SIRF 0* Ter ‘TORE TULIMUS THE MATTER OF THE NORTH ‘THE RISE OF LITERARY FICTION IN THIRTEENTH-CENTURY ICELAND ‘Ths by SS ‘ODENSE UNIVERSITY PRESS(© The Viking Colleton andthe author 2002 Printed by Speca-Tykkeriet Viborg 2s ISBN §7-78385377 ISSN 0108-8408 Contents ‘Acknowledgements Inodscton Part One: Preliminaries 1 Presentation ofthe Canon Io nrdeton 2. The Legendary Sagss 3. A work of historia! Neo: eavinge sage 44 Ell sogu Stall Grimsonay: The fist Telanc family saps? TL Methxdotgica!Itoduction 1, Namaive Anas oa 2 Naratology : 3, Narratlogy i he service of erry history 44 Thematic Analysis 5. Literature as expression of ideology IL, The Origin of the Legendary Signs and the Advent of ition i eeland 1. Socotra! Conditions 2 How can the legendary saga be dtc? | The stow emergence ofthe legendary sagas 44 The Appearance of Fito 5. The Ate to Pagar art Two: Analysis of the Legendary Sagas IN, Hervarar saga ok Heives: An Uhstetion of Method 1. The Divisions of he SazsMI vil vm. 1% 2. The Naratve Sequences | The Subsections 44 a Suture That Makes Sense? He saga o8 Hlfrethn 1 Themes 2, Site 5, Communication with Coniemporay Readers 4. The Origin of Has saga ok Halfvekia? agrars saga lodbrétar 1 Sects 2, Aslaug and Agnes 5. Compaition for Vasa 4. The Dero Focms and Meanings of Ragrars sop Volga saga Leseictre 2, The Theme of Treachery 4. Themc Stactre 44. The Deen: Destin othe Two Lincapes| 5. Volounge sega in thineent-cemtury iceland Oran Outs saga 1. Biographical Composition and individual Destiny 2. From Viking King's Champion 5, Sieiicace forthe lt hiteeth sentry Auden 4 Aero Who Changes Over Time “Arif Saga Gaarkssonar: Playing with he frm, ILA Sopiicuted Seucere 2. Recuving Situations and Mite 43. The Ves ofthe King ad his Miinadr 4 Ladie Communication ns Couly Context Provisional Sutement:The Language of ition in the Legcrdary Sagas 1. The Making of a Gene 6 us Das 118 0 1s ne 10 2. The Pats of Beton . 5. What Fiton Tells Us About Reali art Three: The Paths of Fiction in Thietenth-Century leland 2X1, Jonseing sag: King and Vessl in Coiet, 1. Why Is Jomsvikinga Saga imports? 2. AComplex Stucture: Kings, Ansett, and Commoners 3. A*Poitical Sosa”? 44 What iat stake in Jomsiinga Sago? 5. Jém>iinga Saga Ad Wis Ausincein he fist hid of the Tireenih Cory 6, Topical Consens Prete into The Past 7. Aantal Saga XIL, Toward A Description of The Thirectl-Centry Ielandic Language OF Fiction 1, The Consreton ofthe Past 2. The Frame Of Reference 5, To Const Meaning: A Poetics of Comply XII An Aterptat Applicaton: Interpreting Ee sage 1-Aoliical Story 2. The Unsaidin Eis saga 3. A Conpex Form fora Soble Meaning 4, Subjectivity Projected lc Hiscey? ‘5. Tae Histrian, the Pllc, the Pet, athe Man Conctsion Bibliography Appel: Synopses of he Sagas under Stacy 2 191 11 13 ww 200 Py 210 ais 207 20 226 24 28 250 0 m= oes auAcknowledgements ‘Wha follows is translation of my 1995 hock La Mate du Non. Sogas Ugendaires et tion dans Usa du Xe sible (Presses de Univer sit Pais Sotto). During the proces of preparing it for publication, I have consacied numerous debts of gratitude. The Ielandic Research (Council andthe Research Fund ofthe Univesity of Island have povided. ‘rats or assistants a podheation costs My sess, Benoit Eyes Son, Margret Helga Hitrardtir and. Odin Halldretir have been ‘unselfish and efficent in tol wok onthe manuscript. Lave also benef ted from the comments of numerous fevewers and evaluators ofthe French version in preparing the English one. To all these instiutions snd inviduals T would ket express my thanks. One of the eos of Tha Viking Colleton, Preben Meulengracht Sorensen, died during the final stages of he publication ofthis bok, He wis a fine and insping shor and person and be wl be sorely missed. [am very grateful ohm an 0 the cher editor, Margaret Claris Ross, for taking on the Book and for ‘many belpal marks. ‘My deepest debt of gratitude, however, goes to Professor Rani C.EMdevik ‘of Oxiahor State University It was inher review ofthe bok in Scand ‘avian Studies 68:3 (199), pp 295-6, that the idea of an English wars {on was fst memined and shortly afer she very racist under took 1 do the work Herself. The quality of he ranslaion speaks frie fad feel very fortune tat she was wiling ogo through with ts log. nd diffe ackIntroduction ‘Amid te exacidaary explosion of Tslandic Brat inthe tvelth ‘tireenth and founcenth centuries, «wo groups of texts ~ the lependary sagas (fomaldarsigw) and the chivalic sapas (riddaravigur) ~ have ‘remained marginal fom the viewpoint of those atemping to understand the origin and development ofthe “Lclanic miracle Given the fon ‘ature ofthese sagas and given also tat thoy were more obviously coms ‘posed within radon common tal Wester ope in the Mile Ages that of romance fiction ~ it has been posible to everlook thir impor: {ance inthe development of medial lel erate asa whole. The resent td isan stamp 0 reovalte the poston andthe oe of one of these two groups, the legendary sagas in tha development ‘Why the fomaldrsogur rte thas the rddarasopur? Because the lt (er are from the tafe in eanslaions of fooiga Mteraue, whereas the legendary sagas eiginate fom the eff to adap a aden, adigenos and iniately inked to the image that Telanders of the welt ad hie texnth centuries formed oftheir own past oa new fm: loa! prose fanative, Studying the legendary sagas frm tis perspective will ted ih onthe origin and nature of oer genres tht arse in Tela, espe- cially the Tolan family sag o slendinganca, which i aso links 10 the past ofits author and sense, but oa meh more recent past. nthe Jas few decades, the tonal nate of tht genre has Become beter snd beter undertond. That i why his work i cee on a nui ito the satus of itn in thioenth-century Iceland Ierture, What drove oo- landers to compose narratives f tis kind about both toi rceat and thie stant ps and what meaning il these narratives have for thom? ‘What have sought accomplish sas fllows Fist, wished to point out the richness snd complexity ofthese tng ogee sagas. Eventhough they were probably compose for amuse ‘ment and recreation, in my view they deere 1) be taken seriously as ‘works ofthe intellect Fo this eason, Ihave endesvoared a clay cea foils concerning the manne in which they were compos! and wed as ‘ohicles of expression, uIrtobuction Second [wanted t et my hypotheses shout the sin of this group of sagas for psi marth group appeared as ery a5 he ist daades of ho theca ceoury, and not 2 generation ltr & is the consensus today. Moreover, I wish Yo place this group's genesis, ike that of most secular Teclandi iterate ofthe Mile Ages, inthe context of « movement tat ‘was common to the lay ruling clases of all Wester Europe atthe end of the ewe and the begining ofthe three century. and was ever increasing the movement appropriate the intellectual ols of the clergy in ode for he lit to buildup a elt al thei own. ence the signif ‘ance of the tide given to hs sty: i Island, aaaives about ancient Scandinavian toes would have played a role comparable to that ofthe ‘medieval Freach works of fiction that exploited the thos matters" of Rome, of Face, ad of Britain’ “The third objective was to show that although thee texts had been com posed for amusement and recreston, nonethless they deal wth problems End concerts endemic othitsent-cetury Island, 2 soe) rgoing massive change For thie purpose Isl endecvour to trace the links between the conspicuously fictional fomaldarsogur, and the realities of istry ~ no, weer om he level of src event, Brahe that | ‘manners and res. ‘Thos my approach to the legendary sages is thre-pronged: to study thera as works of iterate; o put them in the context of acuta evolu ‘Gon common 10 ll Christendom: ad to ky tO profit from these to spproaches in ode to undesand th siguifiance these spas had fr bei tutors and audence, Later, will extend the scope ofthe sody i onder tO tay out this ile approach on a specimen of another eaegoy of texts ‘whose origin an rau are more problematic thn thos ofthe legendary sags: the lesland fail sgaof Egil Skala Grinston “The sty that I propose thas 2 stay of laa hse, nd as sucht Isat the same cine 2 story ofltrary forms and of tee oigin, of thie fos with other forms apd wih the copii and context of thei cee "1, ech sind Mae fh ein 1921 eh rn Brita sont) "ou Sana he we nino Bash tomy eh nt eet [ntemca deny lest toss har of Nine Aston ay wa 2 roc ‘tion hope to show not ealy that knowledge of medival cland faci {ates a beter eras ofthese sagas, elucidating their obscures and expl- ‘eng thes psyehology, bu sso that he legendary spa, despite hen tional nature, each us about Kaladi society nor as twas, but as isa Isl, and above all wished 1 bePart One PreliminariesI. Presentation of the Canon 1. Introduction ‘The designation foraldersgar Norburlanda er legendary Saas apie to group af twenyfive saps ‘ns saga boxes (The Saga of An Bowens) ‘Airuesdar saga kappatana (The Saga cf Asmund the Champion layee) snga ok Herrauds (Te Saga of Bési and Hecate) saga eihonda of Aomavdar bercekiabana (The Saga of Egil the the Berer-ler Axmindr) pos saga ins frekna [The Saga of Pitt the Bold) rls sagt ok Goff The Saga of Car ae jaf Ref) sag fdkinna (The Saga of Gn with tho Shaggy Chin} nro sga (The Saga of Hrd the Stamper) rage Brenufsra (The Sega of Hafan, Foste-son of Bran) rage Eysenssonar Che Saga of Halfan nd His Champions) arar saga ob Heireks (The Saga of Herve and HeiOeh) ms sage ok Obi (The Saga of Hap and Oli), 2aga Gauretssonar The Sag of Hef Gauteksson) saga kaka The Saga of Hr the Pola) rundar saa Gripssonar (The Saga of Hramund Gipson) saga Griarfsra (The Saga of lag, Fester son of Gri) saga hengs (The Saga ot Keil Salen) ga lodbrdkr (The Saga of Ragnar Hairy breeches) sage stare (The Saga of Strang he lndatcus) saga sterka (The Saga of Sel tho Swong) la itr cou Hedin saga ok Hogna (The Tae of See, or The Sag of| and Hogi) igo sage The Sapa of the Valsangs) pcns sage Viking suonar (The Saga of Dosen, Son of Vikings) yOu 5030 (The Saga of Aromat) "7Par One to alo plies to sight hort naratves fragments: Af Upplenaings Kanangum (Aboot te Kings of Uppland) Fd Forni ok hans ator (Alsout Foca his Descends) ‘ela do Porissonar (The Tale of Helgi, Son of Pi) Toke te Tokasonar (Une Tae Ti, Son of Tk) [Normagets ptr (The Tale of Noragese) Sonubrot af Formnangum (Peagmants about Kings of Ancient Times) ‘Paste af Ragrarssonen (The Tae of Ragar's Sons) ‘Portis par bajarmagns Che Tae of Poss Town Strength) “Te term formaldarsdgur Norurlarda was nt wed inthe Middle Ages. 1k seas nota 1829 that Cr Chsian Raf tei ist eitor, gave them this ime, which means naraves of the Now counties in ancient ies. [Nordarind,o Nowe counties, ete refs tothe Scandinavian outs ‘excluding Tela and fraold or ancient tines, refers wo the times befor ‘te colonization of lslnd Thae the common charset ofthese nara tives i ther sting inthe more or les Topenday era before Iceland was ‘colonized atthe en ofthe nih century, featuring heres of Seandinavian ‘atleast Germanic origin. fale umber ofthese maraives actualy take place in Scandinavia ‘We ae dealing win wentyfive sags of various lengths and ig fag ‘ments or short txts, recorded in vellum or paper manuserps, The oldest ‘manuserits date fromthe ary fourteenth centary andthe nest ro the eventceh centr. The shot texts are forthe most pat awn fom some txtersvefouteethvcetary compilations, in particular the great Hstoies bof the Kings of Norway compose in his pei, which incorporate along ‘wth the Kings sagas @ number of naatves derived from other literary fonts. The longest sagas in this group (around 30,00 wors) ave ‘markedly shorter than the great celanie amily saps such as Nal saga, ‘which comes to more thn 100,000 words, or Essa, ound 7,000, 0€ ven Eyring saga, round 41,000 In short the legendary sagas havea ‘neater tendency fo brevity han do the Iesande ally saps Ths fair to say hat al he legendary sagas have in common what might ck in varying degrees. Te chancters ismoc altogether he Same as ous nit superna abound, ad the hero is usally stronger than a odinry ran ‘Gough sill mort In most cies the plot revolves arousing chara ter or family, The legendary sagas, therefore, are erie marae mas 18 1 Prerrtaion ofthe Canon rao ae they fl he mdvenares ofa her who s mort bt endowed with ‘extraordinary power and prowess.* "The fact tha these spas fate heroes who ae Scandinavian of inked With Scandinavia im some way ian important characteristic and resus i these sagas beng categorized a separate group distinct fom the chal HHesapas or ruddarasgu The legen sagas ase ou of anarave ta iin tat solder dan they ae and is wo some exeat common to al the Scandinavian peoples, namely the eric poems ofthe Elder Ea, [na thn, the legendary saga stem rom nanatives of grext deeds achiew by forebears, and rom pre-existing literary works deve to the most ancient fale dynasties of Scandinavia. Each ofthe legendary sagas is more o¢ les dependent on his wadion, andi is wel wo make distinctions among based on Wha! hoy owe it Tose that derive from ths ancien mast over ar he fllowing: at eda Hesins saga ot Hegna nga sage saga krak (The Saga of Hrd Aki) would be ncladed in his is, though this saga might possibly have existed in a thitzenth-cenury on indcpeadcat of Skjldunga saga there remains extant only a er rom te foutenth or petaps even the fienth centr, whic has 0 reworked tht is art ll ha the thteeath century Vesen have boen like ft exsted. The ater spas and short martes ae depandent oa Eddie wali, yet even so are distinguished by thir fand also by cera thematic concers wadonl in Scandinavian fave chosen to concentrate on his fst group of sagas for several re ‘he Gist that am interested inthe begining otis gene, has hse Stns Marge Pn Pvt, Leena Fn ed Suan ianies 9 enna Rea 9Part Ove fn how a new Herary foe has gradually diverge fom is oer sources. “The second reason tht he orisha the legendary sags is cosa linked tothe advent of Fition in lela Hirano. Although these sagas const- tate the most markelyftonal gaz in thar erate, studying the forms ‘hat ition akes wl ead a baer understanding ofthe eel fay ‘sig, whose flcuonal nature is more ambiguoes. Ws origin most be consid ‘rad in celation ott of the legendary sagas, Therefore Ihave chosen 0 Teste thie sty 10 sagas for which a thileent-ewsury dating Is rls tively eran ‘Since ove sim of his study is 1 relate te eign and developments of the gente obroadarhstteal development in particular. o sve fot an Uunderianding of bow these sags reflect certain reales existing atthe time of heir composition ~it seems all the more advisable o rest ur- selves othe thicenh century. an ea of significant upheaval in esandic history. and one about which we happen to be very well informed, thnks tothe sgasof contemporaries “This kind of inquiry requires dtiled in-depth enalysis of escheat To ‘void poles repetition Ihave not scaded altho sagas that could be ted tothe thieouh contr, or all those derived more or es iectly {tom ancient postr. Lhave chosen those find the chest and mos impor ‘ant namely Hdl saga ok Hare, Hervarar saga o& Heidreks, Rog nave sag lobar, at of Ragas sam ad Vetsunga Saga “These ae the lnchpin saps of the gee they’ exemplily the form ‘ook uni at east the ral decades ofthe tite entry Inthe fou teenth and fifteenth centres he genre oatnues to ox an the majority ‘ofthe legendary sagas date fom these conus. A distinction has been rae between he ster and earlier sagas by caling the earier ones heroic ‘gas andthe later ones sagas of adventure? ‘Above all, what diferentes them stat nthe eater group one sill, finds the tage feling in which Edie poetry is 50 secpe, whereas the cont group is far mote romantic: nthe later, tragic conflicts between rmembecs ef the same family are uncommon, an thes gas almost invari- ‘hy have happyending. However, he memos of he hai saga foto the saps of adventre beni’ atthe end of the titeoah contury. For SS icone Mie ae 20 1. Preston of he Canon Ihisreason, we have deemed ic aeoessary to incorporate in our analysis 160 ‘gas which belong tothe second sroup and which probaly mark the tum Ing point in the gene's development. They are Qrear Odd sage and Heals sage Gauoekssorar. ‘As previously sated, Im concered simultaneously with sho origin of| the Jogenary sagas, tho beplninge of fiton in Icelandic Ierature, and the use of fctn by the autor ofthe Iceland fail sagas. For this ea- nT have included two sagas that are not fomaldarsig: JémsKnge ‘ag, which n any casei Key saga forthe begining of ition in ee- Tanti iterstre, and Eee ga Stallagrinssonar, which may beth eal fblcelande amily sags stall pow insodace shes eight saga inthe nde in which Tam going 3 withthe. Fr each of them Tshll proceed in he same wa, fist, ishing the dating of ie oldest manuscript and then he probable date composition supplying the chief argument for his date. Appeded to volume | provide sdeald synopsis ofeach sag, to which readers refer the couse of the discuson 2. The Legendary Sagas sg ok Helbreks ‘Saga of Hervor and Heideekr ag of Herve an her son Helvoke has ome down us in thee versions all derived from the same Tot archetype sn Helgson inte inrodacon sedition ofthis aga The oldest man that contains Herarar saga is Hauksbk (a coven now broken up three pars: AM 371, do; AM S44, do: AM 675, 4) which dts 10 "This version ofthe saga, commonly called H, seems t have shortened considerably by Havkr or by te seribe he employed ve, a mythological eologue as been added which doesnot seem: 1 febcon peso in he cri version ofthe saa. one ett re Heer ee of He Ao, Sein hse, Sox Sf Karson "Aa Hho, Flan i AmsS ons Pon eh Menregns Re ase Hs a‘A sooond manscrit, Gl. Kgl sn 2845 Ato, dates 89 approximately 1400" bt cota ler version ofthe saga. though some ofthe varias tH seem io be mve correct. Commonly called R, this second version forme the baie of ment modern efions af the saga Repretably the last it ofthis anasrigtsising an its impossibe to know bow thesaga nied in version R. For beter or worse, this lacs bas been fied in hanks he existence of tid version called UIs pecseve in con siderably coup copy found ina svententycentary mans Upesalt Univers Library R715, According 4m Helgison his version drives froma lost version of which H is a condensed ration, The serbe of lnother seventeenth certs manaserp, AM 208 fol, had acess toa bet {er copy ofthis version, fre wed 1 fill in the missing conlsion of the Reversion which he also haat hand. Tis gives vs the following ‘Thee are considerable difereaces among these versions, boi in chat tees names an in he events ht cece: What om 10 Rand Ho to ‘Rand U sta bette, with eave certainty, tothe cmon scue of all he extant versions, whether there existed diferent version of version ‘of which we poset no tae, remains an wnanswerable question. ny alysis ofthis ga I soll odinarily reer to Christopher Tolkien's eh ton but for my own parposs shall raw pen some variants tha be ot em worthy fies Moderates length, Herarar saga ok Heidrets 18 one of the st claimed legendary sagas. monly because of extn memorable seenes but alo Because of the poem it contains This FeXtRSETVeS WO Tea, nist eats et hop ne meni setae eno ln Fee ne Cheap Tees st he ag of Kn le se We, Toms Nl sad Sa ond Now Ye 10. 2 1 Presention of he Canon Fo cee eam re i nd ei a that is both unique and ancient Most phioloits ages tha he ig was consractod around the poems and ries, fori evry version Mearative srscture sos somewhat weak In all versions, nanative nity peovced bythe magical sword Tyrfingr, whic, afters frs- by the dares, pastes frm generation 1 gaetation and ays a cars rt cammot he onseathed without casing a man's death adit be drenched in bod thats still war, fervarar saga ok Helves is avery rch work. At some points the fer cannot lp thinking tht skims very apy over ratrs hat fuller developmen. The saga also rambles considerably. Ie gives on of having been pall together fom sundry sources Wich een nti with varying degrees of success, Does a governing pin forthe unification of these disparate elements exis aoneticiess? aga ok Hatfrokha aga of Half and His Champions a preserved in one old manvserg, Gl. gl sm. 2845 do, whieh contnins a version of Herarar saga, and wich das © appeaxi- iy 1450,” alo ours i dovens of paper manuscripts of the eight ‘enry’ of [ate nal eases copied ore or les diet fom he al mangcrigt" The extant version probably cure info being dat foareenth century. buts ikely to have been based at est in pat lost spa which the compiler of Sarlunga ga ealled Has saga but bch might have been ite similar othe version of Hf saga as come dawn to vs. By all edieatons, this saga was composed 1220 and 1280." Most sholas dat tothe end ofthe tenth ‘or the beginning of the fourteenth, except Hubert Seeiow who ‘tay be latr by several decades.” Gne remarkable feature ofthis Panama emtenrmmmessiiensatet, seg Ro ie a ea Lgl 265 al censoa is that cet chracers in it are det ancestors of fais promi ‘nent in Heelan frm the second half ofthe hineenth century ona "ACT lance this sap seems quite a argo, bt its man clement re ‘hose of many ther legendary sigs: plot that encompasses several a- craton, invention by Odin, involvement of the supernatural. Even ‘more than most legendary sags, Hal's sre is indebted to poems, which ‘ay be ole than the saga bt ae bo ese than th ate evelth x cay thiteenth ceatury, and which may ~ though this cannot be proven ~ have been crested foram older version ofthe sug ht did ot conn the neon- sisenies of deta o be observed betwen the voras and the 030 Et Of the existing version The posibiity of an carer origin fo thi sa ‘inches its neluson in hs St. Ragnars saga lodbrékar ‘The Saga of Ragnar Hair-breeches ‘The saga of Ragnar Hairy-breches is preserved ina manuscript dating 0 approximately 1400, Ny gl sm 1824, 4o (version Y) and—inasligly ferent version ~in the manuscript AM 147 of which only agen ‘emia (version 0) Ii aly cern tha tid version of the sagt xistod arto beginning ofthe fourteen centy and was uscd by Hauke Erlendson in his Par af Ragnars sorum, to be discussed nex. AS We sal ce, tlle significantly trom the saga we ko, Forth extent ver ‘Son; the date of composition is dicult to datermine, The camsensue of Sebo however rules out dae eae than to s2cond half ofthe thie ‘pants cota A ater dt is pssble ‘Concering the hor of th aga, however ti insputale that na tive tradition sivolved arking back to the historia figure Ragnar, 4 ‘Viking wane who auackad 2 numberof European counties ~ in #45, 2c Slew Hl go at. Tie Sig i on yee agar spa tay Sean “Bina e Bu Coun: koe in Ragan hse abc dfs Bins Scirmar 12 deer 99 Rep ek 8 285A ay Muh Te Eon ln bas of age ep eon Stan re Mgnt? Re TS es ‘ol halaman apn go Ps ah Bn, Si Ble itt Rey sar Sn Kw gsc oy 2» | Psetaton fhe Coon rance—and wo was so fearsoma tht his memory was til reserved by reach and English writes ofthe twelfth and tarcemh conus.” In Seandinai, tis eartve tradition has Bf aces Inthe twalRth-cnry Teele poem Kraul and in he Intel century Gea Danarire ff Saxo Grammatis the vh bak of which is ngey devoted oa ver lon of Rapnae’s ventures ater diferent from that found i the say 3 SKolduiga sag, whichis ext {ry also meatons Ragas and his life. There re many ination ha by the welth century this navalive tation was ot only cal bat had also Tena of Ragars sag is wo-thids tha of Volga saga, wich uns fo about 13,000 wor. In the extant version, the former is po 35 x.coniustion of the ater: Aslan, Ragnar’ second wits the ‘of Sigundr and Bryatldr from Volsanga saga, As previously the te Sagas ae prservad inthe same mame and is te tink that they were roaght ogeher because a the genealogical, after each had already exited separately Sage seems o lack unity. The adventres of Ragnar, his wife are rated episcdicaly, and ts hard to discern m governing for the eomposition. This impressions enforce bythe fac hat tiv coneles with two incidents that have very litle odo with im chaacters ofthe stg, af Ragnarssonum of Ragnar’s Sons ists very short (les than 4,000 word) narative found in the fauksbok mans ced 1306-1308 The most recent edtion of srs by Bjaml Guttason." The compile seems ohave Ued Vous 10 build up this soey about the ons of Raguar, for 2 mally est, Ri opr, ee ins, id Pace se P86 he ar eee ar ge se Rory Nets pacar ep 1 rjc eS Kan “Ald nab’ 14121 et es Ss nn me Ae of 2sPort One genealogical purpose, Heukr Erlendsson, the author oe sponsor of this ‘manuscript, ad ie wie beth claimed descent ron the Skcidung dynasty "The tr coneiely narrates Raga’ ling ofthe serpent and sma siageto Aslaug Inthese respects it pres with the saga. The ir diverges by amiing ny atempt by Ragnar to win a Swedish princess in mariage (On the comtay, Ragnar a the Swedish king are eds, and if his sos stack Sweden, ti asin order to confront thee father. The main ifer- ‘nce between te two text i that the rivalry between father and sons gets tare emphasis in he pr, though so present inthe ag3 “The significance ofthe biti its presentation ofa diferent version of the tale cf Ragnar and hs sons version Wwhich may represent an earlier sage than ha found in the sag Portis eon, tis Very hapa 0 com pure eto. Votsunga saga “The Saga of the Volsungs Volswiga saga sextant inthe same manoscrip as Ragnars saga, Ny Kh si 18246, 4o, dated approximately 1400, and in several paper copies of it Despite the Intenese of this unigue manuscript, scholarly consensus cas dogo the om a ema er even by having ome ote Ta eel ic Bu mat en te ator es the sone te tof centng We sty meaing tinge twat a on mea coher cramping als chen ssn o ‘ee aero Ind teeter oo ath sl Ser Nitin sxeing oth wn expres ar here be SEE eps iawtdge fhe sen’ woh To ers hemes Sea crete geet ng Sb te wos meesatcne"enstb icy of ert texts oe he stan fos she coe 3, Narratology in the service of literary history “oe wath of concep appar roa by ted of nama iy att fon decodes mate enoeely tempi py al his sf yo at ry forms, egal when heals shee toda we dermis an crt th ie o oop of exis n= ttn’ ray soy Why? "tec of itera reprcentaon hat we ay al sufi pe omens a We aalaed wife tos of paral) and hen sud ‘Gea eal evan One ean ry fo determine which cchngoes. Sex tas’ and en of rein Ty Bt vty Manet antec Scene cup“ Many Cao Lie esitmat ea Make icmp ny nh anny pee ‘Tacoma in Gras deren iran dev Meer Cat We ies, 36 fr 1. Meteo adc hose the ethos us nthe texts understudy, ove fom aii of ‘ul soryeling which eeniques seem to Rave been drawn from pre fstinglierary taiions and which ecnigues seem to be innovations ‘hat wl be farther exploited inter works. Likewise one can show how urs make use of hese techniques fo give meaning t heir stores. Moreover, by means of semiotic analysis, the uncovering ofthe deep ctr of signification in flctionl works can rel sn more precise {cement of them win history. The tensions and comtadicions within Uhotex that his analysis reveals are often thos that are als at woxk in he ery society tha rated them. Sometimes the author incl the the ory deliberately and consciously, ut sometimes uniting and avon Uw. In order to avoid the fllcy of overnerpretaton, however. 5 Inperaive © employ naratoogia) tots wth great rigour They then {nove themselves ost useful for progressing beyond the mere history of Mery forms to place he extn ts historical context. They a pfu st Ins where no-ealistic stoves such as the legendary sagas ae concered, Inshowing how a text factions in dialog wih the relies of sme ething ther methods of analysis are nos good a showing "his lst point brings us back to the question of interaction betweon ‘nto nd aoiene. If inded a ear texts above all the For ake by ‘communication betwen author aml audience either orally or i witig) Ins communication aes place in eran context, known othe Wo pat es bat more or less unkown wus terry historians. Our jgnorace of | ‘higs tht were taken foram the ime of composition ~ ad there Foreurmensioned hinder us fom acivinn a the interpretations) desired the autho Tobe sur, isa handeap forthe istoian, ht also asapeed thallnge for the et, intr, can make us avate af what we do aot iow Ind ths spar ws ono ill n the gas in our knowledge, at east 1 "To state car proposed endeavons, le ws consider an eazple In a loxthee may crs elements which sem superfluous but which enable the thor to ide the reader's interpretation, Forte purpeses af araolo. thes elements ae useful only if he context to which he exter is Wel Sowa, lndeod, the more we kpow about mars such asthe conditions of | or iner nih So peso enn i 8,743 Kha eat ili tr veneer Pen chou unre ath Noon op: Crt vont Py Hae 1. aPert One ‘compotion, the nature of the aionce, the identity ofthe authors, and tbo generally about he cultural mie in which author and auence are linmersed, the more we ae capable of discovering the meaning of these ‘works, What makes his the mere cues the, al ikelhood most ee Tandieeagas were composed by and form small numer of persons who shared similar experience ofthe word. (Obviogsy we will never achive total knowledge ofthe contons of production and reepson even the disance in Gime between us ad the Pevod when these texts were produced, and the many gaps i the man Script tradition, However, the more closely we approximate 1 such & [knowiedge the more vl our analyses will be. Meera ela nacrax tive literate sa privileged domain in comparison to oer medieval ier. ‘ares, for at est we know aceainaumber of things abont some authors fhe we can use this knowledge for guiance in our interpretations, king tne, of coarse, not impose onthe texts and net insisting 0 oo dest nk betcen ators ives a thei works 4. Thematic Analysis Aer this description ofthe possibios that narative analysis fer fr tracing the potion of meshing in naraive, ith regard wo etigues {ss much sto resus, ty seem supetios to round tof bya thematic Stlyss, We are, homes, constrained tunderake i For it penis amore taxonomic approach fo the texts under sty than does the fist kindof als, lvays provided that a distinctions drava Between the two the. natic Levels under analysis The First levels superficial. 1 consists of ‘etermining the thes peculiar otis group of texts: situations, charac tes, yporof advent, object and places; a short all that characterizes this group and dstingvises it fom oter groups ets ands obvious a | {ist reading ofthe story, Te scond thematic levels ess obvious ais ‘ccessble oly after arate analyst. On te second lve, one pipoins | the problems. the contaictions, the concerns tha the texts express 01 reflect I wl be most interesting to fnd out whether tore an be observed inthe preoccupations ofthe authors of legenéary pas any const ha ‘ae not found ofthat ae found in oer fers ~ among othe kinds of ‘Sagas. One of hs hypotheses advanced inthe present stad i that, i pr, the legendary sagas deal with the same probleas asthe lean Faily as 1 Metdeigiea eaucton tut in a ditfrent manner and perhaps more every than te late, ihe greter Gctonalty of the former permiting a more direc, ho the problems. 7 Nikinals, and in more direct way than aarative analysis, which openites above all onthe individuality of stores, hemtic analysis Ties the possibility of approaching the legondary sagas as 9 group of ‘Walaa raises the thorny question of genres in medieval Teelande tert ‘ie Can one igtuly use the concep gene to speak of Irate hat wed no asarenoss of it? I so, what does "genre" mean? Do the es fikety sages const one or two? Ordo they on the contrary, belong to ilvoer score? iil, theme analysis most dest witha paicular problem arising Ai the fact hat the authors of the legendary saps have chosen t0 work Wilh material that soems tobe tational and tht, in par ts ae ie Ale: Unt nos hove who have stdiod these sage have ed them 3 Windows upon a civilization much older than that which produced them. ‘Mtis not the sim ofthe present stad: on the contrary. we shall temp to AW the importance of being very cautions when probing these sais for {ination about the periods in which the acon is supposed o take place, fioen ifthe themes, characters and sitions re ancient, they are ans Wil ous tough Tens which i tht of he era in which the texts were goed. To interpret tem correctly, therefore it is accessary to under- ul how Icelanders inthe High Miele Ages conceived of the past. For Ahh ite hemes are peseaed as legacies the past they ae used inthe his’ present and pressed int the service ofthat present dying the themes of the legendary sagas wll thus es in an under wong ofthe role these themes play inthe semantic functioning of the yi in oter words, isan eter to understand how these themes Wee pertinent to the medieval Teelandic authors and antince ofthese lest wil therfore be necessary to understand how these peopl pet Ne he themes, and tha beings ust the next section 5, Literature as expression of ideology Hh We dha historical ~o, ike he legendary sagas, pseudo historical — Wenie is in Keeping withthe age i which it was composed is inns ily ike to the concept of ideology. To avoid misunderstanding, let me 39Port One aston o sd that when T speak of literature a the expression of ieol- tony, [have in mind a phenomenon of infil greater complexity tan the erature of ema propaganda. To be undersiood aright I therefore ‘must explain what I mean by ideology before showing What rasonship there cane between lenient eoogy ‘The sense in which [use this Word is ery bron, foro me the ideology ora sviety ora steal group can be defined the aggregate of represent tion, vahes, and hierarchies of vale that condition the eaonship ofthe invidual wo the world in general and society in parcular. It might be called the charsterio worldview of &seiety or coca grovp. The tem ‘Weology hs te advantage of implying that o0 the one hand, this world: ‘view ean be dosrited, and, on the other hand that sn nlite anc ‘tie, bu rier vats, both indie and from one society to anther The ‘deology of Iceland seca nthe twelfth entry is note same a hat ‘of Papas New Guinea in the twentieth century. Likewise we are bound to Sctnowledge that our owa relationship tothe world Ix condoned by on ‘deology nd that we must be aware fit and a fas posible sve foe ‘detachment so that out own ses dont distort our ierpreten of past ‘But how can the relationship between ideology and fertare be explained fight ofthe definition just given, it seems a if iterate can- fot help reflecting the ideology ofthe society in which itis produced. Ever Furbo, iterate may be one ofthe privileged vehicles of ideology, fr crature must express a cera worldview, if enly by presupposing a eran ‘mount of knowledge on the reader's par. To he sre this happens ‘various ways and canbe elated to theft tat there exist numorous Kinds of erature that expres ideology in ferent was. In historical iterate, daoigy is expresso in the ehoies the histoian rakes of what n the past seems impctant 0 record and pass on 1 is readers These choice reflect the historians concepts and ales, that, how he views the legtimacy of power in his society, te dstibuion of wealth, and so foth In pre poetry, weology may appear in relation Self, 6 nature orto the opposite sx. In romance fiton ideology has just, ' Inporant a plac, bats expressed in a differen way — panicuary in the lsrture of mediovl fiction which, in the Continental tradition, i se In the fantastic word of King Anuror the heroic worl of Charlemagne. 1m Keolandis wadtion, ftonalIterture sakes place in a world which, "hough not quite that of the chivalric sapas (at ofthe Coins “0 M. Methdetsia eduction von, isa wor jos as unto, stsnge, and remate from tht known to Wwolanlrs of te twelfth wo the fourteenth centres: The setting isthe thera world Before the colonization of eeland, the world of the leg ony ana. How does ideology iter theugh these fictive sores? There nothing lw oven Fictional, even with such a sting, fom expressing ideology wore dicdy han ifthe setng were less ext forthe characters who lyse one another are what we may call conceptual types, that, they are Fy}vovntatons noe of people Buta ieas of people, or gure Thus the tinier of King Anhur ip Chrétien's romances funcios abow alla an el fqwra of Kings a the knighly clas af to represen, but he We ftom refecing the reality of royal powe in the second half ofthe ‘lth ceatury King Amhurs the king thal nips would hve liked to hve cn somowhat similar though na quite the sim) wy, he eg ily sugas appear o bean ideal image of wht the pre-Christian past of he Hoapdinaian les might represent for leanders; ha, ess what We wih to show in these pags, Me tem “mental reales", coined by the anthropologist Maurice ‘lie, seems in many respects suitable to describe the nature ofthis i= ia Idec dhe world in which the events take place beats scant Felonship to that in which the authors and audiences Liv, sil the ideas Wt tthe real world undriete stuctre of power, of human relation ‘ifs of the distin of wealth, ao often embodied inthe character, ‘ihillons und themes ofthis ierarue. Hence on ean eal these texts rep. Fhtations of "mena relies: hence also thei lose connection with iy ace thoy express the ideology that explains and justifies the ‘ine. i povent misunderstanding one nist reiterate that its not question 1 ropugands irate. These mental realities ae ot allegorical tanspo- Sin of sci th elaionship is mach more complex than that Nor do ‘ie mental realts presenta society entirely idealized and devoid of nhaiietions. If ose mental realities present modes they alo present iris erm at oe he: and ern dertcten Es Tange, 86 Ths ina png we eo Patt he nol sl le mate eg ans. Mun I Loto enn spc Chr nial Lil ned Pe tin 4aPart One ntimodes, both of characters and of behaviour. tt sort of internal ebac rss in hese ents an expression ofthe contains in the soc- ty that hy given rise fo hem: ined, a reflection ~ sometimes conscious, ‘ut most often unconscious ~oftheve contacts and, Iewise of the society. Tn sense, these texts “hin” the ideology they’ expres, and ths they ‘an be compared to myth as Clade Lévi-Strauss has described it In an tile aleady cited, the eret anthropologist explains how a stectoral ‘alysis ofthe Epos myth revels ha i deals With 3 fundamental con: tration inthe worldview ofthe society in which the myth arose: the inabliyto decide whether mans bor fom tho earth rom the union of ‘male and ferale* Sructral analysis reveals tha the mt "Yhink nthe ese that it resolves the contains ofthe past. ort be germane pd here we reiterate a principle ahead ad down ~ ths analysis must te founded onthe flest possible knowledge of the context i Which the nth unfolds, In ctber wae co understand its meaning, one mus examine Tor highly fictional erry works sch as the legendary spas, idsolog- ical sy is ofimtrest because, given thei nies relaonship with el ity, these works ean paradoxically speak of idolony more dee than ‘more "eaistie”Ierature ee, and they ea pve wt secess to things that ‘terwise would min anspoken in tht seit. Tete age contradictions iretween what canbe spoken in a svity and What is experianced o what ‘near has elle the polities unconscious. ™®'The late is that which Sey repretes, bat which find expression in esonal ieratr: inden. the eahartc effect of ftion mikes in out forthe political uncon: “si Se “he Sr Son Sci eg cy Ace! ee a Ug Harve Pre Su, Een 18) (Gray ‘tc mtn se meme apy Prin 1), hee en we Eige Seaedar mts Gee Sib nd ey ise ee ‘ot vice hess Lr ese aw ‘steeper eer he: eT i mins Rare Sno 2 1 Methodsigia action In the course of this study. ¥ shall have oceasion to dea with this lwkconscious in varons lgsndary sags, aligning thir themes with wht ‘ne ei find out trough ther sources abou the tensions inherent in thi Keenthentry Teelindic society. Moreover aball attempt to demon ‘oe that purely fictional Irate, being easier Yo sayz, cam hep ws Incover the fundamental tension at wosk in eter Kinds of apes, espe Wolly the leslndi amily sagas, which, piven the peoximity of th hae Ilr to the mien oftheir shor, connot lt these tensions app 40 twentyIIL. The Origin of the Legendary Sagas and the Advent of Fiction in Iceland aint pen of he fis of fe ge sagas ‘av toon win ts bearer of ets gee coertog the prensa cane ere. Thevsere al als wi he ‘cite csiergte roronr pesbleapoatn re ie ee ‘ley ogee ing os seo bay Ton tet mdr conto ving peace it woot {Stn atts ea es era and se inporet lo evi ih he rChisn ps ih in ene el nd in Selon The a nth gn of mira ciate hs gon ferro et ste sh piss pr Ui wot Scoops ed re ems ay cons pray te lo ar ants wb eu ont norm a ke tac lene tenn somes vars tno ewes Be Sc treo teen Beh ey lp fo eo per Te ferme con ie tn for a he ues xl hve cael of sway cia Hs rt ck 3 rt pap Novas eon Toe ner omb oe usar at col eee fom de a ure common all ws Chto ding ved qunon es ah ‘real question about the origins of this Secrenes netic howe in ea ee sot ap ns ma ee ae dy oe trepelem unieahenip tania ape Sime paterc balisciel i Ganag ay oat ape ‘eres of meen ey sow ti otal tors Honcho tong gar atm dr So see tes sn ewerreat a it cua a cad “at wry te eo pn i 1 hoy ot phn ep a hh ok pce a es suiat ne wcthto eneeaa Gooey sonra rab pea bea “ The Origin ofthe Legendary Saat and ih Acvew of Fiction in clad ‘elandic culture comemporsneows with the composition of thi "ee explanations must be ought 1. Socio-historical Conditions therefore necessary to atack fom aiferet angle —one that cn inte atthe finding ofthe fst wo approaches wile surrcantng thei con. tions. This tid approach wl ue nto the mouves athe people ho gave birt wo this iterate ~ orn ether word, ino in Itrena's Involvement with soca elationstips in medieval olan. In his view. one must bear in mind teat three diferent phenomena it ‘we wishes to understand the spectacular development of kelnue ere, {uo Fist to be mentioned isthe tively profusion of orl raion harkng Iwek toa time before the conversion to Christianity in Teeland a the Ines the etme took in these traditions: and then. of couse, the ween ve transplantation ofthe leamed culture (un conveyed primarily by the Church Finally ~ and ofthe thse this the most important phenomenon ~ comes the fact that for politcal and Wrolozcal reasons, this Bteratre was very wef tothe cial clase wer at this time in ela, What need of it had hey? Fist show the nobility of ter ineage this erst told about tir aristocratic ancestors ant esblshed a gennlony tina them Scions of kings. Thea, to jusiy holding lands ante ght W command and jig: this erature described how the leelndic ches ‘estors, possessors of royal blood, came to stein Ielan, how they lok posession ofthe land and the right to command in thirteen, ‘he third reason shat the Ielanic ling cans wished to imitate he are Itsrtc easioms that Aourished elsewhere in Europe. This ant phnotne Non is related wa broader movereat which may Be seen at work among the dominant social class in twelfth and thiteenth-centery Tela te sy was impel by the desire to intapate ise wth medieval Cristom hn while proving, wo itself es wells others the nobility of ts nese, a! while adopting astocruic Continental modes of ie and thought fps nh wicca wen te hc tap eae nee (ren ire i oh keweRnat i gaees Ree 4s