What is Formation

Evaluation

Formation Evaluation is the science and

art of taking multiple wellbore
measurements (all of which are indirect) and
constructing an integrated description of
formation properties.
 Wireline logs
Sources of Formation open hole
Evaluation Data cased hole
production logs
MWD / LWD
mudlogs
core and fluid analysis
testing
Whats the
Question? The questions asked of the
petrophysicist change with time and
dictate the data and the processes
used
is there hydrocarbon?
is it oil or gas?
how much, where is it?
whats the lithology?
one reservoir or multiple?
producibility (water cut, flow rates)
quantification of reservoir parameters
(saturation, porosity)
residual hydrocarbons
single well or field study
Value of Formation
Evaluation Data

There is often a struggle with balancing costs vs value

in logging operations. Remember the questions may
change over time and often data collected in open hole
carries fewer assumptions and is less costly to gather
What is a log?
The term log originally referred
to the tally of values vs. depth
taken from the returns survey
(mudlog). Now it is taken as the
term for all downhole
measurements

A log can refer to:

The tool that makes the measurement.
The paper (or digital) representation of those measurements.
A single measurement (a curve or a trace).
Data acquisition: Tool-surface

wireline Logging unit with on-board computer.

communication is via
a 7-conductor
electrical cable.

Sensors (transmitters and receivers)

and electronics are mounted in the
Power and operating
logging tool (sonde). Usually several instructions are sent
tools are joined together in a tool to the tool.
string and the measurements made
simultaneously to save costs.
The well is usually logged while Data and tool status
pulling the tool string up the hole, for are sent from the
tool.
better depth control. Tool 1 sensor.

The logging cable carries the tool

load and provides a communication
link. Apart from recording the Logs are run at 900 to Tool 2 sensors.
measurements from the sonde the 6,000 feet per hour,
depending on the
most important function of the surface measurement.
unit is depth control.
Measurement Recording

Surface Signal
Conditioner Recording Processor
Device
CPU

Depth
Measurement

Reproduction
Mud

Mud
Cake
Undisturbed Formation End Product

Filtrate Log / Tape

Invasion
Parts of a Log
Reading a log is a skill well worth
Header developing. Many misinterpretations
can be traced back to a
Comments misunderstanding of what the log
data represented, especially these
Main pass days when much of this data is
tracks loaded directly to workstation
scales projects

backup scales and wraparound

split tracks
speed markers
Repeat pass
Calibrations
Log Header

Location
Rig Information
Mud Properties
Remarks
Equipment
Other services
Header Information

The header contains

information about the
logging environment key to
proper interpretation
A well log
Scales identify the
curves and their
values (if you have
a secret decoder
ring)

Depth lines appear

every two feet (in
this display).

Curves are
distinguished by
line color, width,
and style
Depth
Track 1 Track Track 2 Track 3
Typical Log Scales

Log scales can be quite varied

depending on the types of data that
need to be represented
Getting Measurements
on Depth

Each sensor is
recorded at a given
depth (or time).The
surface unit
memorizes input
from each sensor
and records the
final value at the
reference depth for
that measurement.
Logging Speed,
& Speed Markers

Logging speed can

be an important
consideration in
evaluating the quality
of a log. There are
often physical
markers on paper
copies of the log
which indicate speed
Mnemonics
mnemonics are used for tools , services, and curves
Common Log Type: Schlumberger: Baker Atlas: Halliburton:
Porosity
Density
Compensated RHOB DEN RHOB
Lithodensity RHOB, RHOM, RHOZ ZDEN RHOB
Neutron
Compensated NPHI, TNPH, NPOR CNC, CN NLP,NPHI
Sonic / Acoustic
Compensated DT DT DT
Long-Spaced DT DT (None)
Dipole (Pwave) DTCO DT DTC
Spectral Gamma Ray SGR GRS GRS
URAN, THOR, POTA U, TH, K GRU, GRTH, GRK
Resistivity
Induction
Dual RILD RILD ILD
Phasor Dual RTPH RIPD HDRS
Array AF90, AT90 M4CX, M2CX HRD
Laterolog
Dual LLD RD LLD
Azimuthal LLD RLD (None)
Focused SFL FL DFL
Microresistivity
Micro-Spherical RXO, RXO8 (None) MSFL
Microlaterolog RMLL RMLL (None)
Microlog BMIN, BMNO RLML, RNML LAT, NOR
Electromagnetic
Propagation EATT, TPL (None) (None)
Pulsed Neutron
Thermal Decay SIGM SGMA SGFM
Logging Physics
Electrical Waves

Frequency-4 4
100
12
101
20
102
28
103
36
104
44
105
52
106
60
107
68
108
76
109
84

DC 20kHz 2MHz 1GHz

Nuclear Radiation
Acoustic Waves

Logging tools utilize a wide range of measurement techniques. One

of the challenges to the formation evaluation specialist is to try to
understand how all of these measurements relate to the physical
parameters we are attempting to quantify
2-Point Calibration for
Logging Measurements
Calibrated Values

Plus
Reference
A Gain = A / B

Zero
Reference

B
Offset Raw
Zero Plus Values
Measurement Measurement

Calibrated Value = Gain * Raw + Offset

Tool measurement
volumes

Because of the physics and tool design, tools can measure vastly different
volumes. This must be taken into account in the interpretation phase
Volume of Rock
Investigated by
Different Tools

In addition to tools
measuring different
volumes, different
measurements and tool
styles may have
directional components
that may affect
interpretation
Formation Evaluation
Equations
BOIP = 7758 bbl/acre-ft h (ft) A (acres) f Sh
where h = reservoir thickness (ft),
A = drainage area (acres),
f = porosity (%),
and Sh = pore space portion filled with hydrocarbon (%).

Power Law Equation

Mass Balance (whole = sum of parts)

log max - log S w = n F Rw
property =
log max - log min Rt
FE simple view of lithology

Clastics more
likely to contain
fresher connate
water Carbonates
tend to varied
pore types
and complex
lithologies

Depending on clay types,

shaly sands can pose
problems with saturation
equations and porosity
calculations
Rock and
Fluid Models

Dry Bound Irredu- Free

Matrix cible Hydrocarbon
Clays Water water
Water
Sand vs Shale
Typical Shelf and Deltaic Sand
80% quartz
9% feldspar
6% clay
3% rock fragments
>2% heavy minerals

Typical Shelf and Deltaic Shale

68% clay
18% quartz
10 % feldspar
4% organic material and other minerals

There are few sands with no clay and no shales that are 100% clay
Grain Size

Grain Size is an
important
characteristic of
clastic rocks, it
correlates very
closely with
properties such as
saturation and
permeability
Clay mineral
structure and
chemistry

Much of the
effort of
interpretation in
clastics has to do
with extracting
and accounting
for the influence
of shales and/or
clay minerals
Effect of Clays Clay type, chemistry & distribution
determine the extent of their effect on
log response and flow characteristics.
Even small amounts of clay can have a
large impact given their surface area
and proximity to the pore network
Rock characteristics vs.
reservoir properties

Grain Size
Pore Geometry Porosity
Sorting Permeability
Mineralogy Relative Perm
Clay content Wettability
Cementation Capillary Pressure
Compaction
Secondary Porosity
Borehole Environment

Temperature
Pressure
Borehole size & shape
Mud Properties
Invasion
Interpretation of logs without a working knowledge of
borehole conditions is one of the chief causes of
interpretation errors.
Thermal
Conductivities

Temperature gradients
are controlled by
regional heat flow and
the thermal
conductivities of the
formations

Thermal Conductivities
3
Thermal Conductivity (10 calories/cm/C)
Shale 2.8 5.6 Gypsum 3.1 Water 1.2 1.4
Sandstone 3.5 7.7 Anhydrite 13 Air 0.06
Porous Limestone 4 7 Salt 12.75 Gas 0.065
Dense Limestone 6 8 Sulphur 0.6 Oil 0.35
Dolomite 9 13 Steel 110
Quartzite 13 Cement 0.7
Variations in
Temperature
Gradients

Temperature of the
formation is a key step in
interpretation. Luckily,
temperature gradients
can be determined from
bottom hole temperature
measurements.
Borehole
Temperature

Temperatures in a
drilling well are not
static. The circulation of
the drilling mud cools
the formation near TD
and heats the near
surface
Converting Pressure
Gradient to Mud Wt.
saltwater
.465 psi/ft
~ 9 lbs/gal

psi/ft = 0.433 g/cm 3 = lb/ft 3 /144 = lb/gal/19.27

Pressure Gradients
Stresses in the Borehole and
Borehole Shape
Borehole shape and rugosity

The more arms on the caliper,

the more descriptive the true
borehole shape is.
Invasion
Invasion Profiles

Typical Step Invasion Profile Annulus Invasion Profile

Bank of formation
water pushed
ahead of the filtrate
Radial Resistivity Profiles
Oil - Based Mud Water - Based Mud

Salty
Connate
Water

Fresh
Connate
Water

Invaded Undisturbed Invaded Undisturbed

Zone Zone Zone Zone
Invasion
processes may
not be simple
Effect of Porosity
on Invasion

Invasion occurs in the time

between bit penetration and
the build up of mudcake. That
volume of filtrate invades
deeper when porosity is lower
Borehole
Terminology
Borehole Environment
Problem

Given a well drilled to 10,000 ft and a max recorded

temperature of 223o F, and a mean surface
temperature of 70o F
What is the temperature at 8000 ft?
If the well was drilled in 4000 feet of water with a
temperature at the seafloor of 35o F. What is the
temperature of a formation at 8000 ft ?
If the mud weight was 12 lbs/gal what is the
pressure at that depth ?
 Calculating Geothermal Temperature

Example 1
Depth Temp.
0 70F 1. 0 70F
2. 10,000 223F
3. 8,000 ?

Temp 2 Temp1
Temp3 Temp1 Depth3 Depth1
Depth2 Depth1

223 70 153
Temp3 70 8,000'0' 70 8,000'
8,000 ?F 10,000'0' 10,000'

10,000 223F Temp3 70 0.0153 / ft 8,000' 192.4

Example 2 Depth Temp.

0 1. 4000 35F
2. 10,000 223F
3. 8,000 ?
4000 35F
Temp2 Temp1
Temp3 Temp1 Depth3 Depth1
Depth2 Depth1

223 35 188
Temp3 35 8,000'4000' 35 4000'
10,000'4000' 6000'
8,000 ?F

10,000 223F Temp3 35 0.0313 / ft 4000' 160.3