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Britain
Britain had settlements or colonies in the Gambia (abandoned but
reoccupied in 1815),'Sierra Leone (founded in 1787 and made a
crown colony in 1808), the Gold Coast (the southern states had
been declared a Crown colony in 1874) and Lagos (annexed as a
Crown colony in 1861). In the Oil Rivers, Britain wielded
supreme influence through the activities of her traders and
missionaries, but had not as yet established a claim over the area.
France
The French had settlements in Senegal St. Louis and Goree which
they re-occupied in 1817. In 1857, they founded Dakar. During
Faidherbes administration, they expanded inland along the
Senegal valley, while the states of Futa Toro and Cayor were
annexed to the colony.
On the Ivory Coast, they had established themselves by treaties
with African chiefs at Grand Bassam and Assini in 1842 and had a
military fort at Dabou. They also had a trading station at Whydah
and in the 1860s, they obtained several other posts on the
Dahomean coast, and declared a protectorate over Porto Novo in
1863 and Cotonou in 1868. She also held a naval station at Gabon
where she founded a settlement of liberated Africans at Libreville.
This was the position before 1880.
French Attitude towards her settlements: Apart from the period
of Faidherbe in the Senegal (1854-65), France did not show much
enthusiasm in colonial expansion in West Africa in the 19th
century until after 1879. The reason for this was that France could
not achieve political stability before 1879 as a result of the
aftermath of the French Revolution. Her post-revolution
governments could not secure consistent support for a policy
favouring colonial expansion. The brief enthusiasm which
Faidherbes activities in the Senegal inspired faded out following
the disastrous defeat of France by Germany in the 1870-71 war.
The period 1870-79 was one of great uncertainty and Frances
main pre-occupation during this decade was the recovery of
Alsace-Lorraine lost during the Franco-German war and colonial
expansion was out of the question until 1879 when colonial
conflicts came to appear as an aspect of European rivalries.
Between 1880 and 1900 however, all West Africa with the
exception of Liberia had been shared among European powers.
We shall now look at the causes which precipitated the scramble
for and partition of West Africa during these two decades of the
19th century. But before this, let us see what delayed the scramble
till 1880.
Economic Factors
The first major economic factor was the Industrial Revolution in
Europe. It influenced the scramble because it created the need for
new markets for the sale of surplus manufactured goods and for
the purchase of raw materials. Indeed as the Industrial Revolution
spread from (England to France, Germany, Russia and later Italy
during the second half of the 19th century; each country began to
produce more goods than she needed locally. The need therefore
arose for new markets for the disposal of the surplus goods. The
possession of colonies in Africa seemed to offer a solution to the
problem:
Similarly, the competition for raw materials for their industries
intensified the scramble for African colonies to serve as sources of
supply. Englands pre-eminent position in industry seemed to
confirm the need for the possession of African markets, for other
European powers notably France and Germany felt that England
owed her industrial supremacy to her control of the external trade
of her African settlements.
The Industrial Revolution also influenced the scramble in another
way by creating the need for the investment of surplus capital.
As the Industrial Revolution led to the accumulation" of much
profit in these European countries, the need arose for new areas
where the surplus capital could be more profitably invested. The
possession of colonies in Africa seemed to offer opportunities for
investment, hence the scramble.
The influence of the Industrial Revolution upon the scramble is
evident in the words of Jules Ferry the French Prime Minister
(1879-1883) who said/Colonial policy is the daughter of
industrial policy. European consumption is saturated; it is
necessary to. raise new masses of consumers in other parts of the
globe, else we shall put modem society into bankruptcy and
prepare for the dawn of the 20th century a cataclysmic social
liquidation of which one cannot calculate the consequences.
Again, he said, Colonies are for rich countries one of the most
lucrative methods of investing capital. J. A. Hobson in his book
Imperialism published in 1902 maintained that the objective of
imperial expansion is commercial profit.
A second economic factor that influenced the scramble was
pressure from European merchants and trading companies in West
Africa upon their home governments to give them protection.
Such trading firms as the Liverpool merchants in the Oil Rivers,
the Royal Niger Company in the Niger territories, and the French
trading house of Regis on the coast of Dahomey often called upon
their home governments to give .them protection against hostile
African middlemen or the arbitrary, exactions of African chiefs,
and to provide peaceful conditions for trade by extending their
political control over African states.
Although, the Governments continued to resist this pressure from
mercantile interests for long because of financial considerations,
by the 1870s onwards, public opinion was adding weight to this
pressure and Governments could no longer continue to resist
especially when men like Britains Palmerston had declared, It is
the business of Government to open and secure the roads for the
merchant. In Germany, it was the German Colonial Society
(founded in' 1884 by mercantile interests) that brought pressure
upon Bismarck to join the race for colonies in Africa.
A third economic factor .was the prospect for the discovery of
large mineral deposits in West Africa. This quest for minerals
owed its origin to the discovery in 1886 of the largest gold
deposits in the world in the Rand in South Africa. Thereupon,
rumours went afloat of large deposits of copper in Katanga and
other minerals in various parts of Africa. So there was a race by
European nations to carve out territories for themselves in Africa
in order to control the undiscovered mineral wealth of such
territories.
Political Factors
Some have even argued that the political factors played a more
important role in precipitating the scramble than the economic
factors.
One of these political factors was the influence which
contemporary European rivalries had on the scramble. Surely, the
competition for African territories among European powers
between 1880 and 1900 was to some extent an extension of their
international rivalry and struggle for power and supremacy in
Europe.
France had lost Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in the Franco-
German war of 1870-71. After achieving political stability in
1879, France under Jules Ferry began to look upon Africa for
colonies to .substitute her losses in Europe.
Germany was at first not keen on colonisation of African
territories. Later however, she joined the scramble because her
nationals did not want to be left out in the race for colonies. So in
1884 Bismarck declared protectorates over Togoland and
cameroon
Britain had before 1880 been content in creating spheres of
influence on the West Coast. She joined the scramble for reasons
of prestige because she felt that French and German activities
were a threat and a challenge to her dominant position on the West
Coast. In the Niger territories for instance, the French tried to sign
a treaty with Bonny; the Germans attempted to secure a treaty
with,-the Sultan of Sokoto and Emir of Gwandu; and in 1885,
Germany actually declared a protectorate over Mahim Beach near
Lagos. Although, these threats were forestalled, they had the effect
of whipping reluctant Britain into action, hence the rush for
treaties with African rulers by her Consuls and traders during this
period.
A second political factor was King Leopolds occupation of the
Congo. It is generally believed that King Leopold II of Belgium
sparked off the scramble by his activities in the Congo. In 1879,
he had sent out the explorer Stanley to prepare the wav for his
occupation of the Congo by concluding treaties with the rulers.
Says A. J- Hanna, Manoeuvring carefully behind a screen of
philanthropy, internationalism, and desire to promote scientific
discovery, he made his way, step by step. from the information of
the African International Association in 1876 to the proclamation
of The Independent State of the Congo, with himself as
Sovereign in 1885 it was to counter Leopolds activities in the
Congo and protect French interests in the Gabon that Jules Ferry
despatched de Brazza in the same year (1879) to secure by treaties
with African rulers the north bank of the Congo for France. The
scramble thus, began with the arrival of Stanley and de Brazza in
the Congo in 1879.
The activities of these two powers had international repercussions
for they alarmed Britain and Portugal, the latter having had
hitherto an exclusive influence over the Lower Congo. To forestall
Leopold and France, Britain recognised Portugals claim to the
region, and sent Hewett to declare a protectorate over the lower
Niger districts.
A third political factor similar to the above, namely, the, British
occupation of Egypt in 1882 also helped to speed up the scramble
even in West Africa. Up till 1882, Egypt had been under the
French sphere of influence. The motives behind the British
occupation cannot be discussed here, but suffice it to say that her
action had the effect of annoying France into trying to strike a
blow at Britain in Egypt by linking up her colonies of Senegal in
the west, Somaliland in the east,, and Algeria and Tunisia in the
north. This, they hoped, would give them the control of the upper
Nile to the discomfiture of Britain in the lower Nile in Egypt. This
explains the speed with which the French occupied the Sudan and
central Africa during this period.
The Berlin West African Conference of 1884-5 was a fourth
-Political factor that influenced the scramble. By giving legal
recognition to the European occupation of territories in West
Africa, and by laying down the conditions for such occupation 11
encouraged the scramble and partition of West Africa. It did
Create the feeling among the European powers particularly Britain
France that speed was necessary in the scramble. We shall say
more about this Conference later in this Chapter.
Finally, the growth of nationalism in Europe was a political factor
that influenced the scramble. The second half of the 19th century
saw European nationalism at its peak just as the second half of the
20th century saw the apogee of African nationalism. One way by
which this intense national feeling expressed itself was the urge
for imperial acquisitions. The possession of colonies overseas
became a matter of prestige for European powers and of great
honour to their nationals who helped in acquiring such colonies. In
the words of a French national in 1882, Colonisation is for France
a question of life and death; either France will become a great
African power or she will be no more than a secondary European
power. National prestige and economic interests were the driving
force responsible for the imperial activities of men like Goldie.
Lueard. Harry Johnston of Britain, Nachtigal and Dr. Kaarl Peters
of Germany. Biere,delIsle and J. S. Gallieni of France.
Social Factors
The scramble was not motivated by the desire for economic and
political gain only. There were many people in Europe who
supported the scramble and partition of Africa for purely
humanitarian reasons. The fact was that the reports of explorers
and missionaries had aroused a new interest in the continent of
Africa. -Many humanitarian-minded people therefore urged their
Governments to colonise parts of Africa so that the internal slave
trade could finally be wiped out there and-the material and
spiritual benefits of European civilisation extended to African
peoples.
Secondly, social conditions in Europe resulting from the growth of
the Industrial Revolution played some part in the race for colonies.
-The Industrial Revolution had produced a situation in which
many people became unemployed. For as more and more
machines were invented and put into use, more and more workers
were displaced in industry. By the 1870s, there were over a
million paupers in Britain alone. The situation was even worse in
France, Germany and Italy. It was partly to solve this problem of
mass unemployment that me acquisition of colonies for settling
the surplus population was embarked upon. We find such
settlements in South, Central, East and North Africa by various
European powers, but thanks to the mosquito with its deadly
malaria fever, West Africa was spared the scourge of similar
European settlements.
Finally, some racial theories prevailing in Europe at this time did
have some effect on the scramble and partition. The theory that
Europeans were superior to all other races especially Africans and
so had a divine mission to rule them was propounded by many
'European writers. Although this was an absurd theory with no
basis m truth, it did fire the zeal of many European empire-
builders in Africa.
Political Factors
One political factor which contributed to their success was
European diplomacy which showed itself in the treaty-method -of
acquiring African territories. By means of treaties, African rulers
were made to place their states under the protection of one
European power or the other. But most of the rulers were illiterate
and hardly understood the contents of the papers upon which they
put their thumb-prints, more especially as these treaties were often
written in the language of the protecting powers. African rulers
soon learnt to their regret that they had in those treaties signed
away their sovereignty to the so-called protecting powers, for
these treaties were often used by the latter as a pretext for
deposing African monarchs who opposed their imperialist designs
and establishing European control.. This is evident in the cases of
Jaja of Opobo, Nana the Itsekiri chief and Prempeh I of Ghana to
name just a few.
Again, contemporary political situation in most African states
were exploited by European powers to establish their control.
Disputes over succession to the chieftaincy which were common;
resentment of conquered peoples against their African overlords;
and wars between African states were exploited by colonial
powers to interfere in the affairs of those states, and eventually to
establish their control over them. For instance where there was a
disputed succession, a rival candidate did not scruple to invite
European assistance to achieve his end. European officials often
used opportunities to place on the throne a candidate of their
choice who became their puppet. The French did this in Dahomey
and the British in Nupe in Nigeria. Again, the subject peoples of
Ahmads Tukolor empire and Samoris Mandinka empire, went
into alliance with the French invaders against their imperialist
overlords. Similarly, where there was inter-state way, one group
sought European alliance if only to gain ascendancy. In Nigeria,
Ibadan allied with the British against Ijebu with which she was at
war. In the Gold Coast, the Fante allied with the British against
Asante their traditional enemy.
Another political factor was absence of the spirit of nationalism in
most contemporary African states. If this spirit had been
developed, the peoples of most West African states would have
risen like one man in defence of their states as could be seen in the
strong and prolonged resistance of the people of Ivory Coast,
Dahomey and Asante which had come close to the development of
the spirit of incipient nationalism. Apart from these, the peoples of
most West African states were still individualistic in their attitude
towards their states interests and therefore could not easily unite
for organised and long resistance. It is not surprising therefore that
once they were assured of their personal freedom by the
occupying European power, they gave up fighting in defence of
their states. Similarly, West African peoples of the 19th century
lacked the feeling of a common race which could have generated
inter-state alliances against the European invaders. In contrast to
this, the European invaders from different nations regarded
themselves as a people of one race, and this realisation prevented
their scramble for African territories from developing into wars
between them.
Military Factors
These played the most crucial role in the European success.
First, African states were in general militarily weak Their armies
were no match to the well-trained, disciplined and better-armed
colonial armies. It is significant that Samori with 4000 men could
hardly resist the French general Desbordes with only 250 men
equipped with repeater rifles and machine-guns. The machinegun
(Maxim or Gatling) inspired such fear of and respect for
Europeans that many African peoples submitted without much
resistance. Military weakness of West African, states therefore...
gave the European mvaderTremendous advantage.
" Military weakness of West African states was "aggravated by
another factor lack of natural defensive barriers such as mountains
and deserts which could have been of immense advantage in a war
of resistance. For most parts of West Africa lie in the savannah
belt which presented no difficulties to the movement of the
invading European troops. In the south, the 'forest belt offered
little protection to the people who were poorly armed and were
easily over-awed in their forest hideouts with the sounds of rifles
and machine-guns, and so submitted.
Economic Factors
These added to the military weakness. Most West African states
were in the 19th century and still are dependent upon an
agricultural economy. They therefore lacked the necessary
resources to finance a total war. .In this regard, they could not
compete-with the industrialized nations of Europe which
manufactured their-own arms and ammunitions, while African
states depended upon export of agricultural produce or slaves for
the purchase of their own arms needs.' It is not surprising that in
the age of partition, European governments strictly restricted the
importation of arms into West Africa to prevent such arms being
used against them.
Moreover, most West African states were small in size and
population in comparison with their European counterparts and
therefore had not adequate manpower resources to resist European
advance for long. The majority of the citizens were farmers and
any attempt to draft "a large proportion of the male population into
the army naturally led to famine.
Social: From the social viewpoint, the partition has been very
beneficial to West Africa. First, it finally laid to rest the evil ghost
of the internal slave trade and slavery. In Nigeria, for instance,
when the British Government took over the administration of
Northern Nigeria from the Royal Niger Company in 1900, one of
the first laws it made for the protectorate was the Slave-dealing
Proclamation of 1901 which abolished the legal status of slavery,
prohibited slave-dealing and declared all children born after 1st
April 1901 to be free. In 1902, an expedition destroyed the Long
Juju of Aro Chukwu in Eastern Nigeria where slave-dealing was
still going on. In this way this evil practice which had for many
centuries laid waste large parts of West Africa was brought to an
end.
Secondly, in the fields of health and education. West Africa has
gained enormously by European rule. Europeans have brought
scientific methods of healing and preventing diseases through the
establishment of hospitals and dispensaries, and through
inoculation and vaccination. Attention has been given to research
in tropical diseases. In 1896, the French established the Pasteur
Institute in Dakar while the British opened' schools for-Tropical
Medicine at Liverpool and London in 1899. Even though medical
facilities were grossly inadequate in all West African countries, the
foundations for future development had been laid. The greatest
contribution of the colonial powers was perhaps the introduction
of Western education into West Africa. It is needless repeating
here how West Africa has benefited from this Western education.
The adoption of French or English (the two main vehicles for the
spread of this education in West Africa) has helped West Africans
not only to communicate with other peoples of the world but also
with their fellow African peoples.
Thirdly, the establishment and development of towns or urban
communities was another contribution of the colonial powers in
the social sphere Such towns as Dakar, Abidjan, Accra and Port
Harcourt owe their origin to the partitioning powers, while such
traditional towns as Lagos, Kano, Kumasi and Wagadugu owe
their development to the activities of the colonial governments.
The impact of these urban centres upon the social, economic and
political life of West African states has been tremendous.
Conclusion
From the foregoing, it is clear that West Africa lost a great deal as
well as gained much by the European partition and the subsequent
imposition of European rule upon its peoples. Whether West
Africa lost more than she gained or vice versa is an interesting
topic for debate.
Again, the partition pulled West Africa on to the stage of world
history. In its wake came new currents of thought and
technological skills. The question now is could West Africa, left to
herself, have assimilated these western influences without the
partition? Historians hold opposing views. Rooney and Halladay
in The Building of Modem Africa' say, It is certain that if Africa
had been left to herself, sooner or later, she would have
assimilated Western influence in a way suited to her own
particular genius. But in many respects, especially as far as the
political map of the continent is concerned, Africa would have
been very different today.
QUESTIONS
1. Write a brief note on the 1865 Select Committee. To what
extent did its recommendations reflect British attitude towards her
West African settlements before 1880?
2. Why do you think the year 1879 is now generally accepted as
marking the beginning of the real European scramble for West
African territories? ,
3. What were the major causes of the European, scramble for and-
partition of West Africa in the 19th century?
4. What do you understand by the Berlin West African
Conference? Give a brief assessment: of its achievements and
failures.
5. Describe the main features of the partition in West Africa.
6. Write notes on either (a) Jaja of Opobo or (b) Nana the Itsekiri,
and show his significance in West African history in the 19th
century.
7. Discuss the Wars of Resistance in the Ivory Coast (1891 -1918).
8. Why were European powers able to establish their control over
the states of West Africa in the age of partition?
9. Give a concise assessment of the results of the partition on West
Africa.
OR
The imposition of European rule on West African states in the age
of partition was both a bane and a boon. Discuss.