Contents

1.1 Water Supply System: ............................................................................................................ 2

1.2 PRIMARY SOURCES OF WATER: ............................................................................................. 4
i. Groundwater .......................................................................................................................... 4
ii. Rainwater ............................................................................................................................... 5
iii. Surface Water......................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 CDA Water Supply Requirements: ....................................................................................... 10
2.2 Factors affecting water consumption: ................................................................................... 10
2.3 FIRE DEMAND ...................................................................................................................... 11
2.4 POPULATION FORECASTING ............................................................................................... 11
3.1 Types of distribution systems ............................................................................................... 13
3.2 Pipe Distribution System: ..................................................................................................... 15
3.3 Layouts of Distribution Network ........................................................................................... 15
3.4 TYPES OF PIPES: .................................................................................................................. 17
3.5 TYPES OF PIPE JOINTS .......................................................................................................... 18
3.6 Valves .................................................................................................................................. 20
3.7 Water supply parameters: .................................................................................................... 22
4.1 Types of Sewer Systems ....................................................................................................... 25
4.2 Sewage Generation & Water Consumption........................................................................... 28
4.3 Design of sewer system ........................................................................................................ 29

1
 Section 1 - INTRODUCTION

1.1 Water Supply System:

Components of a water supply system

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1. Collection Works
(Dams, Reservoir, Intake, Pumping station, Tube wells)
Calculation of the requirement of water
Exploration of site and development of sources to meet the requirement (underground water
pumping, rainwater harvesting etc.)
Consideration of future requirement rather than present requirement

2. Purification Works
(Sedimentation, Coagulation, Filtration, Disinfection, Storage)
If quality meets the standards, then there will be no treatment done. Otherwise application of
treatment options mentioned above is required. Surface water has more suspended impurities
whereas ground water has more dissolved ones.

3. Transmission Works
(Conduits, Valves, Pumping Station, Gravity flow)
When available source is at some recognizable distance than we have to transport water into a
community, hence the transmission works are required.

4. Distribution Works
(Pumping Station, Overhead reservoir, Feeders, Mains, Pipes, Valves, Fire Hydrants)
The two most important conditions for water supply are:
1) Required quantity should be supplied
2) Required residual pressure should be there

Requirements for Potable water.

It should be free from bacteria
It should be colorless and sparkling
It should be tasty, odor free and cool
It should be free from objectionable chemicals
It should not corrode pipes
It should have dissolved oxygen and free from carbonic acid so that it may remain fresh.

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 1.2 PRIMARY SOURCES OF WATER:
i. Groundwater
Groundwater occurs in the saturated soil and rock below the water table. If the aquifer is shallow
enough and permeable enough to allow water to move through it at a rapid-enough rate, then wells
can be drilled into it to pump water. The level of the water table can naturally change over time due
to changes in weather cycles and precipitation patterns, streamflow and geologic changes, and even
human-induced changes, such as the increase in impervious surfaces on the landscape. Ground
water is considered safe and it is rich in total dissolved solids and contains naturally occurring subsoil
heavy metals such as Arsenic, Iron etc. Ground water is generally considered as hard water and
usually require only minimal treatment (disinfection only) for use as drinking water.

But ground water may be polluted due to:

Seepage of agricultural chemicals (NO3, Pesticides, Insecticides)
Sanitary landfill leachates
Microbial pollution introduced by Septic tank/soakage pit
Industrial waste impounds may increase heavy metals, salt and organic matter
concentrations

The pumping of wells can have a great deal of influence on water levels below ground, especially
in the vicinity of the well, as this diagram shows. If water is withdrawn from the ground at a faster
rate that it is replenished, either by infiltration from the surface or from streams, then the water
table can become lower, resulting in a "cone of depression" around the well. Depending on
geologic and hydrologic conditions of the aquifer, the impact on the level of the water table can be
short-lived or last for decades, and it can fall a small amount or many hundreds of feet. Excessive
pumping can lower the water table so much that the wells no longer supply waterthey can "go
dry."

Water movement in aquifers is highly dependent of the permeability of the aquifer material.
Permeable material contains interconnected cracks or spaces that are both numerous enough and
large enough to allow water to move freely. In some permeable materials groundwater may move
several meters in a day; in other places, it moves only a few centimeters in a century. Groundwater
moves very slowly through relatively impermeable materials such as clay and shale.

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There are two types of wells:

Water table Wells: These wells are also shallow wells because they are replenished by water from
unconfined aquifers.

Artesian Wells: Deep wells drilled into rock to intersect the water table and reaching far below it
are often called artesian wells in ordinary conversation, but this is not necessarily a correct use of
the term. Such deep wells may be just like ordinary, shallow wells; great depth alone does not
automatically make them artesian wells. The word artesian, properly used, refers to situations
where the water is confined under pressure below layers of relatively impermeable rock.

ii. Rainwater
Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than
allowing it to run off. Measures must be taken to keep that water clean by not allowing polluting
activities to take place in the catchment. The quality of rainwater is generally satisfactory but may
contain carbonic acid due to dissolved carbon dioxide (H2CO3). It is also highly affected by
collection system and storage conditions.

Water harvesting can be undertaken through a variety of ways

Capturing runoff from rooftops
Capturing runoff from local catchments
Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams

The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is called the rainwater
endowment of the area. Out of this, the amount that can be effectively harvested is called the water
harvesting potential.

Water harvesting potential = Rainfall (mm) x Collection efficiency

The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all the rainwater falling over an area cannot be
effectively harvested, because of evaporation, spillage etc. There are also various methods for
collection of rainwater, each having different collection efficiencies. Factors like runoff coefficient
and the first-flush wastage are also taken into account when estimated the collection efficiency.

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iii. Surface Water
Water can also be conveniently obtained from surface water bodies like rivers, streams, lakes etc.

It is considered as soft water but may contain:

Suspended solids(SS) from land erosion.
Color, odor (decaying vegetation)
Heavy metals, inorganic salts, oils, organic compounds, nutrients, pesticides,
pathogens from municipal, industrial and agricultural runoffs.
Lead, acid deposition from atmosphere.

Therefore, surface waters require elaborate treatment for use as drinking water supplies.
Surface water collection is done via Intake structures that are devices or structures placed in a
surface water source to permit the withdrawal of water from that source.

Parts of intake:
1. An opening/strainer/grating through which the water enters
2. A conduit to convey water to sump
3. A sump or well from where water is pumped to treatment plant.

Types of Intake
1. Single port: To draw water from a constant /fixed depth
2. Multiport: For selective draft for various depths

Factors Affecting Intake Type

Their usage depends on the source of supply:
River, lake Single port
Reservoir Multi port

Factors affecting Intake Structure

Water Availability
Sediment Transport
Environmental Regulation
Climatic Conditions
Initial and Maintenance Dredging
Operation and Maintenance

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7
Guidelines for placement of intakes:
1. Should be located away from pollution source or upstream of pollution source
2. For small water supplies surface water is not taken as source.
3. Adequate submergence of the ports to avoid floating debris and meet navigational
requirements.
4. Adequate submergence since water is cooler and greater at depth and also to avoid
atmospheric effects.
5. Adequate elevation of conduit from the stream/lake bed to avoid sediments
6. Entering velocity in conduit not to exceed 0.15 m/sec to avoid trapping of floating material,
sediment and fish.

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Section 2 - WATER USAGE DETAILS

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 2.1 CDA Water Supply Requirements:
To estimate the requirements of the water consumption in the area, it may be divided in two
categories as
1. Average Domestic Water Consumption
2. Non-Domestic Water Consumption
(Institutional/Commercial/Recreational & Public Facilities)
An allowance of about 10% shall be made for unaccounted for water.

Average Domestic Water Demand

Water
Plot
Consumption
size
(LPCD)
50' x 90' 303.2
40' x 80' 265.3
30'x 60' 227.4

Non-Domestic Water Consumption

Type of Demand LPCD Criteria
Non-Residential Areas (Parks) 3790 litres per Acres/Day
Commercial 3790 litres per Acres/Day
Primary Schools 31 LPCD for 15% of population
High Schools 31 LPCD for 10% of population
Public Buildings 758 Litres per 1000 Sft/Day
Mosques 12 litres/Namazi for 20% of population

Variation in Demand
i. Maximum Daily Consumption:
It is the maximum water consumption during any one day in the year. It is taken as 1.5 times of
average day consumption.
ii. Peak Hourly Consumption:
The peak consumption during any hour of the year, excluding fire demand, is called peak hourly
consumption. It is taken as 2.5 times the average daily demand.

Storage Requirements:
The capacity of storage tanks shall be based on 12 hours of the average domestic demand.

2.2 Factors affecting water consumption:

Climate - If temperature is more, requirement of water will be more & vice versa.

Standard of living - More standard of living, consumption of water will be more.

Metering - Metering reduces the use and wastage of water because consumer has to pay and also
reduces load on pump etc.

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Quality of Water - If better the quality more will be the consumption of water.

Size of City - More size more will be the consumption of water.

Pressure of distribution system - If pressure is high, wastage will be more. System should not be
designed for such a high pressure. If system pressure increases from 25-45 psi, the consumption
will increase by 30%.

Type of Water Supply - If water supply is for 24 hrs, wastage will be more whereas in intermittent
water supply wastage will be less.

2.3 FIRE DEMAND

The actual amount of water used in a year for fire is very small, but the rate of flow is large.
Method of Estimation

= 223.18

Where,
F= Fire demand in L/min (F should not exceed 45380 L/min and should not be less than 1890 L/min)
A=Area of floors in m2
C=A constant, with different values according to construction.

C=1.5 for wood frame construction

C=1.0 for ordinary construction
C= 0.8 for non-combustible construction

Maximum flow required for an individual fire is 45 m3/min

Fire hydrant serve an area of about 3750 m2.
Minimum spacing between hydrant should be approx. 150 m.
Minimum Storage required is for 4 hours and maximum Storage required is for 10 hours.

2.4 POPULATION FORECASTING

i. Consumption should be broken down by classes users (domestic, commercial, industrial,
public), area of city, economic level of the users, season of the year etc.
ii. Population forecasting is an important factor for designing water supply, sewerage and
other infrastructural facilities for a city.
iii. Graphical and Mathematical methods are used for estimating future population by using
past data records that can be obtained from local census office.
iv. None of the method is accurate, Engineer has to use his own judgement for the most
applicable method
v. Factors such as discovery of oil field, goldmines, industrial development, migration,
epidemics, earthquake may upset all calculations of future growth

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12
 Section 3 Water Distribution System
The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to consumer with appropriate quality,
quantity and pressure. Distribution system is used to collectively describe the facilities used to
supply water from its source to the point of usage.

Requirements of Good Distribution System

1. Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.

2. It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient pressure
head.
3. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during firefighting.
4. The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during the
repair of any section of the system.
5. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one meter away or above the sewer
lines.
6. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to leakage to the minimum.

3.1 Types of distribution systems

1- Gravity distribution
Natural slope, spring at peak
Economical & easy to install
Can only exist in hilly areas where slopes are present
For fire protection, we still need to install pumps

2- Direct Pumping
No storage, only pumps directly supplying water.
High electricity cost
Constant presence of an operator required
Pressure variation
Design is carried out for peak hourly flow
Several pumps to deal varying demand

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3- Pumping with Storage
Excess water pumped during periods of low consumption stored in OHR
High consumption periods water drawn out to augment pumped water
Constant pumping rate and pressure head
Economical as pumping rate is set at maximum daily instead of peak hourly flow
More reliable due to firefighting reserve

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 3.2 Pipe Distribution System:

Primary Feeders
Main skeleton
Water pumping to OHR and various parts of city
In cities form loops, about 1 km apart.
Looping allows continuous flow and adequate fire flows.
Provided with air relief valve & blow off valve
Size >300mm

Secondary feeder
Carry water from Primary feeder to cater for normal supplies and firefighting
Smaller loops within loops of primary feeder
In cities these are few blocks apart
Sizes are 200mm, 250, 300mm

Tertiary Feeder/Small distribution mains

Form grid over areas and supply water to fire hydrant and domestic supply lines (150 mm )

Domestic supply lines

Generally, the sizes are <100-150 mm normal size is 75mm

3.3 Layouts of Distribution Network

The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their layouts
generally follow the layouts of roads. There are, in general, three different types of pipe networks;
any one of which either singly or in combinations, can be used for a particular place. They
are: Grid, Ring, and Dead End System. (Turn Over)

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Grid Iron System:
It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and branches are laid in
rectangles.

Advantages:

1. Water is kept in good circulation due to the

absence of dead ends.
2. In the cases of a breakdown in some section,
water is available from some other direction.

Disadvantages

1. Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not

possible due to provision of valves on all
branches.
2. More expensive because extra valves and
pipes are required.

Ring System:
The supply main is laid all along the
peripheral roads and sub mains branch out
from the mains. Thus, this system also follows
the grid iron system with the flow pattern
similar in character to that of dead end
system. So, determination of the size of pipes
is easy.

Advantage:
Water can be supplied to any point from at
least two directions.

Dead End System:

It is suitable for old towns and cities having
no definite pattern of roads.

Advantages:

1. Relatively cheap.
2. Determination of discharges and pressure
easier due to less number of valves.

Disadvantages

1. Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water

occurs in pipes.
2. Supply to a large area needs to cut-off during
repairs.

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Considerations during pipe layout plan:

1. Right of way: Should not intersect private property.

2. Not on mines/military remains.
3. Not to damage existing infrastructure (telephone lines, sewerage pipes).
4. For high points use air release valves and low points blow off valve.
5. Avoid point of inflection Concrete blocks at point of inflection (Thrust blocks).
6. When crossing river/stream better to attach with bridge or if passing through stream keep
narrowest section when in need to bury pipes.

3.4 TYPES OF PIPES:

Various types of pipes are available for the construction of water supply network. The following
points should be considered for selection;

Carrying capacity
Durability
First cost
Maintenance cost
Type of water to be conveyed

Cast Iron Pipes:

Most widely used for city water supply
Average life of pipes 100 years
Corrosion (tuberculation)may reduce its capacity by
70% so they must be lined with cement or bitumen
Roughness coefficient (C)for new pipe is 130
Roughness coefficient (C) for old pipe is 100

Ductile Pipes:
Similar to C.I pipes except their increased ductility)
Ductile iron is produced by adding a controlled amount of
Mg into molten iron of low sulfur and phosphorus content
Stronger, tougher and more elastic than C.I
More expensive than C.I

Galvanized Iron Pipes:

Produced by dipping C.I pipes in molten zinc which
makes them resistant to corrosion
Mainly used for plumbing
Maximum diameter 6 inches

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Concrete Pipes:
Usual size of RCC pipes 400 mm and above
Not subjected to corrosion
Manufactured at or near site
Average life of pipe is 75 years
Roughness coefficient is between 138 to 152

3.5 TYPES OF PIPE JOINTS

Different types of pipe joints used in plumbing system are as follows:
Threaded joint
Welded joint (butt welded, socket welded)
Flanged joint

Threaded Joint:
Threaded joint means, pipes are connected by screwing with the
help of threads provided for each pipe. One pipe having internal
threads and the other one having threads externally. Cast iron
pipes, copper pipes, PVC and G.I pipes are available with threads.

Threaded joints are available from 6mm diameter to 300mm

diameter pipes. They are preferable for low temperature areas
and low pressure flows. In the areas of high temperature, the joints
may expand and leak due to thermal expansion. Installation of
threaded joint is easy but good maintenance required.

Butt Welded Joint:

When the pipes are of same diameter, butt welding is done to join the pipes. It is the most common
type of welding. Skilled workers are required to install the joint. These joints are generally used for
large commercials and industrial piping systems.

Butt weld provides good strength for the joint and it can resist high pressure because of smooth and
continuous surface inside the joint. Butt weld joints are expensive, to make it economical sometimes
internal weld backing rings are used, which joins the pipe with less amount of filler material. But
these rings may fail under heavy stress and cracks are developed. The joints are fixed and cannot be
opened for maintenance purposes. External smoothing of welded portion will give good appearance
to the piping system

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Socket Welded Joint in Pipe:
Socket welded joints are used wherever there is a high chance of leakage in joints. Pipes are
connected as putting one into other as shown below and welded around the joint. Pipes having
different diameters are suitable for this type of joint.

If pipes having similar diameter, then required fittings are used. Welding cost is generally lower than
butt welding. Fatigue resistance is lower for socket welded joints when compared to butt weld joints.
However, socket welded joint give better results when compared with other mechanical joints.

Flanged Joint in Pipe:

Flanged joints are used for high pressure flows and for large diameter pipes. In general, they are
used for plain end pipes or threaded pipes. Two flange components are connected by bolts at the
pipe joint to prevent leakage.

Generally, these are made of cast iron, steel etc. these are having good strength and do not fail
against high pressure. Against high temperatures the bolts may fail under creep lost their grip so,
fixing of bolts should be done properly while installing. They are also useful for repairing pipelines
and maintenance purposes.

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 3.6 Valves
Purpose
1. Regulate flow
2. Regulate pressure
3. Cut off supply for repair purpose

Location of Valves
Two valves at each intersection
One valve at fire hydrant
One valve after each 400m length of pipe
On average 8 valves/km of main

Types of Valves

1. Gate Valve (sluice valve)

Used to shut off water supply mains for repair
Generally placed at street corners where lines
intersect.

2. Globe Valve
Used in the plumbing system on smaller
pipes.
They create lot of head loss.

3. Check Valve
Uni-directional flow
Discharge side of pump to reduce water
hammer effect (pumping stations)

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4. Butterfly Valve
Used in filter plants and high pressure distribution systems.
Shut off very slowly to avoid water hammer.

5. Pressure Regulating Valve

Reduce pressure downstream side to any desired magnitude (60PSI)
Spring and adjustable diaphragm in order to increase or decrease the water pressure within
the water supply service.

6. Air Relief Valve

It allows the accumulated air in the pipe to escape
It also allows the external air to enter the pipe to break the vacuum.
Placed at high points of the line

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7. Blow off Valve
Used to drain a line, or to remove accumulated sediments
Located at low points.

3.7 Water supply parameters:

Pressure in Water Distribution System
Pressure in distribution system varies with consumption.
Min. Pressure at peak flow (not less than 150 kPa to avoid infiltration, proper flow to other
buildings)
Max. pressure during low flows
Residential areas (3 stories)-150-300kPa(15-30m)
Residential areas (firefighting)-400kPa(40m)
Commercial areas-500KPa(50m)

Velocities in Water Supply System

Velocities in water supply system<1m/s
2m/s upper limit may be reached near fire flows
Min velocity-0.25m/s (WASA)

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Hazen-Williams equation for pipe flow
.
= . ( )
().
Headloss in pipes(water supply network)
Empirical
Named after Allen Hazen and Gardner Stewart Williams.
H= head loss(m)
Q= flow rate(m3/sec)
L= length of pipe(m)
d= diameter(m)
C= Hazen Williams coefficient

23
 Design Parameter Value

Design flow Peak flow/Max.daily demand

Population Population per plot

Peaking Factor 2.5/1.5

Minimum Size 75mm

Minimum Residual Head 14m

Input head 20m

Pipe Material AC or PVC, GI, steel pipe

C 100-140

Leakage Test
AWWA has given formula for leakage test

Where ;
L= leakage
N=no of joints
D=Nominal diameter of the pipe
P=1.5 times the normal pressure during leakage test
C=constant depending upon units
C=326 when L=L/hr, D=mm, P= Kpa
C=1850 when L=gal/hr, D= inch, P=Psi

24
 Section 4 - WASTEWATER

Sources of Wastewater
Domestic: It is wastewater from houses offices, other buildings, hotels and institutions
Industrial: It is the liquid waste from industrial processes
Storm-water: It includes surface run-off generated by rainfall and the street wash

Components of Wastewater Engineering

1. Collection System: Network of Sewer pipes
2. Disposal System: Sewage Pumping Stations and Outfalls
3. Treatment Works: Wastewater treatment Plants

4.1 Types of Sewer Systems

i. Separate System

If storm water is carried separately from domestic and industrial wastewater the system is called as
separate system.
Separate systems are favored when

(i)There is an immediate need for collection of the sanitary sewage but not for storm water.
(ii)When sanitary sewage needs treatment but the storm water does not.

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 ii. Combined System
In this system, the sewers carry both sanitary and storm water. Combined system is favored when;
i. Combined sewage can be disposed off without treatment
ii. Both sanitary and storm water need treatment
iii. Streets are narrow and two separate sewers cannot be laid

26
 iii. Partially Combined System
If some portion of storm or surface run-off is allowed to be carried along with sanitary sewage the
system is known as partially combined system.
(In Urban area of developing countries, mostly partially combined system is employed as it is
economical)

In Pakistan, this system is widely used.

Infiltration
It is the waste water that enters sewers through joints, cracked pipes, walls. It is almost non-existent
in dry weather but increases during rainy season. Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) Lahore
uses the following infiltration rates for the design of sewer system.

Pipe dia. Up to 600mm 5% avg. Sewage flow

For greater than 600mm 10% avg. Sewage flow

27
 4.2 Sewage Generation & Water Consumption
Precise range is around 70-90% of water consumption when infiltration is taken into consideration
then.
Variation in Sewage Flow
Like water supply, the sewage flow varies from time to time since the sewers must be able to
accommodate the maximum rate of flow. the variation in sewage flow need to studied
HERMAN FORMULA: Use to estimate the ratio of max. to avg. flow or to calculate peak factor.

P = Population in 1000
M = Peak Factor

Minimum rate of Sewage Flow is generally taken as 50% of average sewage

It is used in the design of sewage pumping station
To investigate the velocities in sewer during low flow periods

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 4.3 Design of sewer system
I. Preliminary Investigations
II. Design Criteria Considerations
III. Actual Design
IV. Preparation of Drawing and BOQ
V. Subsequent Modification

1. Preliminary Investigation
Obtain maps and drawings that furnish information of the area
Population Density
Water consumption
Soil characteristics & Natural slope
Maps should also highlight the location of streets, parks, buildings etc.

Note: Sewerage systems are operated under gravity whereas water supply systems are operated
under pressure

2. Design Criteria Consideration

I. Design Flow Calculation of avg. sewage flow on the basis of water consumption and the
population at the end of design period
(a)Sanitary Sewer
Q design= Peak sewage flow + Infiltration

(b) Partially Combined Sewer

Q design= Peak sewage flow +Storm flow+ Infiltration

WASA Criteria (Peak sewage flow = Storm flow)

Q design= 2 x Peak sewage flow + Infiltration

II. Design Equation -- Mannings formula is used for sewer flowing under gravity

V = velocity of flow m/sec

R = Hydraulic depth = Area/Perimeter = D/4 (Circular Sewer)
S= Slope of sewer
n= coefficient of roughness for pipe (0.013-0.015)

III. Velocities of flow: Maximum Velocity and Minimum Self cleansing velocity

Maximum velocity should not be greater than 2.4m/s

-To avoid excessive sewer abrasion
-To avoid steep slopes

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Minimum velocity of sewage should at least be able to prevent settlement of solid matter in the
sewer
Self-cleansing velocity is minimum velocity that ensures non-settlement of suspended matter in the
sewer and depends on the type of sewer.
o Sanitary sewer = 0.6m/s
o Storm sewer= 1m/s
o Partially combined = 0.7m/s

IV. Minimum Sewer Size

225mm for lateral to avoid chocking of sewer with bigger size objects which enters through
manholes (bricks, shrubs etc.) (WASA criteria)

V. Minimum cover
Minimum 1 m earth cover on sewer crown to avoid damage from live loads

VI. Manholes
Provision at:
Change in sewer, direction, diameter, Slope

One manhole for 2-4 plots

Spacing not more than 100m(225-380mm)
120m(460-910mm)
150m(>910mm)

VII. Direction of Sewer lines

Sewers should follow as far as possible the natural slope

30
VIII. Qd/Qf Ratio
Qd= Design Flow Qf= Flow when sewer is flowing full
In order to provide air space in the upper portion of sewers for ventilation purposes WASA
recommends to maintain the following ratios for sanitary sewer

Sewer Size
225-375 mm Ratio 0.7
450-1200mm Ratio 0.75
1350mm or larger Ratio 0.8

IX. Actual Design of Sewer

Size of sewer: Using Q=AV for the calculation of diameter

Slope of sewer: Using manning formula

used for either calculation of slope or checking velocity

X. Preparation of drawings and BOQs

Typical drawing includes
o Sewer joints (Type of joints used and sizing)
o Manholes (Dimensions and depth of manholes)
o Disposal stations (Locations)
o Sewer profile
BOQs include all costs regarding all the components of sewer system

31
Sewers Flowing Partially Full
It is necessary to determine velocity and depth of sewage in a pipe when it is flowing only partially
full.
For this, use of graph will allow quick computation of the hydraulic elements of partially flow
circular sewer.

To use this graph, it is necessary to calculate the hydraulics elements or design parameters when a
sewer is flowing full. Then by calculating the ratio of any two known hydraulic elements, partially
flow sewers values can be calculated

Conditions during partial flow, must be frequently determined in combined or partially combined
sewers to investigate velocities during dry weather flow to eliminate possibilities of deposits
occurring in pipes.

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Invert Level
The lowest inside level at any cross-section of a sewer is known as the INVERT LEVEL at that cross
section.

U . = -
LowerI.L = . ( x )

A gradient may be defined as fall divided by distance.

GRADIENT = FALL/DISTANCE

For example, is a 24-meter section of drainage pipe has a fall of 0.30 meters, calculate the gradient.
Gradient=0.30/24
Gradient=0.0125

This can be converted into a gradient written as a ratio or 1: some number.

Gradient=1 / 0.0125=80
Gradient=1 in 80

The above formula may be rearranged for Fall if the gradient is known:
FALL = GRADIENT X DISTANCE

33
Calculation of Invert Level
SINGLE SEWER:
U/S Invert Level = NGL Depth of Sewer Thickness of Sewer diameter of Sewer
D/S Invert Level = U/S Invert Level Drop (Length x slope)

TWO OR MORE SEWERS OF SAME SIZE:

When equal diameter sewers discharge in a manhole and the same diameter sewers receives the
total discharge, LOWEST D/S I.L. among the discharging sewers will be carried as U/S I.L. for the
receiving sewer.

SEWERS OF DIFFERENT SIZE:

When receiving sewer diameter is greater than the discharging sewer;
o Keep the crowns at the same level
o Calculate the U/S I.L. of the receiving sewer by the difference in the diameter of the two
sewers.

A drop manhole is used when the natural slope of ground is too steep to accommodate normal
manholes, they suddenly drop the invert levels so that the pipes do not have to be too steep.

34
Inlets
Opening into a storm or combined sewer for entrance of storm runoff, it is designed to permit the
passage of water from the street surface into sewer

Two types if inlets are usually used

1. Curb Inlet
2. Gutter Inlet

Curb inlet Gutter Inlet

35