Energy

Preliminary Chemistry Module 4: Energy

Living organisms make compounds that are important
sources of energy
1.1 Outline the role of photosynthesis in transforming light energy to
chemical energy and recall the raw materials for this process:

Photosynthesis is the process in which plants, algae or

phytoplankton use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide from the
air and water from the ground into carbohydrates such as glucose,
sucrose, starch and cellulose:
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy -> C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)

The raw materials are carbon dioxide and water

The products are glucose and oxygen

The reaction of this involves two steps:

- In a light reaction, a plant can absorb light activating the
chlorophyll in a plant. This creates energy-rich compounds which
store energy with water being decomposed to give out free
oxygen.
- In a dark reaction, the energy-rich compounds provide energy for
the reaction of carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates.

1.2 Outline the role of the production of high energy carbohydrates from
carbon dioxide as the important step in the stabilisation of the suns
energy in a form that can be used by animals as well as plants:

Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Carbohydrates include glucose, sucrose, cellulose and starch.
They are used as energy sources by the body and originate from the
photosynthesis of plants.
Carbohydrates are high energy compounds because when reacted
with oxygen the produce large amounts of energy.
Glucose and sucrose are soluble in water, as they can be easily
transported around the plant.
Cellulose and starch are large molecules, meaning that they are
insoluble in water. Cellulose make up the plant cell walls and starch
is the form in which plants store most energy.
Extra glucose is stored mainly as starch.
In cellular respiration, the stored chemical energy is made available
to the animal, where it is the combustion of glucose in the cells of
plants and animals:
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) -> 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + energy

The raw materials are glucose and oxygen

The products are carbon dioxide and water
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1.3 Identify the photosynthesis origins of the chemical energy in coal,

petroleum and natural gas:

Coal is formed by the heat and pressure on vegetation that has been
rapidly buried (without oxygen or air).
Peat is the first stage of the formation of coal.
However, there are three more other types of coal, with higher
percentages of carbon (Lignite (brown coal), bituminous (black or
soft) coal and anthracite. This means that it would contain more
energy per kilogram released during burning.

Petroleum or crude oil is a black and viscous fossil fuel is formed

from the increasing temperature and pressure on the decayed
remains of single-celled marine organisms.
This hydrocarbon is really important to us because it contains a lot of
energy and can undergo chemical reactions that creates rubber and
plastics.
Natural gas are formed by the action of high temperature and
pressure upon decaying plant and animal matter, they are known as
fossil fuels and are non-renewable.
Used in industrial and domestic fuel.
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There is a wide variety of carbon compounds

2.1 Identify the position of carbon in the periodic table and describe its
electron configuration:

Carbon is in Period 2 and Group 4. Its electron configuration is 2,4

2.2 Describe the structure of the diamond and graphite allotropes and
account for their physical properties in terms of bonding:

Allotropes are forms of the one element (in the same physical state)
that have distinctly different physical properties
Diamond is a covalent network solid with each carbon atom
covalently bonding to four other carbon atoms.
Diamond has no mobile electrons and so it does not conduct
electricity
Its 3D structure makes diamond very hard
Diamond is also colourless
Graphite is made up of sheets of carbon atoms bonded to three other
carbon atoms forming honeycomb-like structures.
The delocalised electrons are able to conduct electricity.
The 2D layers are attracted by weak forces that can slide across each
other, allowing graphite to be used as a lubricant
Graphite is also black, soft and slippery
Fullerenes (more commonly called as buckyball) or
buckminsterfullerene, is a hollow and spherical 3D shape.
In a buckyball, there are 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons with a
carbon atom at each vertex.
They include high tensile strength, high ductility, high electrical
conductivity, high heat resistance and relatively chemically inert.

2.3 Identify that carbon can form single, double and triple covalent
bonds with other carbon atoms:

Carbon atoms can form single, double and triple covalent bonds with
other carbon atoms
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2.4 Explain the relationship between carbonss combining power and

ability to form a variety of bonds and the existence of a large number
of carbon compounds:

As carbon has a valency of 4, it is able to produce single, double and

triple covalent bonds.
The majority of compounds contain only carbon and hydrogen
which gives off the name of hydrocarbon. They are mostly found in
crude oil and natural gas.
Each carbon atom must ALWAYS have 4 bonds.
Another series of these compound formed are when one of the
carbon bonds are a double bond, for example, ethylene.

A variety of carbon compounds are extracted from

organic sources
3.1 Describe the use of fractional distillation to separate the
components of petroleum and identify the uses of each fraction
obtained:

Fractional Distillation is the process of separating a mixture, like

petroleum, into its different factions.
It relies on the boiling points (BP) of each faction being different
Fraction Boiling Point (C) Carbon atoms per Major uses
molecule
Gasoline 30 125 6 to 12 Motor fuel
Kerosene 175 275 12 to 16 Jet fuel, domestic
heating
Gas oil 260 340 15 to 18 Diesel fuel,
industrial and
domestic heating
Lubricating oil Greater than 350 18 to 25 Motor oils
Asphalt and tar Residue Greater than 25 Road-making,
roofing

3.2 Identify and use the IUPAC nomenclature for describing straight-
chained alkanes and alkenes from C1 to C8:
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C1 meth- C6 hex-

C2 eth- C7 hept-

C3 prop- C8 oct-

C4 but- C9 non-

C5 pent- C10 dec-

Alkanes hydrocarbons with only single bonds between carbon

atoms
The formula for this is CnH2n+2
Their common prefix are: meth- eth- prop- but-
Their suffix is -ane
Alkenes hydrocarbons with a double bond between a pair of
carbon atoms
The formula for this is CnH2n,
Their suffix is ene
The numbering of the carbon chain from the end of the molecule
minimises the number for the double bond, ethene and propene do
not have numbers as no isomers are possible
Isomers are sets of different compounds that have the same
molecular formula (but different structural formulae)

3.3 Compare and contrast the properties of alkanes and alkenes C1 to C8

and use the term homologous series to describe a series with the
same functional group:

Alkanes and alkenes are non-polar compounds

Dispersion forces and, melting and boiling points increase as
molecular weight (no. of Carbon atoms) increases
Boiling points of alkenes are slightly lower than those of
corresponding alkanes
Alkanes and alkenes are homologous series meaning that they can
both be represented by general molecular formulae
Since alkenes have a double bond in them, they are more reactive
than alkanes.
Alkanes and alkenes are both insoluble in polar solvents, they will
dissolve readily in non-polar solvents such as kerosene, as they are
non-polar compounds.
Alkanes and alkenes will float on water, either they are liquid or
solid, as they do not react or dissolve in water.
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3.4 Explain the relationship between the melting point, boiling point
and volatility of the above hydrocarbons, and their non-polar nature
and intermolecular forces (dispersion forces):

The volatility of a substance is the ease with which it can be

converted to a vapour
Volatility decreases as boiling point increases
Alkanes and alkenes boiling points increase as molecular weight
(no. of Carbon atoms) increases
But alkenes having slightly lower boiling points than those of
corresponding alkanes

3.5 Assess the safety issues associated with the storage of alkanes C1 to
C8 in view of their weak intermolecular forces (dispersion forces):

Alkanes contain weak dispersion forces

they are very volatile (vaporise easily; have low boiling points)
As a result these safety precautions must be taken:
well-maintained cylinders and fittings for gaseous hydrocarbons
add odours for early detection of leaks
use sturdy containers for liquids
minimise the quantities in everyday use
keep alkanes away from naked flames or sparks
erect warning signs and use fume hoods

Combustion provides another opportunity to examine

the conditions under which chemical reactions occur
4.1 Describe the indicators of chemical reactions:

Some possible indicators of chemical reactions include:

a formation of a gas
a formation of a precipitate
a change in colour
a significant change in temperature
a disappearance of a solid
if a odour is given off

4.2 Identify combustion as an exothermic chemical reaction:

Combustion is a process in which a self-sustaining chemical reaction

(as it continues to burn when oxygen is present) occurs at
temperatures above those of the surroundings.
Combustion is an exothermic reaction because it releases heat and
new products are formed
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4.3 Outline the changes in molecules during chemical reactions in terms

of bond-breaking and bond-making:

In chemical reactions, atoms and their bonds are broken and

rearranged to form new bonds
Reactants are altered to produce new products
Hence, molecular configuration is changed.

4.4 Explain that energy is required to break bonds and energy is

released when bonds are formed:

Energy must be supplied or absorbed to break chemical bonds

(endothermic), whereas making chemical bonds releases energy
(exothermic)
There are various ways to measure the strength of the chemical
bond:
Determining how much energy is needed to break the bond. This is
done by separating the two atoms so far apart, so that there is no
attraction between the two.
Through the enthalpy changes of a reaction, H, can be found from:
H = energy required to break bonds energy released when bonds form

4.5 Describe the energy needed to begin a chemical reaction as

activation energy:

The activation energy, Ea, of a reaction is the minimum amount of

energy, reactant molecules must possess in order to form products
(kJ/mol). In other words, the amount of energy need to kick start
the reaction.
On an energy profile diagram, it is the space between the reactants
and the peak
When reactions begins, the energy released through the heat is
enough for particles to react. The reaction would continue to become
self-sustaining, until all or most of the reactants have fully combined.

4.6 Describe the energy profile diagram for both endothermic and
exothermic reactions:

Exothermic: reactants higher than products

The enthalpy change, H, is negative, due to the heat being released
to the surroundings.
Endothermic: reactants lower than products
The enthalpy change, H, is positive, due to the heat being absorbed
to the surroundings.
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The activation energy barrier will vary depending on the reactions

and the reactants present. This means that some need larger energy
barriers, but other might need small ones.

4.7 Explain the relationship between ignition temperature and

activation energy:

The ignition temperature of a fuel-air mixture is the minimum

temperature to which the mixture or portion of it, must be heated in
order for combustion to occur and for it to continue burning.
Generally, the greater the activation energy, the higher is the ignition
temperature

4.8 Identify the sources of pollution that accompany the combustion of

organic compounds and explain how these can be avoided:

The major types of pollution produced by burning fossil fuels are:

carbon monoxide and soot
sulphur dioxide
oxides of nitrogen and particulates
Carbon monoxide and soot can be minimised by using excess air to
keep the air to fuel ratio high
Sulphur dioxide can be minimised by using low-sulphur coals or by
removing it from the effluent gas
Oxides of nitrogen can be minimised by limiting the amount of Co
and NOx that vehicles can emit and using catalysts to remove oxides
of nitrogen to remove the gas effluents from power stations
Particulates can be minimised by using electrostatic precipitators to
cause the small particles to combine into larger filterable particles
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4.9 Describe chemical reactions by using full balanced chemical

equations to summarise examples of complete and incomplete
combustion:

Complete combustion has a general equation for a hydrocarbon of:

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water

- Can be said as being the light/dark blue of the flame of the Bunsen
burner, where it is the hottest part.
Incomplete combustion produces carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide
(CO) and carbon (C). Their proportions varies depending on the reactants
and the products being reacted.

The rate of energy released is affected by factors such

as types of reactants
5.1 Describe combustion in terms of slow, spontaneous and explosive
reactions and explain the conditions under which these occur:

The combustion reactions can occur at different rates:

Slow combustion occurs when big lumps of fuel are used and they
limit the supply of air
This means that burning occurs only on the surface of the big lumps
and its speed is controlled by the limited supply of air
Fast combustion occurs when there is a large surface area of fuel
exposed to an excess of oxygen and there is good mixing to stop
oxygen concentrations becoming depleted near the surface of the
particles
Can involve gaseous/liquid fuels
Explosive combustion occurs with an excess amount of heated air
and pressure
It is an extremely rapid reaction
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Spontaneous combustion is when the reaction proceeds without

further assistance and continues to go until all of the fuel is used up
after ignition

5.2 Explain the importance of collisions between reacting particles as a

criterion for determining reaction rates:

The rate of reaction is the rate of change of concentration with time

The average rate of reaction over a small time interval is the change
in concentration divided by the time taken for the change to occur
Reaction rate decreases as reaction proceeds (by far the most usual)
The rate of a reaction is the gradient of the concentration versus
time curve
For a reaction to occur, the reactant particles must collide,
increasing the collision rate will increase the rate of reaction (done
by increasing concentration of reactants, increasing surface area
exposed, increasing rate of stirring)
The more successfully collisions there are between the molecules,
the faster the reaction rates

5.3 Explain the relationship between temperature and the kinetic

energy of particles:

As temperature increases, the average kinetic energy of particles

increases, increasing the rate of collision causing an increase in
reaction rate
If the temperature decreases, the average kinetic energy of particles
decreases, decreasing the rate of collision causing a decrease in
reaction rate

5.4 Describe the role of catalysts in chemical reactions, using a named

industrial catalyst as an example:

Catalysts increase the rate of a reaction without undergoing

permanent chemical change
They usually decrease the activation energy of reactions without
having an effect on the enthalpy change of the reaction (energy to
break reactant bonds energy to make bonds for products)
Homogeneous catalysts work throughout the bulk of the reaction
mixture whereas heterogeneous catalysts provide a surface on
which the reaction occurs more rapidly than it does in the bulk of
the reaction mixture
Catalyst example: synthesis of ammonia for fertiliser from N2 and
H2 using an iron catalyst
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5.5 Explain the role of catalysts in changing the activation energy and
hence the rate of reaction of chemical reaction:

Catalysts decrease the activation energy required which in turn

increases the rate of reaction/
- This means that more colliding particles will have the required
amount of energy for reactions to occur. Therefore a greater
proportion of colliding particles will react and the reaction rate
will increases.
- However, the enthalpy change, H, remains the same, whether a
catalysts was used or not.
There are two types of catalysts:
- Homogenous catalysts are evenly distributed through the reaction
mixture. The reactants and catalyst are present in a single phase.
- Heterogeneous catalysts provide a surface where the reaction rate
can be increased.
Living things rely heavily on bodily catalysts such as enzymes for
certain chemical reactions to take place.
- Enzymes generally consist of proteins.
- They are responsible for producing all the organic materials in
cells, as well as energy.
- Able to do this within a very narrow temperature range.