh surface in
cores NM10, 11, 12, 13 and 15 (see figure 6.5). The lobe site stratigraphy does not include
sufficient deep cores to identify a consistent transition but is certainly dominated by barrier
125
estuarine/lagoonal conditions to a depth of 3m below the marsh surface which corresponds
to ~3,350 BP. The site between the two creeks records a transition to dominant barrier
estuarine/lagoonal conditions between ~2,775 and 3,500 BP, evidenced by a shift in
sediment units between a depth of ~2.5 and 3m. This transition also occurred on the
Butano Creek floodplain, where a consistent transition is seen at ~2m in depth or ~2,225
BP.
If the site of Pescadero Marsh had, due to the Holocene marine transgression and
subsequent reduced but continuing sea level rise, progressively become characterised by
an intermittent barrier estuarine/lagoonal regime driven by multiple episodes of early

barrier building and failure in a location nearing that of the present day coastline, then a
final trait of the sediment record still remains to be accounted for. This is the appearance of
out of context layers of green-tinged sediments in the upper sections of lagoonal/barrier
estuarine deposits in a handful of the analysed cores in the North Marsh and lobe sites.
Many localised factors could account for these floodplain units. The spatial and temporal
complexity of a back-barrier environment, like that of Pescadero Marsh, is driven by
multiple interacting factors influencing hydrology and sedimentation. Fluvial floods of high
magnitude and low frequency could readily result in temporally isolated freshwater
overbank deposits on the marsh surface (Adam, 1993; Nichols, 1999). Blockages of tidal
creeks causing fresh water ponding events offer another potential mechanism. Historically,
prominent ponding on the margins of Pescadero Marsh and in the floodplain of the two
creeks has been caused by large woody debris (ESA,2004). Channel blockages by large
woody debris must be a longstanding feature of the site as the resultant environments play
a significant role in the life cycles of native anadromous fish by providing suitable habitat
for spawning grounds (PCWS, 2003). Indeed the removal of such blockages has been
documented as detrimental to populations in other local streams (luftkin, 1990). Sediment
cores from the analogous Elkhorn Slough (see section 3.4) also reveal localised and short-
lived areas of freshwater dominance within the main saltmarsh complex. At Elkhorn, these
occurrences were accounted for by changes in stream flow, changes in channel courses and
even freshwater seeps and springs (Van Dyke and Wasson, 2005). Indeed, a more regional
explanation may come from Holocene climate trends. Davis (1990) presented evidence
from San Joaquin Marsh, southern California where spatially and temporally isolated
sections of 'freshwater' sediments were identified through the paleo-ecology of pollen. The
mechanism responsible was suggested to be increased streamflow in the San Diego Creek
and vegetation redistribution during climate down turns.
126
Another feature of the Pescadero Marsh stratigraphy which merits further discussion and is
not accounted for by the model proposed is that of the coarse clean sand layer which is
mapped and correlated across the extent of the lobe site. The layer has clearly originated
due to an event of unusually high magnitude, the origin of which remains unclear. The
geometry of the layer is not apparent as it extends across the whole of the salt marsh lobe
in every direction and the does not appear to wane with increasing distance from or toward
the ocean. There is also no green or blue-tinge to the sand to aid interpretation. Other
sands included in the same lithofacies are found in paleo-channel deposits and other high
energy event bands correlated across smaller areas of the site. However, this deposit, due
to the area it covers, appears to be unique in the late-Holocene history of PescaderoMarsh.
There are many potential causal mechanisms which can be cited for depositing a layer like
this. Both terrestrial and marine storms are plausible candidates, however it appears
unlikely that only one event of this magnitude would be recorded if this were the case. A
marine storm surge combined with a high tide remains a possibility but again such an event
is unlikely to have occurred only once in a sediment record of this length. A tsunami is
another possible candidate, particularly in an area where the potential mechanisms for
such phenomenon are well documented (Ma et al., 1991). However, tsunami deposits are
very difficult to definitively identify (Hemphill-Haley, 1996). Given that Pescadero Marsh is
dissected by various strands of the SanGregorio fault system with the Frijoles Fault running
directly across the centre of the site, tectonic realignment of the lobe site is also a possible
mechanism. This coarse sand layer is present in the PM08R core, the master core for high
resolution analysis, and is discussed in greater detail in this context.
6.5 Conclusions
In summary, two distinct groups of low energy lithofacies emerge in the sediment record of
Pescadero Marsh. These groups appear to be distinguished by a feature of their
depositional environment other than any characteristic depositional energy. The distinction
is most likely chemical and related to saline versus freshwater deposition. An overarching
trend of saline units replacing fresh units characterises the site with the timing being offset
between the marine and terrestrial ends of the system. The transition is not smooth, with
several local discontinuities; however these discontinuities can be readily accounted for
within the conceptual model. Rising sea levels drove the replacement of fresh water
lithofacies with saline lithofacies. The transition is complicated by the role of an
intermittent barrier system prone to reorganisation over this period. During recent
127
millennia it appears that a stable lagoonal/barrier estuarine regime has been established.
This is likely due, at least in part, to the reduction in the rate of sea-level rise during the last
5000-3000 years (see figure 6.6). The model of sea-level rise driving barrier estuarine
environments onshore resulting in intertidal sedimentation on top of terrestrial sediments
is described in more detail by Roy et al. (1994). Conceptual models of estuarine
sedimentation being forced by opposing marine and terrestrial end drivers have also been
described by Dalrymple et al. (1992)and Dalrymple and Choi (2007).
128
7 PM08R Chronology
Radiocarbon dates from deep stratigraphy of Pescadero Marsh (section 6.4) can be
interpreted to suggest an average sedimentation rate of ~0.8mm per year over the last
~6,000 years, although there will be clear spatial and temporal variations in the overall rate
of accumulation unless it is strictly controlled by sea level. Here the Euro-American era
sedimentation rate at Pescadero is discussed in detail while the chronology of the
remainder of PM08R core is constrained as closely as possible.
7. 1 Chronological Indicators
7.1.1 Weapons Testing and Caesium 137
The use of 137CS in the dating of salt marsh sediments is a well established chronological
technique (Delaune et al., 1978). The only absolute date for the PMOSRcore came from the
identification of a well resolved peak in the concentration of 137CS in the 22.6-22.Scm
sample. This peak almost certainly records the 1963 fallout maximum from the atmospheric
testing of nuclear weapons (Appleby and Piliposyan, 2010).
7.1.2 Motoring, Transport Routes and Atmospheric Lead Pollution
The down-core trend of Pb in the PM08Rcore is dominated by an increase in concentration
between ~30 and 60cm which peaks just above 40cm (figure 7.1). The magnitude of this
increase serves to dampen the appearance of any trend in the remainder of the core bar for
the fluctuation in concentration observed throughout. The concentration of Pb in this core
section against the relatively low levels in the rest of the core has the appearance of a
pollution signal against a natural background. Studies of isotopic composition indicate that
Pb in recent coastal sediments from California is derived mainly from the combustion of
leaded additives in gasoline (Shirahata et al., 1980; Vallete-Silver, 1993). local historical
records for the Pescadero-Butano watershed do not point toward an alternative source of
pollution such as a specific industrial activity (see section 4.4.3.1). Automobiles began to
appear in the San Francisco Bay area as early as the late 1890's. By the time of the 1906
earthquake motor vehicles had become more than simply a rich man's toy with many
citizens using their private vehicles to help in the recovery effort (Pinkson, 1940). By 1916 it
was noted that 'a fair Sunday brings forth 15,000 motor cars on the main highways of San
Mateo County exclusive of the traffic on the coastwise roads which have just been opened
to the public' (Alexander and Hamm, 1916). On the basis of these documents the onset of a
129
motoring Pb pollution signal at Pescadero Marsh would likely be close to the turn of the
twentieth century. Following the initial increase, the concentration of Pb is seen to
gradually rise likely corresponding to the ever increasing number of vehicles in use. The
initial increase in Pb concentration can be seen at approximately 57cm, this corresponds to
a date of 1895 if the sedimentation rate given by the 137CSpeak is extrapolated down-core.
Lead pollution signals driven by motoring commonly show an increase toward a peak when
emission regulations were introduced. Such legislation was passed in California in the mid
1980's (Vallete-Silver, 1993). However, given the timing of the 137CSpeak in 1963, it is clear
that Pb pollution in the PM08R core has already declined prior to this date (see figure 7.1).
The most likely explanation for this apparent anomaly is the developing road network on
this section of the San Mateo County coast. Highway 1, the main coastal route past
Pescadero Marsh at the present day, developed in a fragmented fashion. Prior to 1941,
Stage Road, an old inland route, was still part of the 'coastal' road. Heading north, this
route veered inland at Bean Hollow approximately 5km south of Pescadero Marsh. The
route skirted the south east corner of the marsh before crossing both the Pescadero and
Butano creeks behind the marsh around 1km inland close to the town of Pescadero. Stage
Road continued inland for several kilometres before heading back to the coast proper at
SanGregorio (ESA,2004). In order to bypassthis inland loop, construction on a coastal road
and a bridge over the mouth of Pescadero Lagoon began in the late 1930's. This section of
Highway 1 was opened in 1941. The absolute peak of Pb pollution in the core at sample
34.6-34.8cm corresponds to 1939, a steady decline in Pb pollution follows up to a sample

dating to 1951. Pb then remains stable at a level higher than that observed prior to the
pollution.
It is likely that the drop in pollution following the opening of this section of Highway 1 can
be accounted for by the release of exhaust fumes directly adjacent to the ocean on an
elevated platform as opposed to at ground level in the Pescadero-Butano Valley by traffic

crossing the marsh area on its landward side. In the former scenario the opportunity for
dispersal of contaminants is considerably greater as the source is much more remote to the
marsh. The latter scenario would likely result in a greatly increased proportion of exhaust-
borne pollutants entering the marsh system. The gradual decline of Pb pollution following
the opening of the Highway 1 bridge likely reflects a lagged abandonment of Stage Road by
all non-essential traffic. Today Stage Road is poorly maintained and only used for essential
journeys (FPCP,2003). Limited traffic accessing Pescadero along Pescadero Road does
however continue.
130
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7.1.3 Titanium vs Potassium Ratio
Ti and K are both terrigenous minerogenic elements weathered from parent rock material
and commonly found in soils; both can be associated with clay minerals (Wedepohl, 1970).
White et al. (2008) demonstrate that K is enriched in sub-soils of the Santa Cruz Mountains,
and therefore the catchment of Pescadero Marsh. The Ti/K ratio from sediments of
Pescadero Marsh and Pinto Lake have been shown by Clarke (2006) and Mayers (2001)
respectively to differ between younger samples and those that reflect pre-historic times in
each catchment. It appears that a change in the ratio between these two elements in a
sediment record in central California can reflect changing patterns of soil erosion in the
feeding catchment area. Processessuch as deforestation and ploughing likely impact the
relative amounts of sub- and top-soil delivered from the catchment. Such processes are
associated with the Euro-American Era at Pescadero.
The Ti/K ratio is fairly stable above 130cm, following a disturbance related to the
appearance of a large sand band in the core (figure 7.1). However, at a depth of
approximately 75cm, fluctuation begins to increase. The relationship between the two
elements becomes less stable at around 43cm and a further shift in the relationship and
increase in fluctuation can be seen at around 33cm. In the upper 20cm of the core two
large fluctuations are observed, one an increase and the other a decrease in the ratio.
Similarly to the disturbance observed between 140 and 130cm, these pronounced features
relate to high energy episodes revealed by the grain size data. The shifts at 75, 43 and, most
notably, 33cm do not correspond to trends in mean grain size. These shifts are likely to be
driven by catchment erosion.
A depth of 43cm, using the sedimentation rate calculated from the 137CSpeak, corresponds
to a date of 1923 while 33cm corresponds to 1943. If the same rate is assumed to extend to
a depth of 75cm then a date of 1860 is obtained. In the 1850's cultivation intensified and
commercial logging began in the catchment. By 1860 these land-use practices were firmly
established. Expansion, intensification and diversification of agriculture were a feature of
the early inter-war years and a pronounced logging boom followed the conclusion of World
War II (ESA, 2004). These trends in anthropogenic activity were all major steps in the
development the catchment and all correspond closely to the observed shifts in the Ti/K
ratio.
132
7.1.4 Further Potential Dating Methods
In addition to the chronological markers discussed, further methods were unsuccessfully
explored in an attempt to supplement the chronology.
21Pb dating is a well established technique for recent coastal sediments (Appleby and
Oldfield, 1992). However, low 210Pb concentrations in the core samples meant that it was
not possible to use the record of this radio nuclide to calculate 210Pb dates. This was most
probably due to a very low atmospheric 21Pb flux combined with a high sediment
accumulation rate (Appleby and Piliposyan, 2010).
Additionally the appearance of alien pollen grains in the sediment column has been
successfully used as a chronological marker in North American coastal sediments (Mudie

and Byrne, 1980; Brush et al. 1982; Davis, 1990). Eucalyptus is an example of an exotic
species growing in the vicinity of Pescadero Marsh which could likely contribute to a
chronology. Multiple samples from locations across Pescadero Marsh and from different
depths in the sediment column were prepared for the counting of pollen assemblages.
Unfortunately, pollen preservation was consistently very poor and did not allow for
statistically significant counts to be made. In those samples for which counts were
attempted, local wetland species dominated but no exotic pollen species were identified.
A final potential chronological indicator worth considering but at best tentative is the
presence of two adjacent high energy layers just above SOcm(see figure 7.1). The rate of
0.395 years per sample which roughly holds throughout the upper GOcmof the core would
place 80cm at 1850. The most severe storm on record in California took place in January
lS62 (Engstrom, 1996). Large portions of Pescadero were underwater during this event
(ESA,2004). The likelihood that an imprint was left in the sediment record is high.
7.2 Composite Chronology
Using a combination of proxy indicators, one absolute dating technique, a time series of
aerial photographs and local historical records, a reasonably well established chronology
can be constructed for the upper section of the PMOSRcore dating back to the beginning of
the twentieth century (see table 7.1 and figure 7.2). In the upper GOcmof the PMOSRcore,
an average sedimentation rate of 144.2 days or 0.395 years per sample emerged. There is
further evidence to suggest that this rate of sedimentation began close to the onset of then
Euro-American Era land-use in the marsh catchment. Constraining the chronology of the
133
remainder of the core was not possible given the limited period of documented human
activity, the absence of geochemical markers and the lack of further absolute dates.
Event Date occurred Marker Depth Date inferred
Core taken 2008 Surface Ocm 2008
Weapons testing 1963 137Cs peak 22.6-22.8cm 1963
peak
Post WW2 1945 Increasing Ti/K ~33cm 1943
logging boom fluctuation
Highway 1 1941 Decline in Pb 34.6-34.8cm 1939
Bridge opens pollution
Intensification of 1920s Increasing Ti/K ~43cm 1923

agriculture fluctuation
Initial rise of ~1900 Rising Pb ~57cm 1895
motoring pollution
Early Euro- "'1850 Initial "'75cm 1860
American land- destabilisation
use of Ti/K ratio
Table 7.1: PM08R chronological indicators. Inferred date is calculated with the 144.2 days
per 2mm rate
Although a very specific sedimentation rate is quoted it is not suggested to be rigid. Spatial
and temporal variations are assumed and the impacts of erosion and high energy
deposition events will have an impact. Similar issues must be considered in all estuarine
sediment chronologies (Brush, 1989). However those chronological indicators identified in
the upper 6Dcm do all closely correlate with the quoted sedimentation rate.
The marked contrast between the sedimentation rate established for the upper 6Dcm of
the PM08R core, over 2mm per 6 months, and the ~0.8mm per year rates quoted as an
average for the upper 6m, suggest that non-indigenous human activity in the catchment
area has accelerated the delivery of sediment to the back-barrier area . However, it also
appears to be the case that little significant change in the rate of sedimentation has
resulted from the most intense phases of exploitation over the course of the zo" century.
134
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7.3 PM08R Chronology below Euro-American Era Sediments
While the age of the upper section of the PM08R core has been discussed in detail, the age
of the remainder of the core has not, the reason being that no data have been generated
with which to directly address this issue. An accurate age of the lower limit of the PM08R
core cannot be stated with any confidence but it is certainly no older than 3,000 years.
Calculating the age of the deepest sample using the sedimentation rate of the Euro-
American era core section (144.2 days per 2mm) gives a date in the 1640s. However, it is
likely that the sedimentation rate following European colonisation has markedly increased.
Schwartz et al. (1986) quote an average sedimentation rate of lmm per year for local
analogous environment of Elkhorn Slough over the last 3,000 years prior to Euro-American
land use. Mudie and Byrne (1980) suggest a general 'pre-European' sedimentation rate of
~5cm per 100 years for the marshes of central coastal California. Taking a depth of 57cm to
represent a year close to 1900, derived from the initial rise in lead pollution which is the
oldest chronological indicator identified in the core, the bottom of the core can be
suggested to date between ~2,700 and 1,600ybp as an oldest estimate using the quoted
rates. Assuming the accelerated sedimentation rate of the upper core section extends back
closer to 1850, which would then be located a depth of -80cm, the lower limit can be
revised to between ~2,200 and l,250ybp. However, erosional events, hiatuses and rapidly
deposited coarse layers will all detract from any assumed continuous sedimentation rate.
Despite the somewhat loose chronology for the lower sections of the PM08Rcore, it is clear
that the trends within all relate to the period of late Holocene relative stability implied by
the deep stratigraphic record and the Holocene sea-level trend.
136
8 Grain Size Analysis of the PM08R Core
Sandy silt (S-8cm) - }

Peaty silty
Silty sand(12-1Scm ) clay
O-Scm &
8-12cm
Silty clay (lS-96cm)
Sandy silty clay (96-130cm)
Coarse sand(130-140cm)
Silty clay (140-18Scm)
Figure B.1: Basic stratigraphy of PMOBR core
8.1 Summary Statistics Calculation Method
The Gradistat program was used to calculate the summary statistics of each sample from
the laser granulometer output data (Blatt & Pye, 2001). A choice is offered between the
'Method of Moments' and the 'Folk and Ward Method' of calculation. The Folk and Ward
Method is used here with results presented in phi units (et.
Subtle differences emerge between statistics calculated using these schemes due to the
emphasis they place on differing percentiles of grain size distributions (GSDs) (Folk, 1966;
Blatt and Pye, 2001). When the skewness and kurtosis statistics are used to inform
interpretations the Folk and Ward measures provide the most robust basis for routine
comparisons of compositionally variable sediments (Blatt and Pye, 2001). The use of metric
units is advocated for ease of the cross discipline correlation of results, however
sedimentologists and geomorphologists have traditionally worked with et> units (Blatt and
Pye, 2001; Pye and Blatt, 2004). For the purposes of this research, ease of correlation with
existing 'grain size' literature is a priority.
8.2 Modal vs. Mean Grain Size
Figure B.2 shows the down-core mean and primary modal grain size trends for the PM08R
core in et> units. The primary mode is often the first summary statistic used to give a
representative impression of depositional energy during sediment accretion. This is due to
137
the statistic reflecting central tendency without being affected by other characteristics of
the sample often deemed to be of lesser importance, something which is not necessarily
advantageous in identifying more subtle differences between very similar samples.
Numerous consistent primary modes characterise the samples of PM08R. The result is a
trend line appearing to shift between set levels as opposed to the more sensitive pattern
reflected in the mean grain size curve. The plots of mode and mean essentially reveal the
same overall trend but the mean plot reports variation in areas where the mode trend line
remains at a consistent level. In light of available chronological indicators (section 7), it
appears that variance between individual data points on the mean grain size curve is of an
appropriate temporal scale to potentially be linked to sub-annual environmental change in
the. back-barrier area. As a result the mean grain size curve is preferred as an initial
representation of down-core trends.
q,: 0 2 4 6 8 10 q,: 0 2 4 6 8 10
o
~
10
20
.....,_
30
~
40
50
=5
60
~
_s-
70
~ E
80 ~
90 1 .c
.....
c.
Q)
~ o
100
110 ~
?
=-
120
130
140 c
150
160
170
Primary
180
c Mode (cP)
Figure 8.2: Mean grain size (<1 and primary mode (<1 plotted down core for PM08R
samples
138
8.3 Skewness, Sorting and Kurtosis (see table 8.1)
In addition to mean and mode, the summary statistics of skewness, sorting and kurtosis are
regularly referred to throughout the grain size analysis chapter. These terms are explained
by Briggs (1977).
Skewness
Sorting
Kurtosis
Table 8.1: Terminology of skewness, sorting and kurtosis
Skewness values reflect the degree of symmetry of a grain size distribution. A 'normal'
sample is symmetrical (skewness = 0). A positive (or fine) skewed sample has a 'tail' of
particles which are fine in relation to the main body of the distribution (skewness = >0). A
negatively (or coarse) skewed sample has a tail of coarse particles (skewness = <0).
Sorting values represent the standard deviation of particle size within a sample, essentially
the level of variation in the particle sizes present. The greater the degree of sorting the
lower the sorting value. If all particles were the same size then the sorting value would be
o. Qualitative terms such as poorly, moderately and well sorted are used in the relevant
literature.
Kurtosis is a measure of the 'peakedness' of a grain size distribution. The higher the kurtosis
value the more peaked the distribution. Using the Folk and Ward (cl method of summary
statistics calculation (see section 8.2), a sample is platykurtic (broad and flat) if the kurtosis
139
value is below 0.9. A sample is mesokutic [close to a normal distribution) if the kurtosis
value is between 0.9 and 1.1. Leptokurtic (thln and peaked) samples have kurtosis values of
greater than 1.1. The critical range of kurtosis values is narrow, outside of this range
distributions may be described with qualitative terms such as very and extremely
platykurtic/leptokurtic.
Skewness and kurtosis values are not quoted in any units of measurement, rather they
relate to 'normal' distributions. Sorting values are given in phi 14 units.
Folk and Ward (1957) demonstrate that skewness, sorting and kurtosis are subject to
complex interrelationships. The environmental significance of these parameters, in the
sediment record from Pescadero Marsh, is thoroughly discussed in the following chapter.
140
8.4 Down-Core Trends in Mean Grain Size
Figure 8.3 compliments the following description of the down-core trends in mean grain
size in the PM08R core.
<1>: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
o
Mean Grain Size et> 1 11
I~
rCrr:~ FF- I
I
10 b
2 .,. I
II
-
20
-
11
30
ft
II
40
~I~~
JII.
f'"
~ ~rA
FP" I
I
50
I
~ I
60
~ ~
70 El
i= I
!=.
80
~~
90
r
~~~
l:I' I ~J
~r1
.1
r-- C
100 l'=
t'
1-'-
110
0
r-r-
120
130
I-
p.r:-
I

~J
~
140
~r- i"
F ~i-'"
150 f""" Lr-l.
~ i F lJ
~t'
160
~F1
ICI_ I
170 L'" j
~p I G
-s I 'TI
180
I=E!' I
II
Figure 8.3: Mean grain size cl> plotted down core for PM08R samples with high energy
episodes numbered and MGSBL sections lettered. Approximate base level and regular
fluctuation range is illustrated
141
Mean grain size (<1 does not remain static at any point throughout the 185cm core (see
figure 8.3). Constant fluctuation on two scales is apparent, both in the general trajectory of
the trend line and in the higher frequency variability embedded within the prevailing trend.
A clear trend can however be observed above these fluctuations. Throughout the core
there is fluctuation around a grain size base level. At various points this base level changes.
The degree of fluctuation also changes between these sections in terms of the magnitude
of peaks and troughs and the difference between them. A relationship between the base
level around which mean grain size fluctuates in any given section and the level of
fluctuation is not apparent.
This pattern of varying levels of fluctuation around a shifting grain size base level is
interrupted on occasion by higher energy intrusions. On the basis of mean grain size, these
high energy episodes can be divided into groups of different scales. The first are those
which comprise a handful of data points or even a single data point outside of the regular
range of fluctuation of the base level section in which they are found. Secondly there are
high energy sections sustained for several centimetres which also appear to feature some
fluctuation around a temporarily elevated base level grain size. The largest of these events
is found between 130 and 140cm. On the basis of peak mean grain size and thickness of the
layer this particular episode of sedimentation has no analogues in the core.
Mean grain size base level (MGSBL)sections determined by visual analysis are labelled in
figure 8.3. From the bottom of the core upwards, the trend line from 185cm to 162.4cm
(section G) features limited fluctuation around a base level of "'6.4<1>

with peaks and troughs
largely remaining within a range of 6.0-6.8<1>.

A relatively small number of samples are
located just outside of this range. This is also true for the subsequent MGSBl sections. Such
samples are the extreme end-members of regular fluctuation. In addition to the samples
located just outside of the general range of fluctuation, there are pronounced peaks at
170.2-170.4 and 167.8cm, represented by 2 and 1 samples, respectively. They attain
maximum mean grain size values of "'5.3 and 4.6<1>.

These peaks are within the range of
general fluctuation in subsequent core sections however they appear to be high energy
episodes in the context of section G. They are labelled respectively as high energy episodes
9 and 8 in figure 8.3.
In section F, between 162.2 and 142.6cm, restricted fluctuation continues but around a
lower MGSBl of "'6.8<1>.Slight changes in this base level are apparent throughout the
section, for example a subtle decrease between 157 and 150cm. However in the context of
the core as a whole the section is coherent. Fluctuations regularly occur between a range of
142
~6.6 and 74>.Between ~150cm and 142.6cm mean grain size twice gradually decreases and
then rapidly increases. In the context of the core section these changes appear to be of
little significance, however the location directly below a large high energy episode suggests
that there may be a link between the two, perhaps these sudden increases being
precursors to episode 7.
The next section of the curve is the largest high energy section of the core, high energy
episode 7. This is the only section of the core in which mean grain size value identifies the
sample as sand for a sustained period. This sand is medium to coarse. Between 142.6 and
136.8cm there is an increase in mean grain size from ~6.9 to 1.54>.This increase is not
steady; rather it features a number of superimposed peaks and troughs. Between 136.8 and
132cm a very gradual decrease in grain size from ~1.S to 1.84>is observed. This section of
the trend line is also subject to fluctuation. The subsequent rapid decrease from ~1.8 to
5.54>between 132 and 129.6cm also features some internal detail with a handful of data
points having coarser mean grain size than those which preceded them.
Following this pronounced high energy episode section E sees a return to fluctuation
around a stable MGSBl of ~5.S4>.Fluctuation in large cycles, ~ Scm peak to peak, occurs
between 129.4 and 117.8cm over a relatively consistent range of ~S.2-5.94>.Section 0

begins at 117.6cm where the MGSBl shifts to ~5.24>; this is accompanied by more
pronounced peaks and troughs. The regular range of fluctuation is now from ~4.4 to 6.44>.
At 103cm, section C begins as the MGSBl decreases again to ~6.24>.In this section the
range of fluctuation is ~5.4 to 6.54>.However between ~95 and 89cm, while the MGSBl
remains ~6.24>,fluctuations become much less pronounced, confining variation in mean
grain size to a narrower range. Section B is defined by a further drop in base level grain size
to ~6.94>between 89.2cm and 80.4cm, here the pattern of long-term fluctuation is also
present but highly dampened with a general range of between ~6.7 and 7.14>.
Throughout the sections located above high energy episode 7 (sections E, 0, C and B)
MGSBl is observed to change rapidly and markedly in comparison with the rest of the core.
It also appears that the MGSBl size of sections 0 and E is higher in relation to the other
sections, with the possible exception of section C. In section E the regular range of
fluctuation is entirely below that of sections G, F and B and largely below that of section A.
In section 0 the regular increases in mean grain size are of the same order as the high
energy episodes (e.g. episodes 8 and 9) with the exception of event 7. Following high
143
energy episode 7 it appears that MGSBL decreases and is subject to shifts of increased
regularity until the base level mean grain sizeof section A becomes prevalent.
Following the sequence of rapidly changing MGSBL,but prior to section A, are a further two
high energy episodes (6 and 5). These episodes are so close to each other in the core that
no period of base level fluctuation separates them. Both the first, which reaches 4.74>at
79.4cm, and the second, which peaks at 4.64>between 76.4 and 76.8cm, include multiple
data points above the range of background fluctuation in the adjacent core sections (B and
A). In addition neither event features a straightforward increase and decrease in mean
grain size, more detail is apparent in both episodes. While these episodes are a departure
from the regular fluctuation observed in sections B and A, they are within the range of
background fluctuation observed in section D.
Section A begins at 76cm where a general MGSBLof 6.7 4>is attained which appears to
persist throughout the remainder of the core, high energy episodes excluded. The larger
order fluctuation is reasonably regular in this section with peaks and troughs displaying a
loose cyclicity, completed over -Scm, and variance regularly ranging between S.6 and 7.34>.
Further high energy episodes also disrupt this section. Two brief increases in mean grain
size are seen at 39.2-38.8cm and 3S-34.6cm, labelled as episodes 4 and 3 respectively.
Again these higher mean grain size episodes are considered noteworthy due to the context
of the surrounding trend line rather than the whole core. It is also worth noting that these
increases appear to fit in with the cycle of rising and falling mean grain size observed in
section A. Only the size of the peaks, at 4.7 and 4.84>respectively, marks them as unusual.
The upper 20cm of the core is dominated by high energy episodes as opposed to
fluctuation around a MGSBL.Indeed above 11.8cm it is uncertain that the base level is truly
reassumed. The second largest high energy episode in the core, in terms of both mean
grain size and depth, lies between is and 1l.8cm and is labelled as episode 2. In this
instance there is no apparent build up to or recovery from the increase in mean grain size,
rather an abrupt transition occurs between adjacent samples. This high energy episode,
which persists for just over 3cm, also features mean grain size fluctuations. Briefly it
appears that the section A MGSBLof -6.74> is recovered before another smaller high energy
episode is recorded. Episode 1 lasts from 8-6.2cm and again rapidly switches to a briefly
sustained increase in mean grain size before returning to the section A MGSBL. Above
episode 1 mean grain size 4>continues to correspond to the section A MGSBLuntil the top
144
2cm, which could be considered to be significantly coarser again, thus indicating a further
period of higher energy deposition.
8.5 Relationships between Summary Statistics
Complex relationships exist between grain size summary statistics (Folk & Ward, 1957). The
changing relationships between these parameters can reflect differing depositional
environments interpretations of which have been made in estuarine environments
(Friedman, 1961, 1967; Schock, 1964; lario et al., 2002). Observations can be made by
comparing down-core plots of these statistics (see figure 8.4), however the trends which
characterise the dataset are summarised more accessibly when presented in scatter plots
(figures 8.5, to 8.10). The trends are initially described in terms of the MGSBl sections and
the high energy episodes identified above. High energy episode 7 is treated as distinct. The
scatter plots presented are zoned accordingly.
8.5.1 Mean and Sorting
From an initial assessment of the down-core plots of mean grain size and sorting it appears
that the overriding trend in the base level mean grain size sections is for the parameters to
mirror each other. An increase in mean grain size (decreasing cP)seems to be accompanied
by a decrease in sorting (higher cPvalue). However this trend is far from rigidly adhered to
with numerous samples behaving in the opposite manner, especially during episode 7.
The scatter plot of mean grain size versus sorting clearly separates into two populations
(see figure 8.5). Population 1 includes all of the samples from the PM08R core with the
exception of those from high energy episode 7, separated by a mean grain size value of 4cP.
The general population shows a weak negative relationship between the two parameters
meaning that when mean grain size decreases the sorting increases. This overall trend
characterises the majority of the core but is subject to a large degree of scatter. As an
example, the numerous samples with a mean grain size of close to 6cPexhibit a range in
sorting values from as poor as "'2.1cP to as good as "'1.7cP and samples with a sorting value
of "'1.9cP range in grain size from <5 to >7cP.This range of variance allows for the general
trend to be loosely adhered to but also reversed by many samples.
145
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
E
~
s:
..... 90
c.
Cl)
0
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
--Skewness --Kurtosis -- Sorting <p -- Mean <p
Figure 8.4: Down core plot of mean grain size (4)), sorting (<Pl, skewness and kurtosis. High
energy episodes are numbered and MGSBL sections lettered
146
Population 2 comprises the samples from high energy episode 7 which have mean grain size
values of <4<1:>.
Here the relationship between mean and sorting is positive; suggesting that
samples become better sorted as depositional energy increases. This trend can be
explained by higher peak flow or more consistent flow velocity resulting in a narrower
range of grain sizes being deposited. The negative relationship of population 1 suggests that
these samples generally become more poorly sorted as they increase in mean grain size.
3.0
Population
1
2.5
Population
2.0
2
:&1.5
tID
c:
f
o
'" 1.0
0.5
Baselevel mean grain size samples
High energy episodes
& High energy episode 7
0.0
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Mean Grain Size (cl)
Figure 8.5: Scatter plot showing the relationship between mean grain size and sorting
Here the opposite must be true, that lower depositional energy limits the delivery of larger
grain sizes which serve to improve the degree of sorting by narrowing the distribution. The
threshold between these two relationships lies at ~44>, and it is likely that sediments either
side of this threshold are products of significantly different depositional processes.
A further, less prominent, feature of this relationship is an apparent offset in the negative
relationship of population 1 at a mean grain size threshold of ~64>. Many samples finer than
this threshold have improved sorting values than the trend in samples coarser than 6<1:>
would suggest. When the high energy samples are ignored, the appearance of a negative
trend in the base level mean grain size sample cluster is much weaker.
147
8.5.2 Mean and Skewness
From the down-core plots of mean grain size and skewness it is apparent that there is an
inverse relationship between these two parameters in the MGSBL sections (figure 8.4).
However this general trend is clearly weakened in section D between ~118 and 103cm. The
initial mirroring relationship observed also occurs during the majority of the high energy
episodes. Increases in mean grain size are accompanied by peaks in skewness for all but
episode 7, during which they vary sympathetically with each other. As with mean grain size
and sorting this relationship decouples at an apparent grain size threshold of ~4et>(figure
8.6).
0.9
0.8 High energy episodes
Population A H sode 7
0.7 4
Population
0.6
3
0.5
~0.4
CII
c:
s
CIIO.3
~
III
Population
0.2 1
0.1
0.0
-0.1 Population
2 ~6et>offset
-0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Mean Grain Size (~)
The scatter plot of mean grain size versus skewness reveals that the relationship between
these parameters in the PM08R samples changes at a number of grain size thresholds
(figure 8.6). The first of these is the ~6et>threshold which is also present but not prominent
in the relationship between mean grain size and sorting. Samples with a mean grain size of
>6et>describe a negative relationship between mean grain size et>and skewness while
samples with mean grain size values between ~6 and 4et>describe a positive relationship.
This second population comprises base level mean grain size samples, the majority of the
148
high energy episode samples and the high energy episode 7 samples with mean grain size
values >4<1>. Both of these relationships are weak with a considerable degree of scatter.
Populations 1 and 2 record a transition from very slightly negatively skewed to positively
skewed samples. However, a reversal of the observed relationship occurs as the mean grain
size of the samples becomes larger. Negative skewness values suggest that a sample
features a tail at the coarse end of its GSDwhile positive skewnessvalues suggest that a tail
is present at the fine end of the distribution. The increasing prominence of a fine tail
between 8 and 6<1>

with increasing depositional energy suggests that a fine tail becomes
more prominent as the sediments increase in mean grain size. When positive skew begins
to reduce in samples with mean grain sizevalues of <6<1> it is likely that a threshold has been
crossed beyond which conditions allow for the removal, or inhibit the deposition of the fine
component. The emergence of a coarse tail in an environment such as this is likely to result
from occasional higher energy inputs to a lower energy depositional environment.
The relationship between mean grain size and skewness is complicated further by the
trends apparent in populations 3 and 4. These populations are comprised of high energy
event 7 samples with a handful of other high energy event samples with mean grain sizesof
>4<1> present in population 3. Populations 3 and 4, also describe negative and positive
relationships between mean grain size and skewness. All of the samples in these
populations are to some degree positively skewed. The negative relationship in population
3 sees samples develop an increasingly prominent fine tail as their mean grain size becomes
physically larger. In population 4 the positive relationship sees mean grain size increase
further but skewness decreasesfrom "'0.8 to 0.25.
This second couplet of populations with negative and positive trends begins with samples
coarser than "'4<1>, corresponding to a threshold indicated by the relationship between
mean grain size and sorting. The change in the relationship from negative to positive
appears to be at or just above a mean grain size threshold of 2<1>. Again these trends are
explained by the gradual coarsening with an increasing residual fine component until a
threshold is crossed and the fine component is gradually reduced. Why such a pattern
occurs twice in the same dataset is not clear from the summary statistics alone. A potential
explanation is differing mechanisms of sedimentation. Informed by the observations from
the down-core plot of mean grain size (figure 8.3) the trends in samples with mean grain
size values >4<1> are thought likely to represent depositional environments and pathways
common to the back-barrier environment of Pescadero Marsh over recent centuries.
149
Alternatively the samples which form the coarser negative and positive trends are thought
to represent an extreme event of high magnitude and low frequency unusual to the site at
the mesoscale.
8.5.3 Mean and Kurtosis
From the down-core plots no clear relationship is seen between mean and kurtosis in the
background core sections (figure 8.4). There is also no clear trend between mean grain size
and kurtosis in the high energy event samples. These events are generally not accompanied
by any notable or recurring features of the kurtosis trend line but for episodes 2, 6 and 7.
The first two of these episodes correlate with sustained low kurtosis values. The latter and
largest episode (7) is also characterised by reduced kurtosis values in samples located on
the upper and lower, or rising and falling, sections of the mean grain size chart. However, as
with the other relationships described above, the nature of this relationship also changes
when mean grain size becomes < 24>. Samples from this section of the core see kurtosis
values increase as the mean grain size decreases.
3.5
3.0 +------1"i~..------------_l High energy episode 7
Population
2.5 1
~64>offset
.~2.0
III
0
1::
:::J
~
1.5
Population
1.0 2
.. .
0.5
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Mean Grain Size (cl
The scatter plot of mean vs. Kurtosis (figure 8.7) confirms these observations. There is no
overall trend apparent for the MGSBL samples. Indeed the range of kurtosis values for
samples with mean grain size values >44> changes very little. However, there are some
150
observations to be made. Again a subtle difference emerges between samples in this group
with mean grain size values above and below ~6ct>.Samples with a mean grain size >6ct>all
have kurtosis values between 0.7 and 1.1 being primarily platykurtic and mesokurtic and
occasionally slightly leptokurtic. MGSBL samples with mean values of <6ct>, with the
exception of a handful of samples with mean grain sizes between 6 and S.Sct>,all have
kurtosis values between 0.9 and 1.2. These samples are predominantly leptokurtic and
mesokurtic and occasionally slightly platykurtic.
High energy episode samples and those of high energy event 7 with mean grain size values
>4ct>also form a cluster but again do not suggest a clear relationship between mean grain
size and kurtosis. These samples, with mean grain size values of ~6-4ct>, all have kurtosis
values of 1.1-0.7. While there is no relationship described by this cluster, marginally lower
kurtosis values are found at the coarser end of the range. Due to their coarser mean grain
size values, the samples of high energy episode 7 again are distinct from the other samples
from the PM08R core in the plot of mean grain size versus kurtosis. These samples form
two populations which respectively comprise samples with mean grain sizes coarser and
finer than ~2ct>.This apparent threshold was also present in the relationship between mean
grain size and skewness. A weak negative relationship between mean grain size et> and
kurtosis is described by population 1, the samples with mean grain size values between ~4
and 2ct>.Population 2, samples with mean grain size values <2ct>,could be interpreted as
displaying a positive relationship between the parameters but more likely demonstrates
that a broad range of kurtosis values is found in these samples, the distribution of which is
not mean grain size-dependent.
The kurtosis, or peakedness, parameter is closely related to that of sorting, or standard
deviation. Better sorted distributions are increasingly dominated by a narrower range of
grain sizes and may therefore become more peaked. In addition to being a measure of
peakedness, kurtosis can also be a measure of unimodality versus bimodality (Darlington,
1970). In the PM08R core it is possible that a sample's kurtosis value reflects the degree to
which it is dominated by one depositional process. The processes of suspension and
saltation are responsible for the deposition of the grain size range present, however, sub-
populations can readily result from both of these processes.
The distribution of samples across the scatter plot indicates that MGSBL samples with mean
grain size values >6et> are much more likely to be platykurtic, or less peaked, than those with
mean grain size values of <Get> which are generally leptokurtic or more peaked. High energy
151
episode samples with mean grain sizes >4q, are meso- to platykurtic and therefore less
peaked than MGSBL samples of the same mean grain size. Samples from high energy
episode 7 become more peaked as mean grain size becomes physically larger up to a
threshold of ~2q, above which a broad range of peakedness is found across the range of
mean grain sizes present. When samples become less peaked it is probable that this results
from a greater range of depositional energy around the central tendency or the increasing
prominence of sub-populations within the grain size distribution. The more peaked a
sample, the more likely it is to be dominated by one population.
8.5.4 Sorting and Skewness
Sorting and skewness appear to have little in the way of a coherent relationship throughout
the majority of the MGSBL sections (figure 8.4). There are many instances when the curves
appear to either sympathise with or mirror each other, however equally prominent are
sections of core where the two parameters appear to have little if any connection. The lack
of correlation between the two parameters extends to the high energy episodes where
again no clear pattern emerges. Only one section of the chart suggests a relationship
between sorting and skewness. This is the prolonged mean grain size peak of high energy
event 7.
0.9
0.8
A
0.7 A
A
0.6
A
0.5
A AA A
III
~ 0.4
e 1. A
s
~ 0.3
11'1
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1 High energy episodes
A High energy episode 7
-0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Sorting (4)>)
Figure 8.8: Scatter plot showing the relationship between sorting and skewness
152
These observations are confirmed by the scatter plot of sorting versus skewness (figure
8.8). The samples of high energy episode 7 with mean grain size values of <24>reveal a
strong positive relationship between the two parameters in these samples. The other
samples are scattered in a trend lessfashion. This remains the case even when the groups of
MGSBL, high energy episodes and the remaining high energy episode 7 samples are
considered separately. These populations overlap but are predominantly separated. The
positive relationship between sorting and skewness in the samples of high energy episode 7
with mean grain size values of <24> can be accounted for by a mechanism already
described. This is the persistence of a residual fine component. The trend formed in the
scatter plot dictates that samples become less well sorted as they become more positively
skewed. These samples are leptokurtic and well sorted suggesting that they are dominated
by a narrow range of grain sizes and are most likely to be primarily the result of one
depositional process. The positive skew is likely an artefact of a residual fine component
deposited as the peak flow diminishes.
8.5.5 Sorting and Kurtosis
The down-core charts of sorting and kurtosis loosely mirror each in terms of overall
trajectory in the MGSBL sections A, B, C, F and G (figure 8.4). However, while a loose
mirroring is apparent in the down-core trends of these sections, little if any connection can
be observed between the fluctuations of the trend lines and no correlations are apparent in
MGSBLsections D and E. This lack of a clear trend extends to the high energy episodes
which all feature reduced sorting yet are equally likely to be accompanied by peaks or
troughs in kurtosis. A trend is unclear or absent. High energy episode 7 sees the curves
loosely mirror each other over the upper and lower sections. This relationship, as with all of
the others discussed, shifts during the prolonged mean grain size peak where the curves
begin to move more sympathetically with each other.
The lack of a clear relationship between sorting and kurtosis is supported by the scatter plot
of the two parameters (figure 8.9). Yet two weak trends emerge which encompass the
majority of the samples from the PM08R core. Population 1 includes almost all of the
samples in the core with the exception of a handful of high energy event 7 samples which
are scattered between populations 1 and 2 and the high energy episode 7 samples with
mean grain size values of <24> which comprise population 2. Population 1 has the
appearance of a weak negative trend suggesting that kurtosis values rise as sorting
improves. The implication is that samples become better sorted as they become more
153
peaked. However the variance around the trend is large. Indeed the range of variance is
actually broader than the critical range of kurtosis values. For example samples in this
population with sorting values ~2.4q, have a kurtosis range of broader than 1.1-0.9 meaning
that platykurtic, mesokurtic and leptokurtic distributions are present. This is true for the
majority of the population.
3.5
3.0 Population
2
2.5
III 2.0
'iii
o
t::
::I
~ 1.5 Population
1
Population lA
1.0 +-----1
?
0.5
isode 7
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Sorting (4)>)
Figure 8.9: Scatter plot showing the relationship between sorting and kurtosis
When the component groups of population 1 are considered individually both the high
energy episode 7 samples with mean grain size values of <2q, and the other high energy
event samples adhere to the loose, weak negative trend. It is noteworthy that the high
energy episodes sample cluster overlaps a little but is largely distinct from the MGSBL
cluster. When the MGSBL samples are considered alone, excluding a small cluster of MGSBL
samples with sorting values above 2q, and kurtosis values above 1, these samples adhere to
the suggested negative trend. This is illustrated on the scatter plot as population lA. The
level of variance remains large but an overall pattern of MGSBL samples becoming better
sorted as they become more peaked is apparent. It is likely that the less peaked and more
poorly sorted samples of population 1 are, to a greater extent than the more peaked and
better sorted samples i.e. highly variable depositional energy.
154
Population 2 shows a weak positive trend apparent in the high energy episode 7 samples
(with mean grain size values of <2<1which sees sorting decreasing marginally as kurtosis
increases. There is a significant degree of variance revealing that the relationship is not
closely adhered to but the implication is that samples in this group become less peaked
(but remain peaked) as they become better sorted. This appears to contradict the
correlation between improved sorting and greater peakedness invoked to explain the trend
in population 1 and trends apparent in other summary statistic relationships discussed.
However, as kurtosis is a measure of the contrast between sorting in the central portion
and the tails of a distribution, the progressive removal of the fine tail could reduce the
kurtosis value while the distribution became more observably 'peaked'. Improved sorting,
loss of the fine tail and a more 'peaked' appearance are all likely to accompany markedly
elevated depositional energy.
8.5.6 Skewness and Kurtosis
When observing the down-core plots of skewness and kurtosis (figure 8.4) for the MGSBL
sections no overriding pattern emerges to characterise a relationship between the two
parameters. This is true when the base level sections are considered as a whole or
individually, no single section displays a relationship between the two parameters clearly
enough to characterise it. The lack of correlation between skewness and kurtosis also
characterises the high energy episodes.
The scatter plot of skewness versus kurtosis confirms the lack of any clear relationship
(Figure 8.10). A relatively consistent range of kurtosis values is maintained throughout the
main body of the MGSBL cluster which covers a range of skew from <o.i to +0.2.
Throughout this main body platykurtic, mesokurtic and leptokurtic samples are all present.
The MGSBLsamples outside of this cluster also do not suggest any trend between skewness
and kurtosis. Similarly the high energy episodes cluster occupies a range of skew across
which the range of kurtosis changes little, again there are some samples outside of this
cluster which also do nothing to suggest a trend. The high energy episode 7 samples show
that as positive skew increases the range of kurtosis also does, but samples with skewness
values of >0.6 and kurtosis values of <1.0 indicate that there is no positive relationship in
this group. The high energy episode samples with kurtosis value above 1.5 are almost
exclusively those of the <2<1>

mean grain size group. There is potential for this cluster to be
seen to describe a weak positive trend (population 1). Were this to be the case samples
would become more peaked as positive skew increased with the main body of the
155
distribution becoming increasingly narrow, tall and coarse. This would fit with the
mechanism described for high energy episode 7 samples with mean grain sizes <24> group
in the relationship between sorting and kurtosis where the reduction of the fine tail has the
effect of reducing the calculated kurtosis value.
3.5
Population
.H 7 1
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-0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Skewness
Figure 8.10: Scatter plot showing the relationship between skewness and kurtosis
8.6 Interpretation of Relationships between Summary Statistics
8.6.1 Mean Grain Size Groups
Analysis of the down-core relationships between summary statistics offers an opportunity
to identify samples which are the products of similar styles of sedimentation along with
trends which characterise all or part of the dataset. On the basis of the down-core charts
and the bivariate scatter plots, a number of apparent grain size thresholds emerge. These
thresholds appear to illustrate populations of samples which, in the majority of summary
statistic relationships, cluster relative to the dataset as a whole and in some instances
appear to describe general relationships between summary statistics.
156
Group name Mean grain size range
background >6et>
Intermediate energy 6-4et>
Elevated energy 4-2et>
Peak energy >2et>
Table 8.2: Size range of mean grain size groups
The apparent grain size thresholds lie at 6et>,4et>and 2et>.Informed by these thresholds, the
dataset can be divided into four groups. As these groups divided due to mean grain size
values, they are distinct from the down-core stratigraphic sections which have been
identified. As such, samples from one down-core section e.g. high energy episode 7, may be
included in different mean grain size groups. Samples with mean grain size values of <2et>
are referred to as 'peak energy' samples. This group consists exclusively of samples from
high energy episode 7. Samples ranging in mean grain size from 2-4et>are referred to as
'elevated energy'. This group comprises only samples from high energy episode 7 and two
samples from high energy episode 2. The 'intermediate energy' group, 4-6et>, contains
samples from the mean grain size peaks of all the remaining high energy episodes, while
these samples represent high energy departures in the context of the core section where
they are found, in the context of the whole core their mean grain size values are less
extreme. Also in the intermediate energy group are the vast majority of samples from
MGSBL sections D and E, and several samples from mean grain size peaks in MGSBl size
sections C and A and a number of samples from above and below the mean grain size peak
of high energy episode 7. The final group of samples is referred to as 'background' and
includes all of the remaining base level mean grain size samples. All samples in this group
have mean grain sizes of >6et>.Table 8.2 summarises these groups.
8.6.2 Principle Component Analysis of Summary Statistics
Visual interpretation of down-core charts and bivariate scatter plot is unavoidably open to a
degree of subjectivity. To statistically validate the proposed groupings of samples, principle
component analysis was performed on the down-core summary statistics. The samples
were plotted in multidimensional space using three axes. 66% of the variance in the dataset
was explained by axis one alone with a further 20% explained by axis two (see table 8.3).
The plot is displayed in figure 8.11.
157
Principle Component Eigen value % Variance
1 2.61809 66.215
2 0.804311 20.342
3 0.407359 10.303
4 0.124168 3.1404
Table 8.3: Eigen values and % variance for principle component analysis of summary
PM08R statistics
The majority of the samples cluster together around the centre of the plot with a number
of smaller outlying populations. The main cluster comprises the background samples and
those of the base level mean grain size units 0 and E. The background samples are drawn to
the top left of the chart by their smaller mean grain size. Samples from MGSBL sections 0
and E are found overlapping at the bottom right of the main cluster. Many of the samples
from base level 0 are drawn down and left due to higher sorting values. Samples from base
level E are drawn upwards and right as a result of their higher kurtosis. The samples from
sections 0 and E are largely classified as 'intermediate' on the basis of their mean grain size
yet they comprise part of the main cluster with the 'background samples'.
Samples of the high energy episodes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9 were also largely included in
the intermediate energy group. These high energy episodes are hence forth referred to as
'intermediate high energy episodes' or IHEE. High energy episode 7, HEE7, is distinct from
the others and therefore is referred to by name and not included in the IHEE group.
However, some of the finer samples included in HEE7 do have mean grain size values
between 4-64> and are therefore classified as 'intermediate energy' group samples. The
IHEE samples and the intermediate energy group samples from HEE7 are predominantly
drawn to the bottom left of the plot area due to a lower degree of sorting. They form a
distinct group while the base level 0 and E samples are part of the main cluster.
The remaining samples plotted, those of HEE7 classified in the 'elevated energy' and 'peak
energy' groups, are also distinct from the main cluster and form two separate populations.
The elevated energy samples are distributed toward the bottom right of the plot with a
higher degree of positive skew dictating their location. The peak energy samples are
clustered in the top right and appear to be placed here due to their higher kurtosis values
indicative of more peaked distributions.
158
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The results of the principle component analysis suggest that the background, intermediate,
elevated and peak energy groups are a sound basis for a large scale division of the dataset.
However this type of analysis reveals that the intermediate group is less coherent than
initial inspection of the summary statistics scatter plots implies. While mean grain size is an
important control on the characteristics of the GSDs present it appears that stratigraphic
context also plays an important role. The intermediate group consists of samples with
similar mean grain sizes but, as interpreted from their sorting, skewness and kurtosis,
deposited by differing processes. The clustering of samples from MGSBL 0 and E with the
background sample group while the IHEE samples cluster separately serves to illustrate this
point. The principle component analysis underlines the potential the importance of sub-
populations within the background, intermediate, elevated and peak energy groups.
8.6.3 Zonation of Summary Statistic Scatter Plots Informed by Grain Size Groups
Following the description of and observations from the summary statistic scatter plots
(figures 8.5 to 8.10) the background, intermediate, elevated and peak energy groups were
identified (see table 8.2). The summary statistic scatter plots were subsequently zoned to
allow differentiation between MGSBL samples of the intermediate group and the
background group. This allows for the interpretation of trends in MGSBL samples from both
groups in plots where the populations overlap. In addition to labelling these sample groups,
samples of the IHEE were also distinguished, along with the HEE7 samples. Samples of the
latter were further subdivided with those of the peak energy group indicated.
8.6.3.1 Background Sample Group (>61
Samples from the background group initially appear to become less well sorted as mean
grain size grows coarser (figure 8.12). This possible trend is very weak and subject to a large
degree of variance. It is perhaps more accurate to say that some of the finer samples ("'6.7-
8e1in this group are better sorted than the majority of the group which has a relatively
consistent range of sorting values. In the background group there also appears to be an
overall trend of increasing positive skew with coarsening mean grain size (figure 8.13), but
again a broad range of variance is present.
A positive trend for the background group in the skewness versus sorting scatter plot would
suggest that samples in this group do become both increasingly positively skewed and more
poorly sorted as mean grain size coarsens. However no clear trend is apparent in this plot
(see figure 8.14). The possibility remains that trends may exist in sub-populations of
160
background samples but it is clear that a general trend between sorting and skewness does
not characterise the group as a whole. It appears that while some samples in the
background group become more skewed as mean grain size coarsens and some become
less well sorted as mean grain size coarsens. It is not the case that most samples necessarily
do both.
Kurtosis and mean grain size (figure 8.15) seem unrelated in the background sample group.
The range of kurtosis changes very little across the grain size range present with samples
classified as leptokurtic, mesokurtic and platykurtic throughout the main body of the
cluster. However there remains potential for trends within sub-populations of the
background samples which are masked when the group is plotted as a whole.
The sorting versus kurtosis scatter plot (figure 8.16) suggests a weak overall trend of
increasing peakedness with better sorting in the background samples. In the scatter plot of
kurtosis and skewness, there is no identifiable trend in the background sample group as a
whole. The only observation to be made is that the more positively skewed samples in the
group tend to be, or to be close to, mesokurtic. Samples with positive skew of less than 0.2
are predominantly platykurtic with some mesokurtic samples and a small number of
leptokurtic samples also present.
The weak correlation between improved sorting and increasingly peaked samples is likely
driven by the consistency of the depositional energy regime. When depositional energy is
more consistent a larger proportion of the GSD will come from a narrower range of grain
sizes. This would increase both the level of sorting and peakedness. This trend is not linked
to mean grain size, which suggests that more consistent energy regimes are not
characteristic of higher or lower energy depositional environments but can be found across
the depositional energy range of the background samples.
Samples with positive skewness values approaching 0.3 are located at the coarser end of
the background sample mean grain size range. These samples tend to be more peaked than
the majority of background samples. This is likely due to a more consistent energy regime
focussing the GSD on a coarser range of grain sizes. As a result a fine tail would feature in
the GSDs accounting for the more pronounced positive skew. Only a limited number of
samples meet all of these criteria. These samples are among the better sorted at the coarse
mean grain size end of the background group.
161
3.0 ..,..----------------------,,-----------

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Background
Background group
0.5 e Intermediate group MGSBL
Peak Elevated 'Intermediate' high energy episodes
High energy episode 7
energy energy
A. Hi 7:
0.0
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Mean Grain Size (cfJ)
Figure 8.12: Scatter plot showing the relationship between mean grain size and sorting with
grain size groups and thresholds indicated
0.9
Background group
0.8 <>Intermediate group MGSBL
'Intermediate' high energy episodes
0.7 High energy episode 7
A. H 7:
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Mean Grain Size (4)>)
with grain size groups and thresholds indicated
162
0.9
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energy energy
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-0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Sorting (cl
Figure 8.14: Scatter plot showing the relationship between skewness and sorting with grain
size groups and thresholds indicated where possible
with grain size groups and thresholds indicated
163
3.5
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isode 7:
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Sorting (4))
Figure 8.16: Scatter plot showing the relationship between kurtosis and sorting with grain
size groups indicated
8.6.3.2 Intermediate Sample Group (6-44
On the basis of the mean grain size versus sorting and mean grain size versus skewness
scatter plots (figures 8.12 and 8.13) the intermediate sample group initially appears
relatively coherent in terms of GSD characteristics. The majority of samples conform to
general trends of decreasing positive skew and poorer sorting as mean grain size coarsens.
The samples in this group are all poorly sorted and generally become worse-so with
coarsening mean grain size. The finer mean grain size samples in the group are positively
skewed while a number of samples at the coarser mean grain size end of the group are
negatively skewed. However, a group of eight IHEE samples, with skewness of >0.1 and
mean grain sizes of >4.5cj>,appear to increase in skewness as mean grain size coarsens.
The plot of mean grain size versus kurtosis reveals that there is no clear relationship
between the two statistics but suggests that the intermediate sample group is divided into
two sub-populations on the basis of peakedness (see figure 8.1s). The first of these sub-
populations comprises the vast majority of intermediate MGSBL size samples (yellow
markers) which are predominantly mesokurtic to leptokurtic. The second sub-population
comprises all of the IHEE samples (purple markers) and some of the finer samples from
HEE7 (green markers). This population is predominantly mesokurtic to platykurtic. It is
unclear where exactly the division between these apparent populations is found.
164
The plot of skewness versus sorting (figure 8.14) supports the division observed in the
mean grain size versus kurtosis plot. A negative relationship between skewness and sorting
is present in the majority of intermediate group MGSBLsamples (yellow markers). There is
a high degree of variance around this trend but the trend is clear. These samples have a
tendency to become more poorly sorted as they become less positively skewed. This trend
can be seen to accompany coarsening mean grain size as positive skew decreases and
sorting becomes poorer as mean grain size coarsens (figures 8.13 and 8.12). The IHEE
samples do not reveal a trend between skewness and sorting (figure 8.14). A small number
of MGSBLsamples also do not appear to follow this general trend. Presumably these are
the limited number of intermediate MGSBL samples present in the mesokurtic to
platykurtic sub-population.
In the kurtosis versus sorting scatter plot (figure 8.16) the mesokurtic to leptokurtic sub-
population i.e. the intermediate MGSBLsamples with kurtosis values -r.o and above, does
not reveal a relationship. This is to be expected as sorting changes with mean grain size in
this sub-population but kurtosis does not. The mesokurtic to platykurtic sub-population, the
IHEE samples and some of the finer samples from HEE7 with kurtosis values of<l.Om
(indicated by purple and green markers), suggests a weak trend of improving sorting with
increased peakedness.
To summarise the implications of the multiple scatter plots, the mesokurtic to leptokurtic
sub-population, largely becomes more poorly sorted and less positively skewed as mean
grain size coarsens {figures 8.12 and 8.13}. The mesokurtic to platykurtic sub-population,
dominated by high energy episode samples, is more poorly sorted than the former sub-
population however sorting does not appear related to mean grain size within the group
{figure 8.12}. There is also no clear trend in skewness with mean grain size in this group
(figure 8.13). However, there does appear to be a weak trend for increasing peakedness
when sorting improves (figure 8.16). It appears that while these samples are similar in
terms of their mean grain size values, they differ on the basis of the relationships between
the other summary statistics and therefore imply differing depositional processes or
environments. Indeed, the peA analysis suggested a distinction between these two sample
groups which largely comprise the IHEE and the MGSBL samples of sections D and E
respectively.
The emergence of an additional coarse component could account for the transition and
characteristics of GSDsin the mesokurtic to leptokurtic sub-population. As mean grain size
165
coarsens in the background sample group it is envisaged that the range of grain sizes
present changes little but a fine tail becomes a more prominent feature as the GSDs
become more heavily weighted at the coarse end. Conversely, in the intermediate group
MGSBL samples of the mesokurtic to leptokurtic sub-population, it is suggested that

coarsening grain size is accompanied by a broadening of the range of grain sizes in a
sample. The progressive emergence of a coarse tail with increasing mean grain size would
result in the reduction of both sorting and positive skew. Indeed the emergence of negative
skew in some of the coarser mean grain size sample in this sub-population clearly supports
this mechanism. In this sub-population it is thought that the coarse tail remains limited in
size in relation to the main body of the distribution allowing the distribution to remain
mesokurtic to leptokurtic.
The mesokurtic to platykurtic sub-population, essentially the IHEEsamples and some of the
finer HEE7samples, does not obviously adhere to any mean grain size related trends (figure
8.15) but is worse sorted and less peaked in relation to the mesokurtic to leptokurtic sub-
population. This could be the result of the increasing prominence of the additional coarse
component to the overall grain size distributions. A more even spread of percentage
weighting across the whole grain size range present would result in a more poorly sorted
distribution which would also be much flatter accounting for both the pattern of sorting
and kurtosis. This is supported by the weak relationship between sorting and kurtosis
(figure 8.16) which suggests that samples are slightly more peaked when better sorted in
this sub-population; better sorting is likely a result of a less prominent additional coarse
component. The trend, or lack of trend, in skewness also offers support. Most samples are
close to symmetrical or slightly negatively skewed suggesting that the coarse tail has
become prominent. However a further trend observed in this sub population is for the
coarsest samples to again develop positive skew. This is likely a result of the coarse
component becoming so prominent that it actually becomes the main body of the
distribution. If the coarse component grew to a level where it contained the primary mode
of the GSD then the distribution would again be positively skewed. In order for the
distributions to remain flat and poorly sorted the coarse component could not become
markedly dominant. Instead the percentage weighting of the distribution must be spread
relatively evenly.
The suggested trend in the GSDsof both the intermediate group sub-populations can be
accounted for by similar depositional processes. It appears that the background sample
group has a relatively stable depositional energy regime which also persists throughout the
166
deposition of the intermediate group samples. However in addition to this stable regime a
higher energy depositional mechanism is also a factor in the environments of the
intermediate group. Deposition from the higher energy source is not as prominent in the
mesokurtic to leptokurtic sub-population samples as it is in the mesokurtic to platykurtic

samples. In summary a contrast between the intermediate group samples and the
background group samples appears to exist on the basis of the respective presence and
absence of elevated depositional energy conditions. A contrast also exists between two
sub-populations in the intermediate sample group based on the prominence of these
conditions during the period of deposition of each sample. Conditions of elevated

depositional energy could conceivably be related to events of relatively high magnitude or
breakdown of the barrier system beyond a critical point.
8.6.3.3 Elevated Energy Sample Group (4-21)
This group comprises HEE7samples and two IHEEsamples. Samples in this group appear to
become better sorted (figure 8.12), more positively skewed (figure 8.13) and more peaked
as grain size coarsens (figure 8.15) as mean grain size coarsens. The two former trends also
appear to characterise the HEE7 samples, and some of the IHEE samples, in the
intermediate energy group. There is an apparent lack of correlation in the scatter plot of
sorting versus skewness (figure 8.14). However, this is largely due to a group of five outlying
samples with skewness values of >0.6. When these samples are ignored, a weak negative
trend emerges in the elevated energy group. This trend is created by samples becoming
better sorted as they become more positively skewed.
The elevated energy group samples cannot be fully distinguished from those of the
intermediate group in the plot of kurtosis versus sorting plot (figure 8.16). However, the
elevated energy group is almost entirely comprised of HEE7samples. Those HEE7samples
which are not in the peak energy group, which is illustrated in figure 8.16, largely
correspond to a weak negative trend of increased kurtosis with improved sorting. This
trend is more clearly illustrated in figure 8.9. Finally, the elevated energy samples can
largely be distinguished in the kurtosis versus skewness plot (figure 8.17), but no trend is
present.
The elevated energy group samples become better sorted, more positively skewed and
more peaked as they become coarser (figures 8.12, 8.13 and 8.1S). All four of these traits
can be accounted for by the GSDs being focused on an increasingly narrowing and
coarsening grain size window. However a residual fine component must remain in order for
167
the samples to be positively skewed. It is suggested that as the distribution narrows and
coarsens the residual fine component becomes less prominent in terms of percentage
weighting but stretches across a broader grain size range.
A succession of distributions becoming more peaked, better sorted and featuring an
increasingly long and thin fine tail suggests a depositional environment or mechanism with
a sustained high energy flow that wanes only marginally. Such distributions are in clear
contrast to any discussed so far. Background distributions appear to be dominated by low
energy conditions while some of the intermediate samples appear to reflect a combination
of lower and higher energy deposition. These samples suggest that deposition is dominated
by high energy and relatively consistent flow processes. However, the continued presence
of the diminished fine tail could suggest that reduced energy conditions were experienced
during the deposition of this layer. Although the deposition of aggregated flocculations of
finer grains, broken down during grain size analysis, may also provide an explanation.
Figure 8.17: Scatter plot showing the relationship between kurtosis and skewness with
grain size groups indicated
8.6.3.4 Peak Energy Group Samples 2~)
The peak energy sample group essentially represents the peak of HEE7. This sample group
also sees sorting improve with coarsening mean grain size (figure 8.12). However, in these
samples as mean grain size becomes coarser the level of positive skewness rapidly declines
(figure 8.13) as does the level of peakedness (figure 8.15). Indeed, the decline in the latter
168
statistics and the increase in the level of sorting is so rapid in these samples that it may be
more accurate to say that a range of sorting, skewness and kurtosis values characterise the
mean grain size peak of HEE7.Despite the lower values of skewness and kurtosis present in
this group all samples remain prominently positively skewed and leptokurtic.
In both the kurtosis versus sorting and kurtosis versus skewness scatter plots (figures 8.16
and 8.17) a positive trend can be seen between the two statistics for this sample group.
Both trends are subject to a large degree of variance but are certainly present. As
peakedness is reduced positive skew reduces and sorting improves. However, the clearest
relationship is between skewness and sorting where an almost perfect positive correlation
is observed (figure 8.14). A clear set of relationships between the summary statistics
characterises the peak energy group samples of HEE7.
With coarsening mean grain size these samples become better sorted but less positively
skewed and less peaked. To account for these trends, a gradual loss of the residual fine tail
is envisaged in the peak energy sample group. As depositional energy continues to increase
and mean grain size continues to coarsen, the main body of the distribution narrows and
grows taller and the fine component is, to a greater or lesser extent, either no longer
deposited or is deposited but subsequently eroded. These samples are dominated by
coarse sand which, following the Hjulstrum Curve (Hjulstrum, 1934), means that the flow
velocity required to deposit them is capable of eroding unconsolidated mud (figure 8.18). A
well sorted, leptokurtic and coarse GSD is indicative of a fast flow which constricts the
grains deposited to a narrow range. A fine tail is likely indicative of periods of reduced
velocity during which some finer material is deposited by saltation and possibly even
settling from suspension. When the flow velocity is maintained then the deposition of finer
material is limited, progressively more so as velocity is maintained at a higher level.
A gradual loss of the fine tail would result in the reduction in the positive skew of the
sample as the fine tail became shorter relative to the main body of the distribution. This
would also have the affect of improving the samples sorting and reducing the figure
calculated for kurtosis which is derived from relationships between the distribution tails, or
tail, and main body. However, it must be remembered that while the kurtosis and skewness
statistics change markedly within the peak energy sample group, all samples remain
significantly positively skewed and peaked meaning that while the fine tail is diminished in
some samples, it remains present.
169
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0.001 0.01 0.1 la lao 1Il00
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Figure 8.18: The Hjulstrum Curve (Hjulstrum, 1934)
8.6.4 Interpretation of Mean Grain Size Sample Group Characteristics
The identification of possible divisions within the PM08R grain size dataset and the
subsequent analysis of summary statistics have progressively led to the identification of
further sub-populations of samples on the basis of depositional styles. The principle
divisions in the PM08R core occur between groups of samples described as 'background',
'intermediate', 'elevated' and 'peak' energy. Background samples appear to be the product
of a stable low depositional energy regime. Characteristics of the intermediate sample
group suggest that a higher energy depositional mechanism contributed to the composition
of these sediments in addition to the background low energy regime. A distinction is
apparent within the intermediate group largely between samples found in a MGSBL context
and samples which appear to be products of high magnitude low/frequency events when
compared to surrounding MGSBL sedimentation. While the background and intermediate
sediment groups appear closely related, elevated and peak energy groups are distinct,
being dominated by a coarse component rather than sedimentation under the dominant
background regime. Analysis of the dataset following the identification of MGSBL samples,
high energy episode samples and subsequently the background, intermediate, elevated and
peak energy groups suggests distinctions are present between sample groups driven by
stratigraphic context rather than simply mean grain size. This is best illustrated by the base
level mean grain size and high energy episode (IHEE) samples of the intermediate group.
170
On the basis of the clusters and trends emergent in and between summary statistics,
probable features of and transitions in GSDs can be suggested for background,
intermediate, elevated and high energy samples and, in some cases, for sub-populations
within these groups. These characteristics can be related to parameters of the depositional
environments which dominated and contributed to the accretion of these samples.
However, the level of variance and number of outlying samples which depart from the
general relationships observed makes it difficult to diagnose environmental trends with
confidence in the case of the background and to some extent the intermediate sample
group. While some general trends are clear the more specific detail of deposition is lessso.
The trends of the elevated and peak energy groups are well resolved on the basis of the
summary statistics analysis. This is due to the relatively coherent trends in both groups. It
can be stated with confidence that both of these groups are products of high energy flow.
But for the inclusion of two IHEEsamples, the trends of these groups relate exclusively to
HEE7.This high energy episode is characterised by a sustained high energy peak which
appears to have been interspersed with lower energy conditions. During the initial and
latter stages of the episode energy levels also appear to have fluctuated. Multiple causal
mechanisms may be responsible for the deposition of this sediment unit such as storms,
tsunami and terrestrial flooding. On the basis of the summary statistics alone it is not
possible to identify a likely causal factor yet the characteristics of the GSDsin this group
and the hydraulic conditions that generated these GSDsare unambiguous.
The intermediate and particularly the background sample groups are less well resolved. To
gain further insight into the intermediate group high energy episodes these must be
considered on an individual basis in terms of the individual GSD curves which comprise
each event. This is due to the limited number of samples in the majority of episodes being
insufficient to describe episode-specific trends. The intermediate and background base

level mean grain size samples can be divided into further subgroups in order to clarify the
trends in sedimentation during the accretion of the PM08R core.
The background group is particularly poorly resolved in terms of overarching trends. The
down-core summary statistics dataset for the background group as a whole is sufficient to
demonstrate a distinction between the background and the other sample groups, but little
insight into the range of sedimentation styles within this group is possible. Some weak
general trends between summary statistics are observed in the background group but the
171
range of variance present suggests that no clear progression of GSD styles occurs with
changing mean grain size.
Understanding the transitions in GSDswhich characterise the background sample group is
key to addressing the aim of reconstructing past barrier regime. Barrier regimes can be
summarised as consistent fluctuation between end-members back-barrier environments.
The MGSBLsections identified in the down-core mean grain size chart appear to depict
fluctuation between end-member states with differences in regime being defined by the
central point around which a base level fluctuates. If these base level sections do represent
different barrier regimes it is likely the case that they would separate in the summary
statistic scatter plots accounting for the level of variance in the background group and
revealing trends characteristic of the progression of GSDs between their specific end-
member environments.
8.7 Principle Component Analysis of Summary Statistics for Individual
Base Level Sections
In order to establish statistical differences between the differing MGSBL core sections,
these samples were labelled in the existing principle component analysis. It can be seen
that samples from different MGSBLsections occupy different but overlapping ranges when
plotted in multidimensional space, with sample locations dictated by the relationships
between all four summary statistics (Figure 8.19). The tendency for mean grain size to be
the primary control on the distribution of samples from the background group is to be
expected as each base level group fluctuates around a different MGSBL. However, the
subtly different locations of the base level clusters with respect to the other summary
statistics in the principle component analysis suggest that slightly different GSDs and
transitions characterise each base level group. In some instances, such as MGSBLF and G or
MGSBL0 and E it is clear that the same transition of GSDscharacterises both sections of
core but that one section in each of these pairings (sections F and E) is constricted to a
narrower environmental range. MGSBL A samples are spread widely across the plot,
indeed, the MGSBL A ellipse appears to encompass all of the other MGSBL ellipses. It
appears that MGSBLA includes the broadest range of GSDsand therefore the broadest
range of depositional environments.
All of the base level sections are essentially part of the same cluster in the principle
component analysis with the majority overlapping with other sections to some extent and
172
no sections being distinct from base level A. However, the principle component analysis
does suggest that differing relationships between summary statistics are present in the
different MGSBL sections in addition to the different mean grain size groups. Summary
statistic scatter plots were presented again with the HEE7 excluded and samples of each
MGSBL section labelled separately. The results are not discussed as new trends did not
emerge. However, these plots did serve to further illustrate the separation of samples from
the different MGSBL sections within the main sample cluster. Figure 8.20 shows the plot of
mean grain size versus skew as an example. Again, MGSBL D and E are separated from the
main MGSBL cluster. The MGSBL sections of the background group largely all plot within
the range of the MGSBL A cluster, however they all occupy subtly different areas of the
plot. These plots confirm and strengthen the findings of the PCA, i.e. that the different
MGSBL sections are characterised by subtly different relationships between summary
statistics and, therefore, likely represent subtly different ranges of back-barrier
environments.
~
- - - - - - - - - - . - ._ .. -
;
Compo,,*"'1
Figure 8.19: Principle component analysis of PM08R summary statistics with the
distribution of samples from the different MGSBL sections indicated
173
3.0
::t:: Surface
IHEE
MGSBL A: background
MGSBL B: background
MGSBL C: background
2.5 -t-----------,-.-;-.-'---------------l MGSBL 0: intermediate
~
...... lit. MGSBL E: intermediate

MGSBL F: background
MGSBL G: bac nd

2.0

1.5
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Mean Grain Size (4)>)
Figure 8.20: Scatter plot of mean grain size versus sorting with samples from individual
MGSBL sections distinguished
8.8 Grain Size Distribution Frequency Curves
Having identified differing relationships between summary statistics in both the mean grain
size groups and the MGSBL core sections, a consideration of individual GSD differential
frequency curves offers an opportunity to support these observations and further
understand the differing trends of sedimentation of the PM08R core. Differential frequency
curves of GSDs are rarely considered when grain size analysis data is generated, however
these plots are readily produced in standard statistics packages and have the potential to
reflect a significant degree of sensitive information regarding the environment of
deposition which cannot be obtained from the summary statistics.
8.8.1 Mean Grain Size Base Level Sections
8.8.1.2 Surface
Distribution curves from the upper 1.6cm of the core were not considered as the results of
these samples were deemed to be significantly affected by the difficulties encountered in
isolating sufficient material for analysis from the organic matter which dominated the
surface layer.
174
8.8.1.3 MGSBLA {1.6-1.8 to 75.8-76.0cm}
This is the longest and most variable of the MGSBLsections found in the core. Several
intermediate group high energy episode {IHEE}samples interrupt this section. Descriptions
of GSDfrequency curves are offered for each uninterrupted section. The first section lies
between the surface unit and the first of the IHEE{1.6-1.8 to 5.8-6.0cm}. This section is
characterised by triangular distributions with an abutted coarse component and a well
developed fine tail which decays in a straight rather than a concave trend (figure 8.21).
These generally appear trimodal with modes at ~5.9, 4.4 and 3.3<1>.
All have a fine positive
skew and range from mesokurtic to leptokurtic. Variations in the distribution can be seen
when mean grain size fines (figure 8.22) and coarsens (figure 8.23). Throughout these
changesthe upper grain size limit remains at or closely below the 153.8J..lmaperture. When
the mean is higher the abutted appearance of the coarse component is emphasised but the
modal sizesremain consistent.
The next unbroken base level section lies between IHEE1 and 2 (8.0-8.2 to 11.4-11.6cm).
Distributions in this section are very consistent all being predominantly triangular, meso- to
platykurtic and fine skewed (figures 8.24 and 8.25). The coarse end of the distribution does
not rise beyond the 140.11lm aperture; the fine tail is strongly emphasised and straight to
slightly convex (figure 8.24). These samples still appear trimodal, with modes located ~5.9,
4.4 and 3.3<1>

varying in prominence. Samples with finer mean grain size have a more
dominant primary mode and less prominent subsequent modes toward the coarser end of
the distribution, producing a more peaked and symmetrical distribution (figure 8.25).
Fluctuation around MGSBLA is uninterrupted for a prolonged section of the core between
IHEE 2 and 3 (15.0-15.2 to 34.2-34.4cm). Here the fluctuations form more pronounced
peaks and troughs in mean grain size than in previous sections. This unit is characterised by
two recurring GSDs{figures 8.26 and 8.27} of which there are many slight variations. These
distributions appear trimodal, although the three prominent modes are more pronounced
in some samples than in others. These modes are located at "'6.0, 4.5 and 3.3<1>.
The
samples are mesokurtic to platykurtic and are positively skewed to almost symmetrical; all
have a vaguely triangular appearance. The distributions are very similar to those
encountered in the above sub-section of base level A. Fluctuations between these two
distributions results from the increasing dominance of the primary mode {"'6.0<l>}at the
expense of the secondary ("'4.5<1>}and

tertiary (~3.34>}modes.This increases the kurtosis of
the sample and normalises the distribution.
175
These two distributions dominate the section; however as mean grain size coarsens the fine
tail remains prominent but the curves take on a concave appearance in the fraction that is
finer than the primary mode. Conversely, the reduction in the finer half of the curve
appears to bolster the modes in the coarser component making them increasingly
prominent (figure 8.28). However, the reduction in the fine component does not always
lead to an increase in the class weight percentage of the coarsest mode (figure 8.29).
Despite the changing appearance of the distributions, the modes remain located at the
same grain sizes.
A third distinctive distribution is also present but much less regularly occurring (figure 8.30).
Associated with the finest mean grain sizes in this unit, this distribution is dominated by
finer grain sizes and appears bimodal with a primary mode at ~ 7.5<1>and a coarser
secondary mode at ~4.5<1>.However, the shape of the curve also suggests a poorly defined
mode at ~6<1>
which in some examples becomes the primary mode. While the appearance
of this distribution is close to symmetrical, the secondary mode creates a step-like feature
in the coarse tail which would likely give the sample a negative skew. This step in the coarse
tail gives the distribution a 'two humped' appearance. The majority of these samples have
an upper grain size limit located in or closely below the 153.8~m aperture. However, unlike
the other distribution styles described in this unit, the coarse component of these samples
does not appear to be abutted and instead declines gradually toward the coarse upper
limit.
The next MGSBl A unit falls between intermediate IHEE3 and 4 and persists for just a few
centimetres (35.0-35.2 to 38.6-38.8cm). The section is characterised by two distributions
which themselves are subject to a reasonable degree of variation. Figures 8.31 and 8.32 are
good examples of the most prominent types of these distributions. Figure 8.31, does not
closely resemble but can be likened to a 'right angle triangle'. This distribution is
platykurtic, positively skewed and features a prominently abutted coarse fraction and a
well defined, steadily declining fine tail. This type of distribution again features three
prominent modes at "'5.8, 4.4 and 3.1<1>.

The distribution style represented by figure 8.32 is
more like an 'equilateral triangle'. It is mesokurtic, closer to being symmetrical, and also
features three prominent modes at ~5.9, 4.6 and 3.4<1>.
The dominance of a primary mode
(~6.0<lrather than three almost equal modes accounts for the difference between these
distributions. Both distributions feature well defined fine tails. All of the samples in this
section finish at or between the 105.9 and 153.8~m apertures. The former distribution is
associated with coarser mean grain sizesthan the latter. In this section there is also a third
177
distribution style (figure 8.33) which is very similar to the lower energy 'two humped'
distribution of figure 8.30. Again this distribution is associated with the finest mean grain
sizespresent.
The final and longest unit of base level A sedimentation is located between IHEE4 and 5
(39.2-39.4 to 7S.8-76.0cm). This section of core features several recurring styles of grain
size distribution. Two of which have emerged in the majority of the units discussed so far.
They are the seemingly trimodal distributions which appear to shift from resembling an
right angle triangle to an equilateral triangle, examples from this section are displayed in
figure 8.34 and 8.35 respectively. For both sample types in this unit the three modes are
located at ~5.8, 4.5 and 3.34>.There are also two further recurring distributions which
appear to be progressions of those already discussed. The first appears reconcilable with
the equilateral triangle distribution and is symmetrical, platykurtic and appears trimodal
with heavy, convex fine and, to a lesser extent, coarse tails (figure 8.36); there are also
several examples of this distribution which are markedly convex only on the fine side of the
distribution while the coarse end appears abutted (see figure 8.37). Both samples with
abutted and convex coarse fractions (figures 8.36 and 8.37) have similar upper grain size
limits meaning that the overall coarse component is increased rather than reduced in the
abutted distributions. In these distributions the three modes are found at ~7.6, 5.8 and
4.64>with the ~5.84>mode being dominant. The second is a positively skewed, platykurtic,
multimodal distribution, the primary mode of which forms a prominent peak on the coarse
side of the distribution. A well defined convex fine tail is also a feature (figure 8.38). This
distribution is similar to the right angled triangle distribution; however the primary mode is
finer being located at ~4.44>rather than ~3.24>.The first of these distributions seems to be
more closely associated with the fining of mean grain size whereas the second is associated
with coarsening. In this section of the core it is also apparent that the 'right angle triangle'
distributions are associated with higher energy samples while the 'equilateral triangle'
distributions are associated with lower energy sections.
178
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with the 'equilateral triangle' distribution style. This 'dorsal fin' distribution is well
represented by figure 8.40. The distributions are mesokurtic, negatively skewed and appear
unimodal featuring one consistent dominant mode at '" 5.6<1>.Other modes are present but
not prominent with regularity. This style of distribution is dominant between "'68 and
74cm, a unit which would merit classification as a distinct section had GSD frequency curves
been the initial basis for zoning the core. Many of the 'dorsal' distributions associated with
the finer mean grain size samples of this section have a better developed fine tail. In these
instances the appearance of the GSD frequency curve is very close to that of an 'equilateral
triangle' distribution. This section of base level A sees a reduction in the range of
fluctuation with the mean grain size remaining relatively close to base level. The absolute
upper limit of the coarse component varies slightly throughout the section however most
samples seems to either end abruptly at or decline toward an upper threshold between the
87.9 and 223.4 urn apertures.
8.8.1.4 MGSBL B (79.6-79.8 to 89.0-89.2cm)
MGSBl B is composed of one uninterrupted unit. The section is initially characterised by tri-
modal, abutted 'right angle' triangle distributions (figure 8.41). The three prominent modes
are consistently found at "'5.8, 4.5 and 3.2<1>.In general no mode is markedly dominant and
any of the three can be the primary mode. As mean grain size becomes finer a bi-modal
'two humped' distribution takes over (figure 8.42) with a primary mode at IV 6.0<1>and a
secondary mode at "'3.5<1>.By sscm depth the section becomes dominated by 'equilateral
triangle' distributions as fluctuation becomes reduced. A representative example of these
latter distributions is shown in figure 8.43. This distribution is consistently unimodal with
the mode located "'5.8<1>.However on occasion a coarser mode begins to emerge "'3.3<1>and
'shoulders' can often be seen either side of the primary mode. The upper size limit of these
distributions is found between the 87.9 and 153.8 urn apertures with distributions
appearing abutted if the coarse fraction is still prominent when approaching this limit.
181
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8.8.1.5 MGSBL C (89.0-89.2 to 102.6-102.8cm)
MGSBL C is another uninterrupted core section, however, there is a contrast between the
levels of fluctuation in the upper and lower halves of the unit. In the upper half of this core
section fluctuation is dampened. This section is dominated by 'dorsal' distributions with an
elevated primary mode of ~4.7<1>(figure 8.44). As fluctuation in mean grain size begins to
increase a 'right angle triangle' style distribution takes over (figure 8.45). This distribution is
tri-modal with modes consistently occurring at ~ 5.7, 4.3 and 3.2<1>.In these distributions
the mode at ~5.7<1>is always primary. When fluctuation increases yet further, samples
approaching 'right angled triangle' distributions with concave fine tails appear. These
samples are associated with coarser mean grain sizes (figures 8.46). Again they feature
three prominent modes at consistent grain sizes, all of which can become primary. These
modes are found at "'5.6, 4.5 and 2.8<1>.
The upper limit of grain size falls between the 116.3 and 153.8 urn apertures throughout
the section, but for a handful of samples surrounding a pronounced increase in mean grain
size centred on the 99.8-100.0cm sample where the upper grain size limit here reaches the
324.4 urn aperture. A distinctive 'one humped' distribution is found in a few samples here
(figure 8.47). This distribution is positively skewed, mesokurtic and features one broad peak
between 6 and 2<1>.Within this peak bulges in the GSD frequency curve suggest poorly
defined modes occur at "'5.6, 4.4 and 3.2<1>.In the example shown in figure 8.47 an
additional, coarser, mode also appears to be present at "'2.1<1>.This distribution appears
distinctly abutted on the coarse side and appears to be a coarser progression of the right
angled triangle distribution.
8.8.1.6 MGSBL 0 (102.8-103.0 to 117.4-117.6cm)
MGSBL D features some of the most pronounced fluctuations in mean grain size in the
whole of the core. It also has a coarser base level mean grain size than any other
background section. The samples are dominated by GSDs of the styles shown in figures 8.48
and 8.49. These distributions are very much like the 'one humped' distribution described in
base level C (figure 8.47). Again there is a suggestion of three modes within a broad peak in
the GSD frequency curve. These modes are located at "'5.6, 4.4 and 3.2<1>.However, beyond
the threshold at which the 'one humped' distributions appear curtailed this distribution
sees an additional coarse component create a very pronounced coarse tail which is outside
of the range of grain sizes observed in the base level mean grain size sections above this
depth. This additional coarse component normalises the distribution, which is mesokurtic
183
and has a maximum grain size occasionally reaching the 1,091j..lm aperture. Within the
additional coarse component modes are regularly found at ~1.4 and 0.64>.
In amongst the above samples are distributions like figure 8.50, which are positively skewed
and mesokurtic. They appear to be abutted 'one humped' distributions. Four modes are
present in the majority of examples located at ~5.6, 4.4, 3.2 and 2.14>.The upper grain size
limit of these samples is found in the 324.4 urn aperture. These distributions also contain
coarse material outside of the range of grain sizes observed in the MGSBLsections above
this depth. In this section, these distributions are associated with finer mean grain sizes.
Occurring consistently with reduced mean grain size, as the primary mode (~S.94 moves
further towards the fine end of the distribution, are equilateral triangle distributions which
often feature a prominent tertiary mode at the coarse end (~3.34 causing the frequency
curve to rise again before it declines to zero (see figure 8.S1). Some particularly unusual
distributions are also infrequently observed in this section featuring a coarse component
above the usual threshold which has numerous modes (see figures 8.52 and 8.53). While
these distributions are not frequent and very distinctive, they do not appear to be
associated with any unusually coarse mean grain sizes. It is likely that a significant amount
of the additional coarse material present in these samples is the result of organic
contamination (see section 8.12).
In the lower reaches of this section, when fluctuation in mean grain size becomes reduced
the characteristic GSDsalso change. From around llScm a 'dorsal' style distribution with a
rounded peak becomes dominant. This peak appears to be the product of two almost
equally weighted modes which occur at "'S.Sand 4.64>.The coarse tail of this distribution is
either prominently abutted or gradually declines extending beyond the usually observed
coarse cut off (figures 8.54 and 8.55). In both casesa secondary mode is present at "'3.04>
while the latter features a tertiary mode at "'1.54>.
In this core section many distributions exceed the apparent upper grain size threshold
which characterises the rest of the low energy background sections. These samples range in
their upper grain size limits as high as the 1,443j..lmaperture. While many samples still
appear to have a curtailed coarse grain size fraction the range of the threshold is
comparatively variable in this unit falling anywhere between the 140.1 and 324.4j..lm
apertures.
184
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8.8.1.7 MGSBL E (117.6-117.8 to 129.2-129.4cm)
MGSBLE is found immediately above the largest high energy episode in the core. It features
relatively limited fluctuation and coarse base level mean grain size with only that of base
level D being coarser. The dominant GSDsare most closely associated with the 'dorsal' and
'one humped' styles (see figures 8.56 and 8.57). Both feature a rounded peak produced by
two almost equally weighted modes ("'5.5 and 4.8cj and an abutted coarse fraction
characterised by a prominent secondary mode ("'3.2cj. Closer association with either
'dorsal' or 'one humped' styles is a result of the prominence of this secondary mode. When
this mode is less heavily weighted the distribution is closer to the former and when this
mode is more heavily weighted the distribution is closer to the latter. On occasions the
frequency curve features a staggered decline along the coarse tail due to the appearance of
additional coarse material which gives the coarse component a convex appearance (figure
8.58). The upper grain size limit in this third distribution style ranges between the 140.1 and
7S1.11lmapertures. These distributions are closest to the high energy 'two humped' style.
S.S.l.S MGSBL F (142.4-142.6 to 162.0-162.2cm)
MGSBL F is the base level section immediately beneath HEE7, the largest high energy
episode in the core. The upper "'2cm of this unit is different from the remainder of the base
level F section being dominated by bimodal ("'6.0 and 4.Scj and abutted 'two humped'
distributions. The abutted appearance becomes more or less apparent depending on the
changing weighting of the coarser secondary mode as mean grain coarsens and fines (see
figures 8.59 and 8.60). The upper limit of these distributions falls between the 87.9 and
116.3Ilm apertures.
The majority of this base level section is overwhelmingly dominated by trimodal ("'7.5, 5.8
and 4.Scj,platykurtic and almost symmetrical grain size distributions. All of these 'dome'
distributions appear to have an abutted coarse fraction and a very well defined, convex fine
tail (figure 8.61). On occasion the distribution becomes more triangular as the coarsest
modes ("'4.Scjbecomes primary (see figure 8.62). These distributions may also begin to
resemble the 'equilateral triangle' style. This is the case when the central "'S.8cj>mode is
dominant and the "'7.5 and 4.Scj>modes become less apparent (see figure 8.63). These
examples are few and irregular and do not appear to be associated with any peaks or
troughs of the mean grain size curve, the fluctuation of which is very limited throughout
this section. These distributions fluctuate in upper grain size limits between the 55.13 and
127.61lm apertures.
187
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8.8.1.9 MGSBL G (162.2-162.4 to 184.8-185.0cm)
MGSBL G is divided by two adjacent IHEE. The first section to (162.2-162.4 to 167.4-
167.6cm) is initially characterised by distributions with characteristics of both abutted

'dome' and 'right angle triangle' distributions (figure 8.64). In these distributions,
suggestions of modes at ~7.6, 5.8 and 4.5cj>can be seen yet a further dominant mode at
~and 3.4cj>results in the 'right angle triangle' style appearance. At around 166cm, when
fluctuation becomes reduced, the distributions become almost exclusively 'equilateral
triangle' shapes (see figures 8.65). The decline of the fine tail has now become straight and
the coarse tail has a less abutted appearance. These distributions all appear trimodal with
the exception of the equilateral triangle styles which here have two prominent modes ("'5.8
and 4.5cj.Upper grain sizesfall between the 105.9 and 140.1~m apertures.
The bottom section of the core (170.4-170.6 to 184.8-185.0cm) features two characteristic
GSDswhich are respectively associated with fine and coarse mean grain sizes. The first is
the bimodal variation of the 'equilateral triangle' distribution described above (see figure
8.6s). This distribution is associated with finer mean grain sizes in this section. The
distribution associated with coarser mean grain sizes is a trimodal ("'5.8, 4.5 and 3.4cjand
'right angle triangle' style (see figure 8.66) with the difference between the two styles being
the emergence of a coarse tertiary mode at "'3.4cj>.There are two further and less frequent
distribution styles that occur in this unit, both of which have been encountered elsewhere
in the core. They are low energy 'two humped' and 'extreme right angled triangle'
distribution styles which represent samples found in the finest and coarsest mean grain size
samples respectively (see figures 8.67 and 8.68). The low energy 'two humped' distribution
is bimodal ("'6.0 and 3.scj while the 'extreme right angled triangle' is trimodal ("'5.7, 4.4
and 3.3cjand dominated, but not overwhelmingly, by its coarsest mode. All samples in this
unit have upper grain size limits ranging between the 80.07 and 1s3.8~m apertures.
189
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8.8.2 High Energy Episodes
8.8.2.1Intermediate High Energy Episode 1: (samples 6.2-6.4 to 7.8-8.0cm)
This episode corresponds to a sandy silt layer in the core and contains samples both above
and below the 64> mean grain size threshold which distinguishes 'background' and
'intermediate energy' group samples. Here the background group samples, with mean grain
size values >64>,are characterised by 'extreme right angle triangle' distributions (figure
8.69). These distributions are trimodal with modes at "'5.7, 4.3 and 2.84>with the latter and
most coarse being primary.
The high energy component of this episode is split between two different distributions. The
first is a high energy 'two humped' distribution with a convex fine tail and multiple modes
in both 'humps' (figure 8.70). In the main body of the distribution three clear modes can be
seen at "'5.6, 4.4 and 3.04>with the middle mode being the primary mode of the whole
distribution. The second 'hump' forms the coarse tail of the sample and is made up of grain
sizes which are above the previous upper limits of the surrounding MGSBLsections. This
additional coarse component features two modes at "'1.5 and 0.54>.This distribution is
almost 'symmetrical' and mesokurtic. The upper grain size limit in these samples reaches
as high as the 1091~m aperture.
The second style of high energy distributions appear close in style to the 'extreme right
angle triangle' distributions in the background group samples associated with this episode.
The main body of the distribution features three modes at ....

5.8, 4.5 and 2.74>with the
coarsest being primary. However, this distribution also includes an additional coarse
component above the background upper grain size limit (figure 8.71). A coarse mode is
present at "'0.54> normalising an otherwise positively skewed distribution. Grain size in

these distributions reaches as high as the 751.1~m aperture.
This IHEEcorresponds to a silty sand layer of the core. One type of GSD is found in this
episode which is prominently bimodal. This distribution style features a long and convex
fine tail, two significantly different and very pronounced modes at "'5.74>and 1.64>,and a
less prominent but very coarse mode at "'04>.The section is characterised by fluctuations in
size of the two dominant modes (see figures 8.72 and 8.73). Grain sizesreach as high as the
1443~m aperture, with most samples having an upper grain size limit close to this. These
191
samples are positively skewed and are statistically platykurtic despite appearing very
peaked in distinct sections.
8.8.2.3 Intermediate High Energy Episode 3: (samples 34.4-34.6 to 34.8-35cm)
This episode comprises three samples, the first of which is a positively skewed 'one
humped' distribution with an abutted appearance (figure 8.74). This distribution is
unimodal with the mode at ~4.34>.The remaining samples in this episode are both of the
high energy 'two humped' style (see figure 8.7s). In these latter distributions the primary
mode is not clear but is found at ~3.04>.An additional coarse component creates the 'two
humped' appearance, and to some degree, normalises the distribution. The additional
coarse component is above the upper grain size range of the surrounding MGSBLsamples
reaching the 751.1~m aperture. There is no obvious mode in the additional coarse
component. These 'two humped' samples are mesokurtic.
The three samples which comprise this episode all have high energy 'two humped' style
distributions (see figure 8.76 for an example). The main body of the distribution, the first
'hump', appears trimodal with modal values of ~5.7, 4.3 and 3.24>,the latter being the
primary mode. The smaller secondary 'hump' is found on the coarse tail of the distribution
above the grain size range of the surrounding background samples comprising of grains
between ~2 and 04>.This additional coarse component contains the largest percentage of
grains in the deepest sample and diminishes in the samples above revealing a rapid
increase in the coarse component and a slower decline. The maximum grain size achieved is
between 684.2 and 7s1.1~m.
8.8.2.5 Intermediate High Energy Episode 5: (samples 76.0-76.2 to 77.0-77.2cm)
The uppermost and bottom two samples of this episode do not appear characteristic of
markedly increased depositional energy. All are trimodal with modal values at ~5.8, 4.2 and
2.84>.The samples from 76.0-76.2 and 76.8-77.0 both have 'extreme right angle triangle'
distribution styles with the coarsest mode being clearly dominant (see figure 8.77). Sample
77.0-77.2 (figure 8.78) more closely resembles the 'right angle triangle' distribution style
due to the reduced prominence of the ~2.84>mode.
192
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The three remaining samples which represent the mean grain size peak of this event are
again variations on the 'two humped' distribution style (see figures 8.79 and 8.80 for
examples). All three distributions feature an additional coarse component which forms a
pronounced bulge on the coarse end of the distribution. The peak grain size reached lies in
the 993.61lm aperture. These distributions appear trimodal in the primary 'hump' (~5.74>,
4.2 and 3.04, mesokurtic and positively skewed. A prominent fine tail is a feature of all.
This IHEEconsists of only two samples. Both have GSDswhich appear to be variations on
the high energy 'two humped' style. In these distributions the additional coarse
component, the secondary 'hump', has become sufficiently prominent to appear to be part
of the main body of the distribution rather than a coarse tail (see figures 8.81 and 8.82).
These samples feature a considerable coarse grain size component larger than the apparent
threshold in the surrounding background sections. Both samples are multimodal with
modal values at ~5.6, 4.5, 2.8 and 1.54>.The latter and coarsest of these modes is found in
the additional coarse component. The samples are also positively skewed and mesokurtic.
Peakgrain size for both samples lies in the 7s1.11lm aperture.
8.8.2.7 High Energy Episode 7: (samples 129.4-129.6 to 142.2-142.4cm)
Working upwards from the bottom of the unit, the section of the core designated as high
energy episode 7 is initially characterised by GSDscommon to the base level mean grain
size core sections. 'Equilateral triangle' distribution styles are found in the deepest samples
where mean grain size first begins to coarsen in relation to MGSBl F (see figure 8.83). GSDs
begin to resemble the 'one humped style' by sample 140-140.2cm (figure 8.84). In this sub-
section of the episode, samples are trimodal with modal values at "'5.8 and 4.54>while the
coarsest modal value present moves from 3.34>to 2.84>between figures 8.83 and 8.84.
Samplesalso become more positively skewed in this subsection.
At 140cm mean grain size begins to rapidly coarsen and distribution styles thus far unique
to high energy event 7 are present. The distribution of sample 139.6-139.8cm can be
likened to the high energy 'two humped' style however rather than the additional coarse
component appearing as a tail it now dominates the distribution with a modal value of
"'1.34>(see figure 8.85). The shape of the residual fine component in this distribution can
still be reconciled with that of the trimodal 'one humped' distribution of figure 8.84. The
fine component continues to diminish and the coarse component continues to grow as
194
mean grain size coarsens further (see figures 8.86, 8.87and 8.88). These distributions are
becoming increasingly positively skewed, peaked and better sorted.
The trend of the diminishing finer component is reversed on a number of occasions when
the mean grain size trend briefly reverses becoming less coarse. In sample 139.2-139.4 the
trimodal finer component ("'5.7, 4.5 and 3.04) returns to dominate the distribution with an
additional coarse mode of "'1.34 present (see figure 8.89). Subsequent brief reductions in
mean grain size also see a return of the finer component but not to a degree where it
dominates the sample (see figure 8.90).
During the sustained mean grain size peak of the episode, between samples 136.6-136.8
and 131.8-132.0cm, where mean grain size values remain in the peak energy group 24),
the finer component becomes almost negligible in some samples but remains slightly more
prominent in others as mean grain size continues to fluctuate (see figures 8.91 and 8.92).
Following the sustained mean grain size peak, mean grain size declines toward the upper
limit of the episode with some small and brief rises along the way. The general trend is for
the finer component to gradually re-emerge (see figures 8.93, 8.94, 8.95 and 8.96). During
this process modes at "'5.7, 4.5,2.8, 1.3 and even -0.5<1>are observed. The re-emergence of
the finer component is more gradual than the initial loss. As the finer component re-
emerges, samples become less peaked, more poorly sorted and less positively skewed. At
the end of this process sample 129.4-129.6cm has a high energy 'two humped' GSD style
(figure 8.97}.The finer component of this distribution is observably trimodal with modal
values at "'5.6, 4.5 and 3.0<1>.This style of distribution is characteristic of the samples with
the coarsest mean grain size values in base level E suggesting that MGSBL sedimentation
resumes here.
8.8.2.8Intermediate High Energy Episode 8: (sample 167.6-167.8cm)
This IHEE consists of only one sample, the GSD of which features a prominent fine tail and
appears bimodal (figure 8.98). The sample is dominated by an additional coarse component
in which the primary mode, at "'1.2<1>,is found. The secondary mode is found at "'5.8<1>.
Grain size peaks in the 7S1.1~m aperture.
195
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8.8.2.9Intermediate High Energy Episode 9: (samples 170-170.2 to 170.2-170.4cm)
There are two samples in this episode both of which have 'extreme right angle triangle'
distribution styles. Neither features an additional coarse component when compared to
samples of the surrounding MGSBL section (see figure 8.99). Both samples are positively
skewed and appear unimodal with the mode occurring at ~3.0et>.Maximum grain size does
not rise above the 269.2~m aperture in these samples.
170.2-170Acm:
Particle Diameter (41)
110 9.0 70 50 '.0 1.0 -10
5.0
4.5
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Panicle Ol.meler (uml
Figures 8.99: differential frequency curves for sample 170.2-170.4cm.
8.9 Frequency Curves and Summary Statistics
Analysis of GSD curves strongly supports the observations made on the basis of summary
statistic relationships regarding the characteristic of samples in different mean grain size
groups. In the background and intermediate energy sample groups, samples became less
well sorted as mean grain size increased. This trend appears to result from the appearance
and increasing prominence of coarser particles in distributions with increased mean grain
size being matched by a reduction in the percentage weighting but not in the range of fines.
The effect is the increasing development of a 'fine tail'. This fine tail becomes longer and
thinner across the range of background and intermediate distribution styles. For example, a
high proportion of the grains found in low energy two humped distributions are finer than
7et>and this portion of the GSD curve is convex. Alternatively, one humped distributions
have a low proportion of the overall sample in this size range and this section of the curve is
concave. The broadening of the grain size range and the persistence of a fine tail through
the background and intermediate sample range results in a reduced degree of sorting. In
the intermediate energy group, sorting is reduced further when the additional coarse
modes of the high energy two humped distributions emerge further broadening the range
200
of grain sizes present in the distributions. Subsequently, sorting begins to improve in the
elevated energy sample group as coarse modes, i.e. those above the general upper coarse
threshold of the background samples, emerge as dominant. In these samples, while the
coarser modes emerge the contribution of finer components to the overall distribution
again persists. Indeed, as the samples are now more fine skewed, relative to the modes
there is a greater contribution from fines. As the high energy samples become dominated
by the additional coarse modes the level of sorting necessarily increases. The peak energy
group distributions and are completely dominated by one mode but a significant fine tail
remains. This distribution style accounts for the well sorted nature of samples located at or
around peak grain size in HEE7.
Weak relationships between skewness and mean grain size can also be related to the
transition of characteristic GSD frequency curves throughout the core. Initially as mean
grain size increases the fine tail of samples becomes elongated and thinner and positive
skew increases. In the coarser samples, the relationship becomes more complicated. Skew
begins to decrease above the 6<1>

threshold as extreme right angle triangle distributions are
replaced by the one humped distributions characteristic of MGSBL E. In relation to the
extreme right angle triangle distributions, one humped distributions have coarser mean
grain size but a finer primary mode. The former distributions are markedly imbalanced
either side of the mean with a long fine tail and a coarse-primary mode, the latter are
considerably more symmetrical either side of the mean accounting for the contrast in skew.
The emergence of high energy two humped distributions reduces skew further as the
additional coarse component compensates the fine tail serving to statistically normalise the
distribution. Skew then increases in the elevated energy sample group as a new mode,
located in the additional coarse component, becomes more consistent while the extent of
the finer fraction persists, producing a thin but highly significant fine tail. The intermittent
reduction in skewness, but continued pronounced fine skew, in the peak energy group
samples is accounted for by the observed reduction of the finer fraction. The loss of this
finer component signifies the absence of a settling component.
While the background, intermediate, elevated and peak energy groups separated
reasonably well on the basis of the relationship between mean grain size and kurtosis, the
pattern which emerged suggests that the intermediate energy group is largely meso- to
leptokurtic with the background group meso- to platykurtic. This trend is not immediately
apparent in the characteristic distributions. However, MGSBLD and E, which contain many
of the intermediate MGSBLsamples, are dominated by one humped and high energy two
201
humped distributions. In comparison with the background group distribution styles, these
distributions have more prominent tails. Kurtosis is a function of the contrast of the level of
sorting in a distributions tails and main body. The emergence of the tails, both fine and
coarse, in the intermediate group samples increases this contrast and drives the observed
increase in kurtosis. Characteristic distributions of the elevated and peak energy group
were observably more 'peaked' than the other distributions; this is reflected in the high
kurtosis values of their samples. The relative reduction in kurtosis seen in some samples
with mean grain size values coarser than 24>can be accounted for by the partial absence of
the fine tail.
8.10 Interpretations
B.10.1 Summary Statistics
On the basis of the summary statistic relationships and the GSD styles observed in the
PM08R core, the impression given was that the samples in each mean grain size group
('Background', 'intermediate energy', 'elevated energy' and 'high energy') represented
subtly different dynamic conditions. A mixture of samples from different mean grain size
groups was found in each MGSBLsection, and again each of these sections appeared to
include a range of subtly different dynamic conditions or back-barrier environmental
configurations.
Numerous workers have identified graphic envelopes within which deposits of particular
environments are plotted (Mason and Folk, 1958; Freidman, 1961, 1967 Tanner, 1991;
Duck, 1994; Lario et al., 2002). On the basis of the present-day environment of Pescadero
Marsh and historical knowledge of the site, the core samples are likely the product of a
dynamic barrier estuarine environment. In which case with the different MGSBLsections
may reflect shifts in the barrier regime or fundamental changes to the overall depositional
environment. Tanner (1991) demonstrates the value of bivariate plots of mean grain size
against sorting which reflect depositional energy and the degree of sediment processing.
Lario et al. (2002) modified Tanner's 'river' and 'closed basin' zones to also reflect partially
open estuarine conditions following similar approaches by Long et at. (1996) and Lario et at.
(2000). They conclude that plotting mean grain size versus sorting can be a powerful tool in
reconstructing the impact of a barrier system on estuarine and back-barrier sedimentation.
This relationship is one of the strongest observed from the PMOBR samples. Both the
202
background and intermediate size fractions fall in the proposed 'open estuary to filled
estuary' domain when plotted on to the plot presented by Lario et al. (figure 8.100).
Closed
basin
Largely IHEE
(4-6<1 Closed
basin
..
HEE7 ....
Channel/
Fluvial
and storm ..
1- episodes
largely Intermediate
MGSBL (4-6 <1
0.5 0
Mean Grain Size (q,) 10
Figure 8.100: Bivariate plot of mean grain size versus sorting including environmental
domains informed by Tanner (1991) and Lario et al. (2002)
From figure 8.100 the 'open estuary to filled estuary' domain can be divided into halves.
One half appears more closely associated with closed basin conditions while the other is
more closely associated with open channel and storm episodes. The distribution of
background and intermediate group samples suggests that this domain describes a
continuum from more closed to more open basin conditions. This transition occurs as mean
grain size coarsens and the degree of sorting is reduced. A small number of intermediate
group samples along with the IHEE samples and the finer mean grain size samples from the
elevated energy group are found in half of the 'open to filled estuary' domain which is
203
associated with channel and storm episodes. The remaining samples of the elevated and
peak energy groups all have characteristics of channel and storm episode sediments.
Presenting the data in this manner suggests that the background and intermediate sample
groups both represent estuarine environments which are afforded some degree of shelter
by a barrier system but are neither fully open nor closed. The intermediate group samples
represent more open conditions than the background group, with the latter suggesting that
the depositional environment is closer to being fully closed. The IHEEsamples also appear
to reflect a similar yet more open back-barrier environment. Alternatively the location of
the samples in the high energy group appears to confirm that these samples represent a
significantly different depositional environment or mechanism to the rest of the samples in
the core i.e. open channel conditions.
8.10.2 Differential Frequency Curves
The variation in the GSDs of the PMOBR core (sees section 8.8) can be adequately
summarised by nine characteristic GSDs styles (table 8.4). Using this scheme, the
association of the different characteristic styles in the various MGSBL sections and high
energy episodes is summarised in tables B.Sand B.6.
When these distribution styles are arranged in order of their average mean grain size (table
8.4) the transition in styles along the energy gradient can be readily accounted for with the
aid of a simple model of barrier estuary sedimentation which visualises sub-populations
within the GSDcurves (see figure B.l0l). In this model the components of a GSDare split
into distinct fine and coarse populations. The prominence of each population produces the
overall shape of the frequency curve. Visher (1969) offers an excellent review of the
relationships between GSDsub-populations and transport mechanisms. In figure 8.101, the
fine and coarse sub-populations essentially correspond to suspension and saltation
components. In the case of the PM08R core location; there is much greater opportunity for
fines to settle out of suspension in a ponded lagoonal environment with only low velocity or
negligible tidal intrusion. Alternatively an open barrier estuarine environment experiencing
a range of tidal velocities limits the conditions required for the deposition of a suspended
load instead favouring deposition from saltation during the waning stage of the flood tide.
In essence the relative proportion of each sub-population is dictated by the coherence or
integrity of the barrier system which dictates the degree and strength of tidal action in the
back-barrier area. This integrity is expressed in terms of barrier volume in relation to the
204
tidal range. When the barrier is reduced in size the coarse component becomes more
prominent in the deposited sediment at the expense of the fine component. When the
barrier is absent (scenario A) an increasingly coarse component can become dominant. The
fine component dominates when the barrier is close to inhibiting all tidal action. When the
barrier is fully closed to tidal action (scenario D) the only coarse component present is
delivered by overwash or feeding streams as a fluvial jet. The potential for reworking by the
ebb or the maintenance of fines in suspension also decreases as the barrier becomes better
developed.
The impacts of differing levels of barrier coherence on tidal cycles in terms of water levels
and tidal velocities experienced in a hypothetical back-barrier area are demonstrated in
figure 8.102.The greater the height or coherence of the barrier system the more water is
retained in the back-barrier area in a lagoonal pool, the shorter the period of tidal action
and the lower the peak in flow velocity. When no barrier is present (scenario A); deposition
from suspension is only facilitated in the back-barrier area at high water during the turn of
the tide. Some settling will still take place but the favourable quiet water environments are
absent and there is a high potential for re-suspension of unconsolidated deposits.
An important feature of this model (figure 8.102) is the impact a 2/3 barrier (scenario Cl has
on the maximum tidal velocity experienced in the back-barrier area. A rising tide attains
peak velocity at mid tide, at high tide water becomes slack (Haslett, 2009). If a rising tide
attains its peak velocity before exceeding the height of the coastal barrier then the back-
barrier area will experience a reduced velocity peak. This will have a direct impact on the
range of particle sizestransported into and hence deposited in the back-barrier area.
When arranged in mean grain size order (table 8.4) many of the characteristic GSDstyles
clearly relate to the barrier driven model of sedimentation, velocity and water level
described above. Indeed, the BG1, BGS,INTl and HEl distribution styles can, respectively,
be directly related to the four barrier scenarios presented in figure 8.101. The other
distributions do not relate as clearly to the interpretive model, as the multiple modes of
their coarse components drive diversions from the pattern of increasing fine skew and
coarsening primary mode which accompanies a reduction in barrier integrity in the model.
It must be remembered that at the location of the PM08R core the degree of shelter
afforded to the back-barrier environment changes over the year which means that due to
the envisaged rates of sedimentation (see sections 7.2 and 7.3) most samples likely reflect
both open and closed barrier conditions to some degree. Therefore rather than recording a
205
discrete environment each sample is likely to be a composite of depositional styles
reflecting what amounts to an average of the conditions present during deposition.
The scenario A in the sedimentation model (figure 8.101) relates to deposition under open
estuarine conditions when a barrier system is not present. In such an environment,
unrestricted tidal flow is confined to channels and marginal areas with no lagoon. In such
conditions deposition through saltation dominates with only limited opportunity for settling
from suspension at high tide slack water. The samples with most coarse mean grain sizes in
the core, those of peak energy group 24 from HEE7,closely correspond to this style of
deposition.
The origin of the HEE7 samples is unclear on the basis of grain size data alone with
numerous potential mechanisms available but no unique solution that can be stated with
confidence. These samples simply represent deposition from a sustained high velocity flow
with limited deposition from suspension. A fluvial flood pulse or storm/tsunami events are
among potential mechanisms. The layer is also consistent with deposition under maximum
tidal flow velocities with some waning leading to the fine skew. A marked rapid increase in
relative sea level would be required for this to be the case, i.e. more fundamental than such
an event driven by loss of the barrier system. Tectonic subsidence could result in the almost
instant and significant adjustment of sea level required. This is a distinct possibility at
Pescadero Marsh which is dissected by fault lines (see Section 4.15) However, the gradual
transition in grain size from the MGSBl section below to the peak energy samples is
problematic for this interpretation.
206
Characteristic grain size Working name Code name Average mean
distribution differential grain size <p (for
frequency curve good examples of
the style)
Low energy two BG 1 6.997
humped
i~)l 10
Domed BG 2 6.819
Equilateral triangle BG 3 6.778
(",m) 1 10 lOO 1000
Dorsal BG 4 6.529
i"m) 1 10 100 1000
Right angled BG 5 6.192

triangle
I"m) 1 10 100 1000
Extreme right INT 1 5.649

angled triangle
One humped INT2 5.483
High energy two INT 3 4.776

humped
True high energy HE 1 1.800
10 100 1000
Table 8.4: Characteristic GSD frequency curve styles found throughout the PM08R core
207
00
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8.10.3 Grain Size Distribution Evidence of Interaction between Tidal Action and
the Barrier System?
A key feature of the series of characteristic GSDstyles identified in the PM08R core is the
emergence of an 'additional coarse component' between the INT2 and INB distribution
styles (table 8.4). As demonstrated in figure 8.101, beyond a certain threshold a barrier
system can stop tidal water entering the back-barrier until after maximum velocity has
been reached. There is potential for this phenomenon to account for the emergence of the
additional coarse component and to correspond to periods of relatively prolonged barrier

opening. With respect to interannual breaching in systems analogous to Pescadero, Kraus
(2003) states that short lived barrier breaches generally result in inlets which approximate
mean sea level in depth. Alternatively more persistent, but still ephemeral, inlets become
deeper. The apparent barrier integrity/tidal velocity threshold, which when crossed results
in the deposition of the additional coarse component, may relate to the contrast between
the former and latter barrier breach scenarios at Pescadero, i.e. an inlet which changed in
volume but remained open all year as opposed to an inlet which closed seasonally.
In figure 8.103, under the barrier A scenario, water is not exchanged between the ocean
and the back-barrier area until high tide is approaching and does not continue for long after
high tide has passed.The velocity of the tide is already waning by the point that tidal water
is introduced to the back-barrier area, and prior to peak velocity of the ebb tide being
reached the back-barrier pool is again isolated. The back-barrier area does not experience a
rise to peak velocity only a small part of the subsequent decline. Under the barrier B
scenario (figure 8.103), a much smaller barrier system only prevents exchange with the
ocean at or close to low tide. Here the rising tide enters the back-barrier area prior to
maximum velocity at mid-tide and the ebb tide peaks in velocity before being cut off from
the lagoonal pool. Under these conditions the resulting GSD would likely have a coarser
upper limit i.e. INT3 (distribution B), in relation to that of the former scenario i.e. INT2
(distribution A).
Given the sedimentation rates of the PM08R core (see sections 7.2 and 7.3) most samples
likely represent a range of conditions of differing barrier integrity. The INT3 distribution
style (table 8.4) largely found in the intermediate size group, is thought likely to encompass
periods of deposition under both of the barrier A and barrier B scenarios (figure 8.103).
Deposition under a scenario of increased barrier integrity, like that of distribution A, is likely
dominant and accounts for the similarities between the INT3 and the abutted INT2
212
distributions. However the additional coarse material found in the INn distributions is
deposited, along with limited finer material, when the barrier has reduced below a critical
threshold, as in the barrier B scenario. When the additional coarse 'hump' is subordinate to
the fine 'hump' the implication is that barrier A type conditions were dominant. This is the
case with the majority of the INn distributions. The characteristic appearance of the INn
distributions and the stratigraphic context they are found in makes it likely that they
represent brief periods of barrier breakdown or considerably more open barrier regimes,
than the majority of the MGSBL samples, during which barrier integrity varied but full
closure was not experienced.
Max
More permanent inlet? /
Water
level
//
~----,/
No exchange
Max
\ ~:tween back, <, (
Flow
velocity
Min
\\ / ( \:,~:71\ /
/ \J
Barrier A ] Barrier B
L_
Distribution A I
Figure 8.103: Illustration of the impact of barrier coherence on peak velocity in the back
barrier area and potential impacts on GSDs
More subtle evidence of the barrier system limiting the range of coarse grain sizes
delivered to the back-barrier area may also be found in lower energy distribution styles.
This concept is further explored in section 8.10.5.
8.10.4 Consistent Occurrence of Multiple Modes within the Characteristic Grain
Size Distribution styles
The GSDs of the PM08R core can readily be described in terms of coarse and fine
components or suspension and saltation populations. Visual analysis of the individual
frequency curves identified the presence of numerous consistent modes throughout the
213
core. The prominence of the individual recurring modes in each characteristic distribution
style provides another basis for distinctions. Informed by the suspension versus saltation
depositional model, the present-day depositional environment and barrier regime,
analogous back-barrier environments and knowledge of the processes of sedimentation,
potential environmental significance can be allocated to these modes.
Throughout the PM08R core samples six consistent grain size modes were identified. The
differing prominence of these modes between characteristic distribution styles accounts for
the changing shape and are interpreted as resulting from the relative prominence of
deposition through suspension and saltation. The presence and prominence of each mode
is listed in table 8.7. With the exception of the HEl distribution style (table 8.4) several of
the recurring modes are present in each distribution. The modes are often not particularly
prominent but instead are evidenced by a subtle bulge or shoulder in the curve. All of the
modes listed are dominant in at least one of the characteristic distribution styles with the
exception of mode 1.
Under the present-day barrier regime the primary opportunity for deposition occurs when
the area is covered by the seasonal lagoonal pool which forms over the summer months.
Deposition of a suspended load is likely under these conditions with the suspended load
becoming finer in calmer conditions. Depositional energy in the lagoonal pool can be raised
by the level of fluvial input at the back of the site, overwash events and possibly exchange
with the ocean through a persistent inlet. At present the saltmarsh lobe site of the PM08R
core is only inundated by tidal waters during high spring tides (Kerbavaz, 2007). The site
may well have been more prone to tidal inundation in the past. In the absence of a lagoonal
pool, tidal inundation provides the principle alternative method of sediment delivery. Tidal
inundation, dependent on velocity and depositional energy, would likely deposit a
significant saltation load (Rahman, 2010). Accompanying this coarse component may be a
sub-ordinate fine component potentially sourced by settling when velocity is close to zero
at the turn of high tide and by any standing water remaining at the site. Following the
Hjulstrum Curve (Hjulstrum, 1935), see figure 8.18 it is unlikely that re-suspension of
consolidated sediments would be an issue here. For samples of the background and
intermediate groups, the flow velocities required to deposit the grain sizes present in these
samples are not sufficient to re-suspend grains of the same size range following
consolidation.
214
GSD Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode4 Mode 5 Mode 6
Style ~10<p ~7.6<p -s.se ~4.5cp ~3cp -i.ze
(~1.2- (~5.9- (~19.8- (~45.8- (~116.3- (~390.9-
l.5~m) 7.1~m) 23.8~m) 55.1~m) 140.1~m) 471.1~m)
BG 1 Present: Primary/ Primary/ Present:
not secondary secondary Prominent
prominent but low %
BG 2 Present: Present: Primary: Present:
not not prominent Can
prominent prominent become
prominent
BG 3 Present: Present: Primary: Present: Present:
not not prominent prominent becomes
prominent prominent increasingly
prominent
BG 4 Present: Present: Primary/ Primary/ Present:
not not secondary: secondary: often
prominent prominent prominent Prominent prominent
when but low %
primary
BG 5 Present: Present: Primary/ Primary/ Primary/
not not secondary/ secondary/ secondary/
prominent prominent tertiary: tertiary: tertiary:
prominent prominent prominent
INT 1 Present: Present: Secondary/ Secondary/ Primary:
not not tertiary: tertiary: very
prominent prominent prominent prominent prominent
INT 2 Present: Present: Primary/ Primary/ Primary/
not not secondary/ secondary/ secondary/
prominent prominent tertiary: tertiary: tertiary:
INT 3 Present: Present: Primary/ Primary/ Primary/ Present:
not not secondary/ secondary/ secondary/ Prominent
prominent prominent tertiary: tertiary: tertiary: but low %
HE 1 Can be Can be Can be Can be Can be Present:
present: present: present: present: present: very
not not not not not prominent
prominent prominent prominent prominent prominent
Table 8.7: Table showing the presence and prommence of recurnng modal gram sizes m
characteristic distribution styles
A third alternative depositional environment is that of a reduced lagoonal pool with a
distinct tidal influence. Such an environment has been described at the site during the
historical period prior to the construction of the Highway 1 bridge (ESA, 2004) and could be
seasonal or longer lasting. Under these conditions sediment delivery by both settling and
saltation would be extant. This condition is essentially that of a classic drowned valley
215
barrier estuary, described by Ray et at. (19BO), where a standing pool remains trapped
behind a barrier at low tide but water levels are raised by tidal action in the back-barrier
area at high tide.
The lowest energy GSD was the BGI style (table B.4). If, following Visher (1969), the
transition between suspension and saltation occurs at ~34>,this distribution is dominated
by the suspended load. The main body of the distribution is formed by modes I, 2 and 3. A
significantly less prominent mode 4, which is still part of the suspended load, creates the
'two humped' appearance. This distribution has the finest primary mode encountered in
the characteristic distribution styles, the primary mode switches between modes 1 and 2.
This GSD is suggested to represent those back-barrier conditions most closely
approximating quiet water which are captured by the sediments of the PMOBRcore.
Reduction in depositional energy is the key to this distribution style; velocity is not reduced
enough for mode 2 to be dominant in any of the other distribution styles. It is thought that
this distribution, which only occurs in marked decreases in the mean grain size curve
outside of the finest MGSBl section (F), must represent closed lagoonal conditions. The
fourth and most coarse mode found in this distribution is suggested to be a product of
slightly raised depositional energy due to the introduction of fluvial water at the back of the
site or limited overwash events.
Those GSDswith the next finest average mean grain size are those of the BG2 style (see
table B.4). This distribution is also associated with relatively low energy samples. Here the
modes observed are also all the product of deposition by suspension with mode 3 always
primary and modes 2 and 4 prominent. The coarser component of this distribution, modes
3 and 4, becomes more prominent than the finer fraction and in some examples, as mode 4
increases in % volume of the overall distribution. The absence of a coarser 'saltation'
component suggests that the environment still does not experience direct tidal ingress. It is
thought that this distribution again captures discrete periods of lagoonal sedimentation.
The increased prominence of the coarser modes relative to BGI distributions suggests that
depositional energy is subtly increased in BG2 distributions. This could be accounted for by
greater fluvial input, the delivery of a coarser suspended load or increased incidents of
overwashing. Yet the two finer modes remain prominent in this distribution, more so that
in any styles other than BG1, suggesting that calm periods are a regular feature between
any overwash events or occasional periods of significant stream flow. The two lowest
energy distribution styles make a case for the two finest modes (modes 1 and 2) to be
related to calm water conditions while the two coarser modes (3 and 4) appear related to
216
enhanced flow into the lagoonal pool as energy from fluvial or marine inputs is dispersed in
the largely closed basin.
In order of ascending average depositional energy the next characteristic depositional style
to consider is BG3 (table 8.4) This distribution is largely found close to the base level in
fluctuating sections but also found in finer mean grain size samples from sections of coarser
base level and coarser mean grain size samples from sections with finer base levels. This
distribution includes modes 1-4 and additionally mode 5. Modes 1 and 2 are now less
prominent, suggesting that calm conditions that promote settling are much less prevalent.
Mode 3 has now become the dominant mode while the limited % volume of mode 5
suggeststhat a saltation load is delivered for at least part of the period of deposition. This is
interpreted as evidence of a tidal flow. The BG3distribution is thought to preserve evidence
of both closed lagoonal and open barrier inlet conditions with closed conditions dominating
the sample, as evidenced by the limited appearance of mode 5. If this distribution is indeed
a combination of two distinct depositional environments then the cumulative curve is a
combination of the two. Curves representing both depositional regimes will be combined
with the percentage volume in each grain size window measured by the laser
granulometer, reflecting the relative proportions of sediments delivered in each state of
barrier integrity. For BG3 style distributions the combination of a prominent suspended
component combined with a small saltation population suggests a combination of lagoonal
and subordinate tidal flow sedimentation, which fits the stratigraphic context in which
these samples are found.
The BG4 distribution is discussed later as it interrupts the sequence of the three 'triangle'
style distributions (BG3, BG5 and INTl) which appear to represent a coherent progression
from one to the next. The BG5 and INTl distribution styles both appear to represent the
same combination of lagoonal and barrier estuary sedimentation with mode 5,

representing the saltation component, becoming increasingly prominent while modes 1 and
2 are gradually reduced. These two distribution styles, along with the BG3 style, record a
continuous progression driven by the emergence of mode 5 and the reduction of modes 1-
2. Variations in the BG3 distributions largely see mode 5 and mode 4 gaining prominence
while variations in the BG5distributions can see any of modes 3, 4 and 5 becoming primary.
Mode 5 is prominent in all examples of the INTl distributions; however differences do
emerge resulting from the increasing dominance of this mode. While the fluctuations in
modes 3 and 4 in these distributions could be afforded some further significance, due to
the envisaged overlap and combination of depositional environments it would be difficult
217
to accurately interpret the contributing sub-populations. The basic progression of focus
from fine to coarse in these distributions is the characteristic factor. This progression is
reflected in the position of these samples throughout the core with BG3distributions found
in finer mean grain size samples than BG5 distributions and INTl distributions in coarser
mean grain size samples than BG5distributions.
The INT2 distribution style appears regularly in samples from MGSBLD and E, both of which
have a markedly coarse mean grain size base level in relation to the core as a whole. Other
examples are also found in samples of relatively coarse mean grain size. This distribution is
dominated by modes 3, 4 and S. The dominance of these modes interchanges, however all
are prominent and the distribution has a classic trimodal appearance. In these samples,
settling in calm water conditions appears to contribute little to the overall distribution
while the two coarser modes of the suspension population (3 and 4) have become more
prominent than the finer two (1 and 2) and a saltation component (mode S) is significant. A
combination of different depositional environments which could account for the INT2
distribution style is that of a shallow lagoonal pool maintained by a reduced barrier with a
consistently open inlet coupled with barrier estuary tidal flow deposition. low velocity flow
but for a shorter period in the back-barrier lagoonal pool would account for the reduced
appearance of the two finest modes (1 and 2) and the increased prominence of the coarser
two suspension modes (3 and 4). Given the limited quiet water conditions envisaged and
the prominence of mode 5, it appears that barrier integrity is reduced during the deposition
of these samples to a degree where tidal ingress is prominent in the back-barrier area.
The INT2 distribution style appears to be closely linked to the INT3 style, both on the basis
of the similarity in the GSDcurve shapes and also the stratigraphic association of the two,
i.e. in MGSBL section D. The difference between these two distribution styles is the
presence of mode 6 in INT3 distributions. The reason for this distinction has been suggested
in section 8.10.3 (see figure 8.103).
The BG4 (see table 8.4), is discussed out of sequence due to the differing depositional
processes envisaged for these samples. The BG4 distribution dominates two short
moderate to high energy sections of background base level sedimentation (see table 8.S)
being present in every sample and, as such, potentially representing a brief disruption to
the seasonal barrier regime. Being dominated by the two most coarse suspension modes (3
and 4) the samples appear to be more associated with a lagoonal back-barrier environment
than an emergent barrier estuary marsh surface prone to tidal inundation. Mode 5 is
218
present in these samples and waxes and wanes in prominence suggesting that some degree
of tidal deposition or a flow capable of depositing a saltation component is experienced.
The marked prominence of modes 3 and 4 is the key feature of this distribution. These
modes are likely linked to increased energy in the back-barrier lagoonal environment. The
persistence of 'closed' barrier conditions with a significant open inlet maintaining a shallow
lagoonal pool but allowing regular exchange with the ocean offers a potential solution.
Persistent significant fluvial input is another. Either could account for the enhanced
contrast between the fine (1 and 2) and coarse (3 and 4) suspension modes when
compared with the BG3 distribution and also for the present but limited saltation
component as energy from fluvial or marine flows would be dispersed in the lagoonal pool.
Alternatively, this distribution may reflect an extensive lagoon in which internal surface
waves maintain the finest grain sizes in suspension. Or simply that the finest sizes are not
supplied, or have settled. Hence, only the coarser suspension modes are available for
settling in; which casethis distribution may reflect sediment source.
Finally, the HE1 distribution style (see table 8.4) found only in the HEE7grain size peak,
requires significantly higher depositional energy than any of the other characteristic styles.
It is overwhelmingly dominated by a unimodal, medium to coarse sand population but
features a persistent fine tail. The HE1 distribution is characteristic of deposition under a
rapid flow. The cause of the flow however remains equivocal (see section 8.10.2).
Important to the interpretive framework offered is the identification of the saltation
fraction as predominantly tidal and the role of the barrier system in limiting peak tidal
velocities, and therefore the coarser grain sizes deposited in the back-barrier area. A key
feature of the consistent recurring modes to note is the relative inconsistency in size of
mode 5. While the other modes differ slightly between samples the range is no more than
0.3<1>.
Mode 5 has a broader range beginning as low as 2.7<1>
and extending as high as 3.5<1>.
Mode 5 is located closer to the coarser limit in the INT3 distributions which feature coarse
components above the apparent barrier limited tidal velocity threshold. An apparent upper
grain size threshold exits in the majority of the background sample distributions at which
the curve has the appearance of being abutted. In these distributions the upper limit
appears to fluctuate gradually along MGSBL sections (documented in section 8.8). This
trend appears to support the existence of the barrier limited tidal velocity mechanism.
Changes in the degree of barrier coherence may be reflected by the upper grain size
threshold of a sample while the full range of the saltation sub population represented by
mode 5 is delivered under degraded barrier scenarios where maximum flow velocity is then
219
a function of the tide which varies diurnally, fortnightly and seasonally with tidal forcing.
When the tides are bigger, the coarse sediments are coarser.
8.10.5 Hypothetical Sub-Populations Driven by a Changing Depositional Energy
Regime
Eight characteristic GSDfrequency curve shapes adequately summarise the samples of the
MGSBLsections of the core (see table 8.4 - excluding HEl). Variation is observed in samples
located between the characteristic depositions yet good examples of the characteristic
distribution styles occur with a regularity, which suggests they represent recurring
environmental parameters. These characteristic distributions describe an energy gradient.

However, the progression is more complex than a simple coarsening of a single dominant
mode. Instead multi-modal curves with non-linear trends of sorting, skewness, and kurtosis
are observed. The shape of these differential frequency curves likely reflect changing
relationships between sub-populations within the GSDs which correspond to differing
transport and depositional processes. Here these observations are summarised in a
conceptual model which illustrates hypothetical sub-populations in each of the
characteristic styles. Using this model the 'energy progression' of GSDs and the causal
changes in depositional energy can be visualised and more readily understood. It should
also be noted that sediment source and the delivery of selected grain sizes is likely to
partially account for the recurring characteristic GSD styles. This factor has not been
directly considered in the conceptual model presented which relates to hydraulic

processes.
Following Visher (1969), isolating sub-populations within GSDshas remained desirable and
informative yet generating definitive results has proved impossible (see Section 5.3.1).
Mathematical models have often been used for the purpose but are limited by a lack of
intuitive context (Weltje and Prins, 2007). The scenarios presented here are entirely
hypothetical and simply intended to further understanding of the relevant depositional
environments by illustrating what appear to be the underlying trends. The diagrams
presented have been progressively informed by the insight gained whilst considering each
individual GSD curve in detail. A number of factors are consistent across the range of
hypothetical distributions. The sub-populations all overlap. Each SUb-population
approximates a log-normal distribution; however a degree of differential sorting, skewness
and kurtosis is required to create the characteristic distribution shapes. This is consistent
with theory and the relevant literature. In each of the modelled distribution examples the
220
sub-populations consistently occupy the same grain size range. Moving from the finest to
the coarsest, the sub-populations depicted are suggested to correspond roughly to fine
suspension (blue sub-population}, coarse suspension (red sub-population) and a saltation
component (green sub-population). In the relevant distributions, an additional coarser

saltation component (purple sub-population) is included. The combination of these sub-
populations also largely reproduces the recurring modes observed in the real distribution
curves.
The environmental implications of the hypothetical sub-populations are relatively

consistent with those of the multiple mode discussion (see Section 8.10.4) and are,
therefore, limited to avoid repetition. In each figure a good example of the relevant
distribution style from the PM08R core is shown, along with the suggested hypothetical
sub-populations and the stacked hypothetical sub-populations which approximate the real
distribution curve. The sub-populations are discussed in relation to differing hydraulic
depositional processes. It is acknowledged that here are multiple different possible
combinations of depositional mechanisms and environments which could result in the
characteristic GSDsdiscussed, however those presented below are suggested to best fit the
context of the sample site and the stratigraphic order in which the samples occur.
BG1(figure 8.104):
A discrete period of quiet water lagoonal conditions with limited influence of fluvial input
or marine overwash is supported. The BG1distribution is dominated by the fine suspension

population and the coarse suspension population. A saltation component is all but absent.
This implies a low energy environment with very limited flow velocity which facilitated
settling from suspension.
BG2(figure 8.105):
Between the BG1 and BG2 distribution styles the saltation component becomes more
prominent while the fine suspension load is reduced in prominence. However, the two
suspension sub-populations remain dominant and the saltation component remains

limited, both in class weight and grain size range, in comparison to the higher energy
component occurring at the coarser end of the sequence. A predominantly closed lagoonal
environment is implied with the more prominent saltation component likely to relate to
increased marine overwash or fluvial input. An increase in both of these higher energy
sources would be consistent with the onset of winter in the present-day climate when
221
increasing precipitation and storminess are experienced prior to barrier opening.
Alternatively a prolonged period of closed lagoonal conditions in which higher steamflow
was experienced relative to the conditions responsible for the BGI distribution style could
account for this distribution.
BG3 (figure 8.106):
In this distribution the saltation component is less prominent in terms of percentage
weighting but has a broader range incorporating a significant proportion of coarser

particles on the logarithmic scale used. This suggests some degree of tidal action in the
back-barrier area. The continued prominence of the fine and especially the coarse
suspended load also suggests a significant amount of time during which low energy settling
can occur. In combination with the dominance of the coarser suspension sub-population,
this configuration suggests a combination of lagoonal sedimentation and restricted barrier
estuarine tidal action. A lagoon with a restricted seasonal tidal inlet is a likely environment
of deposition.
BG4 (figure 8.107):
With the distribution broken into hypothetical sub-populations the BG4 distribution fits
more clearly into the energy gradient of depositional styles than appears to be the case on
the basis of the multiple modes. The saltation component has expanded slightly to
incorporate more coarse grain sizes while the fine suspension component has reduced
further. The coarse suspension component has increased yet more in prominence.
Presented in this manner the distribution would appear to represent a similar
environmental range to the BG3 distribution but with more time spent with an inlet open, a
larger inlet being present when opening is experienced or internally generated wind-waves
maintaining a large degree of the fine suspended component in suspension while the
coarse suspended component is deposited. This latter environment could be likened to a
'stirred lagoon' (Oertel, 2005).
BGS (figure 8.108):
The BGS distribution seesa significant increase in the percentage weighting of the saltation
component. The rise in significance of this component along with the continued
prominence of the fine suspension component suggests a combination of lagoonal and
inter-tidal barrier estuary environments. However, it appears that the tidal action, thought
to be responsible for the saltation component, is becoming increasingly prominent. This
222
may be due to a greater proportion of deposition during open inlet conditions or due to a
better developed inlet opening.
A number of the characteristic distribution styles were suggested to have an 'abutted'
appearance at the coarse end (see section 8.8). The BGS distribution style is one of these.
The abutted appearance may be an artefact of the barrier inlet modifying tidal velocity in
the back-barrier area. The figure illustrates the suggested impact of the barrier inlet on the
saltation population (see 8.10.3) which allows tidal flow to enter the back-barrier area after
peak velocity has passed, thus curtailing the saltation population at the coarse end. This
figure illustrates the suggested shape of the distribution if the barrier were reduced to a
degree where maximum tidal velocity was experienced in the back-barrier area. However,
were maximum velocity experienced in the back-barrier area, the distribution would likely
alter more significantly as opportunities for settling from suspension would be more
limited.
INTl (figure 8.109):
The INTl distribution demonstrates a clear progression from the BGS distribution. The
saltation component has further grown in prominence in relation to the two suspension
populations. The coarse upper limit of the saltation population has also expanded. The
distribution again implies a combination of lagoonal and open inlet conditions, however the
inlet appears to be more open, or the barrier less coherent, as tidal velocities experienced
in the back-barrier area are now greater.
INn (figure 8.110):
The INT2 distribution sees the coarse suspension sub-population again become more
prominent than the saltation sub-population, The mean grain size of these distributions is
generally coarser than that of the INTl distributions and is thought to represent a regime
where more open conditions predominate in the back-barrier area. When the INT2
distribution is examined in more detail it can be seen that the fine suspension population
has become less prominent and the coarse suspension population has become better
sorted, more positively skewed and has a coarser mode in relation to the INTl distribution.
The INT2 distribution is also suggested to represent a range of barrier inlet conditions but
instead this distribution is thought to reflect periods where the back-barrier area
experiences a very short window of deposition of the fine suspended load, i.e. very limited
or no inlet closure resulting in a continued rise and fall of the water level during which the
223
saltation and coarse suspension populations dominate deposition. When the inlet is
significantly reduced but not closed, this condition would greatly limit the strength of peak
flow, favouring deposition of the coarse suspension population over the saltation
population. As the differential frequency curves report the percentage of a distribution in

each grain size window, the saltation population is reduced relative to the coarse
suspension population as deposition of the coarse suspension population is prominent in
both the more open and more closed barrier conditions represented by the INT2
distribution style.
Throughout the PM08R core differing examples of the INT2 distribution were characterised
by an interchanging primary mode. All of the three prominent modes (3, 4 and 5) were
observed to be the primary mode on many occasions with the two coarsest modes most
regularly being primary. This interchanging of the primary mode could be created in the
model distributions by changing the percentage weighting of the saltation component. In
examples of this distribution where the coarsest mode (5) has become the primary mode
the hypothetical saltation component would require a larger percentage weighting in its
mode than that of the coarse suspension sub-population to create this appearance. In this
case the INT2 distribution would immediately appear to represent a more open barrier
regime. Hence, the INT2 distribution covers a range of barrier estuary conditions with a
more or lessdeveloped barrier inlet.

INT3 (figure 8.111):
The INT3 distribution is suggested to be the product of very similar back-barrier conditions
to those of the INT2 distribution. Again a range from markedly open conditions to more
restricted barrier inlet conditions is envisaged. The fundamental differences between the
INT2 and INT3 distributions are that the latter is not abutted at the coarse end and an
additional coarse component is present. The lack of an abutted appearance can be
explained by the barrier system not being sufficient to prevent maximum tidal velocity
being experienced in the back-barrier area during the more open barrier estuary phase of
deposition. The additional coarse component was also likely deposited during the more
open phase of deposition and is suggested to represent conditions of markedly elevated

energy. It is likely that such conditions only prevailed for a short time during the period of
deposition as the additional coarse component is limited in terms of percentage weighting.
The additional coarse component has been suggested to represent brief periods during
224
which reduced barrier integrity allowed maximum tidal velocity to be experienced in the
back-barrier area.
225
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8.11 Surface Contour Plots: A Potential Rapid Methodology for
Addressing the Prominence of Multiple Modes
Given the persistent appearance of the multiple consistent modes throughout the core, the
summary statistics considered fail to adequately report a range of valuable information
liable to most closely reflect the subtly changing depositional processes which have driven
the transitions between characteristic GSDs in the PM08R core. When summary statistics
alone are considered, important detail is lost. This detail has been identified and
interpreted laboriously by addressing individual GSDs, the results of which have proved
extremely valuable in interpreting different lagoon/barrier estuarine conditions. While the
methodology used here remains a valid option, it is not time-efficient. A less time-
consuming alternative which maintains an acceptable level of resolution is presented by
Beierle et al. (2002) who propose that grain size series data plotted as a contoured surface
offer a rapidly produced and interpretable alternative, or accompaniment, to standard
summary statistics. A particular value of this data presentation technique is the ability to
visualise the progression of multiple modes through a core. Figure 8.112 illustrates the
basic principles of a surface contour plot.
Grain Size (I-1m)
Grain Size (~m)
Figure 8.112: Schematic diagram of the relationship between a GSD frequency curve and a
surface contour plot (reproduced from Beierle et al., 2002)
An example is presented to demonstrate the value of this technique; this comes from the
glacier fed Bear Lake, Devon Island, which is known to accumulate varve like sediments
(Beierle et al., 2002). Annual layers are comprised of a silt layer with a thin clay cap.
Samples were taken every 2.Smm and the surface plot presented (see figure 8.113)
230
accurately reflects the brief emergence of the finer mode. In this case the additional value
of the surface plot is to reveal the 'broadening' of the distribution prior to the emergence
of the dominant clay mode. This detail is lost if only the accompanying summary statistics
are consulted. This methodology has not become wide spread in the relevant literature.
When surface plots are utilised it has generally been to illustrate features of the sediment
record which were identified using more traditional graphical techniques (van Hengstum et
al., 2003; Gyllencreutz & Kissel, 2006; Rolland et al., 2008).
24500
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Figure 8.113: Surface contour plot and summary statistics reflecting a sequence of two
annual varves from Bear Lake (reproduced from Beierle et al. 2002)
S.11.1 Surface Plots and PMOSR Data
Producing a surface plot for the entire PM08R core, containing 925 samples, would not
facilitate interpretations due to the sheer volume of information presented. The value of
surface plots could be better exploited if used to assess small sections of the core, for
example contrasts between individual intermediate high energy episodes and the
immediately surrounding mean grain size base level sediments. These sub-sections must be
large enough to include multiple fluctuations of the mean grain size curve around the base
level yet not so large that the volume of data presented becomes incomprehensible. Three
examples of representative subsections from base levels A, D and F are presented (figures
8.114,115 & 116). Each of these plots summarises 10cm, or 50 samples, of grain size data.
The plots are primarily described in relation to the recurring modes identified in the
characteristic GSD styles (see table 8.7)
231
B.11.1.11S0-160cm (figure 8.114)
The l50-l60cm section is the deepest of the three sections below the surface and also the
section with the least fluctuation in mean grain size. The presence of multiple modes in the
PM08Rsamples has been identified as a key factor in the interpretation of the depositional
environments. Mean grain size base level F is almost exclusively populated by BG2 style
distributions (see tables 8.4 and 8.5). The key distinction in this 10cm sub-section is the
change in dominance from mode 3 ("'19.8-23.8~m) to mode 4 ("'45.8-5s.l~m) which,
moving upwards through the core occurs at around ls7cm. This shift can clearly be seen in
the surface plot. The presence of mode 4 ("'45.8-5s.1~m) is indicated throughout the
section with the corresponding area of the plot becoming a marginally darker red than that
of mode 3 ("'19.8-23.8~m) between 150 and l53cm. The importance of mode 2 ("'5.9-
7.lj..lm) is also illustrated throughout yet it can be seen that mode 2 ("'s.9-7.1~m)
consistentlv becomes less prominent when mode 4 ("'45.8-55.1~m) is dominant. The broad
spread of moderate yellow to light orange colour in this plot suggests that samples are
poorly sorted and not markedly peaked or skewed.
8.11.1.2 103-113cm (figure 8.115)
Mean grain size base level 0 is characterised by INT3 interspersed with INT2 distributions.
Occasional examples of BG3distributions are also present. Beyond these distribution styles
the key distinction in this 1Dcm sub-section is the range of coarse grain sizes in the
additional coarse component of the INT3 distributions. The presence and extent of an
additional coarse component can readily be seen in light blue on the surface plot, in the
region of 20D-1000j..lm,distinguishing the INT3 samples. The primary mode of INT3 samples
(light red to orange) is consistently mode 4 ("'45.8-55.1j..lm). The INT2 samples are
characteristically more peaked, as evidenced by the primary mode being a darker red. Here
the primary mode can be mode 3 ("'19.8-23.8~m) or 4 ("'45.8-55.1~m). The INT2 samples
also tended to feature another prominent mode at the coarse end of the distribution
(mode 5 "'116.3-140.1~m). This feature can most clearly be seen between 108 and 108.5cm
depth. The BG3 samples are indicated by the strong dominance (darker red) of mode 3
("'19.8-23.8j..lm)and the loss of coarser grains which are replaced with a finer component
i.e. just above depths of l09cm and 10Gcm.These latter samples can also be seen to be
more peaked and less fine skewed than the other distribution styles present. The fine skew
of the INT3 and INT2 samples is indicated by the gradual fade in green and light blue below
lOllm.
232
PM08 RSurface Plot: 150-160cm 4 5 & 7 B
150
--E
-...c 155
u
Cl.
OJ
Cl
1 10 100 1000 Mean grain size (~)
Grain size (~m)

grain size base level F, key relates to class weight (%) of total distribution. Mean grain size 4>
is also shown for the section
233
PM08R Surface Plot: 103-113cm 4 5 ~ 7 R
--E
-u
.0.0
110
.0,5
.1.0
.1.5
1 10 100 1000
Grriin Si7P. (pm)
Figure 8.115: Surface plot of raw grain size analysis data for l03-113cm subsection of mean
grain size base level 0, key relates to class weight (%) of total distribution. Mean grain size
et> is also shown for the section
234
8.11.1.3 SO-60cm(figure 8.116)
Mean grain size base level A is the most variable in terms of GSDsin the whole core. The
50-60cm sub-section reflects this by featuring a range of distributions including BG1, BG3,
BG5 and INTl styles. Again a contrast is immediately apparent with the other two sub-
sections presented. Working up through the core, the 60-58cm depths are dominated by
BG1 and BG3 distributions. The prominence of mode 2 ("'5.9-7.1~m) and mode 3 ("'19.8-
23.8~m) indicates the former distribution while the marked dominance of mode 3 ("'19.8-
23.8~m) over mode 2 ("'5.9-7.1~m) indicates the latter. INTl distributions appear between
57 and 56cm. The strong dominance of mode 5 ("'116.3-140.1~m) is observed for these
samples along with a prominent mode 4 ("'45.8-SS.1~m). The fine skew of these
distributions is also clearly represented by the fade of yellow and green in the 50-5~m
range. Throughout the remainder of the section INTl distributions appear periodically but
the interchanging of the BG1, BG3 and BGSstyles dominates. Distinctions between these
three styles can be made on the basis of the prominence of mode 2 ("'S.9-7.1~m) in BGl
and on the strength of the dominance (darkness of red) of mode 3 ("'19.8-23.8~m) in BG3.
The level of distinction between these distributions and the multiple modes found within
them is compromised when consulting a surface plot in comparison to individual GSD
curves. However, this could be suggested to be due to the limited significance of the
difference between these similar distribution styles.
In summary, qualitative analysis of the three sub-sections presented illustrates that
insightful observations can rapidly be made regarding the characteristics of the range of
samples in each plot. However, it must be noted that pre-existing understanding of grain
size summary statistics and GSDcurves are required to interpret surface plots.
235
PM08R Surface Plot SO-60cm ~ 5 678
so
-6
{5 55
a.
OJ
c
Mean grain size (~)

1 10 100 1000
Grain size (~rn)
Figure 8.116: Surface plot of raw grain size analysis data for SO-60cm subsection of mean
grain size base level A, key relates to class weight (%) of total distribution. Mean grain size
If> is also shown for the section
236
8.12 Reproducibility, Organic Digestion and Present-Day Samples
8.12.1 Reproducibility
All of the core samples were analysed for their GSDs using a consistent methodology and
the same equipment. Indeed, Coulter granulometry offers a high degree of repeatability
(Pye and Blatt, 2004; McCave et al. 2006). This was confirmed by repeated measurements
of standard materials which differed negligibly if at all in their grain size distributions. A
more pressing issue was that of reproducibility of measurements from core samples.
Repeated measurements of the same aliquot again showed negligible differences, but
measurements of different aliquots from the same sample showed subtle differences. This
issue was minimised as much as possible by thoroughly homogenising each sample prior to
sub-sampling aliquots for grain size analysis. What constitutes an acceptable degree of
repeatability is relative to the purpose of the analysis. In this instance the aim was to
establish that the GSDs presented were indeed representative of the samples they came
from. Ten core samples were randomly selected for repeat analysis. All showed a high
degree of reproducibility having very similar GSDs which essentially featured the same
shape, modes and grain size range. Selected examples are shown in figure 8.117, 118 &
119. The degree of reproducibility achieved in these samples suggests that it is appropriate
to use characteristics of aspects of GSD curves beyond the summary statistics to inform
environmental interpretations.
9.0 4.0 -1.0 9.0 4.0

4.0 ,-----------~-- _, 4.0 ,---~----~-----j
PM08R 183.4-183.6 PM08R 183.4-183.6
3.0
: 3.0
0=
., ~----_'~---+------------
.,
2.0 ~ 2.0
~--_,~----~~----------
~
1.0 il 1.0
0.0 0.0
Particle Diameter (+) Particle Diameter It)
Figure 8.117: Differential frequency curves for PM08R core sample 183.4-183.6cm
(analysed twice and overlaid)
40 -10 9.0 4.0 1.0

4.0 40
PM08R 143.6-143.8 PM08R 143.6143.8 -Runl
-Runl
3.0 3.0
~ l
"'~
.!!'
"'~~
2.0
i!
U 1.0
2.0
.
,;
1.0 u
00 0.0
Partlde Diameter (+) Panicle Dlam.ta, (f)
Figure 8.118: Differential frequency curves for PM08R core sample 1.43.6-1.43.8 (analysed
twice and overlaid)
237
90 40 ~,0 90 40 ~10
-Run!
50 5.0
PM08R 88.4-88.6 Run2
PM08R 88.4-88.6
40
30
2.0
'0
0.0 0.0
Panicle Diameter ftt Particle Diameter (0)
Figure 8.119: Differential frequency curves for PM08R core sample 88.4-88.6cm (analysed
twice and overlaid)
8.12.2 Organic Digestion
In addition to assessing the sensitivity of the back-barrier sediment record to sub-annual
environmental change, a key consideration in the research presented was the practical
application of the methodology to inform management decisions. The digestion of co-
deposited organic matter in sediment samples using H202 prior to grain size analysis is a key
issue which has been discussed in Section 5.3.3. If this part of the grain size analysis
procedure could be avoided without distorting the results obtained then a significant
amount of time and labour could be saved making the methodology considerably more
practical.
It is a general phenomenon that the higher the organic content of a sample the greater the
impact of failure to digest residual organic matter on the GSD (Allen and Haslett, 2004; Gray
et al., 2010). Standard laboratory procedure in the University of Liverpool, Department of
Geography is to digest samples for grain size analysis if LOI is above 10%. Preliminary loss
on ignition testing of ten randomly selected samples from the PM08R core suggested that
the core samples were characterised by LOI values below this threshold. These same
samples were also analysed for their GSDs both prior to and following digestion of the
organic component in H202 The results of some representative examples are displayed in
figures 8.120, 121, 122 & 123. A greater degree of difference can be seen between the
digested and undigested samples than the repeat samples. However, the key features of
the distributions remain the same. The GSD curve shape and the multiple modes are
effectively unchanged. On the basis of the ten randomly selected samples, the impact of
not digesting the residual organic matter that could not be removed by hand picking
appeared to be minimal.
The inclusion of co-deposited organic matter in a GSD is not overly problematic, having
limited impact on the final distribution (Allen and Thorley, 2004). Extraneous organic
matter on the other hand can significantly distort GSD curves. It appears to be the case that
238
the higher the organic content of a sample, the more difficult it is to remove all extraneous
organic matter by hand-picking. loss on ignition (lOI) provides a good estimate of a
samples organic content. Organic digestion was therefore omitted from the grain size
analysis procedure for the high resolution short core samples.
90 4.0 -10 9.0 40

40 40
PM08R 153.2-153.4 PM08R 153.2-153.4
3.0 - 3.0
l
:r:
2.0 - .~
'" 20
l:
~
~
1.0 10
t3
0.0 OD
Particle Diameter (I) Particle Diameter ,+)
Figure 8.120: Differential frequency curves for PM08R core sample ls3.2-1s3.4cm both
prior to and following treatment with H202 and both curves overlaid
90 4.0 -1.0 9.0 40 -1.0

4.0 40
PM08R 22.0-22.2 PM08R 22.0-22.2
3.0 30 -
c !
:r: s:
20 '"
';;
;: 2.0
~'"
~ ~
1.0 <3 1.0 ~ i3
0.0 DO
Particle Diameter (q.) Particle Diameter (+)
Figure 8.121: Differential frequency curves for PMOBR core sample 22.0-22.2cm both prior
to and following treatment with H202 and both curves overlaid
9.0 40 -10 90 4.0 -10

4.0 40
PM08R 52.6-52.8 PM08R 52.6-52.8
3.0
~ 3.0
f:
~
20 '"
~ 20 i~
:
u
~
1.0 1.0
ii
0.0 0.0
Partlcl. Diameter (+) Partlcl. Dlamet.r (~)
Figure B.122: Differential frequency curves for PMOBR core sample s2.G-s2.Bcm both prior
90 40 -10 gO 4.0
40 '---~------P-M-O~8R~10~7~.O~-1~O~7~.2
3.0 ~.U
ii
2.0 i 2.0
~
1.0 j 1.0
o
Partlt;le DI~lTWt.r ~t) Particle Diameter (+'

prior to and following treatment with HzOzand both curves overlaid
239
Following the completion of grain size analysis, the remainder of the core was tested for
LOI. It then emerged that a significant number of samples had LOI values >10%. A number
of these samples were analysed again for their GSDs following digestion of the organic
content in H202. The GSDs for many of these samples were observed to be different
following digestion. Some representative results are displayed in figures B.124, 125, 126
&127.
90 4.0 1.0 90 4.0 10

40----~---------- ~ 5.0
PMOBR 105.6-105.B PMOBR 105.6-105.B
40
30 -
~ ~
~ 30
s:
'"
~ '"
20 ~
~
0
~
10 0
00 00
Particle Diameter (+) Particle Diameter 1+)
Figure B.124: Differential frequency curves for PMOBR core sample 10s.6-10s.Bcm both
9.0 4.0 -1.0 9.0 40 -1.0
3.0 4.0
_Not treated
PMOBR 3B.B39.0 PM08R 38.839.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
10
1.0
0.0 0.0
Particle Diameter i+) Particle Dlamet.r (+J
Figure B.12s: Differential frequency curves for PMOBR core sample 3B.B-39.0cm both prior
9.0 4.0 ., 0 9.0
40 1 PM08R 110.0-110.2
50
40
PMOBR 110.0-110.2
30
~ ~---------.~~~~-------
3.0
Ii '"
I ~----I/---t-+-----
20 1 ~ 2.0
I~
I~
1.0 10
'.0
---.~~------~r------
00 0.0
Particle Diameter (+)
Figure 8.126: Differential frequency curves for PM08R core sample 110.0-110.2cm both
9.0 4.0 -1.0 11.0 9.0 7.0 5.0 3.0 1.0 -1.0
PM08R 112.8-113.0 PM08R 112.8-113.0

3.0 ~ 4.0
2.0
"
.21
~
3.0
~------~~~~~---------
o
rJ 2.0 ~----~,_~----~~-------
'0
1.0
5----r-:r-------+_., ....
-----
00 0.0
Particle Diameter 1+) Particle Diameter (cP)
240
The first two examples (figures 8.124 & 8.125) show little change in the characteristics of
the distribution curves. The same modes remain present and dominant and the overall
shape is largely unchanged. Digesting the residual extraneous organic content has slightly
reduced the coarse upper grain size limit of each sample and resulted in a larger weighting
in the finer components of the distribution. The third and fourth examples give more cause
for concern. In figures 8.126 the shape of the GSD is changed to a point where the
distribution would be characterised as a different distribution style before and after
digestion. The primary mode has also changed. Here a significant amount of the coarser
material has been removed following digestion suggesting that organic 'contamination' has
a significant influence on the grain size analysis results for this sample. The same is true in
figures 8.127 where the character of the distribution curve is again changed and, in this
instance, a proportion of the distribution which would be considered as an 'additional
coarse component' has been removed. On this basis it appears to be the case that residual
extraneous organic material has significantly affected a proportion of the samples analysed
for their GSDsin the PM08R core. The extent to which organic contamination has affected
the sample group as a whole cannot be known.
Following theses additional sample digestion tests the apparent link between mean grain
size and organic content (LOI)throughout the core became a further focus of investigation.
However, a causal link between the two can be ruled out. In the mean grain size base level
sections of the core as a whole, higher depositional energy was generally accompanied by
an increased organic content. The examples displayed are all relatively coarse mean
distribution styles. However, the lack of a correlation between mean grain size 4> and LOI
negates a causal link. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient (0.09) between LOI and mean
grain size implies no relationship while the same coefficient for LOI and mean grain size in
urn suggestsa weak relationship (-0.27) between coarsening mean grain size and increasing
organic content. Figure 8.128 shows LOI%plotted against 4> mean grain size for the whole
core sample set. The r2 value (0.0088) suggests no significant relationship between the
parameters yet more importantly the clear lack of a relationship can be readily observed
from the distribution of the samples in the plot.
As analysis of the PM08R grain size data progressed the specifics of individual GSDs
emerged as increasingly important. In addition, concurrent research within the Geography
Department of Liverpool University specifically regarding the impact of organic digestion
suggested that a 5% LOI cut off is more appropriate to avoid any of the issues associated
with organic contamination (Rahman, 2010). It is therefore acknowledged that a proportion
241
of the PM08R samples may have the specifics of their GSDs altered due to organic
contamination. However, the majority of samples are not likely to be significantly affected
and those samples which are unlikely to have changed significantly with respect to
measures of central tendency. At the same time, the consideration of GSD shapes enables a
qualitative assessment of the potential for extraneous organic material to be made. Should
this methodology be employed with analogous sample material in future it would be
preferable for samples to be digested prior to grain size analysis in order to remove any
doubt regarding organic contamination and to allow hydraulic interpretations of the finer
details of individual GSDs to be made with more confidence.
70
60
g 50
..
c:
0
'c
40
.. -,.
,!!!l
c: 30
0
III
III
_.0 20
2 = 0.0088
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Mean grain size (<PI
Figure 8.128: LOI versus mean grain size in all PM08R samples
While digesting the organic content of samples would appear to be preferable, the
conclusions informed by the non-digested data appear to remain valid. Two primary
sources of evidence can be cited to support this. First is the wavelet time series analysis of a
section of the PM08R core (see section 8.13). In addition, the majority of the characteristic
GSD styles of the PM08R core were also prominent in undigested grain size analyses of
present-day surface environment samples. The present day samples relate the
characteristic GSD styles of the PM08R core to an energy gradient compatible with that
envisaged in the core.
242
8.12.3 Present-Day Samples
Fifty present-day surface samples taken from a range of environments across the Pescadero
Marsh barrier estuary complex were analysed for their grain size distributions. Of those
distributions encountered, a large proportion were reconcilable with the range of
characteristic distributions identified in the PM08R core.
8.12.3.1 BG1 Distribution Style (see figure 8.129)
90 40 -10 9.0 4.0 -1.0

50,---~------~----~ 4.0 .,---~------~-----
PM08R 37.8-38.0 _surfi,ce
4.U
- 3.0
~ ~ -(ore
3.0 ~ ~a
~i!mple
~'" ~ ---~----~---------
2.0
U
. 2.0

u _~ ~~ _
10 1.0
00 0.0
Particle Diameter (,) Particle Diameter (~)
Figure 8.129: Differential frequency curves for surface sample C:06:22 and core sample
PM08R 37.8-38.0cm and both curves overlaid
The BG1 distribution style was not commonly encountered in the present-day samples set.
Two samples with GSDs approximating this style were found in areas of saltmarsh
dominated by pickleweed. Both of these samples came from slight depressions which were
filled with shallow standing water approximately Scm deep. The key characteristics of the
present-day sample GSDs are compatible with those of the PM08R examples of the BG1
style. Both present-day samples are dominated by the finer component of the grain size
distribution, specifically reoccurring mode 2 with less prominent coarser modes creating
the 'two humped' appearance. The surface sample is more peaked due to a smaller
proportion of the distribution being comprised of the more coarse grains present. The grain
size range is consistent between the two.
9.0 4.0 -1.0 9.0 4.0 -10

30 40
C:08:12 PM08R 41.,-41.4
-surface
umple
3.0
2.0 ~ ~
~ ].
_Core
.
C>
~.1mple
~
~
20
i
1.0
~
.!! ~
o 1.0
o
0.0 0.0
Panicle Diameter (+) Particle Diameter (+,
PM08R 41.2-41.4cm and both curves overlaid. H202 treated
243
The BG 2 distribution is also largely absent from the present-day dataset. Again two
reasonable examples were found, coming from un-vegetated shallow pools in depressions
found on areas of saltmarsh surface unconnected to channels. Both present-day samples
have very well defined convex fine tails and a dominant mode 3. These features correspond
to the down-core examples of this distribution style. The coarse upper grain size limit is also
similar in the surface and core examples.
90 40 10 90 40 -10
4.0 4.0
_.l.urt ..ce
C:06:08 PM08R 10-12
sample
30 30 _Core
samcre
~
2.0 "''" 2.0 ~ ------~--~~--------
1.0
~
10
.
~
w
U
c:;
00 0.0
Particle Diameter (4J) Particle Diameter C(I)
Many examples of the BG3 style of distribution were found in the present-day samples. The
majority of these samples came from vegetated areas of mature saltmarsh where water
levels periodically rose to submerge the mud surface but not the vegetation cover. Similarly
to the core examples, many subtly differing variations on this distribution were apparent.
The changes between BG3 distributions in the present-day samples as with the core
samples, is driven by the shifting prominence of modes 3, 4 and 5.
9.0 4.0 -10 9.0 40 -10

40 40
PM08R 71 2-71.4 _surfact:
QQUQ
sample
30 3.0
~ -Core
~ sample
20
~'" 20
~
c:;
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
Particle Diameter (,) Particle Diameter It)
BG4 style GSDs were all but absent from the present-day sample set. The example
presented came from a vegetated depression on a saltmarsh surface adjacent to a small
tidal channel. The surface sample and the core sample presented have many similarities.
They are dominated by the same mode and have a Similarly shaped differential frequency
244
curve. The observable differences result from a slightly finer range of grain sizes being
present in the core sample. As only one GSD of this style was found in the present-day
sample set, little environmental inference can be made.
8.12.3.5 BGS Distribution Style (see figure 8.133)
90 40 1.0 90 4.0 -1.0

4.0 4.0
C06:09 PM08R 35.6-35.8
-surface
sample
30 3.0
~ 1
~----J'__--I----
s: s: _Core
co co sample
2.0
~
~ 2.0 ~
~
~ ~---:~-----t----
10 - " 1.0 -
"
00
" Particle Diameter (+)
0.0
Particle Diameter (41)
Many examples of this distribution were found in the present-day sample set. The
distributions feature prominent modes 3, 4 and 5 and an abutted coarse component
similarly to the examples from the PM08R core. The present-day examples were found in
small drainage ditch beds which were only full approaching high tide or at the inland limit
of larger channel margins surrounded by vegetation.
8.12.3.6 INT 1 Distribution Style (see figure 8.134)
9.0 4.0 -1.0 9.0 40 1.0

40 40 -sllriace
C:06:18 PM08R 7.2-7.4 sample
3.0 3.0
~ ~
20
s:
'"
~ 20
..
s:
~
1.0
"
: 1.0

U
0.0 0.0
"artlcle DlametM" (~) Particle DIAmeter It)
The appearance of this distribution style was relatively limited throughout the present-day
sample sets. When the INT2 distribution style was identified, the samples came from
muddy, vegetated channel margins. The characteristic features of the core samples are
evident in the present-day samples, for example the abutted coarse component, the
sloping fine tail and the dominance of mode 5.
245
8.12.3.7INT 2 Distribution Style (see figure 8.135)
90 40 -10 9.0 40 -1.0

40 --~------------I 4.0 ,---~---~----
PM08R 06-0 8 _rurfac~
sample
30 30
~ i. _Core
s:
~ :g, sample
...
~ 20 ~
o 1.0

(3
DO 0.0
Particle Diameter (~) PartIcle Diameter (q)
PM08R 0.6-0.Bcm and both curves overlaid
Multiple examples of this distribution were found across the present-day marsh surface.
These distributions were characteristic of sparsely vegetated channel margins. As with the
PM08R core samples the abutted appearance of the coarse tail, the concave fine tail and
modes 3, 4 and 5 are all prominent features.
8.12.3.8INT3 Distribution Style (see figure 8.136)
9.0 4.0 -1.0 9.0 4.0 -1.0

4.0 3.0
PM08R 6.6-6.8
_surface
sample
3.0
20
1.0
0.0
Particle Diameter (t) Particle DiametlH" (t)
Good examples of this distribution were found in sparsely vegetated areas of major channel
margins and within the margins of smaller channels. In the examples show modes 3, 4 and
5 are prominent along with a concave fine tail and an additional coarse component.
8.12.3.9 HEl Distribution Style (see figure 8.137)
90 4.0 -1.0 9.0 4.0 -10

12.0 12.0
~~'u?rn~c<------------
C:08:0 PM08R 132.!!-133.0 samp e
10.0 10.0 Core
~mple
8.0 ~ 8.0
~
6.0
'!: 6.0
4.0
2.0
13 40
2.0
I
0.0 0.0 l\
Particle Diameter (,I Particle Diameter (+1
PMOBR 132.8-133.0cm and both curves overlaid
246
Clear examples of this distribution style were found in channel bed sands from across the
site. Similarly these channel samples contained a minimal suspended load component,
which on occasion became completely absent. The main distinction between the core and
present-day examples of this distribution were the modal size of the grain size peak which
differed across the present-day channel beds.
PM08R core characteristic distribution Style Present-day environment
BGl Vegetated depressions on active marsh
surface filled with standing water
BG2 Un-vegetated depressions on active marsh
surface filled with standing water
BG3 Vegetated mature marsh surfaces
periodically under centimetres of shallow
water
BG4 Na
BGS Small drainage ditch beds submerged under
shallow water at high tide
INTl Muddy vegetated channel margins
INT2 Sparsely vegetated channel margins
INT3 Sparsely vegetated larger channel margins
and marginal areas of smaller channels
HEl Sandy beds of larger channel margins
Table 8.8: Characteristic deposition styles of the PM08R core found in present-day surface
environments
The present-day examples of the characteristic distributions relate to a sequence of
environments which appear to reflect a depositional energy gradient (see table 8.8). The
present-day environments appear to confirm that the PM08R characteristic distributions
can be related to changing depositional environment and energy levels at the core site. The
consistency between the present-day and past energy gradients also limits concerns over
the role of organic contamination and the interpretation of the core samples. However, the
247
present-day depositional environments are not necessarily those which the PM08Rsamples
are envisaged to have formed in. The presence of the characteristic distributions in
environments across the present-day marsh surface allows for the possibility that the
sequence of GSDstyles in the PM08R core could have been driven by localised changes to
the distribution of marsh surface environments rather any regime shift of the barrier
system.
8.13 Replication of the Grain Size Signal: PM09S
A second short core for high resolution grain size analysis was taken from a similarly
unmodified area of the marsh. Analysis of this second core aimed to demonstrate a degree
of reproducibility of the grain size trends from the PM08R core. This core was taken from a
more marginal environment in an area of the marsh that had emerged from a tidal channel
over the historical period (see Section 4.6.) The site is indicated as transitional on the 1854
map and appears emergent by the time of the 1928 aerial photograph. This is by no means
a closely constrained chronology but does suggest a rate of sedimentation comparable to
that of the PM08R core. The up-core transition from fine to coarse sediments occurs
between depths of 70cm and 90cm. If the transition had begun by 1854 and was complete
by 1928 then the upper 70cm likely corresponds roughly to the historical period. In the
PM08R core the upper 7Scm is thought to represent the period from 1860 to the present
(see section 7.2). Grain size analysis was performed on the upper 70cm of the PM09S core
in the same manner and at the same resolution as the PM08R core (see figure 8.138).
The samples of the PM09S core were judged to be consistently contaminated with
extraneous organic matter in the saltation grain size range (above 34. While the main body
of the GSDs largely resembled the characteristic styles from the PM08R core, the vast
majority of the PM09S samples also featured a superimposed coarse tail which contained
only a small percentage of the 'grains' in the overall distribution (see figures 8.139 and
8.140). Due to the difficulties in satisfactorily removing all extraneous organic material from
the PM09S samples and the relatively high loss on ignition values for the PM09S samples
compared with the PM08R samples (see figure 8.141) it is highly likely that this additional
coarse component was comprised of organic matter. In short, the PM09S samples, as
opposed to the PM08R samples, were significantly impacted due to their not being
dissolved in hydrogen peroxide. However, due to time limitations, the process of organic
digestion could not be completed. Potential remained for indicators of central tendency,
248
i.e. the mean or primary mode, to not be greatly impacted by the organic contamination
(Allen and Thorley, 2004).
Mean Grain Size (4))

3 4 5 6 7 8 3 4 5 6 7 8
20 +----
PM09S PM08R
Figure 8.138: Down core mean grain size trend for PM09S and PM08R wavelet analysis
sections
PM09S:18.0-18.2cm: PM09S: 19.8-20.0cm:

9.0 4.0 -1.0 9.0 4.0 -1.0
4.0 5.0
3.5 ~ ~
~ 4.0 ~
3.0 +' +'
s: ~
2.5 Cl 3.0 Cl
2.0 ~ 2.0 ~
1.5 1/1
1/1
1/1
1/1
1.0 IV
1.0 IV
0.5 U (3
0.0 0.0
Particle Diameter (cjI) Particle Diameter (cjI)
Figures 8.139 and 8.140: Examples of GSDs from the PM09S core. Figure 8.139 resembles
the BG3 distribution while figure 8.140 resembles BG4 but for the impact of organic
contamination.
249
lou On Ignition !%l
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 0
---si
10 10
-,
20 20
:[
30 JO
't. 2'
.l!
K
cS
40 40
PM09S PM08R
70 -L-....s;;...._________ 70
Figure 8.141: Down core LOI analysis for PM09S and PM08R wavelet analysis sections
The organic contamination serves to obscure the grain size trends in the PM09S core to a
degree where qualitative analysis was no longer effective. In order to identify any common
variability between the two core sections, whilst acknowledging that any commonality in
the grain size summary data or distribution shapes would be undermined by any contrast in
the two sites of deposition, time-series analysis was performed on the mean grain size data
from both sections using Wavelet software (Torrence and Compo, 1998). Wavelet software
is free to use (available at: http://paos.colorado.edu/research/wavelets/). The software
identifies the underlying periodicity of fluctuations in a dataset. A guide to the practical
applications and principles is given by Torrence and Compo (1998). The highest possible
significance value, 5%, was used in analysis and a cone of influence was included. The cone
of influence identifies periodicities apparent in the data in which no confidence can be
placed due to the length of the record. For example, the two core sections analysed both
correspond to periods of close to 150 years. In both examples, the cone of influence
suggests there can be no confidence in any periodicity identified with duration of over ~30
years. The cone of influence also identifies 'edge effects', dictating the point at which a
periodicity becomes too close to the end of the record to be identified with confidence.
Shorter periodicities can be identified with confidence closer to the end of a record. The
250
results from the upper 70cm of the PM09S core and the upper 75cm of the PM08R core are
shown in figures 8.142 and 8.143 respectively. The colour key is a power spectrum
indicating the strength of a periodic signal with the location of colours on the plot indicating
the periodicity over which an over-riding regular periodicity occurs (on the Y axis) and the
time period over which this fluctuation is observed (on the X axis). For the two core
sections presented the temporal scale relates to years before the core was taken,
calculated for both cores using the rate of accretion established in the upper 57cm of the
PM08R core. 5% significance regions are surrounded by black contours lines.
7.0
e.s
~
c: 6.0
ca 5.5
CD
~
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
llm,,(y )
1
2.
I
~
4
8
'8
.&:: 18
t_ 32
64 !
0 100 120
upper 70cm of core PM09S
In the PM08R plot (figure 8.143), between 40 and 120 years on the X axis a periodicity close
to 8 years is consistently present. At around 80 years this periodicity becomes more
variable, broadening to between ~5 and 10 years. This trend is depicted in green, a
relatively high power level for such a short periodicity. The majority of this area is also
surrounded by 5% significance contours and outside of the cone of influence (indicated by
black hatching which rises at each end of the plot). The black contours are largely absent
from the upper 15cm of the core where high energy layers are prominent. A loose 5-10
year periodicity, which appears to centre around 8 years, is therefore identified with a high
251
degree of confidence in the majority of the analysed PM08R core section. Outside of the 5%
significance contours this green zone extends across the whole of the core section
suggesting a slight decrease in the periodicity of the overriding variability with proximity to
the present. This apparent reduction in periodicity may instead be the result of a subtle
increase in the sedimentation rate through the core section which is not accounted for in
the timescale applied.
a. PM08R (0-7Scm)
7
i
c 6
CD
:!! 5 ~
4
0 2f) 40 RO An 100 120 140
11me (Years)
t
2
i 4
~ 8
16
~ 32:

D.. B4.
128
0 20 40 00 80 100 120 140
Time (y8ilIt8)
upper 75cm of core PM08R
The PM09S core (figure 8.142) data has a less obvious but still apparent periodicity largely
between ~4 and 10 years. The periodicity here is less consistent in comparison to that of
the PM08R core appearing in broken sections. However, 5% significance contours are still
prominently associated with this periodicity, and the light green colouration occasionally
indicates an even stronger signal. The areas of the plot within the cone of influence should
be considered with caution yet in this plot the trend of the main body of the core appears
to extend into these areas supporting the overall impression of a coherent signal.
The mean grain size data from both core sections appears to feature a relatively consistent
periodicity. The signal is more frequently broken in the PM09S core which may be due to
additional sedimentation processes in the more marginal environment from which this core
252
was taken. The slight offset of the duration of the periodicity between the two cores
suggeststhat the forcing factor is likely the same but instead the sedimentation rates differ
slightly. A slightly higher sedimentation rate at the PM08R site could readily account for the
longer periodicity apparent in this core. In this case the PM09S data, for which the same
sedimentation rate was assumed, would have accreted at a slower rate. Rather than being
unusual, localised differences in sedimentation rate are to be expected in a saltmarsh
environment. Given that the sedimentation rate for the PM08R core can be quoted with a
much higher degree of confidence, it can be suggested that both core sections feature
overriding mean grain size variability with a periodicity of between 5-10 years, centring on
~8 years. This fluctuation in mean grain size reflects periodically changing levels of
depositional energy in the back-barrier environment, and therefore, the integrity of the
barrier system. While clear direct correlations are not apparent between the down-core
mean grain size trends of the PM08R and PM09S sections considered here, the results of
the wavelet analysis do identify some underlying common variability in sedimentation at
both sites. It appears that the barrier integrity signal interpreted at length from the PM08R
core is indeed valid.
In demonstrating a degree of reproducibility in the high resolution grain size data, the
wavelet analysis suggests a mutual underlying control on sedimentation, particularly in

terms of variability, at both sites which is assumed to be the changing barrier regime. The
impact of organic contamination on the PM08R results is also demonstrated to be minimal
as organic contamination impacting mean grain size fluctuations with an underlying 8-year
periodicity is highly unlikely. Furthermore, the "'8 year periodicity which emerged from the
grain size data may point toward mesoscale controls on the barrier regime. Rainfall and
streamflow are known to be key factors in barrier inlet opening and closure (Roy et al.,
2001). This phenomenon has been demonstrated explicitly in California (Elwany et al.,
1998). Furthermore, climatic extremes can play a disproportionately significant role

(Williams and Goodwin, 1992; Roy et al., 2001; Houser et al., 2008). Inevitably when
considering climate cycles of this temporal order which affect the evolution of the central
Pacific Coast of North America, the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon
emerges as a candidate (Storlazzi and Griggs,2000; Masters and Aiello, 2007).
The modern periodicity of the ENSOis between 2 and 8.5 years over the last 5,000 years
(Rodbell, 1999) while the ENSOhas been operating on an average frequency of 3-5 years
over recent decades (NOAA, 2010), which is close to half of the periodicity identified in the
short core material. However, the strength and impacts of the ENSOvary spatially and
253
temporally. The consensus regarding California in El Nino years is that precipitation
increases in the south and decreases in the north (Fu et al., 1986; Schaner and Nicholson,
1989). In central coastal California, McCabe and Dettinger (1999) demonstrated a
significant correlation between 'type l' ENSO years and precipitation in the following
winter from 1961-1990. While Cayan et al., (1999) showed a link between strong ENSO
events and days of abnormally high precipitation. The link between stream flow and
precipitation in the small coastal mountain catchments of central California is greatly
affected by snow melt which may also in part account for any discontinuity {Emmett et al.,
2000}.
Given the variable periodicity of the ENSOphenomenon, its variable strength and the link
between precipitation/streamflow and the opening of coastal barrier systems in California,

there is every possibility that the ~8 year periodicity apparent in the short core grain size
data from Pescadero Marsh may be driven by the ENSO.In essence the implication is that
while shorter term, multiple, interconnected factors affect barrier opening and closure
across a range of temporal scales, ENSOmay well have provided the dominant mesoscale
control on barrier integrity at Pescadero Marsh during the 'stable' mean grain size base
level conditions of the historical period.
Attempts were made to analyse San Francisco rainfall data available for the historical
period and the limited data available regarding past streamflow in Pescadero Creek. The
San Francisco rainfall data strongly suggested periodicities between 4 and 8 years (see
figure 8.144). The period for which this data was available, 1850-2007, closely correlates to
the time thought to be represented by both core sections. Given the complex relationship
between rainfall, stream flow and barrier opening combined with the lack of confidence in
the core chronology beyond a depth of 57cm, a link between the two is highly plausible.
The limited stream flow data failed to produce any observable trends. The appearance of
the plots for both of these datasets served to demonstrate the strength of the signal
identified in both core sections and the potential significance of ENSOin affecting barrier
integrity.
Trends in ENSOactivity have become increasingly well documented over recent decades
and records of significant historical ENSOevents extend back to the is" Century. Beyond
this timeframe a wealth of records of ENSO activity have been compiled using
environmental proxies (NOAA, 2010). The chronology of the PM08R core is, however, not
sufficiently accurate to allow direct correlations to be made between documented ENSO
254
events and the mean grain size trend. The apparent correlation between the periodicity
identified in the mean grain size data set and that of the San Francisco rainfall data set
demonstrates a convincing link between ENSO driven precipitation trends and barrier inlet
opening at Pescadero. Further support comes from Li et al. (2011) who reconstructed a
record of ENSO activity, based on extensive North American tree ring records, covering the
past 1,100 years. They also used Wavelet analysis to identify and periodicities present in
their data set. Figure 8.145 shows the output of this analysis. The periodicity of ENSO has
been modulated over the last millennium by larger scale climate processes. However, it can
clearly be seen that the periodicity of ENSO over the last ~150 years (indicated by a dashed
line) is close to that identified in the PM08R mean grain size trend. In the short segment of
the plot that is relevant to the PM08R data set, a clear and confident periodicity of close to
8 years can be seen.
B. San Franctsco Rainfall (2007-1850)

1000
E
.. 800
800
i 400
0 20 40 80 80 100 120 140

TIme (Year)
2
4
j 8
~
"D 16
0
l 32
84
0 20 40 eo 80 100 120 140

Time (Year)
Figure 8.144: Results of wavelet time series analysis for San Francisco rainfall data from
2007-1850
255
2
4 -5-8
8
,...
~ 16
"'-"
32
'8
.1: 64
~
128
256
512
1000 1200 1400 1600 '1800

Year (AO)
Figure 8.145: Wavelet analysis of 1,100 year North American tree ring derived ENSO
variance series (reproduced from Li et al. 2011)
8.14 Grain Size Analysis Summary
On the basis of the grain size dataset, it seems that the mean grain size trend of the PM08R
core does indeed reflect environmental change in the back-barrier area linked to the
integrity of the barrier system and potentially driven primarily by ENSO cycles over the
historical period. A clear succession of characteristic grain size distributions, linked to
increasing depositional energy, in the back-barrier environment has been established. It is
also apparent that differing ranges of barrier integrity have characterised a number of
mean grain size base level core sections. More precise environmental interpretations have
been offered, beyond the basic interplay between deposition of suspension and saltation
loads, the key to these interpretations is the emergence of modes 5 and 6 and the
prominence of the finer modes. However, these latter interpretations remain tentative.
This level of insight could not be gained at a lower sampling resolution or from the
summary statistics dataset alone. The value of the methods used for reconstructing back-
barrier environmental change at this spatial and temporal resolution is evident. However, it
must be stressed that interpretations made on the basis of grain size data alone are limited.
Without additional information, the interpretations offered remain only potential
explanations. Knowledge of the study site and stratigraphic context means that the
potential range of depositional environments has been greatly narrowed down. This has
been provided by a detailed stratigraphic investigation of the Holocene evolution of
Pescadero Marsh, literature regarding analogous sites, historical records and aerial
photographs. However, more confident conclusions can only be drawn when supporting
data from other proxies for past back-barrier environments are consulted.
256
9 Geochemical Analysis of the PM08R Core
9.1 Element Groups
In order to identify and account for trends in the PM08R geochemical dataset, the first step
taken was to look for similar down-core trends between different elements. When plotted
down-core each individual element has a unique trend of abundance; these can be seen in
figure 9.1 a-p, however some similarities emerge between the concentration trends of
different elements. These similarities allowed the elements to be qualitatively grouped.
Among the elements presented, four groups became apparent. The first group comprises
Ti, AI, Rb, Si, Zr and K. The general down-core trend of concentration in this group is notably
similar to the down-core trend of the mean grain size q, curve (see figure 9.1g). Br, Fe, and
Zn make up the second group. The down-core loss-an-ignition (LOI) curve (figure 9.1k)
displays a similar trend to the elements in this group. The third group consists of Ca, Sr and
Mn. The down-core curves for Cl and 5 concentration have similarities with both the first
and second groups identified; however they have most similarities with each other. For this
reason these two elements are considered as another group. The only remaining element,
Pb, does not associate clearly with any of the other groups.
Principle Component Analysis (PCA) offers an opportunity to statistically validate the
observed element groups. The samples were plotted in multidimensional space according
to three axes. 41% of the variance in the dataset is explained by axis one alone with a
further 23% explained by axis two (see table 9.1).
1 6.48251 40.553
2 3.61259 22.599
3 1.49041 9.3236
4 1.04039 6.5084
geochemical data set
Ti, AI, Rb, Si, Zr and K are all closely associated in the PCA plot (see figure 9.2) with the
elements in this cluster having positive values for components 1 and 2. Ca, Sr and Mn are
also clustered together with negative values for component 1 and positive values for
component 2. Br, Fe and Zn also cluster along with LOI. The members of this cluster have
257
negative component 2 values and positive component 1 values but for Fe which has a small
negative value for component 1. Although not obviously associated with this group on the
basis of the down-core plot, PCA suggests that Pb is also associated with this group of
elements. Both Cl and 5 have negative values for components 1 and 2 and are positioned in
relatively close proximity to each other.
All of the elements included in the geochemical dataset can be identified as having
associations with different sources and processes. Where grouped elements can all be
related to the same source or process this is likely to be primary driver of their
concentration levels. In addition to their association with each other, the validity of the
element groups of the PM08R core is further strengthened by their lack of association with
other element groups; groups plotting on opposite sides of the centre of the plot are
negatively correlated.
258
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PPM: 0 10000 20000 o 100 200 300 400 o 200 400 600
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40
60
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140 140
160 160
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180 +---i.._--____c_-=....::~
Figure 9.1 (I-m): Down core concentrations (PPM) of Ca, 5r and Mn
PPM: 0 20000 40000 o 20000 40000 60000 o 100 200 300

o t.~----~----~ o
20
60 60
80 80
100 100
120
140
160
180 Pb
Figure 9.1 (n-p): Down core concentrations (PPM) of 5, Cl and Pb
261
Figure 9.2: Principle component analysis of the PM08R geochemical data set. Groups of
associated elements are indicated
9.1.1 Group 1
Ti, AI, Rb, Si, Zr and K are all elements which can be associated with weathering of parent
rock material or secondary weathering from soil profiles (Wedepohl, 1969, 1970 & 1974).
These elements can also be found in ground water or runoff but together suggest a
terrigenous source, i.e. Ti, K and Rb tend to be associated with clay minerals (Wedepohl,
1970 & 1974). In coastal sediment records Si concentration can be associated with the
abundance diatom frustules but, given the association here of Si with the terrigenous
minerogenic elements, is likely to reflect quartz and feldspars and therefore a coarser
minerogenic fraction or at least a higher mineral content. Zr is also an element which is
noted for its association with minerogenic matter being found in all minerals but most
prominent in quartz (Wedepohl, 1974).
9.1.2 Group 2
Fe, Br and to a lesser extent Zn are can be associated with plant matter (Wedepohl, 1972).
Both Br and Zn are also more prominent in marine than freshwater vegetation. Indeed, Br is
often enriched in saline water deposited sediments (Wedepohl, 1972). PCA suggests that
Pb is associated with this element cluster. While not being the most prominent of
262
associations for this element, Pb is readily maintained in plant cell membranes (Wedepohl,
1978). The association between these elements and LOI strongly suggests that they reflect
an increased organic content in samples. This is most likely due to complexation of these
elements with organic ligands which will increase when more organic matter is present
(Wedepohl, 1972). Indeed, Br needs organic matter to be present to be recorded
accounting down-core for the association between these two parameters (Wedepohl,
1972). The association of Fewith this element group and the lack of association between Fe
and Mn suggest that the ratio of these two elements is of little use as an indicator of
oxidation reduction conditions in the PM08R core (Cundy and Croudace, 1995). As a further
consideration, Zn and Pb are often associated with mineralised terrigenous material in the
form of metal ores (Wedepahi, 1972, 1978) in which case they may indicate heavy metal
concentrations or environmental pollution arising from human impact.
9.1.3 Group 3
Ca, in the form of CaC03, is the main component of shell material. Calcareous sediments
can result from the production of CaC03 by living organisms (Read, 1970). Sr is also often
associated with organic carbonates, Le. coccoliths, formaminifera and pteropods
(Wedepohl, 1974). The association between these two elements suggests that they reflect
biogenic shell material. Shell material, both whole and fragmented, is often a major
component of a coastal sand matrix.
Mn in this environmental context would most likely be present through incorporation in
organic material particularly algae (Wedepohl, 1972). However, Mn is also known to

replace alkaline earth elements, a group which includes Ca and Sr, in a wide variety of
compounds. One such example is MnC03, dialogite (or rhodochrosite), in which Mn
replaces Ca (Read, 1970). This mechanism would see Mn concentrating along with Ca and
Sr and probably explains the clustering of these elements. Indeed, Pilkey and Goodell
(1964) compile evidence which specifically supports the enrichment of Mn in fossil mollusc
shells.
9.1.4 Group 4
Na, Cl and S are the three most common elements found in sea water (Wedepohl, 1969 &
1970). Cl and S are noted in a number of studies as being associated with brackish to
marine deposits (Cundy et al., 2006). When the X-ray fluorescence measurements were
made on the PM08R core samples, concentrations of Na were not reported with sufficient
263
accuracy to merit inclusion in the geochemical dataset. S and Cl are the only two elements
in the PCA with negative component 1 and component 2 values. The association between
these elements makes it likely that they are associated with deposition in water of
increased salinity. These elements may be preserved in pore water, minerals, or plant
material. When such elements are associated with larger grain sizes a further possibility is
that post-depositional intrusions of saline water may be responsible for the trend.
However, it should be stressed that the relevant sediments are primarily silt and clay with a
sand trace as opposed to a sand dominated matrix.
A further paint of interest is the apparent proximity of S to the 'group 3' element cluster.
This may be explained by formation of anhydrite, CaS04, and gypsum, CaS042H20, during
the evaporation of sea water, a process which is common in marine marginal environments
(Hardie, 2003). However, the solubility of these minerals raises issues relating to
preservation.
9.1.5 Group Names
While the groups of elements do not exclusively or necessarily reflect these influences, to
aid descriptions of the dataset the four groups identified are referred to in order as the
'minerogenic', 'organic metal', 'shell' and 'salinity' groups. Pb is included in the 'organic
metal' group.
9.2 Down Core Geochemical Zones
The grouping of elements was dictated by similarities in down-core concentration both
qualitatively (by eye) and quantitatively (using peA). Following the identification of element
groups, down-core zones characterised by differing concentration trends were identified
for each group. A small degree of difference can be seen between some element
concentration trends in each group, however far more apparent is the similarity between
the grouped elements and the difference between groups. The general trend for each
group of elements is described in relation to the down-core zones identified. Fluctuation
characterises the down core curves of all the displayed elements, where appropriate the
overriding trajectory of the trend lines is described rather than the smaller scale
fluctuations.
264
9.2.1 Minerogenic Group Elements (figure 9.3 a-g)
A general impression of the down-core trend displayed by the minerogenic group as a

whole is depicted by figure 9.3a. From the bottom of the core moving upwards, zone 1
(~185-165cm) the general trend of the minerogenic elements is for a slight overall increase
in concentration. However, Ti remains relatively constant throughout the section while the
Zr curve features a pronounced rise and fall between ~180 and 170cm. Rb also features this
rise and fall but here it is part of an overall decline in zone 1. Moving upward through zone
2 (~165-150cm) a slight overall decrease is seen in all elements. Zone 3 (~150-138) seesthis
trend of decreasing concentration intensify, however this occurs at different depths for
different elements with AI, Rb and Si first appearing to increase slightly in the lower part of
zone 3. In zone 4 (~138-131cm) all the minerogenic elements experience periods of their
lowest sustained concentrations in the core. Ti and Zr appear to increase in concentration

from the base of this unit upwards. Zone 5 (~131-101cm) sees all concentrations remain
relatively low and stable. A subtle increase may be suggested to characterise the
minerogenic group elements in this zone. Zone 6 (~101-86cm) is clearly characterised by
increasing concentration, however the trend of Zr is unusual in stepping up ~95cm and then
declining over the remainder of the zone. All the minerogenic element concentrations
decrease in zone 7 (~86-80cm). Concentrations also decline throughout zone 8 (~80-40cm)
yet this decline is very subtle. Zone 9 ("'40-20cm) sees an increase in fluctuation, least
obvious in Ti and AI, and a pronounced overall increase in concentration. Fluctuation
remains pronounced in zone 10 ("'20-0cm) and an overall decrease in concentration is seen
in all of the minerogenic group elements.
9.2.2 Organic Metal Group and LOI (figure 9.4 a-g)
A general impression of the trend displayed by the organic metal group as a whole is given
by figure 9.4a. Pb is included with the organic metal group elements on the basis of the
PCA.The concentration curve for Pb is presented on a logarithmic scale as the down-core

trend is overwhelmingly dominated by an increase between "'60-30cm, probably related to
pollution from motor vehicles (see Section 7.1.2). Plotting Pb in this manner is intended to
bring out the trends in the remainder of the core, which PCAsuggests should be similar to
the others of the organic metal group. The logged curve of Pb concentration is
characterised by pronounced fluctuation and a lack of any clear trajectory (figure 9.4f).
However this is not an artefact of the logged data set as the curve does not change
265
significantly when the un-logged data is plotted with the X axis curtailed at SOppm(figure
9.4g).
In zone 1 (18S-165cm) all curves but Pb show a decline. This decline becomes less
pronounced above ~180cm with the concentration of Br actually increasing below this
depth. An increasing trend characterises zone 2 (~165-144cm), however a shift in the
nature of the trend is seen in Fe and Zn just below and above 160cm respectively. Again Pb
does not have a clear trajectory in this zone. Pb also remains relatively consistent but
variable in zone 3 (~144-130cm) while the other organic metal indicators decrease to their
lowest level in the core, remain low and then increase. This zone captures an 'event' as
opposed to a trend. The depths correlate with the appearance of the HEE7coarse sand
layer (high energy episode 7 as discussed in Section 8.8.2.7) including the initial staggered
increase in mean grain size.
Zone 4 (~130-112cm) sees concentrations increase, possibly including Pb but not Zn which
decreases slightly. Zone 5 (~112-94cm) is characterised by pronounced fluctuation while
concentrations of Zn, Br and Pb increase overall and the LOI and Fe curves decline. In zone
9 (~94-80cm) fluctuation is greatly reduced and an overall increase is apparent but for the
concentrations of Fe and Pb which show slight declines. Zone 7 (~80-72cm) is characterised
by a decline in all curves with the exception of Zn. Zone 8 (~72-15cm), similarly to zone 5, is
characterised by a large degree of fluctuation. An overall declining trend is apparent in zone
8, however Br shows an increase in concentration before beginning to decline while the

LOI%also slightly increases through this zone. In zone 8 the Pb trend is dominated by the
pollution signal discussed above and previously. Zone 9 (~15-0cm) sees the organic metal
indicator curves all increase toward the surface, with the exception of Pb which slightly
declines.
9.2.3 Shell Group Elements (figure 9.5 a-d)
Once more a generalised impression of the trend displayed by the group as a whole is
displayed in figure 9.5a. A decrease characterises all of the shell group elements in zone 1
(~185-180cm). Zone 2 (~180-165cm) sees the concentrations of Ca and Mn increase while
Sr remains relatively consistent but for fluctuation. A decrease is apparent in all element
concentrations through zone 3 (~165-142cm). In contrast, zone 4 (~142-129cm) reflects the
HEE7event with Ca and Sr increasing up to a depth of ~130cm before rapidly declining,
while Mn declines to a depth of ~138cm before increasing in concentration. Zone 5 (~129-
123cm) then sees Ca and Sr increase while Mn continues to decline. A decline characterises
266
all curves in zone 6 (~123-95cm), however above 1l0cm the trend actually becomes a very
slight increase in the Ca and Sr concentrations. Zone 7 (~95-80cm) sees an overall decline in
the shell group elements but Mn is seen to increase before decreasing. In zone 8 (~80-
43cm), while the element concentrations have no overall trajectory, fluctuation in Sr
increases notably. The marked increase of fluctuation in Sr continues throughout zone 9
(~43-0cm) and all elements show an overall increase in concentration toward the surface.
9.2.4 Salinity Group Elements (figure 9.6 a-c)
A general impression of the down-core trend displayed by these elements is given first in
figure 9.6a. S increases in concentration through zone 1 (~185-162cm) while Cl shows an
overall decline, with a step down in concentration occurring just below 170cm and a
subsequent step up just above 175cm. Zone 2 (~162-147cm) sees S decline while the
concentration of Cl is relatively consistent but showing a slight overall increase. The salinity
group elements correlate well in zone 3 (~147-140cm) with both rapidly increasing. Close
correlation is not apparent in zone 4 ("'140-130cm) which again relates to the HEE7 event. S
declines before increasing in this zone while Cl does the opposite. The trends of both
elements shift at "'135cm. Correlation between the trends of the salinity group elements is
seen again in zone 5 ("'130-123cm) as both decline in concentration. Zone 6 ("'123-94cm)
sees both elements describe a curved increase and subsequent decrease. An overall
decrease is seen in this zone which is notable for the very pronounced fluctuation seen in
both curves. In zone 7 ("'94-80cm) both elements increase in concentration throughout.
Zone 8 ("'80-72cm) then sees both curves decline. The concentrations of S and Cl remain
relatively stable throughout zone 9 (~72-12cm) as a whole, however the concentration of Cl
fluctuates considerably. Both elements increase in concentration toward the surface in
zone 10 (~12-0cm).
267
00
~
N
o .S!
o 0
o
o .!:
<:t ~
t'1l
Vl
8 t'1l
8
N
Cl.
::l
0
~
0.0
(l)
o s:
.p.-
.....
o 0
o
II)
a.. "0
N c:
(l)
~
.p.-
c
.Q
.p.-
~
t'1l
.p.-
c:
(l)
u
0
c
0
u
(l)
0
0 s:
.p.-
25 .....
0 0
<:t
c
.Q
Vl
Vl
(l)
~
0
0 Cl.
N
E
t'1l
~
(l)
0 c:
(l)
0.0
25N t'1l
Vl
~
0
s:
Vl
0
0 t'1l
.... .....,
-0
(l)
.p.-
t'1l
0 .!:!
"0
c
0 Vl
0 (l)
0 c:
0 0
0 N
N
(l)
~
0 0
0 U
250 c:
.... ~
0
"0
s:
.p.-
0 .~
Cl.
::l
8 0
~
0
0
.... ._ 0.0
0
0
0
.... u
c:
(l)
0.0
0
III ~
(l)
c:
0 ~
-~
~m s....
0 0 0 0
~
~
0
....0 0
N
0
M
0
<:t
0
III (5 0
,.... 0
CO
0
en 8
....
........
0 0
....
N rtl
.... <:t
.... ....
II)
0
\0
....
,....
....
!::.
-t'1l
.....,
ITii
~
til
N
0"1
(l)
~
0"1 00
I ::l
0.0
iZ
(j)
U)
N
~
0
s:
3
ro
VI
ro
o
Cl.
'" :::l
0
~
0.0
o ClJ
s:
~
'+-
0
..c "0
c
"- ~~
ClJ
c
0
'_;j
ro
~~
c
ClJ
u
c
0
u
C])
8
o
..r:
~
~ '+-
'- 0
cc
8
."
o
o ro
"it
VI
o
o
r5 ~ VI
N ro
~
"0
~ClJ
o ro
u
"0
C
0
,......
N
Cl)
0
s:
~
n:l
Vl
n:l
0
0 (tID)~~d~a o,
cO :::::s
0
~
0.0
n
0 c: Cl)
..r:::.
....,
'<t
s .....0
"0
0 c:
Cl
N
~
Cl)
....,
~~ c:
0
0 , , ....,
n:l
~
:;.
N ~ s [;6 0
0
.....
0
""....
0
<;j-
..... s.... 0
CD
....
....,
c:
Cl)
0 U
0
C~ c:
0
u
Cl)
s:
....,
.....
0 0
0
'<t c:
0
Vl
Vl
Cl)
~
o,
E
n:l
8 ~
Cl)
N
c:
Cl)
0.0
n:l
Vl
~
0
s:
Vl
0 n:l
0 :;. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
~
~ <;j- \0 00 0
..... ..."" <;t
..... cO
.... ,.,
Cl)
"0
....,
Cl)
n:l
0 U
0
0 "0
c,
0 c
Vl
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c:
0
N
Cl)
0
~
0
0 u
0
0
..... c:
~
0
~~ "0
s:
....,
~~~
.~
o,
0 :::::s
0
0 0
..... 0 0 0 0
s 0
r-, 55 0 0
0
0
.-<
0
N
0 0
<;j-
0
lfl
0
cO ,...
0 0
co ~
i N <"') <;j- Lf1 (II
.-< ..... .... rrl
.-< ..... .-< ..... ..... .... 0.0
U
~ c:
n:l
~I~
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O"l
~
0
j~ ~
-,
"0
n:l
If)
0)
~
Cl)
:::::s
.~
u..
(PPM) 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 0 21)000 40000 60000
Zones
r
0
/ 10 5
10
15
20
2:)
30
l
35
40 ~
"IS
50 ~
55 ~
60
;>
9 65 ~
70
\ 8 75
80
85
E
.!i.
7 90 .J!
95 i
0
100
105
11U
6 115
120
\ ......5 125
130
': ....
135
4
140
/ 3 145
r.;; '. 150
... "
2 155
160
165
170
;\ 1 175
180
ISS
Cl
Figure 9.6 (a-c): Salinity group with down core zones indicated. 4a shows a general
impression of the concentration trend of the group as a whole
9,2.5 Geochemical Zones and Mean Grain Size Base Level Sections
The down-core zones identified from the trends of each element group are presented
together with the mean grain size base level (MGSBL) sections in figure 9.7. Obvious
similarities and differences can be seen between the down-core zones of the different
element groups and also the MGSBL sections. MGSBL sections G and F coincide with the
geochemical zones, as does the HEE7 sand layer. Geochemical distinction between MGSBL
E, D and C appears limited but a distinction between these sections and MGSBL B emerges
with some overlap between MGSBL C and B. MGSBL A is also apparent in the geochemical
zonation, although further divisions of the geochemical data are present in this section.
It is apparent that a clear connection exists between independently-defined geochemical
trends and the mean grain size trend. As the zones based on the different element groups
do not directly correlate, but all show a clear relation to the MGSBL sections, the MGSBL
sections thus provide an appropriate basis for further consideration of the geochemical
271
dataset. In addition, use of the MGSBL sections allows the geochemistry data to be
interpreted in the same environmental framework as the grain size data thus facilitating
comparisons both between and within the different MGSBL sections in relation to changes
in barrier regime.
Minerogenic Organic metal Shell Salinity

MGSBL Zones
group lanes group zones group zones grouQ_ zones
o
No regular fluctuation Zone9 Zone 10
10 Zone 10
- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
20 Zone 9
30 Zone 9
40 MGSBlA Zone 9
Zone a
50
60 Zone 8 Zone 8
70
Zone 7 Zone 8
HI h enerev episode hiatus
Lone
MGSBL 8
Zone6 Zone 7 Zone 7
Zone6
MGSBlC
Zone 5
MGSBl D Zone S Zone 6
110
Zone 5
120
MGSBl E Zone 4
Zone 5 Zone 5
130
High energy episode 7 Zone 4
Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 4
140
Zone3 Zone 3
150
MGSBlf Zone 2 Zone 3
Zone 2
160 Zone 2
170
MGSBlG Zone 1 Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 1
180
Zone
Figure 9.7: Diagram showing the down-core zones of differing element groups and their
relation to mean grain size base level sections
9.3 Mean Grain Size Base Level Sample Clusters
In order to explore geochemical similarities and differences between and within the
individual MGSBL sections, samples from each MGSBL section were labelled in the PCA of
the whole core geochemical dataset. Individual samples are located in relation to the
parameters which best characterise them in relation to the sample group as a whole.
Indicating the distribution of samples from each MGSBL section on the PCA plot using
ellipses shows both the clustering of samples from the same MGSBL and dispersion of
samples from differing MGSBL sections within the main cluster (figure 9.8). The distribution
of samples from each MGSBL is discussed below with reference to the apparent
characteristics of the samples in each of these units.
272
~ :...
.- ..... ......
.. 1 :.. :
Figure 9.B: peA analysis of PMOBR geochemical data set. MGSBL sample groups are
indicated
9.3.1 MGSBL A (figure 9.9)
MGSBL A, along with MGSBL G, is one of only two MGSBL units to include intermediate high
energy episode sediments (IHEE). Both IHEE 1 and particularly IHEE 2 (see section B.B.2)
comprise a large number of samples. These samples were not considered to be
representative of the background environmental fluctuation observed through the unit. On
the basis of the grain size dataset, the inclusion of those samples up core of IHEE 2 within
MGSBL A became questionable as a coarsening upward trend was observed in the
uppermost centimetres of MGSBL A. Furthermore, the minerogenic, salinity and organic
element indicator groups suggest a geochemical distinction at or around the lower limit of
IHEE 2. As a result, the geochemical data for MGSBL A were considered from below IHEE 2
(beginning with the 15.0-15.2cm sample). The lower limit of MGSBL A was, however,
revised to include the IHEE events 5 and 6, located between ~75cm and BD cm depth (see
figure B.3). These episodes appeared to be in step with the mean grain size fluctuation of
MGSBL A and are analogous in magnitude to IHEE 3 and 4 which are also found in this
section. Within the proposed interpretive model, the possibility remains that these IHEE
samples represent periods of marked inlet opening within the background barrier regime of
this core section as opposed to high magnitude/low frequency events.
273
A
Figure 9.9: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set. MGSBL A samples are indicated
The spread of the samples from MGSBL A is the broadest of all the MGSBL groups.
However, all samples from MGSBL A are dispersed between the minerogenic and organic
metal group element clusters. When the PCA plot is presented again with arbitrarily
identified coarser 6.24 and finer samples (>6.84 indicated (figure 9.10), grain size
related trends in geochemistry emerge. In MGSBL A fluctuation in the LOI curve is
pronounced (see figure 9.11). This fluctuation is closely mirrored by the mean grain size et>
curve. This is largely reflected in the geochemical associations observed as the majority of
the coarser samples cluster with the organic metal group elements. While the lower energy
samples appear to plot in a transition between the minerogenic and organic metal indicator
groups. In general, it appears that the distribution of samples between the minerogenic and
organic metal groups represents an energy gradient with the more organic samples being
those of coarser mean grain size. The implication is that higher depositional energy is
accompanied by greater organic deposition. Increasing depositional energy is thought most
likely to be related to decreasing barrier integrity. However, a small sub-population of
higher energy samples is associated with the minerogenic elements, particularly K. This sub-
population of coarse samples does not fit into the broader interpretation and likely implies
higher energy deposition from a terrestrial source or the availability of larger grain sizes.
274
.....
8_
Com~1
Figure 9.10: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set. MGSBL A samples are indicated
with coarser samples in red ellipses and finer samples in blue ellipse
0 2 6 10 0 20 40 60 80
0
10
20
30
MGSBLA
40 -
50
60
70
80
MGSBLB
90 -!
100
110
120
MGSBLE
130
140
150
MGSBL F
160
170
Mean Grain MGSBLG

180
Size and loss on ignition with MGSBL sections
indicated
275
9.3.2 MGSBL B (figure 9.12)
MGSBL B samples are also distributed between the minerogenic and organic metal element
clusters. Both the number of samples and the range of dispersion are more limited in
MGSBL B as is the fluctuation in mean grain size in this core section. It appears that more of
the samples in this unit are predominantly associated with the minerogenic elements than
with the organic metal elements. This increase in prominence of minerogenic samples
along with the decrease in fluctuation of mean grain size and a finer MGSBL is consistent
with the trends inferred in MGSBL A, i.e. lower depositional energy is accompanied by a
reduced organic content. This is confirmed when the PCA is displayed with coarser 6.9cp)
and finer (>7.0cp) samples indicated (see figure 9.13). The implication is that the barrier
system is more coherent in the MGSBL B limiting the relatively high energy fluctuations. In
effect the samples of MGSBL B suggest an environment consistent with that represented by
the lower energy samples of MGSBL A.
The relationship observed between the samples of MGSBL A and B on the basis of their
geochemistry is very similar to the relationship observed on the basis of their grain size
summary statistics. When PCA was performed with grain size summary statistics the sample
cluster of MGSBL B was again nested within that of MGSBL A, also implying restricted
deviation from an analogous background state. It appears that the wider range of mean
276
grain size values in MGSBL A is accompanied by a wider range of geochemical
characteristics in addition to a wider range of grain size distribution styles.
. . .
...J .l. J ; ~. . ;..; .
.. .~.. . .... ~ . . .. . ~. . ! ~. . . ~ .
f ..i .... .; .
... B ;;;ibq>rflnerT'
<~.9<p (coarser): . .. .. ,'_ - .; ~
.. ........i. . j .......... :..
with coarser samples in red ellipse and finer samples in blue ellipse
9.3.3 MGSBL C (figure 9.14)
) :
_ . : ~ a. ...... ~_ . ,! .".. ~
~ : ..
.- !
.............!.. . . :.. . - ~.- ~- ... .. ... ~.. . .. _- .:. .
.... :.
...... ;....
277
The distribution of samples from MGSBL C again sees an elongated ellipse apparently
indicating a spread between two contrasting attractors. However, on closer inspection
there appear to be three areas of the plot where samples are focused. As with MGSBL A
and B, one of these attractors is the minerogenic indicator group. In this unit the
association with the minerogenic group is focussed on Zr and K. A sizeable proportion of
the samples are also associated with the organic metal group. However, these samples also
seem drawn toward the salinity group. The third attractor appears to be specifically Cl, with
a significant cluster of samples strongly associated with this element .
...
....... : .
:
.... .; ...... ~"" :.........
..
.,
..i ..........
i ~ ~
.~, ... <G.-o> (cparsed: .

~>$.2rnner): ___liiiiiiiIiiii
.,, .,;
When coarser 6.04 and finer (>6.24 samples are indicated on the plot (see figure 9.15),
the finer samples associate with both the minerogenic and organic metal groups and the
coarser samples predominantly associate with Cl. The distribution of the finer samples is
likely in-keeping with the trends observed in MGSBL A and B with the transition from
minerogenic to organic metal dominance again being related to increased depositional
energy accompanied by the deposition of an increased organic component. The strong
association between Cl and the coarser samples suggests an association with increased
salinity. The combination of increased salinity and depositional energy implies a more open
barrier regime and more marine influence. However preservation of a salinity signal in the
sediment record is an issue as chlorides are soluble. Cl may have been preserved in pore
278
water, although it remains possible that post-depositional intrusion of saline groundwater
accounts for this trend. If the association with Cl is indeed an indicator of more marine
conditions it appears that this core section sees a recovery in barrier coherence at a depth
of ~95cm above which depth Cl associated coarse mean grain size samples are no longer
found.
9.3.4 MGSBL D (figure 9.16)
The samples of MGSBL 0 are divided between those which associate with both of the
salinity group elements and those which specifically and strongly associate with Cl. There is
a degree of dispersion across the short axis of the ellipse which sees samples distributed
between Cl and S with some samples also appearing to be pulled toward the adjacent shell
group, however the main factor in the distribution is the strength of the association with Cl,
which accounts for dispersal along the long axis of the ellipse.
I
....... -:.' ~- _ ~...... _ ~ .
.. ... ..... ~-
.. ...: .
. j~'-'" ;.
Figure 9.16: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set. MGSBL 0 samples are indicated
As the majority of samples in this group are strongly associated with Cl, this implies
association with conditions of yet further elevated salinity compared with MGSBL C.
Indeed, but for the relevant samples found in MGSBL C, no other core sections includes
samples which are so strongly characterised by their association with Cl. This observation
appears to support interpretation, made On the basis of the grain size dataset, that MGSBL
D records sedimentation under the most 'open' barrier regime captured by the PM08R
279
core. When the coarser S.O) and finer samples (>S.4) of the group are indicated on the
plot (figure 9.17) it is clear that the coarser samples are those more strongly associated
with Cl appearing to confirm the link between more open barrier conditions and salinity
indicator elements, again acknowledging the potential for increased diagenetic influence of
saline groundwater in coarser sediment layers.
Comptnen11
Figure 9.17: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set. MGSBL D samples are indicated
9.3.5 MGSBL E (figure 9.18)
Samples in this group are either distributed between the shell group and 5, of the salinity
group, or strongly associated with S alone. The former trend occurs across the short axis of
the ellipse, the later sees samples placed with increasing distance from the centre of the
plot toward and beyond the location of 5. When coarser S.4) and finer (>S.6) samples
were indicated on the plot no distinction emerged between these groups.
This distribution is interpreted as reflecting a transition between samples characterised by
their salinity and samples characterised by biogenic shell matter with the latter being more
prominent in this core section.
280
ot :
.:... ...... !.":.!._ ..
........ .-!" ....
i -a ......... .
!
ii,.,- : : . . :. : .
: :
..1 ... ~ .. .. .. ,._ - -
._ _. -
~~. . . .:
Figure 9.18: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set. MGSBL E samples are indicated
9.3.6 MGSBL F (figure 9.19)
The samples of MGSBL F are not overtly characterised by any of the element groups. A
number of samples sit close to the centre of the plot suggesting a relatively even
association with all elements but the majority of samples sit between the minerogenic and
shell groups. No differences emerge between the distribution of arbitrarily identified
coarser 6.8<1 and finer (>6.8<1sample groups.
But for MGSBL B, the mean grain size base level of MGSBL F is the finest in the core and the
loss on ignition curve suggests that organic material remains low throughout (see figure
9.11). The most likely explanation for the observed trend would be minerogenic
sedimentation with a shell component which is more significant in some samples than
others.
It is probable that this section of the core reflects a stable, relatively closed back-barrier
environment, due to the fine MGSBL, the limited magnitude of grain size fluctuation and
the lack of samples characterised by associations with the organic metal or salinity
elements.
281
~ ...i..
4F,i..
Figure 9.19: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set. MGSBL F samples are indicated
9.3.7 MGSBL G (figure 9.20)
The samples of MGSBL G are distributed in two populations. The first is drawn toward the
organic metal group but remains close to the centre of the plot. The second is found
between the minerogenic and the shell groups. This latter sub-population suggests either a
continuum between samples which are characterised by the minerogenic and the shell
group elements or a sub-population characterised by low organic matter. The MGSBL is
slightly coarser in MGSBL G than MGSBL F, fluctuation in mean grain size is also more
pronounced. However, the section is still limited in both mean grain size and fluctuation
relative to the wider core.
The emergence of an organic sub-population appears likely to reflect those samples present
with coarser mean grain sizes than found in MGSBL F. Again arbitrarily identified coarser
6.3cf and finer (>6.Scf sample groups were plotted to identify any grain size related
trend. Despite the continued mirroring of the mean grain size <p and the LOI curves in this
core section the association with the organic metal group is not limited to the coarser
samples, rather the distribution between the organic metal and the minerogenicjshell
populations sees the coarser and finer samples distributed almost evenly. In this instance
the prominence of organic matter may be related to productivity in the back-barrier area as
opposed to higher energy marine incursion.
282
Figure 9.20: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set. MGSBL G samples are indicated
9.4 Associations between Geochemistry and Grain Size Summary
Statistics
In many of the MGSBL sections clear links between geochemical and grain size data are
identified. Furthermore, in several of these sections there appears to be a continuum of
samples between two attractor element groups which may be linked to extremes in
depositional energy. The assertion that a considerable degree of the geochemical trends
observed can be explained by or are directly linked to variations in mean grain size is
supported by the inclusion of the four grain size summary statistics (mean, sorting,
skewness and kurtosis) in the PCA plot of the geochemical data (see figure 9.21). When the
PCA is augmented to include these additional parameters, 40% of the variance in the data
set is explained by axis one with a further 19% explained by axis two (see table 9.2). The
distribution of the elements and samples is changed in terms of their locations in ordination
space relative to the two axes, however there is negligible difference in the observed
associations between the samples and elements. The inclusion of the grain size summary
statistics in the PCA primarily serves to illustrate the link between grain size and
geochemistry, and associations between the summary statistics and the varying element
clusters are also demonstrated. These associations allow further insight into the differing
characteristics of the samples within each MGSBL section.
283
I
!
Figure 9.21: PCA analysis of PM08R geochemical data set and grain size summary statistics.
MGSBL sample clusters
Sorting is strongly associated with the organic metal element group. However, as the
sorting values are in <f> units, higher values reflect poorer sorting. Therefore samples which
are strongly associated with the organic metal group are also likely to be relatively poorly
sorted. In the MGSBL samples there was an overall trend of increasingly poor sorting with
coarsening mean grain size. Therefore, the interpretation of increasing (and less consistent)
depositional energy being signified by elements associated with the organic metal group,
particularly in MGSBL A and B, appears to be valid.
Skewness and kurtosis are both strongly associated with the shell group elements. Higher
values for these parameters suggest increased positive (fine) skew and more peaked
distributions. While some clusters of elements from MGSBL sections D, E, F and G do have
associations with the shell group elements, no section includes a large proportion of
samples which are strongly associated with these elements. However, those samples of
MGSBL D and E which were observed to be loosely associated with the shell group
elements were suggested to be the lower energy samples present. These core sections
were characterised by interplay between INT2 and INB grain size distribution styles (see
table 8.4), the 'one humped' and 'high energy two humped' curve shapes, with the former
associated with finer mean grain size samples of MGSBL D and E. The INT2 distribution is
strongly positively skewed and observably peaked in relation to the other characteristic
background and intermediate group distribution styles.
284
Those samples strongly characterised by their positive skewness and high kurtosis were
found in the high energy episodes, particularly the largest such episode in the core (HEE7).
The coarse sand samples of HEE7 are clearly associated with high kurtosis values. It is these
samples which form the unmarked cluster with high component 1 values to the bottom
right of the PCA plot in figure 9.21. The association with high skewness and particularly
kurtosis values is clear. As is the association with the shell group minerals (Ca, Sr and Mn)
which points to the inclusion of shell fragments in the sand matrix of these samples.
Mean grain size is not associated with any of the element groups but extends almost
exactly along component 1. The implication is that trends in mean grain size can explain
close to 40% of the variance in the geochemistry of the PM08R core (see table 9.2).
1 8.04956 40.378
2 3.8787 19.456
3 1.78768 8.9674
4 1.3894 6.9695
geochemical data set and grain size summary statistics
9.5 End-Member Samples
On the basis of the grain size data set it was suggested that samples located in the recurring
peaks and troughs of the MGSBL sections of the mean grain size cl> curve were
representative of contrasting relatively more closed and more open barrier conditions.
These samples can be considered as low and high depositional energy end members,
reflecting the quasi regular environmental extremes of the barrier regime during each
MGSBL section. The differences between the envisaged 'open estuarine' and 'closed
lagoon' sedimentation are discussed in Section 3.3.1. Informed by this model of
sedimentation and assuming some degree of similarity between the past and present
system at Pescadero, there is potential for characteristic trends in geochemistry to emerge
related to the degree of barrier 'openness'. Such trends could be driven by sediment
source, depositional and post-depositional processes and indeed by the geochemistry of
specific grain size fractions deposited. If geochemical signatures of back-barrier sediments
do characterise specific barrier configurations then such contrasts are most likely to exist
and to be identified between the end-member samples. Identifying such trends could offer
285
support to the conclusions drawn from the grain size data set and potentially offer further
insight into the parameters of the end-member environments in each MGSBL section.
MGSBL High energy end members Low energy end members
q,) (>q,)
A 5.9 7.2
B 6.7 7.1
C 5.6 6.4
D 4.62 4.78
E 5.2 5.86
F 6.12 6.68
G 6.62 7.1
Table 9.3: Upper and lower mean grain size limits used to identify high and low energy end
member samples in each MGSBL core section
An upper and lower size limit was selected for each MGSBL with only the samples above
and below these depths designated as end-member samples. Identifying samples in this
arbitrary manner was intended to capture only those which were characteristic of the
recurring grain size peaks and troughs in each MGSBL section (see figure 8.3 for reference).
In addition to the high and low energy end member sample groups, IHEE are also indicated
when they occur within a MGSBL sample set. The classification of these samples is
discussed in Section 8.10.2. This section also explains why IHEE samples are not considered
as representing 'end-member' states.
Principle component analysis was performed using only the geochemical data set from each
individual MGSBL section. In each individual PCA the high and low energy end-member
samples of the relevant core section were labelled. The results are described below.
9.5.1 MGSBl A (figure 9.22)
Eigen values and percentage variance for the four most important principle components
are displayed in table 9.4. Analysis of MGSBL A was again limited to those samples found
below IHEE 2 to avoid detracting from any geochemical trends apparent in the section of
fluctuation around the mean grain size base level.
286
1 5.85808 36.761
2 2.84883 17.877
3 2.22063 13.935
4 1.82652 11.462
MGSBL A geochemical data set
In MGSBL A, separation of high energy end-member (HEEM) samples and low energy end-
member (LEEM) samples is not apparent. The location of the ellipses which surround the
clusters of HEEM and LEEM samples and intermediate high energy episode (IHEE) samples
suggest that each of these groups is attracted to a different cluster of elements. However,
the alignment of the ellipses is largely due to the inclusion of outlying samples and should
not be interpreted. Instead the majority of the high and low energy end-member samples
are mixed in a central cluster. Any degree of overlap between these two sample groups
would appear to preclude a contrasting environmental signal between end-member groups
for this core section in the bulk geochemical data-set.
High energy end members: _

low energy end members:
Intermediate high energy episodes:
-2 ............................... _ ...
A ............... _ ... _ .. ".- ..... _ .... ~-. -"
..._ .....
Figure 9.22: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL A with end member samples indicated
287
Separation of the IHEE samples, however, is apparent as these samples largely plot away
from the central cluster. A small degree of overlap exists between the IHEE samples and the
high energy end-member samples. A degree of association between these groups would be
expected. Yet while the IHEE samples show geochemical distinction from the LEEM
samples, the HEEM samples do not.
The associations between elements differ in MGSBL A samples compared to the core as a
whole. Neither the HEEM nor LEEM samples show a clear association with any particular
elements or element groups. The IHEE samples are largely associated with a cluster of
parameters including LOI, Pb, Zn, 5, Cl and Br which likely indicate increased salinity and
organic matter. The association between the IHEE samples and these elements is
compatible with the suggestion that increased depositional energy in the back-barrier
results from a more open barrier leading to a more saline depositional environment and
apparently the more rapid accretion of organic matter. Two further element clusters in
MGSBL A are observed, the first is primarily minerogenic including Mn, K, Si, AI, Rb and Ti.
The second has associations with the shell group and includes Sr, Ca, Zr and Rb.
9.5.2 MGSBL B (figure 9.23)
In this core section there does appear to be some level of distinction between the high and
low energy end-member samples. A predominantly minerogenic and shell indicator
element cluster emerges in the PCA plot (Si, AI, Ti, K, Ca, Mn and additionally Fe) as does an
organic/salinity cluster (LOI, 5, Br and Cl). However, neither population appears to be a
coherent cluster or to be characterised by an association with any particular element group
and the LEEM sample cluster is located within the HEEM sample 'cluster' range. Therefore,
it is not possible to satisfactorily identify discrete geochemical signatures for either group.
1 8.79781 57.768
2 1.83875 12.073
3 1.30695 8.5816
4 1.03324 6.7844
Table 9.5: Eigen values and % variance for principle components 1-4 In PCA analysis of the
MGSBL B geochemical data set
288
Figure 9.23: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL B with end member samples indicated
9.5.3 MGSBL C (figure 9.24)
A clear distinction between HEEM and LEEM samples is apparent. The LEEM samples are
widely dispersed and not characterised as a group by association with any particular
elements. Conversely, the HEEM samples form a coherent cluster which sees the samples
drawn together on the basis of their association with Zn, 5, LOI, Br, Cl and Fe. These
elements are primarily organic metal indicators with the two salinity indicators also
included. A cluster of minerogenic indicator elements and shell group elements is also
present (K, Ti, AI, Si, Mn and Ca), however neither end-member group, nor indeed any
other samples, plot in this area of the chart.
1 9.66973 61.284
2 2.70211 17.125
3 1.01204 6.414
4 0.786045 4.9817
MGSBL C geochemical data set
289
High energy end members: _
low energy end members: _
Figure 9.24: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL C with end member samples indicated
9.5.4 MGSBL 0 (figure 9.25)
A clear distinction between HEEM and LEEM samples also emerges in MGSBL D. HEEM
samples again appear clustered due to mutual associations with S, LOI, Br, Cl and Fe. Zn
could also be considered associated with this element group. Together these elements
indicate increased organic matter and salinity. This is the same cluster of elements with
which the HEEM samples of MGSBL C were associated. In MGSBL 0 the LEEM samples also
cluster. These samples appear to be characterised by Ti, AI, Rb and K, all of which are
members of the minerogenic group when the core was analysed as a whole.
1 8.38934 53.324
2 2.70556 17.197
3 1.23048 7.8211
4 1.05744 6.7212
MGSBL D geochemical data set
290
.
i
!
'
. . _"_...... . -. , ~
Figure 9.25: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL D with end member samples indicated
9.5.5 MGSBl E (figure 9.26)
Similarly to MGSBL B, in MGSBL E the distribution of HEEM and LEEM samples suggests
some level of distinction between the two, however as a whole the samples in each group
do not form coherent clusters or reveal obvious associations with any particular elements.
It is worth noting that three of the five HEEM samples are associated with a cluster
predominantly comprised of organic metal and salinity indicators (Fe, S, Cl, LOI and
additionally Mn). These elements were associated with the HEEM samples of MGSBL C and
D. However, the remaining two HEEM samples are not associated with this element group.
No apparent sub-groups are identified among the low energy end-member samples. A
predominantly minerogenic element cluster also forms (AI, K, Ti, Rb, Si and also Br) yet no
associations with end-member samples are apparent.

1 4.33098 28.294
2 3.81201 24.903
3 2.39164 15.624
4 1.73583 11.34
Table 9.8: Eigen values and % variance for principle components 1-4 In PCA analysis ofthe
MGSBL E geochemical data set
291
High energy end members:
Low energy end members:
I
j
Cornporoi!!Cl
Figure 9.26: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL E with end member samples indicated
9.5.6 MGSBl F (figure 9.27)
A number of HEEM and LEEM samples are clustered together toward the bottom centre of
the PCA plot with positive component 1 and negative component 2 values. These samples
all appear to be characterised by associations with Cl, Rb, LOI and Br which may be
considered to indicate organic matter and salinity. The location of the remaining HEEM
samples, almost directly opposite, suggests that they are characterised by their low
concentration of these elements rather than positioned on the basis of an association with
any others. The remaining LEEM sample, located on the extreme right of the plot, also
appears to have no clear association with any of the elements. HEEM and LEEM samples in
MGSBL F are not obviously mixed they do appear in some instances to have associations
with similar elements and they certainly cannot be distinguished on the basis of contrasting
associations.
292
1 5.71661 36.435
2 4.19129 26.713
3 1.47506 9.4012
4 1.25587 8.0043
Table 9.9: Eigen values and % vanance for principle components 1-4 in PCA analysis of the
MGSBL F geochemical data set
i
J
Figure 9.27: PCA of geochemical data for MG5BL F with end member samples indicated
9.5.7 MGSBL G (figure 9.28)
In this MGSBL section a salinity/organic metal cluster (Cl, Fe, Zn, Br and LOI) is present as is
a predominantly minerogenic group cluster (K, Si, AI, Ti, Rb and also Mn) and a cluster with
connections to the shell group (Ca, 5, Sr, Zr). However, there is no distinction between the
HEEM and LEEM samples of MGSBL G. Indeed both sample types are well mixed and show
associations with more than one element group plotting primarily close to either the
salinity/organic or the 'shell' element cluster. The IHEE samples in this section are largely
plotted among the end-member sample groups near the 'shell' element cluster, but for one
outlier which appears to be located on the basis of its low minerogenic concentration.
293
1 6.79562 42.879
2 4.35328 27.468
3 1.49 9.4016
4 1.03456 6.5279
MGSBL G geochemical data set
High energy end members:

low energy end members:
Intermediate high energy episodes:
Figure 9.28: PCA of geochemical data for MGSBL G with end member samples indicated
9.5.8 End-Member Distinctions
Distinctions between HEEM and LEEM samples are limited in the individual MGSBL core
sections yet evidence for a distinction is apparent in a selection of these sections. The
distribution of samples in MGSBL Band E suggests some underlying differences in the
geochemistry of the end members; however the dispersal of each group's samples on the
PCA plot cannot be readily related to distinct geochemical characteristics of either group. In
short, neither of these MGSBL sections reveals a categorical distinction between the HEEM
and LEEM samples in terms of their geochemical characteristics. MGSBL C and 0 on the
other hand do reveal a clear contrast between the end-member sample groups.
294
In MGSBLC the HEEM samples form a population which appears distinct from the main
cluster of data points. This sub-population is associated with an element group suggestive
of a high organic metal component and elevated salinity in the depositional environment.
Three additional samples fall within the ellipse that surrounds the high energy end-member
samples. A lack of distinction from those samples not included in either end-member group
(henceforth referred to as 'less extreme' samples) could be problematic, however in this
instance it can be assumed that these few samples were representative of a high energy
end member state but were not identified when the group was defined in an arbitrary
manner. The LEEM samples, while distinct from the HEEM group, appear to be largely
indistinct from the less extreme samples of the section. A small cluster of LEEMsamples can
be seen to the left of the PCA plot showing some level of association with a number of
elements from the original minerogenic group. The remaining LEEM samples are located
relatively centrally with some appearing drawn toward the element group associated with
the HEEM samples. It would appear that while the environment reflected by the HEEM
samples is distinct from the general'background' environment of this unit, that the LEEM
environment does not represent a significant departure from this background state.
In contrast to the trend of MGSBL c, it is the LEEM samples which are distinct from the
main sample cluster in MGSBL D. Again a small number of less extreme samples are
associated with this outlying population and again they must be assumed to be end-
member samples which were not included in the group due to the arbitrary identification
procedure. The LEEM population in MGSBL 0 is associated with an element group
containing AI, Ti, Rb and K. These elements were all members of the minerogenic group
which emerged when the core was analysed as a whole. The HEEMsamples in MGSBL0 are
distinct from the LEEM population but are associated with a significant number of less
extreme samples. These samples are all associated with an element group of Br, Fe, S, Cl
and LOI. Association with this group suggests a high organic metal content and a relatively
saline depositional or post-depositional environment. It appears to be the case that the
samples of MGSBLC and 0 both reflect the dominance of two contrasting conditions. One
of these conditions is associated with increased salinity and organic deposition and the
other more associated with minerogenic elements. MGSBLC is dominated by the latter
condition from which the HEEM samples represent a departure to the former. Conversely,
MGSBL0 is dominated by the former condition from which the LEEMsamples represent a
departure to the latter.
295
The apparent distinction between HEEM and LEEM samples in some MGSBL sections and
not in others seems likely to be driven by a greater contrast between the end-member
environments of these sections. In some sections HEEM and LEEM samples are clearly
different while in others the variation in composition within the end-member sample
groups is greater than any difference between them. On the basis of the bulk geochemical
data and informed by conclusions based on the grain size dataset it appears that MGSBL D
is characterised by the most 'open' barrier regime. This would allow for the largest
environmental range to be experienced in the back-barrier area during this period of
deposition. This assertion is based on the increased magnitude in mean grain size
fluctuations, pronounced contrasts between grain size distributions of individual samples
and the geochemical contrasts between end-member groups which appear to be driven by
differing source materials and depositional/post-depositional processes as opposed to
minerogenic particle size; all of which are apparent in this core section. The implication is
that, unlike in MGSBL A, B, F and G, the high energy end-member state of MGSBL D reflects
predominantly open barrier conditions. Therefore, the environmental contrast between the
high and low energy end-member samples is probably more pronounced than in MGSBL A,
B F and G where the end-member states are both thought to be characterised by
predominantly closed barrier systems. MGSBL E and C are also thought to be characterised
by a more open barrier system relative to the other core sections listed. MGSBL E does not
reveal a clear distinction between end-member samples while MGSBL C does. MGSBL C can
be linked to the gradual recovery of barrier coherence following the prominence of 'open'
conditions in MGSBL D. MGSBL E on the other hand, although appearing markedly 'open'
relative to the core as a whole, has a restricted range of fluctuation relative to MGSBL D,
which means the lack of contrast between the HEEM and LEEM samples in this section may
be accounted for by a relatively reduced back-barrier environmental range with both end-
member environments being predominantly open.
It is established that the geochemical trends of the PM08R core are closely linked to and
partially explained by trends in mean grain size. A feature of the geochemical trends
identified appears to be an environmental threshold linked to barrier coherence which
results in a predominantly 'open' or 'closed' signal being recorded in sediments of the back
barrier environment. A specific mean grain size threshold is not apparent but it seems to be
the case that MGSBL C and D capture both environments which are representative of a
level of barrier coherence above and below this threshold.
296
9.6 Geochemical Signatures of End-Member Samples
Principle component analysis of the bulk geochemical data-set demonstrated a varying
degree of distinction between the high (HEEM) and low energy end-member (lEEM)
samples of the different MGSBl sections. Additionally, in an attempt to identify specific

geochemical signatures of the end-member sample groups, a scatter plot was produced for
every element versus element relationship in each individual MGSBl core section. Where a
geochemical distinction exists between end-member samples it is probable that the ratios
of some element pairs will reflect this by showing contrasting associations/inter-
relationships between elements and element groups. Scatter plots of element pairs in
which HEEM and lEEM samples are identified allow for such contrasts to be rapidly
visualised. In the relevant MGSBl sections, intermediate high energy episode (IHEE)
samples are also indicated simply to distinguish them from the non end-member or 'less
extreme' samples. Given the envisaged contrast between 'open' and 'closed' back barrier
sedimentation regimes (see Section 3.3.1) the presence of such signatures was a distinct
possibility. The aim was to identify any relationship in which samples of an end-member
group clustered discretely from the other samples plotted.
Of the 735 considered, no element versus element plots saw either end-member sample
group cluster discretely from all other samples. The attempt to identify geochemical
signatures of end-member sample groups was therefore deemed unsuccessful. However,
the existence of such signatures is not ruled out. Several factors can be cited which may
hinder the methodology adopted. The arbitrary identification of HEEM and lEEM samples
on the basis of their mean grain size 4> values presents an issue, as does the likely similarity
of samples either side of the cut-off values used. An associated issue is the overlapping of
end-member clusters with less extreme samples. When an end-member group plotted
discretely from the other opposing end-member group samples but overlapped with less
extreme samples this was considered to rule out the emergence of an end-member
signature. Despite the lack of clear distinction between end-member groups identified
using this method, some trends meriting discussion did emerge.
9.6.1 Categorising the Degree of End-Member Group Distinction
While no inter-element plots showed either end-member sample group to cluster discretely
from the other and from the less extreme samples of the MGSBl core section, differing
levels of distinction between the end-member groups were apparent in different plots.
297
Throughout the core as a whole, all scatter plots were dominated by one sample cluster. In
a very limited number of relationships the samples of one end-member group plotted
discretely from the other and close to the edge of the main cluster (see figures 9.29 and
9.31). However, in the vast majority of inter-element plots in which end-member groups
were observed to separate, the association between less extreme samples and end-
member sample clusters was greater, with many less extreme samples plotting within each
end-member cluster. Such sample distributions were observed in plots of both well
correlated and poorly correlated elements (see figures 9.31-34, an arbitrary distinction at
an r2 value of 0.5 was made between 'well' and 'poorly' correlated plots ). Also common
were plots in which a divide between end-member sample groups was apparent but a small
degree of overlap existed between them. Again both well correlated and poorly correlated
element relationships provide examples (see figures 9.35-38) The majority of plots did not
demonstrate a clear division between the end-member sample groups. In some of these
plots the opposing end-member sample groups appeared to have an underlying attraction
toward different areas of the plot but not to a degree where a distinction could objectively
be seen (see figures 9.41-42). The remaining, and indeed the majority of the plots appeared
thoroughly mixed (see figures 9.43-46). On no occasions did the distribution of the end-
member samples in a scatter plot suggest that each group described a different coherent
trend.
These differing trends in end-member sample group distribution were used as the basis for
a simplified coding system which saw each inter-element plot from each MGSBL section
allocated to one of three groups. Group 1 included those plots in which end-member
sample groups did not overlap. Group 2 included plots in which a divide between end-
member groups was clear but a small degree of overlap was observed. Group 3 included all
plots in which a clear distinction between end member sample groups could not be made.
The relationship groupings are presented for each MGSBL section in tables 9.11-17. Group 1
relationships are indicated by bold type, group 2 are underlined and for group 3 the text is
unmodified. In addition to the codes, the figures show the r2 correlations between each
element.
298
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160
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Figure 9.46: Mn plotted against Rb for MGSBL B samples
9.6.1.1 MGSBL A (table 9.11)
Again the geochemical dataset for MGSBL A was limited to samples found below high
energy episode 2. This was done in order to avoid detracting from any trends apparent in
the majority of this section.
The table for MGSBL A (table 9.11) shows that a total of 22 relationships gave the
appearance of a significant divide between the end-member sample groups (7 group 1 and
15 group 2 relationships). Ca is involved in the majority of these relationships with only 2 of
14 plots not showing a clearly observable division. Fe and S are the other two elements
which are regularly a variable in scatter plots which show division between the end-
member groups. Only two other relationships reveal a significant division. These are Zr/CI
and Sr/Br. The association between HEEM and LEEM samples and Ca, Fe and 5 is unclear on
303
the basis of the individual scatter plots of the divided relationships. These associations are
also unclear in the PCA of the geochemical data for MG5BL A.
9.6.1.2 MGSBl B (table 9.12)
There are no significant divisions between the HEEM and LEEM sample groups in the inter-
element relationships of MG5BL B.
9.6.1.3 MGSBl C (table 9.13)
There are a total of 55 relationships showing a significant divide between the HEEM and
LEEM samples in MG5BL C (32 group 1 and 23 group 2 relationships). All of these
relationships involve 5, Br, Cl, Ca, Rb and K. The first three elements are associated with the
organic metal and salinity groups of the initial PCA of the geochemical dataset for the
whole core. S, Br and Cl show a divide in every relationship. In the PCA of the geochemical
data for MGSBL C alone these metals associate with each other and with the HEEM samples
having positive component 1 scores. Ca, Rb and K show a divide in the majority of the
relationships they are plotted in. Rb and K are members of the minerogenic group in the
whole core PCA. In the MG5BL C PCA they are all plotted away from the HEEM samples
having negative component 1 scores. The scatter plot analysis of MG5BL C supports the
results of the MGSBL C PCA.
9.6.1.4 MGSBl 0 (table 9.14)
The table for MGSBL 0 reveals 75 relationships with significant divisions, the vast majority
of which show no overlap between the end-member sample groups (72 group 1 and 3
group 2 relationships). Again, all of the divided relationships can be accounted for by a
limited number of elements. In this base level section S, Br, Cl, Fe, Ti, AI, K and Zr are the
only elements involved in relationships which see the end-member groups separate. All the
relationships involving Fe,S, Br and Cl show significant divides, the majority of relationships
involving the remaining elements also do. Br, Fe,S and Cl are all associated in the PCA of
the geochemical data for MG5BL D. These elements are also associated with the HEEM
sample group. K, Ti, Zr and AI are associated with each other and with the LEEM samples.
This latter group of elements were all in the minerogenic cluster in the PCA of the whole
core dataset. The former group were members ofthe organic metal and the salinity groups.
Again the primary outcome of the scatter plot analysis of MG5BL 0 is to support the results
of the PCA analysis for this individual core section.
304
9.6.1.5 MGSBL E, F and G (tables 9.11-13)
There are no significant divisions between the HEEM and LEEM sample groups in the inter-
element relationships of MGSBL E, F and G.
305
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9.6.2 Summary of End-Member Sample Distinction Group Tables
Following the description of the process which led to the production of these tables, it is
clear that the results presented here are to a degree subjective. Among the more
fundamental issues are the initial arbitrary identification of the high and low energy end-
member samples and the subsequent qualitative group allocations, with the latter likely
being further impacted by the changing number of end-member samples between MGSBL
sections. Indeed it is acknowledged that the tables presented are a by-product of an
unsuccessful attempt to identify any distinct geochemical signatures rather than resulting
from a deliberate methodology designed for this purpose. However, the trends indicated by
these tables can be seen to correspond in many ways to those of the PCA analysis of the
geochemical data from the individual MGSBL units and therefore the tables do offer some
additional value to interpretations of the dataset.
On the basis of the tables it appears that the greatest level of significant division between
end-members exists in MGSBL D, followed by C with a small amount of significant division
in A. MGSBL B, E, F and G show no significant divisions. The level of division in each MGSBL
section appears loosely related to the magnitude of mean grain size fluctuation in the
section. The coded tables serve to clarify this. MGSBL B, F and G have low magnitude mean
grain size fluctuations relative to the core as a whole, however the level of fluctuation
between MGSBL C and MGSBL E is comparable yet the contrast in the level of division
between end-member sample groups is large in both the scatter plots and the PCA. This is
also true of MGSBL D and A which points to a further driver of geochemical distinction
between end-member sample groups than simply the magnitude of mean grain size
fluctuation. The grain size range over which fluctuation occurs appears to be most critical. It
appears plausible that a threshold grain size range exists in the core which MGSBL B, F and
G fluctuate below and MGSBL E fluctuates above while the fluctuations of MGSBL A, C and
D cross this divide. This envisaged threshold likely relates to 'open' versus 'closed'
sedimentation in the back barrier area.
310
9.7 Geochemistry Discussion
It appears that the geochemistry of the core is closely connected with mean grain size
trends and, therefore, depositional energy levels, however, it is not primarily driven by
differing minerogenic size fractions (e.g. clay versus silt) rather changing components of the
sediment matrix associated with differing back barrier environments. Throughout the
MGSBLsections of the core an energy gradient becomes apparent with samples of different
mean grain size values characterised by their association with different element groups
and, therefore, the relative prominence of different components. Element groups were
initially identified from down-core plots of concentration and PCA analysis of the whole
core. When peA analysis was performed on the individual MGSBLsections of the core, in
the instances where end-member groups plotted separately and displayed associations
with element clusters, these element clusters were largely compatible with the element
groups identified in the whole core sample set.
The samples of finest mean grain size in the core are generally characterised by their
association with elements of terrigenous minerogenic origin. These elements are
characteristic of low depositional energy samples in MGSBL A, B, C, F and G and even
characterise the low energy end-member samples of MGSBL D. Such samples suggest a
high proportion of terrestrially-derived sediment, including finer particles associated with
the suspended load as signified by Ti and K. This likely reflects a calm back-barrier lagoonal
environment with relatively limited marine influence in which low energy levels facilitate
prominent deposition from suspension in keeping with interpretations of the relevant grain
size data.
An exception to the trend of minerogenic element association with finer samples is found in
MGSBLA. Here the presence of a sub-population of coarser samples associated strongly
with the minerogenic elements group is observed. This suggests periods of coarser
sediment delivery from the catchment. The raising of depositional energy in the back-
barrier area in this manner appears due to an alternative mechanism to marine incursion.
The deposition of these coarser terrigenous minerogenic samples could be related to higher
energy input from the feeding creeks. The fact that such coarse minerogenic samples are
only found in MGSBL A could be related to land-use in the historical period reducing
catchment and riparian vegetation, fixing channels, adapting hydrology and therefore
increasing peak flows (See section 4.4.3.1). The strong association between this sub-
population and K may also relate to catchment erosion. K is relatively enriched in sub-soil in
311
sequences from the marine terraces of the central coast (White et al.. 2008). The
association between coarser samples and K may reflect the erosion and delivery of soil
following catchment destabilisation through land clearance and ploughing.
In the vast majority of cases, increasing depositional energy in the back-barrier
environment is thought to be linked to reduced barrier integrity. Elevated depositional
energy in MGSBL A, B, C, D and to some extent G sees samples become characterised by a
clear association with organic matter. In the PCA of individual MGSBL sections, the element
groups which reflect this transition also largely suggested an association with elevated
salinity. It appears that more 'open' conditions lead to an enhanced association with
salinity in addition to a greater throughput of organic matter, with this organic matter
colonising the substrate as water levels varied in the back-barrier area. If the back-barrier
environment of the lower energy samples was little impacted by marine incursion, as the
association with terrigenous minerogenic elements implies, then a significant proportion
the organic matter present in the higher energy deposits may come from a marine source.
Such marine derived organic matter is likely enriched in Cl and 5, the salinity indicator
elements, relative to terrestrial plant material (Wedepohl, 1970). The mechanism of
marine-derived organic matter being delivered in addition to in situ and terrestrially derived
organic matter could also explain the correlation between mean grain size and LOI.
Deposition of organic matter is certainly a feature of areas marginal to the main lagoon and
channels of the present day site.
The transition from minerogenic to organic-associated samples is apparent to some extent
in the majority of MG5BL sections in the core. However, where mean grain size values are
coarsest, strong associations with salinity emerge. Organic material largely remains
prominent in the coarsest samples, as evidenced by the mean grain size/La I correlation,
however these samples become primarily characterised by their increased salinity. This is
primarily the case for samples from MG5BL D but is also apparent to a lesser extent in
MG5BL C and E. The strong association with salinity group elements in these samples, in the
context of the whole core, is likely due to greater levels of marine inundation in the back-
barrier environment, with more Cl and S being preserved in pore water in addition to the
impact of marine-derived plant matter. However, the possibility cannot be ruled out that
the coarser grain sizes of these deposits permit subsequent intrusion of saline water.
Hence, this might be a post-depositional feature.
312
A transition through minerogenic-organic-salinity associations with coarsening mean grain
size is apparent across the range of mean grain size values present in the MGSBL sections
but some localised trends are also observed which interrupt this progression. In MGSBL F
terrigenous minerogenic associated samples were interspersed with samples associated
with the 'shell' group. Samples displaying even stronger associations with the shell group
are also found in MGSBL G, however within this core section 'shell' associated samples are
all of relatively low depositional energy. These two MGSBl sections, particularly F, are
thought to be representative of a consistently low depositional energy regime in relation to
the core as a whole. The emergence of shell group associated samples in MGSBl F and G
may reflect a productive lagoonal environment in the back-barrier area which facilitated
the growth of organisms producing 'shell' material.
Further associations with the 'shell group' elements are found in both MGDBL 0 and E in
samples which are indicative of high depositional energy. These samples are relatively
coarse but not the coarsest in these MGSBL sections. It seems that an increased proportion
of shell material accompanied higher energy deposition in the environments of MGSBL 0
and E, yet this is masked in the majority of samples which instead become more strongly
characterised by their markedly increased salinity. While the shell associations in MGSBL F
and G may be interpreted as representing productive lagoonal conditions, in MGSBl 0 and
E, the shell associations appear to occur as a feature of the envisaged transition to open
inlet deposition. The 'shell' material may be associated with the presence of sand traces in
these samples. Both Ca and Sr are strongly associated with the coarse sand layer found in
the core at "'130-140 cm (HEE7). As only MGSBL 0 and E include fluctuation across the
mean grain size range in which these latter shell material associations are identified, this
high energy shell association merits incorporation in the geochemical transition that
accompanies the coarsening of mean grain size throughout the core. A general transition
from minerogenic to organic to salinity associations has been observed to accompany the
coarsening of mean grain size in the PM08R core samples. The transition can be revised to
include shell associations. This minerogenic-organic-shell-organic/salinity-salinity transition
allows relative comparison of the degree of 'openness' between MGSBl core sections in
terms of the geochemical associations and transitions that characterise each section and
their extreme energy end-member samples. Table 9.18 summarises these associations and
transitions, along with some relevant grain size characteristics, illustrating the apparent
degree of openness in each MGSBL section.
313
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Despite the general geochemical transition identified in the whole core dataset, it is also
apparent through PCA of the individual MGSBl sections, that few sections demonstrate
clear geochemical contrasts between high and low energy end-member sample groups. The
identification of clear contrasts between HEEM and lEEM samples in some sections but not
in others implies that where these contrasts exist the end-member states were significantly
different whereas in the other MGSBL sections they are not. The samples of MGSBl D
illustrate the clearest contrasts between HEEM and LEEM samples by showing a distinction
between salinity/organic associated samples with coarser mean grain size values and finer
samples associated with terrigenous minerogenic indicators. This MGSBL section appears to
fluctuate between a predominantly 'closed' and a predominantly 'open' back-barrier
environment explaining the emergence of this contrast.
MGSBl B, E, F and G revealed no clear contrasts between HEEM and LEEM samples while
MGSBL A showed a very limited degree of distinction between end-member groups but did
demonstrate a clear distinction between the IHEE samples present and the lEEM samples.
MGSBL C showed some clear distinctions between high and low energy end-members
below a depth of "'95 cm where greater grain size fluctuation was recorded. These trends,
along with that of MGSBL D, suggest an interpretive model for the whole core geochemical
trend in which a threshold between predominantly 'closed' (minerogenic-organic
associations) and predominantly 'open' (shell-salinity/organic associations) styles of
sedimentation is crossed. When the grain size fluctuation within a base level section crosses
this threshold then clear geochemical distinctions emerge between end-member sample
groups in the peA of that section. Using this concept the whole core can be interpreted in
terms of a back-barrier environment which is either predominantly 'open' or 'closed'.
The threshold appears to lie at "'6.0<1>, which marked the transition from the background to
the intermediate energy group when samples were divided on the basis of their grain size
summary statistic relationships. Both MGSBl G and F appear to fluctuate under this
threshold with the barrier remaining predominantly closed. Supporting evidence comes
from the IHEE samples of MGSBL G, two of which are associated with shell and minerogenic
group elements while the third may be associated with Pb but certainly not associated with
the organic metal group (see figure 9.28). Further up the core the IHEE 3, 4, 5 and 6 (see
figure 9.22), of MGSBL A, are all associated with salinity/organic indicator elements. Given
the consistent link between marine incursion and organic deposition, the lack of an organic
association with the IHEE samples of MGSBLG could be suggested to indicate a terrestrial
315
sediment source for the episodes of MGSBL G. This may result from a coherent barrier
system trapping high fluvial flow and the associated sediment load in the back-barrier area.
HEE7 is located above MGSBL F. Following this apparent disturbance event, MGSBL E
appears to remain above the threshold with the barrier staying predominantly open. This is
implied by the consistent association of samples with the salinity and shell groups, and by
the lack of contrast between high and low energy end-members. MGSBL D appears to cross
the threshold, ranging from salinity/organic to minerogenic associated samples between
the HEEM and LEEM sample groups, as does the deeper section of MGSBL C where there is
also a clear association between HEEM samples and salinity/organic indicator elements.
MGSBL C may represent a progressive recovery of the barrier system to a point where the
back-barrier area again becomes, and remains, predominantly closed as contrasts do not
exist between end member samples above a depth of ~9Scm where fluctuation becomes
dampened. MGSBL B appears to reflect a predominantly closed barrier system with no
geochemically distinct high energy departures. Finally MGSBL A is suggested to represent a
predominantly closed system with regular peaks approaching the envisaged threshold at
which conditions change from predominantly 'open' to 'closed'. The numerous
intermediate high energy episodes of MGSBL A suggest, due to their strong association with
organic and salinity indicators, that on occasions this threshold is crossed and when this
does occur a rapid and significant increase in depositional energy level is experienced as a
result of increased marine influence in the back-barrier area. However, the HEEM sample
group of MGSBL A all had mean grain size values of <64>. Some samples in this group were
associated with organic/salinity indicator elements but the group as a whole was not, nor
was it distinct from the LEEM sample group in terms of geochemical associations. The
threshold would appear to be slightly more coarse in MGSBL A, Le. ~S.7<p, suggesting that
the threshold is not rigid or that the system has changed subtly in MGSBL A. In this manner
the interpretations of the PM08R core sequence made on the basis of the geochemical data
set appear to compliment those informed by the grain size data set.
316
10 PM08R Diatom Assemblages
Diatom assemblages were counted for a number of samples from the PM08R core. The
selection of samples for diatom analysis was informed by interpretation of the grain size
data set, although the final selection of samples presented was influenced by the level of
diatom preservation. Diatom preservation was largely poor leading to a high proportion of
counts being abandoned.
It is thought that fluctuation in down-core mean grain size reflects past changes in the back-
barrier depositional environment. Distinct mean grain size base level (MGSBL) sections
identified in the down-core mean grain size plot are suggested to represent an overlapping
but different range of back-barrier environments characteristic to each of these core
sections. Reconstructing diatom assemblages in samples of differing mean grain size should
therefore have the potential to offer further insight into the associated depositional
environments. This was addressed in two different ways. Contrasting high and low energy
samples from different MGSBL sections were analysed for their diatom assemblages. In
addition, series of samples were counted in stratigraphic order for a number of the mean
grain size fluctuations observed in MGSBL A.
Diatom assemblages were presented in diagrams with species grouped on the basis of their
salinity tolerance following Van der Werff and Huls (1976). Further information regarding
the ecological traits of diatom species comes from checklists presented by Denys (1991), de
Wolff (1982), Vas and de Wolff (1988 and 1993) and van Dam et al. (1994). In this section,
to aid the presentation of diagrams the samples are referred to by their lower limit, i.e.
sample 0-0.2cm is simply referred to as 0.2cm.
10.1lnterpretive context
The diatom assemblages encountered are discussed with reference to environmental
interpretations of the characteristic grain size distribution (GSD) styles which are discussed
at length in section 8.10. The majority of the characteristic distribution styles were
suggested to represent combinations of differing back-barrier and barrier estuary
environments driven by the changing integrity of the barrier system during the period of
deposition. The diatom assemblages counted are therefore interpreted in the context of an
environmental range rather than any single back-barrier configuration.
317
A further fundamental concept in the interpretation of the diatom data set is the
recognition of autochthonous and allochthonous species. While diatom assemblages are
commonly used as palaeo-ecological indicators of past environmental parameters, due to
the close proximity of differing environments in the coastal zone it is common for the
species identified within an assemblage to indicate seemingly incompatible conditions
(Denys and de Wolff, 1999). Innumerable mechanisms exist for the transport of living and
fossil diatom frustules. Classifications of species ecological tolerances remain loose and the
documented trends regarding the transport of differing life forms are far from rigid. This is
why frustules counts should be of a minimum of 200 to be statistically significant (Vas and
de Wolff, 1993). The specieswhich occur most commonly in an assemblageare those which
are most likely to directly reflect genuine environmental parameters of a sample site.
Species which occur in very small numbers may be anomalous or misleading and as such
are excluded from the presentation diagrams.
Diatom species can be classified as a number of different life forms. Benthic and planktonic
species are the two major groups occurring in the PM08R samples. Benthic species, those
which live on the substrate at the bottom of a water body but move around freely, are
generally considered to be autochthonous or deposited in situ and, therefore, reflect the

nature of the prevailing environment rather than external inputs to the environments (Vas
and de Wolff, 1993). Planktonic species are considered to represent external input as these
species remain suspended in the water column and are therefore more readily prone to
relocation and deposition in an environment of a different nature (Vas and de Wolff, 1993).
Evidently, external inputs have a large bearing on the environment that prevails at a
specific location, for example increasing tidal influx to a river-fed back-barrier lagoon will
result in progressively more saline conditions. A distinction is made between the species
which grow in place in a brackish environment of this nature and those that are delivered
to the environment by tidal waters. Therefore, such an environment would likely have an
autochthonous brackish benthic community while also recording evidence of tidal influx in
the form of allochthonous marine planktonic species. Epiphytes are a third type of life form
but are less prominent in the PM08R assemblages.These species do not move of their own
accord, they grow attached to vegetation or to substrate and can therefore be considered
autochthonous or allochthonous depending on the context provided by the other species

present and wider variables such as GSDs (Denys and de Wolff, 1999). Tycoplanktonic
diatoms also occur in the PM08R assemblagesyet the presence of these life forms is even
more limited. These life forms are initially benthic or epiphytic, they become planktonic
318
when the energy of the surrounding water becomes sufficient to dislodge and suspend
them in the water column. Interpretation of these life forms also requires the context of
other species and variables (Denys and de Wolff, 1999).
10.2 Comparison of High and Low Energy Samples
MGSBL A, D and G were selected for comparison of the diatom assemblages of high and
low depositional energy sediments. These core sections were chosen due to their differing
mean grain size base levels and magnitudes of mean grain size fluctuation. Samples of
extreme coarse and fine mean grain size were selected from each of these sections to
represent 'end member' states.
10.2.1 MGSBL A
Six coarse and six fine mean grain size 'end-member' samples were selected from MGSBL A.
These samples were selected from depths of below lS.0cm at which point mean grain size
fluctuation assumes a quasi-regularity (figure 10.1). The diatom diagrams presented for
MGSBL A display only those species comprising more than 3% of the overall count in each
diagram (figures 10.2 and 10.3). The samples are arranged in mean grain size order with the
coarsest sample at the top. Each samples GSD style is indicated.
In the summary columns of the diatom diagram (figure 10.2) it can be seen that the diatom
assemblages of the low energy samples at 26.8, 34.2, 18.4 and 23.6cm are dominated by
fresh/brackish species with significant proportions of brackish/fresh and fresh species in
addition to the limited but notable presence of brackish species. The diatom community of
these samples is dominated by benthic fresh to brackish/fresh species which are likely
autochthonous. The most prominent of these species are Navicula pusil/a, Navicula
mutica/mutica var. Cohnii, Nitzschia sigma and Nitzschia linearis.
The assemblages of the remaining low energy samples, at 37.0 and 68.8cm, see brackish
diatoms becoming more prominent as the numbers of fresh/brackish and brackish/fresh
species are reduced. This shift toward a more saline community sees Navicula salinarium
become prominent in the 37.0cm sample and Caloneis westii in the G8.Bcm sample. These
species are also benthic, and therefore likely autochthonous, suggesting a subtle shift to a
more brackish back-barrier environment. The 68.8cm sample also includes a small but
notable number of marine planktonic frustules of the Paralia sulcata and Coscinodiscus
319
excentricus species. Given the lower salinity tolerance of the benthic community it is likely
that these frustules were delivered from an external source by an influx of marine water.
Mean grain size (<1

3 4 5 6 7 8
10
BG1:
18.4cm
20
BG1:
e--: 26.Bcm
30 BG1:
INT3:
E
u
34.8cm
/ 34.2cm
s:
+-'
0.. BGl:
III
a 37.0cm
INT3:
40
39.2cm
45.0cm
INT1:
50 48.8cm
INT1:
INT1:
56.Bcm
60
BG1:
68.Bcm
70
MGSBLA
Figure 10.1: MGSBL A high and low depositional energy samples. Sample depths, grain size
distribution style and grain size distribution differential frequency curve shape are shown.
320
The BGl distribution style was suggested to represent predominantly closed lagoonal
conditions in the back-barrier area. Informed by the summary columns of salinity tolerance,
the four samples with the finest mean grain sizesare compatible with such an environment.
The slightly brackish environment and the limited presence of brackish to marine species
has likely resulted from either limited communication between the back-barrier area and
the ocean through a restricted inlet, marine washover, water exchange through the barrier
or a combination of all or some of these factors. The two slightly coarser low energy
samples suggest a more brackish environment with more communication with the ocean
most likely through a better developed barrier inlet. The still limited but increased presence
of the marine planktonic species in the 68.8cm sample may be related to increased tidal
input. More prominent overwashing may also playa role.
Further ecological information regarding individual species environmental tolerances is

presented by de Wolff (1982) and Denys (1991). The available information regarding the
most prominent species suggest that the Navicula pusil/a, Navicula mutica, Nitzschia
linearis, Navicula salinarium and Caloneis westii species are found in regularly submerged
environments but generally require a degree of subaerial exposure. These characteristics
would appear to suggest varying water levels during the period of deposition. On this basis
the assemblages may be considered to suggest a marginal saltmarsh environment as
opposed to a fully developed lagoonal pool. However, each sample is thought to record
deposition over a period of longer than five months (see section 7) and therefore likely
more than one configuration of the barrier inlet assuming a seasonal regime was in place.
In addition, over 50 species were identified in each count; therefore the dominant species
may directly reflect short periods of specific environmental configurations whereas the
summary columns, which include all of the species counted, reflect the environmental
range during the whole period of a samples deposition. The dominance of saltmarsh
species may indicate that the core site was marginal to the lagoonal pool, emerging when
water levels were reduced driven by a reduction in barrier integrity. A further alternative is
the association between the BGl GSD style and standing pools on the present-day
saltmarsh surface (see section 8.12.3). The water level in such pools regularly rises and falls
and could adequately account for the diatom community present. The limited presence of
marine planktonic species appears to confirm that connection with the ocean is not well
developed.
321
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As a group, the six high energy end-member samples differ to the six low energy samples. A
greater proportion of marine/brackish and marine diatoms are found in these assemblages
and the number of fresh species identified is reduced (see figure 10.3). The coarse samples
are, however, still dominated by fresh/brackish, brackish/fresh and brackish diatoms
suggesting a subtle rather than a drastic contrast in the depositional environment between
the coarse and fine end-members. Distinctions are also apparent between the samples of
the high energy samples.
The 39.2 and 34.8cm samples are taken from intermediate high energy episode grain size
peaks however they are not characterised by an influx of marine planktonic diatoms as
maybe expected. Instead they primarily differ from the other coarse samples due to their
high proportion of brackish/fresh species. In addition to brackish/fresh diatoms they also
have a high proportion of fresh/brackish and brackish species, the majority of which are
benthic. This suggests that the predominant depositional environment was fresh/brackish
to brackish. Again Navicula pusilla, Navicula mutica/ mutica var. Cohnii, Nitzschia sigma,
Navicula perigrina and Navicula salinarium are the more prominent species.
Marine/brackish and marine species comprise a small but significant proportion of these
counts, however, no particular species emerge as characteristic. The GSDs of these
samples, both of the INB style, are taken to infer a degree of high energy influx to the core
site which was suggested to be driven by a reduction in barrier integrity beyond a threshold
allowing maximum tidal velocity to enter the back-barrier area (see section 8.10.3). The
diatom community does not suggest an environment dominated by highly saline
conditions. Continued fresh water input to the barrier estuary at low tide could serve to
reduce salinity levels in the back-barrier area and result in a mixture of salinity tolerant
species like that observed.
The diatom assemblage from the 45.0cm sample is distinctly different from both the
remaining high energy end-member samples and the low energy end-member samples in
the MGSBLA set. The GSDstyle, BG4, of this sample was thought to represent a restricted
open inlet barrier configuration during which both peak tidal energy and opportunities for
the settling of the suspended load were limited. Despite having the least coarse mean grain
size of the high energy group, this sample reflects a significant marine influx to the back-
barrier area or specifically to the core site being overwhelmingly dominated by
marine/brackish and marine diatoms. These species are largely planktonic with
Coscinodiscus excentricus and Thalassionema nitzschioides being the most prominent. As
fresh, fresh/brackish, brackish/fresh and brackish benthic species were limited but still
323
present the dominance of marine/brackish and marine planktonic diatoms is consistent
with influx from the ocean rather than a shift to a more marine back-barrier environment.
Further supporting the notion of high energy marine inwash is the extremely high
proportion of marine centric diatom fragments and general unidentified fragments which
may have been broken in rapid transit (Vas and de Wolf, 1993). The diatom community
therefore implies that the core site was submerged with tidal water either regularly for the
majority of this samples deposition or during a high magnitude event, with the
environment being freshened by the delivery of river-water to the back-barrier area. While
the depositional energy level is not as high in this sample as in the two INB samples, there
is still a marked saltation peak in the samples GSD indicating increased marine influence.
The remaining three samples in the MGSBL A high energy end-member set are dominated
by fresh/brackish diatoms with limited fresh diatoms present. Brackish/fresh, brackish,
marine/brackish and marine diatoms also make up a significant proportion of each
assemblage. These samples were dominated by fresh/brackish Navicula cincta and brackish
Nitzschia vitrea both of which are benthic species. These samples are all of the INTl
distribution style. This style was suggested to reflect a combination of open inlet and
restricted open inlet conditions. The salinity tolerances of the two dominant species may
reflect a freshening of the back-barrier environment as the barrier system became better
developed while the presence of marine/brackish and marine planktonic species implies a
significant tidal input to the back-barrier area. The diatom assemblages of these samples do
appear consistent with the depositional environment inferred from the grain size data set.
Both Navicula cincta and Nitzschia vitrea are associated with environments prone to a
degree of subaerial exposure. Again, this would suggest at least a portion of the period of
deposition was spent as a marginal tidal environment as opposed to the core site being
permanently submerged in a lagoonal pool. This is consistent with an envisaged reduction
in the lagoonal pool and an increasing tidal signal as the barrier system became less
coherent.
324
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Figure 10.4 shows both the high and low energy end-member samples of MGSBL A ordered
by mean grain size and subjected to constrained cluster analysis. CONISS (CONstrained
Incremental Sum of Squares) analysis was carried out in the Tilia Graph computer
programme using untransformed data. The similarities and distinctions discussed between
samples of the high and low energy groups can be seen to emerge in the cluster analysis.
However, zone three sees two samples from the low energy group clustered with one from
the coarse group. The connection between these samples is not apparent, particularly as
the coarse group sample in this cluster is the marine planktonic dominated 45.0cm sample.
However this analysis serves to illustrate that despite the sample groups being opposing
end-members, the diatom communities do not always differ greatly. The cluster analysis
considers all of the diatoms counted rather than just those comprising more than an
arbitrary percentage of the total count (in this case 3%). The cluster analysis suggests that
more similarity exists between the end-member sample groups than qualitative analysis of
the summary diagrams implies.
10.2.2 MGSBL 0
Four high energy and four low energy mean grain size end-member samples were selected
for counting from MGSBL 0 (see figure 10.5). MGSBL 0 was the section of the core with the
greatest magnitude of fluctuation in mean grain size. Again only species comprising more
than 3% of the total count in each diagram are displayed and samples are arranged in mean
grain size order from the most coarse to the most fine. A greater degree of similarity can
be seen between the samples of each end-member group and a greater difference between
the groups.
The samples of the low energy end-member group are all of the BG3 distribution style with
the exception of the 118.0cm sample which is classified as BG4 (figure 10.5). The samples
are all dominated by fresh/brackish, brackish and brackish/marine species (figure 10.6).
Fresh, brackish/marine, marine/brackish and marine diatoms are also present in each
sample as the allochthonous component. Sample 10g.0cm differs subtly from the others in
the group due to a higher proportion of brackish/marine, marine/brackish and marine
species which are accompanied by a reduction in the numbers of fresh species present.
Denticula subtlis is the species which most characterises this sample set. This species is
epiphytic. Other species present in all samples are Nitzschia hungarica, Navicula halophilia,
and Coscinodiscus excentricus. Nitzschia hungarica and Navicula halophilia are benthic
species which suggest a brackish fresh to brackish autochthonous community and imply
327
that the epiphytic Denticula subtlis is also in situ. The marine/brackish planktonic species
Coscinodiscus excentricus was likely delivered by tidal water, potentially at higher tidal
levels or by barrier overwashing.
Mean grain size (<Ill

3 4 5 6 7
100 +--------- __~ J_ ~ ~
102
INT3:
lO3.2em
104
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lOS.Oem
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106
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108
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'5.
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112
111.2em
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114
116
BG4:
118 llB.Oem
120
MGSBlD
Figure 10.5: MGSBL D high and low depositional energy samples. Sample depths, grain size
distribution style and grain size distribution differential frequency curve shape are shown
328
On the basis of the grain size data, the BG3 and BG4 distribution styles were both suggested
to represent combinations of restricted and more open barrier inlet conditions in which
depositional energy was limited and tidal action subdued but not wholly prevented in the
back-barrier area. The assemblages counted are compatible with these environmental
interpretations. The range of prominent fresh to brackish species may reflect subtle
changes in the salinity of the back-barrier environment due to differing levels of barrier
coherence while the presence of the marine species implies a degree of marine influence.
Denticula subtlis, the dominant species in these samples, is associated with environments
prone to a degree of subaerial exposure. This implies that the core site was emergent for
part of the period of deposition, this is consistent with a range of open inlet conditions or
water levels in the back-barrier still rising and falling with the tide during more closed
configurations.
The high energy end-member samples also display a high degree of similarity with each
other in terms of their GSD styles, all being INT3, and their diatom assemblages (figure
10.7). Indeed, the species present in the high energy end-member samples of MGSBL D
were very similar to those in the fine end-member samples. In effect the species
assemblage does not change between the two groups but the high energy samples include
a much higher proportion of marine/brackish species and much lower numbers of
fresh/brackish and brackish/fresh species. The high energy end-member samples are
dominated by brackish diatoms with marine/brackish diatoms also very prominent.
Denticula subtlis again characterises this sample set. The benthic brackish species
Gyrosigma balticum, Gyrosigma spencerii, Navicula halophil/ia, Navicula perigrina, and
Navicula salinarium are also prominent. Coscinodiscus excentricus is the most common
marine/brackish species. Again this species is planktonic and is consistent with tidal influx.
The epiphytic marine brackish species Mastalogia pumila and Nitzschia granulata are also
prominent in most counts. Following interpretation of the geochemical data set, tidal
action in this MGSBL D section appeared to be associated with the delivery of organic
matter from a marine source (see section 9.7). It is probable that organic matter delivered
by tidal action to this back-barrier area is associated with the presence of these epiphytic
species.
329
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The INn GSDs were interpreted as reflecting a range of markedly open inlet conditions.
The move toward a dominant brackish autochthonous diatom community with a significant
marine influx is compatible with this grain size interpretation. It could well be the case that
the core site was both submerged in a brackish lagoonal pool and emergent as a tidally
inundated saltmarsh surface during the deposition of these samples.
Despite the clear similarity of the species present in the diatom assemblages of the high
and low energy end-member samples in MGSBL D, cluster analysis divides the high and low
energy sample groups with no overlap (see figure 10.8). However, the cluster analysis also
implies that the fine end-member group samples have more in common with the high
energy end-member samples than they do with the 10g.Ocm sample. This distinction is
likely driven by the more even spread of salinity tolerances present in the 10g.Ocm sample.
It seems that the high and low energy end-member samples are indicative of two back-
barrier state but are generally dominated by either more open or more closed conditions.
The 109.Oem sample appears to capture both states more equally.
332
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10.2.3 MGSBL G
Four high and low energy end-member samples were selected for counting from MGSBLD
(see figure 10.9). The fine mean grain size end-member samples (figure 10.10) have varying
GSD styles (BGl, BG2 and BG3). These distributions are all thought to represent barrier
regimes during which tidal influence was limited in the back-barrier area. However, the
contrast between the levels of tidal influx inferred by these distribution styles is significant.
The BGI and BG2 distribution styles were thought to record little if any tidal action being
predominantly lagoonal while the BG3style was suggested to be deposited under a barrier
regime which included restricted open inlet conditions. The diatom assemblages counted
are very similar in terms of the species assemblages, differences arise due to the
proportions of the species present (figure 10.11). The summary columns show that, as a
whole the low energy group is dominated by fresh/brackish, brackish/fresh and brackish
diatoms. The samples from 179.8 and 169.2cm have a reduced proportion of fresh/brackish
species and a slightly increased amount of marine/brackish and marine species in relation
to the 184.6 and l83.8cm samples. The decrease in fresh/brackish species in the 179.8 and
l69.2cm samples is concurrent with a slight increase in each of the more saline species
categories. The implication is that these two samples reflect a shift to a slightly more
marine influenced period of back-barrier sedimentation, i.e. more open connection to the
ocean.
The species which dominate the low energy group as a whole are Navicula cincta, Caloneis
westii, Navicula perigrina, Navicula satinarium, Nitzschia vitrea, Rhopalodia gibberula and
Rhopalodia musculus. These species are fresh/brackish to brackish and benthic or epiphytic
implying that the prevailing back-barrier environment was fresh/brackish to brackish.
Marine planktonic Thalassionema nitzschioides and marine/brackish tycoplanktonic
Raphoneis surirella are the most prominent of the more saline species which are likely
allocthonous. These diatom assemblagescould be suggested to represent a predominantly

lagoonal back-barrier environment which becomes more saline as communication with the
ocean is instigated through a restricted inlet or as stream flow is reduced and evaporation
of the lagoonal pool or water input through the barrier leads to increased salinity. The
latter are common process in arid and semi-arid environments (Cooper, 1994). In such an
environment, overwash events and sea spray may readily account for the presence of
marine/brackish and marine plankton. However, the increase in the marine planktonic
species being accompanied by the decrease of fresh/brackish species makes it more likely
that the increase in salinity in the back-barrier area is instead due to greater tidal action.
334
!Mean grain size (4))
4 5 6 7 8
lW +- ~ ~ J_ ~
165
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169.2cm
170
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185
B63:
184.6cm
Figure 10.9: MGSBL G high and low depositional energy samples. Sample depths, grain size
distribution style and grain size distribution differential frequency curve shape are shown
335
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The high energy end-member samples have very similar diatom species assemblagesto the
low energy sample group. Again Navicula cincta, Caloneis westii, Navicula perigrina,
Navicula salinarium, Nitzschia vitrea, Rhopalodia gibberula and Rhopalodia musculus are
the most prominent species. This sample group is also dominated by a range of
fresh/brackish, brackish/fresh and brackish diatoms. The 167.8 and 170.2cm samples are
very similar to the 179.8 and 169.2cm samples of the low energy end-member group in
terms of the salinity tolerance summary columns. The 167.8 and 170.2cm suggest a move
to more marine influenced conditions as the proportion of brackish diatoms increases and
the fresh/brackish diatoms decline. The assemblagesof the 180.8 and 180.0cm samples of
the high energy end-member group appear to correlate well with those of the 184.6 and
183.8cm samples of the low energy end-member group as all have a high proportion of
fresh/brackish species in relation to the other samples MGSBLG samples counted. In the
coarse end-member group as a whole, brackish diatoms are slightly more prominent than
fresh/brackish diatoms.
The samples of the high energy end-member group are all of the INT! distribution style but
for the 167.8cm sample which is INT3. These distributions were interpreted to suggest a
back-barrier environment where tidal influence was prominent, particularly the INT3
distribution style sample which came from an intermediate high energy episode. The move
toward a more marine influenced environment is not evidenced by the diatom
communities identified in these samples. On the basis of the GSDinterpretations a larger
relative proportion of marine planktonic diatoms would be expected. The high energy end-
member sample group of MGSBLG does however see an overall shift to a more brackish
depositional environment. High freshwater flow is partially responsible for barrier inlet
opening and continues to be delivered to the back-barrier during open inlet periods. These
assemblages appear to primarily reflect the mixing of marine and fresh-water in the back-
barrier area suggesting that the degree of marine incursion was moderated by the
continued delivery of fresh-water.
Cluster analysis of the samples from MGSBLG suggests a large degree of overlap between
the coarse and fine end-member samples (see figure 10.12). The similarity between the
180.8, 180.0, 179.8 and 169.2cm seen in the diatom diagrams is confirmed by zone 2 of the
cluster analysis diagram. Similarly to the trends implied by the geochemical data set, there
also appears to be little significant difference between the end-member samples of MGSBL
G on the basisof the diatom assemblagescounted.
338
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10.3 MGSBl A Stratigraphic Series Assemblages
As opposed to the low and high energy end-member samples discussed above, the diatom
data presented here comes from samples presented in stratigraphic order. These sample
series are all taken from sections of MGSBL A in which pronounced fluctuations in mean
grain size are observed. The samples in these series were counted at high resolution with
counts from adjacent 2mm samples often presented. Sample series of this nature have the
potential to offer further insight into the back-barrier environments represented by the
characteristic GSD styles. In addition, such counts offer an opportunity to assess the
sensitivity of the diatom community, relative to the particle size data, to back-barrier
environmental change.
10.3.1 Series 1
Series 1 comprises 10 samples running from 23.Gcm to 2G.8cm. The mean grain size et> trend
of this core section, the depths of the samples counted and the GSD styles are shown in
figure 10.13. The series begins and ends with samples from the low energy end-member
group. Between these low energy end-member samples, mean grain size coarsens to a peak
of "'Get>characterised by INT2 distribution styles at 24.8-24.2cm.
The salinity summary columns of the diatom diagram (figure 10.14) show a fresh- and
fresh/brackish-dominated diatom community in the lowest sample located at 2G.8cm.
Moving upward through the core section, this is followed by a decline in fresh water diatom
species and an increase in brackish/fresh-species in the 2G.4cm sample. While the diatom
community appears to indicate a more marine influenced environment the GSD style is
unchanged and mean grain size has only marginally coarsened. The proportion of fresh
diatoms identified remains low in the 26.0 and 25.6cm samples yet the number of brackish
species declines again. The 25.2cm sample sees a slight reduction in fresh/brackish species
and a slight increase in brackish species. These distributions progress from BG1 through
BG3 to BG4 as mean grain size coarsens. However, while subtle changes are present in the
diatom community, little in the way of significant change is seen.
The assemblages of these samples are dominated by fresh/brackish and brackish/fresh
benthic species such as Navicula pusil/a, Nitzschia palea, Synedra acus, Navicula
mutica/mutica var. Cohnii and Nitzchia sigma. The freshwater benthic species Nitzschia
linearis progressively disappears from the assemblage as mean grain size coarsens. The
back-barrier environment represented by these samples would appear to be predominantly
340
fresh/brackish to brackish/fresh. The prominence of fresh species in the deepest sample
maybe linked to increased capture of river water in a lagoonal environment when the
barrier remains closed. This would be consistent with the BG1 distribution style while the
subtle move to more brackish conditions is consistent with the transition to the BG3 and
subsequently BG4 styles which indicate a level of tidal influx.
Mean grain size (<1

5 6 7 8
2:3.0
23.2
23.4
2:3.6
~
2:3.8
23.6cm
BG3:
23.8cm
24.0
2:4.2
24.4 ~ INT2:
24.4cm
2:4.6
2:4.8 INT2:
24.8cm
EU>
~ 25.0
....CL
..t::
CIJ'
8G4:
0 2:5.2 25.2cm
25.4
IBG3:
25.6 25.6cm
2:5.8
B63:
2:6.0 26.0cm
2&.2
BG1:
2:6.4 26.4.cm
26.6
2:0.8
MGSBLA: BG1:
26.8cm
2.7.0
SERIES 1
grain size distribution differential frequency curve shape are shown
341
The transition of the diatom community discussed for the lower 2 samples in this series is
reversed in the upper 2 samples as a move toward a more fresh/brackish and fresh diatom
community accompanies the transition from a sample of the BG3 distribution style to a BGl
distribution style. Between the upper and lower sections of the series a shift to a more
saline diatom community is observed. The samples from 24.8 and 24.4cm have INT2
distributions, indicative of an increasingly tidally influenced back-barrier environment.
These samples are accompanied by an increase in brackish, marine/brackish and marine
diatoms. The sample from 24.0cm, which is located above, reveals a similarly saline diatom
community. This latter sample is of the BGS distribution style. The transition of these three
GSDs points toward a relative decrease in barrier integrity with the INT2 distributions
suggesting the greatest level of tidal influence in the back-barrier area. The diatom
assemblages appear to support the notion of increased tidal influence. The apparent
superimposition of the marine/brackish and marine frustules on the predominantly
fresh/brackish, brackish/fresh and brackish community also supports the suggestion that
these distributions record a combination of relatively more closed and more open inlet
conditions. The marine brackish and marine species present in this 'marine spike' are all
planktonic or epiphytic with the exception of the benthic Nitzschia acuminata, therefore
marine incursion is supported. Additionally all of the brackish species which are shown in
the diagram are benthic or epiphytic suggesting that a general shift to more brackish
conditions accompanied this increase in marine incursion.
This series of diatom assemblages does appear to offer a degree of support to both the
environmental interpretations of the GSD styles present and the ability of the diatom
community to reflect the barrier regime. In this instance a clear shift to more brackish
conditions, accompanied by indicator species of increased tidal inundation in the back-
barrier area is consistent with the mean grain size trend and the GSD styles.
342
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10.3.2 Series 2
Similarly to series 1, the samples analysed for their diatom assemblages in series 2 also
document an increase and subsequent decrease in depositional energy. This series begins
with a sample from the MGSBL A low energy end-member group {34.2cm} and the increase
in depositional energy of this series is represented by a high energy end-member sample
{34.8cm}. The depth of individual samples, the mean grain size 4> values and the GSD styles
can be seen in figure 10.15.
Mean grain size (4))

5 6 7 8
34.0 +---------'----------'------ ......
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34.4
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~ 34.6
s:
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MGSBLA:
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35.2
SERIES 2 ~ 35.2cm
344
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The mean grain size range of the samples counted in this series is greater than that of series
1. As such, a greater contrast between the high and low energy samples of the series may
be expected. However, unlike the trend observed in series 1, very little change is seen in
the diatom community throughout the core section (figure 10.16). As a whole the diatom
community is dominated by fresh/brackish, brackish/fresh and brackish diatoms. The
proportions of these species are relatively consistent throughout, as are the proportions of
brackish/marine, marine/brackish and marine diatoms. Indeed the only sample which
differs subtly from the rest of the group is the upper, 34.2cm, sample. Here a subtle
increase in fresh and fresh/brackish diatoms can be seen. The overall assemblage for this
sample appears consistent with a low energy fresh to brackish environment. The dominant
species all suggest some degree of subaerial exposure was characteristic of the core site at
this time.
No significant changes accompany the increase in mean grain size as would be expected. A
sample of the INn distribution style is present in this series; given the interpretation of
these samples as markedly 'open' this is surprising. On the basis of this series of diatom
assemblages, the ability of diatom assemblages to consistently and accurately reflect the
nature of the back-barrier depositional environment in response to changes in barrier
integrity appears limited. It seems that the diatom community is time averaged and less
sensitive to barrier dynamic than the particle size data.
10.3.3 Series 3
The core section of series 3 again documents an overall rise and fall in mean grain size;
however this transition is less straightforward than the previous two with some degree of
fluctuation observed within the initial mean grain size increase. The sample depths, mean
grain size values and GSDs can be seen in figure 10.17. The GSDs range from the BG1 to the
INTl style and, as such, a significant change in the diatom community would be expected to
accompany this transition. However, this series is again notable for the lack of change in the
diatom assemblages observed between differing GSD styles (figure 10.18).
The diatom community as a whole is dominated by fresh/brackish and brackish diatoms.
This does not change throughout the core section, and the proportions of these species
remain relatively consistent in all samples. The same is true for the proportions of fresh,
brackish/fresh, brackish/marine and marine diatoms. The only noteworthy change in the
assemblages of this series comes in the INTl style distribution sample from 56.8cm. Here a
subtle increase in marine/brackish diatoms is observed accompanied by yet more subtle
346
increases in the brackish and marine species present. A slight decrease in fresh/brackish
diatoms is also observed in this sample.
Mean grain size (<pl

5 6 7 8
55.0
55.2
55.4 BG3:
SS.6em
55.0
~~.lS
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SERIES 3
59.0
347
The 56.Bcm sample suggestsa slight increase in the salinity of the back-barrier environment
accompanied by a limited but significant increase in the influx of marine/brackish and
marine species. An increase in marine allochthonous diatom fragments is also seen in this
sample appearing to confirm that this is a genuine environmental trend. This trend is
consistent with the INTl distribution style; however the increase in more saline species is
very limited, no similar increase accompanies the other INTl distribution in the series and
no significant change can be seen between the assemblages of the other samples in the
section despite the range of mean grain size values and GSD styles present. It should be
noted, however, that above this short-lived marine spike the proportion of marine and
marine/brackish species identified remains very slightly but consistently elevated in relation
to the samples below.
While contrasts between the assemblagesof the samples in this series are largely absent,
the assemblage present is dominated by a range of fresh/brackish to brackish benthic and
epiphytic species. The fresh/brackish benthic species Navicula cincta is clearly dominant in
the assemblage as a whole, however the prominence of more saline tolerant species such
Caloneis westii and Nitzschia vitrea may be interpreted to suggest that the back-barrier
environment experienced a range of salinity linked to barrier integrity during the period of
the deposition of these samples.
Similarly to series 2, the shifts in the diatom community which would be expected to
accompany the changes in the mean grain size values are not apparent. These assemblages
further suggest that the diatom record is not sufficiently sensitive to record sub-annual
changes in the back-barrier environment.
348
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10.3.4 Cluster analysis of stratigraphic series assemblages
The previous discussion of the stratigraphic series diatom assemblages from MGSBL A has
identified both a level of correlation with the environmental conditions interpreted from
the grain size data set (series 1) and apparent discontinuities between the changing grain
size and diatom assemblage characteristics (series 2 and 3). Cluster analysis of the three
series was performed to further explore the link between GSDs and diatom assemblages.
Figure 10.19 shows the results of stratigraphically constrained cluster analysis performed
on the diatom assemblages from series 1. Dashed lines on the diagram illustrate the
division of the samples into three groups. The upper four and lower four samples in the
series are grouped respectively while the middle two samples form a third distinct cluster.
It is clear that the samples in the middle of the series have different characteristics from
those at either end. This is consistent with the changing depositional energy in the series
which sees grain size distributions move from finer to coarser before again becoming finer.
There does, however, appear to be an offset between the depositional energy levels
represented by the GSD style of each sample and the response of the diatom community.
The middle cluster consists of one sample with an INT2 GSD and one with a BG4 GSD
whereas it would be expected that the two INT2 distributions would instead cluster
together.
Figure 10.20 shows the results of stratigraphically constrained cluster analysis performed
on the diatom assemblages from series 2. In this series the 34.2cm sample is identified as
distinct from the remaining samples in the series. The 34.2cm sample features a BG1 GSD
and is significantly less coarse than the others present. In addition a less significant level of
distinction is illustrated between the 35.2cm sample and the other samples in the main
cluster. The results of this cluster analysis again closely compliment the timing of the grain
size inferred environmental changes in the back barrier area. Figure 10.21, stratigraphically
constrained cluster analysis of series 3 diatom assemblages, also reveals sample clusters
with clear connections to the grain size trend of the core section. Here an upper cluster of
four samples is distinct from the cluster of four below. The two groups reflect a down core
shift from lower to higher depositional energy conditions. The deepest sample in this series
is identified as distinct from the upper two clusters. This sample has a BG1 GSD and a finer
mean grain size than any other sample present.
350
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The cluster analysis of the stratigraphic series diatom assemblages demonstrates that the
diatom communities recorded in the sediment record have largely shifted with changes in
depositional energy. However, there appears to be some issues of lag time between the
diatom and grain size data sets while the nature of the changes observed in the diatom
community can be difficult to explain with a simple model of depositional energy being
driven by marine inundation alone. These issues are discussed further in the following
section.
10.4 Discussion of Diatom Assemblages
It is important to emphasise that samples of the PM08R core are thought to represent a
time averaged composite of differing back-barrier end member states, some more open
and some more closed. As such, the interpretations offered are based on a range of back-
barrier environments rather than a single configuration.
All of the diatom assemblages counted for the PM08R samples appear to reflect
environments of the coastal zone which are compatible with those envisaged for the
analysed core sections. The 'optimal' salinity group for each count i.e. that with the largest
number of benthic diatoms (Beyens& Denys, 1982), ranges from fresh/brackish to brackish.
The spread of salinity classifications of the prominent species may be interpreted to
indicate a range of back-barrier salinity during the period of each sample's deposition.
However, the environments indicated by the diatom assemblages often fail to shift
accordingly with environmental range interpreted from the grain size trend. Indeed, not
only do the diatom assemblages regularly fail to reflect the more subtle environmental
changes thought to occur throughout the sample series but often the diatom assemblages
also fail to simply reflect increasing salinity accompanying increasing depositional energy.
Samples of the INn distribution style provide a good example as their diatom assemblages
often failed to reflect the shift to more tidal conditions interpreted from their differential
frequency curve shape. These distributions were suggested to include brief periods of tidal
sedimentation when the back-barrier area closely approximated an open estuarine
environment. However, while some INT3 distributions failed to reflect a shift to more tidal
conditions, others did. Indeed, there appears to be no obvious trend dictating which
sample's grain size statistics and diatom communities will closely complement each other,
for example it is not the case that any particular characteristic GSDstyle has a consistent
diatom assemblage. The high and low energy end-member samples presented for MGSBLD
354
show a clear distinction yet the same comparison for MGSBLsections A and G suggested a
considerable degree of similarity. As with the geochemical data-set, the MGSBLsection
with the largest magnitude of mean grain size fluctuation, MGSBLD, showed the greatest
difference between end-members in terms of the diatom communities. Yet the series
counts went against this trend as the series with the largest magnitude of mean grain size
fluctuation, series 2, showed the smallest level of variation in the diatom communities
present.
Through analysis of the grain size, and to some extent the geochemical data, a correlation
between depositional energy and marine influx had emerged. On occasion the diatom
assemblage of a sample corresponds to this trend, however, the diatom community is
equally likely to suggest that salinity is not markedly elevated in the back-barrier area when
depositional energy is increased. A lack of direct support for the depositional
energy/salinity correlation from the diatom assemblages is not overly problematic. The
most likely explanation for the inconsistency between the GSDs and the diatom
assemblages of individual samples is that the accretion of minerogenic particles and diatom
frustules are primarily dictated by different aspects of a back-barrier depositional
environment. The GSDs of the PM08R core are thought to be primarily dictated by
hydraulic processes and settling from suspension with the emphasis changing dependent
on barrier integrity. Diatom productivity and accretion also varies in differing environments
but the main control here is water quality and water level, not dynamics.
As opposed to undermining the environmental interpretations made on the basis of the
grain size data-set, the diatom assemblagespresented can instead be considered to provide
essential contextual support and offer some further insight into the back-barrier
environments they represent. The back-barrier area receives both marine and fluvial
waters, with the salinity of the back-barrier environments dependant on the relative
proportions of each. It seems that the diatom assemblages most closely correspond to the
prevailing back-barrier salinity of the composite environment represented by each sample.
The extremes of depositional energy, which are the primary drivers of GSDs, change
markedly between samples but it appears that the prevailing salinity of the back-barrier
environment is much more consistent. In short, depositional energy levels are more
sensitive to barrier integrity than back-barrier salinity is. To illustrate this point, more open
inlet conditions have been linked to an increased level of tidal action in the back-barrier
area. This is indeed likely the case, however, one prominent mechanism driving barrier
opening is increased stream-flow. Increased stream flow also plays a role in maintaining
355
barrier inlets (Ranasinghe and Pattiaratchi, 1998). When a barrier inlet has opened under
such a scenario, any rise in salinity related to increased tidal action could be countered by
the increase in freshwater flow resulting in little net change in the salinity of the back-
barrier environment. In a year when precipitation was more limited storm waves may
instead be the primary driver of barrier opening in a system like that of Pescadero Marsh
(Smith, 1990). If the creation of a barrier inlet was not accompanied by significantly
increased stream flow, then the related increase in tidal action could serve to increase the
prevailing salinity level of the back-barrier area. Such inter-annual variability in climate
factors is a feature of present-day Pescadero Marsh (ESA,2004). It could be the case that
the diatom counts presented actually offer more insight to the corresponding back-barrier
environments than the grain size data does.
While the diatom counts were carefully targeted to offer further insight into the
environmental transitions associated with mean grain size fluctuation in the PM08R core, a
degree of broader environmental information is also available. An important trend to note
in the vast majority of samples was the prominence of aerophilous benthic species in the
fresh/brackish to brackish salinity tolerance categories. The depositional environments of
the samples all appear to be characterised by periods of subaerial exposure rather than
being dominantly submerged. The implication is that the core site was emergent for
periods of the deposition of each sample. The majority of GSD styles were suggested to
encompass periods of deposition during which decreasing barrier integrity converted the
core site to a saltmarsh surface inundated at high tide. Samples of the BG1 and BG2 styles
were suggested to be primarily deposited through settling in a lagoonal pool behind a

coherent barrier. If a coherent barrier was in place throughout the period of deposltion
then the diatom and grain size trend of these samples may be explained by the core site
having been marginal to the lagoonal pool and therefore only being submerged when water
levels in the lagoon were high. lagoon water level may be driven by barrier integrity and
stream flow but may also rise and fall with the tide when closed due to percolation through
the barrier (Cooper, 1994).
The diatom dataset presented here is of little value alone. However, as an addition to the
multi-proxy dataset including the grain size and geochemical data, significant further insight
into the implications of the down-core mean grain size trend is afforded. For a more
informed assessment of the value of diatom reconstructions at this spatial and temporal
resolution a larger data-set is essential. The poor preservation of diatom frustules in the
PM08R core severely limited the number of counts performed.
356
11 Discussion
11.1 Environmental Evolution of Pescadero Marsh
Following detailed description and interpretation of the datasets presented it is possible to

construct an environmental history for the study site. This history likely begins in the mid-
to late Holocene with the deep stratigraphic reconstructions providing long-term context
for the high resolution short core analysis.
11.1.1 Holocene Context
A clear overriding pattern emerged in the deep stratigraphy of Pescadero Marsh. This
pattern can be related to the general trend of Holocene sea-level. A spatially and
temporally offset pattern of marine influenced sedimentation replacing flood plain
sedimentation was interpreted to describe the progressive inclusion of the study site within
the transitional zone between land and sea. But for high energy events, channel fill
intrusions and the localised spreading of a dune system, the characteristically low
depositional energy of the upper sediment units remains largely consistent across the site.
This points to a widespread and continued late phase of sedimentation in a sheltered back-
barrier area, most likely in lagoonal or salt-marsh environments like those observed at the
present-day site. This inland migration of back-barrier environments in response to sea-
level rise is described by Roy et al. (1994).
The chronology of the deep stratigraphy was poorly constrained due to the lack of
correlation between the few available radiocarbon dates. However, informed by
interpretations of the available dates, relevant published sedimentation rates and the
general eustatic Holocene sea-level trend; the onset of marine influenced sedimentation at
the current site of Pescadero Marsh is thought likely to have occurred during the Holocene
marine transgression. During this prolonged event, sea level first rose dramatically before
slowing and eventually stabilising between ....
S,OOOBPand 3,000 BP(Lambeck and Chappell,
2001).
The timing of the floodplain-to-back-barrier shift in sedimentation at Pescadero cannot be

stated with accuracy. Indeed, localised reversions to flood-plain sedimentation following
the initial appearance of the marine-influenced units were observed and suggested to be
linked with the failure and loss of an early barrier system in response to ongoing sea-level
rise and, hence, the loss of an expanded marine/fluvial mixing zone i.e. the back-barrier
357
area. Such processes are discussed by Plater and Kirby (2011). Following these reversions to
floodplain sedimentation; the consistent deposition of 'back-barrier' sediments likely
correlates to the increasing stabilisation of sea-level rise after 5,000 BP. Additional sources
available concerning the Holocene evolution of the site all suggest that a wetland
environment has persisted for over 3,000 years (Viollis, 1979; Williams, 1990; ESA, 2004).
Support for this loose chronology comes from the southern San Francisco Bay Holocene
sea-level curve, which stabilises at ~3,000 BP, and the analogous local intertidal
environment of Elkhorn Slough which was drowned by marine water prior to 8,000 BP and
had become a stable salt-marsh environment by 3,000 BP (Woolfolk, 2005). By 3,000 BP it is
likely that the barrier system at Pescadero had become fixed at its current site. Topography
is known to anchor coastal barriers over the late-Holocene timescale (Cooper, 1994) and
the bedrock topography of this location, in the form of a sill flanked by a headland,
facilitates the accumulation of sand (ESA, 2004; Griggs et ai, 2005). Deposition of the
PM08R core is likely restricted to this 'stable' period.
11.1.2 High Resolution Record
While a transgressive phase characterised the early intertidal environment at Pescadero,
the late-Holocene environment appears relatively consistent by contrast. Indeed,
considered at the Holocene temporal scale the upper sediments of the Pescadero record
suggest a stable back-barrier environment. Vet considered over shorter timescales the
environment is far from static.
11.1.3 Interpretative Model of Back-Barrier Evolution during the Late-Holocene
Prior to summarising the trends encountered in the PM08R core, the interpretive model of
sediment deposition based on the grain size data-set should first be reviewed in light of the
full data-set.
The 2mm sampling resolution employed was intended to capture sub-annual
environmental change in the back-barrier area. In the most recent sediments of the
historical period, an average sedimentation rate of 144.2 days per 2mm sample was
established. This rate remained relatively consistent down-core to a date of ~1900. A clear
contrast in the nature of sedimentation can be seen either side of a depth of ~80cm, which
corresponds to a date of "'18S0 (the start of MGSBl A). This depth is suggested to be the
358
maximum lower limit of the accelerated sedimentation rate. Below ~80cm the
sedimentation rate is likely ~lmm per year or less (see sections 6.4 and 7.3).
The difference in sedimentation rate envisaged between pre- and post Euro-American era
sedimentation allows for the possibility that in the upper section of the core, peaks and
troughs in mean grain size result from samples which capture predominantly open or
predominantly closed seasonal back-barrier configurations. In the lower sections of the
core, where the sedimentation rate is likely considerably lower, samples of markedly coarse
and fine mean grain size must instead represent shifts in the seasonal regime from
predominantly more open to more closed barrier conditions over a number of years.
A further consideration is the nature of sedimentation as episodic or ongoing. Sediment

records from similar, and in some instances the very same, estuarine environments have
been interpreted by different researchers to represent the deposition of both annual bands
and tidal rhythmites (Allen, 2004). The PM08R sediments could readily be interpreted in
either of these models; however the interpretations offered thus far have occupied a
middle ground with barrier integrity suggested to drive shifts between continuous lagoonal
pool and episodic tidal marsh sedimentation in an open barrier estuary. This interpretation
remains the most satisfactory yet the results of the diatom analysis suggest a subtle
modification.
Each of the diatom assemblages counted were dominated by species which thrive in
environments characterised by sub-aerial exposure. The implication is that submergence in
a lagoonal pool has been more limited than thought. A salt-marsh surface predominantly
exposed but incorporated in the back-barrier lagoonal pool to a greater or lesser extent,
over the course of a year and occasionally inundated by high tides when not afforded
protection by a sufficient barrier system would be compatible with interpretations of both

the grain size and diatom data-sets. This proposed environmental configuration is also a
direct description of the PM08R core site at the present day, where salt-marsh diatom
communities are abundant (Clarke, 2006). Indeed, aerial photographs and the 1854 map of
the site suggest the configuration of the back-barrier marsh land has changed very little
over the last ~150 years with the 'lobe site' notably consistent (see Section 4.5). It seems
that this site may have changed little over a considerably longer period. If the PM08R core
site has remained a primarily emergent marsh surface then minerogenic sedimentation has
likely been dominated by high and low energy departures from this state during limited
periods of submergence under a lagoonal pool or tidal inundation. This changes the
359
depositional model little but instead frames these periods of sedimentation as departures
from a background condition rather than being temporally dominant. The GSD of each
sample can then be seen as a balance between high and low energy departures, as such any
interpretation of a sample's depositional energy must be considered in relation to the core
as a whole.
11.1.4 PM08R Environmental History
Interpretation of the grain size data-set resulted from a lengthy process of repeated
observation and description. The level of detail presented was necessary to identify and
validate the findings. However, the environmental interpretations have been discussed in
detail in Section 8.10. To avoid repetition, in the following section these interpretations are
used but not fully explained. The environmental history of the PM08R core is presented
chronologically from the bottom up. Table 11.1 summarises the key PM08R grain size
trends and geochemical associations and should be consulted while reading the individual
MGSBl environmental interpretations.
11.1.4.1 Where Does the Late-Holocene High Resolution Record Begin?
The deepest section of the core, consistently referred to as MGSBL G, likely corresponds to
a time when Native Americans were the only humans living in the vicinity of Pescadero
Marsh. Padre Juan Crespi of the Portola expedition reported a largely tree less landscape in
1769 (ESA, 2004). However, the Portola expedition proceeded coastwise and is unlikely to
have explored the wider catchments of the Butano and Pescadero Creeks. While large
treeless fields were recorded, the water ways and valleys were still noted as being lined
with trees. The extent of land clearance in the area cannot be fully known but dense native
populations were encountered in central California by early European visitors and had
doubtlessly inhabited and managed the land in similar ways for many centuries or millennia
prior to contact (Keeley, 2002). Any impact that these early inhabitants of the area had on
the functioning of the resource is likely to be limited (ESA, 2004).
360
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11.1.4.2 MGSBL G (162.2-18S.0cm)
This MGSBL section is characterised by a mean grain size base level which appears relatively
fine in context of the core as a whole. It is in fact very slightly coarser than that of MGSBL A
and, therefore, the coarsest in the core with the exception of MGSBl E, D and C in which
depositional energy appears elevated following high energy episode 7. Fluctuation is,
however, dampened here in relation to MGSBL A, yet this could readily be a product of
samples at this depth representing back-barrier deposition over multiple years as opposed
to isolated sub-annual extremes.
The lowest energy environment recorded appears to be that of a consistently closed
lagoon. Many of the lower energy samples (BGl and BG2) suggest very limited or no tidal
ingress at the core site. In contrast, the highest energy distribution style recorded (INTl)
suggests a significant degree of barrier estuarine sedimentation relative to lagoonal
sedimentation. MGSBl G is however dominated by distribution styles which were
interpreted to reflect a relative balance of barrier estuarine and lagoonal sedimentation,
BG3 and BGS, with the suspension load dominating the former and the saltation load
dominating the latter. Two intermediate high energy episodes (IHEE) were recorded in this
section featuring INTl and INT3 distributions. The highest magnitude episode
(characterised by INT3) records a flow capable of depositing a coarse sand component
absent from all of the remaining samples in the section. Following both of these episodes,
'regular' grain size fluctuation was resumed.
The samples of MGSBL G differed subtly in their geochemistry, however this variance was
not connected to the mean grain size trend. The majority of samples were characterised by
weak associations with terrigenous minerogenic and shell material indicator elements while
a smaller number were associated with plant material. No distinction was apparent even
between the coarsest and finest samples of the section. The back-barrier is interpreted to
be characterised by terrestrial as opposed to marine inputs in what was likely a productive
environment for CaC03 producing organisms.
Diatom samples were counted from this section with no significant distinction between the
targeted coarse and fine end-member samples emerging. The assemblages paint to a
fresh/brackish to brackish environment characterised by regular sub-aerial exposure Le. a
salt-marsh surface.
362
Summary:
The predominating environment of the core site in this section is interpreted as a salt-
marsh surface behind a barrier system which saw regular inlet opening but was generally
more 'closed' than at present. A seasonal regime of inlet opening is thought to have
persisted, with the barrier regularly becoming sufficiently full to facilitate the inclusion of
the core site in a lagoonal pool. On occasion the back-barrier lagoonal pool, or at least the
prevention of direct tidal ingress by the barrier system, persisted for multi-annual periods.
Sedimentation primarily resulted from settling from suspension in the lagoonal pool,
however, tidal ingress also made a regular but lesssignificant contribution to accumulation.
As such terrestrial sources provided the majority of sediment accumulated.
11.1.4.3 MGSBL F (142.4-162.2cm)
MGSBLF represents a shift to a consistently lower energy depositional regime. The mean
grain size base level has become finer in this section, and the magnitude of grain size
fluctuation is the narrowest of any complete MGSBLsection. Occasional coarser samples
(BG3) suggest a limited degree of tidal ingress but the section is dominated by lagoonal
sedimentation, as interpreted from the overwhelmingly dominant BGl and BG2distribution

styles.
The geochemistry of this section again showed no distinction between the coarser and finer
samples. In relation to the whole core, samples were associated weakly with both
minerogenic and shell indicator elements. Deposition is interpreted as being primarily in a
lagoonal environment which was productive for shell-producing organisms and primarily
sourced with terrestrial sediments.
Summary:
This section of the core represents the most consistent shift to 'closed' back-barrier
lagoonal conditions recorded. The core site was predominantly under or marginal to a
lagoonal pool with regular periods of emergence envisaged, depending on water level in
the back-barrier area. The barrier system is thought not to have opened seasonally,
remaining almost exclusively closed. Sediment deposition would be chiefly through settling
from suspension under calm lagoonal waters and therefore dominantly terrestrial in origin.
Direct tidal ingress at the core site was extremely limited due to the consistent coherence
of the barrier. Any tidal signal entering the back-barrier through temporally and spatially
limited inlets would be modified by the persisting lagoonal pool.
363
11.1.4.4 High Energy Episode 7 (142.4-129.4cm)
A fluvial flood pulse, storm/tsunami events and tectonic subsidence have been cited as
potential explanations for this episode of sedimentation. On the basisof the data available,
the sand layer can confidently be described as the product of a high magnitude/low
frequency event with no analogues in the PM08R core or indeed the late-Holocene
stratigraphy. While a definitive comment on the depositional processesresponsible for this
layer cannot be made, a favoured mechanism can be proposed. Being a single spatially
extensive, homogeneous, normally graded bed, consistently less than 25cm in depth and
interspersed with mud laminae toward the base, the HEE7 sand layer has many
characteristics of a tsunami deposit (Smith et al., 2004; Jaffe and Gelfenbaum, 2007;
Morton et al., 2007). Following further discussions of the HEE7deposit with Dr Bruce Jaffe
of the USGeological Survey (tsunami deposit expert and co author of Morton et al., 2007),
a tsunami event is suggested as the most likely mechanism to have deposited this sand
layer.
11.1.4.5 MGSBL E (117.6-129.4cm)
In MGSBLE depositional energy is elevated considerably in relation to the deeper MGSBL
sections. Mean grain size fluctuation has become more pronounced and the base level is
coarser than any other in the core but for MGSBLD.
The characteristic GSDstyles are interpreted to represent environments dominated by tidal
ingress into a barrier estuary with minimal, if any, lagoonal sedimentation recorded. These
distribution styles were INT2 and INT3 with the former being most prominent. It appears
that a lagoonal pool was largely absent from the barrier estuary area as the integrity of the
barrier system had been greatly reduced. At this time sedimentation at the core site was
suggested to be primarily due to regular tidal inundation through an open barrier. Some
examples of the BG4 distribution style were identified in the finest samples of the section,
suggesting a brief increase in the prominence of lagoonal sedimentation, however these
samples were very rare.
The INT3 distribution was interpreted to brief reductions in barrier integrity below a
threshold that restricted maximum tidal velocity in the back-barrier area. The INT2
distribution represented a similarly open environment in which barrier integrity remained
above that threshold. Notably digestion of the residual organic component in some of the
INT3 samples of this section revealed the additional coarse component to be organic
364
contamination while in other samples the additional coarse component was identified as a
genuine sand component. The full extent of the impact of organic contamination was not
established. However regardless, of this issue the distributions in this section and MGSBLD
remain of consistently higher depositional energy than any of the other base level sections
below and indicate a well-developed barrier estuary environment.
Due to a lack of distinction between the coarse and fine end-member groups and the
consistent association with salinity and shell material indicator elements, the geochemistry
of this core section marked all samples as being characterised by marine input.
Summary:
Tidal sedimentation delivered from an off shore source dominates this section. The core
site was likely an emergent salt-marsh surface prone to regular tidal ingress in a barrier
estuary. The barrier system was characterised by a large inlet which remained open to
some degree throughout the year. Expansion of a lagoonal pool across the back-barrier
area was not a regular feature of the environment during this time. The barrier regime was
markedly open, considerably more so than that of today.
11.1.4.6 MGSBL 0 (102.8-117.6cm)
This section saw a shift to a yet coarser MGSBL,the coarsest of the PM08Rcore. Fluctuation
in mean grain size was also of the greatest magnitude in MGSBL0 due to the presence of a
limited number of contextually very fine samples. The dominant GSDswere again of the
INT2 and INT3 styles with the latter and coarser being most prominent in this section. A
limited number of the finer samples are present, with BG3 and BG4 distribution styles
suggesting brief periods of recovering barrier integrity.
Due to the magnitude of the grain size fluctuation in this MGSBL section a geochemical
distinction emerged between the coarse and fine end-member samples. The low energy
end-member group were characterised by their terrigenous minerogenic fraction while the
high energy group were characterised by their organic matter and salinity content.
However, the fine samples of the low energy end-member group were very limited in their
occurrence and, in the context of the core as a whole, the MGSBL 0 samples were
overwhelmingly characterised by marine input.
Diatom assemblages were counted in this section with a contrast emerging between the
targeted coarse and fine end-member samples counted. The fine mean grain size samples
365
counted revealed a fresh/brackish to brackish autochthonous community dominated by
salt-marsh species. The coarse samples revealed a brackish to marine/brackish assemblage
indicative of a salt-marsh environment prone to significant tidal inundation. This latter
group is more representative of the MGSBLD section as the samples included were located
considerably closer to the mean grain size base level.
Summary:
The core site was likely an emergent salt-marsh surface during this period with regular tidal
inundation in a barrier estuary dominating sediment deposition from an off-shore source.

The barrier system was characterised by a high degree of opening occasionally permitting
flows capable of depositing a sand fraction. However, while the barrier largely remained
open all year, rare incidents of closure and the formation of a lagoonal pool demonstrate
some variability of barrier integrity. On occasion an inlet opened to a degree where the
back-barrier environment became close to open estuarine. This is the most 'open' MGSBL
section recorded in the core.
11.1.4.7 MGSBL C (89.0-102.8cm)
The samples of MGSBLC suggest a significant recovery of barrier integrity in relation to
MGSBLD. This section is characterised by interchanging BG3and BG4GSDstyles suggesting
a balance between lagoonal and tidal sedimentation at the core site, with lagoonal
conditions more prominent in the former and tidal deposition more prominent in the latter.
In the deeper half of the section (below 95cm) INT2 distributions occur in grain size peaks,
suggesting that barrier integrity on occasion was significantly reduced. The lack of these
distributions in the upper samples suggests a shift to more closed barrier conditions within
the MGSBLsection.
The samples of MGSBLC have varying geochemical associations which are linked to the
grain size trend of the section. The majority of samples are characterised by their
terrigenous minerogenic component or increased proportion of plant material, the latter
group reflecting an increasing marine influence. The coarsest samples in this section are
associated with organic matter and salinity indicator elements, this reflects a
predominantly open barrier configuration in keeping with the interpretation of the INT2
distribution style. While maintaining a relatively consistent MGSBL,this section appears to
reflect a progressive recovery of barrier integrity.
366
Summary:
The core site was predominantly a salt-marsh surface being included under a lagoonal pool
during seasonal barrier closure. Interplay between marine-sourced barrier estuary and
terrestrially-sourced lagoonal sedimentation characterises deposition, with the balance
shifting toward lagoonal sedimentation in the upper half of the section as the barrier
regime became more 'closed'. This section appears to record an up-core increase in barrier
integrity.
11.1.4.8 MGSBL B (79.6-89.2cm)
The mean grain size base level of this section is the finest of the core and fluctuation is also
relatively limited. The characteristic distribution style is BG3 which suggests lagoonal
sedimentation dominates but limited tidal deposition also occurs. Higher energy departures
to more open tidal environments are evidenced by samples of the BGSdistribution style,
and lower energy departures to closed consistently lagoonal environments are also
represented by BG2distributions.
The geochemical associations of the samples in this section were predominantly
minerogenic, however some samples were associated more closely with organic matter
indicator elements. The majority of these were the more coarse samples of the group
although no clear distinction could be made between targeted groups of coarse and fine
end-member samples.
Summary:
The core site was a salt-marsh surface prone to regular submergence in a lagoonal pool.
The barrier system likely opened seasonally, with a spatially limited inlet, but on occasion
remained closed for multi-annual periods. The settling of fine terrestrial sediments
dominated deposition, thus the barrier regime appears to have been more 'closed' than
that of the present day.
11.1.4.9 MGSBL A (1.6-76.0cm)
The mean grain size base level of this section is coarser than that of MGSBL Band
fluctuation is markedly increased, being of a higher magnitude than that of any other
section but for MGSBLD. The range of environments recorded by the characteristic GSD
367
styles suggests regular transitions from consistently closed lagoonal sedimentation (BG1
and BG2) to combined lagoonal and barrier estuarine deposition with the tidal component
being dominant. The range of back-barrier environmental configurations reflected in
MGSBL A appears compatible with the contemporary regime as an increased rate of
sedimentation is present throughout the section allowing for each sample to reflect sub-
annual extremes as opposed to a multi-annual averages. Time series analysis of the grain
size trend in this core section suggests variability in the degree of barrier opening and
closure on a temporal scale analogous to that of the ENSO phenomenon.
Six intermediate high energy episodes (IHEE) are associated with this section (numbered 1-
6 down core). The deepest two, 5 and 6, occur at the transition from MGSBL B to A and may
be related to this shift in MGSBL. Episodes 4 and 3 are located in the middle of the section.
These latter IHEE are not followed by any recovery period as MGSBL fluctuation resumes
directly above both mean grain size peaks. Episodes 2 and 1 are of higher magnitude and
appear either longer in duration or to have deposited a thicker event layer. From the base
of episode 2 upwards, the mean grain size fluctuation of MGSBL A is never re-established.
Clear geochemical distinctions were not established between coarse and fine end-member
samples of this section. However, a tendency toward terrigenous minerogenic element
associations was apparent in the finer samples and a tendency toward organic matter
indicators in the coarser samples was observed. This was interpreted to reflect the
increasing influence of marine inputs on the latter group. Additionally, a sub-population of
coarse samples strongly associated with K appeared to reflect episodic shifts in the ratio of
subsoil/topsoil erosion in the catchment driven by Euro-American land-use.
Diatom assemblages were counted for a number of samples from this section. All of which
suggested that the most prominent environmental configuration in temporal terms was a
fresh/brackish to brackish salt-marsh. Limited distinctions could be made between the
assemblages from coarse and fine mean grain sizes samples. However, on occasion coarser
samples reflected a greater level of marine influence from tidal ingress deposition while,
again on limited occasions, finer samples recorded a higher proportion of species with low
salinity tolerance reflecting the trapping of fluvial water in the back-barrier area.
Summary:
Interpretation of MGSBL A differs subtly from the other core sections due to the increased
rate of sedimentation. The core site was likely a salt-marsh surface inundated by tidal water
368
when a sufficient barrier inlet was present and regularly under a lagoonal pool when the
barrier system closed. It appears that barrier closure occurred on a seasonal basis, driven
by precipitation and storminess, with the degree of opening and closure changing year on
year. Accreted sediments came from marine and terrestrial sources yet terrestrial sources
dominated and the barrier regime, while more open than those of MGSBL G, F and B,
remained relatively closed in relation to those of MGSBL E and D.
11.2 Implications of the late-Holocene Barrier Regime History
The environmental history of the back-barrier area at Pescadero over the period
documented by the PM08R core can be directly related to the concepts of equilibrium in
coastal environments discussed by Woodroffe (2007). The mean grain size trend of the
PM08R core in the long-term Holocene context can be seen to reflect a system that shifts
through a series of 'static equilibrium' states which, when considered together, represent a
barrier estuarine 'metastable equilibrium' that is persistent throughout the period of late-
Holocene stability.
1Cl
+"
Static
a equili brium equilibriu m equilibrium
~~------~------------
--+
Time
Figure 11.1: Diagrammatical representation of environmental equilibrium states (modified

from Wood roffe, 2007)
Using Woodroffe's (2007) terminology, a system in 'dynamic equilibrium' may be seen to
fluctuate over the short term but display a progressive environmental trajectory over the
medium term, or mesoscale. Instead, a system in 'static equilibrium' fluctuates above and
below, but remains close to, an environmental base level; while a 'metastable equilibrium'
comprises a series of different static equilibria (figure 11.1). Each MGSBL section represents
a static equilibrium state in which the barrier regime was adjusted to the contemporary
boundary conditions, this resulted in either a more open or more closed back-barrier
environment depending on the prevailing barrier integrity. Following Cooper et al. (2007),
the fluctuating range of environmental configurations in each of these static equilibria can
be said to exist between opposing, more open and more closed barrier, end-member
'attractor' states. These end-member states differ between the static equilibria, i.e. the
369
lower energy end-member state varies from a well developed barrier estuarine
configuration in MGSBLE,to a closed lagoonal configuration in MGSBLF.
Interplay between perturbations and negative feedback processes is responsible for
maintaining the system in static equilibrium (Wood roffe, 2002). Winter storms provide an
example of a perturbation at present-day Pescadero. Winter storms drive barrier inlet

opening which is redressed by negative feedback processes such as waves and currents
which gradually return the barrier to a closed state (Smith, 1990). Following Wolman and
Miller (1960), impacts like storms and waves can be described in terms of their magnitude
and frequency and the effective 'work' they do on the system. While the balance of work
done on a system by processesof differing magnitude and frequency can maintain a static
equilibrium, events of sufficient magnitude and frequency may prompt a system response
in the form of a reorganisation and the adoption of a new equilibrium state (Wood roffe,
2007). The crossing of an intrinsic system threshold or a change of boundary conditions
may also prompt such a reorganisation. In the PM08R record, despite the clear contrast
between many of the static equilibria observed, i.e. the predominantly open MGSBL0 and
the closed lagoonal MGSBLF, each time a new balance is reached and a new equilibrium
state adopted, the environment remains barrier estuarine, hence the description of a
barrier estuarine metastable equilibrium.
Considered in this manner the sequence of environmental change preserved in the PM08R
core is essentially a record of response. Response is seen at two scales, both within and
between static equilibrium states. The factors which force these responses are often
unclear. However, in some instances the forcing factors can be identified. The clearest
example of a forcing factor and the subsequent response is the high energy episode 7
(HEE7)sand layer and the series of three MGSBLsections which follow. This coarse sand
layer has multiple plausible origins including a storm or storm surge of exceptional
magnitude, tsunami and co-seismic subsidence (Nelson et al., 1996a; Hemphill-Haley, 1996;
Rosati and Stone, 2009). While the exact nature of the HEE7event remains unclear (see
section 8.10.2), it can be stated with confidence that the sand layer represents an event of
very high magnitude and, due to the lack of analogous deposits in the Holocene
stratigraphy of the site, very low frequency. High magnitude/low frequency events are
known to be important factors in the development of coastal barrier systems (Kroonenberg
et al., 2000; Woodroffe 2002; Houser et al., 2008). The HEE7event appears to have done a
large amount of work on the system; this is reflected by a significant reduction in barrier
integrity following the event. MGSBLE, 0 and C describe a staggered recovery of barrier
370
integrity following the HEE7event, with the two former sections likely reflecting a regime
characterised by an enlarged inlet which did not close seasonally (see section 8.10.3). Not
until MGSBLB is the system thought to have returned to a level of functioning analogous to
that observed prior to deposition of the coarse sand layer. During the recovery period three
distinct static equilibria are established, with the transition from MGSBLE to D actually
seeing a further reduction in barrier integrity. It is unclear what drives the transition
between the static equilibrium sections of MGSBL E, D and C, however HEE7 clearly
instigated the pattern observed.
A further issue related to the HEE7event is the response time. The system can be seen to
recover over an extended period but the timescale is largely unclear. Below the Euro-
American era chronological indicators there is no direct evidence with which to construct a
chronology. If the rates previously quoted for pre-Euro American era sedimentation in
locally analogous environments are used, the response time period between the lower limit
of MGSBLE and that of MGSBLB could be between 800 and 400 years (Mudie and Byrne,
1980; Schwartz et al., 1986). However, if the HEE7 event was erosive, resulting in an
increase of accommodation space, then the subsequent sedimentation rate may have been
considerably more rapid depending on substrate availability (Nichols, 1999).
While the timing and duration of this sequence remains unclear, HEE7and the subsequent
'recovery' period dominate a large section of the PM08R record. It could be the case that,
without the impact of HEE7,the present-day back-barrier environment of Pescadero Marsh

would have evolved to a significantly different configuration. Broad evolutionary models for
environments of this nature suggest a progression toward eventual infill and
terrestrialization (Cooper, 1994). However, site-specific trends are necessarily dependent
on site-specific inputs and boundary conditions. The lnflll of Bolinas Lagoon, a barrier
estuary in Marin County, California, has been offset over the late Holocene by tectonic
subsidence due to its location within a rift valley which is part of the San Andreas Fault
system (Williams, 2003b). Without the influence of tectonic subsidence Bolinas lagoon
would likely now be a coastal meadow. But for the impact of the HEE7event, perhaps
Pescadero Marsh would have infllled to a much greater degree by the present-day.
In addition to the HEE7event, a further driver of environmental response in the PM08R
core was established. This is the role of climate in the Euro-American era sediments.
Indeed, the potential impact of climate can be seen in a number of features of the high
resolution sediment record from Pescadero Marsh. Time-series analysis of the mean grain
371
size trend in the MGSBLA section of the PM08R core revealed an underlying cyclicity close
to that of the ENSOphenomenon (see section 8.13). In the analysed section of the PM09S
core, which was also thought to correspond to the Euro-American era, a comparable
cyclicity was also present. The ENSOphenomenon is known to affect precipitation rates,
beach sediment supply and storminess in central California (Cayanet al., 1999; Storlazzi and
Griggs; 2000). Each of these factors is important in the degree and timing of seasonal
barrier estuarine opening (Elwany et al., 1998; Ranasingheand Pattiaratchi, 1998; Ray et al.
2001). Furthermore, the ENSO phenomenon has been directly demonstrated to have
influenced barrier estuarine evolution in California, Le. shifts in dominance between El

Nino/La Nina events driving mesoscale shifts between more open and more closed barrier
regimes (Masters and Aiello, 2007). On this basis, it is suggested that the ENSO
phenomenon was, indeed, the primary driver of barrier 'openness' over the Euro-American
era.
Plater et al. (2006) identified ENSOcycle-driven depositional trends in Pinto Lake, Santa
Cruz County, central California, only in sediments of the Euro-American era. This was due to
a marked increase on the pre-historic sedimentation rate. The identification of the
apparent ENSO cyclicity in the respective PM08R and PM09S sections was likely only
possible due to the envisaged increase in sedimentation rate during the Euro-American era
at Pescadero. This increase in sedimentation rate results in samples corresponding to sub-
annual periods and, therefore, more accurately reflecting open and closed extremes in the
back-barrier area. Indeed, the ENSOcycles must also play a major role in driving the
observed barrier regime trends prior to the Euro-American era. However, when wavelet
analysis was performed on deeper sections of the PM08R core, using estimated
sedimentation rates (section 7.3), no periodicity analogous to that of the ENSO
phenomenon emerged.
Further potential correlations between climate trends and the PM08R sediments can be
suggested. 'Wet winter'/'dry summer climate trends thought to have persisted over the
past 160,000 years in southern California (Heusser and Sirocko, 1997) also characterise the
Pescadero-Butano watershed. This is what drives the present-day seasonal barrier regime.
Other climate trends which have characterised southern California barrier estuarine
environments over recent millennia may also be of relevance to Pescadero Marsh. During
the past 2,000 years, megadroughts lasting 200 years probably closed barrier estuarine
systems of southern California, resulting in persistent lagoonal conditions, hypersalinity and
loss of productivity (Stine, 1994; Masters and Aiello, 2007). At the opposite extreme,
372
megafloods with return periods of 200-400 years re-opened these systems, reinstating a
seasonal barrier closure regime (Schimmelmann et al., 2003; Masters and Aiello, 2007). The
reason for the change from the static equilibria of MGSBl G to that of F cannot be found
from using the PM08R dataset alone, yet a likely driver of this transition would be a shift to
a drier climate. The sequence observed here suggests a move from a seasonally open
barrier estuarine to a predominantly closed lagoonal regime. The chronology of the lower
core is too poorly constrained to allow confident links to be made with documented climate
shifts, however using the pre-Euro-American sedimentation rates at Elkhorn Slough, quoted
by Schwartz et al. (1986), the ~20 cm of sediment in MGSBl F would likely have been
deposited over a ~200 year period beginning ~950 AD. Stine (1994) presents evidence for a
California megadrought lasting for more than two centuries before 1112 AD. The MGSBl F
period of predominantly lagoonal sedimentation ended due to the HEE7event. However,

due to the lack of analogous events in the Holocene stratigraphy of Pescadero Marsh, the
HEE7 sand layer is unlikely to represent a 'megaflood' with a 200-400 year recurrence
interval. The transition from MGSBLB to MGSBLA also appears to document a shift from
predominantly lagoonal conditions to a seasonal opening regime. This shift likely occurs at
~1850. Climate trends just prior to California's statehood are well documented and do not
reveal a prolonged drought at this time (Michaelsen and Haston, 1987; Graumlich, 1993;
Haston and Michaelsen, 1994). MGSBl B, the thinnest MGSBl section in the core, could
instead be considered as a feature of the prolonged recovery from HEE7.The sequence of
MGSBl D, C and B could be described as a dynamic equilibrium with an environmental
trajectory toward a more consistently more closed state (Wood roffe, 2007). In which case,
MGSBl B would represent a continuation of this trend, resulting in predominantly closed
conditions, before the recovery of the system from the HEE7event was complete when a
seasonal barrier regime, in balance with climate, was resumed in MGSBl A.
The above casual factors proposed for trends identified in the PM08R core become
increasingly speculative, demonstrating again that the record is primarily one of response.
Having discussed those features of the record which can be confidently resolved with
respect to their drivers (the HEE7sequence and the role of climate cycles in Euro-American
era sediments), and suggested some further, less confident correlations, a number of
important features of the record which cannot be fully resolved must be acknowledged.
Again the specific nature of the HEE7event and the duration of the response time remain
unclear. The specific reasons for each of the MGSBLor static equilibrium shifts, beyond the
crossing of intrinsic thresholds related to long-term climate trends and progressive recovery
373
from HEE7, can only be speculated. Sedimentation rates below the Euro-American era
deposits remain poorly constrained while variations in the time span covered by 2mm
samples are problematic when comparing environmental interpretations from differing
core sections. The exact nature of each intermediate high energy episode (IHEE) is also
unclear.
The nature of the IHEE is potentially fundamental to interpretations of MGSBL A and
particularly the most recent decades of system functions. These episodes of relatively
coarse sedimentation, found within MGBSL sections, are suggested to represent high
magnitude/low frequency events, i.e. storms or floods, albeit of a lower order of magnitude
than that of HEE7.For example, the timing of IHEE5 and 6 correlate closely to the California
storm of January 1862, which remains the largest storm in the written history of California
(Engstrom, 1996). However, the majority of IHEE,including those in MGSBLG, could also
readily represent brief periods of a more open barrier condition and, therefore, be a
feature of the ongoing sedimentation regime rather than an episodic interruption to it.
Indeed, the latter scenario may be more satisfactory as, given that MGSBLsedimentation
resumes immediately after each, no recovery time is associated with these episodes
(Cooper, 2002), that is with the exception of the thick coarse layers of IHEE1 and 2 which
dominate the upper lScm of the core. If these latter IHEE were high magnitude/low
frequency events, then the process responsible for the rapid deposition of several
centimetres of coarse material may have driven the erosion of part of the MGSBLrecord
and impacted accommodation space, and therefore subsequent deposition, at the core
site. Considered in this manner, the record of background MGSBLsedimentation has been
obscured in the upper lScm. Alternatively, these layers could be interpreted to represent
the end of MGSBL A and the onset of a considerably coarser/more open barrier
sedimentation regime over recent decades. The lower limit of IHEE2 is located at a depth
of lScm which corresponds to the year 1979 using the 137CS derived sedimentation rate.
Objectively the interpretation of high magnitude/low frequency event layers is favoured,
however the relatively close temporal proximity to the 1991 completion of the new 'open
span' Highway 1 bridge must be noted as this modification is thought by many local people
to have resulted in a more chaotic barrier regime (ESA, 2004). If the trends in
sedimentation above lScm depth are related to the 1991 modification of the Highway 1
bridge, then the lack of analogous sedimentation elsewhere in the MGSBLsections of the
core demonstrates that this modification has certainly not returned the system to an early
historic condition (see section 4.3.4). It could be argued that the MGSBL sedimentation
374
characteristic of the PM08R core ends at a depth of 1Scm. Above this depth there has not
been sufficient sedimentation to establish a new trend or a lack of one.
Indeed, if MGSBLG, F and also B are taken to represent a 'natural environmental baseline',
as opposed to a system in recovery following a significant perturbation, then MGSBLA may
be considered as distinct from these 'natural' sections. The barrier regime of MGSBL A
appears more open and features a higher magnitude of mean grain size fluctuation than
those of MGSBL G, F and B. The lower limit of MGSBLA dates to ~1860 using the rate
calculated from the 1963 137CS peak. At this time land clearance, logging and modification
of catchment hydrology could readily be cited as a mechanism through which peak

streamflow increased (ESA,2004). This would likely result in more 'work' being done on the
barrier system by stream flow in the winter wet season and therefore a more extreme
open/closed barrier regime resulted. Significantly altered hydrology is consistent with the
concurrent increase in sedimentation rate and the association of coarse mean grain size
samples with the element K in this section (see section 9.7). It could be suggested MGSBLA
is in fact a 'disturbance state' which persisted up to a depth of 15cm when a further
reorganisation occurred. Alternatively, the marked fluctuation of MGSBL A can be
accounted for by the increased sedimentation rate capturing discrete sub-annul end-
member environmental configurations which may also lead to the perception of a more
extreme seasonal regime. Interpretation of the significance of MGSBL A would likely
depend on one's preconceptions regarding, and relationship with, the wetland resource. A
definitive answer cannot be given here.
The limited evidence of specific causal factors for the environmental trends encountered in
the PM08Rdataset is largely due to the inherent limitations of a structured research project
of this nature. Inevitably further work could be carried out in a number of areas to clarify
certain aspects of the record {see Section 11.3}. However, what is lacking from the dataset
should not detract from that which is present. Relative to high resolution monitoring data
targeting various aspects of a systems functioning, the core data would appear limited in
value. Yet it must be remembered that data of a similar resolution, over equivalent time
periods, from coastal environments has only recently begun to emerge in the literature
{French and Burningham, 2009}. The dataset presented here answers a call by French and
Burningham {2009} who frame the need for reconstructions of environments at this
temporal resolution and timescale as a challenge for coastal geomorphology. The
Pescadero dataset certainly furthers our understanding of mesoscale processes in barrier

estuarine environments during the late Holocene by seemingly confirming that these
375
environments attain a late Holocene 'maturity' during which they persist by reorganising in
response to changing boundary conditions, recover at different rates following

perturbations of different magnitude, vary year on year due to inter-annual climate
variability, and are vulnerable to human activity (Ranasinghe and Pattiaratchi, 1998;
Cooper, 2002, Wolanski, 2006; Masters and Aiello, 2007).
Some direct applications for the management of Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve can be
made on the basis of the data presented. However, the major contribution this piece of
research can make to the management of the system, and other analogous environments,
is by illustrating the broader principles that have governed the late Holocene development
and persistence of the site. The environmental history of the PM08R core serves to
demonstrate an innate morphological resilience in the system over the period of
deposition. Resilience of this nature is increasingly referred to as a desirable attribute of
coastal systems, more so when uncertain future changes in coastal processes are
considered (Klien et al., 1998).
Resilience is an increasingly prominent concept in the theoretical consideration of coastal
environments, yet direct physical demonstration of such behaviour in coastal environments
at the mesoscale is rare. Resilient environments are those which respond sensitively to, as
opposed to resisting, change (Nicholls & Branson, 1998). Such sensitive response, and the
associated environmental persistence, can be seen on two spatial and temporal scales in
the PM08R record. Firstly, the environmental fluctuation recorded within each static
equilibrium section. This results from negative feedback processes which maintain the
system at or close to a quasi-stable state. This behaviour is characteristic of a
morphologically resilient system (Wood roffe, 2007). Secondly, the shifts to subtly different
static equilibria within the barrier estuarine metastable equilibrium reveal an ability to
respond and persist despite changing boundary conditions, Le. long-term climate trends, or
high magnitude/low frequency perturbations, Le. HEE7. Any loss of this resilience is
undesirable for management as sustainable systems are required to survive unanticipated
as well as anticipated circumstances (Nicholls & Branson, 1998). Indeed, the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service recognise resilience as 'the ability of a natural system to return to a desired
condition after disturbance' and advocate facilitating such properties through management
programmes (U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service, 2005).
While resilience is the innate ability of many coastal systems to adjust to, and persist
despite, changing inputs; resistance is the ability to prevent or resist change (Klien &
376
Nicholls, 1999). Management of coastal systems often includes attempts to engineer
resistance (French, 2001). At Pescadero, there is pressure on State Parksto promote certain
habitats and aspects of the environment with direct intervention, i.e. barrier breaching, and
structural adaptations i.e. dykes and levees, being the only available methods. However,
long-term sustainability will not be achieved through resisting natural change (Klien &
Nicholls, 1999). By demonstrating the resilience of the Pescadero Marsh system over the
period of late Holocene sea-level stability, we can see that the environment has responded,
reorganised and reconfigured when prompted but has maintained the back-barrier area;
which, for stakeholders, is essentially the resource. Any attempt to increase the resistance
of the present-day configuration of Pescadero Marsh at the expense of the long-term
resilience of the unmodified system must be considered short-sighted. Facilitating innate
morphological resilience is the key to genuine long-term sustainability over the coming
decades, centuries and millennia; this has been directly evidenced by reconstructing system
behaviour over the mesoscale. These findings dictate a laissez loire approach to the
management of the resource.
Indeed, maintaining the ability of the system to respond to changing inputs without
undergoing fundamental reorganisation must be the most efficient and effective way to
meet the principal management goals of promoting as natural a system as possible in a long
term low cost manner (DPR Management Plan, 1990). Particularly as issues such as sea-
level rise and climate change will likely intensify during the 21st century (The Copenhagen
Diagnosis, 2009). The PM08R record suggests that, unmodified, the Pescadero Marsh
system would likely respond to, for example, a marked sea-level rise, a change in storm
climate or a shift in ENSOcyclicity by adopting a subtly different barrier estuarine static
equilibrium. Alternatively, attempting to engineer resistance to such trends would likely
preserve the system over the 'engineering' timescale (Cowell and Thom, 1994) but risk the
impacts of 'coastal squeeze' and require a high level of expensive maintenance to prevent
eventual failure and a massive reorganisation of the system (Klien et al., 1998; Nicholls and
Klien, 2005; Wood roffe, 2007). Such a scenario would defeat the most fundamental
management goals for the site.
Following discussions of the anthropogenic activity in and around the Pescadero Marsh site
and the emergence of the management issues facing State Parks, it seemed that human
activity in the catchment over the course of the Euro-American era had led to the
intensifying problems associated with the resource (see section 4.3). Depending on the way
MGSBLA and, in particular, the upper lscm of the core is interpreted, it may be concluded
377
that Euro-American land-use in the catchment has significantly affected the resource in
relation to the pre-historic natural baseline conditions represented by MGSBLG, F and B.
Regardless of the interpretation of MGSBL A, it seems that G, F and B most closely
represent the pre-disturbance state and thus represent a 'natural baseline' for restoration.
To address this goal, where possible, the best course of action would be to remove any
obstacles that inhibit the system from developing freely. However, such action must be
limited as the infrastructure which is problematic to the Pescadero Marsh complex
(Pescadero Road, Highway 1 bridge, Pescadero Fire Station, private land. See Section 4.3) is
also of great value to the local community. The data presented here at least allow for more
informed decisions to be made.
In the dataset produced, limited direct evidence emerged through which to engage with
the immediate issues for management at the site, however, some further suggestions can
be made. Pescadero State Beach and the Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve are currently
designated as separate resources. It would appear wise to merge both under one coherent
management programme as the beach includes the barrier system which has been
demonstrated to be fundamental to the back-barrier area, Le. the natural preserve. Indeed,
adopting as inclusive as possible an approach to the entire river basin would be advisable as
no arbitrary lines divide system functions from the upper catchment through to the ocean
(Wolanski et al., 2004).
There is pressure for State Parks to manipulate the barrier system regularly in order to
promote salmonid fish runs and prevent 'fish kill' events (Kerbavaz, 2007), yet there is no
consensus on how this could be done (Smith, 2002; Roberts, 2004; Sloan, 2006).The results
of the PM08R core would suggest that wherever possible manipulating the barrier system
should be avoided, particularly on a regular basis, as this could result in the crossing of an
intrinsic system threshold, with respect to the size and permanence of the inlet (see section
8.10.3), not driven by the natural boundary conditions with which the system has been
balanced. The dimensions and permanence of the inlet can significantly impact the back-
barrier environment. The current policy of non-intervention must persist, particularly as no
clear solution has emerged to the fish kill issue.
Indeed, managing the environment for the promotion of any individual species could well
come at the long-term expense of the wider ecosystem. If habitat can be artificially
cultivated by the adaption of hydrology on Pescadero Marsh to support populations of Red-
Legged Frogs and San Francisco Garter Snakes, amongst other species, then similar
378
practices could feasibly be instigated at less critical sites. No matter how valuable a single
species population is at Pescadero, given the rarity of the wider ecosystem, environmental
economics must dictate that the long-term sustainability of the whole site takes
precedence.
Flooding issues will likely intensify with accelerating sea-level rise (Church and White, 2006;
Fitzgerald et al., 2008). State Parks have been criticised in recent years for failing to breach
the barrier system in order to reduce flooding in the back-barrier area, however the
majority of the present-day flooding issues relate to accelerated infill of channels and the
disconnection of historic floodplains affecting sections of Pescadero Road and farmland
adjacent to the marsh (Achs, 2002; Cook, 2002). The problem has been intensified by bad
planning decisions such as locating the Pescadero Fire Station on the historic Butano Creek
floodplain. Reconnection of floodplains, elevation of problematic sections of Pescadero
Road and the purchase of marginal land would appear to be the best solutions. Whether
these controversial options are achievable, affordable or viable cannot be established by
consulting the sediment record.
11.3 Further Work
Further work can be suggested that would contribute both directly to the results presented
and to further develop research of this nature.
Interpretation of the PM08R core would benefit greatly from an extensive programme of
targeted diatom assemblage counts. However, this was not possible due to issues of
preservation. Following the limited diatom counts performed, it may even prove possible to
establish the nature of barrier opening events, i.e. forced by marine storms or high river
flow, given sufficient preservation.
A better constrained chronology would also be greatly beneficial. 210Pb dating was
attempted, but returned no results. Constraining the deeper chronology of the PM08R core
would allow for more accurate interpretation of the major shifts in sedimentation and also
for the influence of ENSO cycles to be more fully explored in the pre-historic deposits.
Performing pollen analysis on a selection of samples, informed by the grain size trend, had
been identified as a potential indicator of sediment source. Pollen grains are hydraulically
associated with the fine silt and clay fractions (Brush, 1989). The species and abundance of
pollen incorporated into the sediment record in the back-barrier area is thought likely to
379
differ between open barrier estuarine and closed lagoonal periods, particularly during a
seasonal regime given differential species specific rates of pollen rain over the course of the
year (Brush, 1989; Woo et al. 1998; Allen and Dark, 2007). Palaeo-pollen assemblages
would also reflect the local and regional vegetation community and therefore human
activity in the catchment; contributing to a core chronology through the identification of
alien and otherwise introduced species (Mudie and Byrne, 1980; Woo et al., 1998).
However, it must be stated that, as with diatoms, pollen preservation was also poor in the
PM08R sediments hence the lack of counts presented.
Geochemical analysis was performed on the present-day sample set, used in Section 8.12.3,
and on data from a set of catchment samples (provided by Dr Javier Lario), the results of
which were related to core samples with the aim of further informing interpretations
regarding sediment provenance. However, no clear trends emerged. Such analysis of a
broader dataset, including off-shore samples may prove more conclusive. Present-day
marsh surface diatom assemblagescould also provide further insight into past depositional
environments had sufficient palaeo-assemblagesbeen counted.
If the methodology employed on the PM08R core was used at another site, two cores from
sufficiently analogous locations should be sampled in order to establish whether direct
replication of a representative environmental signal is possible. It would also be advisable
to remove all organic matter from the samples prior to grain size analysis using H202 This
would remove any remaining uncertainty in the results. However, the practicality of the
methodology would suffer greatly from this additional labour. Research on barrier
estuarine sediments at a similar, or even greater, resolution would certainly be encouraged
as the results obtained attest to the level of environmental data which can be obtained in
this manner.
The Holocene stratigraphy presented from Pescadero Marsh could also be supplemented
with further work. Again diatom analysis would greatly benefit the results presented,
particularly as this environmental proxy could directly support or disprove the interpretive
model put forward. However, again the diatom preservation was poor, even more so, in the
deep sediments on which counts were attempted. Alternative methodologies such as
environmental magnetism or geochemical analysis in combination with present-day
samples may also be used to categorically resolve this issue.
380
12 Conclusions
Throughout the presentation, discussion and interpretation of the results of this research a
significant degree of caution has been exercised and definitive statements have been
avoided. This caution has been due to issues such as such as flocculation, re-suspension,
organic contamination, variations in particle shape/density (grain size: see section 5.3.3),
sources of organic sediment, diagenetic processes (geochemistry: see section 9.7) and the
over interpretation of available results (diatom assemblages: see sections 10.1 and 10.4)
which have all been raised but cannot be fully addressed. However, with all caveats aside,
it is clear that a combination of high resolution grain size analysis, geochemistry and micro
palaeo-ecology can be used to identify high frequency temporal patterns in sediment
processing in a back barrier environment. The methodology has successfully allowed the
recognition of shifts in sedimentary regime and the role of periodic and aperiodic high
energy events in driving and disturbing these regimes. As such, the value of the data
generated has been clearly demonstrated with regard to understanding mesoscale
processes and bridging the evolution and process knowledge bases. More specific
conclusions are discussed below.
Addressing the practicality of utilising the sediment record at a 2mm resolution as a
management tool was a key research question along with addressing the sensitivity of the
sediment record to record back-barrier environmental change at a sufficient temporal
resolution for the purpose. The sensitivity of the sediment record has largely proved
adequate for the purpose by demonstrating subtle sub-annual environmental shifts in the
historic era sediments, and high resolution multi-annual environmental changes in the
deeper sediments of the PM08Rcore. Indeed, the detailed environmental history proposed
in Section 11.1.4 demonstrates the value of the data generated and thus the efficacy of the
methodology. Interpretations were primarily driven by grain size data.
The grain size dataset allowed the recognition of sub-annual trends, previously established
at a much lower temporal resolution, in estuarine sedimentation. This is most simply
illustrated by the PM08Rsamples corresponding to differing degrees of barrier openness on

the plot proposed by Lario et al. (2002) whose data concerned longer term late Holocene
regime changes (section 8.10.1). A particularly high level of insight was gained through the
consideration of individual grain size distribution (GSD) curves, which could change
significantly from one sample to the next and from which the individual summary statistics
could readily be understood, interpreted and allotted environmental significance. In
381
addition, these curves could be interpreted to reflect suspension and saltation components
(further sub-divided into fine suspension, coarse suspension, saltation and coarse saltation
components). Consistent recurring modes were also identified, with the presence and
prominence of individual modes being related to the dominance of different transport

processeswhich was modified by interaction between the lagoonal pool, tidal ingress, river
flow and barrier integrity. The grain size data primarily reflected hydro-dynamics in the
back-barrier area.
At the resolution employed the geochemical and diatom data reflected different aspects of
the back-barrier environment. The geochemical data distinguished sediment source,

terrigenous minerogenic associated elements and organic matter/salinity associated
elements respectively characterised samples of primarily terrestrial and marine origins.
Indeed, consistent geochemical associations were identified across the mean grain size
range of the PM08R samples revealing a transition through minerogenic, organic, shell,
organic/salinity and salinity indicator element associations accompanying coarsening mean
grain size. Diatom assemblagesreflected the water quality of the back-barrier environment,
which appeared to change little in terms of salinity but revealed some variation in high
energy marine and fresh water inputs. The combination of the datasets allowed for detailed
and confident interpretation of the changing back-barrier environment and, thus, barrier
integrity and regime.
A firm chronology was established for the upper section of the PM08R core. Above a 1963
weapons testing peak in 137CSat a depth of 22.6-22.8cm, a sediment rate of 144.2 days per
2mm was established. This rate was extrapolated, with a high degree of confidence to
1900. However, due to the chronology being poorly constrained prior to the historical era,
system response time following the largest high magnitude perturbation in the core (HEE7)
was addressed to a limited extent.
The methodology successfully bridged the gap between the short-term process and long-
term stratigraphic literature bases regarding barrier estuarine systems by linking the
balance of terrestrial and marine water and sediment fluxes to barrier integrity both within
and between years. Barrier breaching, storms, streamflow, precipitation and ENSO impacts
can all be interpreted from the record. The back-barrier environmental configurations,
which result from combinations of these processes,can be seen to fluctuate between years
and with multi-annual periodicities. These environmental fluctuations maintain longer term
'static equilibrium' states. These static equilibrium sections begin to correspond to the time
382
scales of Holocene stratigraphy and can be interpreted, with respect to the late Holocene
stratigraphic reconstructions presented for the site, as relating to the period of late
Holocene sea-level stability. During this period, the barrier system and back-barrier
environment at Pescaderoproved persistent.
The practicality of the technique as a management tool could be questioned on the basis of
efficiency and depending on individual perception of the value of the results generated. The
methodology employed was both time and labour intensive and must remain so without
the use or development of more specialist equipment. The use of more specialist
equipment would limit the reproducibility of the technique. Digestion of the residual
organic component in samples for grain size analysis would further reduce efficiency.
However, organic contamination proved to be a limited issue which could largely be
resolved during the processesof consulting grain size distribution curves, while the labour-
intensive methodology could be considered offset by the limited cost. In essence the
method used was readily reproducible and highly practical given access to grain size
analysis equipment.
Following a consideration of the combined dataset, MGSBLG, F and B may be considered to
represent the system in a 'natural baseline' state. Alternatively, MGSBL A can be
interpreted as a fundamental system shift, suggesting significant human impacts over the
course of the Euro-American era. The sedimentation rate increased in this upper core
section, the barrier regime became more open and the back-barrier environment was likely
prone to more pronounced seasonal variation. Furthermore, the nature of sedimentation in
the upper 15cm of the core is unclear, but may be interpreted to record the onset of a
more open and chaotic barrier regime over the last 20-30 years, possibly linked to
modifications of the Highway 1 bridge. The identification of a natural baseline state, and
divergence from this, can be used to inform management of the site.
In addition to human activity, the impacts of climate and high magnitude/low frequency
events were established as drivers of trends in sedimentation. The HEE7event, and the
subsequent recovery phase, dominated a significant proportion of the prehistoric PM08R
record, while the role of the ENSOphenomena emerged as the primary driver of the barrier
regime over the Euro-American era. Identification of this latter driver was facilitated by the
increased sedimentation rate. Two cores from different sites on the marsh revealed
analogous ENSOcyclicity in their mean grain size trends. The identification of a climatic
383
driver of sedimentation appears to confirm that the record of the PM08R core is, indeed,
representative of the broader back-barrier environment.
A final major conclusion of the research presented must be that the barrier estuarine
environment of Pescadero Marsh has proved morphologically resilient prior to the Euro-
American era. Over the late Holocene, the barrier system has adapted to changing
boundary conditions, and a perturbation of magnitude unmatched in the site's Holocene
stratigraphy, while maintaining a barrier estuarine environment. This is due to the system
sensitively adjusting to find a new balance when forced by factors such as sea-level rise,
storms and events of high magnitude/low frequency. This trend dictates that any attempts
to engineer resistance to change should be abandoned and the site returned to as
unrestricted a state as is possible in order to promote persistence in a future likely
characterised by accelerated sea-level rise, increased storminess and unexpected
perturbations. In engaging with 'coastal resilience', the results presented link theoretical
concepts regarding the behaviour of coastal environments over the mesoscale to direct
physical observations and thus contribute to our understanding of barrier estuarine
environments and their persistence over the late Holocene.
384
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415
Appendix
Appendix 1: Report on the Radiometric Dating of a Sediment Core
from Pescadero Marsh, California
P.G.Appleby and G.T.Piliposyan
Environmental Radioactivity Research Centre
University of Liverpool
Methods
Dried sediment samples from the Pescadero Marsh core PM08R were
analysed for 21Pb, 226Ra, and 137Cs by direct gamma assay in the Liverpool
University Environmental Radioactivity Laboratory using Ortec HPGe GWL series
well-type coaxial low background intrinsic germanium detectors (Appleby et al.
1986). 210Pbwas determined via its gamma emissions at 46.5 keY, and 226Raby the
295 keY and 352 keY y-rays emitted by its daughter radionuclide 214Pbfollowing 3
weeks storage in sealed containers to allow radioactive equilibration. 137
Cs was
measured by its emissions at 662 keY. The absolute efficiencies of the detectors
were determined using calibrated sources and sediment samples of known activity.
Corrections were made for the effect of self absorption of low energy y-rays within
the sample (Appleby et al. 1992).
Results
The results of the radiometric analyses are given in Table 1 and shown
graphically in Figure 1.
Lead-210 Activity
Total 210Pb activity barely exceeded that of the supporting 226Ra in all
samples below a depth of 7 cm (Figure 1a). Unsupported 210Pbconcentrations were
extremely low, with a maximum value of just 77 8q kg-1 in the topmost sample
(Figure 1b). These results are most probably due to a very low atmospheric 210Pb
flux combined with a high sediment accumulation rate. The 21Pb inventory of the
core is estimated to be -800 8q m-2. This corresponds to a mean 210Pbsupply rate
of -25 8q m-2 y"1.
416
Artificial Fallout Radionuclides
137CS concentrations (Figure 1c) have a well resolved peak in the 22.6-22.8
cm section that almost certainly records the 1963 fallout maximum from the
atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.
Core Chronology
Because of the very low 21Pb concentrations it was not possible to use the
record of this radionuclide to calculate 210Pbdates. From the 137CS date the mean
sedimentation rate during the past 45 years was calculated to be 0.44 9 ern" y"'
(0.50 cm y-\ This figure has been used to calculate the core chronology given in
Table 2.
References
ApplebY,P.G., P.J.Nolan, D.W.Gifford, M.J.Godfrey, F.Oldfield, N.J.Anderson &

R.W.Battarbee, 1986. 210Pb dating by low background gamma counting.
Hydrobiologia, 141 :21-27.
ApplebY,P.G., N.Richardson, & P.J.Nolan, 1992. Self-absorption corrections for

well-type germaniun detectors. Nucl. Inst. & Methods 8, 71: 228-233.
417
Table 1. Fallout radionuclide concentrations in the Pescadero Marsh core PM08R
21Pb
Depth Total Unsupported Supported 137CS
em 9 cm? Bq kg-1 Bq kg-1 Bq kg-1 Bq kg-1
0.1 0.0 115.3 15.5 76.9 15.9 38.4 3.6 0.0 0.0
1.1 0.5 69.6 15.1 31.5 15.5 38.1 3.5 3.2 2.2
2.1 1.1 72.7 14.2 31.9 14.6 40.9 3.5 3.0 2.1
3.1 1.8 45.2 9.5 3.1 9.8 42.1 2.5 1.8 1.5
4.1 2.6 45.4 11.8 -7.2 12.3 52.6 3.3 0.0 0.0
5.1 3.3 64.0 9.3 22.5 9.6 41.5 2.2 1.8 1.3
6.1 3.8 62.0 17.2 20.8 17.7 41.1 4.4 1.9 2.6
7.9 4.7 46.4 9.0 -3.9 9.3 50.3 2.3 2.5 1.2
10.1 6.4 43.6 6.5 -4.2 6.7 47.8 1.7 1.5 0.8
11.9 8.7 36.5 9.3 3.9 9.5 32.6 2.0 0.0 0.0
13.5 10.9 32.1 5.0 3.1 5.1 29.0 1.1 0.7 0.6
14.9 13.0 36.5 7.2 1.9 7.4 34.6 1.9 4.1 1.0
15.7 13.8 43.1 8.5 -2.8 8.8 45.9 2.4 6.1 1.3
17.7 15.4 47.6 6.1 -1.3 6.3 48.9 1.7 5.8 1.2
20.1 17.3 51.4 6.2 3.3 6.4 48.1 1.6 5.4 1.1
21.3 18.6 58.8 5.3 1.7 5.5 57.1 1.3 6.1 0.7
22.7 19.9 60.2 10.2 -10.9 10.6 71.1 2.8 31.9 2.2
24.1 21.2 61.8 6.1 9.4 6.3 52.4 1.6 7.4 1.1
418
(a) (b) (c)
40,---------------
C)
~
0-
C)
~ m
._ 30
0- ~
@, 100 .S; 100
>. U
+-'
.S;
u ..c
o,
o
..c N
n, "0
o Q)
1::
ttl
o
+-' o,
o __ . Supported 210Pb o,
f- 10 ~ 10
o 5 10 15 20 25 30
::J
C
o
1\
5
I
10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30
Depth (cm) Depth (cm) Depth (cm)
Figure 1. Fallout radionuclides in the Pescadero Marsh core PM08R showing (a)
total and supported 210Pb, (b) unsupported 210Pb, (c) 137Cs concentrations
versus depth.
419
Table 2 210Pbchronology of the Pescadero Marsh core PMOBR
Depth Chronology Sedimentation Rate
Date Age
cm gem AD y 9 ern" y.1 cm y.1 (%)

2
0.0 0.00 200B 0
0.1 0.0 200B 0 1 0.44 0.50 13
1.1 0.5 2007 1 1 0.44 0.50 13
2.1 1.1 2006 2 1 0.44 0.50 13
3.1 1.B 2004 4 1 0.44 0.50 13
4.1 2.6 2002 6 2 0.44 0.50 13
5.1 3.3 2001 7 2 0.44 0.50 13
6.1 3.8 1999 9 2 0.44 0.50 13
7.9 4.7 1997 11 2 0.44 0.50 13
10.1 6.4 1993 15 3 0.44 0.50 13
11.9 8.7 1988 20 3 0.44 0.50 13
13.5 10.9 1983 25 4 0.44 0.50 13
14.9 13.0 1979 29 4 0.44 0.50 13
15.7 13.8 1977 31 4 0.44 0.50 13
17.7 15.4 1973 35 5 0.44 0.50 13
20.1 17.3 1969 39 5 0.44 0.50 13
21.3 18.6 1966 42 6 0.44 0.50 13
22.7 19.9 1963 45 6 0.44 0.50 13
24.1 21.2 1960 48 6 0.44 0.50 13
420
Appendix 2: Report on the Radiocarbon Dating of Sediment Cores
from Pescadero Marsh, California
Note: calibration to calendar years has subsequently been recalculated for the organic
sediment samples using Calib rev 6.0.0 (http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/calib.html; Stuiver and
Reimer, 1993) and the INTCAL09 calibration curve of Reimer et al. (2009). The calibration
curves included in this report for samples Beta-209120 and 209121 are no longer relevant.
Beta Analytic Inc. Mr Darden Hood

4985 sw 74 Court Director
BETA Miami, Florida 33155 USA

Tel: 305 667 5167 Mr. Ronald Hatfield
Fax: 305 663 0/97 Mr. Christopher Patrick
Beta@rad.ocarbon.com Deputy Directors
www.radiocarbon.com
Consistent Accura<.T ...
Delivered 0" 17m".
Final Report
The final report package includes the final date report, a statement outlining our analytical
procedures, a glossary of pretreatment terms, calendar calibration mformation, billing documents
(containing balance/credit information and the number of samples submitted within the yearly
discount period), and peripheral items to use with future submittals. The final report includes the
individual analysis method, the delivery basis, the material type and the individual pretreatments
applied. The final report has been sent by mail and e-mail (where available).
Pretreatment
Pretreatment methods are reported along with each result. All necessary chemical and
mechanical pretreatments of the submitted material were applied at the laboratory to isolate the
carbon which may best represent the time event of interest. When interpreting the results, it is
Important to consider the pretreatments. Some samples cannot be fully pretreated, making their 14C
ages more subjective than samples which can be fully pretreated. Some materials receive no
pretreatments. Please look at the pretreatment indicated for each sample and read the pretreatment
glossary to understand the implications.
Analysis
Materials measured by the radiometric technique were analyzed by synthesizing sample

carbon to benzene (92% C), measuring for 14C content in one of 53 scintillation spectrometers, and
then calculating for radiocarbon age. If the Extended Counting Service was used, the 14C content
was measured for a greatly extended period of time. AMS results were derived from reduction of
sample carbon to graphit.e (100% C), along with standards and backgrounds. The graphite was then
detected for 14C content in one of 9 accelerator-mass-spectrometers (AMS) .
The Radiocarbon Age and Calendar Calibration
The "Conventional 14C Age (*)" is the result after applying 13C/12C corrections to the
measured age and is the most appropriate radiocarbon age. If an "0" is attached to this date, it
means the 13C/12C was estimated rather than measured (The ratio is an option for radiometric
analysis, but included on all AMS analyses.) Ages are reported with the units "BP" (Before Present)
"Present" is defined as AD 1950 for the purposes of radiocarbon dating.
Results for samples containing more 14Cthan the modern reference standard are reported as
"percent modern carbon" (pM C). These results indicate the material was respiring carbon after the
advent of thermo-nuclear weapons testing (and is less than - 50 years old).
Applicable calendar calibrations are included for materials between about 100 and 19,000
BP. If calibrations are not included with a report, those results were either too young, too old, or
inappropriate for calibration. Please read the enclosed page discussing calibration.
421
REPORT OF RADIOCARBON DATING ANALYSES
Dr. Andrew J. Plater Report Date: 11/14.'2005
University of Liverpool Material Received: <)/30/2005
Sample Data Measured 13C/12C Conventional

Radiocarbon Age Ratio Radiocarbon Agc(')
BCla 109120 4290 +;. 40 BP 26.0 o/oo 4270, /40 BP

SAMPLE: PM0402i34G
ANALYSIS. AMSStandard delivery
MATERIALiPRETREATMENT: (organic sediment): acid washes
2 SIGMA CALlERA nON Cal BC 2920 to 2N70 (Cal BP 4870 to 4820)
Beta 209 12 I 5530 +/. 50 BP 2430/00 5540 -I 50 BP

SAMPLE' PM0402i538
ANALYSIS: AMSSlandard delivery
MATERIAL/PRETREATMENT: (organic sediment): acid washes
2 SIGMA CALtBRA TION: Cal BC 4460 to 4320 rCa I BP 6410 to 6280)
--_ ....._---_ .._._------------_._-_._-_._---_ .._-------------._--
Beta 209 122 2400 ,1_ 40 BP .1.3 0/00 2790 ~ [: 40 BP

SAMPLE' PM05031405
ANAL YSiS: AMSSlandanJ delivery
MATERIAL/PRETREATMENT: (shell) acid etch
2 SIGMA CALIBRATION: Cal BC 3\10 to I so tCal BP 2340 In 2(20)
---_._--_._---_._--_._-_._---------------._-------------_. __ .
Dales are reported as RCYBP (radiocarbon years before present,

Measured C13/C12 ratios were calculated relative to the PDB.1
"present" e 1950A.D.). By International convention, the modern
international standard and the RCYBP ages were normalized to
reference standard was 95% of the C14 content of the National
25 per miL It the ratio and age are accompanied by an ('), then the
Bureau of Standards' Oxalic Acid & calculated using the Libby C14
C13/C12 value was estimated, based on values typical of the
half life (5568 years). Quoled errors represent 1 standard deviation
material type. The quoted results are NOT calibrated to calendar
statistics (68% probability) & are based on combined measurements
years. Calibration to calendar years :should be calculated using
of the sample, background, and modern reference standards. the Conventional C14 age.
422
r F 'I'< o
PRHRE'ATMFNT GLOSSARY
Standard Pretreatment Protocols at Bet., Analytic
11' ," ltl I I
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)TJl J" 'li,._ ,.w rn.:, ut h\)n (nJnf"\. c'r Jfi .. "L- u or s. mI'l, \- '" irs, '"Ir~tr ll~ .. ill :H. d to 'C )}('Iv b')T'.J.t l~it,
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,( <.Ih'd ilk"1ct arc' L( mblnec' w il, h.i 1 r'1,. St lJl"l a.dltlf1 'w' l rr '\.'11 t lll,; I' fJ: cl I ll.Jt:d rn( r l COl: )-\U' hon
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llhn,'':11.}1 ull c UJ;l.l~.d h.. L-prclfI ._l,-C t 1 I. ;_u W I' )ulttcllJ (,tHLum"hllllltc I( I{) l1nJr'r n v 'I..)r {,Ih.:d d l\,htUll (pi
1 tellpcr .... 1I1. 7. (Je c"( rhII..1111n.,[ . l:011~'f' n; ...l."l\\~)~H ...:c1I ... "~ ltl "-llu' r\'\t()~, ". He.: 11hl,.r\tr)\.)I~ er
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\\.!'I f)t lh .....nu: [ ";'1 ()Ol cH S ( IClnli 1..:_tllJ111 .11.; ,I.: .ltl.Jr.... t,;,X un:
t 1...... lrl. I umber 01 'l;,"j)CHllt'fl" ""\.~.L PI ("U J e'l' dIll I \. wlth~) OJ' DIo.. " of t.:(i\.-' '" mjll\" t,~ 1mpi ~ (.:~ r 01 be I. elf l t
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423
JL" Ti
PRHREATMENT GLOSSARY
Sta'ldard Pretfeatment Protocols at Beta Aralvt c
cot Ire evrr acnor wuh all, II ( collauen ,,'ractlOn, "ill', I' alkali
)r j t
4'" n OJ .... 11 \\ ihm t:~ r toJ Ln p , -truc II c. It
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I'
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J-. \.iJh.. ...... u mate \\", tr v 1t,.t..1Inl.'~ )1 ~'d\ c .h.~ (\In, l!-. ~CI~l1~lor ... l ,,~,t'rn ..-nr
mt. c ebn: IW" re ,:-...,CJl T C
":1 er hli.. dl pl. lO Je~ ~r..' 1 ~ \ 'ill ctcc I( }H "h_ C" t L ian CIT onutr c lm!)( Jll..:'ts I th ca~t..
": "- l ,
'lin, I'" ',.. '" P~ r \k p: {l : lL}\\in t.._ a ), d . ._'T1man. U.'n., n:mu ned Ir the \,.1S. ot rnn l So
t- 1 ~ iJ(,h '> nd,~, he l "'1'"\ 11 l'n"'l r t1tn t\C'''C .\fl )\\ nti tnLl'J1 nthe elL '\t.:ld ...xp hllr\. t "cs
d ., I )t "-;1ct C S~H11PI
1 pI' rpllt.'l") ..j I ... t: u oules
Jnx natt,." pn: .. p: ...lle.... on' u (! 1t... lr..__ lis ..111\ .... mltt1.!d m an <J,", )\." l .. md ltop (dOln ilium
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\\31CT T \-olUllll d t (n \\,. rl.:qum,; 11...r' "':Irl!~lte ai,d sollltwn were l'!"at'sfcrr d t" 1 "ca~u.1 separator ... flask lnd mscd to
( t X)ll r t It HSP,:" t;: \'1 l Tt'J:lpn;
I carhooatc IlTt"cipitation"
D .....l Iv J L- 'rbo] dl()Xlli( nd L ~4)JL.ll r"~-.. tr r.;,.:U,ll Ht' f on s mitt\! ... I,.\'ilkr '\ lfimplu ..1111 tllC .... as ammPfl liln ~ilrhorall.
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'I"h11V" \.U' Kn \' tllt Ih \\-all'" Rl~'1 bIt \"Pllrt..?L a V.. tCl [Jl( f
",nh('ul t'xtr!lcliun'"
I.; ,J liP! \\,1, ~1.l"'11'1..'1I..J ('" _r ... ,-If "\ :n1 r.:lths f\ "'I'e\1" ..:onsl ,m"" Of "'I,:"'z~n(' ~l]L1 ..>l \.: l-.;'- IJ I.. h' t4JH' una \. :!('c..tnllt.: flu:-i
,..ill "lL r 1fT")... pr l' tu ...L il. t.1l'rf.'fTt.!":lt1r'f t
\np J h._ t ~t
le
424
Bcta Analvtic ne M '\ardc I)d
4985 e;w '4 , )urt , c
BETR Mlal FJ I 3,Hl:r

"el 30~ ,A 7 <, 67
SA
M RC" lie H.- flc
~ x '_ S 66, "I'r C ,'<t )ph. f r ~
Bt:l'ril' )H'~ r D ~ D,
Www radioc a, oor er
(,11 h If 1, III
Calendar Calibration at Beta Analytic

br ~ ,f -n f" c rio- r-
' " r I~ dL ' r t .r H re t ( llf j(
"
..."
~ -ill t te I , ,
1( 1 I r-r 'f. e t Ivii 8r '", rj iI"'JY' , l' '1' IIJ!. )
.
,L
, J "1 11' , ,
C
n,,"
v),
,
r ra lidt ';11 ~nl'
~ ~~ , II)r er
r
b 01
ik
,f
l oer te-
,I
e f
I'
- c Jt-vl(, ... J
on " ,
,tne ,'Pf r ' , to a iou: .),1)1)(1 BP re c+ II" '( r,f' tv- a 1 ~ r )\il'jee < or 'E V'v '. IE PI...,
orrelat o~ Beyc ld tt ~, ur to <It))L' ')11 (Ou ElF c v r lat.o : l;C q 'T )1' (d c V rlr t( '1 r;er fre,rr J T
"1E'a" 'c neill' or cv'als IS ,;cC' T' <; eta Ie- il ~ c," V ~Llbl( t, ( r a: ',)r., are provider up ,', J
000 yr ar., BP line. lhE' '11.' ,'r" ' al t, )1 ()r data < a le,
ThE' p, e'orot C j"l ,rat I. P', r;E' pq 11(I 'ruqr~ '" '1' t PE
r ,F'd' lI,drb" 1 \JO ." r _ \
chm31 for 'rfse calendar L, lrd' rl_." ,- Cd t' at ~11r vr

UH>~;P t'1 OU]r thE' t ep rrr
WrlCr eitrw ltef- llargE par' )1 .. t <'at I' - _ 'l'tf' of thE. .IC , at, 1-01"'<; r lE ~;lln( c lilt dtur .lllo\"
jJLI~trlE'nt ")f the averagE' ,Jrl/t by <: lU< .Iflf j clo:wr .~~ nf ',t ;::, < rlt;lE' t~ t'lE' r ae JrE'e.. d 11<' ,( r te A
<;Ingle spll"" I!'; uSP" hr the prec" c cc"relat'on data ava iFlblf b: ';1\ 'C' 'lCJOO ElF- for 1(. rpe ndl Se' r k' cll ,
abilut 6900 BP for "lanne ",amI(S BF'yonlj that e;pltr to:, a E. la f' '1 t'lP err)1 lifT l~ Of ,~, lrrE" le
curv~ u 'ccoun' '')r ttle ack of rrec 'l, JI' 1 t~e ll'(] pOint ..
In de<;r:;nbtrQ our cal _ allon curve" the sollC' '1ars 'epresE:I't 1<' ',Icma Stdtlfl vC:; ()>' c, probabllltv
crd the h'lilow bar,:; eoree;p.nt twc 'SIgna ;tat 'ltlce; (95 p obat,,' yl rv1tr 'e U'Irb('f')atE ') 'TlrJlt'i t~a' t
"
be:." corrpcted lor 1 iC ie have 1 se beN' cwrected for bi Lt glc bal anc 101...31 qeogoap llC rpc('rvt r l'ferl,>
(a, publls led n '<adloC3 Don \/olvne 35, "J Jn1')"r 1 'Qg3) pr or ~ the ~~.3llbratlcr Manne. ~r"onat(>< 'f, :
'12ve lot beE" correc'ed for' 'Cl <~ arE' adjL.-;ted oy ar as<-umed va,ue of \. 0, :; I' tddltlon to tn, r(,<;Erve'lr
(Orrec) ors Rfservolr rorrpctlC' ',> 'or Ire" waif'( c arbof'at(>'i c'E ,J~ Jally l r Kr..,wr anC1 ,rt. QCn,prally Iln~
a(r;UL ltec for II, rOSE' cc: bratlor'S In tt,f' absence of T e";I"", 'ed ( c.. d' (S a ty" Cd vail- vi <", ~
ass, nr;d 'or freshwatE. carbonates
(Caveal the (orrelatior r;urve for organic. 'TlatE"lals aSSLI'1f tha. t'le "latHn, datp(1 wm; Ilvlnq for ex !iy
ten years (e g. d collec'lor nf 1( Irj'v'o"a tree nngs 'ake., 'rorr thE' outer pcrtlon of Cl' v' t 'at 'IV l (ut
jown te prodUCR the saf"Tlple" thl"' fe2turE <jated) For ot~ u rna'erk " 't'' I1'dXrP1L'T Clle r 11 rUM Jilt atE"
age ranges qlver by the (;orrputer pr')qran' 2rt> tncertaln TfJe passlbll+Y of ar '),d WOOd('IE ,,t' f"'l st ,llso f)
cor'Siderec' as wc' as the potentl, Inclu~ on of younge' or older lY),1ter'a II "latnx sa"'ple~ S,~ e '1('
'?ctors d'e ndeterrl nant error Ir, mos' easf':> t'1e<;e ~alf"'dar alibyatlon rec;ults _hen .. d bE' usee. vrl fv
Illustrative purpo,es 111t lE: casL. o cdrbollate.<; rFS VOir se 'rectior tS !'"'cor-~ ceo. > lC tno iL>c,11var ~. 0 1<';JrE
rea, ligrty variable and dependert on ~rovenlenCE Sln'A Irlp.ecr"lor I[ tilt ;0 rE 3tlor d",'c b v" 1 ,r'II'D
vea", 'S 1gh C'a"bratlon~ ir thiS r~ 1ge arE. likely le era nne In the fr...turr. wltl' re' nCI1'Gnt In the ~ 1rrel.,t on
rurve T1t. age ra'1Qes and espec:ally the rtt; ceDtag~ S (Jere ated by t'w ,,'ova r r'U& t E' r le rjer)o ,
appr )Xlnatlons
425
CALIBRATION OF RADIOCARBON AGE TO CALENDAR YEARS
Lu hur at orv n u m lier: Betu12345h

Co n v c n t io nu l radiocarhon uf!el: 24(1(lf>O BP
2 Si~ma ca li b r atvd rcvu lt: CalllC 770 tll .'Xli lCal Ill' zrzn to 2.130)
(93 Sf p r ob a b ili tv :
,'t( i: '.r (,',,,,(.r(
lntercept d:.lt:l
lme n.ept o: radlolarh\_)11 i.1~~

\\ 1 til 1..'011 ibr auou cur-, c: (_:11 BC 41(1 ;(,:,1 HI':' i601
Siilma c a li brnt cd rcsul t: CaJ BC 710 to 71() 1(:1' Ill' ::'6YO 1<) 26flO, and
(6~';{ pr obabil it y I Cal ill' ~3.' II) 3L)'i lCal BP :4H5 IQ 2.,4:'1
2400.,60 BP
2600
2550
zsoo
2450
c,
!E-
O>
2400
'"
'"c:
0
~
.2
2350
-e
'"
0:
2.100
2250
2200
2150
850 800 750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300
Cal BC
References:
JhJllil)(l~'(' If'u:d
},,'(uI08
( alib r arinn IlrHtrho.H
Edst oriat Co m me.et
, ,~~"lil'I"; iW" I'an drr Plict.r 11. 1998. HodwcamClII 40(jJ. p.lil-.I'/It
/\ 7 CAL9N RudwclH'bon <till' C(INhrat;(1JI
Snm'I'r. st ; Cl. t.. }1)9,\, Hudio('arh(m -10(3). p'O.;}.'U8.~
,1/ar{'t!'muliC'.l
A Shl,p":fhd '\Pllroach to ('olibrarlng Cf.J On/elf
,'\, S. \loKe!, J C, Il193. RiJlhvc'arhJfl3.i(2),
1"011111.1. p.H7.i22
Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory

,;1)8'1,r. iI 7.JJ/1 Coan M/ami I- ;orill" ,i U t5 Trl <305 J6'~7 .516'. {Ii., ,'J()5)tA.L0l)6,_J. 1:.fTjtnr, (Of hi ('1' ''''t)h)~a rban.curn
426
(Vn riable s: Cl:; 'C 12<~6:lab. rn ult vl )
Laboratory nu m be r: Beta-209120
Con vcn r io nal radiocarbon age: 427040 BP
2 Sigma c ahb r ate d result: Cal BC 2920 to 2870 (Cal BP 4870104820)
- (95% p rob ab itity]
Intercept data
Intercept o f r adioc arhon age
with calibration curve: Cal BC 2!i90 (Cal BP 4840)
I Sigma ca l ibra ted result: Cal BC 2900 \02880 (Cal BP 4860 t(4830)
(68% pr oba hi lity)
427(}140 BP Orgl'1l1l(; se drn e nt

4400
4380 .,
O"'~
4340
Ii::
l'?
::::
4280
~
"iij'
c 4260
0
4240
..
-e
er 4220
4200
4180
4160
4140
4120
2925 2920 2915 2910 2905 2900 2895 2890 2885 2880 2875 2870 2005
Cal BC
References:
Database II sed
lNICAL98
Cotib m uon Database
Editorial Cum m en'
Smtver. M "onder Pltcht, 11. 1998, Rad i oc arb on 40(3), pxii-xiii
INTCAL 98 Ra dlocar b o n Age C (IItbr ation
Srul ver, M, c t al 1995 NadlOC'w-borl.fO(3), p/041-JfJ83
Malhcmtllics
A Simplified Ap p r o ac h 10 Calihrating C/41)Q/c;tJ
T'alma, A, S, '.011.1. J C.. 1993 Radsocarbon 35(2),1'317.322
~eta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory

/985 S H. 11111 C. o urr. M iann Ftar ut a .u /5.i rei (3 OJ}M - .. 51 OJ' F ux (305 )603 -0964' E.Muil. bela'lt'ruc/w carbon com
427
(Va riable s: C 13/C 12~ - 1.3 .De Ita-R225:J:35 'Glob rcs=-200 to 500: lab. m ult= I)
La bo raro rv nu m be r: Bcta-209122
Cuuvcn t io mil rad ioc a rhon agc: 279040 BP
(2570SO adjusted for local reservoir correction)
2 Sigmll calibrated r es u It: Cal BC 390 to 160 (Cal BP 2340 to 2120)
(95'% p ro hab ility)
lnte rcep r data
lnn-rce pt of radiocarbon age
with calibration curve: Cal BC 330 (Cal BP 2280)
1 Sigma ca l inra ted rc sult: Cal BC 360 to 210 (Cal BP 2310 to 2160)
(68% proha bi lity)
2750.r27~9~lli~.~OTB~P_(~2~57~llir-~50~ad~j'~JS~te~d~)
__ r- __ -' __ ---r----,-----r- __ -,,- __ -r .- r-~s_l1e_,11
2700
2650
e: 2600
[!J.
~
c 2550
~
~
-g 2500
0:
2' 50
2400
2350 i-----~----r_--~----_r----,_----r_--~----_r--~,_----._--_,----_r----~
400 380 360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200 180 160 140
Cal BC
References:
Dumb use used
MARIA'E98
Cotibration Is asabos
Editorial Comm cnt
St ucver, 1\1., va n dc l'l tcht. jj 1998, Roit oc orbon etns), pxi/~:"(i;'
!\'Telll, 98 Ru diocarbo n Age Cat ibrotton
Srui vcr. M.. Cl. 0/ 1998 Rn dun-arbon .;0(31. t,}O<l/./083
Malhemo,;c,\
A Simplified Ap p rauc h 10 Calib r oring Cf4 Dales
'lu lma, A. S .. l'ol'e/,.1 C } 993. Radiocarbon 35(2),1'317312
Beta Ana lytic Radiocarbo n Dating Laboratory

>I 98 j S. Jf .. HI, Conrt, Ai i01l1/. Florisla 33 I J 5 Tvt, (3 OJ)667.5167 F (f.'{ (3 (lj)6 oj .0964 Majf b etauura dsa carbo /I. ('om
428
(Vn riab lc s: CI3:C!2=-24,3:1ab, rn ul r=l )
La hor uto ry uu m be r: 8ela-209121
Cnn ven t io nal radiocarbon age: 554050 BI)

2 Sigma calibrated result: Cal BC 44611 to 4320 (Cal BP 6410 to 6280)
(95% p rob ab if irv)
Intercept data
Intercept of radiocarbon age

with c al ibr at io n curve: Cal 8C 4360 (Cal BP 631 0)
Sigma calibrated result: Cal BC 4440 to 4 340 (Cal RP 6390 to (290)
~ (68" probability)
5540SO BP Organic sediment

5700
5650
5600
5550
6::
e
"Iil'
t: 5500
~

'0
co 5450
er
5400
5350
5300
4480 4460 .440 4420 4400 4380 4360 4340 4320 4300
Cal BC
References:
Dorab as e used
INTCAL98
Catibrurion ts atabe,
Editorial Com m efJt
Stuiver, M, v an de Pilch I, fI, JI)Ox, Rodicc arbon 4f)(31. p xii-xi ii
IN1'('.41.98 Ro diocarbon Age C aJ ibrutio n
Sru ivcr, M, e t 01 1998. Radiocarbon 411(3), p!04!/083
Afathematic'S
A Simplified Apprtwch In Calib nuin g CIf Dales
T,,/ma, AS., Voge), J. C .. 1993, Rad.o carbo n 35(2), p3/ i-322
Beta Ana lytic Radioca rbo n Datin 9 La boratory

4085 SW':' "rh Cv lin At .ann, ["lw/do n t5.$ Tel (J ilS J6() i- 5J 61. Fax, (30:;)66)-0964' l~'-"fu" "tto(a I a dio carbo n COlli
429

2011 Environmental Change in A Barrier Estuarine System

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The Development of a Sediment-Based Methodology for the Identification

of High Resolution Late Holocene Environmental Change in a Barrier

Estuarine System: Pescadero Marsh, San Mateo County, California

degree of Doctor in Philosophy by David William Clarke

and Butano), in which we found two very large arroyos containing a

good volume of water and well grown with cottonwoods, alders,

Pescadero Marsh is a back-barrier wetland environment located on the central coast of

California. In an attempt to reconstruct sub-annual trends in back-barrier environmental

series of barrier estuarine and lagoonal sedimentary environments.

data indicated sediment provenance, distinguishing between samples primarily sourced by

environment. A confident chronology was constructed for Euro-American era sediments,

1900 through the presence of geochemical markers of anthropogenic activity (pollution,

catchment destabilisation and development of infrastructure). This represented a marked

estuarine environment persisted, despite changing boundary conditions and a perturbation

1.3 Introduction to the study site 5

CHAPTER TWO: Coastal Wetlands and Coastal Management 8

2.1 Coastal Wetland Environments 8

2.1.1 The Value of Coastal Wetlands to Society 8

2.1.2 Management Priorities for Coastal Wetland Environments 11

2.1.3 Data Used to Inform Management of Coastal Wetland Environments 16

2.2 Coastal Management 17

2.2.1 The Development of Coastal Management 17

2.2.2 Coastal Management in California 19

2.2.3 Areas for Progress in Coastal Management 21

2.2.4 Fostering Sustainability in Coastal Wetland Environments 22

CHAPTER THREE: Estuarine and Barrier Estuarine Environments 25

3.1 Holocene Estuarine Environments 25

3.1.1 Holocene Estuarine Evolution 26

3.1.2 Drivers of Holocene Estuarine Evolution 26

3.1.2.1 Sea level 27

3.1.2.2 Antecedent Topography 28

3.1.2.4 Climate Factors 29

3.1.2.5 High Magnitude / low Frequency Events 29

3.1.2.6 Human Activity 30

3.2 late Holocene Barrier Estuarine Environments " 31

3.2.1 Barrier Formation 32

3.2.3 Barrier Opening and Closure 33

3.2.4 Sedimentation in Drowned River Valley/Barrier Estuarine Environments 35

3.3 Mesoscale Behaviour of Estuarine and Barrier Estuarine Environments 39

CHAPTER FOUR: Study Site: Pescadero Marsh 45

4.1 The Environment of Pescadero Marsh 45

4.1.6 The Barrier Estuarine Environment of Pescadero Marsh 47

4.1.7 Present-Day Barrier Regime 48

4.2 Management of Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve 50

4.3 Present-Day Issues at Pescadero Marsh 52

4.3.2 Maintaining Habitat for Rare Species 53

4.3.3 Fish-kill Events 55

4.3.4 Barrier Regime 56

4.4 A History of Human Land-Use in and Around Pescadero Marsh 59

4.4.1 Native American Occupation 59

4.4.2 The Spanish/Mexican Era 60

4.4.2.1 The Spanish Period: 1769 - 1822 61

4.4.2.2 The Mexican Period: 1822 -1848 61

4.4.3 The Euro-American Era 62

4.4.3.1 Euro-American Era Timeline of Potential Human Impacts on Pescadero Marsh 63

4.5.61977 -1978 -1980 79

4.5.92000 - 2001 - 2002 - 2003 84

4.6 High Resolution Core Sites 86

CHAPTER FIVE: Methodology 88

5.1 Holocene Stratigraphy 88

5.2 Short Core Methodology 88

5.2.2 Grain Size Analysis 89

5.2.3 X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) 90