Frequency Response Analysis and Design PDF

Frequency Response
Analysis & Design
Dr. Kevin Craig

Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Frequency Response Analysis & Design K. Craig 1
Frequency Response Analysis & Design
In conventional control-system analysis there are two

basic methods for predicting and adjusting a systems
performance without resorting to the solution of the
systems differential equation. They are:
Root-Locus Method
Frequency-Response Method
For the comprehensive study of a system by
conventional methods it is necessary to use both
methods of analysis.

Root-Locus Method
Precise root locations are known and actual time
response is easily obtained by means of the
inverse Laplace Transform.
Frequency-Response Method
Frequency response is the steady-state response
of a system to a sinusoidal input. In frequency-
response methods, we vary the frequency of the
input signal over a certain range and study the
resulting steady-state response.
The design of feedback control systems in industry
is probably accomplished using frequency-
response methods more often than any other,
primarily because it provides good designs in the
face of uncertainty in the plant model.
Many times performance requirements are given in
terms of frequency response and/or time response.
Noise, which is always present in any system, can
result in poor overall performance. Frequency
response permits analysis with respect to this.
When the transfer function for a component is
unknown, the frequency response can be determined
experimentally and an approximate expression for the
transfer function can be obtained from the graph of the
experimental data.
The Nyquist stability criterion enables one to
investigate both the absolute and relative stabilities of
linear, time-invariant closed-loop systems from a
knowledge of their open-loop frequency-response
characteristics.
Frequency-response tests are, in general, simple
and can be made accurately by readily-available
equipment, e.g., dynamic signal analyzer.
Correlation between frequency and transient
responses is indirect, except for 2nd-order
systems.
In designing a closed-loop system, we adjust the
frequency-response characteristic of the open-
loop transfer function by using several design
criteria in order to obtain acceptable transient-
response characteristics for the system.
It is the easiest method to use for designing
compensation.

Linearity and Time Invariance (LTI)
A frequency-domain transfer function is limited to
describing elements that are linear and time
invariant. These are severe restrictions and virtually
no real-world system fully meets them.
Homogeneity: If the input to a system r(t) generates
an output c(t), then an input kr(t) generates an output
kc(t) for any k.
Superposition: If the input r1(t) generates an output
c1(t), and the input r2(t) generates an output c2(t),
then the input r1(t) + r2(t) generates the output c1(t) +
c2(t).
Time Invariance: If the input r(t) generates an output
c(t), then the input r(t-) generates the output c(t-) for
all > 0.
Homogeneity and Superposition are attributes for
linearity.
No real-world system is completely LTI, however,
for most control systems, components are
designed to be close enough to being LTI that the
non-LTI behavior can be ignored or avoided.
In practice, most control systems are designed to
minimize non-LTI behavior.

For a stable, linear, time-invariant system, the
mathematical model is the linear ODE with constant
coefficients:
dnqo d n 1q o dq o
a n n + a n 1 n 1 + " + a1 + a 0qo =
dt dt dt
d mqi d m 1q i dq i
b m m + b m 1 m 1 + " + b1 + b0qi
dt dt dt
qo is the output (response) variable of the system
qi is the input (excitation) variable of the system
an and bm are the physical parameters of the system

If the input to this system is a sine wave, the steady-state
output (after the transients have died out) is also a sine
wave with the same frequency, but with a different
amplitude and phase angle.
System Input: q i = Qi sin(t)
System Steady-State Output: q o = Qo sin(t + )
Both amplitude ratio, Qo/Qi , and phase angle, , change
with frequency, .
The frequency response can be determined analytically
from the Laplace transfer function:
G(s) s = i Sinusoidal M()()

Transfer Function

A negative phase angle is called phase lag, and a
positive phase angle is called phase lead.
If the system being excited were a nonlinear or time-
varying system, the output might contain frequencies
other than the input frequency and the output-input
ratio might be dependent on the input magnitude.
Any real-world device or process will only need to
function properly for a certain range of frequencies;
outside this range we dont care what happens.

System
Frequency
Response

When one has the frequency-response curves for any
system and is given a specific sinusoidal input, it is an
easy calculation to get the sinusoidal output.
What is not obvious, but extremely important, is that
the frequency-response curves are really a complete
description of the systems dynamic behavior and
allow one to compute the response for any input, not
just sine waves.
Every dynamic signal has a frequency spectrum and if
we can compute this spectrum and properly combine it
with the systems frequency response, we can
calculate the system time response.

The details of this procedure depend on the nature of
the input signal; is it periodic, transient, or random?
For periodic signals (those that repeat themselves
over and over in a definite cycle), Fourier Series is
the mathematical tool needed to solve the response
problem.
Although a single sine wave is an adequate model of
some real-world input signals, the generic periodic
signal fits many more practical situations.
A periodic function qi(t) can be represented by an
infinite series of terms called a Fourier Series.

a0 2 2n 2n
q i ( t ) = + a n cos t + b n sin t
T T n =1 T T
T
2n
2
a n = q i ( t ) cos t dt
T T Fourier

2
T Series
2n
2
b n = q i ( t ) sin t dt
T T

2

q i(t)
Consider the Square Wave 1.5
-0.01 +0.01
t
0 0.01 -0.5
a0 0.5dt + 1.5dt
= 0.01 0
= 0.5 = average value
T 0.02
0 0.01
2n 2n
a n = 0.5cos t dt + 1.5cos t dt = 0
0.01 0.02 0 0.02
0
2n
0.01
2n 1 cos ( n )
b n = 0.5sin t dt + 1.5sin t dt =
0.01 0.02 0 0.02 50n
4 4
q i ( t ) = 0.5 + sin (100t ) + sin ( 300t ) + "
3

The term for n = 1 is called the fundamental or first
harmonic and always has the same frequency as the
repetition rate of the original periodic wave form (50
Hz in this example); whereas n = 2, 3, gives the
second, third, and so forth harmonic frequencies as
integer multiples of the first.
The square wave has only the first, third, fifth, and so
forth harmonics. The more terms used in the series,
the better the fit. An infinite number gives a perfect
fit.

2
1.5
Plot of the
Fourier 1
Series for
the square amplitude
0.5
wave
through 0
the third
harmonic -0.5
-1
-0.01 -0.008 -0.006 -0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
time (sec)
4 4
q i ( t ) = 0.5 + sin (100t ) + sin ( 300t )
3

For a signal of arbitrary periodic shape (rather than
the simple and symmetrical square wave), the
Fourier Series will generally include all the harmonics
and both sine and cosine terms.
We can combine the sine and cosine terms using:
A cos ( t ) + Bsin ( t ) = Csin ( t + )
C = A 2 + B2
A
= tan 1
B
Thus
q i ( t ) = A i0 + A i1 sin ( 1t + 1 ) + A i2 sin ( 21t + 2 ) +"

A graphical display of the amplitudes (Aik) and the
phase angles (k) of the sine waves in the equation
for qi(t) is called the frequency spectrum of qi(t).
If a periodic qi(t) is applied as input to a system with
sinusoidal transfer function G(i), after the transients
have died out, the output qo(t) will be in a periodic
steady-state given by:
q o ( t ) = A o0 + A o1 sin ( 1t + 1 ) + A o2 sin ( 21t + 2 ) + "
A ok = A ik G ( ik )
k = k + G ( ik )
This follows from superposition and the definition of
the sinusoidal transfer function.

Example: Frequency Response of a Lead
Compensator Ts + 1
D (s ) = K <1
Ts + 1
Tj + 1
D ( j ) = K
Tj + 1
( T ) + 1
2
M ( ) = K
( T ) + 1
2
( ) = ( Tj + 1) ( Tj + 1)
= tan 1 ( T) tan 1 ( T)
= 0.1 T = 1 K = 1
What about transient inputs?
The best path to understanding the meaning of M
and is to relate the frequency response G(j) to
the transient responses calculated by the Laplace
transform.
2n
G (s ) = 2
s + 2n s + 2n
Unit Step Response

Phase
Magnitude
Frequency Response Plots

2n
G (s ) = 2
s + 2n s + 2n

What features of the frequency response
correspond to the transient-response
characteristics?
Damping of the system can be determined from
the transient response overshoot or from the
peak in the magnitude of the frequency
response.
Rise time can be estimated from bandwidth.
Peak overshoot in the step response can be
estimated from the peak overshoot in the
frequency response.
Thus we see that essentially the same information
is contained in the frequency-response curve as is
found in the transient-response curve.

Review of Frequency-Response
Performance Specifications
Let V be a sine wave (U = 0) and wait for transients

to die out.
Every signal will be a sine wave of the same
frequency. We can then speak of amplitude ratios
and phase angles between various pairs of signals.
C AG1G 2 (i)
(i) =
V 1 + G1G 2 H(i)

The most important pair involves V and C. Ideally
(C/V)(iw) = 1.0 for all frequencies.
Amplitude ratio and phase angle will approximate the
ideal values of 1.0 and 0 degrees for some range of
low frequencies, but will deviate at higher
frequencies.

Typical Closed-Loop
Frequency-Response
Curves
As noise is generally in a
band of frequencies above
the dominant frequency
band of the true signal,
feedback control systems
are designed to have a
definite passband in order
to reproduce the true
signal and attenuate noise.
The frequency at which a resonant peak occurs, r, is a
speed-of-response criterion. The higher r, the faster the
system response.
The peak amplitude ratio, Mp, is a relative-stability
criterion. The higher the peak, the poorer the relative
stability. If no specific requirements are pushing the
designer in one direction or the other, Mp = 1.3 is often
used as a compromise between speed and stability.
For systems that exhibit no peak, the bandwidth is used
for a speed of response specification. The bandwidth is
the frequency at which the amplitude ratio has dropped to
0.707 times its zero-frequency value. It can of course be
specified even if there is a peak. It is the maximum
frequency at which the output of a system will
satisfactorily track an input sinusoid.

If we set V = 0 and let U be a sine wave, we can
measure or calculate (C/U)(i) which should ideally
be 0 for all frequencies. A real system cannot
achieve this perfection but will behave typically as
shown.
Closed-Loop Frequency Response to a Disturbance Input

Two open-loop performance criteria in common use to
specify relative stability are gain margin and phase
margin.
The open-loop frequency response is defined as
(B/E)(i). One could open the loop by removing the
summing junction at R, B, E and just input a sine wave at
E and measure the response at B. This is valid since
(B/E)(i) = G1G2H(i). Open-loop experimental testing
has the advantage that open-loop systems are rarely
absolutely unstable, thus there is little danger of starting
up an untried apparatus and having destructive
oscillations occur before it can be safely shut down.
The utility of open-loop frequency-response rests on the
Nyquist stability criterion.

Gain margin (GM) and phase margin (PM) are in the
nature of safety factors such that (B/E)(i) stays far
enough away from 1 -180 on the stable side.
Gain margin is the multiplying factor by which the
steady-state gain of (B/E)(i) could be increased
(nothing else in (B/E)(i) being changed) so as to put
the system on the edge of instability, i.e., (B/E)(i))
passes exactly through the -1 point. This is called
marginal stability.
Phase margin is the number of degrees of additional
phase lag (nothing else being changed) required to
create marginal stability.
Both a good gain margin and a good phase margin
are needed; neither is sufficient by itself.

Open-Loop Performance Criteria:
Gain Margin and Phase Margin
A system must have adequate stability margins.
are needed.
Useful lower bounds:
GM > 2.5 PM > 30

Bode Plot View of

It is important to realize that, because of model
uncertainties, it is not merely sufficient for a system to be
stable, but rather it must have adequate stability
margins.
Stable systems with low stability margins work only on
paper; when implemented in real time, they are
frequently unstable.
The way uncertainty has been quantified in classical
control is to assume that either gain changes or phase
changes occur. Typically, systems are destabilized
when either gain exceeds certain limits or if there is too
much phase lag (i.e., negative phase associated with
unmodeled poles or time delays).
As we have seen these tolerances of gain or phase
uncertainty are the gain margin and phase margin.
Frequency-Response Curves
The sinusoidal transfer function, a complex function
of the frequency , is characterized by its magnitude
and phase angle, with frequency as the parameter.
There are three commonly used representations of
sinusoidal transfer functions:
Bode diagram or logarithmic plot: magnitude of
output-input ratio vs. frequency and phase angle
vs. frequency
Nyquist plot or polar plot: output-input ratio plotted
in polar coordinates with frequency as the
parameter
Log-magnitude vs. phase plot (Nichols Diagram)
Bode Diagrams
Advantages of Logarithmic Plots:
Rapid manual graphing is possible.
Wide ranges of amplitude ratio and frequency, both
low and high, are conveniently displayed.
Amplitude ratio exhibits straight-line asymptote
regions of definite slope. These are helpful in
identifying model type from experimental data.
Complex transfer functions are easily plotted and
understood as graphical sums of simple (zero-order,
1st-order, 2nd-order) basic systems since the dB
(logarithmic) technique changes multiplication into
addition and division into subtraction.
IEEE
Control
Systems
Magazine
June 2007

A sinusoidal transfer function may be represented by two
separate plots:
Magnitude (dB) vs. frequency (log10)
Phase angle (degrees) vs. frequency (log10)
The log magnitude (Lm) of a transfer function in dB
(decibel) is: 20 log10 G ( i)
Frequency Bands:
Octave
An octave is a frequency band from f1 to f2 where
f2/f1 = 2. f2
= 2x where x = # of octaves
Decade f1
A decade is a frequency band from f1 to f2 where
f2/f1 = 10. f 2
= 10 x where x = # of decades
f1
As a number doubles, the dB value increases by 6
dB.
As a number increases by a factor of 10, the dB
value increases by 20 dB.
0.01 = 40 dB
0.1 = 20 dB
Note that, when expressed in dB, 0.5 = 6 dB
the reciprocal of a number differs 1.0 = 0 dB
from its value only in sign. 2.0 = 6 dB
10.0 = 20 dB
100.0 = 40 dB
Generalized Form of the Sinusoidal Transfer
K (1 + iT1 )(1 + iT2 )
r
Function:
G ( i ) =
2 1 2
( i ) (1 + iT3 ) 1 + i + 2 ( i)
m
n n
The log magnitude (Lm) of G(i) is given by:
Lm G ( i) = Lm [ K ] + Lm [1 + iT1 ] + ( r ) Lm [1 + iT2 ]
2 1 2
( m ) Lm [i] Lm [1 + iT3 ] Lm 1 + i + 2 ( i)
n n
The phase angle is given by:
G ( i) = K + (1 + iT1 ) + ( r ) (1 + iT2 )
2 1 2
( m ) ( i) (1 + iT3 ) 1 + i + 2 ( i)
n n
Both the log magnitude and angle are functions of

frequency.

When the log magnitude and angle are plotted as
functions of log10(), the resulting curves are referred
to as Bode Plots.
These two curves can be combined into a single
curve of log magnitude vs. angle with frequency as
the parameter. This curve is called the Nichols
Diagram.
Drawing Bode Plots
The generalized form of a transfer function shows
that the numerator and denominator have 4 basic
types of factors:
p
2 1 2
( i ) (1+iT ) 1 + i + 2 ( i)
m r
K
n n

The curves of log magnitude and angle vs. log10()
can be drawn for each factor. Then these curves can
be added together graphically to get the curves for
the complete transfer function. Asymptotic
approximations to these curves are normally used.
Gain K (positive) Lm [ K ] = 20 log10 ( K ) = constant
K = 0
Integral and derivative factors (i) m
Lm ( i) = m20 log10 i = m20 log10 ( )
m

( i) = m ( 90 ) = constant
m

The log magnitude curve is a straight line with a
slope m(20) dB/decade = m(6) dB/octave when
plotted against log(). It goes through the point 0
dB at = 1.
K(j)n is the only class of term that affects the
slope at the lowest frequency because all other
terms are constant in that region.
1st-Order Factors (1 + iT) 1
Lm (1 + iT ) = 20log10 1 + iT
1

= 20log10 1 + 2 T 2
(1 + iT ) = tan 1 ( T )
0 dB for T << 1
1

20log10 ( T ) for T >> 1
< 1/T: straight-line asymptote with zero slope
> 1/T: straight-line asymptote with 20 dB/decade slope
= 1/T: exact value is 3.01 dB
cf = corner frequency = 1/T = frequency at which the
asymptotes to the log magnitude curve intersect
Phase angle straight-line asymptotes: 0 at < 0.1cf, 45 at
= cf, 90 at > 10cf
Angle curve is symmetrical about cf when plotted vs. log10()

G(j) = 10j + 1

Bode Plotting of
1st-Order
Frequency
Response
Note that varying the

time constant shifts the
corner frequency to the
left or to the right, but
the shapes of the curves
remain the same. dB = 20 log10 (amplitude ratio)
decade = 10 to 1 frequency change
octave = 2 to 1 frequency change
For the case where the exponent of the first-order term is r,
the corner frequency is unchanged, and the asymptotes are
still straight lines: the low-frequency asymptote is a horizontal
line at 0 dB, while the high-frequency asymptote has a slope
of (20)r dB/decade. The error involved in the asymptotic
expressions is r times that for (1 + iT)1. The phase angle is
r times that of (1 + iT)1 at each frequency point.
1
2 1 2
2nd-Order Factors 1 + i + 2 ( i)
n n
For > 1, the quadratic can be factored into two 1st-order
factors with real poles which can be plotted as described for
a 1st-order factor.
For 0 < < 1, the quadratic is plotted without factoring, as it is
the product of two complex-conjugate factors.

1
1
2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2
Lm 1 + i + 2 ( i ) = 20log10 1 2 +
n n
n n

2
1
2 1 2 2
1 + i + 2 ( i ) = tan 1 n
n n 2
1 2
n
For << n: the log magnitude 0 dB
For >> n: the log magnitude 40 log10 (/n) dB
The low-frequency asymptote is a horizontal line at 0 dB.
The high-frequency asymptote is a straight line with a slope of
40 dB/decade.
The asymptotes, which are independent of , cross at cf = n.
These are not accurate for a factor with low values of .
Phase angle: 0 at = 0, 90 at = n, 180 at =

Frequency Response
of a
2nd-Order System
Note: The plots shown are
for a 2nd-order term with an
exponent of 1. For a 2nd-
order term with an exponent
of +1, the magnitudes of the
log magnitude and phase
angle are the same except
with a sign change.

Some Observations on 1st-Order Factors
Time Constant
Time it takes the step response to reach 63%
of the steady-state value
Rise Time Tr = 2.2
Time it takes the step response to go from 10%
to 90% of the steady-state value
Delay Time Td = 0.69
Time it takes the step response to reach 50%
of the steady-state value

Some Observations on 2nd-Order Factors
When a physical system exhibits a natural
oscillatory behavior, a 1st-order model (or even a
cascade of several 1st-order models) cannot
provide the desired response. The simplest model
that does possess that possibility is the 2nd-order
dynamic system model.
This system is very important in control design.
System specifications are often given assuming
that the system is 2nd order.
For higher-order systems, we can often use
dominant pole techniques to approximate the
system with a 2nd-order transfer function.

Damping ratio clearly controls oscillation; < 1 is
required for oscillatory behavior.
The undamped case ( = 0) is not physically realizable
(total absence of energy loss effects) but gives us,
mathematically, a sustained oscillation at frequency n.
Natural oscillations of damped systems are at the
damped natural frequency d, and not at n.
d = n 1 2
In hardware design, an optimum value of = 0.64 is
often used to give maximum response speed without
excessive oscillation.
Undamped natural frequency n is the major factor in
response speed. For a given response speed is
directly proportional to n.
Thus, when 2nd-order components are used in
feedback system design, large values of n (small
lags) are desirable since they allow the use of
larger loop gain before stability limits are
encountered.
For frequency response, a resonant peak occurs
for < 0.707. The peak frequency is p and the
peak amplitude ratio depends only on .
K
p = n 1 2 2
peak amplitude ratio =
2 1 2
At = n, the amplitude ratio is 1/2 and the phase
is -90.
The phase angle at the frequency where the
resonant peak occurs is given by: 1 2 2
p = tan 1

Bandwidth
The bandwidth is the frequency where the amplitude ratio
drops by a factor of 0.707 = -3dB of its gain at zero or low-
frequency.
For a 1st-order system, the bandwidth is equal to 1/.
The larger (smaller) the bandwidth, the faster (slower) the
step response.
Bandwidth is a direct measure of system susceptibility to
noise, as well as an indicator of the system speed of
response.
For a 2nd-order system:
BW = n 1 2 2 + 2 4 2 + 4 4
As varies from 0 to 1, BW varies from 1.55n to 0.64n.
For a value of = 0.707, BW = n. For most design
considerations, we assume that the bandwidth of a 2nd-
order all pole system can be approximated by n.

2n
G (s ) =
PM s ( s + 2n )

100 2n
T (s ) = 2
s + 2n s + n2
2n
G (s ) =
s ( s + 2n )
2n
T (s ) = 2
s + 2n s + n2
Note: In practice, Mr is rarely used; most designers

2 prefer to use PM to specify the damping because
PM = tan 1 imperfections that make systems nonlinear or cause
1 + 4 4 2 2 delays usually erode phase more significantly than
magnitude.
Closed-Loop Bandwidth with respect to PM
for a 2nd-Order System
KG ( j)
T ( j ) = 1 << c , KG >> c
1 + KG ( j)

Bode Plotting Procedure for Composite Curves:
Rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function as a product of
the four basic factors. p
2 1 2
K ( i ) (1+iT ) 1 + i + 2 ( i)
m r
n n
Determine the value of 20log10(K) = Lm(K) dB
Plot the low-frequency magnitude asymptote through
the point Lm(K) at = 1 with a slope 20(m) dB per
decade.
Complete the composite magnitude asymptotes
Extend the low-frequency asymptote until the first frequency
break point, then step the slope by r(20) or p(40),
depending on whether the break point is from a 1st-order or
2nd-order term in the numerator or denominator. Continue
through all break points in ascending order.

Sketch in the approximate magnitude curve:
Increase the asymptote value by a factor of +3 dB
at 1st-order numerator break points, and decrease
it by a factor of -3 dB at 1st-order denominator
break points. At 2nd-order break points, sketch in
the resonant peak (or valley) using the relation
that at the break point = n:
1
2 1 2
Lm 1 + i + 2 ( i) = 20log10 ( 2 )
n n
Plot the low-frequency asymptote of the phase
curve, = m(90).
As a guide, sketch in the approximate phase curve
by changing the phase by 90 or 180 at each
break point in ascending order.
Locate the asymptotes for each individual phase
curve so that their phase change corresponds to
the steps in the phase toward or away from the
approximate curve. Sketch in each individual
phase curve as indicated by the detailed phase
plots for the individual terms.
Graphically add each phase curve. Use grids if an
accuracy of about 5 is desired. If less accuracy
is acceptable, the composite curve can be done
by eye. Keep in mind that the curve will start at
the lowest-frequency asymptote and end on the
highest-frequency asymptote and will approach
the intermediate asymptotes to an extent that is
determined by how close the break points are to
each other.
Bode Plotting Examples
s i
2 + 1 2 + 1
2000 ( s + 0.5 ) 0.5 0.5
= =
s ( s + 10 )( s + 50 ) s s i i
s + 1 + 1 i + 1 + 1
10 50 10 50
10 2.5
=
s ( s + 0.4s + 4 )
2
s 2 0.2
s + s + 1
4 2
0.01( s 2 + 0.01s + 1)
s 2
0.02
s +
2
s + 1
4 2

s i
2 + 1 2 + 1
2000 ( s + 0.5 ) 0.5 0.5
= =
s ( s + 10 )( s + 50 ) s s i i
s + 1 + 1 i + 1 + 1
10 50 10 50
s
2 + 1
2000 ( s + 0.5 ) 0.5
=
s ( s + 10 )( s + 50 ) s s
s + 1 + 1
10 50
10 2.5
=
s ( s + 0.4s + 4 )
2
s 2 0.2
s + s + 1
4 2

0.01( s 2 + 0.01s + 1)
s 2
0.02
s +
2
s + 1
4 2

12 s s
More Bode ( s + 2 )( s + 6 ) + 1 + 1
50 2 6
Plotting L (s ) = =
s ( s + 1)( s + 5 )( s + 10 ) s s
s ( s + 1) + 1 + 1
Examples 5 10

8 s s
2
+ + 1
( s 2
+ 2s + 8 ) 10 2 2 4
L (s ) = =
s (s 2
+ 2s + 10 ) s 2 s
s + 5 + 1
10

3 s
( s + 3) + 1
8 3
L (s ) = 2 =
s ( s + 8) s
s 2 + 1
8

2
4 s
( s + 2)
2 + 1
250 2
L (s ) = 2 =
s ( s + 10 ) ( s 2 + 6s + 25 ) s s
2
6
s + 1 + s + 1
2
10 5 25

2 s
s+2 1 + 1
10 2 1
L (s ) = =
s ( s + 10 ) ( s 2 1) s ( s 2 1)
s + 1
10

85 ( s + 1) ( s 2 + 2s + 43.25 )
G (s ) =
s 2 ( s 2 + 2s + 82 )( s 2 + 2s + 101)
85 ( s + 1)( s + 1 6.5j)
=
s 2 ( s + 1 9 j)( s + 1 10 j)
Nyquist Plot
Bode Plots
Advantages of Working with Frequency Response in
terms of Bode Plots:
Bode plots of systems in series simply add, which
is quite convenient.
Bodes important phase-gain relationship is given
in terms of logarithms of phase and gain.
A much wider range of system behavior from
low- to high-frequency behavior can be
displayed.
Bode plots can be determined experimentally.
Dynamic compensator design can be based
entirely on Bode plots.

Why is it important for an engineer to know how to
hand-plot frequency responses?
Allows engineer to deal with simple problems but
also to check computer results for more
complicated cases.
Often approximations can be used to quickly
sketch the frequency response and deduce
stability as well as determine the form of the
needed dynamic compensations.
Hand plotting is useful in interpreting frequency-
response data that have been generated
experimentally.

Minimum-Phase and Nonminimum Phase Systems
Transfer functions having neither poles nor zeros in
the RHP are minimum-phase transfer functions.
Transfer functions having either poles or zeros in the
RHP are nonminimum-phase transfer functions.
For systems with the same magnitude characteristic,
the range in phase angle of the minimum-phase
transfer function is minimum among all such
systems, while the range in phase angle of any
nonminimum-phase transfer function is greater than
this minimum.
For a minimum-phase system, the transfer function
can be uniquely determined from the magnitude
curve alone. For a nonminimum-phase system, this
is not the case.
Consider as an example the following two systems:
1 + T1s 1 T1s
G1 ( s ) = G 2 (s ) = 0 < T1 < T2
1 + T2s 1 + T2s
Bode Diagrams
From: U(1)
A small amount 0
of change in -2
magnitude
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)
produces a small -4
amount of -6
change in the 0
phase of G1(s) -50 G1(s)

but a much
To: Y(1)
-100
larger change in G2(s)
the phase of -150
G2(s). -200
10-2 10-1 100
Frequency (rad/sec)

T1 = 5, T2 = 10 K. Craig 74
These two systems have the same magnitude
characteristics, but they have different phase-angle
characteristics.
The two systems differ from each other by the factor:
1 T1s
G(s) =
1 + T1s
This factor has a magnitude of unity and a phase angle
that varies from 0 to -180 as is increased from 0 to
.
For the stable minimum-phase system, the magnitude
and phase-angle characteristics are uniquely related.
This means that if the magnitude curve is specified over
the entire frequency range from zero to infinity, then the
phase-angle curve is uniquely determined, and vice
versa. This is called Bodes Gain-Phase relationship.
Bodes Gain-Phase Relationship
For any minimum-phase system (i.e., one with no
RHP zeros or poles), the phase of G(j) is
uniquely related to the magnitude of G(j).
When the slope of the magnitude
vs. on a log-log scale persists at
a constant value for approximately
a decade of frequency, the
relationship is particularly simple
and is given by the relationship
G ( j) n 90
where n is the slope of the
magnitude curve in units of decade
of amplitude per decade of
frequency.
For stability we want the angle of G(j) > -180 for a PM
> 0. Therefore, we adjust the magnitude curve so that it
has a slope of -1 at the crossover frequency, c, that is,
where the magnitude = 1.
If the slope is -1 for a decade above and below the
crossover frequency, then the PM 90.
However, to ensure a reasonable PM, it is usually
necessary only to insist that a slope of -1 (-20 dB per
decade) persist for a decade in frequency that is
centered at the crossover frequency.
So a design procedure is to adjust the slope of the
magnitude curve so that it crosses over magnitude 1 with
a slope of -1 for a decade around c to provide
acceptable PM, and hence adequate damping. Then
adjust the system gain to give a c that will yield the
desired bandwidth (and, hence, speed of response).
Simple Design Example Design Objective: good damping and an
approximate bandwidth of 0.2 rad/s.
KD ( s ) = K ( TDs + 1)
= 0.01(20s + 1)
Adjust gain K to produce the desired bandwidth and adjust the

breakpoint 1 = 1/TD to provide the -1 slope at c.
1 = .05 rad/s
c = .2 rad/s
Step
Response

The Bode Gain-Phase Relationship does not hold
for a nonminimum-phase system.
Nonminimum-phase systems may arise in two
different ways:
When a system includes a nonminimum-phase
element or elements
When there is an unstable minor loop
For a minimum-phase system, the phase angle at
= becomes -90(q p), where p and q are the
degrees of the numerator and denominator
polynomials of the transfer function, respectively.
For a nonminimum-phase system, the phase
angle at = differs from -90(q p).
In either system, the slope of the log magnitude
curve at = is equal to 20(q p) dB/decade.
It is therefore possible to detect whether a system is
minimum phase by examining both the slope of the
high-frequency asymptote of the log-magnitude curve
and the phase angle at = . If the slope of the log-
magnitude curve as is 20(q p) dB/decade
and the phase angle at = is equal to -90(q p),
then the system is minimum phase.
Nonminimum-phase systems are slow in response
because of their faulty behavior at the start of the
response.
In most practical control systems, excessive phase
lag should be carefully avoided. A common example
of a nonminimum-phase element that may be present
in a control system is transport lag: dt s
e = 1 dt

Dead-time approximation comparison
Dead-Time Phase-Angle Approximation Comparison
0
dt = 0.01
-50
-100
phase angle (degress)
-150
-200
Qo 2 dt s
(s) =
-250 Qi 2 + dt s
-300
-350
-400
( s)
2
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
2 dt s + dt
frequency (rad/sec) Qo 8
e dt s
= 1 dt (s) =
( dt s )
2
Qi
2 + dt s +
8

Unit Step Responses Step Response
From: U(1)
1.4
s +1 1.2
s2 + s + 1 1
0.8
1
s2 + s + 1
Amplitude
0.6
To: Y(1)
0.4
0.2
0
s + 1
-0.2 s2 + s + 1
-0.4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec.)

From: U(1)
1.4
s +1
1.2
s2 + s + 1
1
0.8 1
s2 + s + 1
Amplitude
To: Y(1)
0.6
0.4
s
0.2 s2 + s + 1
0
-0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec.)

From: U(1)
1.4
1 1.2
s2 + s + 1 1
0.8
s + 1
s2 + s + 1
0.6
Amplitude
To: Y(1)
0.4
0.2
-0.2
s
-0.4 s2 + s + 1
-0.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec.)

Another Example:
Minimum-Phase
&
Nonminimum-Phase
Systems
s +1
G1 ( s ) = 10
s + 10
s 1
G 2 ( s ) = 10
s + 10

Review of Steady-State Error
D(s)
R(s) E(s) + C(s)
+
G c (s) G(s)
+
-
B(s)
H(s)
Assume H(s) = 1 and D(s) = 0. The error is then

E(s) which equals R(s) C(s).
E(s) 1 R(s)
= E(s) =
R(s) 1 + G c (s)G(s) 1 + G c (s)G(s)
R(s)
ess (t) = lim sE(s) = lim s
s 0 s 0 1 + G (s)G(s)
c

Step Input: R(s) = 1/s
1
s 1 1
ess (t) = lim s = lim =
s 0 1 + G (s)G(s) s 0 1 + G (s)G(s) 1+ Kp
c c
K p lim G c (s)G(s)
s 0
Ramp Input: R(s) = 1/s2 Static Error Constants:

Kp and Kv
1
s 2 1
ess (t) = lim s = lim
s 0 1 + G (s)G(s) s 0 s + sG (s)G(s)
c c
1 1
= lim = K v lim sG c (s)G(s)
s 0 sG (s)G(s) Kv s 0
c

Steady-State Errors: System Type and Gain as
Related to Log Magnitude Curves
Consider a unity-feedback control system.
The steady-state error of this closed-loop system
depends on the system type and the gain. The
system error coefficients are determined by these
two characteristics. For any given log magnitude
curve the system type and gain can be
determined.
The steady-state step, ramp, and parabolic error
coefficients describe the low-frequency behavior
of type 0, type 1, and type 2 systems, respectively.
For a given system, only one of the static error
constants is finite and significant.

The larger the value of the finite static error
constant, the higher the loop gain is as
approaches zero.
The type of the system determines the slope of the
log-magnitude curve at low frequencies.
Information concerning the existence and
magnitude of the steady-state error of a control
system to a given input can be determined from
the observation of the low-frequency region of the
log-magnitude curve.

Type 0 System K0
The slope at low frequencies is zero. G (s ) =
Ts + 1
The magnitude at low frequencies is 20log10K0.
The gain K0 is the steady-state step error coefficient.
Type 1 System
The slope at low frequencies is 20 dB/decade.
The intercept of the low-frequency slope of 20 dB/decade (or
its extension) with the 0 dB axis occurs at the frequency = K1.
The value of the low-frequency slope of 20 dB/decade (or its
extension) at the frequency = 1 is equal to 20log10K1.
The gain K1 is the steady-state ramp error coefficient.
K1
G (s ) =
s ( Ts + 1)

Type 2 System
The slope at low frequencies is 40 dB/decade.
The intercept of the low-frequency slope of 40
dB/decade (or its extension) with the 0 dB axis occurs at
a frequency = (K2)1/2.
The value on the low-frequency slope of 40 dB/decade
(or its extension) at the frequency = 1 is equal to
20log10K2.
The gain K2 is the steady-state parabolic error coefficient.
K2
G (s ) = 2
s ( Ts + 1)

Neutral Stability
If the closed-loop transfer function of a system is
known, which is usually not the case, one can
determine the stability of the system by simply
inspecting the denominator in factored form to
observe whether the real parts are positive or
negative.
One can determine closed-loop stability by evaluating
the frequency response of the open-loop transfer
function and then performing a test on that response.
This is the Nyquist Stability Test.

All points on the root locus have the property:
KG ( s ) = 1 G ( s ) = 180
At the point of neutral stability, the root locus

conditions hold for s = j, so:
KG ( j) = 1 G ( j) = 180
Thus a Bode plot of a system that is neutrally stable

(that is, with K defined such that a closed-loop root
falls on the imaginary axis) will satisfy these
conditions.
The Bode magnitude response corresponding to
neutral stability passes through 1 (0 dB) at the same
frequency at which the phase passes through 180.

Does increasing the gain increase or decrease the
systems stability?
From the root locus we see that any value of K
less than the value at the neutrally stable point will
result in a stable system.
At the frequency where the phase is -180, the
magnitude is < 1.0 for stable values of K and > 1.0
for unstable values of K.
Based on the character of the open-loop
frequency response, the following trial stability
condition is proposed:
KG ( j) < 1 at G ( j) = 180
This holds for all systems for which increasing
gain leads to instability and the magnitude plot
crosses the magnitude 1.0 once.
K 0.1K
Neutral Stability Example KG ( s ) = =
( s + 10 )( s + 1) s
2
( )
2
+ 1 s + 1
10
K = 242

K = 32

K = 900

Nyquist Stability Criterion
The advantages of the Nyquist stability criterion over

the Routh criterion are:
It uses the open-loop transfer function, i.e.,
(B/E)(s), to determine the number, not the
numerical values, of the unstable roots of the
closed-loop system characteristic equation. The
Routh criterion requires the closed-loop system
characteristic equation to determine the same
information.

If some components are modeled experimentally
using frequency response measurements, these
measurements can be used directly in the Nyquist
criterion. The Routh criterion would first require the
fitting of some analytical transfer function to the
experimental data. This involves extra work and
reduces accuracy since curve fitting procedures are
never accurate.
Being a frequency response method, the Nyquist
criterion handles dead times without approximation
since the frequency response of a dead time
element, dt, is exactly known, i.e., the Laplace
transfer function of a dead time element is e dt s , with
an amplitude ratio = 1.0 and a phase angle = - dt.

In addition to answering the question of absolute
stability, Nyquist also gives some useful results on
relative stability, i.e., gain margin and phase
margin. Furthermore, the graphical plot used,
keeps the effects of individual pieces of hardware
more apparent (Routh tends to "scramble them
up") making needed design changes more
obvious.
The Nyquist Stability Criterion will handle stability
analysis of complex systems with one or more
resonances, with multiple magnitude-curve
crossings of 1.0, and with multiple phase-curve
crossings of 180. It handles open-loop unstable
systems, nonminimum-phase systems, and
systems with pure time delay.

The Argument Principle
Consider the transfer function H1(s) with poles and
zeros shown below.
The evaluation of H1(s) on the contour C1 is also
shown.
= 1 + 2 ( 1 + 2 )
Since there are no poles or zeros within C1, undergoes

no net change of 360 and H1(s) will not encircle the origin.
Consider the transfer function H2(s) with poles and
zeros shown below. Note the pole within C1.
The evaluation of H2(s) on the contour C1 is also
shown.
= 1 + 2 ( 1 + 2 )
Since there is a pole within C1, undergoes a net change

of -360 after a full traverse of C1. Therefore H2(s) will
encircle the origin in the CCW direction.
The Argument Principle can be stated as follows:
A contour map of a complex function will
encircle the origin Z P times, where Z is the
number of zeros and P is the number of poles
of the function inside the contour.
How is the Argument Principle applied in control
design?
Consider a contour C1 encircling

the entire RHP, where a pole
would cause an unstable system.
The resulting evaluation of H(s)
will encircle the origin only if H(s)
has a RHP pole or zero.

What makes all this contour behavior useful is that
a contour evaluation of an open-loop KG(s) can be
used to determine stability of the closed-loop
system.
Y (s ) KG ( s )
= T (s ) =
R (s) 1 + KG ( s )
The closed-loop roots are the solutions to

1 + KG(s) = 0. Apply the principle of the argument
to the function 1 + KG(s). If the evaluation contour
of this function enclosing the entire RHP contains
a pole or zero of 1 + KG(s), then the evaluated
contour will encircle the origin.
Note that 1 + KG(s) is simply KG(s) shifted to the
right one unit.
If the plot of 1 + KG(S) encircles the origin, the plot
of KG(s) will encircle -1 on the real axis.
Therefore, we can plot the contour evaluation of
the open-loop KG(s), examine its encirclements of
-1, and draw conclusions about the origin
encirclements of the closed-loop function 1 +
KG(s). This is called a Nyquist plot, or polar plot,
because we plot the magnitude of KG(s) versus
the angle of KG(s).
Nyquist Plots
Evaluation of
KG(s)
&
1 + KG(s)

To determine whether an encirclement is due to a
pole or zero, we write 1 + KG(s) in terms of poles
and zeros of KG(s):
b(s) a(s) + Kb(s)
1 + KG ( s ) = 1 + K =
a(s) a(s)
The poles of 1 + KG(s) are also the poles of G(s).
It is safe to assume that the poles of G(s) (i.e.,
factors of a(s)) are known, the rare existence of
any of these poles in the RHP can be accounted
for. Assuming that there are no poles of G(s) in
the RHP, an encirclement of -1 by KG(s) indicates
a zero of 1 + KG(s) in the RHP, and thus an
unstable root of the closed-loop system.

A clockwise contour C1 enclosing a zero of 1 + KG(s),
i.e., a closed-loop root, will result in KG(s) encircling
-1 in a CW direction.
If C1 encloses a pole of 1 + KG(s), i.e., an unstable
open-loop pole, there will be a CCW KG(s)
encirclement of -1.
The net number of CW encirclements, N, equals the
number of zeros (closed-loop system roots) in the
RHP, Z, minus the number of open-loop poles in the
RHP, P.
N = Z P. This is the key concept of the Nyquist
Stability Criterion.

Any KG(s) that represents a physical system will
have zero response at infinite frequency, i.e., has
more poles than zeros. This means that the big
arc of C1 corresponding to s at infinity results in
KG(s) being an infinitesimally small point near the
origin for that portion of C1.

Procedure for Plotting the Nyquist Plot
Plot KG(s) for j s +j.
Evaluate KG(j) for = 0 to h, where h is so large
that the magnitude of KG(j) is negligibly small for >
h, then reflect the image about the real axis, adding it
to the preceding image. The magnitude of KG(j) will
be small at high frequencies for any physical system.
The Nyquist plot will always be symmetrical with
respect to the real axis.
Evaluate the number of CW encirclements of -1, and call
that number N. N is negative for CCW encirclements.
Determine the number of unstable (RHP) poles of G(s),
and call that number P.
Z = N + P, which is the number of unstable closed-loop
roots. Z = 0 for stability.
Feedback Control System
Block Diagram
Plausibility Demonstration for the Nyquist Stability Criterion

Consider a sinusoidal input to the open-loop
configuration. Suppose that at some frequency,
(B/E)(i) = -1 = 1 180. If we would then close
the loop, the signal -B would now be exactly the
same as the original excitation sine wave E and
an external source for E would no longer be
required. The closed-loop system would maintain
a steady self-excited oscillation of fixed amplitude,
i.e., marginal stability.
It thus appears that if the open-loop curve
(B/E)(i) for any system passes through the -1
point, then the closed-loop system will be
marginally stable.

However, the plausibility argument does not make
clear what happens if curve does not go exactly
through -1. The complete answer requires a rigorous
proof and results in a criterion that gives exactly the
same type of answer as the Routh Criterion, i.e., the
number of unstable closed-loop roots.
Instead, we state a step-by-step procedure for the
Nyquist criterion.
1. Make a polar plot of (B/E)(i) for 0 < , either
analytically or by experimental test for an existing
system. Although negative 's have no physical
meaning, the mathematical criterion requires that we
plot (B/E)(-i) on the same graph. Fortunately this is
easy since (B/E)(-i) is just a reflection about the real
(horizontal) axis of (B/E)(+i).

B
( i) = G1G 2 H ( i) Polar Plot of Open-Loop
E
Frequency Response
Simplified Version of
Nyquist Stability Criterion

Examples
of
Polar Plots

2. If (B/E)(i) has no terms (i)k, i.e., integrators,
as multiplying factors in its denominator, the plot
of (B/E)(i) for - < < results in a closed
curve. If (B/E)(i) has (i)k as a multiplying
factor in its denominator, the plots for + and -
will go off the paper as 0 and we will not get
a single closed curve. The rule for closing such
plots says to connect the "tail" of the curve at
0 to the tail at 0+ by drawing k clockwise
semicircles of "infinite" radius. Application of this
rule will always result in a single closed curve so
that one can start at the = - point and trace
completely around the curve toward = 0- and
= 0+ and finally to = +, which will always be
the same point (the origin) at which we started
with = -.
3. We must next find the number Np of poles of
G1G2H(s) that are in the right half of the complex
plane. This will almost always be zero since these
poles are the roots of the characteristic equation of
the open-loop system and open-loop systems are
rarely unstable. If the open-loop poles are not
already factored and thus apparent, one can apply
the Routh criterion to find out how many unstable
ones there are, if any. If G1G2H(i) is not known
analytically but rather by experimental
measurements on an existing open-loop system,
then it must have zero unstable roots or else we
would never have been able to run the necessary
experiments because the system would have been
unstable. We thus generally have little trouble
finding Np and it is usually zero.
4. We now return to our plot (B/E)(i), which has
already been reflected and closed in earlier
steps. Draw a vector whose tail is bound to the -
1 point and whose head lies at the origin, where
= -. Now let the head of this vector trace
completely around the closed curve in the
direction from w = - to 0- to 0+ to +, returning
to the starting point. Keep careful track of the
total number of net rotations of this test vector
about the -1 point, calling this Np-z and making it
positive for counter-clockwise rotations and
negative for clockwise rotations.

5. In this final step we subtract Np-z from Np. This
number will always be zero or a positive integer
and will be equal to the number of unstable roots
for the closed-loop system, the same kind of
information given by the Routh criterion. The
example shows an unstable closed-loop system
with two unstable roots since Np = 0 and Np-z = -2.

Nyquist Plot Example
N = 0, P = 0, therefore Z = 0.
Often the control systems engineer is more interested
in determining a range of gains K for which the
system is stable than in testing for stability at a
specific value of K.
To accomplish this, scale KG(s) by K and examine
G(s) to determine stability for a range of gains K.
This is possible because an encirclement of -1 by
KG(s) is equivalent to an encirclement of -1/K by
G(s).
Therefore, instead of having to deal with KG(s),
we need only consider G(s), and count the
number of encirclements of the point -1/K.

In this example, the open-loop pole at s = 0 creates
an infinite magnitude of G(s) at = 0. To correctly
determine the number of -1/K encirclements, we must
draw this arc in the proper half plane. Should it cross
the positive real axis or the negative one? It is also
necessary to assess whether the arc should sweep
180, 360, or 540.
Modify the C1 contour, as shown.
Because the phase of G(s) is the
negative of the sum of the angles
from all the poles, the evaluation
results in a Nyquist plot moving
from +90 for s just below the
pole at s = 0, across the positive
real axis to -90 for s just above
the pole.

Nyquist Plot Example

Nyquist Stability Criterion Examples 1
G (s ) = 2
s

1
G (s ) = 2
s
Contour Nyquist Plot
= 0
= +
= 0+

1
G (s ) = 2
s + 02
0 = 2

1
G (s ) = 2
s + 02
Contour Nyquist Plot
=0
= +

K (s + 2)
KG ( s ) =
( s + 10 )
Closed-Loop System
is stable for any K > 0

K
KG ( s ) =
( s + 10 )( s + 2 )
2
Closed-Loop System is stable for 0 < K < 576;

K > 576 Closed-Loop System has two unstable roots
Closed-Loop System
is stable for any K > 0
K ( s + 10 )( s + 1)
KG ( s ) =
( s + 100 )( s + 2 )
3

K ( s + 1) Range of K for stability is -1/K < 0
KG ( s ) = N = 0, P = 0, Z = N + P = 0
s ( s + 3)
Closed-Loop System is Stable for K > 0

Range of K for stability is -1/K < 0
N = -1, P = 1, Z = N + P = 0
Closed-Loop System is Stable for K > 0

1
G (s) =
( ) ( + 2s + 2 )
s + 1 s 2

s +1
G (s ) = Minimum Phase System
s + 10
s 1
G (s ) = Non-Minimum Phase System
s + 10
s +1
G (s ) = Unstable System
s 10

s +1
G (s) =
s + 10
For any K > 0, N = 0, P = 0, and Z = N + P = 0

Closed-Loop System is Stable

s 1
G (s ) =
s + 10

s +1
G (s) =
s 10

Nyquist Stability
Analysis
of a
System
with
Dead Time

The Nyquist criterion treats without approximation
systems with dead times. Since the frequency
response of a dead time element dt is given by
the expression 1-dt, the (B/E)(i) for the
system of Figure (a) spirals unendingly into the
origin. With low loop gain, the closed-loop system
is stable, i.e., Np = 0 and Np-z = 0.
Raising the gain, Figure (b), expands the spirals
sufficiently to cause the test vector to experience
two net rotations, i.e., Np-z = -2, causing closed-
loop instability. Further gain increases expand
more and more of these spirals out to the region
beyond the -1 point, causing Np-z to increase,
indicating the presence of more and more
unstable closed-loop roots.

Stability Margins
Two open-loop performance criteria in common use
to specify relative stability are gain margin and phase
margin.
The open-loop frequency response is defined as
(B/E)(i). One could open the loop by removing the
summing junction at R, B, E and just input a sine
wave at E and measure the response at B. This is
valid since (B/E)(i) = G1G2H(i).
The utility of open-loop frequency-response rests on
the Nyquist stability criterion.

Gain margin (GM) and phase margin (PM) are in the
nature of safety factors such that (B/E)(i) stays far
enough away from 1 -180 on the stable side.
Gain margin is the multiplying factor by which the
steady-state gain of (B/E)(i) could be increased
(nothing else in (B/E)(i) being changed) so as to put
the system on the edge of instability, i.e., (B/E)(i))
passes exactly through the -1 point. This is called
marginal stability.
Phase margin is the number of degrees of additional
phase lag (nothing else being changed) required to
create marginal stability.
are needed; neither is sufficient by itself.

Open-Loop Performance Criteria:
A system must have adequate stability margins.
are needed.
Useful lower bounds:
GM > 2.5 PM > 30

Bode Plot View of

The phase margin can be
determined for any value of K.
Indicate on the figure where

KG ( j) = 1
for selected trial values of K.
If we wish a certain PM, we
simply read the value of
G ( j)
corresponding to the
frequency that would create
the desired PM and note that
the magnitude at this
frequency is 1/K.

It is important to realize that, because of model
uncertainties, it is not merely sufficient for a system to be
stable, but rather it must have adequate stability
margins.
Stable systems with low stability margins work only on
paper; when implemented in real time, they are
frequently unstable.
The way uncertainty has been quantified in classical
control is to assume that either gain changes or phase
changes occur. Typically, systems are destabilized
when either gain exceeds certain limits or if there is too
much phase lag (i.e., negative phase associated with
unmodeled poles or time delays).
As we have seen these tolerances of gain or phase
uncertainty are the gain margin and phase margin.
The PM is more commonly used to specify control system
performance because it is most closely related to the
damping ratio of the system.
2n
G (s ) =
s ( s + 2n )
2n
T (s ) = 2
s + 2n s + 2n

2
PM = tan 1
1 + 4 4 2 2

One can also relate transient-response overshoot (Mp)

and frequency-response resonant peak (Mr) to phase
margin (PM) for a second-order closed-loop system.
PM 2n
G (s ) =
100 s ( s + 2n )
2n
T (s ) = 2
s + 2n s + 2n
2n
G (s ) =
s ( s + 2n )
2n
T (s ) = 2
s + 2n s + 2n

2
PM = tan 1
1 + 4 4 2 2

85 ( s + 1) ( s 2 + 2s + 43.25 )
G (s ) =
s 2 ( s 2 + 2s + 82 )( s 2 + 2s + 101)
85 ( s + 1)( s + 1 6.5j)
=
s 2 ( s + 1 9 j)( s + 1 10 j)
Nyquist Plot
The actual stability margin can be
assessed only be examining the
Nyquist plot to determine its closest Bode Plots
approach to the -1 point.
Vector Margin is
the distance to Vector Margin
the -1 point from
the closest
approach of the
Nyquist plot.
This is a single-
margin
parameter and it
removes all
ambiguities in
assessing
stability that
come from using
GM and PM in
combination.
Conditionally-Stable System
Here an increase in gain can
The Bode plot yields a PM = +10 and a GM
make the system stable.
= 0.7 for K = 7. These are conflicting. For
K ( s + 10 )
2
systems like this, use the root-locus and/or
KG ( s ) = Nyquist plot to determine stability.
s3
Root-Locus Plot Nyquist Plot (K = 7)

Stability Margin Examples
Nyquist Plot
for
Actual Control
Systems
= 0.4
= 1.3
= 40
PM = ( = *)
If the system gain is multiplied by 1/ or divided by ,

then the system will go unstable. This is a conditionally
stable system.
The Nyquist Plot crosses the -180 three times! For very
low values of gain, the entire Nyquist plot would be shrunk,
and the -1 point would occur to the left of the negative real
axis crossing at 0, so there would be no encirclements
and the system would be stable. As the gain increases,
the -1 point occurs between 0 and L so there is an
encirclement and the system is unstable. Further increase
of the gain causes the -1 point to occur between L and
H so there is no encirclement and the system is stable.
Even more increase in the gain would cause the -1 point to
occur between H and the origin where there is an
encirclement and the system is unstable.

s
100 + 1 Note: The RHP pole at s = 1 causes -
G (s ) = 10 180 shift from the -90 that you would
s s normally expect from a normal system
s 1 + 1 with all the singularities in the LHP.
1 100
K=1
K = 0.1112
Marginal
Stability

Nyquist Plot
K=1

s+2
L (s ) =
s3 + s 2 2
K ( s 2 + 2s + 2 )
T (s ) =
s3 + s 2 + Ks + 2K 2
K = 0.5

K = 0.5

K=1

K=1

K = 1.5

K = 1.5

K=2

K=2

K = 2.5

K = 2.5

3.2 ( s + 1) Note: Even though the PM is
G (s ) =
s ( s + 2 ) ( s 2 + 0.2s + 16 )
92.8, the GM is only 1 dB.

1 1
G (s ) = H (s ) =
(s + 2) (s + 4) s +1
2

K = 80

K = 5.9
= 0.707

K = 5.9

= 0.944 = 0.262 K = 31

K = 31

Same
Root-Locus
Plots
Same
Closed-Loop Poles
Different Zeros

K = 52.3

P=0
N = 0 for 0 < K < 4
Therefore Z = 0
P=0
N = 2 for 4 < K <
Therefore Z = 2

K ( s + 1)
KG ( s ) =
s 2 ( s + 10 )
2
K = 50.9

Closed-Loop Bode Plot

K = 511.4


Frequency-Response Design
Here we consider the design and compensation of

SISO, linear, time-invariant control systems by the
frequency-response approach.
In this approach, transient-response performance,
which is usually most important, is specified in an
indirect manner.
Phase margin, gain margin, and resonant peak
magnitude give a rough estimate of system damping.

Gain crossover frequency, resonant frequency, and
bandwidth give a rough estimate of the speed of
transient response.
Static error constants give the steady-state accuracy.
Although the correlation between the transient
response and frequency response is indirect, the
frequency domain specifications can be conveniently
met in the Bode diagram approach.

Design the open loop by the frequency response
method, determine the closed-loop poles and zeros,
and check that the transient-response specifications
have been met. If not, then iterate.
This method can be used for systems or components
whose dynamic characteristics are given in the form
of frequency-response data.
When dealing with high-frequency noises, this
approach is more convenient.
Two approaches in frequency-domain design:
Polar-plot approach
Bode-diagram approach

Polar-Plot Approach
When a compensator is added, the polar plot does
not retain the original shape, and, therefore, we need
to draw a new polar plot, which is time consuming
and inconvenient.
Bode-Diagram Approach
The compensator can simply be added to the original
Bode diagram, and thus plotting the complete Bode
diagram is a simple matter.
If the open-loop gain is varied, the magnitude curve is
shifted up or down without changing the slope of the
curve, and the phase curve remains the same.
For design purposes, the Bode diagram is preferred.

A common approach to the Bode Diagram is:
First adjust the open-loop gain so that the
requirement on the steady-state accuracy is met.
Then plot the magnitude and phase curves of
the uncompensated, but gain-adjusted, open-
loop system.
Reshape the open-loop transfer function with the
addition of a suitable compensator to meet gain
margin and phase margin specifications.
Try to meet other specifications, if any.

The open-loop frequency response indicators:
Low-frequency region (<< gc) : indicates the
steady-state behavior of the closed-loop system
Medium-frequency region: indicates relative
stability
High-frequency region (>> gc ): indicates the
complexity of the system
Compensation is a compromise between steady-
state accuracy and relative stability. The open-loop
frequency-response curve needs to be reshaped.

The gain in the low-frequency region should be large
enough for steady-state error and disturbance
rejection properties.
Near the gain crossover frequency, chosen for speed
of response requirements, the slope of the log-
magnitude curve should be -20 dB/decade and
should extend over a sufficiently wide frequency band
to assure a proper phase margin.
In the high-frequency region, the gain should be
attenuated as rapidly as possible to minimize noise
effects.

Consider the following design problem:
Given a plant transfer function G2(s), find a
compensator transfer function G1(s) which yields
the following:
stable closed-loop system
good command following
good disturbance rejection
insensitivity of command following to modeling
errors (performance robustness)
stability robustness with unmodeled dynamics
sensor noise rejection

Without closed-loop stability, a discussion of performance
is meaningless. It is critically important to realize that the
compensator G1(s) is actually designed to stabilize a
nominal open-loop plant G 2 (s) . Unfortunately, the true
plant is different from the nominal plant due to
unavoidable modeling errors, denoted by G2(s). Thus
the true plant may be represented by:
G 2 (s) = G 2 (s) + G 2 (s)
Knowledge of G2(s) should influence the design of G1(s).

We assume here that the actual closed-loop system,
represented by the true closed-loop transfer function, is
absolutely stable.
G1 (s) G 2 (s) + G 2 (s)
(unity feedback assumed)
1 + G1 (s) G 2 (s) + G 2 (s)

Design a Good Single-Input, Single-Output Control Loop
stable closed-loop system

good command following
good disturbance rejection
Smooth transition from the low to high- insensitivity of command
frequency range, i.e., -20 dB/decade following to modeling
slope near the gain crossover frequency
errors (performance
robustness)
Gain above this level stability robustness with
at low frequencies
unmodeled dynamics
sensor noise rejection
Gain below this level

at high frequencies
Sensor noise,
Frequencies for good
unmodeled high-
command following,
frequency dynamics
disturbance reduction,
are significant here.
sensitivity reduction
Lead Compensation
Lead compensation approximates PD control. A PD
compensator transfer function has the form: G c ( s ) = K p + K d s
The PD compensator was shown to have a stabilizing
effect on the root-locus of a second-order system.
The Bode diagram shows the stabilizing influence in the
increase in phase at frequencies above the break point.
We use this compensation by locating the break point so
that the increased phase occurs in the vicinity of crossover
(where the log magnitude = 0 dB), thus increasing the
phase margin.
The magnitude of this compensation continues to grow
with increasing frequency (impossible with physical
elements) thus amplifying high-frequency noise.
Bode Diagrams
Bode Diagram: From: U(1)
PD Controller 50
40
30

20
10
100
80
To: Y(1) 60
40
20
0
10-2 10-1 100 101 102
Frequency (rad/sec)
G c ( s ) = K p + K ds
Kd Kp =1 Kd = 1
= K p 1 + s
Kp

PD Controller
D(s) = TDs + 1

In order to alleviate the high-frequency amplification
of the PD compensation, a first-order pole is added in
the denominator at frequencies higher then the
breakpoint of the PD compensator. The phase
increase (or lead) still occurs, but the amplification at
high frequencies is limited.
Lead Compensation Characteristics
improves stability margins; adds damping to the system
yields a small change in steady-state accuracy
yields a higher gain crossover frequency which means
higher bandwidth which means a reduction in settling time
is more susceptible to high-frequency noise because of
increase in high-frequency gain due to the increase in
bandwidth
raises the order of the system by one

Lead Compensator: A high-pass filter
1
s+
Ts + 1 T
G c ( s ) = K c = Kc (0 < < 1)
Ts + 1 1
s+
T
The minimum value of (usually 0.05) is limited by
the physical construction of the compensator, either
analog or digital. Therefore the maximum phase lead
that may be produced by a lead compensator is
about 65. 1
Lead Compensator Polar Plot: sin ( ) = 2 = 1
m
1+ 1+
j T + 1
K c (0 < < 1) 2
jT + 1
1 sin m
= tan ( T) tan ( T)
1 1 =
1 + sin m
Maximum Phase Increase for Lead Compensation
While one
could increase
the phase lead
up to 90 using
higher values of
the lead ratio
1/, this
produces
higher
amplifications
at higher
frequencies.
Select a value of 1/ that is a good compromise between an acceptable

phase margin and an acceptable noise sensitivity at high frequencies.
65 is the usual maximum. Use a double lead compensator if needed.
m
m
1
(1 )
2
=0 =
1
(1 + )
2 Polar Plot of Lead Compensator
with Kc = 1
Bode Diagram
( jT + 1) Bode Diagrams
K c
( jT + 1) 0
1
= 0.1 -5
Mag = K c
-10
T =1
-15
Kc = 1 -20
50
1 1
m =
40

T
T
30
m
20
1
=
10
T
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
m occurs midway between the 2 break-point frequencies

on a log scale.
1
s+
T s+z
Gc (s ) = Kc = Kc
1 s+p
s+
T
1 1
m =
T
T
= z p

The amount of phase lead at the midpoint depends
only on . Our task is to select a value of that is a
good compromise between an acceptable phase
margin and an acceptable noise sensitivity at high
frequencies.
If a phase lead greater than 65 is required, then a
double lead compensator would be required.
In lead-network designs, there are 3 primary design
parameters:
Gain crossover frequency gc, which determines
bandwidth, rise time, and settling time.
Phase margin, which determines the damping
coefficient and the overshoot.
Low-frequency gain, which determines the steady-
state error characteristics.
Lead Compensation Design Procedure
Primary function is to reshape the frequency-

response curve to provide sufficient phase-lead angle
to offset the excessive phase lag associated with the
components of the fixed system.
Assume performance specifications are given in
terms of phase margin, gain margin, static error
constant, and so on.
Assume the following lead compensator:
1
s+
Ts + 1 T
G c ( s ) = K c = Kc (0 < < 1)
Ts + 1 1
s+
T
Let Kc = K. Determine gain K to satisfy steady-state error
requirements or bandwidth requirements.
To meet error requirement, pick K to meet ess
To meet bandwidth requirement, pick K so that gc is a
factor of two below the desired closed-loop bandwidth
Draw the Bode diagram of the gain-adjusted, but
uncompensated, system, i.e., KG(s). Evaluate the phase
margin.
Determine the necessary phase lead angle to be added
to the system. Add 5 - 10 to this value to compensate
for the shift in gc.
Determine the attenuation factor by using
1 1 sin(m )
sin(m ) = =
1+ 1 + sin(m )
Determine the frequency where the magnitude of
KG(s) is equal to 1
20 log10

Select this frequency as the new gc. This
corresponds to 1
m =
T
and the maximum phase shift m occurs at this

frequency.
Determine pole and zero frequencies of the lead
compensator:
1 1
zero = pole =
T T

Calculate Kc = K/.
Draw the compensated frequency response and check the
PM.
Check the gain margin to be sure it is satisfactory. If not,
modify the pole-zero location of the compensator.
Summary
The design problem is to find the best values for the
parameters given the requirements. For a lead
controller, if the low frequency gain is kept the same,
the crossover frequency will increase. If the crossover
frequency is kept the same, the low frequency gain will
decrease. So assume a fixed value of one of the three:
PM, low-frequency gain, or gc, and then adjust the
other two iteratively to meet specifications.

1
Lead Compensation for a DC Motor G (s) =
s ( s + 1)
Performance Specifications:
ess < 0.1 for a unit ramp input and Mp < 25% (PM > 45)
1 1
ess = K = 10
K v limsG c (s)G(s)
s 0
= 0.2

Lead Compensation for a Temperature Control System
K
Performance Specifications: KG ( s ) =
s s
Kp = 9 and PM > 25 + 1 ( s + 1) + 1
0.5 2
1
ess =
1+ Kp
K=9
K p lim G c (s)G(s)
s 0
PM = 7, gc = 1.9
( s + 1) PM = 16
D1 ( s ) = 3
( s + 3)
( s + 1.5) PM = 38
D 2 ( s ) = 10
( s + 15)

Lead Compensation for a Type-1 Servomechanism System
(DC Motor with a position-sensor lag)
10
Performance Specifications: KG ( s ) = K
s s
Kv = 10 and PM > 45 s + 1 + 1
2.5 6
1 1
ess =
K v limsG c (s)G(s)
s 0
K=1
PM = -4, gc = 4
( s + 2 ) PM = 23
D1 ( s ) = 10
( s + 20 )
2 ( s + 2 )( s + 4 )
D 2 ( s ) = (10 )
( s + 20 )( s + 40 )
PM = 46 K. Craig 212
Lag Compensation
Lag Compensation Characteristics
reduces the system gain at higher frequencies
without reducing the system gain at low frequencies
reduces the system bandwidth and so the system
has a slower response speed
has improved steady-state accuracy since the total
system gain and hence, low-frequency gain, can be
increased because of the reduced high-frequency
gain
is less susceptible to high-frequency noise since the
high-frequency gain is reduced

Lag Compensation approximates a Proportional-
Integral (PI) Compensator.
PI K 1
D (s ) = s +
Compensation s TI
PI Compensation has infinite

gain at zero frequency, which
reduces steady-state errors, but
has phase decrease at
frequencies lower than the
break point at = 1/TI. The
break point is located at a
frequency substantially lower
than gc so the systems PM is
not affected significantly.
Lag Compensator: A low-pass filter
Ts + 1
G c ( s ) = K c
Ts + 1
1
s+
= Kc T ( > 1)
1
s+
T
Frequency Response
of a Lag Compensation
with = 10.
Note that and are used
interchangeably.

Polar Plot of Lag Compensator
j T + 1
K c ( > 1)
jT + 1
Kc K c
= =0

Bode Diagram: Lag Compensation
Bode Diagrams
20
15
10

( jT + 1) 5
K c
( jT + 1) 0
= 10 -10
-20
T =1 -30
Kc = 1 -40
-50
-2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

A lag compensator is essentially a low-pass filter. It
permits a high gain at low frequencies which
improves steady-state performance and reduces gain
in the higher range of frequencies so as to improve
the phase margin. The phase-lag characteristic is of
no consequence for compensation purposes.
The exact location of the lag compensator pole and
zero is not critical provided they are close to the
origin (but not too close) and their ratio is that
required to meet steady-state error requirements.

The closed-loop pole created by the lag compensator
will adversely affect the transient response (settling
time) to both a command and a disturbance.
The attenuation due to the lag compensator will shift
gc to a lower frequency point where the phase
margin is acceptable. The bandwidth of the system
will be reduced and this will result in a slower
transient response.
A lag-compensated system tends to be less stable as
it acts approximately as PI controller. To avoid this, T
should be made sufficiently larger than the largest
time constant of the system.

Conditional stability may occur when a system having
saturation or limiting, which reduces the effective loop
gain, is compensated by use of a lag compensator.
To avoid this, the system must be designed so that
the effect of lag compensation becomes significant
only when the amplitude of the input to the saturating
element is small. This can be done by means of
minor feedback-loop compensation.

Lag Compensation Design Procedure
Lag Compensator: 1
s+
Ts + 1 T
G c ( s ) = K c = Kc ( > 1)
Ts + 1 1
s+
T
Define Kc = K. Determine gain K to satisfy steady-
state error requirements.
Draw the Bode diagram of the gain-adjusted, but
uncompensated, system, i.e., KG(s). Evaluate the
phase margin and gain margin.

If the specifications on gain margin and phase margin
are not satisfied, find the frequency where the phase
angle of KG(s) is -180 plus the required phase
margin plus 5 to 12 (to compensate for the phase
lag of the lag compensator). Choose this frequency
as the new gc.
The pole and zero of the lag compensator must be
located substantially lower than the new gc to
prevent detrimental effects of phase lag due to the
lag compensator. Choose the zero location 1 octave
to 1 decade below the new gc.

Determine the attenuation necessary to bring the
magnitude curve down to 0 dB at the new gc. Since
this attenuation is -20 log10, determine . The pole
of the compensator is now determined.
Calculate Kc = K/.
Example: 1
G(s) =
s(s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
PM > 40 GM > 10 dB
unit-ramp-input steady-state error < 0.2
Compensator:
10s + 1
G c (s) = 5
100s + 1

Lag-Compensation Design for a Temperature Control System
K
KG ( s ) = Performance Specifications:
s s
+ 1 ( s + 1) + 1 Kp = 9 and PM > 40
0.5 2
5s + 1
D (s ) = 3
15s + 1
Note: A lead or a lag compensator

could meet these specifications.
The bandwidth of the lead design
is higher by a factor of 3 than that
of the lag design.

1
Lag-Compensation Design for a DC Motor G ( s ) =
s ( s + 1)
ess < 0.1 for a unit ramp input and Mp < 25% (PM > 45)
10s + 1
D ( s ) = 10
100s + 1

PID Compensation
For problems that need
phase-margin improvement
at gc and low-frequency gain
improvement, it is effective to
use both derivative and
integral control.
The PID Control Transfer
Function is given by:
K 1
D ( s ) = ( TDs + 1) s +
s TI

PID Compensation Design for Spacecraft Attitude Control
Step Response
Step-Disturbance
Response

Lead-Lag Compensation
Lead-Lag Compensator:
1 1
s + T s + T
G c (s) = K c 1 2
( > 1, > 1)
1
s + T s + T
1 2
We often choose = in designing a lead-lag

compensator, although this is not necessary.

Im Polar Plot of Lead-Lag Compensator
Kc = 1 and =
1
1 =
T1T2
=
Lead Compensator
1 Re
0
Lag Compensator
=0
= 1

Lead-Lag Compensator
Bode Diagrams
Kc = 1, = = 10, T2 = 10T1, T1 = 1
0
-5
-10
-15
50
-50
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
1
1 =
T1T2 K. Craig 230
Lead-Lag Compensator Design
Procedure
Procedure is based on the combination of the design
techniques for the lead and lag compensators.
Assume = . Then
1 1
s + T s + T
G c (s) = K c 1 2
( > 1, > 1)
1
s + T s + T
1 2

The phase lead portion (involving T1) alters the
frequency-response curve by adding phase lead
angle and increasing the phase margin at the gain
crossover frequency, gc.
The phase lag portion (involving T2) provides
attenuation near and above gc and thereby allows
an increase of gain at the low-frequency range to
improve the steady-state performance.

Example: K
G(s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
GM > 10 dB PM > 50
unity-ramp-input steady-state error < 0.1
Compensator:
(s + 0.7) (s + 0.15)
G c (s) = K = 20
(s + 7) (s + 0.015)

Comparison:
Lead, Lag, Lead-Lag Compensators
Lead compensation achieves the desired result

through the merits of its phase-lead contribution.
Lag compensation accomplishes its result through
the merits of its attenuation property at high
frequencies.
In some design problems both lag compensation and
lead compensation may satisfy the specifications.

Lead Compensation:
improves stability margins
yields a higher gain crossover frequency which
means higher bandwidth which means a reduction
in settling time
is more susceptible to high-frequency noise
because of increase in high-frequency gain due to
the increase in bandwidth
requires a larger gain than a lag network to offset
the attenuation inherent in the lead network. This
means larger space, greater weight, and higher
cost.

Lag Compensation:
reduces the system gain at higher frequencies
without reducing the system gain at low
frequencies
reduces the system bandwidth and so the system
has a slower response speed
has improved steady-state accuracy since the
total system gain and hence, low-frequency gain,
can be increased because of the reduced high-
frequency gain
is less susceptible to high-frequency noise since
the high-frequency gain is reduced

Lead - Lag Compensators:
can result in both fast response and good static
accuracy
can result in an increase in low-frequency gain
(which improves steady-state accuracy) while at
the same time the system bandwidth and stability
margins can be increased.

Frequency-Response
Design Problems

Problem # 1
5
D (s ) = K = 1 G (s ) =
s ( s + 1)( 0.2s + 1)

s + 0.89
D ( s ) = 20
s + 17.86

Closed-Loop Bandwidth: 7.08 rad/sec

1
Problem # 2 D (s ) = K = 1 G (s ) =
s ( 0.2s + 1)( 0.02s + 1)

1
D ( s ) = K = 100 G (s ) =
s ( 0.2s + 1)( 0.02s + 1)

s + 0.2 100
D ( s ) = 0.05 G (s ) =
s + 0.01 s ( 0.2s + 1)( 0.02s + 1)

Problem # 3 D ( s ) = K = 100 G (s ) =
1
s ( 0.2s + 1)( 0.05s + 1)
0.2 rad/s
200 rad/s

s s
2 + 1 4 + 1 1
D ( s ) = K = 100 s G (s ) =
s s ( 0.2s + 1)( 0.05s + 1)
+ 1 + 1
0.2 50

More Frequency-Response Design Problems
50000 Design a lead compensator so that the
G (s) =
s ( s + 1)( s + 50 ) PM 50 and BW 20 rad/s.

1
s+
Ts + 1 T
D (s ) = K c = Kc (0 < < 1)
Ts + 1 1
s+
T
1 1 sin(m )
sin(m ) = = m = 60 = 0.07
1+ 1 + sin(m )
1 1 1
m = m = 20 rad/s = 5.3 = 75.6
T T T

s + 5.3
D ( s ) = 1.85
s + 75.6

BW = 36 rad/s

The transfer function is similar to the transfer
1 function for an inverted pendulum.
G (s ) = 2
s 1 Design a lead compensator to achieve a PM =
30 and c = 1 rad/s . Correlate your design
with a root-locus plot.
1
s+
Ts + 1 T
D (s ) = K c = Kc (0 < < 1)
Ts + 1 1
s+
T
1 1 sin(m )
sin(m ) = = m = 30 = 0.33
1+ 1 + sin(m )
1 1 1
m = m = 1rad/s = 0.57 = 1.74
T T T

s + 0.57
D ( s ) = 3.48
s + 1.73

Design a lead compensator so
that the steady-state error to a
K
G (s ) = unit-ramp reference input is <
s ( 0.2s + 1)( 0.005s + 1) 0.01. For the dominant closed-
loop poles, the damping ratio
should be 0.4.
Ts + 1
D (s) = (0 < < 1)
Ts + 1
1
K v = limsD ( s ) G ( s ) = K eSSramp = < 0.01 K > 100
s 0 Kv
s

PM
PM > 40 +1
10 s + 10
100 D (s) = = 10
s s + 100
+1
100
K = 121

For the satellite attitude-control system, amplitude-stabilize
the system using lead compensation so that the GM is 2
(6 dB) and the PM 45, keeping the bandwidth as high as
possible with a single lead compensator. 0.05 ( s + 25 )
G (s ) = 2 2
s ( s + 0.1s + 4 )

s + 0.06
D ( s ) = 0.958
s+6

K = 0.958

For the open-loop system, shown,
10 design a lag compensator with
G (s ) = unity DC gain so that the PM 40.
s s
s + 1 + 1 What is the bandwidth of the
1.4 3 closed-loop system?
K=1

K = 0.111
The lag compensator needs to lower the gain by a factor of

about 10 at the crossover frequency of 0.89 rad/s.
s
+1
Ts + 1
D (s ) = = 0.04
Ts + 1 s
+1
0.004

BW = 1.46 rad/s

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Frequency Response

Analysis & Design

Dr. Kevin Craig

In conventional control-system analysis there are two

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G(s) s = i Sinusoidal M()()

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Consider the Square Wave 1.5

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Unit Step Response

Frequency Response Plots

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Let V be a sine wave (U = 0) and wait for transients

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Closed-Loop Frequency Response to a Disturbance Input

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Both the log magnitude and angle are functions of

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Note that varying the

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phase of G1(s) -50 G1(s)

Frequency Response Analysis & Design

Adjust gain K to produce the desired bandwidth and adjust the