Reading (process)

Miss Auras, by John Lavery, depicts a woman reading a book

Reading is a complex "cognitive process" of decoding

symbols in order to construct or derive meaning (reading
comprehension). Reading is a means of language acqui-
sition, communication, and of sharing information and
ideas. Like all languages, it is a complex interaction be-
tween the text and the reader which is shaped by the
readers prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and lan-
guage community which is culturally and socially situ-
ated. The reading process requires continuous practice,
development, and renement. In addition, reading re-
quires creativity and critical analysis. Consumers of lit-
erature make ventures with each piece, innately deviat-
ing from literal words to create images that make sense
to them in the unfamiliar places the texts describe. Be-
cause reading is such a complex process, it cannot be con-
trolled or restricted to one or two interpretations. There
are no concrete laws in reading, but rather allows read-
ers an escape to produce their own products introspec-
tively. This promotes deep exploration of texts during
interpretation.[1] Readers use a variety of reading strate-
gies to assist with decoding (to translate symbols into
sounds or visual representations of speech) and compre-
hension. Readers may use context clues to identify the
meaning of unknown words. Readers integrate the words
they have read into their existing framework of knowl-
edge or schema (schemata theory).
Youth reading, Persian miniature by Reza Abbasi (1625-6)
Other types of reading are not speech based writing sys-
tems, such as music notation or pictograms. The common
link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the mean-
ing from the visual notations or tactile signals (as in the
case of Braille).
1 Overview
Currently most reading is either of the printed word from
ink or toner on paper, such as in a book, magazine,
newspaper, leaet, or notebook, or of electronic displays,
such as computer displays, television, mobile phones or
e-readers. Handwritten text may also be produced using
a graphite pencil or a pen. Short texts may be written or
painted on an object.
Often the text relates to the object, such as an address

1
2 2
Volunteer reads to a girl at the Casa Hogar de las Nias in Mexico For humans, reading is usually faster and easier than writ-
City
Girl Reading (1889), by Fritz von Uhde. Oil paint on canvas
on an envelope, product info on packaging, or text on a
trac or street sign. A slogan may be painted on a wall.
A text may also be produced by arranging stones of a dif-
ferent color in a wall or road. Short texts like these are
sometimes referred to as environmental print.
Sometimes text or images are in relief, with or without
using a color contrast. Words or images can be carved in
stone, wood, or metal; instructions can be printed in relief
on the plastic housing of a home appliance, or myriad
other examples.
A requirement for reading is a good contrast between let-
ters and background (depending on colors of letters and
background, any pattern or image in the background, and
lighting) and a suitable font size. In the case of a com-
puter screen, it is important to be able to see an entire
line of text without scrolling.
READING SKILLS
The eld of visual word recognition studies how people
read individual words.[2][3][4] A key technique in study-
ing how individuals read text is eye tracking. This has
revealed that reading is performed as a series of eye
xations with saccades between them. Humans also do
not appear to xate on every word in a text, but instead
xate to some words while apparently lling in the miss-
ing information using context. This is possible because
human languages show certain linguistic regularities.
The process of recording information to be read later is
writing. In the case of computer and microche storage
there is the separate step of displaying the written text.
ing.
Reading is typically an individual activity, although on
occasion a person will read out loud for the benet of
other listeners. Reading aloud for ones own use, for bet-
ter comprehension, is a form of intrapersonal communi-
cation: in the early 1970s[5] has been proposed the dual-
route hypothesis to reading aloud, accordingly to which
there were two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive
routes, that are involved in this case, with output of both
mechanisms contributing to the pronunciation of a writ-
ten stimulus.[5][6][7]
Reading to young children is a recommended way to in-
still language and expression, and to promote comprehen-
sion of text. Personalised books for children are recom-
mended to improve engagement in reading by featuring
the child themselves in the story.
Before the reintroduction of separated text in the late
Middle Ages, the ability to read silently was considered
rather remarkable.[8]
2 Reading skills
Main article: Learning to read
Literacy is the ability to use the symbols of a writ-
ing system. It is the ability to interpret what the infor-
mation symbols represent, and to be able to re-create
those same symbols so that others can derive the same
meaning. Illiteracy is the inability to derive meaning
from the symbols used in a writing system. Dyslexia
refers to a cognitive diculty with reading and writing.
It is dened as brain-based type of learning disability
that specically impairs a persons ability to read.[9] The
term dyslexia can refer to two disorders: developmental
dyslexia[10][11][12][13] which is a learning disability; alexia
(acquired dyslexia) refers to reading diculties that oc-
cur following brain damage, stroke, or progressive ill-
ness.[14][15]
Major predictors of an individuals ability to read both
alphabetic and nonalphabetic scripts are phonological
awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ.[16]
Being taught to read at an early age (such as ve years old)
does not ultimately result in better reading skills, and if
2.2 Methods
Addy Vannasy reads aloud to children at a village Discovery
Day in Laos. Reading aloud is a common technique for im-
proving literacy rates. Big Brother Mouse, which organized the
event, trains its sta in read-aloud techniques: Make eye contact
with the audience. Change your voice. Pause occasionally for
dramatic eect.
it replaces more developmentally appropriate activities,
then it may cause other harms.[17]
2.1 Skill development
Both lexical and sub-lexical cognitive processes con-
tribute to how we learn to read. There are several types and methods of reading, with dif-
fering rates that can be attained for each, for dierent
kinds of material and purposes:
2.1.1 Sub-lexical reading
Sub-lexical reading,[18][19][20][21] involves teaching read-
ing by associating characters or groups of characters with
sounds or by using phonics or synthetic phonics learn-
ing and teaching methodology, sometimes argued to be
in competition with whole language methods.
2.1.2 Lexical reading
Lexical reading[18][19][20][21] involves acquiring words or
phrases without attention to the characters or groups of
characters that compose them or by using whole language
learning and teaching methodology. Sometimes argued
to be in competition with phonics and synthetic phonics
methods, and that the whole language approach tends to
impair learning how to spell.
Other methods of teaching and learning to read have de-
veloped, and become somewhat controversial.[22]
Learning to read in a second language, especially in
adulthood, may be a dierent process than learning to
read a native language in childhood. There are cases of
very young children learning to read without having been
taught.[23] Such was the case with Truman Capote who
reportedly taught himself to read and write at the age of
ve. There are also accounts of people who taught them-
selves to read by comparing street signs or Biblical pas-
3
sages to speech. The novelist Nicholas Delbanco taught
himself to read at age six during a transatlantic crossing
by studying a book about boats.
Brain activity in young and older children can be used
to predict future reading skill. Cross model mapping be-
tween the orthographic and phonologic areas in the brain
are critical in reading. Thus, the amount of activation
in the left dorsal inferior frontal gyrus while performing
reading tasks can be used to predict later reading ability
and advancement. Young children with higher phonolog-
ical word characteristic processing have signicantly bet-
ter reading skills later on than older children who focus
on whole-word orthographic representation.[24]
2.2 Methods
Reading is an intensive process in which the eye quickly moves to
assimilate text. Very little is actually seen accurately. It is neces-
sary to understand visual perception and eye movement in order
to understand the reading process.[25]
Subvocalized reading combines sight reading with
internal sounding of the words as if spoken. Advo-
cates of speed reading claim it can be a bad habit that
slows reading and comprehension, but other stud-
ies indicate the reverse, particularly with dicult
texts.[26][27]
Speed reading is a collection of methods for increas-
ing reading speed without an unacceptable reduc-
tion in comprehension or retention. Methods in-
clude skimming or the chunking of words in a body
of text to increase the rate of reading. It is closely
connected to speed learning.
Proofreading is a kind of reading for the purpose
of detecting typographical errors. One can learn to
do it rapidly, and professional proofreaders typically
acquire the ability to do so at high rates, faster for
some kinds of material than for others, while they
may largely suspend comprehension while doing so,
except when needed to select among several possible
words that a suspected typographic error allows.
Rereading is reading a book more than once. One
cannot read a book: one can only reread it,
Vladimir Nabokov once said.[28] A paper published
in the Journal of Consumer Research (Cristel An-
tonia (2012)) found re-reading oers mental health
4 3 ASSESSMENT
benets because it allows for a more profound emo-
tional connection and self-reection, versus the rst
reading which is more focused on the events and
plot.[29]
Many take notes while reading.
Structure-proposition-evaluation (SPE) method, pop-
ularized by Mortimer Adler in How to Read a Book,
mainly for non-ction treatise, in which one reads
a writing in three passes: (1) for the structure of
the work, which might be represented by an out-
line; (2) for the logical propositions made, organized
into chains of inference; and (3) for evaluation of
the merits of the arguments and conclusions. This
method involves suspended judgment of the work
or its arguments until they are fully understood.
Survey-question-read-recite-review (SQ3R) method,
often taught in public schools, which involves read-
ing toward being able to teach what is read, and
would be appropriate for instructors preparing to
teach material without having to refer to notes dur-
ing the lecture.
Multiple intelligences-based methods, which draw
upon the readers diverse ways of thinking and
knowing to enrich his or her appreciation of the text.
Reading is fundamentally a linguistic activity: one
can basically comprehend a text without resorting to
other intelligences, such as the visual (e.g., mentally
seeing characters or events described), auditory
(e.g., reading aloud or mentally hearing sounds de-
scribed), or even the logical intelligence (e.g., con-
sidering what if scenarios or predicting how the
Reader, a painting by Honor Daumier.
text will unfold based on context clues). However,
most readers already use several intelligences while
reading, and making a habit of doing so in a more
disciplined manneri.e., constantly, or after every
paragraphcan result in more vivid, memorable ex-
perience.
Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) reading in-
volves presenting the words in a sentence one word
at a time at the same location on the display screen,
at a specied eccentricity. RSVP eliminates inter-
word saccades, limits intra-word saccades, and pre-
vents reader control of xation times (Legge, Mans-
eld, & Chung, 2001). RSVP controls for dier-
ences in reader eye movement, and consequently is
often used to measure reading speed in experiments.
3 Assessment
Further information: Speed reading, English language
learning and teaching, and Proofreading
Note: the data from Taylor (English) and Landerl (Ger-
man) are based on texts of increasing diculty; other
data were obtained when all age groups were reading the
same text.
Rates of reading include reading for memorization (fewer
than 100 words per minute [wpm]); reading for learning
(100200 wpm); reading for comprehension (200400
3.1 Types of tests 5

dierent reading aids for adults with low vision.[32]

3.1 Types of tests

Sight word reading: reading words of increasing dif-
culty until they become unable to read or under-
stand the words presented to them. Diculty is ma-
nipulated by using words that have more letters or
syllables, are less common and have more compli-
cated spellingsound relationships.
Nonword reading: reading lists of pronounceable
nonsense words out loud. The diculty is increased
by using longer words, and also by using words with
more complex spelling or sound sequences.[33]
Average reading rate in words per minute (wpm) depending on
age and measured with dierent tests in English, French and Reading comprehension: a passage is presented to
German the reader, which they must read either silently or
out loud. Then a series of questions are presented
that test the readers comprehension of this passage.
wpm); and skimming (400700 wpm). Reading for com-
prehension is the essence of the daily reading of most Reading uency: the rate with which individuals can
people. Skimming is for supercially processing large name words.
quantities of text at a low level of comprehension (below
Reading accuracy: the ability to correctly name a
50%).
word on a page.
Scientic studies have demonstrated that reading
dened here as capturing and decoding all the words on Some tests incorporate several of the above components
every pagefaster than 900 wpm is not feasible given the at once. For instance, the Nelson-Denny Reading Test
limits set by the anatomy of the eye.[30] scores readers both on the speed with which they can read
Advice for choosing the appropriate reading-rate includes a passage, and also their ability to accurately answer ques-
reading exibly, slowing when concepts are closely pre- tions about this passage. Recent research has questioned
sented and when the material is new, and increasing when the validity of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test, especially
[34]
the material is familiar and of thin concept. Speed read- with regard to the identication of reading disabilities.
ing courses and books often encourage the reader to con-
tinually accelerate; comprehension tests lead the reader to
believe his or her comprehension is continually improv- 4 Timed Reading
ing; yet, competence-in-reading requires knowing that
skimming is dangerous, as a default habit. Timed Reading is an educational tool used in many
Reading speed requires a long time to reach adult lev- schools to improve and advance reading skills. Timed
els. The table to the right shows how reading-rate varies reading involves the use of various strategies in conjunc-
with age,[31] regardless of the period (1965 to 2005) and tion with in-class exercises and extensive timed read-
the language (English, French, German). The Taylor val- ing. Timed reading isn't reading as-fast-as-you-can over
ues probably are higher, for disregarding students who a passage and simply marking the gradual improvement
failed the comprehension test. The reading test by the (if there are any). It involves reading strategies via the
French psychologist Pierre Lefavrais (L'alouette, pub- teachers instruction. Training in strategic use is what
lished in 1967) tested reading aloud, with a penalty for timed reading promotes and reects what Devine means
errors, and could, therefore, not be a rate greater than by, "...training enhances the metacognitive knowledge
150 wpm. According to Carver (1990), childrens read- base of readers and results in improved reading perfor-
ing speed increases throughout the school years. On av- mance."(Devine 1993)[35][36]
erage, from grade 2 to college, reading rate increases 14
standard-length words per minute each year (where one
standard-length word is dened as six characters in text, 5 Cognitive benets
including punctuation and spaces).
Reading speed has been used as a measure in research to Reading books and writing are among brain-stimulating
determine the eect of interventions on human vision. activities shown to slow down cognitive decline in old age,
A Cochrane Systematic Review used reading speed in with people who participated in more mentally stimulat-
words per minute as the primary outcome in comparing ing activities over their lifetimes having a slower rate of
6 9 REFERENCES

decline in memory and other mental capacities.[37] Read- 7 History

ing for pleasure has been linked to increased cognitive
progress in vocabulary and mathematics during adoles- The history of reading dates back to the invention of
cence. [38][39] Moreover, the cognitive benets of reading writing during the 4th millennium BC. Although reading
continue into mid-life and old age.[40][41][42]
6 Eects
Night reading has benets to calm the nerves by eliminating ex-
cess sound and vision stimulus resulting in better sleep.
print text is now an important way for the general pop-
ulation to access information, this has not always been
the case. With some exceptions, only a small percent-
age of the population in many countries was considered
literate before the Industrial Revolution. Some of the
pre-modern societies with generally high literacy rates in-
cluded classical Athens and the Islamic Caliphate.[43]
Scholars assume that reading aloud (Latin clare leg-
ere) was the more common practice in antiquity, and
that reading silently (legere tacite or legere sibi) was
unusual.[44] In his Confessions, Saint Augustine remarks
on Saint Ambrose's unusual habit of reading silently in
the 4th century AD.[44][45]
During the Age of Enlightenment, elite individuals pro-
moted passive reading, rather than creative interpretation.
Reading has no concrete laws, but rather allows readers
an escape to produce their own products introspectively,
promoting deep exploration of texts during interpreta-
tion. Construction, or the creation of writing and pro-
ducing a product, was believed to be a sign of initiative
and active participation in society, while consumption or
reading, was viewed as simply taking in what construc-
tors made.[1] Also during this era, writing was considered
superior to reading in society. Readers during this time
were considered passive citizens, simply because they did
not produce a product. Michel de Certeau argued that the
elites of the Age of Enlightenment were responsible for
this general belief. Michel de Certeau believed that read-
ing required venturing into an authors land, but taking
away what the reader wanted specically. Writing was
viewed as a superior art to reading during this period, due
to the hierarchical constraints the era initiated.[1]

8 See also
Men reading
9 References

6.1 Lighting 9.1 Notes

Reading from paper and from some screens requires more
lighting than many other activities. Therefore, the pos-
sibility of doing this comfortably in cafs, restaurants,
buses, at bus stops or in parks greatly varies depending
on available lighting and time of day.
Reading from screens which produce their own light is
less dependent on external light, except that this may be
easier with little external light. For controlling what is
on the screen (scrolling, turning the page, etc.), a touch
screen or keyboard illumination further reduces the de-
pendency on external light.
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8 10 FURTHER READING
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10 Further reading
Bainbridge, Joyce; Malicky, Grace (2000). Con-
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Banai K, Hornickel J, Skoe E, Nicol T, Zecker S,
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2758683 . PMID 19293398.
Bulling, Andreas; Ward, Jamie A.; Gellersen, Hans;
Trster, Gerhard (2008). Robust Recognition of
Reading Activity in Transit Using Wearable Elec-
trooculography. Pervasive Computing. Springer
Berlin / Heidelberg. pp. 1937. doi:10.1007/978-
3-540-79576-6_2. ISBN 978-3-540-79575-9.
Burke, Peter; Briggs, Asa (2002). A social history
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bridge, UK: Polity. ISBN 0-7456-2375-1.
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Heim S, Friederici AD (November 2003).
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America (pdf)
11 External links
Noble KG, McCandliss BD (October 2005).
Reading development and impairment: behavioral,
social, and neurobiological factors. Journal of
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(June 2005). Reading depends on writing, in Chi-
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Turkeltaub PE, Flowers DL, Lyon LG, Eden GF
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Valdois S, Habib M, Cohen L (May 2008). "[The
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ing rate
International Reading Association ocial website
Stebbins, R.A. (2013) The Committed Reader:
Reading for Utility, Pleasure, and Fulllment in the
Twenty-First century. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow.
10 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
Reading (process) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_(process)?oldid=765713752 Contributors: Lee Daniel Crocker, Wes-
ley, Tarquin, Andre Engels, William Avery, Hotlorp, Mrwojo, Patrick, Boud, TakuyaMurata, CatherineMunro, Angela, Kingturtle, Andres,
Qqq, Haukurth, Morwen, Ed g2s, Morven, Jusjih, Neoncow, Robminchin, LGagnon, Wereon, Centrx, Elf, MSGJ, Tea Tzu, Christopherlin,
Robsteadman, Utcursch, Alexf, Zeimusu, AndrewKeenanRichardson, Bodnotbod, Icairns, Herrick~enwiki, Gscshoyru, Neutrality, Chris
j wood, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Florian Blaschke, LindsayH, Bobo192, Guiltyspark, La goutte de pluie, Arthena, Carbon Cary-
atid, Lectonar, Malo, Sheynhertz-Unbayg, Woohookitty, Scriberius, Djh, Meeso, Dolfrog, Dysepsion, Graham87, BD2412, Ketiltrout,
Sj, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Gareth McCaughan, Afterwriting, MarnetteD, Titoxd, Cbvt, Old Moonraker, Twipley, Nihiltres, CarolGray,
Wavelength, Borgx, Samuel Wiki, Chris Capoccia, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Neilbeach, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Di-
alectric, Wrightchr, Ragesoss, Moe Epsilon, Wangi, DeadEyeArrow, Zzuuzz, Warfreak, Josh3580, NeilN, DVD R W, SmackBot, Un-
school, Janhunt, DCDuring, Jagged 85, TDWolsey, Eskimbot, The Collector, Gilliam, Persian Poet Gal, Master of Puppets, SchftyThree,
Octahedron80, Ctbolt, Javierme, Hongooi, Scray, Amazins490, COMPFUNK2, Duckbill, Richard001, MartinRe, DMacks, Kuru, Za-
phraud, J 1982, Deditos, Ckatz, 16@r, Waggers, Hikitsurisan~enwiki, Pjrm, Woodroar, Shoeofdeath, Gunstar hero, Fsotrain09, Netol,
Sangil~enwiki, HennessyC, Woudloper, The Font, Cydebot, Jayla, Gogo Dodo, Quibik, DumbBOT, Epbr123, Mojo Hand, Headbomb,
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normah, VoABot II, Transcendence, JNW, JamesBWatson, GridEpsilon, Davebraze, Wikimike01, Catgut, WhatamIdoing, Mkdw, Vs-
sun, Esanchez7587, Dirigible Plum, Flowanda, Hdt83, MartinBot, Love Krittaya, Taop, Dahliarose, Victuallers, Anonywiki, LittleHow,
Cometstyles, Greatestrowerever, Vanished user 39948282, Funandtrvl, Armarshall, Orphic, Cadby Waydell Bainbrydge, Ergonaut, Teddey,
Taranah, Olly150, Andreas Kaganov, JhsBot, Divine time, UnitedStatesian, BotKung, JLarese, Jaredstein, Lova Falk, HiDrNick, Doc
James, Markdraper, SieBot, Hillsey7, Dookiefart, Winchelsea, Yintan, Mangostar, Calabraxthis, Bob C. Cleckler, Keilana, Flyer22 Re-
born, Feit13, Nopetro, Oxymoron83, Johnmiedema, Mattrognlie, Esteban Colberto 666, Kostatoronto3, Pediainsight, Kalaao, Rosmoran,
Thelmadatter, Scottyoak2, Mygerardromance, Maralia, Mr. Stradivarius, Steephill11, Denisarona, Jcarter1965, Randy Kryn, Buyused,
Khirurg, Mx. Granger, ClueBot, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, UserDoe, Drmies, Uncle Milty, Niceguyedc, Fonespiders, Cpt-
CutLess, Deathman50432, Takeaway, Excirial, Jusdafax, Wikitumnus, GraovacMas214, Okiefromokla, EivindJ, Aleksd, Thingg, Aitias,
Switch111, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, Aspitze4, XLinkBot, Learjetsuperkingairmechanic, ChyranandChloe, Mitch Ames, Finoman40000,
Pfguitar111, Addbot, Xp54321, Halosean, Fyrael, Soulstrialhaha, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Hans-Werner34, Tankh, Sunburnt36, Tide
rolls, Ann Logsdon, Wikiuser740238, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Becky Sayles, Sauceman88, Max, Raimundo Pastor, AnomieBOT,
Panther991, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Joannacarter112065, LilHelpa, JimVC3, Dfg13, Srich32977, Crzer07, Petropoxy (Lithoderm
Proxy), Ita140188, RibotBOT, Seeleschneider, RCraig09, DJScias, SchnitzelMannGreek, Grinofwales, Green Cardamom, Tobby72,
Unitanode, Doremo, Citation bot 1, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Edderso, SpaceFlight89, Tanzania, RandomStringOfCharacters, Juju-
tacular, Bgpaulus, Blue Plover, Spdrder, Missbutsie, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, ItsZippy, Vrenator, Tbhotch, Mean as custard, Bento00,
DexDor, Deagle AP, LcawteHuggle, DASHBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Syncategoremata, Sandkdog, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka,
ZroBot, Noted trip3, Cymru.lass, Faris knight, AManWithNoPlan, ThomasMagnus, Elux777, M92S06F09, L Kensington, Donner60,
Bulwersator, Aubart1027, Carmichael, ChuispastonBot, D1234d1234d1234d1234, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, Peter James, Jessiedavin,
Satellizer, Goose friend, Vacation9, Ytrewq17, MerlIwBot, Gracetupelo, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Man nual,
Blahriu, , Jnhmunro, CatColetti, Shuggz98, WaterNixie, Jeuo1011, Alk4hgirl, Rerumcognitionis, Achowat, Toxicmegacolonlap-
top, Mematthews, AlexisReed5, EuroCarGT, Whileworth, Webclient101, Mogism, Me, Myself, and I are Here, ThreeTreeTrolls, Estevick,
Stanisom, Johnscotaus, Kfjngjk, Nakitu, Herfjerf, Botaurus-stellaris, Paul2520, Noyster, Trixie05, Clarkal1, Gunslinger fred, SaquibU,
Monkbot, Haroldok, Abcdef55555, Kachenjera, 3primetime3, Jbrchamp13, Nithin.danday, Loodte, Thamersley23, KasparBot, Jtrefry1,
Vipchaouki, CAPTAIN RAJU, Usr2357, Mysticraccoon, Bubblzrcool01, Mayasai, Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia2017, Ayin-
laadeyinka, Htran1111, Wishwecanturnbacktime and Anonymous: 350

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