1.

Find some remote sensing definitions and make a discussion from them, which one according to
your opinion is the best and appropriate for your field of interest?

Some definition of remote sensing from different experts:

According to ITC (2001), remote sensing is the art, science, and technology of observing an object,
scene, od phenomenon by instrument-based techniques without physical contact with the object
of interest.
According to Avery (1992) remote sensing is an attempt to acquire, indicate (identify) and
analyzing the object with a sensor on the observation position of the study area.
According to Campbell (2002) remote sensing is the science to get information about the Earth's
surface such as land and water of the image obtained from a distance.
According to Colwell (1983) Remote sensing is a measurement or acquisition of data on objects
on the Earth's surface from satellites or other instruments above or away from the object sensed.
According to Curran (1985), Remote sensing is the use of electromagnetic radiation sensors to
record images of the earth's environment that can be interpreted so as to produce useful
information.
According to Lillesand dan Kiefer (2003) Remote sensing is the science and art to obtaining
information about an object, area, or phenomenon by analyzing data obtained by using the tool
without direct contact to the object, area, or phenomenon.
According to Lindgren (1985) Remote sensing is a variety of techniques developed for acquisition
and analysis of information about the earth
According to Wilson (1991) remote sensing is the science, art and technology to obtin any
information about object, area and symptoms using the tool. The information obtained was done
without direct contact with them.

By some expert opinions above, it can be concluded that remote sensing is a combination of art,
science and technology to interpret distant objects indirectly. And to get appropriate definitions according
to watershed management perspective, should be reviewed the benefits of remote sensing on it. Albert
Rango (1975) says that remote sensing are capable of great contribution to watershed management,
primarily in the areas of surface water inventories, flood management, hydrologic land use monitoring,
and watershed modeling.

So, the remote sensing definition in watershed management perspective is a tool used to obtain
data and information for analyzing, modeling and so making decision for watershed management without
physical contact with the study area.

2. What is electromagnetic (EM) energy for remote sensing: visible, infrared, microwave are the
portions of electromagnetic energy sensible for remote sensing activity?

The electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into several wavelength (frequency) regions, among
which only a narrow band from about 400 to 700 nm is visible to the human eyes. Note that there is no
sharp boundary between these regions. The boundaries shown in the above figures are approximate and
there are overlaps between two adjacent regions. Types of electromagnetic spectrum in remote sensing
are as follows:
Visible Light is the visible portion of spectrum with wavelengths causing colour is only a very small fraction
of entire EM wavelength range. This narrow band of electromagnetic radiation extends from about 400
nm (violet) to about 700 nm (red). The various colour components of the visible spectrum fall roughly
within the following wavelength regions: Red: 610 - 700 nm, Orange: 590 - 610 nm, Yellow: 570 - 590 nm,
Green: 500 - 570 nm, Blue: 450 - 500 nm, Indigo: 430 - 450 nm, dan Violet: 400 - 430 nm.

Infrared has longer wavelength from visible light, and cannot seen by human. In remote sensing,
infrared usually using for vegetations characteristics interpretations, because it detect different heat
emitted by object/organism. It can discriminate vegetation types and the stress state of plants by
analyzing its radiation. Infrared: 0.7 to 300 m wavelength. This region is further divided into the following
bands: Near Infrared (NIR): 0.7 to 1.5 m, Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR): 1.5 to 3 m, Mid Wavelength
Infrared (MWIR): 3 to 8 m, Long Wavelength Infrared (LWIR): 8 to 15 m, Far Infrared (FIR): longer than
15 m. The NIR and SWIR are also known as the Reflected Infrared, referring to the main infrared
component of the solar radiation reflected from the earth's surface. The MWIR and LWIR are the Thermal
Infrared, because it causes the sensation of heat. Thermal infrared usually using for mapping surface or
object temperature.

Microwave is electromagnetic wave with highest wavelength, using to interpretation objects in

mineral exploration, monitoring soil moisture changes, and ice detection. Microwaves has 1 mm to 1 m
wavelength. The microwaves are further divided into different frequency (wavelength) bands: P band: 0.3
- 1 GHz (30 - 100 cm), L band: 1 - 2 GHz (15 - 30 cm), S band: 2 - 4 GHz (7.5 - 15 cm), C band: 4 - 8 GHz (3.8
- 7.5 cm), X band: 8 - 12.5 GHz (2.4 - 3.8 cm), Ku band: 12.5 - 18 GHz (1.7 - 2.4 cm), K band: 18 - 26.5 GHz
(1.1 - 1.7 cm), and Ka band: 26.5 - 40 GHz (0.75 - 1.1 cm).

In addition to the three types of waves above, there also two other types of wave that using in
remote sensing, namely radar and sonar. Radar sensing used for mapping the terrain of an area , by
emitting radio waves and wait for the echoed back. Using in topography mapping. Sonar sensing working
similar to radar waves, but sonar using sound waves, not radio waves. Its usefulness for bathymetry
mapping.

3. What are the characteristics performance of the earth objects in the wavelength?

Object characteristics on earth surface has difference because of differencing electromagnetics

wavelength, the vegetations as example. Vegetation has a unique spectral signature which enables it to
be distinguished readily from other types of land cover in an optical/near-infrared image. The reflectance
is low in both the blue and red regions of the spectrum, due to absorption by chlorophyll for
photosynthesis. It has a peak at the green region which gives rise to the green colour of vegetation. In the
near infrared (NIR) region, the reflectance is much higher than that in the visible band due to the cellular
structure in the leaves. Hence, vegetation can be identified by the high NIR but generally low visible
reflectances. This property has been used in early reconnaisance missions during war times for
"camouflage detection". The following graph shows the typical reflectance spectral of five materials: clear
water, turbid water, bare soil and two types of vegetation (healty and stress).

Four main factors influence the bare soil reflectance in remote sensing images: mineral
composition, soil moisture, organic matter content and soil texture (surface). Size and shape of the soil
aggregate also influence the reflectance in the images. The mineral composition of soils affect the
reflectance spectrum. Increasing reflectance of soils occurs from the visible to the shortwave infrared -
with absorption bands around 1.4 um and 1.9 um related to the amount of moisture in the soil. Radar
waves may not be able to penetrate soil if it is moist. On the soil reflectance spectra, this soil moisture
will develop parallel curves. Moisture of soil has an equal effect over the spectrum and the ration between
the spectral bands. Spectral bands of red and near-infrared bands are independent from the soil moisture.
The soil line of the soil reflectance spectral, characterizes the soil type, defines negetation indices, and
corrects the plant canopy reflectances from the optical soil property effects. This soil line also represents
the relationship between the red and the near-infrared soil reflectances. Where red (Soil) = soil
reflectance in the red band, nir (soil) = soil reflectance in the near - infrared band.
 Spectral reflectance curves for bare soils at various moisture contacts
Source: Bowers and Hanks (1965)

According to Hoffer (1978), different types of Vegetation also can detected using remote sensing.
Photographic texture (smoothness and coarseness of images), total contrast or colour, relative sizes of
crown images at a given photo scale and topographic location help to determine the cover types of
vegetation. Aerial photographs, color infrared and black and white infrared photographs help to identify
species (plants and trees). Species are more easily distinguished if they occur in pure, even-aged stands.
Through the photographs, details of branching characteristics, crown shapes, spatial distribution and
patterns of species may show, providing useful data for the interpreter. This information can then be
combined and added to the remote sensing images. Regression equations can then be developed for each
species or species group for use in volume estimation. Different types of images will display diverse
characteristics of vegetation. For example, AVHRR (Advance Very High Resolution Radiometer) will include
bands that produce different results:

Band 1 of AVHRR will allow chlorophyll to be absorbed in a red wavelength. A low value indicates
a high concentration of chlorophyll.
Band 2 of AVHRR includes infrared wavelengths (IR, RIR) and records the cell structure of the
leaves. High values are indicated by dark green signatures and more growth, while low values are
indicated by orange signatures.

Other satellites that successfully identify vegetation types include the Landsat MSS, Landsat TM,
SPOT HRV and RADARSAT. Satellite images can be combined with topographic data (ancillary data), to
identify plant species with relation to slope direction, sun angles and other spectral characteristics. This is
known as "Multitemporal Image Classification". The technique of combining multispectral and ancillary
information into a classification algorithm is referred to as "Multidimensional Image Classification"
(Wiliams, 1992).
 Water has a lowest reflectance, if compared to vegetation and bare soils. Water may reflect only
up to 10% of the incident energy (Klaus, 2001). Water reflect electromagnetic energy in the visible light
and a little in the near infrared. Beyond 1,2 um, all energy is absorbed. Spectral reflection curves different
types of water and depth. Turbid water achieves the highest reflectance. Water which containing plants
has a pronounced reflectance peak for green light because of the chlorophyll of the plants.

Typical of water reflectance: (a) ocean water, (b) turbid water, (c) water with chlorophyll (Kraus, 1998)
References

Campbell, J. B. (2002). Introduction to remote sensing (3rd ed.). The Guilford Press. ISBN 1-57230-640-8.

Lillesand, T. M.; R. W. Kiefer; J. W. Chipman (2003). Remote sensing and image interpretation (5th ed.).
Wiley. ISBN 0-471-15227-7.

Williams, J.A. 1992. "Vegetation Classification Using Landsat TM and SPOT-HRV Imagery in Mountainous
Terrain, Kananaskis Country, S.W. Alberta". Environmental Management, Canmore, Alberta.

Hoffer, R.M. (1978) Biological and physical considerations in applying computer-aided analysis techniques
to remote sensor data. In Swain, P.H. and Davis, S.M. (Eds.), Remote Sensing: The Quantitative
Approach, McGraw- Hill Book Company, New York, 227-289.

K. et al, Kraus. 1998. User Manual SCOP. University of Technology Vienna, Austria

Tempfli, Klaus. 2001. Principles of Remote Sensing: An Introductionary Textbook. ITC, Enschede,
Netherlands

Avery, Thomas Eugene. 1992. Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Airphoto Interpretation. Prentice Hall

Colwell, Robert N. 1983. Manual of Remote Sensing. American Socienty of Photogrammetry

Lindgren, David T. 1985. Land Use Planning and Remote Sensing. Nijhoff

Wilson, B.A. 1991. Spatial and Spectral Classification Methods in Remote Sensing. Compute Geoscience.

Rango, Albert. 1975. Applications of Remote Sensing to Watershed Management. Goddard Space Flight
Center. Greenbelt, Maryland