METAE,E,SGRAPIIY*THE STRUCTURE OT THT STEEL

I. CRYSTAL LATTICE. SYSTEMS OF CRYSTALLIZATION OF METALS

The r*icro-structure of'metais cr metal al{o;s is a crystal .laaice characteri:ei i:1, ;
regular position of the atoms in space and this crystal lattice is specific to each metal or
metallic alloy. due to the peculiarity of its own crystallization system.
The cry'stal lattice is a three dimensional formation engendered by the elernentary
cr-tstai cei{s i{ig.{.a.}. Essentiallv, these ce{ls are fi:r",r,ed by atonrs betweer t{ilch thc
cohesion is possible due to the metallic link (fig.1.b.).
The crystallization system is cubical, either with a centered volume (fig.3 a). or with
the faces centered.

ffiffi
Fig. 1. Crystal lattice a-cubic volume; b-cubic with centered faces
".nj"..d

2. CRYSTALLIZATION OF STEEL. ALLOTROPY OF IRC}J

The tran:ition iiorn iiquid to solid state - crystallizaticn, is a phenomenci'i tl'r:t

depends mostly on temperature. By cooling under the theoretical temperature of
crystallization the so called centers of crystallization appear inside the rnetal. By dropping the
temperature continuously the centers of- crystallization enlarge their number and vclume.
Enlarging tire *ur::ber r:f tl-rese cfiters detemrine the appearance of a nurnber of fine grains cl
steel. this steel exhibiting exquisite advantages from the point of view of mechanical
propefties. Succeeding in generating more centers of crystallization may be obtained by
dropping dorvn the temperature under the very limit of the cocling temperatrre. for this
determines a grealer speed cf appearailce -^f the crysrallization cfiiers or. br,pri$ing inside ri:e
hot liquid metal cefiain kinds of carbides or nitrates (the-v are compounds of carbon and

nitrogen with different alloying elements like aluminum. chrome" molybdenum, vanadium).
The cn,-ctallizaticn dei:end-< on several lactcrs and great deal to temperature- Ihe
allotropy or pol,vmorphism is a characteristic f'eature according to r.vhich a certain substance
cr-v"stallizes in ditferent systems. The transition from a temperature to another takes place by
passing from an ailotropic fbrm to another. as it can be seen on the curve that shows the
cryrsta!lization b;,' ccclir"rg o1'the iron (:+lidifl, ing).f-rg. 2.

ffi
528"
1 500=
ilt
1400-
,2.93,
I JUU.
ffi
i200-
1100-

1000-
WI 3,66 o

ilil
soo -
6(a)
atuu -

700 -

600 -

500 -

400 -

300 -
200 -

100 -
0

Timp

irig.2. Thc crl stallizaiion of iran irt' coolhg

lf we lbllorv titis cune fiom the iiquid to the soiid phase rve iind the lirst ailotropic
form which is the$-iron, named austenite, a cubical cr-vstal cell with centered faces. going
down under 906' C, more precisely from 768' C to the nonnal temperature we find a-iron.
named ferrite which crystallize with the volume centered, a more compact cell than that with
the ce$,ered faces, crwing tcr the smalier ciistances betrveen the agrlms"
The y-iron is unstable at normal temperatures (under 900'C). It is plastic, soft. ( 45:50%,
H8:200), it combines with carbon thus the carbide being obtained (also named cementite).
Ihe a-iron (fbrrite') is the main constitutive of the iron and its physicat and chemical qualities

impo.;e the geaeral characteristics on iran and from mat. ,rn steel. It ls sol1. ptastic (R-25...3b
kN/cm2, Rc:l2 kNlcm2, A5:60%...85%. HB:80), magnetic and it dissolves carbon in small
quantities (0.008% at nonnal temperatures and 0.04% at721"C).

3. fuIETALLIC ALLCYS AI'JD THE STRL}L]]"URE OF THE CARtsON STEEL AND ]-HL
LOW AILOY STEELS
3.1. METALLIC ALLOYS
The iron and aluminum make alloys with different elements which, in certain
proportions, grant to these alloys specific properties. Thus, there are obtained totally different
ferro-alloyg in accordance u,ith the alloying degree and the technolog.v of fabrication. The
chemical link between these elemenm is:
-mechanical mixture- a product of the elements that make up the alloy. These
elements do not dissolve mutual and do not chemically inter-react;

-chemical product- twa or more elements that react chemically, whose crystal lattice
is different from mat of the constitutive elements and whose physical and chemical properties

are different, too (e.g. the ferro-carbide, Fe3C);

-solid solution- a specific product of the metal alloys obtained from dissolving
together more elements of the whole ensemble that forms the ailoy.
The so{utions may be:
a) substitution solution - generated by replacing the atoms in the crystal lattice of the
main metal with atoms of another element, in this case being necessary and sufficient from
the point of view of the geometry of the crystal lattice, the atomic radii of the two elements
being almost equal (fig.3.a. ci;

Fig- 3. The soluticn of sub$iartica: a-ariginal metal: b-.sc{id:clgtion; c- deterioratioa cf t&e

lanice

b) interstitial soltiion (of penetration) - formed by the penetration of the atoms of an

inrerlering element whioh is iiissoived in the iattice inrer-spaces of the main met.al" In this
case, the atoms of the dissolved eiement must have their radii small enough in order to
penetrate into these holes. A disturbance of the crystal lattice appears and as an implication,
the metal is not stable (fig.a).

+
><><

JF
.XX
Fig. 4. Solution of penetration
As a conclusion the steel is a metallic alloy whose constituent elements (mainly iron,98Ya|
are to be found as: homogeneous solutions, mechanical mixtures and chemical product.

3.2. THE STRUCTLIRE OF CARBON STEEL AND LOW ALLOY STEELS

Ferrite (u-iror-r) is the basic element at norrnaf temperatures and due to the small
distances between the atoms (l/4 of the dimensions of the atom of carbon), forming a solution

is not possible. Adequately, at normal temperatures ferrite exists as a chemical substance,

cementite, in different proportions in the metallic mixture. Because of the great proportion of
carbon-6.5791,r cementite is hard, has a high eompression strength, a low shear strength and is

fragile (HB:800, RF 100 kN/cm:, As:l%).

Cementite has some important characteristics considering the process of solidifying
of the metallic alloys:
*can tbrm itself from the liquid phase (primary cementite) or later in the solid phase

(secondary or tertiary cementite) in totally different systems of crystallization. The

secondary and the tertiary cementite are crystalline structures different from the main metal
crystal cells and which are very hard and fragiie:
-togetlrer with ferrite foms a meclranical mixture iramed eutectic mixture or
eutectoid, its name being given to all the mixtures that separate from the liquid phase at a
ceftain temperature and in a constant concentration. It is important to be known that the alloy
has the lowest solidifying temperature when this concentration is reached. giving this way the

start to the formation of the eutectic rnixture.. The eutectoid of iron-carbon alloy is named
perlite and is made up by 6:1 ferrite to cementite. The perlite is an important constitutive of
the steel, stable at normal temperatures, strong, plastic and resilient (Rt :80 kN/cm:.
HB:200...230, A5:5%...200 \.
On the iron-carbon diagram (fig. 5) there can be seen that the carbon percentage
gives the shape and the pr:sition of the solidifl,ing line. So. fiom the liquid mixture with
carbon under I .TYothe austenite crystals separate at a variable temperature, depending on the
real percentage of carbon; this percentage influences the later transfbrmation of austenite
rvhen the cooling process continues. Thus. for the percentage of carbon of 0.85% aL721"C^
austenite chemicall-v combines rvith carbon fon:ring cenrentite rvhicli u,ith fbrrite n:akes
perlite. We can sa3' that the eutectoid of steel contains only crystalline grains of per[ite.
If the liquid steel contains carbon more than 0.85%, the cementite first separates
lrorn the liquid until austenite contains 0.85% carbon, u,hich becomes then perlite. This steel
is a hypereutectic steel, containing perlite and ferrite.

1 600

1 500

1 400

1 300

1240

i 100

1 000

900

800

700

600
4 4.3

Fig.5. Diagram of carbon-steel solidifying stages 10C - X C)

4. EFFECTS OF RE-CRYSTALLIZATION. ROLLING AND COLD FORMING ON THE

STEE,L MiCROSTRUCTURE

The rnechanical processes conducted at normal temperatures (cold forming) irnply

important plastic deformations of the steel, which at rnicro structure scale means massive
distortions of- the crystal lattice or nietallic cells themselves. Tire coid-ibrming process is a
specific phenomenon in the steel industry because it is the basic method for obtaining cold
formed thin gauge steel sections.
During the cold-forming process the steel plates suffer important deformations by bending
and folding the material; the deformations coresponding to stresses over the yield limits
diminish the plasticity and increase the hardness of the steel sections. The process may be
reverted by warming the steel at about 550"C, when both the crystal lattice and the crystal
cells reconstitute themselves.
The repeated re-crystallizations create a greater number of crystallization centers; as
a result. the final product will have a greater uniformity of the crystal cells and a finer
granulation, becoming a higher quality= steel {f:g- 6}.

Gz--Gr

Fig. 6. Refining the granulation of the steel with the help of cyclic warming processes
The warrn processes take place at temperatures above the re-crystallization
temperature. The warm plastic deformation inside the structure of the metal produces
distortions due to compacting in one direction. Lami*ating is in fact a process of destroying
the rough grains of metal and finishing it (fig. 10). The successive rolling between the wheels
of the rolling mill of the grains of metal increases the refinement of the steel micro structure.
The direct implication is the differentiation between the longitudinal and the transversal
fibbers.
 a)

----

---

b)

Fig.7. a) - Finishing of the grain of steel by rolling -pressing and directing the crystals;
b) Defaults and overlapping due to the wheels of the rolling mill metals.

Further more implications are: the arrangement of the non-metallic inclusions along
the laminating directions, the concentration of the segregation zones which are deformed
together with all the metal grains in the central part of the rolling process {fig. 7.a) The
overlapping of crystalline plans produces defaults by discontinuities betwren the laminated
layers which consequently are not welded together, their neighboring surfaces being already
oxidized (fig. 7.b).
The results of laminating in one direction are the different mechanical properties in
the two directions, for ex. the ultimate plastic elongations are much gleater on rolling
direction for a certain material. In the same time, due to the successive rolling which makes
the longitudinal fibbers to be more compact, both the yield point and the mechanical
properties are growing when the thickness of the rolled steel is smaller.

5. THE METALLOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF THE STEEL

The metallographic analysis is a physical method of research which consists in
examining both macroscopic and microscopic a polished surface of a probe which is attacked
with a reagent with the purpose of studying the structure. The metallographic reagents are
solutions in water or alcohol of certain chemical substances, which in contact with the
polished metal probe render evident the crystal grains, because of the different degree of
chemical opposition of the crystats of all the constitutive elements. The rnost affected areas
are the limit ofthe crystal grains, rich in impurities.
The macroscopic analysis of the steel consists in observing by naked eye, the
magnifying glass or the microscope with a small resolution (less than 50 times). For a
microscopic metallographic analysis we need increased resolutions (more than 75 tirnes).
During the microscopic study of the pattems for steels with perlite structure, the
ferrite, which is more affected by the reagents, will not shine into light and consequently will
appear in darlq w'hile cementite, with more chemical resistance, will come out in bold relief.
being shiny.
The macroscopic analysis shows:
- the characteristics of the steel- the segregation area the dimensions and the distribution of
the blow holes, the cracks and the non-metallic inclusions;
- the defaults of the laminated steel- cracks, overlapping, blow holes, etc:
- the characteristics of the cold processed steel- the effects of cold-hammering, the
deformation lines" etc;
- the characteristics of the steel after the thermal treatment- thickness of the tempered layer or
de-carbide layer, etc.
The microscopic analysis shows:
- the general aspect of the microstructure, the shape, the dimensions of the micro crystals of
the metallic constituent the distribution of the non-metallic inclusions, etc.;
- the defaults generated by plastic cotd or hot defbrmation, etc.

5.1. THE PRESE.NTATION OF TI-IE MICROSCOPE USED IN THE RESEARCH FIELD

The microscope used in the laboratory for the metallographic analysis is a universal
microscope for research. It has the following principal parts (fig. 8):
-the fixed plate, the base p[ate and the table of&e microscope;
-the system for observation in reflected light;
-the white heat lamps:

-the electric equipment with the command panel;

-other constituent parts for different fields of research.

Fig. 8. The optical svstem olthe microscope:
i-image on the retina;2-huntan eye:3-ocular lens;4-prirnar.v- image:5-ocular diaphragrna;6-
l'ield lens: 7-paralel f-aces glass; 8- hinder tbcus of the object [ens; 9-beam light-white heat
Iamp; l0-fiont fbcus of the object lens; l1-metallographic probe; l2-obiect lens arc: l3-flnal
image.

5.?. THE PHASES OF THE ]\4ETALLOCRAPHiC STUDY

The study of the probes may consist in: photos, films or projections on a screen.
The white lTeat larnp is used to study in reflected light, metals being opaque even r.vhen cut
very thin samples from.
Observing the cry,'stalline structlrrs consists in analy'zing the surfa{je af the probe.
This is possible because of the simpie larvs of ref'lection and refraction of the light beams. If
the beam meets a surface lvhose perfect flatness has been attacked on a certain area. it will
then refiact and the microscopic field r.vill be diflerently illuminated. Depending on the
direction of the light froru the source to the surt.zce of the probe - perpendicular crr obiiqne.
rvith a very small angle, close to horizontal. the illumination system will be in a bright or in a
dark fleld. The former method is the one adopted here, being currently used and it is obtained
with the circular diaphragm of the object lens.
ln a bright field, on a specific metallographic probe the lines and areas in dark t'ill be

the inter-crystal zones. rich in impurities because they have been more attacked by the
reagents. The metallographic probes are detached from the metal and they are very well
polished n,ith special equipment on one t-ace. The probe is examined with the naked eye or the
magnif3,ing glass observing the macroscopic def,aults. Then the probe is examined first at

small resolution -75 times to 100 times. observin-e the shape and dimensions ot the crystalline

grains. Then the same probe, first non-attacked then attacked. is examined at greater sizes-
500 times. Then, the observed fields are drawn on paper. noticing the differences betu,een the

probes.