Ch.

8 Covalent Bonds
The Covalent Bond
Covalent Bond:
The bond that results from the
sharing of valence electrons
Both elements have a strong hold
on the valence electron
2 nonmetals bonded together
Molecule: a neutral group of
atoms joined together by covalent
bonds
Diatomic Molecules
7 elements that naturally form 2-atom molecules due to
increased stability
Found as pairs unless they are in another compound
Five gases H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2
One Liquid Br2
One Solid I2

**Mr. BrINClHOF
Formation of a covalent bond
Sharing of electrons to achieve an octet
Sharing
Example: Chlorine 7 valence electrons

Notice: neither atom gives up an electron

By sharing, each atom achieves an octet
 Molecular Compounds
Molecular Compounds: a compound composed of molecules
Example: Water and Carbon Monoxide

Molecular Formula: chemical formula for a molecular compound

Shows how many atoms of each element a molecule contains
Formulas of Some Molecular Compounds
Types of Bonds
Single Bond: Two atoms share one pair of electrons
Bonding Pair: The shared pair of electrons can be represented by a
pair of dots or a line
H:H or HH
Lone pairs: non-bonding pairs of valence electrons
 Types of Bonds

Double Bond: Two atoms share two pairs of electrons

Example: O::O O=O
Triple Bond: Two atoms share 3 pairs of electrons
Largest bond possible
Example: N:::N NN
 Bond Length & Strength
Bond Length
Distance between two bonding nuclei
Single bond > double bond > triple bond

Bond Strength
Dissociation Energy: The energy needed to break a bond
Indicates the strength of bonds
Triple bond > double bond > single bond
Drawing Dot Structures of Molecules
1) Draw the dot structure for each individual atom. Determine the
number of valence electrons
2) Determine the number of electrons each atom needs to share to
become stable
3) Choose your central atom (if more than one)
- Typically the least electronegative element
Properties of Covalent Bonds
Lower melting and boiling
points (compared to ionic
compounds)
Most are gases or liquids at
room temperature
Composed of two or more
nonmetals
Poor conductor of electricity
Nomenclature for Molecules
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds:
- Composed of 2 nonmetals
- Use Prefixes

Number or atoms prefix

1 mono- 6 hexa-
2 di- 7 hepta-
3 tri- 8 octa-
4 tetra- 9 nona-
5 penta- 10 deca-
Naming Guidelines
First Element:
Use a prefix to indicate the number of atoms
Name the element
Note: Dont use mono- for the first element

Second Element:
Use a prefix to indicate the number of atoms
Name the root of the element name
Add the ide suffix

Example: CO2 - Carbon Dioxide

Naming Practice
P2O5

SO2

Dinitrogen tetrahydride
 Naming Acids
Acid: a substance whose molecules yield H+ when dissolved in water
(H is first in the formula)
Names are based on the suffix of the anion bonded to the hydrogen

Anion Formula Anion Naming System Acid

Ending Example Name
-ide HCl chloride Hydro-anion root - ic Hydrochloric Acid
-ate H2SO4 sulfate Anion root - ic Sulfuric Acid
- ite HClO2 chlorite Anion root - ous Chlorous Acid
 Acid Naming Practice
Phosphoric Acid

Hypochlorous Acid

HBr

H2CO3

HNO3
 Acid Naming Practice
Phosphoric Acid H3PO4

Hypochlorous Acid - HClO

HBr Hydrobromic Acid

H2CO3 Carbonic Acid

HNO3 Nitric Acid

 Molecular Structures
Structural Formula: Uses symbols and bond lines to show the relative
position and interactions of the elements in the formula

Steps:
1) Calculate the total number of available valence electrons
- For an anion, add e- equal to the negative charge
- For a cation, subtract e- equal to the charge
2) Identify the central atom
- Usually the least electronegative
- Usually the first atom in the formula
- Never hydrogen
3) Connect the terminal atoms to the central atom(s)
with single bonds

4) Complete the octet on the terminal atoms

- Hydrogen can only have a maximum of 2 electrons

5) Complete the octet on the central atom with

remaining electrons

**For emergency:
Convert one or two lone pairs on the terminal atom to
multiple bonds with the central atom if no electrons
are left
Examples:
CH3Br
- Total # of Valence Electrons: C=4, H=1, H=1, H=1, Br=7
= 14 total valence electrons
Practice:
CO2

SO42-

H2CO
Practice:
CO2
4+6+6 = 16 total valence electrons
X
O C O X O CX OX O C O
20 valence electrons Convert lone pairs to form 16 valence electrons!
too many! a double bond

SO42-
6+6+6+6+6+2(charge) = 32 total valence electrons
O 2-
If the compound has a charge,
we put brackets around the
O S O molecular structure and
indicate the charge on the top
right.
O
Practice:
H2CO
1+1+4+6 = 12 total valence electrons

H H H
H C O H CX OX H C O
14 valence electrons Convert lone pairs to form 12 valence electron
too many! a double bond perfect!
Sigma & Pi Bonds
Sigma ( ) bond: the first bond made with any other atom
Pi () Bond: any 2nd or 3rd bond made with any other atom

- 4 bonds
2 sigma bonds
O C O 2 pi bonds
- 4 lone pairs
Resonance Structure
Resonance Structure:
More than one Lewis structure can be drawn
Atoms remain in the same location
Electrons are moved
Example: Nitrate Ion (NO3-)

The structures vary based on the location of the double bond

All resonance structures are considered equal
Octet Rule Exceptions
In some cases, the octet rule can be broken
1) If there is an odd number of valence electrons
- Central atom will not have an octet
- Examples: ClO2 and NO
2) Central atom with less than 8 electrons
- These compounds tend to be very reactive
- B, Al, Be as the central atom
- Example: BH3
3) Central atom with more than 8 electrons
- Most common exception
- Expanded octet
- Extra electrons fill in the empty d-sublevel
- P, S, Cl, Br, I (3rd row or beyond)
- Examples: SF6 and XeF4
Molecular Orbits
When two atoms combine, the molecular orbital
model assumes that their atomic orbitals overlap
to produce molecular orbitals, or orbitals that
apply to the entire molecule.
Just as an atomic orbital belongs to a particular
atom, a molecular orbital belongs to a molecule
as a whole.
Molecular Shapes
Molecular ShapesVSEPR
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Model

Method of predicting molecular shapes

Minimizes repulsion of the electron pairs
According to VSEPR theory, the repulsion between electron pairs
causes molecular shapes to adjust so that the valence-electron
pairs stay as far apart as possible.
Predicts bond angles angles formed by two terminal atoms and
the central atom
Lone pairs occupy a slightly large space
Classification is based on a dot structure
Molecular Shapes
Example: O3 3 domains (regions where electrons are found)
2 bonding, 1 nonbonding

Geometric Shape: BENT

1) Draw the Lewis (dot) structure

2) Count the number of electron domains around the central atom
3) Predict the shape and bond angles of the molecule based on the
types and quantities of the domains
Molecular Shapes
ClF3

NH3
Molecular Shapes
ClF3 28 Valence Electrons
5 domains (regions where electrons are found)
3 bonding, 2 nonbonding

Geometric Shape: T-Shaped

NH3 8 valence electrons

4 domains (regions where electrons are found)
3 bonding, 1 nonbonding

Geometric Shape: Trigonal Pyramidal

Hybridization
Hybridization
Process of combining atomic
orbitals to make equally shaped
bonding orbitals
In hybridization, several atomic Carbon electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p2
orbitals mix to form the same
total number of equivalent hybrid
orbitals.
This enables the central atom to
make identical bonds with
terminal atoms
Sigma bonds and lone pairs
hybridize
Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
Electronegativity: the ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond
Trend: increases LR, decreases TB
F is the most electronegative, Fr is the least

Bond Character
The bonding electron pairs are usually unequally shared
The bonding pairs of electrons in a covalent bond are pulled (like tug-a-war)
between the nuclei of the atoms sharing the electrons.

Bond Polarity
Describes the sharing of electrons
Bond Polarity
Nonpolar Covalent Bond: Electrons are shared equally
Example: two identical atoms (Cl2)
Polar Covalent Bond: unequal sharing of electrons
Also known as a dipole: one of the atoms exerts a greater
attraction for the bonding electrons than the other
The more electronegative atom attracts electrons more strongly
and gains a slightly negative charge. The less electronegative atom
has a slightly positive charge.
Example: HCl
Bond Character
Bond Character: based on the electronegativity difference
Polar Bonds
Polar Bonds can be represented 2 ways:
#1 : Using () delta (meaning there is a partial charge)
Example: HCl

Electronegativity of Cl: 3.0

Electronegativity of H: 2.1
+ -

3.0 - 2.1 = 0.9 Polar Covalent Bond H Cl

**The more electronegative atom attracts electrons more strongly and
gains a slightly negative charge. The less electronegative atom has a
slightly positive charge.

#2 : Using an arrow point to the more electronegative atom H Cl

Practice
CH4

CO2

H2CO

HCN
Practice: Key
CH4 CO2

- +
CH OC
2.5 2.1 = 0. 4 3.5 2.5 = 1
Nonpolar Polar
 Practice: Key
H2CO HCN

- +
CH NC
- +
CH 2.5 2.1 = 0. 4 3.0 2.5 = 0.5
OC Nonpolar
2.5 2.1 = 0. 4 Polar
3.5 2.5 = 1
Nonpolar Polar
Molecular Polarity
If bonds are:

All Nonpolar Bonds Polar Bonds

Shape Cancels Polarity Shape Keeps Polarity

Nonpolar Molecule

Nonpolar Molecule Polar Molecule

Practice: Molecular Polarity
H2O

CS2

CO2
Practice: Molecular Polarity
H2O OH
3.5 2.1 = 1.4
Polar Bond

Shapes Keeps Polarity

Polar Molecule

CS2
CS
2.5 2.5 = 0
Nonpolar Bond
Nonpolar Molecule
Practice: Molecular Polarity
OC
CO2 3.5 2.5 = 1
Polar Bond
Nonpolar Molecule
Attractions between Molecules
Intermolecular forces
The attractive forces that causes the interactions between two molecules
Weaker than ionic and covalent bonds

Van der Waals Forces

The weakest attractions between molecules
1. Dipole Interactions
- Occurs when polar molecules are attract on another
- The electrical attraction involved occurs between the oppositely charged regions of
polar molecules
2. Dispersion Forces
- The weakest of all molecular interactions
- When the moving electrons happen to momentarily more on the side of a molecule
closest to a neighboring molecule attracts to the neighboring molecule
Forces of Attraction
Hydrogen Bonds: The
attractive forces in
which a hydrogen
covalently bonded to a
very electronegative
atom is also weakly
bonded to an unshared
electron pair of another
electronegative atom.
 Characteristic Ionic Covalent
Bond Formation Transfer of Electrons Sharing Electron
Types of Elements Metal & Nonmetals Two or more nonmetals
Internal Structure Crystalline Solid Geometric Shapes
Melting & Boiling High Low
Points
Physical State Solids Liquids & Gases
Solubility in Water Usually High High to Low
Conductivity High Low
Naming techniques Cation (+) Element name Use PREFIXES based on the number of atoms
Anion (-) Element root plus ide * If mono is attached to the first element, drop
suffix it off.
*Unless the anion is a polyatomic ion, Add the suffix ide to the end of the second
then it ends in ate or ite element