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LIBRARY
{}{\0 STATE UNIVERSITY
|&OC
gd an e-24-34 V
GEO
GE75B9) v-293, c=& -0.
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+ 2 of 3
Age and Origin of
Fluvial Terraces in the
Central Coast Range,
Western Oregon
By STEPHEN F. PERSONIUS
#. *]; 7+|
01-141-00 se
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
For sale by
USGS Map Distribution
Box 25286, Building 810
Denver Federal Center
Denver, CO 80225
Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and
does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government
Personius, Stephen F.
Age and origin of fluvial terraces in the central Coast Range, western Oregon / by
Stephen F. Personius.
cm. (U.S. Geological Survey bulletin ; 2038)
Includes bibliographical references.
Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.3:B2038
1. Terraces (Gcology)Oregon. 2. Terraces (Geology)Coast
Ranges. I. Title. II. Series.
QE75.B9 no. 2038
[GB595.07]
557.3 sdc20 9223352
[551.4'42] CIP
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IV CONTENTS
DiscussionContinued
Relations Between the PHT and Other Coast Range Terraces................................... 52
Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 52
Acknowledgments................................................................................................................. 53
References Cited ................................................................................................................... 53
PLATES
Generalized map of terraces along the lower Umpqua River, central Coast Range, western Oregon.
Generalized map of terraces along the lower Smith River, central Coast Range, western Oregon.
: Generalized map of terraces along the lower Siuslaw River, central Coast Range, western Oregon.
Generalized map of terraces along the lower Siletz River, central Coast Range, western Oregon.
FIGURES
; Map showing the location of major rivers in western Oregon and Washington.........................................................
Stratigraphic columns of three fluvial terrace exposures along the Umpqua River where both thermoluminescence
(TL) and radiocarbon samples were collected ............................................................................................................
3
9
Stratigraphic columns of radiocarbon-dated fluvial sediments used to calculate sedimentation rates........................ 13
Longitudinal profile of terraces along the lower reach of the Umpqua River............................................................. 15
: Photograph of PHT (Pleistocene-Holocene transition) terrace on the Umpqua River near McGee Creek.................
Rod-and-level profile of stripped bedrock strath and PHT (Pleistocene-Holocene transition) terrace near
McGee Creek on the Umpqua River...........................................................................................................................
16
17
Stratigraphic column from a PHT (Pleistocene-Holocene transition) terrace exposure near McGee Creek at
station 88U2............................................ 18
Stratigraphic column from a terrace exposure about 2 km downstream from the highway bridge near Scottsburg
at station 87-U14....................................................... 18
10. Stratigraphic column of a low terrace near the Brandy Bar on the Umpqua River at station 87U13....................... 19
11. Diagrammatic topographic profiles of fluvial and marine terraces in the Reedsport area.......................................... 22
12. Stratigraphic column of an intermediate terrace in Reedsport at station 87U21 ....................................................... 23
13. Stratigraphic columns of two exposures of the high terrace underlying the town of Reedsport................................. 24
14. Stratigraphic column of an exposure of a high terrace along Crestview Drive near Reedsport at station 87U19.... 25
15. Stratigraphic column from an exposure of a high terrace along Henderer Road at station 87U1............................. 26
16. Stratigraphic columns of two exposures of an intermediate terrace along Henderer Road......................................... 28
17. Longitudinal profile of terraces along the lower reach of the Smith River................................................................. 29
18. Stratigraphic column of a terrace exposure on Vincent Creek near the confluence with the Smith River at
station 87-US7.. 30
19. Stratigraphic columns of two terrace exposures upstream from Smith River Falls near Bear Creek......................... 31
20. Diagrammatic topographic profile of the present valley bottom in an abandoned meander bend on the
Smith River.. 32
21. Stratigraphic columns of terrace exposures in The Island on the Smith River........................................................... 33
22. Stratigraphic columns of terrace exposures in the abandoned mender bend near Brainard Creek on the
Smith River... 34
23. Stratigraphic column of an exposure of a high terrace on the Smith River at station 87US2................................... 35
24. Topographic profile across the Siuslaw River near river km. 22.5.............................................................................. 37
25. Longitudinal profile of terraces along the lower reach of the Siuslaw River.............................................................. 38
26. Stratigraphic column of an exposure of a possible PHT (Pleistocene-Holocene transition) terrace at station 88Sl
on the Siuslaw River.................................. 39
CONTENTS V
27. Stratigraphic columns of exposures of several high terraces on the Siuslaw River.................................................... 40
28. Photograph of basal fluvial gravels overlying sandstone bedrock in a high terrace east of Hanson Creek at
station 87-S2............................................................................................................................................................... 41
29. Longitudinal profile of terraces along the lower reach of the Siletz River.................................................................. 42
30. Stratigraphic columns of exposures of Holocene terraces on the Siletz River............................................................ 44
31. Stratigraphic columns of exposures of late Pleistocene terraces on the Siletz River.................................................. 45
32. Examples of stratigraphic columns of exposures of older terraces on the Siletz River............................................... 47
33. Map of lower Coquille River showing locations of the towns of Bandon, Coquille, and Myrtle Point, and the
confluences of the North, Middle, and South Forks of the Coquille River................................................................. 48
34. Map of the flood plain of the Coquille River near Coquille........................................................................................ 49
35. Stratigraphic columns of two auger cores in abandoned channels on the Coquille River flood plain........................ 50
TABLES
British Columbia
A. North
50 L , American
A Plate
2.
* A
-
2:
Washington
a A * *... alve
// Plate | columbia."
A
45 H
; *
: i
* O r 9 O n
Pacific
Plate
40 -
- I l l I 1 l 1 1A
Figure 1. Map showing regional tectonic setting of the Pacific Northwest, locations of major mountain ranges,
and locations of volcanoes in the Cascade Range (triangles); after Rogers (1988) and Spence (1989).
although several recent studies have addressed deforma others, 1990; Nelson, 1992; Nelson and Personius, 1991).
tion of Quaternary deposits along the Oregon and Wash In this report, I discuss the distribution of terraces along
ington coasts (Adams, 1984; Atwater, 1987, 1992; West several rivers in the central Coast Range of western
and McCrumb, 1988; Darienzo and Peterson, 1990; Oregon, the methods and results of terrace dating and pos
Kelsey, 1990; McInelly and Kelsey, 1990; Muhs and sible controls on terrace formation as the basis for a
INTRODUCTION
Washington
QD
O)
C
(U
OC
46 H
s Siletz River
Yaquina River
Alsea River
44 H. Siuslaw River
Smith River
Umpqua River
Coos Bay
Coquille River
Sixes River
Elk .."
Cape
Blanco
42
|
Figure 2. Map showing the location of major rivers in western Oregon and Washington. Heavier lines mark
reaches of rivers examined in this study.
separate study of fluvial terraces as recorders of Quater Rivers (fig. 2). The first four rivers were chosen because
nary deformation in this region. they all flow through similar bedrock and have several
The rivers chosen for this study are, from north to ages of fluvial terraces preserved along their lengths; the
south, the Siletz, Siuslaw, Smith, Umpqua, and Coquille Coquille River was included in this study because of its
4 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
location in a region of known Quaternary deformation. are about 16C and mean winter temperatures are about
With the exception of the Smith River, which flows into 7C; temperatures inland in the Coast Range are also mild,
the Umpqua River about 18 km from the coast, all rivers but show wider variations. Despite the rugged topogra
examined in this study are trunk streams that ultimately phy, abundant rainfall and mild temperatures combine to
flow into the Pacific Ocean. make the Coast Range one of the most productive and
heavily logged forest regions in the country.
Very little is known about Quaternary paleoclimates
GEOMORPHIC SETTING of the region, but the Coast Range was probably not glaci
ated during late Pleistocene glaciations that affected the
The Coast Range in Oregon is a rugged mountain higher parts of the Olympic Mountains to the north, the
range of moderate elevation that has been deeply dissected Klamath Mountains to the south, and the Cascade Moun
by fluvial incision. Relief is substantial although maxi tains to the east (Porter and others, 1983). Pollen studies
mum elevations only reach about 1,250 m; the highest ele in southern Washington and northern California indicate
vations in the drainages examined in this study are less cold, dry conditions during the late Wisconsin glacial
than 800 m. Trunk streams in the Coast Range are usually maximum, followed by cool, more humid conditions in
entrenched in deep valleys, which indicates probable the latest Pleistocene; warmer, drier conditions than today
stream antecedence. Valley shapes and variations in river are thought to have been prevalent during the early and
profiles (Rhea, 1993) and numerous examples of stream middle Holocene, which were followed by cooler, wetter
capture in the Coast Range (Niem, 1976; Baldwin, 1981) climatic conditions in the late Holocene (Heusser, 1983,
are probably indicative of long-term Quaternary uplift. 1985; Barnosky, 1985; Adam, 1988). These patterns are
Steep slopes and abundant rainfall aid in the formation of consistent with other late Quaternary paleoclimate studies
accumulations of colluvium on most slopes; periodic land in the Western United States (for example, Baker, 1983;
sliding of thicker colluvial deposits from bedrock hollows COHMAP, 1988).
is one of the dominant processes by which sediment is
delivered to stream channels in the Coast Range (Pierson,
1977; Dietrich and Dunne, 1978; Benda and Dunne, 1987; BEDROCK GEOLOGY
McDowell, 1987; Benda, 1990). Other Quaternary features
and deposits in the region include marine terraces and Most of the central Coast Range is underlain by a
sand dunes along the coast, estuarine and salt marsh sequence of Eocene and younger sedimentary and volca
deposits in the tidal reaches of coastal rivers, scattered nic rocks (Wells and Peck, 1961; Walker and Duncan,
landslides, and fluvial terrace deposits along Coast Range 1989) deposited in a forearc basin during an earlier phase
StreamS. of subduction (Snavely, 1987). Most of the study area is
underlain by the Eocene Tyee Formation, a thick
sequence of arkosic and lithic turbidite sandstone and silt
CLIMATE stone. Minor felsic volcanic and intrusive rocks are found
throughout the Coast Range; many of these igneous out
The geomorphology of the Coast Range is strongly crops form resistant cores that underlie the highest peaks
influenced by the temperate, humid climate of the region. in the range. The predominant structures in bedrock are
Rainfall is abundant and strongly influenced by elevation. north- and northeast-trending folds and northeast- and
Annual amounts are about 150 cm near the mouth of the northwest-trending high-angle faults (Wells and Peck,
Coquille River and 180200 cm near the mouths of the 1961; Peterson and others, 1986; Snavely, 1987; Walker
Umpqua, Siuslaw, and Siletz Rivers; annual amounts are and Duncan, 1989).
250300 cm in the Coast Range headwaters of the
Coquille, Umpqua, Smith, and Siuslaw Rivers, and
450500 cm in the headwaters of the Siletz River (Oregon
METHODS
State Water Resources Board, 1958, 1965; Beaulieu and
Hughes, 1975; Schlicker and others, 1973; Schlicker and TERRACE DATING METHODS
Deacon, 1974). Most precipitation occurs as rain during
the winter months (November to March). Snow occurs RADIOCARBON DATING
above elevations of about 600 m, but only persists on the
ground for more than a day or two above elevations of Because of the heavy forest cover and frequent forest
about 1,000 m. Summers are relatively dry and cool; tem fires, charcoal is relatively abundant in modern stream and
peratures are generally more moderate near the coast and younger terrace sediments in the Coast Range, so I relied
become warmer inland away from maritime influence and heavily on conventional gas proportional and accelerator
summer fogs. Near the coast, mean summer temperatures mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon ages in this study
METHODS 5
(table 1). Several problems are commonly associated with care was taken to avoid sampling exposures where fluvial
radiocarbon dating of organic matter from fluvial terrace features such as well-sorted sand beds were not clearly
sediments. I was primarily interested in determining the apparent or where angular colluvial clasts were present, but
age of the initiation of aggradation of terrace deposits, so I some samples from overlying colluvial units may have
tried to obtain radiocarbon samples from the lowest parts of been included in the radiocarbon analyses.
the terrace sediments. However, very few samples were A final problem with radiocarbon dating is the non
obtained from the lower channel-facies gravel, because linear relationship between the radiocarbon and calendric
charcoal was either rarely deposited in these sediments or time scales caused by variable rates of C production in
has been oxidized by subsequent pedogenesis and ground the atmosphere (Stuiver and Quay, 1980). To overcome
water flow. Therefore, most of my samples were obtained this problem, I used conversion data (Stuiver and Reimer,
from the lower part of the fine-grained overbank facies that 1986; Bard and others, 1990; Becker and others, 1991;
forms the upper part of most terrace exposures. Stuiver and others, 1991) to calibrate some of my radio
The detrital origin of fluvial charcoal samples can carbon ages. All calibrated ages mentioned in this report
cause additional problems, because detrital charcoal will are listed in calibrated years B.P. to distinguish them
sometimes have a substantial inherited age before it is from uncalibrated radiocarbon ages or age ranges, which
deposited with fluvial sediment. Charcoal enters the flu are listed in yr B.P. (years before present1950) or
vial system either as recently burned logs or twigs washed ka (thousands of years ago). Modern (post-1950) sam
off the land surface, or more rarely may be recycled by ples contain some radiocarbon produced by atomic-bomb
erosion of previously deposited charcoal from older ter testing in the atmosphere in the 1950's, and therefore are
race sediments. One study in Australia showed that small listed as negative ages (10 + 70 yr B.P.) or as ages with
(<2 mm) fragments of modern fluvial detrital charcoal >100 percent of modern radiocarbon (104% modern).
sampled from the active stream bed had inherited ages of
1,400-1,600 radiocarbon years (Blong and Gillespie,
1978). I did not obtain multiple radiocarbon ages on char
THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING
coal from modern stream sediments as a test of this poten
tial problem, but several of my radiocarbon analyses on
charcoal from low, young terraces yielded modern ages or I used experimental thermoluminescence (TL) dating
ages of less than a few hundred years, so inherited age is to estimate the ages of several samples of fluvial sedi
probably not a serious problem in most of my samples. ment. The dates reported herein (table 2) are some of the
Perhaps the easily eroded sandy sediment characteristic of first TL dates on fluvial sediment in the Pacific North
the stream studied by Blong and Gillespie (1978) is more west. TL dating is a relatively new technique that shows
susceptible to charcoal reworking than the silty sediment great promise for directly dating many types of Quater
that makes up the bulk of fluvial terraces in the Coast nary sediment (Wintle and Huntley, 1982; Berger, 1988;
Range. In addition, most fragments of charcoal in Coast Forman and others, 1988). The principles behind this
Range fluvial sediments are very small (<5 mm) and the method are that during deposition in certain types of envi
climate is very conducive to rapid breakup of organic ronments, sediments have their inherited TL signal
materials, so charcoal fragments of this size are likely to reduced (bleached) to some low residual level by exposure
disintegrate quickly upon remobilization. to sunlight. The sediment then slowly acquires a new geo
Some of the radiocarbon ages reported here are anom logical TL signal through exposure to ionizing radiation
alously young. The samples may have been contaminated from radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potas
with small pieces of in situ burned roots, or partially sium in the surrounding sediment. The accumulated TL
decomposed roots and other young organic material from signal in the sample is a measure of cumulative exposure
animal burrows, resulting in anomalous ages. Modern and to ionizing radiation. In the laboratory, the TL signal in a
decomposed roots were abundant in almost all terrace sample is calibrated to a known radiation level called the
exposures examined in this study. Although extreme care equivalent dose. A TL age is determined by dividing the
was taken to avoid including such materials in the submit equivalent dose by the dose rate, which is a measure of
ted samples, most of my charcoal samples were collections the environmental radioactivity of the surrounding sedi
of small fragments of disseminated charcoal, so some con ment. Common complications to the technique include the
tamination by younger materials was expected. Another incomplete bleaching of sediment prior to deposition
potential source of anomalously young ages is erroneous (which can give the sample an inherited age), fluctuations
sampling of charcoal from younger, non-fluvial sediment. in water content of the sediment, and physical and chemi
Because the silty overbank sediments in the Coast Range cal changes in the sediment due to pedogenesis (which
are often devoid of characteristic fluvial bedding features, may tend to give anomalously young ages). All these
they can easily be confused with younger colluvial problems have probably had an effect on the TL ages of
sediment that has similar appearance and texture. Extreme fluvial sediment in the Coast Range.
FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
Field and Field station Latitude Longitude Geologic material Reported Remarks
laboratory number and sample weight Radiocarbon age
sample number (g) (yr B.P.)
UMPQUA RIVER
SP88UR1 88-U2 43 31.45' 123 32.54' charcoal 9,120 + 150 Disseminated sample.
BETA-27962 5.0
SP87UR2 87-U4 43 31.44" 123 32.21." charcoal 9,800 + 410 Single fragment exposed in stream cut
BETA-22662 3.0
SP87UR4 87-U7 43 38,00' 123 34.11" charcoal 8,630 + 100 AMS (accelerator mass spectrometry) age on
AA-2752 0.24 disseminated sample, 400 cm depth.
SP87UR5 87-U8 43 37.90 123 34.02. charcoal 210 + 80 Single fragment; 250 cm depth.
BETA-22663 4.1
SP87UR 15 87-U14 43 38.86" 123 52.50 charcoal 10.4% modern Disseminated sample, probably deposited onto the
PITT-0127 2.0 terrace in a debris flow from a tributary stream.
SP87UR18 87-U20 43 40.03' 124 05.30' charcoal >26,400 Disseminated sample, 425 cm depth.
BETA-22664 1.8
SP87UR21 87-U22 43 41.67" 124 00.25 peat 1,180 + 130 Bulk sample from auger core; 225-250 cm depth.
BETA-23533 7.4
SMith River
SP87USR2 87-US3 43 44.94' 124 01.06' charcoal 2,685 + 95 AMS age; disseminated sample.
BETA-23531 0.3
ETH-3546
SP87USR3 87-US5 43 48.14' 123 48.44" charcoal >43,600 AMS age; disseminated sample.
AA-2753 0.23
SP87 USR5 87-US7 43 47.45 123 46.39' charcoal 7,950 + 110 AMS age; disseminated sample from terrace on Vincent
BETA-23532 0.55 Creek, 0.25 km upstream from confluence with
ETH-3547 Smith River.
SP87USR6 87-US 10 43 47.20 123 49.50' charcoal 2,860 + 215 Minimum age; disseminated sample from colluvium
PITT-0128 1.4 overlying stripped terrace.
SP87USR7 87-US 11 43 46.95' 123 47.97' charcoal 10,165 + 85 AMS age; disseminated sample from alluvial-fan
AA-2754 0.28 sediment.
SP87USR8 87-US 12 43 47.15' 123 48.65 charcoal 1,020 + 50 Minimum age on single fragment; probably a burned
USGS 26.42 5.6 root.
SP87USR 12 87-US 15 43 44.29' 124 04.31' charcoal, peat, wood 123.7% modern Mixed sample from auger core; 125 cm depth.
PITT-0129 4.4
SP87USR13 -- -- -- charcoal, wood 1,825 + 65 Several fragments from same core as SP87USR12;
PITT-0130 3-5 360 cm depth.
METHODS 7
Field and Field station Latitude Longitude Geologic material Reported Remarks
laboratory number and sample weight Radiocarbon age
sample number (g) (yr B.P.)
Siuslaw river
sp88SR1 88-S1 44 03.72" 123 52.98. charcoal 7,010 + 90 AMS age; disseminated sample.
betA-27967 0.2
eth-4489
Siletz river
SP88SZR2 88-SZ2 44 42.89' 123 55.92. charcoal 12,110 + 95 Minimum AMS age; disseminated sample probably
BETA-28.357 2.0 contaminated with modern carbon.
ETH-4746
SP88SzR4 88-SZ6 44 44.63" 123 47.76 charcoal 9,030 + 110 AMS age; disseminated sample,
betA-27966 0.3
ETH-4488
SP88SZR5 88-SZ7 44 47.17' 123 47.75' charcoal >36,000 Charcoal split; several fragments.
BETA-27963 5.8
SP88Szr - - wood 41,600 + 1300 Wood split; several fragments from same location as
USGS 2724 19.4 SP88SZR5.
SP89SZR1 89-SZ2 44 43.79' 123 55.42' charcoal 9,695 + 440 Disseminated sample.
GX-15311 3.0
COQUILLE RIVER
SP89Cr14 89-C3 43 0.9.51' 124 11.88' wood, charcoal 2,860 + 155 Disseminated sample from auger core in northern
GX-15309 6.1 abandoned channel; 350 cm depth.
SP89CR7 89-C4 43 09.38' 124 11.82 wood, charcoal 2,835 + 140 Disseminated sample from auger core in southern
GX-15310 30 abandoned channel; 375-400 cm depth.
A relatively simple TL sampling technique was used was nearly twice as old as a radiocarbon age on charcoal
in this study. The terrace exposures were first excavated of 9,800 + 410 yr B.P. (fig. 3C) from the same location.
about 2050 cm to expose fresh silty overbank sediment The anomalously old Holocene ages indicate that inherited
that had not recently been exposed to sunlight. Samples TL ages of 2.59 kyr, which are probably related to
were taken by screwing or pushing soup-can sized steel incomplete bleaching of the sediment during transport,
cans into the fresh exposure, and the cans were then may be characteristic of fluvial-overbank sediment from
sealed with aluminum foil and plastic tape to preserve the upper reaches of Coast Range rivers. In contrast to the
moisture content and prevent exposure to sunlight. apparent incomplete bleaching seen in the Holocene sam
Three TL ages were obtained on samples from radio ples, most of my TL analyses on older sediments from the
carbon-dated exposures on the Umpqua River in order to tidal reaches of the Umpqua and Smith Rivers appeared to
establish the accuracy of the technique (fig. 3). TL analy yield younger ages than geologic relations would indicate
sis on modern overbank sediment (radiocarbon age on (table 2), but the geologic age estimates on these older
charcoal of 210 + 80 yr B.P.) yielded a TL age of sediments are poorly constrained. The TL ages on older
sediments are discussed in more detail in sections on
7.4 + 2.6 ka (fig. 3A). The sampled sediment is a loosely
consolidated silty sand that contains abundant well Umpqua and Smith River terraces.
preserved fragments of charcoal and wood. Two other Some dating studies have found reasonably good con
radiocarbon-dated sites yielded mixed results; the TL age cordance between TL and other numerical ages of fluvial
on sample SP87UT3 (8.9 + 5.9 ka) was only slightly older sediment (Nanson and Young, 1987; Nanson and others,
than two radiocarbon ages on charcoal (6,440 + 60 yr B.P. 1991; Murray and others, 1992) and the effectiveness of
and 6,545 + 75 yr B.P.) from the same location (fig. 3B); natural zeroing of suspended fluvial sediment (Huntley,
whereas, the TL age on sample SP87UT1 (18.5 + 2.4 ka) 1985; Berger and others, 1990), but other TL studies of
8 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
Field and Field Station Latitude Longitude Geologic material TL age Geologic age Remarks
laboratory number (ka) estimate
UMPQUA RIVER
SP87UT1 87-U4 43 31.44' 123 32.21' silty sand 18.5 + 2.4 9-11 Sample located near SP87UR2 (9,800+
ITL84 410 yr B.P.)
SP87UT3 87-U6 43 28.98' 123 30.88' silty sand 8.9 + 5.9 6-7 Sample located near SP87UR3 (6,545 +
ITL116 75 yr B.P.)
SP87UT5 87-U8 43 37.90' 123 34.02 sandy silt 7.4 + 2.6 (). 1-0.3 Sample located near SP87UR5
ITL85 (210 + 80 yr B.P.)
SP87UT7 87-Ul 43 38.39' 123 36.30 clayey, silty sand 116 + 20 125 Sample located in lower part of Bt soil
ITL118 horizon; may correlate with substage
5e marine terrace.
SP87UT18 87-U18 43 41.82' 124 07:52. 65.2 + 7.3 125 May correlate with substage 5e marine
ITL117 terrace.
SP87UT20 87-U19 43 41.84' 124 0'5.81" clayey, sandy silt >200 >200 At TL saturation: may correlate with
ITL173 stage 7 or older marine terrace.
SP87UT22 87-U21 43 41.99' 124 06.40' sandy silt 14.9 + 3.1 15-30 May correlate with Scholfield Creek
ITL86 fluvial terrace.
SMITH RIVER
SP87UST2 87-US2 43 44.12' 124 02.92' sandy silt 55 + 12 125 May comelate with substage 5e marine
ITL174 terrace.
fluvial sediments have reported less encouraging results roadcuts that may not be situated in stable geomorphic
(Berger, 1990). While not without inconsistencies, my TL positions. For these reasons, I did not describe soils in
results on fluvial sediments are encouraging and, when detail during my studies of terraces in the Coast Range,
used with other data, may be useful in determining rela and have not included soil profiles on the stratigraphic
tive ages of older fluvial terrace sediments in the Coast
Range. Unfortunately, these analyses are very expensive
and time consuming, so only a limited number of TL anal
yses were performed. I hope that demonstration projects Figure 3 (facing page). Stratigraphic columns of three fluvial
such as this one help to establish the viability and utility terrace exposures along the Umpqua River where both thermolumi
of TL dating, so that additional studies that address the nescence (TL) and radiocarbon samples were collected. Radiocar
problems identified in the present study can be conducted. bon ages are listed in years before present (1950; yr B.P.) and TL
ages are listed in thousands of years (ka); field sample numbers (in
parentheses) are listed for reference to table 1. Column thicknesses
OTHER DATING METHODS are measured from the sediment/bedrock contact. Exposure loca
tions are (A) lower terrace near Elkton at station 87U8, (B) com
posite column from a terrace near river km 130 at stations 87U6
Studies of soil development are commonly used in
and 88-U3, and (C) terrace near McGee Creek at station 87U4.
fluvial terrace studies (for example, Birkeland, 1984; Legend shows patterns and labels for all stratigraphic columns in
Harden, 1987; Dethier, 1988), but I found that the steep this report. Columns show complete exposures of terrace sedi
climatic gradients (especially rainfall and summer temper ments, from the bedrock strath to the surface of the terrace, except
atures) from the coast to inland valleys and poor terrace where marked with covered contact symbol or where bedrock is not
preservation reduced the utility of soils as a method for shown at the base of the column. Soil development is not shown in
estimating terrace ages. In addition, most exposures of ter the columns. Grain size scale shows breaks between mud (silt and
race sediments that I examined in this study are in clay), sand, and gravel. Note differences in vertical scale.
METHODS
A A Disseminated or bulk
Fluvial |||||| Buried A 14C sample
gravel \! \| A horizon
A Single 14C sample
: Colluvial a 2 .
- *: gravel 23 Pebbly zone
O TL sample
95 + 40 yr B.P.
(SP87UR6)
# 210+ 80 yr B.P.
*::::::::..] (SP87UR5)
EA' f:
# 2 -
- *7.4 + 2.6 ka
(SP87UT5)
5 -
;
-
; 3
N I
# #
10 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
columns in this report. The intense rainfall induces severe that soil development can be used as a marine terrace cor
oxidation and in situ weathering; soils were generally red relation tool. My reconnaissance examination of soils on
der, more oxidized, contained larger amounts of clay, and marine terrace sediments along the central Oregon coast
contained more weathered gravel clasts (measured by hand has indicated that the lowest marine terraces present are
crushing) with advancing age. However, some soil charac more likely to have formed during one of the stage-5 high
teristics such as distinct horizonation, clay films, and soil stands, (80 ka, 105 ka, or 125 ka) than during stage 7 (230
structure were less developed than might be expected in ka) or older high stands. More detailed soils studies (H.M.
the older soils, so some of the deeper weathering may be Kelsey, written commun., 1992) indicate that in most
related to groundwater circulation. places along the central Oregon coast, the lowest marine
Thicknesses of weathering rinds have been used as a terrace is correlative with the oxygen-isotope substage 5e
relative dating technique on fluvial gravel clasts (Colman (125 ka) sea-level high stand, and all higher terraces prob
and Pierce, 1981; Knuepfer, 1988). Preliminary studies by ably correlate with stage 7 (230 ka) or older high stands.
Colman and Pierce (1981) indicated that measurement of Some tentative correlations of marine terraces with fluvial
weathering rinds on basaltic clasts might have utility as a terraces near the mouths of the Umpqua, Smith, Siuslaw,
dating technique along the Siletz River, but I found the and Siletz Rivers will be discussed.
technique unusable for several reasons. Of the five rivers
examined in this study, only the Siletz River drainage TERRACE HEIGHTS AND
basin contains enough outcrops of basaltic volcanic rocks PROFILE CONSTRUCTION
to provide a source of clasts of suitable lithology. Unfortu
nately, gravels are restricted to the lower parts of most Fluvial terrace remnants were initially identified on
Coast Range terrace sequences, far below the upper parts 1:12,000-scale air photos, and most were later checked in
of the B horizon where the most consistent weathering the field. Several methods were used to measure terrace
rinds are formed. I examined weathering rinds at several heights. Some were measured with an altimeter, espe
locations in the Coast Range, but most rinds were widely cially those located within a few minutes walk or drive
variable in thickness and appeared to be related to from a benchmark where the instrument could be accu
intermittent groundwater flow. Rainfall amounts also rately calibrated. Other terrace remnants were surveyed
affect rind thickness (Colman and Pierce, 1981), so the with a hand level and rod from points of known elevation;
steep rainfall gradients between the coast and higher parts the lowest terraces were commonly measured in this fash
of the Coast Range would also complicate comparisons ion from the height of the river surface. Some terrace
between rind thickness and terrace age. heights also were measured directly from 1:24,000-scale
A final dating technique commonly used in studies of topographic maps. However, many high remnants were
older terraces is the correlation of fluvial terraces with inaccessible due to thick vegetation or land ownership
marine terraces and the prehistoric sea-level record. The problems, so I employed a photogrammetric method to
best preserved sequence of marine terraces in the Pacific measure additional terrace heights. A computer-assisted
Northwest is present between Cape Blanco and Coos Bay photogrammetric mapping system (Dueholm and Pilmore,
(fig. 2) in southern Oregon. These terraces have been the 1989) was used to construct detailed topographic profiles,
subject of numerous studies but only recently have gener usually measured from the river surface to the terrace sur
ally consistent uranium series, amino acid, and stable iso face through points of known elevation. These various
tope age data become available. The youngestWhiskey methods yielded probable errors of about +5 m for the
Run terracehas been correlated with the 80 ka, oxygen higher terraces and +2 m or less for the lowest terraces.
isotope substage 5a (Shackleton and Opdyke, 1973) sea In all cases, height measurements were originally made in
level high stand; the next olderPioneer terracehas feet and converted to meters above mean sea level.
been correlated with the 105 ka, substage 5c sea-level high Longitudinal profiles of the stream and terrace rem
stand (Kelsey, 1990; Muhs and others, 1990); and the next nants were constructed for the Umpqua, Smith, Siuslaw,
oldestSilver Butte terracehas been tentatively corre and Siletz Rivers. These profiles were constructed with the
lated with the 125 ka, substage 5e sea-level high stand terrace height data and stream elevations taken from
(Kelsey, 1990). Detailed mapping by Kelsey (1990) indi 1:24,000-scale topographic maps. The elevation data were
cates that all three of these terraces occupy the same plotted against stream length (in km), which was con
wave-cut platform in the Cape Blanco region, so the lack verted from river mileage values taken directly from the
of significant differences in altitude between the three topographic maps. Some discrepancies occurred in plotting
stage-5 terraces precludes the use of elevation spacing as a stream length of terraces preserved in abandoned meander
precise method of correlating scattered marine terrace bends on the Umpqua and Smith Rivers. In these cases,
remnants in central Oregon to dated sites in southern Ore terrace remnant lengths were projected downstream from
gon. Detailed soils studies at Cape Blanco and Cape the location of the upstream end of the remnant. The
Arago (Bockheim and others, 1992), however, indicate profiles clearly show the poor preservation of terrace
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COAST RANGE TERRACES 11
surfaces and the tenuous nature of most terrace correla incision driven by regional uplift of the Coast Range.
tions. Poorly constrained correlations (dotted lines) mostly Active incision is indicated by the presence of bedrock in
were made by mimicking the gradients of the better con the beds of most Coast Range streams above tide limit and
strained correlations (solid and dashed lines). by the presence of very narrow modern flood plains.
Long-term Quaternary incision is implied by the presence
of high strath terraces and entrenched meanders, confine
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ment of the upstream reaches of all rivers in relatively nar
COAST RANGE TERRACES row, bedrock cored, V-shaped valleys, and by numerous
examples of stream capture in the Coast Range (Niem,
TERRACE STRATIGRAPHY 1976; Baldwin, 1981). Stream incision has probably domi
nated throughout most of the late Quaternary, and it is a
The stratigraphy of fluvial terrace deposits found condition not conducive to extensive deposition of fluvial
along Coast Range rivers is remarkably consistent, regard sediment. So how do extensive fluvial terraces form in
less of terrace height above the present river level. Along such an environment? Initial deposition of fluvial sediment
the upper reaches above tidal influence, all terraces are requires hydrologic conditions that allow streams to
strath terraces consisting of a tread cut into bedrock over migrate laterally. Periods of lateral migration can be
lain by 3 to 10 m of unconsolidated sediment. These sedi related to short hiatuses in regional uplift or to periods of
ments consist of a 1- to 3-m-thick lower channel-gravel aggradation caused by an influx of sediment or a decrease
facies of sandy pebble and cobble gravel, overlain by a 2 in stream competence related to a rise in base (sea) level.
to 7-m-thick overbank facies of sand, sandy silt or silty Experimental data show that lateral migration will domi
sand, and silt; thin, discontinuous beds of sand and sandy nate stream incision if the sediment load of a stream is
gravel are commonly present in the overbank facies. I increased beyond the ability of the stream to entrain its
found very few examples of buried soils in the more than load (see reviews in Schumm and others, 1987), so large
60 exposures of terrace sediments examined in this study. sediment inputs not only provide the material for aggrada
These buried soils were mostly thin (<2030 cm), poorly tion and are the source of terrace sediment, but large
developed A horizons that probably represent hiatuses in influxes of sediment also induce the lateral stream migra
deposition of less than a few tens of years, so in most tion that cuts the bedrock straths that underlie the terrace
cases the sediments in both the channel-gravel and over sediments. Finally, terrace formation requires that the ter
bank facies must have been deposited fairly continuously. race tread eventually be abandoned by renewed incision
The stratigraphy of fluvial terrace sediments near the caused by decreased sediment supply or a drop in base
coast is more variable, and probably is a reflection of level caused by renewed uplift or falling sea level.
short- and long-term fluctuations in sea level. The lower I have roughly grouped fluvial terraces in the Coast
reaches of all rivers examined in this study are tide influ Range into four main types. The smallest, most areally
enced and are flowing in deep, sediment filled, fiord-like restricted terraces are formed by vertical incision concur
valleys. These valleys were excavated by stream incision rent with minor lateral incision that accompanies meander
during periods of low sea level associated with full glacial ing of the river channel. This stream behavior results in
conditions and now act as traps for fine-grained estuarine unpaired slip-off terraces (Cotton, 1940) preserved on
sediment. Most fluvial terrace sequences in these reaches the insides of meander bends. Some of these isolated rem
generally consist of fine sand, mud (silt and clay), and nants may correlate with more extensive terraces, but most
peat, may be very thick (water wells in the Reedsport area are probably not synchronous with other terrace surfaces.
on the Umpqua River have penetrated more than 43 m of Isolated slip-off terraces are present at many places
unconsolidated fluvial sediment (Curtiss and others, 1984), along most Coast Range rivers.
and usually do not have exposed bedrock straths. Similar Other aerially restricted terraces form as a result of
fluvial sequences extend up river to the tide limit of most short-lived or localized aggradation events. These are
Coast Range rivers. A few older, higher terrace remnants complex response terraces (see reviews in Schumm and
near the coast, however, have thinner stratigraphic others, 1987, and Bull, 1990) that form in response to
sequences and bedrock straths like their upstream counter minor stream perturbations; these terraces also do not
parts, supporting the conclusion that hydrologic conditions form extensive synchronous terrace surfaces. At scattered
near the mouths of Coast Range rivers have not remained locations in the Coast Range, such terrace remnants are
static through time. preserved at various levels and have gradients that often
are steeper than the better preserved, more extensive ter
CONTROLS ON TERRACE FORMATION races. Most of these small terraces probably were formed
as a result of transient changes in stream regimesuch as
The modern hydrologic setting of the nontidal aggradation related to large floods or localized land
reaches of rivers in western Oregon is one of active stream slidingand flood plain abandonment by meander cutoff.
12 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
Another type of terrace does form major, roughly accumulate and for helping to estimate the ages of terrace
synchronous terrace surfaces in the Coast Range. These surfaces. For this study I was primarily interested in
are terraces produced by regional stream aggradation determining the age of initiation of terrace aggradation, so
events related to major changes in climate (climatic ter I sampled for radiocarbon from as low in the terrace sedi
races of Bull, 1990). The best example is an extensive ter ments as possible. Unfortunately, only one radiocarbon
race found on all Coast Range rivers that I examined that sample was found in the basal gravel facies, so sediment
yields consistent radiocarbon ages of 710 ka from the accumulation rates for these deposits could not be deter
lower parts of the silty overbank facies. These terraces mined. However, I found only one example of a buried
formed during a period of regional aggradation probably soil in the gravel facies, so the gravels were probably
related to increased colluviation of hillslope sediment into deposited rapidly and remained entrained in active stream
small tributaries induced by warmer, drier post-glacial cli channels until they were abandoned by lateral stream inci
matic conditions, and perhaps influenced to some degree sion and buried by fine-grained overbank deposits.
along lower reaches by decreasing stream gradients Only a few exposures yielded multiple radiocarbon
induced by rapidly rising base level (see more extensive ages that defined closed time intervals that could be used
discussion under Terraces along the Umpqua River and to determine finite sediment accumulation rates, and all
Discussion sections). If such extensive regional aggrada the resulting ages were located in the overbank deposits.
tion is the typical response of Coast Range rivers to post Radiocarbon ages were used to calculate long-term sedi
glacial climate change, then earlier climatic fluctuations ment accumulation rates from the lowest continuous ter
probably induced the formation of similar regionally race on the Umpqua River near Elkton at river km 80 (fig.
extensive fluvial terraces. TL ages and relations between 4A; station 87U7, plate 1) and from a terrace on Schol
scattered fluvial and marine terrace remnants near the field Creek, a major tributary of the Umpqua about 11.5
coast indicate that some of the older, higher terraces were km upstream from Reedsport (fig. 4B, station 87U20,
formed under similar climatic and hydrologic conditions. plate 1). Radiocarbon ages of 730 + 80 yr B.P. and 8,630
The last type of fluvial terrace present in the Coast + 100 yr B.P. on charcoal collected from 0.5 m and 4.0 m,
Range forms by episodic stream incision caused by local respectively, below the surface of the terrace near Elkton
ized tectonic movements; these tectonic terraces differ yielded a sediment accumulation rate of about 0.45
from others that are related to regional-uplift-induced mm/yr. A maximum rate of about 0.25-0.3 mm/yr from
stream incision because they are associated with active the terrace on Scholfield Creek was obtained from ages on
structures. Examples of tectonic terraces were examined charcoal of 22,240 + 630 yr B.P. and >26,400 yr B.P.
on the Siuslaw River as part of this study; topographic from depths of 3.25 m and 4.25 m, respectively.
profiles clearly show that terraces on the lower reach of Additional sites yielded shorter term sediment accu
the river have been warped over an anticline in the under mulation rates from low terraces near the coast that are
lying Eocene bedrock. Although the mode of growth of substantially higher than the rates discussed above. Near
this anticline (episodic versus continuous) is unknown, the the mouth of the Smith River, data from an auger core in
presence of multiple terrace surfaces over the anticline a low terrace at about river km 4.5 (fig. 4C, station
supports the inference that localized tectonic uplift has 87US 15, plate 2) yielded a maximum accumulation rate
influenced terrace formation. of about 1.3 mm/yr from radiocarbon ages of 123.7%
In summary, fluvial terraces in the Coast Range modern (post 1950) and 1,825 + 65 yr B.P. at depths of
appear to have a number of origins. At least four different 1.25 and 3.6 m, respectively. An auger core in a similar
types of terrace are present, but only those terraces low terrace on the Umpqua River at about river km 26
induced by major changes in climate are likely to be (fig. 4D; station 87U22, plate 1) yielded a minimum
extensive and synchronous along the lengths of the exam accumulation rate of about 1.9 mm/yr from a single radio
ined rivers. Other terraces formed by complex response carbon age of 1,180 + 130 yr B.P. on a peat sample from
mechanisms, river meandering, and movement on local a depth of 2.25 m. Feiereisen (1981) obtained a similar
tectonic structures in most cases did not form extensive rate from a shallow drill hole at about river km. 23.5 on
synchronous surfaces; most isolated terrace remnants the Siuslaw River flood plain; a single radiocarbon age of
found along Coast Range rivers were probably formed by 3,250 + 70 yr B.P. on a sample of peaty wood from a
these processes. More details on terrace formation are in depth of 5.5 m yielded a minimum sediment accumulation
the following discussions. rate of about 1.7 mm/yr.
These data indicate that accumulation rates calculated
over the life of a terrace on the upper reaches of Coast
SEDIMENT ACCUMULATION RATES Range rivers are on the order of 0.30.5 mm/yr; rates are
about 4 times higher (1.31.9 mm/yr) on lower (tidal)
Sediment accumulation rates are useful for delineat reaches. No other suitable sites were found for determina
ing the time spans over which different fluvial deposits tion of sediment accumulation rates, but these rates may
C
B.P.
130y
7.180+ Saehdriaocmtakeirngbotrenas-tpdaihetosncd terrace
4.
rFigure
scolumns
calculate
to
used
sediments
tfluvial
column
rates;
section
exposed
of
base
the
from
measured
are (Prleaisntosceint-Hiolocne) of
PHT
(A)
are
locations
core
Exposure
core.
tor
Creek
Scholfield
(B)
87U7,
station
at
Elkton
near
River
Umpqua
on lest
a
from
(D)
and
2),
(pl.
87US15
station
at
Smith
the
lowest
in
core
auger
3.75-m
(C)
w87U20,
m
300
about
River
Umpqua
on
terrace
Creek
Dean
ow
(SP87UR21) ja
a
is
#
3
|
*is
3
3
|
#
|@
@|||
3
|
#
3
3
-
#H
*HS:
|H-
B.P.
yr
>26,400
65
+
"|1,825
B.P.
yr
#AA
u AA
(SP87UR4)
modern
123.7% C/D
oaln"
o-
lspushio
0
=
2(L
ESP.T.
87USR12)
CC
2#
#
TT2
-Fi
-
.
LLI
.
>
AA
(SP87UR18
A.A.'
:
B.P.
yr
630
Al22,240+
(SP87UR19)
*
dif erences
Note
87U22.
station
at
scale.
vertical
in
fss20+yr
2
BP
v
100 B.F.
"
K.T.
-7
H-7
Oc -
B.P.
yr
80
j730+
*|(SP87UR10)
14 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
be characteristic of sedimentation rates on most similar near McGee Creek, and at station 87U7 near Elkton (pl.
sized rivers in the region. The variations in the accumula 1); these sites yielded charcoal for radiocarbon dating
tion rate data probably do not allow reasonable estimation from nearly complete exposures of the terrace sediments.
of the age of terrace surfaces, but they do suggest that A fourth site downstream from the highway bridge near
most of the thick terrace overbank sequences accumulated Scottsburg on the lower Umpqua (station 87U14) yielded
over time periods of thousands of years. a modern age that probably is related to deposition from a
tributary stream.
TERRACES ALONG THE The relative scarcity of continuous terraces below the
PHT terrace (fig. 5) indicates that the latest period of
UMPQUA RIVER extensive terrace formation on the upper Umpqua River
occurred in latest Pleistocene and early Holocene time,
The Umpqua River is the largest river examined in and only a few scattered terraces have developed since
this study (11,800 km drainage area; Oregon State Water then. I examined lower, younger terraces at three sites on
Resources Board, 1958), and it is the only river that I the upper Umpqua River, at stations 87U6 and 88U3
examined whose headwaters are in the Cascade Range of near the Bullock Bridge and at station 87U8 near Elkton.
west-central Oregon. Although fluvial terraces are rela I also examined low terraces on the lower Umpqua River
tively poorly preserved along the Umpqua River (fig. 5; near Reedsport at stations 87U13 and 87U22.
pl. 1), I have used age and sedimentologic data from
Holocene and older terrace remnants along the lower 200
km of the river to determine some of the processes respon PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENE TRANSITION
sible for terrace formation in the Coast Range.
(PHT) TERRACE EXPOSURES NEAR MCGEE CREEK
The only terrace that can be correlated with any cer
tainty along the Umpqua River is a nearly continuous ter
race surface that lies 215 m above river level. The PHT terrace near McGee Creek has the longest
Radiocarbon dating of charcoal from this terrace indicates continuous exposure of fluvial terrace sediments along the
that sediments near the base of the terrace are latest Pleis length of the Umpqua River examined in this study (fig.
tocene to early Holocene in age, so I informally refer to 6). Part of the bedrock strath has been exhumed and the
this terrace as the Pleistocene-Holocene transition or sediments have been completely removed on part of the
PHT terrace. If the geomorphology of this terrace is typ terrace; the excellent exposures at this location probably
ical of older fluvial terraces formed along the Umpqua resulted from scour by recent flooding. A topographic sur
River (and the similar stratigraphy of the terrace sediments vey across the stripped bedrock strath with rod and Abney
suggests that it is), then the poor preservation of older ter level documents the height of the strath beneath the ter
races can be easily explained by the morphology of the race surface and shows the morphology of the site (fig. 7).
Shallow abandoned channels and other minor surface
PHT terrace. The PHT terrace is commonly unpaired,
remnants are usually narrow (<600 m), and the surface is irregularities are not shown on the profile, but a 0.51.0
cut in places by younger terraces. m-high scarp preserved along one of several strike-slip
With few exceptions, the stratigraphy of older terrace faults exposed in the bedrock strath is included. This and
deposits along the Umpqua River is almost identical to other similar scarps are not related to recent surface fault
that associated with nearby Holocene terraces. Soil devel ing but are the result of differential erosion of softer silt
stone in fault contact with more resistant massive
opment, however, is progressively greater in the older
deposits. Soil properties most consistent with terrace sandstone. Other examples of exhumed bedrock surfaces
height and therefore age were degree of reddening, are common along this reach of the Umpqua River.
amount of clay and oxidation products in the B horizon, The stratigraphy in the McGee Creek terrace is typi
and degree of clast weathering where gravel is present in cal of that seen along most of the PHT terraces, and the
the B horizon. Soil oxidation also appeared to increase radiocarbon results illustrate the types of problems associ
away from the coast, presumably as a response to hotter, ated with dating fluvial sediments (figs. 3C, 7, 8). The two
drier summer weather and fluctuating soil-moisture condi exposures at stations 87U4 and 88U2 are about 500 m
tions. Prominent terrace exposures are discussed below. apart, consist of basal sandy gravel channel deposits over
lain by silty overbank deposits, and yield inverted radio
carbon ages of 9,800 + 410 yr B.P. (station 87U4) and
LATEST PLEISTOCENE AND 9,120 + 150 yr B.P. (station 88U2). The charcoal sam
HOLOCENE TERRACES pled at station 87U4 (fig. 3C) was a single fragment
found protruding from the silty overbank deposits. This
I examined the PHT terrace in detail at three sites on sample may have been exposed to growth of fungi or
the upper Umpqua River, at stations 87U4 and 88U2 molds; but the fragment was probably only recently
C.
Longitudinal
5.
Figure
that
connect
lines
lighter
and
River
elevation
is
line
solid
Heavier
River.
Umpqua
reach
lower
the
along
terraces
of
profile loumcianerscbenocen) estimated
ap roximating
bars
terraces,
marine
heights
The
asterisks.
with
marked
are
error
seriously
be
to
thought
ages
ago);
years
of
(thousands
ka
in
listed
and
circles
vertical
oprerceulataitoievndes;,. ages
Terrace
physically
be
can
probably
that
terraces
connect
sdashed
are
lines
dotted
cand
m
+5
of
errors
vertical
have
may
heights ftahedrmioor
m
+2
terraces
higher
Rfor
terraces.
lower
(the
TL
B.P.,
years
in
listed
and
triangles
solid
with
located
are
250 200 150
-ZA
O-T-
I
-T-S
^
terrace
PHT
Teerrace
m|asurement (ar owheads)
bends
meander
abandoned
Locations
figure.
of
side
left
on
MT"
labelled
errors,
axis.
distance
along
shown
are
(TR")
range
tide
the
and
meander
Abandoned
Z
Radiocarbon
A
age
terrace
Marine
MTL
range
Tide
TL
age
|-
|r,
+ "...]
6,545
7T
B.P.
yr
.5 .....!
...
B.P.
yr
6,440+60
....
--
A TR r.s.
r, MT
5.9|..
+
8.9
ka 50
|--
...
...
410......
+
9,800
B.P.
yr |....."
150
+
9,120
B.P.
yr
(km)
COAST
FROM
DISTANCE
1
...
r
Mi
ggo,
"99-24
tooyee
20ka
...iter
ka
>200
'"
...
...."
MTL. ...r.
*" .... \
...'
100
H'
|
---|.......
|--
--"Pr"
...
RIVER
UMPOUA TE
40
100
200
2O
80
60
180
160
140
120
0
....... .1
P.
7'"
+
*65.2
"
....--"
ka
..3
..
-
'"?!
31
14.9,
16 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
-
-
- *--->
Figure 6. Photograph of PHT (Pleistocene-Holocene transition) terrace at about river km 121 on the Umpqua River near McGee
Creek; station 87U4 is located at right edge of photograph. Note extensive exhumed bedrock strath to the left of the terrace and in
the foreground. Profile shown in figure 7 was measured across the strath near the center of the photograph.
exposed by flooding, and sample pretreatments should age of 8,630 + 100 yr B.P., and fragments from the upper
have removed such contaminants. At station 88U2 (fig. part of the overbank facies yielded a conventional radio
8), numerous small pieces of charcoal were sampled from carbon age of 730 + 80 yr B.P. (fig. 4A). The consistent
a silty interbed in the basal gravel; this sample was not surface height and early Holocene age of the sample near
exposed prior to excavation, but the enclosing sediments the middle of the overbank facies indicate that the PHT
contained abundant modern roots and rootlets, so the sam terraces at McGee Creek and Elkton can be correlated
ple was carefully picked prior to dating. Although slight with confidence.
contamination of one or both samples is possible, the ages
nearly overlap within their laboratory error limits. Thus, PHT TERRACES NEAR THE COAST
the radiocarbon results indicate that the basal McGee
Creek terrace sediments were deposited a minimum of
9,00010,000 radiocarbon years ago. Radiocarbon ages in A somewhat unusual stratigraphic sequence was
this range have been corrected to 9,90011,000 calibrated exposed in a tributary stream cut in the PHT terrace near
years B.P. on the dendrochronological time scale (Becker river km 42 (fig. 9; station 87U14, plate 1). The terrace
surface is about 7 m above river level at this site and is
and others, 1991; Stuiver and others, 1991).
continuous with the PHT terrace upstream. The stream cut
exposed a basal unit of coarse (clasts to boulders in size),
PHT TERRACE NEAR ELKTON angular, matrix-supported gravel, overlain by a pebbly silt
and sand unit that has a weak soil formed on its surface. A
I examined a similar exposure of the PHT terrace sandy pebble gravel that contains stream-rounded frag
near Elkton at river km 77.5 (station 87U7, plate 1). ments of brick is present at the surface of the exposure.
Small fragments of charcoal from the lower part of the The texture of the coarse basal gravel indicates that it
overbank facies yielded an accelerator (AMS) radiocarbon probably was deposited as a debris flow from the
S
RPorledai-sntaoscneid-tlHioelovcne)le ages
7.
(Figure
PHT
and
strath
bedrock
stripped
of
tprofile
River.
Umpqua
the
on
Creek
McGee
near
terrace faxdpilor
3
figure
in
legend
reSee
two
locations
projected
Note
patterns.
lithologic
of
gradient
the
8)
and
3C
figs.
(see oacnartbion erosion.
micfault
m
25
about
at
profile
step
The
surface.
strath
fexposed
a
of
location
athe
been
has
that
bedrock
din
by
arks
enrteunatieadl
43.
(SP88UR1)
6
<C
Erosional
- os
-
10-
> *
-
surface
Terrace
-
- - - --H. .-:-.
:
3
150
+
9,120
B.P.
yr
o.
2:;
S
:
I
H.
E.yr
4110
+ 2
9,800
B.P.S
c
4:
5
Scarp
fault
W th
*.....
:
_ ---
:
T
#
(SP87UR2) (m)
DISTANCE
SN
i
HRIVER
(
9)
--~SSN0
- \/
*#
UMPOUA0.033
-
130
O
20
70
60
50
100
90
80
0
40
10-
##.
-:
8-
:
g
18 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
-- 1.04% modern
T(SP87UR15)
;
Figure 9. Stratigraphic column from a terrace exposure
about 2 km downstream from the highway bridge near
Scottsburg on the Umpqua River at station 87U14. See
legend in figure 3 for explanation of lithologic patterns
and symbols. Note presence of colluvial gravel at base of
9,120 + 150 yr B.P.
the exposure and fluvial gravel at the top of the exposure.
(SP88UR1)
s 3.
| C/D
along the lower Umpqua River near the Brandy Bar at
river km 32.5 (fig. 10; station 87U13, plate 1). The ter
race surface is only about 2.5 m above river level at the
site and consists of about 1.0 m of sandy silt overlying a
|#
a i minimum of 1.0 m of sandy pebble and cobble gravel. No
radiocarbon ages were obtained from this exposure, but
only minimal oxidation was visible so the terrace sedi
Figure 8. Stratigraphic column of a PHT (Pleistocenc
Holocene transition) terrace exposure near McGee Creek ments are probably very young. The stratigraphy exposed
on the Umpqua River at station 88U2. See legend in at the site is significant because this is the last exposure
figure 3 for explanation of lithologic patterns and of an upper reach fluvial sequence (silty overbank sedi
symbols. ment overlying basal channel gravel) that I observed in
the tidal reach of the Umpqua River. At all other sites
downstream, exposed sediments in the low terraces con
unnamed tributary stream flowing northward into the river sist of estuarine sand and mud. However, water wells
through the site. The modern radiocarbon age (104% mod drilled near the Brandy Bar site show that thick sequences
ern) in the silt indicates that these sediments were depos of sandy gravel are present beneath the fine overbank sed
ited after 1950, probably during a period of increased iment in this terrace; two wells about 0.5 km downstream
precipitation or flooding. This conclusion is supported by from station 87U13 penetrated about 5.5 m of overbank
the presence of brick fragments in the upper gravel. The sediment and a minimum of 13 and 19 m of sandy gravel,
unusual stratigraphy exposed at the site and evidence of respectively, without intersecting bedrock (Curtiss and
extensive modern deposition indicate that the PHT terrace others, 1984).
TERRACES ALONG THE UMPQUA RIVER 19
; #####$g
-
:35%;
Vs
thickness of these deposits is unknown, because I could
find no records of water wells in these deposits and
because only the upper 45 m of these sediments could be
observed in natural exposures and cores. The presence of
fine-grained estuarine sediments in the lowest terraces is
an important clue to past climatic conditions, because
most of the older, higher terraces near the coast have simi
lar sequences of thick, fine-grained deposits. Some
(most?) of these older terraces were probably deposited
during periods of high sea level similar to present condi
Figure 10. Stratigraphic column of a low terrace near tions, and therefore correlate with past sea-level high
the Brandy Bar on the Umpqua River at station 87U13.
stands. Thus, the present low terraces are modern analogs
See legend in figure 3 for explanation of lithologic to some of the older fluvial terraces.
patterns and symbols. Nearby water wells have penetrat
ed as much as 19 m of sandy gravel without encountering
bedrock.
OTHER HOLOCENE TERRACES
plate 1). Four radiocarbon ages on charcoal and wood col stratigraphic record as discrete beds in the overbank depos
lected from the loosely consolidated sandy sediment in its of other terraces. Thus, small, isolated terraces like the
this terrace indicate that the overbank sediment is less than low Elkton terrace are examples of terraces formed as
300 years old. complex responses to relatively minor changes in river
The radiocarbon ages and textural differences in the hydrology, rather than the regional, climatic changes asso
young terrace deposits near Elkton indicate that the over ciated with aggradation of the PHT terrace.
bank sediments were deposited in three discrete units: (1)
a lower, siltier unit that yielded a radiocarbon age of 210
+ 80 yr B.P. and is capped by a thin buried A horizon, (2) OLDER TERRACES
a middle sandy unit that yielded radiocarbon ages of 95 +
40 yr B.P. and 115 + 40 yr B.P., and (3) an upper sandy Although less well preserved than the younger ter
unit that yielded a modern radiocarbon age (10 + 70 yr races, numerous exposures of older fluvial terrace sedi
B.P.). If each of these overbank units was deposited dur ments are present throughout the Coast Range. Only one
ing a major flood, then the radiocarbon ages may be use older terrace on a small tributary of the Umpqua River
ful in establishing the frequency of such events in the past yielded materials suitable for radiocarbon dating, so exper
few hundred years. The highest sample yielded a modern imental thermoluminescence (TL) dating was attempted on
(post 1950) age that indicates recent deposition on the sur sediments from several older terraces. These results for the
face of this terrace, perhaps from the latest large flood individual sites will be discussed later. Correlation of flu
event in the region which occurred in December, 1964 vial terraces to the marine terrace record can be a useful
(Rantz and Moore, 1965). Analysis of all the radiocarbon relative-dating tool, so a discussion of marine terrace rem
ages obtained at this site indicates that major depositional nants present near the mouth of the Umpqua River will
events have taken place on average about every 105120 precede discussion of older fluvial terraces.
radiocarbon years for the last two cycles, with depositional
events at about 210 yr B.P., 105 yr B.P. (average of 95 yr
MARINE TERRACES
B.P. and 115 yr B.P.), and post-1950 (1964?).
Unfortunately, when these radiocarbon ages are den
drochronologically calibrated (Stuiver and Reimer, 1986), Marine terrace cover sediments consist primarily of
the resulting ages are not usable for calculating discrete thick sequences of eolian and minor beach sand and are
recurrence intervals. For example, averaging and calibra present at various elevations at several places near the
tion of the 95 + 40 yr B.P. and 115 + 40 yr B.P. ages mouth of the Umpqua River; I measured surface eleva
yields at least 5 calibrated age choices ranging from 0 to tions on some of these deposits but did not map or exam
243 calibrated years B.P., and a 1 sigma error range of 0 ine the sediments in detail. In most cases terrace back
to 262 calibrated years B.P. Calibration of the 210 + 80 yr edges are not preserved and no exposures of wave-cut
B.P. age yields a single age of 288 calibrated years B.P., platforms were observed, so the elevations of shoreline
but this age has a 1 sigma error range of 0 to 311 cali angles could not be determined. Golder Associates (1986,
brated years B.P. So a more conservative approach to cal table 6) list, but do not locate, heights of marine terraces
culating recurrence intervals from these deposits would along the Oregon coast, including an elevation of 18.8 m
indicate that there have been 3 depositional (flood) events for a Whiskey Run-equivalent marine terrace (isotope sub
in about the last 300 years, with an average recurrence stage 5a, 80 ka) near Winchester Bay. West and McCrumb
interval of about 150 years. (1988, fig. 6) apparently used this and other elevations in
A comparison of radiocarbon ages from the low ter their calculation of uplift rates along the Oregon coast. I
race at Elkton with the historic record of large floods in found no terrace back edges and only one exposure of
the Pacific Northwest (Helley and LaMarche, 1973) indi possible marine terrace sediments in the Winchester Bay
cates that the last two depositional events at Elkton might area, in a roadcut on a dirt road on the north side of Win
be related to major floods in 186061 and 1964. Studies chester Creek about 0.5 km from U.S. Highway 101.
of deposits related to the 1964 and earlier floods in north Although I found no evidence of a preserved terrace, the
ern California yielded recurrence intervals estimates of elevation of these sediments is consistent with that given
6080 yr (Kelsey, 1987) to 100200 yr (Helley and by Golder Associates (1986).
LaMarche, 1973) for large landscape-altering floods. Marine terrace deposits are more abundant on the
The intense floods of December 1964 (Rantz and north side of the Umpqua River, where several exposures
Moore, 1965) may be a recent analog for the flooding of sandy terrace sediments are found along the road that
events responsible for the creation of other small Coast parallels Threemile Creek. Above the east shore of Three
Range terrace remnants, but the restricted distribution of mile Lake an apparent terrace surface and back edge are
the Elkton and similar isolated terraces (fig. 5) indicates preserved at an elevation of 2428 m. Several meters of
that large floods may be more often recorded in the parallel bedded eolian sand are visible in an exposure of
TERRACES ALONG THE UMPQUA RIVER 21
this surface near the southern end of the lake. No evidence may correlate with the 2530 ka interstadial high stand
of a wave-out platform or lower terraces was observed have been described in central and southern California by
below the Threemile Lake surface, but most of the topo Alexander (1953) and Birkeland (1972), and in northern
graphically low areas in this region are covered by sand California by Merritts and Vincent (1989, fig. 5), but
dunes (Beaulieu and Hughes, 1975) that may have buried 2025 ka terraces are uncommon and appear to be
such features. Preliminary soils correlations (H.M. Kelsey, restricted to areas undergoing very high rates of uplift,
written commun., 1992) indicate that the lowest preserved such as near Ventura in southern California (Rockwell and
marine terrace along this part of the Oregon coast is no others, 1988).
younger than oxygen-isotope substage 5e (125 ka), so I The history and extent of late Pleistocene sea-level
have concluded that marine terrace sediments at both Win fluctuations are poorly known along the Oregon coast, so I
chester Bay and Threemile Lake probably are parts of the searched for evidence of a late Wisconsin sea-level mini
same substage 5e, 125 ka terrace. mum by examining the bathymetry of the region off the
Sandy marine terrace sediments are exposed at eleva mouth of the Umpqua River on the U.S. Geological Sur
tions of 4454 m along the Threemile Creek road, but vey Reedsport, Oregon, 1:100,000 scale topographic
unequivocal terrace surfaces or wave cut platforms were bathymetric map. Numerous minor irregularities are appar
not observed. Similar deposits at even higher elevations ent on the sea bottom, but a major break in slope that
are exposed in a borrow pit near the intersection of the might be related to a sea-level low stand is present at an
Threemile Creek road and U.S. Highway 101, at an eleva elevation of 104 m (fig. 11), a depth that is consistent
tion of 8595 m. Some speculative but geologically rea with recent models of sea-level change in the late Quater
sonable correlations between marine terrace deposits near nary (Tushingham and Peltier, 1991). However, I found no
the mouth of the Umpqua River and older fluvial terraces evidence of a submarine canyon or an Umpqua River
will be discussed. paleochannel on the continental shelf, so either rapid sedi
mentation has obliterated any traces of such features or the
drop to the late Wisconsin sea-level minimum had only
INTERMEDIATE TERRACES NEAR REEDSPORT
temporary effects on the lower reaches of the Umpqua
River and its tributaries. Thus, one possible explanation
I found a single exposure of charcoal-bearing sedi for the problematic age of the Scholfield Creek terrace is
ment in an intermediate-aged fluvial terrace on Scholfield that the creek was isolated from any incision brought on
Creek, a tributary that joins the Umpqua River at Reeds by the post-25 ka drop in sea level until 2022 ka, when
port (station 87U20, plate 1). This exposure is in a small entrenchment of the Umpqua River system retreated
terrace remnant whose surface stands about 13.5 m above upstream to the vicinity of the Scholfield Creek terrace.
Scholfield Creek at an elevation of 16.5 m. Two charcoal The Scholfield Creek terrace ages have also been
samples were collected for radiocarbon dating from the affected by the recently documented systematic errors in
upper 4 m of the terrace exposure, which consisted of fine the radiocarbon time scale determined from comparisons
to medium sand with minor silt and sandy gravel interbeds with geomagnetic intensities (Stuiver and others, 1991)
(fig. 4B). The resulting radiocarbon ages (22,240 + 630 yr and precise uranium-series dating of fossil corals (Bard
B.P. and >26,400 yr B.P.) are somewhat problematic and others, 1990). These studies indicate that radiocarbon
because they correlate the Scholfield Creek terrace with a ages in the 20- to 30-ka range are 2,5004,000 years too
period of fluctuating sea level that was not conducive to young. Thus, the two Scholfield Creek radiocarbon ages
fluvial terrace aggradation. yield calibrated ages of 2530 ka, which are more compat
Formation and preservation of a 22 ka fluvial terrace ible with a period of aggradation during an interstadial
near the coast is unusual because sea level is thought to sea-level high stand, rather than to the period of rapidly
have fallen from an interstadial high stand of about 3540 falling sea level following this high stand.
m below present sea level, between 25 and 30 ka (Bloom Terraces are poorly preserved along Scholfield Creek,
and others, 1974; Chappell and Veeh, 1978; Pinter and so correlation of the dated terrace with surfaces on the
Gardner, 1989) to a late Wisconsin minimum about 1718 lower part of Scholfield Creek and on the Umpqua River
ka that may have been 100150 m below present sea level near the confluence is uncertain. However, the dated terrace
(Bloom, 1983; Chappell and Shackleton, 1986; Tushing might correlate with a small terrace remnant at an elevation
ham and Peltier, 1991). The apparent age of the Scholfield of about 9 m in the town of Reedsport, just upstream from
Creek terrace does not fit well with these changes in glo the confluence with the Umpqua River (station 87U21,
bal sea level because fluvial terrace treads near the coast plate 1). About 5 m of sandy silt and silty sand, oxidized to
that may have aggraded during the interstadial high stand 7.5YR hues (color terminology of Munsell Color Co.,
should have been abandoned by incision brought about by 1954), were exposed in an old roadcut in this intermediate
the steep, post-25 ka drop in sea level to the late terrace (fig. 12). Unfortunately, no charcoal for radiocarbon
Wisconsin minimum. Examples of stream terraces that dating was found, but a TL age of 14.9 + 3.1 ka was
Dioapgorgarmapahtic part
11.
tFigure
Schol
River,
Umpqua
Ocean,
Pacific
profiles
are
lines
Heavy
area.
Reedsport
the
in
terraces
marine
and
fluvial
of low-gradient fluvial
The
arrows.
with
marked
River
Umpqua
confluence
and
coast
the
Creek;
field
in
are
Creek
Scholfield
of HRhigh
circles:
filled
with
shown
are
text
in
discussed
remnants
of
Locations
range.
tide
Ithe
Reed
at
terrace Ccrhotvelirfdireancleds profiles
Re-indtserpmoedrita,e Creek,
SPsport,
are
lines
Dashed
River.
Smith
the
on
SRhigh
Lake,
Threemile
at
terrace
TLmarine terrace
ctentative
between
Tgradients
text.
the
in
discussed
pterraces
several
readings,
altimeter
from
are
data
horptoregleralmtaipeothnerisdc; errors
d:eoai12prs04oic,uga0rtsea-0imps-ocehanilstcde
(see
and
vt1methods)
mmaps;
greater
reflect
circles)
(filled
symbols
terrace
of
size
in
Scholfield
Creek
SR
*
g
River
Umpqua
Pacific
Ocean
3.
CoCoast
nfluence
t
T
TLC--
-
(km)
COAST
TO
RELATIVE
DISTANCE
-100O
Possible
sea-level
Stand
low
LL]
--
-1501I
------|--
I-I- -30140
O
-10
20
30
200
exag eration.
vertical
Note
terraces.
higher
of
heights
50 O
LLI LLI l
5. LL] C) OH
-50 > H<[ LL] DC E
-
I
TERRACES ALONG THE UMPQUA RIVER 23
-
2 - -
*65.2 + 7.3 ka
|TOE (SP87UT18)
; 1 '...? S.
t..:06:06.
;
"... r I
c
| 3 |
a i #
| 5 |
Figure 13. Stratigraphic columns of two exposures of the high terrace underlying
the town of Reedsport: (A) station 87U18 and (B) station 87U15. See legend in
figure 3 for explanation of lithologic patterns and symbols.
The two possible terrace ages discussed above (65 ka indicate coastal uplift rates are 30.2 mm/yr in this region,
from the TL age or 125 ka from correlation with the so high uplift rates are an unlikely cause of preservation of
marine terrace record) associate the high terrace at Reeds a 65 ka aged fluvial terrace at Reedsport.
port with very different sea-level positions and geomor The geomorphology and sedimentology of the high
phic settings. A 125 ka age would correlate the fluvial terrace at Reedsport support the inference that the terrace
terrace with a time period in which sea level stood about 6 formed during a sea-level high stand. The terrace tread
m above present sea level (Chappell and Shackleton, nearly fills its ancestral valley (pl. 1), a pattern which geo
1986), so fluvial conditions near the mouth of the Umpqua morphically resembles the present valley of the Umpqua
River were probably similar to those of today. In contrast, Riverthat is, a relatively flat, steep-walled valley filled
a 65 ka age would correlate the Reedsport terrace with a with fine-grained fluvial and estuarine sediment. If the
sea-level low stand (oxygen-isotope stage 4) at a time present morphology of the lower Umpqua is typical of
when the heights and ages of uplifted coral reefs on the valleys formed during sea-level high stands, then it seems
Huon Peninsula in New Guinea indicate that sea level highly unlikely that an extensive fluvial terrace formed
stood more than 60 m below present sea level (Chappell during a sea-level low stand could be preserved above the
and Shackleton, 1986). The lower Umpqua River must modern river. Therefore, I conclude that the TL age of
have been flowing in a deeply entrenched canyon under about 65 ka for the Reedsport terrace deposits has under
such conditions. Marine and near-coastal fluvial terraces estimated the age of this terrace by about 60,000 years,
formed during sea-level low stands are rarely preserved and that the terrace is correlative with possible 125 ka
above sea level except in areas of very high uplift (Lajoie, marine terrace sediments near the mouth of the Umpqua
1986). No studies of coastal uplift have shown uplift rates River (fig. 11).
of more than about 0.4 mm/yr for the central Oregon coast If the high fluvial terrace at Reedsport is correlative
(Adams, 1984; West and McCrumb, 1988), and more with a 125 ka marine terrace, then the rapid drop in base
recent studies (H.M. Kelsey, written commun., 1992) (sea) level that followed the substage 5e high stand is a
TERRACES ALONG THE UMPQUA RIVER 25
likely mechanism for initiating the incision that cut off the
Reedsport meander and stranded the high Reedsport flu
vial terrace. Drastic drops in base level (on the order of
many tens of meters) may be the most likely mechanism
for vertical incision and abandonment of most terrace
treads located within a few tens of kilometers of the coast.
: -200 ka
HIGH TERRACE ALONG CRESTVIEW DRIVE (SP87UT20)
The height of the Crestview terrace indicates that the Figure 14. Stratigraphic column of an exposure of a
age of this terrace is well beyond the range of radiocarbon high terrace along Crestview Drive near Reedsport at sta
dating, so a TL age was obtained on the silty overbank tion 87U19. See legend in figure 3 for explanation of
deposits (fig. 14). The TL analysis determined that the lithologic patterns and symbols.
Crestview sediments are at TL saturation and indicates a
probable age of greater than 200 ka. This minimum age is
consistent with the height of the terrace and the soil devel hues, are consistent with soils on the highest marine terrace
opment found in the deposit (oxidation extends through the at Cape Blancothe Poverty Ridge terrace(Bockheim
entire 10-m-deep exposure, and 2.5YR hues are present in and others, 1992), which is thought to be >500 ka (H.M.
the B horizon). An age of >200 ka is also consistent with Kelsey, written commun., 1992).
tentative correlation with the marine terrace record. If the Crestview terrace correlates with marine terrace
Although poorly preserved, marine terrace sediments are deposits, then the coarse texture of the fluvial sediments
present about 7 km downstream at about the same elevation implies high stream gradients and the absence of a well
as the Crestview terrace. The 8595 m elevation of these established estuary at the mouth of the Umpqua River at
marine deposits indicates that they are substantially older the time of terrace aggradation. Perhaps the mouth of the
than the 24- to 28-m-high, isotope-stage 5 terrace at Three Umpqua River during Crestview time was similar to the
mile Lake, so they most likely correlate with a stage 7 (230 mouths of the present day Elk and Sixes Rivers in the
ka) or older sea-level high stand. Some aspects of soil Cape Blanco area of southern Oregon (fig. 2); these rivers
development on the Crestview terrace, particularly soil are nontidal, gravel-dominated fluvial systems that empty
26 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
Coastal soils develop under cooler, moister, and foggier surface might be graded to sea-level high stands at 80 or
summer conditions than do soils in inland parts of the 105 ka, but marine terraces of this age are probably below
Coast Range, so the drier summer soil conditions inland sea level along this part of the Oregon coast (H.M.
may be more conducive to increased oxidation. The Kelsey, written commun., 1992).
increased oxidation is clearly apparent in the Henderer
Road and other terrace exposures on the Umpqua River
that lie more than about 40 km from the coast. However, TERRACES ALONG THE
this apparent limit of coastal influence on soil develop
SMITH RIVER
ment may not extend as far inland on other parts of the
Oregon coast, because coastal fogs often move farther
inland along major river valleys than they do across The Smith River, one of the largest (900 km drain
unbroken mountains. Additional variations in coastal influ age area; Oregon State Water Resources Board, 1958)
ence on soil development through time may exist as a tributaries of the Umpqua River, enters the Umpqua River
result of changes in climate related to fluctuating sea lev near Reedsport (fig. 2). Unfortunately, fluvial terraces
els. Such variations in soil development are examples of along the Smith River are even less well preserved than
the problems inherent in using soils as a tool for correlat along the Umpqua River (fig. 17; pl. 2). Most terraces are
ing terrace remnants along Coast Range rivers. small, but at four locations terraces are better preserved in
A TL age of 116 it 20 ka was obtained on silty sedi abandoned meander bends. As with the Umpqua River,
ment from one of the higher terrace exposures along Hen terrace sediments are found at heights as much as 100 m
derer Road (fig. 15). As with the other TL sites, I above present river level, but lower, younger terraces are
more Common.
attempted to sample unweathered sediment for analysis,
but this proved to be impossible because soil development The only terrace that can be physically correlated
extended through the entire exposure. The affect of pedo with any certainty along the Smith River is a mostly con
genesis on the TL signal preserved in these sediments is tinuous terrace, 210 m above river level, that probably is
unknown, but oxidation, influx of illuviated silt and clay, correlative with the PHT terrace on the Umpqua River.
and fluctuating groundwater conditions probably have Unfortunately, no radiocarbon ages were obtained from
altered the amounts and types of radioactive sources in the upstream exposures of this terrace on the Smith River that
sediment. However, the TL age obtained on the higher could be compared to dated sites on the Umpqua River.
Henderer Road terrace may be geologically reasonable, Several radiocarbon ages were determined on charcoal
especially if the TL age of 65.2 + 7.3 ka on the high ter from terraces in abandoned meander bends near Brainard
race at Reedsport, to which the Henderer Road terrace Creek and in The Island near Smith River Falls, and near
might be correlated (fig. 5), is a minimum age. The TL the confluence of Vincent Creek and Smith River; a single
age of 116 it 20 ka on the Henderer Road terrace appears TL age was obtained from a high terrace near the mouth
to be accurate within its laboratory error limits if both flu of the river. Most of these ages are not consistent with
vial terraces are graded to the Threemile Lake marine ter other ages on the Smith River or with the better estab
race, which in turn is correlative with a substage 5e, 125 lished chronology on the Umpqua River. The dated sites
ka sea-level high stand. This is a reasonable interpretation, and several other terraces are discussed below.
but the advanced soil development on the high Henderer
Road terrace, lack of physical continuity, and poor preser
vation of both fluvial and marine terraces suggests that TERRACES UPSTREAM FROM THE ISLAND
other correlations cannot be ruled out.
Several roadcuts in a lower terrace along Henderer Fluvial sediments are exposed in a logging roadcut
Road at about river km. 6870 (stations 87U3 and along Vincent Creek, just upstream from the confluence of
87U23, plate 1) exposed similar sequences of sandy silts the creek with the Smith River near river km 53 (station
overlying sandy pebble and cobble gravels (fig. 16). The 87US7, plate 2). In the exposure about 1 m of fluvial
elevation of the lower Henderer Road terrace surface near sandy silt overlies about 0.75 m of sandy gravel (fig. 18);
these exposures is about 43 m, about 26 m above the an accelerator (AMS) radiocarbon analysis on small frag
Umpqua River. No age information was obtained on this ments of charcoal from the sandy silt yielded an age of
terrace, but comparable well-developed soils are present 7,950 + 110 yr B.P. This age seems anomalously young
on the deposits at both sites. Strong oxidation extends because the terrace surface is about 19 m above the eleva
through the entire exposures, most gravel clasts are crush tion of Vincent Creek and about 24 m above the elevation
able in hand specimen, and colors reach 5YR hues in the of Smith River, 250 m downstream. An infinite radiocar
B horizons. If the higher Henderer Road terrace correlates bon age (>43,600 yr B.P.) on a lower terrace near Bear
with a possible substage 5e (125 ka) marine terrace at Creek about 4 km downstream and the presence of abun
Threemile Lake, then the lower Henderer Road terrace dant decomposed roots, worm casts, and animal burrows
Stratigraphic columns of two exposures of an intermediate terrace along
Henderer Road, 68 km west of Elkton: (A) station 87U3 and (B) station 87U23.
AN VYRZNOSSENYOT.
-}}30:|-
;);
J40.
}'o<>Q Gravel
FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
- -
<>0}
V;?}{};-
\-;&&Sand - -
.z2.
$$$$$$$
0$$.
$\.\))$ $$$$$$$
..}}. }. }. }}} -}}$$
% |- -
Mud
- -
Figure 16.
I
CN
S
SHE LEW
28
Loaxndpgilor
17.
fFigure
5
figure
see
River;
Smith
reach
lower
the
along
terraces
Reprofile
symbols.
charcoal
on
is
B.P.
yr
85
10,165+
of
age oatcnuadrtibnoanl
........"
" 100
#
80
|.
2-| *
_2
|
|60
|
=
OA
+-
IST-I
2-
~
H-
i
-
Hyr
|9. .- - 5- -
+
2,685
B.P.
-:
-H
terraCe
PHT
| |
4*3,600
B.P.
yr ...
.
*
terrace
Marine
MT
|| | >40
yr . . . .2. . *
1ka
+
155 - 5.
+0.P-*
"
*1,020
B.P.
yr
....
B.P.
->39.500y
. . .....*River
S. MT.
. . ."
falonufvew
a
River
Umpqua
of
mouth
near
projected
are
terraces
Marine
area.
Island
The
in
csediment
the
from
downstream
km liuaeln-cfea.n
*
.....
d
110
+
*7,950
B.P.
yr
| X-
.
Falls
mith
'" F
.....
85
+
10,165
B.P.
yr
...
|.
CONFLUENCE
FROM
DISTANCE
(km)
RIVER
UMPQUA
WITH
Ta;
age
- L
...!...
r
...
...
*-
ro
130
O
20
50
60
0
RadiocSMITH
age
140 RIVER
arb
on|.'"
Teerrace
m|
- asurem..]
ent | #
meander|
Abandoned
2- - |
r
1825-6sy
f......A.
B.P.|l-
Tide
A -
3.
120 range o;
....."
MT
| -
|
(d
[........20
H -
|
'"
...
A- -
||
TR
|
Mr.
|.......
.*| |
-
30 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
:* - 43,600 yr B.P.
(SP87USR3)
# #
Figure 19. Stratigraphic columns of two terrace exposures upstream from Smith River
Falls near Bear Creek: (A) exposure of lower terrace at station 87US5, and (B) exposure
of higher terrace at station 87US6. See legend in figure 3 for explanation of lithologic
patterns and symbols.
abandonment of about 6 km of former channel of the in the sandy overbank facies (fig. 21A). The shape and
Smith River now isolated in The Island. Several fluvial color of this zone and the abundance of apparently non
terraces are preserved in the area as a result of abandon fluvial organic debris indicate that this zone is probably a
ment, but the present geomorphology of the bend has been burned tree root or tree-throw cavity filled with sediment
complicated by subsequent landsliding, drainage reversals, and organic material that post-dates the fluvial terrace sur
and alluvial deposition by small streams. A topographic face. Therefore, the radiocarbon age yields only a mini
profile measured along the present valley bottom of The mum age for the abandonment of this terrace.
Island illustrates some of the pertinent aspects of the geo A roadcut in a fluvial terrace about 21 m above the
morphology of the area (fig. 20): (1) remnants of at least lowest terrace (station 87US10, plate 2) exposed an
four pre-abandonment terraces are preserved in the bend; apparently eroded section of fine sand and sandy silt over
(2) a substantial amount of colluvial and alluvial sediment lying bedrock (fig. 21B). This sediment has probably been
has been deposited in the bend since abandonment; (3) the reworked by colluvial processes because the exposed sec
gradient of the modern Smith River (0.0029) in the vicin tion is very thin, does not include the basal sandy gravel
ity of The Island is only slightly higher than the projected found in almost all other exposures of fluvial sediments in
gradients of the four terraces in the bend (average of four the area, and contains some angular pebbles. The exposure
values=0.0023); and (4) two radiocarbon ages yielded also appears to have been extensively bioturbated by
unexpectedly young ages and probably are only minimum rodents and contains abundant decomposed roots, so some
ages. decomposed roots may have been included in the radiocar
The timing of the abandonment of the The Island is bon sample. Thus, the radiocarbon age of 2,860 it 215 yr
unknown because of inconsistent radiocarbon ages. Char B.P. also yields only a minimum age of this terrace.
coal from the lowest abandoned terrace (station 87US12, A third radiocarbon age (10,165 + 85 yr B.P.) from a
plate 2), which probably was the Smith River flood plain roadcut exposure at station 87US11 (pl. 2) gives a better
at the time of abandonment (dashed line in fig. 20), assessment of the antiquity of terraces in The Island. As is
yielded an age of 1,020 + 50 yr B.P., but this age is evident from its position on the topographic profile (fig.
almost certainly a minimum value. This sample was taken 20) and on plate 2, the dated sediments lie near the top of
from a wedge-shaped zone of reddish-brown silty sand a thick sequence of post-abandonment colluvial and allu
containing abundant angular wood and charcoal fragments vial sediment. The stratigraphy in the exposure (fig. 21C)
Dioapgorgarmapahtic
20.
tFigure
shown
Also
2).
plate
Island
The
(labelled
River
Smith
on
bend
meander
abandoned
an
in
line)
(solid
bottom
valley
present
the
of
profile ap roximates ages
line)
(dashed
surface
terrace
projected
lowest
The
(0.0029).
reach
this
in
River
Smith
modern
gradient
than
steep
less
slightly
only
are
of
plain
flood
the aobasdtn-iadobacnadmorenbmeotn;t sequence,
meander
time
at
River
pSmith
of
volume
large
the
rnote
youngest
two
The
surface.
this
overlying
area)
(unshaded
sediment rolasdtu-iavobiacnadlor-nbfmeoant km
error;
in
probably
are
asterisks)
with
a(marked
charcoal
on
is
fan
Creek
Buck
from
page
of
top
the
near
sediment
so ocarbon of
maerrace
yields
rit
infinite
An
cutoff.
meander
tof
from
B.P.)
yr
(>43,600
fage
a
Creek,
Bear
near
pre
the
with
correlates
probably
19A)
(fig.
upstream
inimum
diew baebtanerdeosntmieante
a
gives
and
Island
The
in
terrace
fan
Creek
Buck
between
trapped
is
drainage
where
located
marsh
small
Note
meander.
abandoned
age
the
loapnodgsrlaipdheisc;
Tdownstream
Creek.
Little
and
Creek
Buck
between
divide
drainage
modern
the
forms
area
this
photogram
several
readings,
altimeter
from
are
data
River
|Smith
River
Smith
215
+
$2,860
B.P.
yr
OI
T
T
I|
I
|
I
I
T
IT
r-T
I-T
I proer-aebalnadtoinmoenst
several
care
probable
and
lines),
solid
(short
remnants
terrace
0.0023)
(average
surfaces
correlated
the
of
gradients
The
surfaces.
these
between
lines)
(dotted
|
Creek
Buck
<!--
D
Creek
Buck
Little A 50
+
*1,020
B.P.
yr
fan
Creek
Buck
Landslides
Marsh
(m)
DISTANCE
scale-topographic
1:24,000
and
profiles
metric
maps.
e----
- -
O
12000
3000
4000
000
5000
6000
O O O O O O 20 10
8 7 6 5 4 3
TERRACES ALONG THE SMITH RIVER 33
2 . .. . 1 ; :
|*1,020 + 50 yr B.P. #.
|(SP87USR8) #:
C/D g n 2,860 + 215 yr B.P.
, f^*A* (Sgusfie,
H. 1 H. 0 N 1
> >
Lll
H.
Lll
N
N
>
> 0
10,165 + 85 yr B.P.
(SP87USR7)
Cl
# #
Figure 21. Stratigraphic columns of terrace exposures in The Island: (A) exposure of lowest terrace at station 87US12, (B) exposure of
intermediate terrace at station 87US10, and (C) exposure of Buck Creek alluvial-fan sediments at station 87US11. See legend in figure 3
for explanation of lithologic patterns and symbols.
is somewhat unusual because a thin bed of sandy pebble The Island, because the lowest Island terrace and the Bear
and cobble gravel is interbedded with pebbly sandy silt Creek terrace are at about the same height above the
and silt. This stratigraphy and the geomorphology at the Smith River (fig. 17), and because the infinite radiocarbon
site indicate that the exposed sediments were deposited in age is more consistent with the large amount of post
an alluvial or debris fan formed where Buck Creek enters abandonment sediment present in The Island (fig. 20).
the abandoned cutoff and are not part of a Smith River
fluvial terrace. This conclusion is supported by the charac
TERRACES BETWEEN THE ISLAND AND
teristic fan shape of the ground surface where Buck Creek
enters the meander, and lack of older fluvial terrace sur BRAINARD CREEK
faces in the area (pl. 2). In addition, the roadcut in the
Downstream from The Island, fluvial terraces are best
Buck Creek fan is located near the center of the valley,
where preservation of a high Smith River terrace remnant preserved on the insides of meander bends and in aban
is unlikely. Projection of the lowest Island terrace (dashed doned meanders near Sulphur Springs at about river km
line in fig. 20) beneath the colluvial and alluvial sediments 35 and near North Fork at about river km 26 (fig. 17).
now present in the cutoff shows that as much as 38 m of Both abandoned meanders contain high, old terraces that
post-abandonment sediment has been deposited at the apex are mostly covered by colluvium. No exposures were
of the Buck Creek fan. Such a large amount of sediment apparent so these terraces were not examined in detail.
has accumulated in the meander because Buck Creek, However, the terrace spacing at these and other scattered
which now occupies most of the former valley of the sites was regular and consistent, so tentative correlations
Smith River, is underfit and incapable of carrying the have been made between the scattered remnants (fig. 17).
large sediment loads supplied to the valley bottom from The gradients of these correlated surfaces roughly parallel
the better constrained terrace surfaces in The Island but
adjacent slopes. The location of the Buck Creek radiocar
bon sample near the surface of the fan sequence may indi are somewhat steeper than the modern Smith River and
cate that the latest period of significant alluviation in this low terraces along the same reach. Most terraces are not
correlated downstream from the North Fork area because
part of The Island occurred in latest Pleistocene or early
Holocene time, coincident with aggradation of PHT ter almost no terraces are preserved in a 15-km-long gap
races along several Coast Range rivers (see Discussion between North Fork and Brainard Creek (fig. 17).
section).
The radiocarbon age from the previously described TERRACES NEAR BRAINARD CREEK
lower terrace near Bear Creek (>43,600 yr B.P.) may be a
more reasonable constraint on the minimum age of mean Several terraces are preserved in a large abandoned
der abandonment than the three radiocarbon ages from meander near Brainard Creek at about river km 9.5
FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
1
| 2,685 + 95 yr B.P.
i (SP87USR2)
#.
N I
>
# Cl |
|
#
Figure 22. Stratigraphic columns of terrace exposures in the abandoned meander
bend near Brainard Creek: (A) exposure of the lowest terrace at station 87US3, and
(B) exposure of the highest terrace at station 87US4. See legend in figure 3 for ex
planation of lithologic patterns and symbols.
(fig. 17). The surface of the lowest terrace in the meander is An eroded exposure of fluvial sediment in the highest
at an elevation of about 7 m and is dissected, but enough of terrace near Brainard Creek was visible in a driveway
this surface is preserved to show the extent of the pre roadcut (fig. 22B, station 87US4, plate 2). Only the
abandonment path of the Smith River. A roadcut in this lower 1 m of this exposure appeared to be in place, and
surface (fig. 22A; station 87US3, plate 2) exposed about the sediment was extremely weathered (all gravel clasts
1.25 m of overbank silty sand overlying at least 0.75 m of crushable in hand specimen, extensive oxidation and clay
silty clay that may be estuarine sediment, quiet-water sedi alteration, 5YR hues) but fluvial bedding was still appar
ment deposited in an oxbow lake, or lacustrine sediment ent in the sediment. Although the age of this terrace is
deposited behind a landslide dam. No landslide scars large unknown, the height (61 m), extensive weathering of the
enough to dam the Smith River are evident downstream terrace sediments, and relations to marine terraces at the
from this exposure, so the muddy sediment was probably mouth of the Umpqua River (fig. 17) indicate that this ter
deposited in an oxbow lake or by estuarine processes. An race is more than 125 ka. Four other terrace surfaces are
AMS radiocarbon age of 2,685 + 95 yr B.P. was obtained preserved in the Brainard Creek meander between the two
on small fragments of charcoal from the base of the sand terraces discussed here, but no exposures of these surfaces
and the top of the underlying silt. The exposure contained were found.
numerous decomposed roots and worm burrows that could
be sources of younger organics, but the sample was picked
carefully to remove such materials before submission. The TERRACES DOWNSTREAM FROM
lowest terrace in the Brainard Creek meander is about 4 m BRAINARD CREEK
higher than the lowest terrace along the Smith River, which
has yielded radiocarbon ages of 123.7% of modern at 1.25 A roadcut in a 32-m-high terrace on the south side of
m depth and 1,825 + 65 yr B.P. at 3.6 m depth from an the Smith River at about river km 6.5 (station 87US2,
auger core about 5 km downstream at station 87US15 (fig. plate 2) exposed about 2 m of sandy silt and pebbly sand
4C; pl. 2). The lowest Brainard Creek terrace is also about (fig. 23). A TL age obtained on these sediments (55 + 12
2 m lower than an intermediate terrace near the confluence ka) is younger than the TL age obtained on fluvial sedi
at Reedsport that yielded a TL age of 14.9 + 3.1 ka. Thus, ment from the high terrace at Reedsport (65.2 + 7.3 ka),
the radiocarbon age from the lowest terrace in the Brainard but these ages overlap within their laboratory error limits
Creek meander is bracketed in correct stratigraphic order (table 2). The high terrace at Reedsport may correlate with
by radiocarbon and TL ages from nearby terrace sediments possible 125 ka marine terrace deposits near the mouth of
and may be a reasonable maximum age for the age of the Umpqua River, so if these terraces are correlative, then
meander abandonment. both TL ages on these terraces are too young.
TERRACES ALONG THE SMITH RIVER 35
limits. If the terraces are the same age, then they were
aggraded either about 5565 ka during a sea-level low
stand, or about 125 ka during a sea-level high stand. Flu
vial terraces formed during sea-level low stands near the
coast are rarely preserved in the emergent geologic record
C/D (Lajoie, 1986), and the deep exposures of the Reedsport
C. terrace show no evidence of coarse sediment that should
Lll
H. be associated with steeper stream gradients. So while the
Lll
> - -
geologic evidence and TL ages are somewhat contradic
tory, I conclude that the Reedsport and Smith River ter
*T*55 + 12 ka races are probably the same age, and that they correlate
- (SP87UST2) with marine terrace deposits near Threemile Lake that
may be 125 ka. The variations in projected gradients
between these terrace surfaces (fig. 11) are probably
related to errors in the measurement of the heights of ter
# | #| 3
ti | 5. race surfaces and the presence of an unknown thickness of
marine and eolian sediment on the marine terrace platform
Figure 23. Stratigraphic column of an exposure of a at Threemile Lake. If these correlations are correct, then
high terrace on the Smith River at station 87US2. See TL ages determined on sediment from the fluvial terraces
legend in figure 3 for explanation of lithologic patterns are too young by 60,000 years for the Reedsport terrace
and symbols. and by 70,000 years for the Smith River terrace. The TL
age discrepancies may be related to pedogenic changes in
Comparisons between projected terrace gradients and the fluvial sediments, because at both sample locations,
the present gradients of the Smith and Umpqua Rivers do extensive soil oxidation extended throughout the
not conclusively indicate whether the high terraces at exposures.
Reedsport and on the Smith River are correlative. The Charcoal from a fluvial terrace on Hudson Slough, a
present tide-influenced gradients of the lower Smith and tributary that enters the Smith River at about river km 5.5,
Umpqua Rivers are both about 0.0001; gradients upstream has been radiocarbon dated as part of a recent study of
from tidal influence are variable, but generally average colluvial deposits and erosion rates in the Coast Range
about 0.003 for the next 45 km of the Smith River and (Reneau, 1988). The terrace surface is about 15 m above
about 0.0006 for the next 45 km of the Umpqua River. the bed of Hudson Slough at an elevation of 2530 m;
The projected gradient between the high Smith River and charcoal from about 1 m below the terrace surface at a site
Reedsport terraces is 0.002, and the average gradient pro 3 km upstream from the Smith River yielded a radiocar
jected between the Smith River terrace and the marine ter bon age of >39,500 yr B.P. (Reneau, 1988, p. 220). Sev
race surface at Threemile Lake is about 0.0004. The eral other apparently correlative terrace remnants are at
anomalously high gradient between the Smith River and the same elevation in the Hudson Slough drainage (pl. 2),
Reedsport terraces may indicate that they are not correla apparently indicating that a fairly extensive terrace surface
tive, it may be an artifact of vertical errors in measuring existed in the slough sometime prior to 40 ka. This terrace
the height of one or both of these terraces, or it could indi may have been similar to the modern surface of low relief
cate that the high Smith River terrace formed at a time in Hudson Slough and therefore may have formed during
when the lower reach of the Smith River was substantially a sea-level high stand similar to present sea-level condi
steeper than at present, perhaps similar to conditions on tions. The height of this terrace indicates that it might be
the modern nontidal reach of Scholfield Creek (fig. 11). A correlative with TL-dated terraces on the south side of the
steeper gradient also would be consistent with nontidal river just upstream (fig. 17) and at Reedsport on the
conditions during a period of lower sea level, as indicated Umpqua River. All these terraces are probably correlative
by the TL ages. However, the fine sand and silt in the two with the marine terrace at Threemile Lake, which may be
high terraces and the geomorphic setting of the Reedsport related to the oxygen-isotope substage 5e (125 ka) sea
terrace indicate that both terraces were probably formed level high stand, although Reneau (1988) suggested that
under estuarine conditions similar to those of today. erosion rates calculated in his study indicated that the
Thus, the heights, projected gradients, TL ages, and Hudson Slough terrace might be related to a Whiskey-Run
relations to marine terrace deposits indicate at least three equivalent (80 ka) sea-level high stand.
possible scenarios for the age and correlation of the two A 3.75-m-deep auger core was obtained from a low
high terrace remnants on the lower Smith and Umpqua terrace about 4.5 km upstream from the mouth of the
Rivers. The terraces may not be correlative, but TL ages Smith River (station 87US15, plate 2) near the mouth of
on these sediments overlap within their laboratory error Franz Creek. The core contained several layers of peaty
36 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
and silty sediment (fig. 4C). Two radiocarbon ages on the terrace surface is at an elevation of 8.5 m and is about
mixtures of peat, detrital charcoal, and wood were 6.5 m above river level. The age and height of this terrace
obtained from depths of 1.25 and 3.6 m; as previously dis are similar to those of the PHT terrace on the Umpqua
cussed, these ages (123.7% modern and 1,825 + 65 yr River, which yielded slightly older radiocarbon ages from
B.P., respectively) yielded a maximum sediment accumu similar positions in the silty overbank deposits. The
lation rate of about 1.3 mm/yr at this site. younger apparent age of the Siuslaw terrace may be
related to the location of the present tide limit, which is
only 2 km downstream from the sample site. Terrace
TERRACES ALONG THE aggradation in such locations may have been more
affected by changes in sea level than terraces located far
SIUSLAW RIVER
ther upstream. The Holocene terrace on the Siuslaw River
converges with the river downstream and eventually
The Siuslaw River has a drainage basin of about merges with tidal marshes near the coast.
2,000 km (Oregon State Water Resources Board, 1965) In an earlier study, Feiereisen (1981) conducted an
and is located 3035 km north of the Umpqua River (fig. investigation of the geomorphology, sedimentology, and
2). Extensive older fluvial terraces initially were recog stratigraphy of the modern flood plain along the lower
nized along the lower Siuslaw River by Baldwin (1956), Siuslaw River, which included most of the Holocene ter
but Schlicker and Deacon (1974) modified Baldwin's map race described above. He identified cyclical patterns of
ping by removing terraces mapped on the meander bend fluvial sedimentation and attributed these patterns to forest
west of Mapleton. My mapping generally confirms Bald fires and large floods in the watershed. Feiereisen obtained
win's original work in this area (pl. 3). The distribution of a single radiocarbon age of 3,250 + 70 yr B.P. on peat and
fluvial terraces along the lower Siuslaw River is unusual wood from a depth of about 5.5 m in a core in the flood
because almost all older terraces are preserved on a high plain sediments near river km. 23.5.
bench on the north side of the river. The present topogra
phy of the valley is U-shaped, with a flat, sediment-filled
floor and steep sides (fig. 24). Because extensive high ter OLDER TERRACES
races are not evident on the south side of the river, the
river appears to have migrated unidirectionally to the Several exposures of older, higher terraces on the
south in Quaternary time. Another unusual feature of the
north side of the Siuslaw River revealed extensively
Siuslaw terraces is the apparent anticlinal warping of older
weathered fluvial sequences that were commonly partially
terraces near river km 25 (fig. 25). This warping coincides stripped and overlain by colluvium. Because most of the
with an anticline in the underlying bedrock (Baldwin, exposures were clustered in a group of high surfaces, only
1956; Schlicker and Deacon, 1974). The anomalously high subtle differences in weathering characteristics were evi
gradients of the terraces on the downstream limb of the dent. The most apparent differences in weathering charac
anticline were attributed by Schlicker and Deacon (1974) teristics were degree of reddening, oxidation, and
and Adams (1984) to folding, but neither noted the pres
preservation of gravel clasts. I did not obtain any numeri
ence of multiple terraces or the terrace gradient reversals cal age information from the older Siuslaw River fluvial
on the upstream limb of the anticline. The multiple ter terraces, so correlation with marine terraces at the coast
races present above the Siuslaw River anticline appear to
may be the best means of estimating fluvial terrace ages.
be examples of tectonic terraces formed as a result of A discussion of marine terraces present near the mouth of
repeated movements on the anticline. the river will precede discussion of the older fluvial
terraCeS.
HOLOCENE TERRACE
MARINE TERRACES
200
150
100
Siuslaw
River
-
OO 5 i *
H-T
-T T T
T- T I-T -T
O 500 1500 2000 2500 3000
(m)
DISTANCE
Topographic
24.
Figure
profile
1:24,000-scale
(from
map)
topographic
River
Siuslaw
the
across
km.
river
near
terraces
fluvial
22.5;
arrows.
with
marked
are
Note
flat-floored
U-shaped,
preservation
and
valley
older
of
only
terraces
fluvial
side
north
the
on
river.
3
3.
160
|
measurement
Terrace
S|USLAW
RIVER 140
A
Radiocarbon
age
A
range
Tide
T 120
MT
terrace
Marine
<HD-
Anticline 100
|80
|60
MT terrace
PHT
MT
MT
DISTANCE
(km)
COAST
FROM
Longitudinal
25.
Figure
along
profile
Siuslaw
reach
lower
the
5for
figure
see
River;
explanation
Note
symbols.
terraces
higher
of
warping
anticline;
an
over
indicates
symbol
arrow
double
axis
fold
of
location
bedrock.
underlying
the
in
TERRACES ALONG THE SIUSLAW RIVER 39
# 0
N
*> z
:
,23;:$:8.
W
S <-->
in elevation (115 m) and probably correlates with the
highest terrace surface on the downstream limb of the
anticline.
A lower terrace at about 88 m elevation was exposed
in a roadcut about 1 km northwest of Wendson near river
km 16.5 (fig. 27C; station 87S4, plate 3). The fluvial sed
iments exposed in this roadcut are similar to the sediments
described at stations 87S2 and 87S3, but soil develop
ment is not as extensive as that seen in the higher terraces.
Strong oxidation is present throughout the profile, but soil
reddening only reaches a maximum of 5YR hues in the B
horizon. Most gravel clasts are crushable in hand speci
Figure 26. Stratigraphic column of an exposure of a men but solution pits are not evident in the underlying
possible PHT (Pleistocene-Holocene transition) terrace bedrock strath surface.
at station 88Sl on the Siuslaw River. See legend in fig A much lower terrace at about 35 m elevation was
ure 3 for explanation of lithologic patterns and symbols. exposed in a roadcut about 1.5 km south of Mapleton near
river km 32 (fig. 27D; station 87S5, plate 3). This terrace
is the lowest in an extensive flight of high terraces pre
covered surface at 3035 m elevation. Although marine
served on the inside of a major bend in the Siuslaw River.
terrace deposits are not shown on recent geologic maps
(Schlicker and Deacon, 1974), deposits are present near The exposure revealed a basal channel facies of sandy
the elevations of Golder Associates (1986) in roadcuts pebble gravel overlain by an overbank facies of pebbly
fine sand and sandy silt. The soil in this exposure is less
south of Florence. Recent soils work in the region (H.M.
well developed than on the higher terraces; soil reddening
Kelsey, written commun., 1992) indicates that an age of
125 ka is most reasonable for the 18.2 m terrace, so the reaches 5YR hues in the upper part of the B horizon, but
the sediment has 10YR hues just below the B horizon.
higher terraces probably do not correlate with the 105 ka
Oxidation extends throughout the profile, but clasts in the
Pioneer terrace, but they are related to stage 7 (230 ka) or
basal gravel are not crushable in hand specimen.
older sea-level high stands. Older and higher marine ter
race sediments are also present northeast and east of Woa The ages of the older fluvial terraces are unknown.
hink Lake, a few kilometers southeast of Florence. The Adams (1984) recognized a single deformed terrace on the
heights of the three marine terraces of Golder Associates lower Siuslaw River that he correlated with a hypothetical
(1986) have been plotted in figure 25 for comparison with 100 ka marine terrace at the coast. My studies have delin
fluvial terraces on the Siuslaw River. eated multiple older terraces, rather than a single terrace,
along the same reach of the Siuslaw River (fig. 25; com
pare with Adams, 1984, fig. 8). The exact relations between
OLDER FLUVIAL TERRACES the deformed fluvial terraces and marine terraces at the
coast are unknown. However, unless the terrace gradients
Several exposures of fluvial sediment were visible in on the downstream limb of the anticline get steeper near the
logging roadcuts at an elevation of about 109 m about 0.5 coast, which is unlikely, these terraces cannot be reason
km east of Hanson Creek near river km. 22.5 (station ably correlated with the lowest marine terrace and therefore
87S2, plate 3). A composite stratigraphic column of two must predate the probable 125 ka age of the lowest marine
exposures shows about 3 m of sandy silt overlying about 2 terrace. An age of >200 ka is consistent with the degree of
m of sandy gravel (fig. 27A). Strong oxidation extends weathering and soil development of the highest fluvial ter
through the entire profile, soil hues reach 2.5YR in the races and with comparisons to a TL age on the 90-m-high
upper part of the B horizon, and 30- to 40-cm-deep solu Crestview terrace on the Umpqua River, 3035 km to the
tion pits are developed in the saprolitic bedrock strath sur south. The lowest fluvial terrace in the sequence near
face (fig. 28). All sandstone gravel clasts are easily Mapleton (station 87S5, plate 3) appears to be relatively
crushable in hand specimen, but a few clasts of quartzite undeformed, and it is at an elevation (35 m) that could
are still relatively unweathered. reasonably be projected to the 18.2 m or 30 to 35-m-high
soquus
pue sumed ooloII Jo uopeutIdxojoj ajnu u pu331 32s gs-/g uopens leuomdeWreou oeluoi qj. Jo ainsodx2 (a) pue sg uopens le uos
-puAreou peum3. Jo ainsodx (o) S-l uopuns le uopens xoog Jeou ooeluan3!!!Jo aunsodx2 (g) zsL8 uonens exl uosueHJouseo 23eun
3q e jo saunsodx elas jo uumoo nsoduloo (y):12ai^eisnis q uo sooeluom qq elaos jo sansodx Jo suunoo ojderpenslz aun?!
Gravel
Gravel
ano
| 2
Mud
Mud
|
O
I
~
FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
* I j .ts
~
CAN
V
()
o
s
6% s o W
&2 Yu S
S,
o .
28.
A
SS
SHE LEW
YN.
SEELEW
,
SV
W
o
-
:
-
SHE LEW
SHELEW
TERRACES ALONG THE SIUSLAW RIVER 41
L
-
- -
----:
Figure 28. Photograph of basal fluvial gravels overlying sandstone bedrock in a high terrace east of Hanson Creek at station 87S2; see
fig. 27A. Note probable solution pits in bedrock (arrows) and weathering of fluvial clasts. Pocket knife handle at right center (circled) is
10 cm long.
marine terraces near Florence. If one of these correlations is lower reach of the Siletz River by Schlicker and others
accurate, then this fluvial terrace is 125 ka or older. (1973) and Snavely and others (1976a, 1976b); Niem
I do not have enough age information to confirm a (1976) discussed additional information on the geologic
relationship between the multiple high fluvial terraces on history and hydrology of the Siletz River drainage basin.
the Siuslaw River and sea-level high stands, but the pres The lower 86 km of the Siletz River flows through Ter
ervation of at least six older fluvial terraces near Mapleton tiary sandstone and siltstone of the Yaquina, Alsea, Nes
indicates that some of these individual terraces may have tucca, Yamhill, and Tyee Formations. These rocks are
formed as a result of episodic tectonic uplift rather than perhaps a bit finer grained and less massively bedded but
climatic perturbations and accompanying fluctuations in are otherwise similar to the bedrock of the Tyee Forma
sea level. tion underlying the Siuslaw, Smith, and Umpqua Rivers.
Above river km 86 (pl. 4), however, the Siletz River
TERRACES ALONG THE SILETZ RIVER
is flowing on basalts and volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks
of the Eocene Siletz River Volcanics, which have been
The lower reaches of the Umpqua, Smith, and Siu intruded in places by dikes and sills of granophyric gabbro
slaw Rivers are located within about 30 km of each other (Schlicker and others, 1973; Snavely and others, 1976b).
and flow through similar bedrock. The Siletz River has a These rocks appear to be considerably more resistant to
slightly smaller drainage area than the Smith River (800 fluvial erosion than the sedimentary rocks downstream.
km2; Oregon State Water Resources Board, 1965) is Extensive fluvial terraces are not present along the river
located about 80 km north of the Siuslaw River (fig. 2), where it flows on the volcanic rocks, and the contact
and flows through more heterogeneous bedrock than the between the Siletz River Volcanics and the sedimentary
other Coast Range rivers examined in this study. Fluvial rocks downstream coincides with the mouth of a narrow
terraces and bedrock geology have been mapped along the gorge (fig. 29; labelled Lower Gorge" on plate 4).
1300
+
|-fl1,600
B.P.
yr
B.P.
yr
>36,000
90
80
Loxnpglor
29.
fFigure
5
figure
see
River;
Siletz
reach
lower
the
along
terraces
eprofile
symbols.
of iatnuadtinoanl
B.P.
y
+440
9,695 70
(km)
COAST
FROM
DISTANCE
I 60
RIVER
SILETZ
50
measurement
Terrace
Radiocarbon
age
terrace
Marine
range
Tide
| TR MT
A A
TERRACES ALONG THE SIUSLAW RIVER 43
Terraces are rare above the mouth of the gorge because sandy silt and sandy pebble and cobble gravel had a radio
the basalts of the Siletz River Volcanics and younger carbon age of 2,230 + 60 yr B.P. Small, isolated terraces
intrusive gabbroic rocks are much more resistant to the like these probably formed as complex responses to rel
lateral stream incision that is necessary for formation of atively minor changes in river hydrology and sediment
extensive fluvial terraces. The gradient of the Siletz River supply, rather than to the regional, climatic changes asso
steepens above the mouth of the gorge (from 0.003 to ciated with aggradation of the PHT terrace.
0.008), so vertical stream incision has also been inhibited
by the more resistant bedrock of the Siletz River Volca
nics. These changes in stream incision are classic exam LATE PLEISTOCENE TERRACES
ples of bedrock control on stream behavior.
Holocene terraces are well preserved along the Siletz Radiocarbon analyses on charcoal collected from two
from near the mouth of Lower Gorge to the coast (pl. 4). higher terrace exposures indicate that stream aggradation
also occurred in the late Pleistocene. A roadcut in a well
The lowest continuous terrace has yielded two early
Holocene radiocarbon ages (fig. 29) and is equivalent to preserved terrace surface southwest of Siletz near river km
the PHT terrace on the Umpqua River. Late Pleistocene 64 (fig. 31A; station 88SZ2, plate 4) exposed about 2 m
and older terraces are less well preserved, but they are of overbank pebbly fine sand overlying about 0.5 m of
present at various elevations downstream from Lower channel facies sandy pebble and cobble gravel. A sample
of disseminated charcoal from near the base of the over
Gorge. Prominent terrace exposures are discussed below.
bank sand yielded an AMS radiocarbon age of 12,110 +
95 yr B.P. This age is younger than expected because the
LATEST PLEISTOCENE AND terrace is twice as high above the river (24 m versus 12
HOLOCENE TERRACES m) as the 10 ka PHT terrace at the same location. No
other examples of 12 ka terraces have been found in the
The low, nearly continuous PHT terrace is 2.515 m Coast Range, so the anomalously young age may be the
above river level and has been sampled for radiocarbon result of inclusion of small fragments of modern and
dating at two sites. A cut in a large gravel pit a few hun decayed roots in the radiocarbon sample. Alternatively, if
dred meters northwest of Logsden (fig. 30A; station 88 the radiocarbon age is accurate, then the height and age of
SZ6, plate 4) near river km 78.5 exposed a minimum of 2 this terrace indicate that rates of stream incision were very
m of sandy silt overlying 0.25 m of medium to coarse high in latest Pleistocene time, just prior to deposition of
sand and 1.75 m of sandy gravel. An AMS radiocarbon the PHT terrace sediments. My dating results from other
determination on small fragments of charcoal from near Coast Range rivers indicate that inclusion of younger car
the base of the sandy silt yielded an age of 9,030 + 110 yr bon in the radiocarbon sample may be the best explanation
B.P. A second exposure of the PHT terrace was examined for the anomalously young age at this site.
in a natural stream cut near river km. 60, northwest of the A complex sequence of fluvial and colluvial sedi
town of Siletz (fig. 30B, station 89SZ2, plate 4). This ments was examined in a quarry exposure of a 40-m-high
stream cut exposed an overbank sequence of fine to late Pleistocene terrace near river km 88.5 in the Lower
medium sand with thin stringers of sandy silt, overlying Gorge (fig. 31B, station 88SZ7, plate 4). A typical
channel facies sandy pebble and cobble gravel; charcoal sequence of channel-facies sandy pebble and cobble
from the lower part of the overbank sands also yielded an gravel, overlain by overbank medium sand, is present at
early Holocene age (9,695 + 440 yr B.P.). The similar the base of the exposure. The sand is in turn overlain by
early Holocene ages support the physical correlation of the 0.6 m of organic-rich silt and 0.3 m of sandy, pebbly silt.
terrace surface between these sites (fig. 29) and also sup The silts are unusual because such fine sediment is not
ports the correlation of this terrace to the PHT terrace on presently being deposited along this steep reach (gradient
the Umpqua River. The presence of PHT-equivalent ter of 0.008) of the Siletz River. The silts are overlain by 2 m
races on the Umpqua, Siletz, and probably the Smith and of matrix-supported, sandy, silty, colluvial gravel, which
Siuslaw Rivers strongly implies a regional, probably cli contains abundant angular pebbles and cobbles of Tyee
matic cause for stream aggradation in latest Pleistocene Formation siltstone. The presence of Tyee Formation
and early Holocene time. clasts indicates that this gravel was not fluvially trans
Scattered younger terrace remnants are present at ported, because upstream from the terrace exposure, the
lower elevations along much of the Siletz River. Most of Siletz River has incised more than 200 m below the base
these remnants are on the insides of meander bends and of the overlying Tyee Formation into basalts and volcani
none form surfaces that are continuous for more than a clastic rocks in the underlying Siletz River Volcanics
few hundred meters. In one low terrace at river km 84.5 (Schlicker and others, 1973; Snavely and others, 1976b).
near the confluence with Palmer Creek (fig. 30C, station The colluvial gravel is overlain by a 1.5-m-thick sequence
88SZ8, plate 4), charcoal from an exposure of pebbly, of fluvial sandy pebble gravel, sandy silts, and silts.
44 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
C
Lll
H. -
Lll *::::::::::
> '': '...' O #%
j9,695 + 440 yr B.P. 2222.
... (SP89SZR1) a t
...A. A. 2,230 + 60 yr B.P.
." - HAA. (SP88SZR7)
:Fr 2,030 + 110 yr B.P.
- -
Sx. $. 't
-
*(sPasszR4 *
u
Lll
..
.
CD 1
> 3.3% s
.< 5.3's 3: 23 H.
LL
>: : >
& :
& S g
S ::
: oos : oo s,
2 ' - 0
Y 0
: P:
N
>
Q0
)
G)
-
; :
Q
-
;
: Q
-
Figure 30. Stratigraphic columns of exposures of Holocene terraces on Siletz River: (A) exposure of a PHT (Pleistocene-Holocene tran
sition) terrace in gravel pit near Logsden at station 88SZ6, (B) PHT terrace exposure northwest of Silctz at station 89SZ2, and (C) expo
sure of low terrace near the confluence of Palmer Creek at station 88SZ8. See legend in figure 3 for explanation of lithologic patterns and
symbols.
The complex stratigraphy exposed at this site appears topography in the floor of the drainage in which the site is
to be the result of one or more episodes of landsliding and located (pl. 4) indicate that the colluvial gravel probably
possible damming of the Siletz River in the Lower Gorge. was deposited as a debris flow. It is not clear if this debris
The bowl-shaped ridge at the head and hummocky flow dammed the Siletz River, but the colluvium was
TERRACES ALONG THE SIUSLAW RIVER
(SP88SZR6)
...O.
1 - S 3-X. o
...S:
*12,110 + 95 yr B.P.
-
# | (SP88SZR2)
SS o
3.32 2.
3
-d S3Ss o
$32,
:
:
o
3.
N
0
: o
N I I
N I
O)
I
# | 3 | | # y
| a
# a.
| a
Figure 31. Stratigraphic columns of exposures of late Pleistocene terraces on Siletz River: (A) terrace
exposure southwest of Siletz at station 88SZ2, and (B) terrace exposure in rock quarry in thc Lower
Gorge at station 88SZ7. Sce legend in figure 3 for explanation of lithologic patterns and symbols.
46 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
subsequently buried by fluvial sediment before the terrace Glenenden Beach areas (pl. 4) confirmed that marine ter
surface was abandoned. The fine silty sediment that race remnants are present at 2428 m in this area.
underlies the colluvium may have been deposited as a Kennedy (1978) used amino-acid ratios on shells to estab
result of an earlier period of landsliding that dammed the lish an oxygen-isotope substage 5a (80 ka) age on a ter
river downstream from the quarry site. The sediment that race of similar height at Yaquina Bay, 30 km south of the
formed this dam could have originated as debris flows Siletz River, but recent soils work (H.M. Kelsey, written
either from colluvium-filled hollows located on both sides commun., 1992) indicates that several major structures are
of the lower reach of Lower Gorge, or from two small present between Yaquina Bay and the Siletz River, and
southward-flowing streams that enter the river a few kilo that the lowest marine terrace at Glenenden Beach is most
meters downstream from the terrace site. The presence of reasonably correlated to the substage 5e (125 ka) sea-level
fluvial sediments at the top of the exposed sequence indi high stand. Marine terrace deposits are also present at
cates that any landslide dams formed during the aggrada 3640 m in Lincoln City and just south of the mouth of
tion of the quarry terrace were eventually breached and the Siletz River in Glenenden Beach. These deposits are
fluvial deposition was re-established before the terrace probably related to stage 7 (230 ka) or older sea-level high
surface was finally abandoned. Such temporary landslide stands. Some scattered fluvial terraces near the coast may
damming has probably been a common process in the nar correlate with these marine deposits, but the preservation
row confines of the Lower Gorge. of both types of terraces is so poor that such correlations
Radiocarbon samples were taken from 1- to 2-cm are very tentative.
thick mats of mixed detrital charcoal and wood from the
organic-rich silt unit at the Lower Gorge site (fig. 31B).
The charcoal and wood fragments were separated in the
OLDER FLUVIAL TERRACES
field and submitted to different radiocarbon laboratories;
the charcoal fraction yielded an age of >36,000 yr B.P.,
and the wood fraction yielded an age of 41,600 + 1,300 yr Older fluvial terraces are well developed in two loca
B.P. (table 1). Although the wood fraction yielded a finite tions downstream from Lower Gorge, but poor access and
age, the presence of decayed roots in the surrounding sedi a lack of good exposures hampered examination of most
ment could have caused contamination of the sample and older fluvial terraces along the Siletz River. The best pre
as a result yields a minimum age for the terrace sediments. served terrace flight is located west of Logsden (river km
7080) and has terrace remnants from 40 m to over 100 m
above present river level. The longest terrace remnants
have surface gradients that are somewhat less steep than
OLDER TERRACES
lower terraces and the modern river in this reach (fig. 29).
The lower gradients may be an artifact of the methods
Numerous older, higher terrace remnants are pre used to measure terrace heights, or they could signify reju
served along the Siletz River (fig. 29) but as with other venation and steepening of the Siletz River in late Pleis
Coast Range rivers, most remnants are widely scattered so tocene time. Unfortunately, the poor preservation of older
terrace correlations are tenuous. No numerical age data are terraces elsewhere along most of the river prevents terrace
available from any of the older terraces, but some age correlation over enough distance to determine whether
information can be inferred from comparisons between the rejuvenation has taken place. No good exposures of these
heights of these older surfaces and the heights of radiocar sediments was observed.
bon-dated terraces and from relations to marine terraces at
Older terraces are also fairly well developed near
the coast. A discussion of marine terraces present near the Siletz. A deeply weathered exposure of fluvial sediment in
mouth of the Siletz River will precede discussion of older one of these terraces was examined in a logging roadcut
fluvial terrace exposures. west of Siletz at about river km 63 (fig. 32A; station 88
SZ3, plate 4). The dissected terrace surface is at an eleva
tion of about 93 m and has been covered by colluvium.
MARINE TERRACES Examination of the sediment exposed in the roadcut
revealed about 1 m of sandy, pebbly colluvium overlying
Correlation of Siletz River terraces with the marine an overbank sequence of pebbly, sandy silt; a well pre
terrace record is very tenuous because few fluvial and served buried A horizon present in the upper 0.15 m of the
marine terraces are preserved near the coast (fig. 29). silt probably marks the original terrace surface. The lower
Golder Associates (1986) listed an elevation of 24.2 m for part of the sandy silt and about 1.7 m of clayey silt and
a Whiskey Run-equivalent marine terrace at Glenenden silt were observed in a 3-m-deep core at this site. I was
Beach, a few kilometers south of the mouth of the Siletz unable to penetrate the entire thickness of the fluvial sedi
River. My reconnaissance in the Lincoln City and ment with the corer, so the character of the lower part of
TERRACES ALONG THE SIUSLAW RIVER 47
# # ||
Figure 32. Examples of stratigraphic columns of cxposures of older terraces on the
Siletz River: (A) exposure of high terrace west of Siletz at station 88SZ3; lower 3 m of
section from an auger core, and (B) terrace exposure near Melco Landing at station
88SZ9. Sce legend in figure 3 for explanation of lithologic patterns and symbols.
48 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
12430' 12400'
4315'
2T
f ITV. ATI
N.1L, -
H Coquille
sl Il
YE
. .
O 5 km
4300' y
Figure 33. Map of lower Coquille River showing locations of the towns of Bandon, Coquille and Myrtle Point, and the conlucnces of the
North, Middle, and South Forks of the Coquille River; shaded area denotes uplands.
the terrace sequence is unknown. The fluvial sediments terrace sediments were observed along the lower reach of
underlying the colluvium are oxidized to 5YR hues in the the river.
12415'00" 12410'00"
4312'30"
&
&
C
2Y
Station
89- C3
Station
89-C4
Abandoned
Nva channel
O 1 km
4307'30"
Figure 34. Map of the flood plain of the Coquille River near Coquille; shaded areas denote uplands.
Note presence of two extensive abandoned channels on the floodplain southwest of Coquille and locations
of two auger cores (stations 89C3 and 89C4) shown in figure 35 and discussed in the text.
plain is as much as 3 km wide and presently used as pas ancestral Coquille River (fig. 34). These channels are clearly
ture land. Prior to drainage and diking associated with visible in air photos and are expressed in the field as 25- to
agricultural development, the flood plain had extensive 40-m-wide linear depressions that lie less than a meter below
areas of freshwater marsh and was frequently covered the general elevation of the flood plain and are flanked by
with ponded flood waters. The flood plain and the sur 50- to 100-m-wide levees. The southernmost abandoned
rounding towns are still flooded during periods of river channel extends continuously across the Coquille Val
extended rainfall in the winter months (Beaulieu and ley for about 10 km, and represents a major prehistoric shift
Hughes, 1975). in the course of the river. A second abandoned river channel
One of the most interesting features on the flood plain is preserved a couple of hundred meters north of the more
are extensive, well preserved abandoned channels of the extensive abandoned channel. The northern channel
50 FLUVIAL TERRACES, CENTRAL COAST RANGE, WESTERN OREGON
A B
3-E
?
LLI
2+--- |- - -
H. *- -
LL - -
| -
H.--
>
;
1 TT
#
Figure 35. Stratigraphic columns of two auger cores in abandoned channels on the Coquille River flood
plain: (A) core in southern abandoned channel at station 89C4, and (B) core in northern abandoned chan
nel at station 89C3. Stations are located in figure 34. See legend in figure 3 for explanation of lithologic
patterns and symbols.
apparently was not occupied as long because its central These radiocarbon ages and the geomorphology of
channel is shallower and it has low levees that have been the Coquille River flood plain can be used to estimate the
breached by numerous small tidal channels. relative position of late Holocene sea level. The present
No exposures of flood plain or channel sediments low-water (summer) elevation of the surface of the
were found near Coquille, so I obtained several 4- to 5-m nearby Coquille River is less than 1 m above sea level,
deep auger cores in both abandoned channels. The simple and the elevation of the top of the channel deposits in the
stratigraphy found in these cores is illustrated by examples two cores (about 2 m below sea level) is about the same
from each of the channels (stations 89C3 and 89C4, fig. as the present elevation of the channel bottom of the
34). The two cores contained sandy channel deposits that modern river in the vicinity of Coquille. This relation
were overlain by more than 3 m of overbank silt (fig. 35). implies that little if any change in relative sea level has
Radiocarbon analyses on detrital charcoal and wood from occurred in the last 3,000 years in this area. The preser
the upper parts of the channel sands from the two cores vation of numerous abandoned tidal and river channels
yielded nearly identical ages of 2,860 + 155 yr B.P. and on the present flood plain and lack of multiple fluvial ter
2,835 + 140 yr B.P. races also indicate stable relative sea-level conditions.
DISCUSSION 51
Holocene age in the Coast Range is probably related to the Most other Coast Range terraces of all ages are prob
small number of radiocarbon ages on basal colluvial ably either slip-off terraces, such as the numerous terraces
deposits in the region and to the removal of older colu present on the insides of meander bends along the Smith
vium during subsequent landsliding episodes. River, or formed as complex responses to major floods
The exact causes of the postulated periods of acceler or other short-duration sedimentation events. Examples of
the latter are the discontinuous terraces below the PHT
ated landsliding are not known. In historic time, periods of
terrace near Elkton and at river km 123133 on the
accelerated landsliding have usually been caused by short
term, localized perturbations, such as large forest fires, Umpqua River, and terraces below the PHT terrace at
and by periods of flooding related to intense precipitation river kms 4660 and 7884 on the Siletz River. Many
and rapid snowmelt. The late Pleistocene/early Holocene (most?) isolated older terrace remnants on all Coast Range
periods of accelerated landsliding in California and Wash rivers are probably complex response terraces that never
ington have generally been attributed to longer-term late formed continuous, synchronous surfaces.
Quaternary climatic changes, such as increased storm Examples of older tectonic terraces are preserved
intensities in latest Pleistocene time and/or vegetation on the lower reach of the Siuslaw River. Although the
changes and increased frequency of forest fires induced by older terraces near Mapleton have been described by
warmer, drier early Holocene climates (Reneau and others, Reneau (1988, p. 219) as slip-off terraces, the anticlinal
1986, 1989, 1990; Reneau, 1988; Rypins and others, 1989; warping of these surfaces indicates that tectonic uplift
Reneau and Dietrich, 1990). Such processes, if active for probably forced the abandonment of at least some terrace
many hundreds to thousands of years, probably are surfaces. The Siuslaw River anticline plunges to the south
responsible for the large inputs of sediment into Coast (Baldwin, 1956), so perhaps the terraces are localized on
Range streams near the Pleistocene/Holocene transition. the north side of the river because the river has periodi
cally slipped southward off the anticline in the direction
of fold plunge. Some of the older Siuslaw terraces proba
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE PHT AND bly correlate with marine terraces near the coast, but uplift
OTHER COAST RANGE TERRACES has masked any climatic signal in this terrace sequence.
Berger, G.W., 1988, Dating Quaternary sediments by Darienzo, M.E., and Peterson, C.D., 1990, Episodic tectonic
luminescence, in Easterbrook, D.J., ed., Dating Quaternary subsidence of late Holocene salt marshes, northern Oregon
Sediments: Geological Society of America Special Paper 227, coast, central Cascadia margin, U.S.A.: Tectonics, v. 9,
p. 1350. p. 122.
1990, Effectiveness of natural zeroing of the Dethier, D.P., 1988, The soil chronosequence along the Cowlitz
thermoluminescence in sediments: Journal of Geophysical River, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin
Research, v. 95, no. B8, p. 12,37512,397. 1590Fr, p. F1F47.
Berger, G.W., Luternauer, J.L., and Clague, J.J., 1990, Zeroing Dietrich, W.E., and Dunne. Thomas, 1978, Sediment budget for a
tests and application of thermoluminescence dating to Fraser small catchment in mountainous terrain: Zeitzschrift fr
River Delta sediments: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. Geomorphologie, Supplementband 29, p. 191206.
27, p. 17371745. Dueholm, K.S., and Pilmore, C.L., 1989, Computer-assisted
Birkeland, P.W., 1972, Late Quaternary eustatic sea-level changes geologic photogrammetry: Photogrammetric Engineering and
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-- \UG gr
Advances Related to United States and
| International Mineral Resources: ...
Developing Frameworks and f *
Exploration Technologies "
For sale by
USGS Map Distribution
Box 25286, Building 810
Denver Federal Center
Denver, CO 80225
Any use of trade, product, or firm names in this publication is for descriptive purposes only and
does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government
Advances related to United States and international mineral resources : developing frameworks and exploration
technologies / edited by Richard W. Scott, Jr., Pamela S. Detra, and Byron R. Berger.
p. cm. (U.S. Geological Survey bulletin; 2039)
Includes bibliographical references.
1. ProspectingEquipment and supplies. 2. Mines and mineral resourcesUnited States. I. Detra,
Pamela S. II. Berger, Byron R. III. Series.
QE75.B9 no. 2039
[TN270)
557.3 sdc20 9243213
[622'.1'028] CIP
CONTENTS
[Letters designate chapters]
Mineral resources are an essential component of the potential, and (3) providing tests of new technologies to
foundation of a strong society and healthy economy. Pro provide measures of their utility. For many years, the
viding information for the public good about the origin, USGS has used this programmatic approach to fulfill its
quality, and quantity of mineral resources world-wide has mission of earth science in the public interest.
been an important mission of the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) since its creation in 1879. This information con
tributes to (1) the national security by assuring a supply of ESTABLISHING A GEOLOGIC
raw materials; (2) the economic well-being of the United
States by maintaining a healthy minerals industry as well FRAMEWORK FOR
as other industries, such as aerospace and steel, that MINERAL DEPOSITS
depend upon minerals; (3) public health by providing
understanding of the occurrence of metals in the natural
environment and the behavior of metals in potentially haz The science of economic geology matured as a disci
ardous situations; (4) land-use decisions and land-use clas pline within the earth sciences in the latter half of the 19th
sification by public and private interests; and (5) century. Whereas earlier engineers and geologists tended
government policy making. to classify ore deposits on the basis of form and (or) min
eralogy, genetic concepts became the preferred underpin
To effectively accomplish a USGS goal of providing
ning of the field as it evolved from a practiced art to a
mineral resource information for the public good, the
science. Many USGS geologists contributed to the evolu
Office of Mineral Resources, Geologic Division of the
tion of thought in this science in its infancy (e.g., Samuel
USGS, seeks to quickly and effectively disseminate
F. Emmons, George Becker, Waldemar Lindgren, Raphael
research results to government, commercial, and general
Pumpelly, Frederick Ransome, and Josiah Spurr). Each of
public interests. This Bulletin, Advances related to United
these geologists and their colleagues believed that the gen
States and international mineral resources: Developing
esis and occurrence of mineral deposits were best under
frameworks and technologies, reports progress on some of
the current activities of the Office of Mineral Resources
stood in the context of their geologic framework. The
presumption that different deposit types reflect differing
and reflects the necessity for an international perspective
pressure and temperature environments has formed the
regarding mineral resources and resource technology.
intellectual framework of economic geology for most of
The organization of this Bulletin is based on the phi the 20th century; this framework was established by the
losophy that the needs of mineral-resource-information early years of the century.
users are best met by (1) establishing a geologic frame
During the past three decades, a new perceptual
work for mineral deposits nationally and internationally,
frameworkplate tectonics, in conjunction with new
(2) developing technologies that will aid in the exploration
research technologieshas revolutionized our understand
and evaluation of mineral resources and mineral resource
ing about the origin and occurrence of mineral deposits.
But, as in the early years of this century, it is still a frame
'U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 973, P.O. Box 25046, Denver work based on sound information about regional geology
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. and detailed understanding about individual deposits.
2 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
30
Magmatic
segregation
24
CD
Cr
H High-T Mesozonal
; epizonal
18
C
SZ Dynamo
2 hydrothermal
+ 12
5.
Lll Low-T
O epizonal
6
ice
Figure 1. Classification of mineral deposits in terms of pressures and temperatures that exist in different tectonic settings where specific
deposit types form (inferred from stable alteration mineral assemblages and geothermal gradients). The mineral-deposit styles are as fol
lows: (1) magmatic segregation, (2) mesozonal, (3) high-temperature epizonal, (4) dynamo-hydrothermal, and (5) low-temperature
epizonal. Selected, typical, mineral-deposit styles and examples for each of the deposit types are given in table 1.
With the advances in technology, scientists have of permissive mineral-resource terranes contributes to
achieved new insights into the pressure and temperature both of these ends. Larsen (Chapter Q) is developing a
conditions under which mineral deposits are formed geologic model to target heavy mineral placers in the
(fig. 1) and which mineral-deposit styles fit into the pres southeastern United States. New and improved technolo
sure-temperature types (table 1). As a result, scientists also gies in remote sensing have resulted in major advances in
now recognize the important relation between tectonic the utility of this approach to regional analysis, particu
environment and deposit type. The USGS is actively par larly in arid and semiarid regions. Clark and others
ticipating in this revolution in technology and understand (Chapter N) and Knepper (Chapter O) describe important
ing. Several papers in parts 1 and 2 of this volume reflect advances in technology development in this field.
our continuing attempt to understand the all-important Once a regional assessment or exploration analysis
geologic framework within which deposits occur. Contri has been completed, follow-up technologies are useful for
butions include Stoeser (Chapter A); Blank (Chapter B); outlining specific mineralized areas. Whitney and Landis
Kleinkopf (Chapter C); Bradley (Chapter D); and Luding (Chapter M) are investigating volatiles in clay minerals as
ton and others (Chapter I). The remaining papers in parts a tool for outlining permissive or prospective areas within
1 and 2 deal more specifically with mineral deposits or sedimentary sequences. McKee and others (Chapter P) are
mining districts (see Ayuso and Foley (Chapter E); Offield investigating the utility of the thermochronology of fluid
and others (Chapter F); Staude (Chapter G); Wallace and inclusions in mining-district-scale studies.
others (Chapter H); Hofstra and others (Chapter J); Ham When technologies have been developed that appear
marstom (Chapter K); and Rytuba and others (Chapter L)). to be useful, performance testing under normal field con
ditions is valuable both to document the conditions under
which a technology is useful and to transfer that technol
DEVELOPING AND TESTING ogy to other users. The papers in part 4 all take developed
TECHNOLOGIES FOR MINERAL technologies and test them with such objectives in mind.
Stream-sediment geochemistry is applied by Grosz (Chap
RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND
ter R) and lithogeochemistry by Thorman and Brooks
EXPLORATION (Chapter Y), and both are components in the multidisci
plinary study described by Toth and others (Chapter V).
The development and utilization of appropriate and Stressed vegetation is tested by Pays and others (Chapter
state-of-the-art technologies is integral to mineral S). Geophysical techniques are tested by Horton and
resource assessments and exploration. Regional targeting others (Chapter T) and Grauch and Hoover (Chapter X).
USGS-MEETING OUR NATION'S NEED FOR MINERAL RESOURCES 3
Table 1. Selected, typical, mineral-deposit styles and examples Mineralogy is utilized by Sidder and others (Chapter U) to
for deposit types shown in figure 1. provide genetic insights into the Pea Ridge deposit, and
mineral chemistry is applied to gold placers by
Mineral-deposit Examples Desborough and others (Chapter Z).
style (locations)
Magmatic deposits
Layered mafic intrusions..................... Bushveld
Stillwater
GAPS IN THE INFORMATION BASE
Anorthosite titanium ........................... Allard Lake
Kimberlite diamonds........................... Kimberley Viewing mineral deposits from a source to sink
Carbonatite rare-earth ......................... Mountain Pass perspective has long been the subject of academic science.
Mesozonal deposits However, detailed studies of natural abundances of trace
Pegmatites, lithium ............................. Kings Mountain elements in all varieties of rocks have failed thus far to
Manono-Kitole elucidate which rocks unequivocally have served as metal
Rhyolite tin......................................... Black Mountains sources for most types of mineral deposits. Therefore,
High-heat-flow granites....................... Cornwall
source regimes have had little application in mineral
High-temperature epizonal deposits resource assessment and exploration activities. Neverthe
Porphyry copper.................................. Bingham Canyon less, as Doe (Chapter AA) asserts, the investigation of
El Salvador
characterizing source rocks should continue.
Porphyry molybdenum
(Climax style)................................. Climax
Epithermal gold-silver......................... Comstock lode
Pachuca
Polymetallic veins, replacements......... Bingham Canyon
Bolivia
Skarn-related copper........................... Bingham Canyon
Christmas
Cyprus massive................................... Cyprus
Turner-Albright
Kuroko massive sulfide....................... Kuroko
Kidd Creek
Dynamo-hydrothermal deposits
Polymetallic veins............................... Coeur d'Alene
Low-sulfide quartz veins..................... Mother Lode
Ballarat
Muruntau
Low-temperature epizonal deposits
Sedimentary iron................................. Lake Superior
Clinton
Mississippi Valley Pb-Zn.................... Viburnum
Cracoc-Silesia
Roll-front uranium .............................. Grants
Powder River
CHAPTER A
Lake CRICKET
MTNS
* >
22 |
25 MILES
Figure 2. Index map to geographic features of the Delta 1X2 quadrangle and to figure 3. Solid lines are paved highways and roads;
dashed lines are improved dirt roads. Light-gray areas are ranges and areas of outcrop. White areas are intermontaine alluvium. Dark-gray
areas within the Sevier Desert are Pliocene and Quaternary basaltic volcanic rocks that lie on basin fill. Areas with diagonal lines are lakes.
encountered on the traverse that may be either flows or of the andesite breccia in the lower Maple Peak megabrec
flow domes intercalated in the section, allochthonous slabs cia. These andesitic breccia bodies occur north and west
of older volcanic rock incorporated within the t2 tuff unit, of, but spatially near, a large mass of andesite at the south
or hypabyssal intrusives. The hypabyssal-intrusion interpre eastern part of Maple Peak (fig. 4)these breccia bodies
tation is based on the observation that monzonite and latite may represent older volcanic rock that was dismembered
intrude mid-Tertiary volcanic rocks in the East and West during formation of the tuffs and megabreccias.
Tintic Mountains and at Desert Mountain (see below). The upper part of the Maple Peak section consists of
The lower part of the traversed section contains sev rhyolitic welded tuffs and coarse megabreccia (fig. 4, table
eral areas of dense phenocryst-poor andesite breccia (unit 1). Although Morris and Kopf (1967) indicated that the
Tab, fig. 4). Morris and Kopf (1970a) described this brec megabreccia of Maple Peak intrudes the volcanic rocks, I
cia as consisting of fragments of fine-grained, dark-red reinterpret the megabreccia as being volcanic megabreccia
dish-brown andesite; monzonite porphyry; quartzite; and that is intercalated in the volcanic section and that overlies
carbonate rocks in a sparse matrix of hematite-stained, pul the lower tuff section. This reinterpretation is, in part,
verized andesite. Where seen by the author, this unit con based on the observation that the central part of the Maple
sists of monomict breccia with fine-grained andesitic clasts Peak megabreccia contains a clast-poor zone (fig. 4). The
in a fine-grained andesitic matrix. These rocks appear to clast-poor zone is poorly exposed, but, where examined, it
have formed by brecciation of a massive andesite and may is a eutaxitic welded tuff. Furthermore, this tuff dips
be flow breccia or agglomerate, or they may have been approximately 40 N.E., indicating that this unit has a
brecciated subsequent to cooling. The andesite breccia was strike and dip conformable with the volcanic section
interpreted by Morris and Kopf (1970a) to be breccia above and below the megabreccia. Morris and Kopf
intruded into the volcanic rocks, but, to me, they appear to (1970a) showed several 85 N.E. dips for the megabreccia
be inclusions of andesite breccia incorporated into the in the traverse area, but I was unable to replicate these
welded tuffs. I also found several 6- to 8-ft-diameter clasts measurements when I visited these locations, and they are
8 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
3930'
H O 5 10 MILES
H-3,
EXPLANATION
Pliocene and Quaternary basaltic volcanic rocks Precambrian and Cambrian clastic sedimentary rocks
Figure 3. Simplified geologic map of the northeastern part of the Delta 1X2 quadrangle and index map to figures 4, 5, and 6. Also
shown are known and proposed calderas and caldrons as discussed in text: A, Thomas caldera; B, Picture Rock caldera; C, Keg cal
dron; D, Dead Ox caldron; E, Desert caldera; and F, Tintic caldera.
not shown on figure 4. Morris and Kopf (1967) were well also stated in several places within their paper that the
aware of the clast-poor zone within the Maple Peak mega welded tuffs of the volcanic section superficially resem
breccia stating on page C69 of their paper that The cen ble the tuffaceous and fragmental matrix of the pipes, but
tral area of this pipe is dominantly composed of tuffaceous they did not state in what way the breccia-pipe matrix dif
material and rare boulder-sized clasts of sedimentary fers from the tuffs. If, indeed, the central part of the Maple
rocks. They ascribed the clast-poor central area to zona Peak megabreccia is a welded tuff that is conformable
tion within the breccia pipe. It is also clear from their text with the rest of the section, it is difficult to retain the
that I am not the first to propose that the central zone of interpretation of Morris and Kopf (1967) that the mega
the megabreccia is a welded tuff: Morris and Kopf also breccia represents a breccia pipe that intrudes the volcanic
note on the same page that The central zone of the brec rocks. The megabreccia of Maple Peak is here reinter
cia pipes closely resembles ashfall arkosic tuffs and com preted to be two volcanic megabreccia units that are inter
monly has been mistaken for a pyroclastic deposit. They calated in the welded tuff section. The lower megabreccia
TERTIARY CALDERAS AND REGIONAL EXTENSION, EASTERN GREAT BASIN, UTAH 9
along the traverse is approximately 630 ft thick; the upper accept the megabreccias of the study area as breccia pipes
megabreccia is approximately 940 ft thick; and the inter because of their size. Their approximate dimensions are:
vening tuff is 340 ft thick (table 1). Preliminary 39Ar/40Ar 1.5 by 3.5 mi for the Maple Peak megabreccia, 1 by 3 mi
biotite and sanidine ages for the tuff yield 34.6+0.1 and for the Cherry Creek megabreccia, and 0.5 by 1 mi for the
34.4+0.05 Ma respectively (L.W. Snee, unpub. data). Hassel megabreccia. Lipman (1984) noted that, although
Even without the evidence of a welded tuff unit diatremes (breccia pipes) produce structures containing
within the Maple Peak megabreccia, it is difficult to coarse breccias similar to the megabreccias of ash-flow
10 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
| * E I
TC TV7
3950'00"
3950'00"
TV
Trn
Figure 4 (explanation is on facing page). Geologic map of Maple Peak area, including detailed stratigraphy along a traverse
across Maple Peak. Traverse location bounded by heavy lines in east-central part of map. Labeled rock units within traverse
area are described in table 1. Map is modified from Morris and Kopf (1970a). Megabreccias are shown with names assigned
by Morris and Kopf (1967).
calderas, the maximum known diameter of diatremes is suggests that they are continuous, and not separate, mega
less than 1 mi. Another feature of these megabreccias is breccias.
their spatial association with the welded tuff section, A notable feature of the Hassel breccia pipe, as
which would easily be understood if they were layered mapped by Morris and Kopf (1970a), is the large number
units within that section. If the megabreccias are layered of strike and dip measurements within the unit (only some
units within the section, the map pattern of the Cherry of which are shown on fig. 4), most of which are 4585
Creek and Maple Peak megabreccias shown on figure 4 NE. A well-defined, northeast-dipping layering is an odd
TERTIARY CALDERAS AND REGIONAL EXTENSION, EASTERN GREAT BASIN, UTAH 11
EXPLANATION
[T] Jasperoid
t Fault
Q)
ETH Basalt H. AA Thrust fault - Saw teeth on upper plate
Megabreccia
feature for a breccia pipe, but it is consistent if the Hassel noted here. Best and others (1989) observed that, in other
unit is a layered unit within the volcanic section. I have calderas, lenses of landslide breccia within the intra
examined only the southeasternmost part of the area caldera tuff thin away from the caldera wall from which
mapped as the Hassel pipe and found it to be a massive, they were derived, but can extend many kilometers into
clast-poor, welded tuff. the center of the depression. The shape of the Maple
Overlying the upper Maple Peak megabreccia is PeakCherry Creek megabreccia fits this description (very
another thick (1,360 ft) rhyolitic tuff, which, in turn, is thick to the northwest and wedging out to the southeast)
overlain by sedimentary rocks that are a minimum of 590 and suggests that the collapsed-wall source of the mega
breccia inclusions was to the northwest. Another notable
ft thick (table 1). These sedimentary rocks were not exam
ined closely but, where observed on the traverse, consist feature of the Maple Peak sequence as mapped by Morris
of calcareous shale and siltstone. This unit was not recog and Kopf (1967, 1970a) is the large mass of Paleozoic
nized by Morris and Kopf (1970a) in their mapping. The limestone that overlies the Maple PeakCherry Creek
relationship of the sedimentary rocks to the tuff is not megabreccia and, in turn, appears to be overlain by tuff
known, but the attitude of the sedimentary rocks is (fig. 4). This limestone may be a very large, intact block
approximately conformable with the tuff. Morris and Kopf of the wall that slumped in as the caldera wall collapsed.
(1970a) mapped several basalt units to the north of the The intact nature of the Maple Peak section suggests that
traverse (fig. 4), and, based on stratigraphic relationships the floor of the caldera is exposed to the southwest of the
observed at the south Cherry Creek study area (discussed basal volcanic units and that the West Tintic mining dis
below), these may be basalt flows intercalated with the trictimmediately to the west of the Hassel megabreccia
sedimentary rocks. unitand the intrusives contained in that district (Gard
ner, 1954; Stein and others, 1988) are located in the floor
The occurrence of thousands of feet of very thick
of the caldera. The sedimentary rocks that overlie the
welded tuffs intercalated with very coarse volcanic mega
Maple Peak volcanic rocks may be late caldera fill or they
breccia is distinctive of an intracaldera ash-flow sequence
may be part of a regional series of mid- to late-Tertiary
(Lipman, 1976, 1984; Best and others, 1989), and I, there
sediments that are found throughout the region (Heylmun,
fore, conclude that the tuff and megabreccia of the Maple
1965; McDonald, 1976).
Peak area were deposited within an ash-flow caldera.
Given the fairly consistent dip to the northeast and lack of
evidence for a repeat in the tuff-megabreccia section, the
entire intracaldera sequence appears to be exposed in the SOUTH CHERRY CREEK
Maple Peak area. The approximate thickness of 10,000 ft
for the Maple Peak section suggests that the caldera was The south Cherry Creek study site (fig. 3) consists of
large. a series of low hills south of the Sheeprock Mountains
The overall geometry of the proposed caldera is where Cherry Creek empties southwards into the Sevier
unclear, and resolution of its features must await further Desert. The area was first mapped by Morris and Kopf
mapping; however, a few features of the caldera can be (1970b), who recognized four stratigraphic units (from
12 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
bottom to top): Tertiary welded tuff and breccia, volcanic this unit is a volcanic megabreccia. The upper megabrec
sandstone and limestone, gravel, and a basalt flow. Morris cia (Tim2) forms a distinct layer within the tuff section.
(1987, p. 4) later described the tuff and breccia unit as a The clast content of the upper megabreccia changes along
massive to crudely layered rhyolitic tuff breccia that strike such that, in the southeast, it is a clast-rich breccia
erupted from breccia pipes located in the southern part of with a tuff matrix and blocks as much as about 40 ft in
the West Tintic and Sheeprock Mountains. He also pre diameter, and, to the northwest, it passes into a tuff with
sented a K-Ar biotite age for the tuff of 34.5 Ma (although sparse clasts (< 5 percent) that are mostly less than 6 ft in
Morris did not cite a source for this age determination, diameter. The breccia is polymict, with quartzite being the
possibly it is derived from the 34.6+1.7-Ma K-Ar biotite dominant clast type, but clasts of limestone and various
age of Marvin and Dobson (1979) for a quartz-rich rhyo types of volcanic rocks are also present, including crystal
lite tuff at the south Cherry Creek locality). Sanidine from rich rhyolite clasts similar to some of the underlying tuffs.
one of the Cherry Creek tuffs yielded a preliminary 39Ar/ The upper megabreccia is less than 100 ft thick in the
40Ar age of 34.7+0.1 Ma (excess 40Ar) (L.W. Snee, southeast and thickens to the northwest. It includes a cap
unpub. data). zone of purplish, clast-poor, crystal-rich, densely welded,
In examining the tuff, I found vitrophyric layers agglomeratic tuff that grades downward into the mega
within the tuff, some of which could be traced for more breccia.
than one-half mile. Mapping these vitrophyres led to The tuff sequence is overlain by a poorly exposed
defining an internal stratigraphy for the tuff based on section of sedimentary rocks composed of volcaniclastic
alternating vitrophyric and non-vitrophyric tuff zones (fig. sandstone, water-laid tuff(?), and minor limestone. A oli
5). In addition, two megabreccia zones within the tuff vine-basalt flow overlies the sedimentary rocks. Both units
section were also mapped (Tml and Tm2, fig. 5). The dip to the northeast and appear to have about the same
tuffs are pumice rich and lithic poor but highly variable in structural attitude; both are roughly conformable with the
degree of induration and phenocryst content, and the non underlying tuff. The basalt may be intercalated with the
vitrophyric tuffs are pervasively altered such that the sedimentary rocks, but no rock crops out above the basalt.
mafic minerals have rarely survived. Dips within the tuff Based on a dip of 3040 NE. for the sedimentary rocks,
section vary from 20 to 65 NE. Based on an average they are 6001,000 ft thick. Morris and Kopf (1970b)
dip of about 40 NE., the exposed tuff section is roughly mapped tuff above the sediments and basalt, but field
4,200 ft thick. Of particular note is the welded tuff above examination failed to locate any tuff outcropsthe areas
the upper megabreccia unit (Tm2), which is an altered, mapped as tuff by them is here remapped as part of the
tannish-brown, pumice-rich, phenocryst-poor tuff that is as Tertiary pediment alluvium unit of figure 6.
much as 2,000 ft thick. The south Cherry Creek section bears an overall sim
Vitrophyres occur throughout the tuff section and, in ilarity to the Tertiary section found in the Maple Peak
general, are relatively thin (about 1.5 to 5 ft) and uniform area. Both are composed of rhyolitic tuffs that include
in thickness. Notable, however, is the vitrophyre at the top lower and upper megabreccias and are capped by a thick
of the tuff section that, although its thickness appears to section of sedimentary rocks and associated basalt.
vary significantly along strike, is locally as much as 100 ft
thick. Most of the vitrophyres can be traced for hundreds
of feet or more, but some occur as thin lenses of only a DESERT MOUNTAIN
few tens of feet in length. One angular discordancy is
present in the lower part of the tuff section, where the
lowest vitrophyre is sharply truncated by the overlying vit Desert Mountain is a small, isolated range that con
rophyre and tuff (fig. 5). The vitrophyres contain few to sists of two main geological units: a rhyolitic tuff with
abundant lithic clasts and phenocrysts of sanidine, plagio megabreccia along the eastern margin and a granitic com
clase, quartz, biotite, sparse hornblende, and trace clinopy plex that forms the bulk of the range (fig. 6). Precambrian
roxene in a glassy matrix. In hand specimen, the quartzite and diamictite of the Sheeprock Group also crop
vitrophyres are a dull black (perlitic) color, suggesting that out at the northern end of the range (fig. 6). Desert Moun
the glass is hydrated. tain has been mapped previously by Kattelman (1968),
The lower megabreccia (Tim1), stratigraphically the Shawe (1972), Rees and others (1973), and part of Desert
lowest unit observed at south Cherry Creek, consists Mountain along the Callao-Jericho road was mapped by
chiefly of large blocks of quartzite and limestone as much Walsh (1987). Calkins (1972) also did a magnetic and
as 60100 ft in diameter. The eastern two-thirds of the gravity survey of Desert Mountain. The present report is
southernmost outcrop of the lower megabreccia consists of based, in part, on a new map of Desert Mountain being
a very altered intermediate volcanic rock that I interpret to prepared by D.B. Stoeser and D.A. Lindsey.
be a large block within the megabreccia. The matrix of the The tuff of Desert Mountain, as named by Walsh
megabreccia was not observed, and thus, it is not known if (1987), occurs along the entire eastern flank of Desert
TERTIARY CALDERAS AND REGIONAL EXTENSION, EASTERN GREAT BASIN, UTAH 13
11227'00"
3947'30"
EXPLANATION
Quaternary alluvium
Pediment alluvium
% Basalt
Tuffaceous Sandstone
shale, and conglomerate
|
Vitrophyre
|
T welded tuff
Megabreccia: Tm1, lower,
Tm2, upper -
3945'00"
Figure 5. Geologic map of south Cherry Creek area. Based in part on mapping by Morris and Kopf (1970b).
Mountain. As described by Walsh, it consists of two quartz, biotite, and sparse hornblende in an aphanitic
facies: massive rhyolitic tuff and megabreccia with a rhy- matrix that contains sparse, small, compacted pumice frag
olitic matrix (the facies are gradational and simply reflect ments and sparse to numerous lithic fragments. The tuff
that the tuff ranges from clast rich to clast poor). The tuff has been dated by Lindsey and others (1981) at 34.5+1.3
is crystal rich, with phenocrysts of plagioclase, sanidine, Ma (zircon fission track).
14 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
;
EXPLANATION
3950'00" H
Tuff of Desert Mountain, with
3. inclusion (see caption) Coyote Knoll
+ + - prospect area
To . Desert Mountain grantic complex ; ;
H ||
Quartz diorite
|ped
ped Diamictite
- --
E
5 | } -
-
-
~ E
|pe.-
Quartzite
Cl
3945'00"
3942'30" | | |
Figure 6. Geologic map of Desert Mountain. Main units described in explanation box within figure; other labeled units on
map refer to either inclusions within the tuff of Desert Mountain or dikes within the granitic complex of Desert Mountain.
Labeled inclusions are: a, Tertiary andesite; d. Precambrian diamictite; q, Precambrian quartzite; r, rhyolite; and v, andesite to
dacitic volcanic rocks, lahar, and volcanogenic sedimentary rocks. Labeled dikes are: f. felsite; m, monzonite; p, lamprophyre;
and t, latite. Also shown are areas of jasperoid (j) formed by replacement of tuff. Other symbols are the same as on figure 4.
Most of the megabreccia occurs south of the Callao zones are dominantly quartzite, with lesser amounts of
Jericho road (figs. 3, 6). The megabreccia is chaotic, diamictite, argillite, volcanic rocks, and sparse, small (<
matrix rich (> 80 percent), and contains a few blocks up to 10 cm) plutonic rocks. The volcanic-rock inclusions are
about 1,500 ft in length. Inclusions in the megabreccia comprised of andesite, latite, dacite, and sparse rhyolite.
TERTIARY CALDERAS AND REGIONAL EXTENSION, EASTERN GREAT BASIN, UTAH 15
andesitic) flow rocks. They propose two phases of caldera the East Tintic Mountains, and (b), as proposed below,
collapse based on the tuffs and tuff breccias in the lower Tintic Valley may have formed by extension, and the two
part of each sequence. Available age dating of these rocks volcanic sequences may have initially been more in prox
cited by Hannah and Macbeth (1990) indicate they were imity than they are now. One interesting possibility is that
deposited at approximately 3537 Ma. Although Hannah the Fernow Quartz Latite may be outflow from the Maple
and Macbeth (1990) and Macbeth (1990) support a caldera Peak caldera. The Fernow is a large, welded, ash flow that
interpretation for these rocks, they admit that most of the occurs throughout the southern part of the East Tintic
overt features of a caldera are absent due to complications Mountains and for at least another 20 mi to the south. In
induced by post-caldera cover and structural events, includ spite of the quartz latite name, the Fernow is a rhyolite
ing the caldera being truncated and downdropped on the with 6870 percent silica and contains abundant pheno
west by the Tintic Valley fault (Mabey and Morris, 1967). crysts of plagioclase, quartz, biotite, and minor sanidine
They also reduced the size of the proposed caldera to a and hornblende (Morris, 1975; de Vries, 1990). The more
diameter of approximately 6.5 mi. recent works by Hannah and Macbeth (1990) and Keith
Keith and others (1989, 1991) studied the upper pyro and others (1989, 1991) have failed to identify a source
clastic sequence, which they described as members of the for the Fernow in the East Tintic Mountains, but its lithol
Copperopolis latite of Morris (1975) and Morris and Lov ogy fits well with the rhyolitic tuffs of the Maple Peak
ering (1979). They published 39Ar/40Ar geochronologic intracaldra sequence (table 1).
data that support an age of 3537 Ma for these rocks.
They also showed that overlying andesitic and rhyolitic DESERT MOUNTAIN CALDERA
rocks, as well as monzonite intrusions, were implaced
between 34.5 and 33.6 Ma. Based on their work they con
cluded that a large caldera related to the eruption of the The Desert caldera was first proposed by Shawe
younger Packard Quartz Latite and Fernow Quartz Latite (1972) based on the presence of rhyolitic to quartz-latitic
is not present in this area. They continued on to conclude ash-flow tuff units along the eastern margin of the range
that a smaller caldera related to the eruption of the tuff and on a circular magnetic high over the western part of
member of the Copperopolis latite may be present. the range. Shawe showed the caldera as including all of
In the Tintic area, two caldera-related volcanic-rock Desert Mountain and centered on the western part of the
sequences are now recognized: those previously assigned range (fig. 3). Both Shawe (1972) and Walsh (1987) inter
to the Tintic caldera in the southern East Tintic Mountains preted the granite to be resurgent into the tuff, which is
(Hannah and Macbeth, 1990; Keith and others 1989, 1991; supported by available dating as shown by Walsh (1987)
Macbeth, 1990; and Morris, 1975) and those of the West and by recent mapping. Although the Desert Mountain
Tintic Mountains as proposed in this paper. The two igneous rock assemblage has been assigned to the Desert
sequences are separated by the approximately 10-mi-wide caldera by Shawe, I recommend changing the name to the
Desert Mountain caldera in order to make its name fit
Tintic Valley, and it appears that the rocks of both
sequences extend beneath the cover of the valley. Based more appropriately with its type locality.
on the lack of correlation of the stratigraphy of the two Structural complications induced by regional exten
sections (i.e., 3,200 ft of mostly andesitic rocks in the East sion, as discussed below, indicate that calderas in the east
Tintic Mountains versus 9,600 ft of rhyolitic tuff and central part of the TinticDeep Creek belt have been dis
megabreccia in the West Tintic Mountains), it seems membered and that the exposed parts of these calderas
unlikely that they represent the same calderas. In addition, may not correspond with the locations of their root zones
the East Tintic caldera-related rocks appear to be some (that is, the upper parts of the calderas have been trans
what older that those of the West Tintic Mountains (3537 ported laterally away from their underlying intrusive
Ma as opposed to 34.5 Ma), although certainly more work zones). Another significant problem is that alluvial cover
is needed to resolve the age of formation of these rocks. obscures most of the study area. As already noted, the
They are close in age, however, and it seems likely that great thicknesses of tuff and large size of the inclusions in
multiple caldera-forming events have occurred in the Tin the megabreccias at Maple Peak and Desert Mountain
tic area during the early Oligocene. Because the caldera indicate that these rocks must be intracaldera in origin.
related rocks of the West Tintic Mountains do not appear Although a thick section of tuff and megabreccia occurs at
to correlate with those in the East Tintic Mountains, I pro south Cherry Creek, the clast size of the megabreccia is
pose recognizing a separate ash-flow caldera, the Maple significantly less than for megabreccia at the other two
Peak caldera, named after the location where the best and localities, and the south Cherry Creek volcanic rock
most complete exposures of the intracaldera rocks are assemblage may be either intracaldera or very proximal in
found. A relationship between East Tintic volcanic rocks origin. If proximal rocks lie between the two intracaldera
may exist based on: (a) the occurrence of magmatic events assemblages of Maple Peak and Desert Mountain, it is
equivalent in age to the Maple Peak intracaldera rocks in unlikely that the Desert Mountain assemblage belongs to
TERTIARY CALDERAS AND REGIONAL EXTENSION, EASTERN GREAT BASIN, UTAH 17
*r-
{4} MAPLE
~ ric
-
r & PEAK s
DESERT
MOUNTAIN
CALDERA
SEVIER
DESERT
COCORP LINE 1
EXTENSIONAL
** DOMAIN
39
Figure 7. Map of the Delta 1X2 quadrangle showing location of proposed calderas in the study area and the Sevier Desert extensional
domain and related features. Tintic caldera as shown by Hannah and Macbeth (1990). White arrows show direction of proposed extension
related to deformation of caldera-related volcanic rocks. Medium- and dark-gray areas are ranges and basaltic volcanic fields from figure
2. AA marks location of cross section shown on figure 8. BB' marks location of cross section shown on figure 10. Dotted line labeled
G7 represents a seismic line described by Planke and Smith (1991).
the same caldera as that of Maple Peak. If it did, then the 1986; Planke and Smith, 1991), including COCORP seis
rocks of Desert Mountain were transported over 13 mi to mic reflection profile line 1 (fig. 7) (Allmendinger and
the west from the site of the Tintic calderathis requires others, 1983, 1985). The basin was formed by extension
that a deep part of that caldera was transported the far on the Sevier Desert detachment, a low-angle normal fault
thest, a relation opposite to that expected. Thus, I con that heads along the west flank of the Canyon Range, dips
clude that the intracaldera rocks of Desert Mountain westward at about 1012, and extends at least as far
belong to a separate caldera from those of Maple Peak, west as the House Range (Allmendinger and others, 1983;
and I support the caldera interpretation of Shawe (1972) Smith and Bruhn, 1984). An interpretative cross section of
for Desert Mountain (fig. 7). the COCORP Seismic data across the Sevier Desert exten
sional domain by Von Tish and others (1985) is shown on
figure 8. Sharp (1984) has estimated that total displace
REGIONAL EXTENSION ment on the Sevier Desert detachment is between 28 and
38 km (1724 mi). Extension on the Sevier Desert detach
The study area lies north of the Sevier Desert Basin, ment occurred primarily during two episodes (Von Tish
which underlies the central part of the Sevier Desert (figs. and others, 1985): the first episode began no later than the
2, 8). The basin is located between the Canyon Range on middle Oligocene (before 28 Ma) and continued into the
the east and the Cricket and Drum Mountains on the west middle Miocene, and the second episode began in the
and is more than 10,000 ft deep (Planke and Smith, 1991). middle Pliocene and continues to the present.
The Sevier Desert Basin is one of the major extensional The Sevier Desert extensional domain and the under
features of the eastern Basin and Range and has received lying Sevier Desert detachment have been mapped as far
considerable study (McDonald, 1976; Lindsey, and others, north as the latitude of Leamington (fig. 7) (Von Tish and
1981; Von Tish and others, 1985; Mitchell and McDonald, others, 1985; Gans, 1987; Planke and Smith, 1991) or to
18 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
O A. -
==
W Sevier Desert Basin - E
Co
[+7-77
/ .
7 } ~!:-----------------------......
- ""-----
-
O s- f / - --- t-ft--.
3
O
1 - 7 ' O
K
Q
\
S SA
""------
---
* | 2 |
&\\
->
Pliocene and Quaternary
; 2 t PAieczotc.And PRECAMERLAN MIOCENE &V s | alluvium
LL - HOUSE RANGE 2. -
= 3 DETACHMENT
>
_TEsea : :*
imentary r
~~
l
g
# 4 -
_
gene
Pakeozoic and Precambrian
sedimentary rocks
5 MILES - *
5
Figure 8. Interpretative cross section of Sevier Desert Basin along COCORP seismic reflection line 1, between A and A on figure 7
(2X vertical exaggeration) (from Von Tish and others, 1985).
about 12 mi south of Desert Mountain. Defining regional relationship indicates that there is a bottom or floor to the
extension to the north is problematical. The presence of intrusive complex. The Desert Mountain intrusive complex
regional extension in the study area is suggested by atti may be laccolithic in form, or alternatively, a detachment
tudes of the Oligocene volcanic rocks within the eastern may underlie the complex and the monzonite dikes post
part of the TinticDeep Creek belt. The volcanic rocks of date initiation of the detachment and sampled limestone
the West Tintic Mountains, south Cherry Creek, and from beneath the detachment.
Desert Mountain all have a consistent, moderately steep Regional extension in the Sevier Desert region can be
dip to the northeast, whereas volcanic rocks of similar age further defined by the gravity gradient map of the Delta
in the East Tintic Mountains, to the east of the study area, 1x2 quadrangle (fig. 9) (Bankey and Cook, 1989). This
and those of the Keg Mountains, Thomas Range, and map shows the horizontal rate of change of the gravity
Drum Mountains to the west, are nearly flat-lying. That is, field. Where the gravity field changes sharply over a
the Oligocene volcanic rocks that are north of and on the short distance, it indicates boundaries between crustal
trend of the known Sevier Desert extensional domain are domains with significant differences in density. Typically,
tilted and those to the flanks are not. The indicated area of these zones correlate with high-angle faults that bound
regional extension, however, does continue eastward from basins; these zones are due to the sharp gravity contrast
the Sevier Desert extensional domain to Tintic Valley between alluvial basin fill and bedrock and, in most cases,
north of the Leamington fault (fig. 7). It should be noted locate faults formed during regional extension. In figure
that the eastern portion of the Sevier Desert detachment 9, lines have been drawn along these zones for emphasis.
has been removed by erosion due to uplift in the area of The western margin of the Sevier Desert extensional
the Canyon Range (Sharp, 1984). In addition to the struc domain, along the west flank of the Sevier Desert, is
tural evidence, Planke and Smith (1991) describe results well defined by a steep gravity-gradient zone that runs
from a seismic line that crosses the study area (dotted line west of the Cricket Mountains and along the east flank
labeled G7 on fig. 7), that indicates a weak, discontinu of the Drum Mountains (fig. 9). Based on figure 9, I
ous, westward-dipping reflector, whose projection inter have extended the western boundary of regional exten
sects the surface just west of Jerichothey propose that sion northward between the Thomas Range and Keg
this may be the Sevier Desert detachment. Mountain along an apparent, direct continuation of this
The occurrence of limestone xenoliths within the zone. The eastern margin of the domain in the study area
Desert Mountain intrusive complex may provide direct is drawn along the east margin of Tintic Valley where
evidence for the Sevier Desert detachment beneath Desert Mabey and Morris (1967) and Morris (1975, 1987) locate
Mountain. Late, mafic-rich, monzonite porphyry dikes in a major range-front fault. Tintic Valley exhibits a major
the northwestern part of the intrusive complex (fig. 6) gravity low that Mabey and Morris (1967) and Cook and
contain blocks of limestone and marble as much as 50 ft others (1991, p. 18) have interpreted as indicating
in diameter (as well as large blocks of granite and small approximately 6,000 to 7,000 ft of fill, although some
inclusions of various types of mafic intrusive rocks). contribution to the gravity anomaly might be due to low
Because it seems unlikely that these carbonate blocks density caldera material beneath the valley. As previously
could have been derived from above the emplacement stated, Planke and Smith (1991) indicate that a detach
level of the dikes, they must have come from below. This ment heads at the location of Jericho, which lies on the
auperre
2
figure
boundaries
Range
(1989).
Cook
and
Bankey
data
original
from
adapted
quadrangle
1X2
Delta
the
of
map
gradient
gravity
Simplified
9.
sFigure
imposed 3uepresent
>
dark
1.53.5,
gray
Qmedium
Pliocene
are
pattern
diagonal
with
rAreas
D
and
C,
B,
A,
2.
figure
on
shown
fields
volcanic
east-west
a.5.
ternary
gxorpalidanzaoetniotnas)l.:
hover
magnitude
represent
eShades
for
1989,
Cook,
and
Bankey
(see
field
gravity
the
of
gradient
0.71.5,
gray
light
0.00.7,
white
Lu ; ~ O> :o
MILES
25
|
RANGE
MIDDLE
text.
the
in
discussed
are
that
lineaments
40 39
20 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
SW NE
TiNTIC VALLEY
l APPRoximatel-Y 10 MILEs
Quaternary alluvium and # Tertiary sedimentary rocks Tertiary volcanic Tertiary andesitic flows,
Tertiary sedimentary megabreccia agglomerate, and tuff
rocks
Tertiary monzonite s Tertiary granite, with quartz Tertiary welded tuff = Paleozoic and Precambrian
diorite roof pendants F sedimentary rocks
Figure 10. Generalized interpretive cross section of study area (along BB' on figure 7). Geology of the East Tintic Mountains adapted
from Hannah and Macbeth (1990) and Macbeth (1990), Tintic Valley from a gravity interpretation by Cook and others (1991), Maple Peak
from Morris and Kopf (1970a) and this paper, south Cherry Creek from this paper, and Desert Mountain from Walsh (1987) and this paper.
Blank areas of the figure indicate parts for which the geology in unknown due to alluvial cover. No vertical exaggeration.
East Tintic range-front fault (fig. 8, 9). Tintic Valley is Mountains; also aligns with truncations of the Deep
interpreted to be underlain by a major listric fault that Creek, Fish Springs, and House Ranges,
forms a half-graben and that soles westward to form a 4. Corresponds to an inversion in dip of Paleozoic sedi
detachment that underlies the study region (fig. 10). mentary rocks between the Fish Springs and House
The gravity gradient data for the Delta 1x2 quad Ranges,
rangle also exhibits four east-west lineaments (labeled A, 5. Aligns with intrusions in the area of Sand Pass, which
B, C, and D). The southern three lineaments, A, B, and is located at the join between the Fish Springs and
C, all mark disruptions in the north-south grain of the House Ranges, and
data. These north-south features usually indicate exten 6. Aligns with the southern margin of the Thomas caldera
sional faults, either as range-front faults or intrabasinal and the flaring of the topography of the northern part
extensional faults. Lineaments A and B simply mark such of the Drum Mountains.
disruptions and do not have notable surface expression. East of the Drum Mountains, the projection of the lin
Lineament C is discussed separately below. Lineament D eament is largely under alluvial cover, but on the gravity
is distinct from the other three in that it is a gravity gradient map (fig. 9), there is a change from north-south
gradient lineament, which suggests that it may be a major trending gravity-gradient features to the south of the linea
fault. Lineament D appears to extend almost the complete ment to east-west-trending ones to the north. Because of
length of the Delta 1x2 quadrangle. It is disrupted by the features defining the lineament at Sand Pass at the join
north-south-trending gravity-gradient features, indicating between the Fish Springs and House Ranges, the lineament
that it is older than regional extension. is informally named here the Sand Pass lineament. A major
Lineament C is a major feature within the north feature of the Sand Pass lineament is that it forms the
central part of the quadrangle. Its main characteristics southern boundary for the Oligocene magmatism of the
west of the Sevier Desert extensional domain are: TinticDeep Creek belt. With few exceptions, all intru
1. Disruption of north-south-trending gravity-gradient sions and vents of this age are near or north of the Sand
features and, therefore, presumably disruption of Pass lineament. Altogether, the features associated with the
faults related to post mid-Tertiary extensional faulting, Sand Pass lineament indicate that crust to the north of the
2. Aligns with east-west strike-slip faults at the southern lineament reacted differently to regional extension com
end of the Deep Creek range (Smith and others, 1991), pared to crust to the south. East-west lineaments with simi
3. Aligns with topographic highs and anomalous range lar features have also been reported in southwestern Utah
alignments as shown by the east-west-trending Middle and southern Nevada (Ekren and others, 1976; Rowley and
Range and smaller positive areas west of the Drum others, 1978). The nature of the Sand Pass lineament is
TERTIARY CALDERAS AND REGIONAL EXTENSION, EASTERN GREAT BASIN, UTAH 21
unclear: it may mark a major crustal discontinuity in the Gans, P.B., Mahood, G.A., and Schermer, Elizabeth, 1989, Synex
basement between Proterozoic terranes or between tensional magmatism in the Basin and Range Province; a case
Archean and Proterozoic terranes, or more simply, it may study from the eastern Great Basin: Geological Society of
represent a transition zone between two extensional America Special Paper 233, 53 p.
domains. Based on the evidence for regional extension and Gardner, W.C., 1954, Geology of the West Tintic mining district
and vicinity, Juab County, Utah: Salt Lake City, University of
a detachment beneath the study area and because features
Utah, unpub. M.S. thesis, 43 p.
of the Sevier Desert detachment are truncated at the Sand
Groff, S.L., 1959, Geology of the West Tintic Range and vicinity,
Pass lineament, I conclude that a separate and probably Tooele and Juab Counties: Salt Lake City, University of Utah,
coeval detachment, named here the Tintic Valley detach unpub. Ph.D. thesis, 183 p., map scale 1:20,439.
ment, and a related extensional domain underlie the east Hannah, J.L., and Macbeth, Alec, 1990, Magmatic history of the
central part of the TinticDeep Creek belt (fig. 10). East Tintic Mountains, Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Open
File Report 900095, 24 p., 1 plate, scale 1:24,000.
Hannah, J.L., Stein, H.J., and Macbeth, Alec, 1990, A caldera in the
REFERENCES CITED East Tintic Mountains, UtahField relations between Tertiary
magmatism and Tintic-type ore deposits [abs.), in Geology and
Ore Deposits of the Great Basin, Reno/Sparks, Nevada: Geo
Allmendinger, R.W., Sharp, J.W., Von Tish, D., Oliver, J., and logical Society of Nevada and U.S. Geological Survey, 1990
Kaufman, S., 1985, COCORP profile across the Cordilleran Program with Abstracts, p. 63.
hingeline, west-central Utah, in Gries, R.R. and Dyer, R.C., Hannah, J.L., Stein, H.J., and Macbeth, A.P., 1991, Field relations
eds., Seismic Exploration of the Rocky Mountain Region: between Tertiary magmatism and Tintic-type ore deposits,
Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 2330. East Tintic Mountains, Utah, in Raines, G.L., Lisle, R.E.,
Allmendinger, R.W., Sharp, J.W., Von Tish, D., Serpa, L., Brown, Schafter, R.W., and Wilkinston, W.H., eds., Geology and Ore
W., Kaufman, S., Oliver, J.E., and Smith, R.B., 1983, Cenozo Deposits of the Great Basin: Geological Society of Nevada,
ic and Mesozoic structure of the eastern Basin and Range Prov Symposium Proceedings, v. 1, p. 485489.
ince, Utah, from COCORP seismic relection data: Geology, v. Hilpert, L.S., and Roberts, R.J., 1964, Economic Geology, in Min
11, p. 532536. eral and water resources of Utah: Washington, D.C., 88th U.S.
Armstrong, R.L., 1970, Geochronology of Tertiary igneous rocks, Congress, 2nd. Session, Committee Print, p. 2834.
eastern Basin and Range Province, western Utah, eastern Ne Heylmun, E.B., 1965, Reconnaissance of the Tertiary sedimentary
vada, and vicinity, U.S.A.: Geochimica et Cosmochimica rocks in western Utah: Utah Geological and Mineral Survey
Atca, v. 34, p. 202232. Bulletin 75, 38 p.
Bankey, Viki, and Cook, K.L., 1989, Complete Bouguer gravity Kattelman, D.F., 1968, Geology of the Desert Mountain intrusives,
map and related geophysical maps of the Delta 1X2 quadran Juab County, Utah: Brigham Young University Geology Stud
gle, Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Stud ies, v. 15, pt. 1, p. 85107.
ies Map MF2081A, scale 1:250,000. Keith, J.D., Dallmeyer, R.D., Kim, Choon-Sik, and Kowallis, B.J.,
Best, M.G., Christiansen, E.H., Deino, A.L., Gromme, C.S., 1989, A reevaluation of the volcanic history and mineral poten
McKee E.H., and Noble, D.C., 1989, Excursion 3A tial of the central East Tintic Mountains, Utah: Utah Geologi
Eocene through Miocene volcanism in the Great Basin of cal and Mineral Survey Open-File Report 166, 74 p.
the western United States, in Chapin, C.E. and Zidek, Jiri, Keith, J.D., Dallmeyer, R.D., Kim, Choon-Sik, and Kowallis, B.J.,
eds., Field Excursions to Volcanic Terranes in the West
1991, The volcanic history and magmatic sulfide mineralogy
ern United States, Volume II: Cascades and Intermountain of latites of the central East Tintic Mountains, Utah, in Raines,
West: New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral
G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafter, R.W., and Wilkinston, W.H., eds.,
Resources Memoir 47, p. 91133. Geology and Ore Deposits of the Great Basin: Geological So
Calkins, W.G., 1972, Magnetic and gravity study of Desert Moun ciety of Nevada, Symposium Proceedings, v. 1, p. 461483.
tain, Juab County, Utah: Utah Geological and Mineralogical Lindsey, D.A., 1982, Tertiary volcanic rocks and uranium in the
Survey Bulletin 95, 21 p., 1 plate. Thomas Range and northern Drum Mountains, Juab Coun
Christiansen, E.H., Sheridan, M.F., and Burt, D.M., 1986, The ge ty, Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1221,
ology and geochemistry of Cenozoic topaz rhyolites from the p. 157.
western United States: Geological Society of America Special Lindsey, D.A., Glanzman, R.K., Naeser, C.W., and Nichols, D.J.,
Paper 205, 82 p. 1981, Upper Oligocene evaporites in basin fill of Sevier Desert
Cook, K.L., Mabey, D.R., and Bankey, Viki, 1991, The new region, western Utah: Bulletin of the American Association of
gravity map of UtahAn overview of its usefulness for geo Petroleum Geologists, v. 65, p. 251260.
logic studies: Utah Geological Survey, Survey Notes, v. 24, Lindsey, D.A., Naeser, C.W., and Shawe, D.R., 1975. Age of vol
no. 4, p. 1221. canism, intrusion, and mineralization in the Thomas Range,
Ekren, E.B., Bucknam, R.C., Carr, W.J., Dixon, G.L., and Quinliv Keg Mountain, and Desert Mountain, western Utah: U.S. Geo
an, W.D., 1976, East-trending structural lineaments in central logical Survey Journal of Research, v. 3, no. 5, p. 597604.
Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 986, 16 p. Lipman, P.W., 1976, Caldera-collapse breccias in the western San
Gans, P.B., 1987, An open-system, two-layer crustal stretching Juan Mountains, Colorado: Geological Society of America
model for the eastern Great Basin: Tectonics, v. 6, p. 112. Bulletin, v. 87, p. 13971410.
22 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Lipman, P.W., 1984, The roots of ash flow calderas in western Miscellanceous Investigations Series Map I-1830, scale
North AmericaWindows into the tops of granitic batholiths: 1:100,000.
Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 89, p. 88018841. Planke, Sverre, and Smith, R.B., 1991, Cenozoic extension
Mabey, D.R., and Morris, H.T., 1967, Geologic interpretation of and evolution of the Sevier Desert Basin, Utah, from Seis
gravity and aeromagnetic maps of Tintic Valley and adjacent mic reflection, gravity, and well log data: Tectonics, v.
areas, Tooele and Juab Counties, Utah: U.S. Geological Survey 10, p. 345366.
Professional Paper 516D, 10 p. Rees, D.C., Erickson, M.P., and Whelan, J.A., 1973, Geology and
Macbeth, A.P., 1990, Geology of the southwestern East Tintic diatremes of Desert Mountain, Utah: Utah Geological and
Mountains, central Utah: University of Vermont, unpub. M.S. Mineralogical Survey, Special Studies 42, 12 p., 1 plate.
thesis, 164 p. Rowley, P.D., Lipman, P.W., Mehnert, H.H. Lindsey, D.A., and
Maciulaitis, P.E., 1991a, Jericho property, Juab County, Utah: Anderson, J.J., 1978, Blue Ribbon lineament, an east-trending
Boulder, Colorado, Euro-Nevada Mining Corporation, Inc., structural zone within the Pioche mineral belt of soutwestern
unpub. report, 28 p. Utah and eastern Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Journal of
1991b, Rockwell/Sahara property, Juab County, Utah: Research, v. 6, no. 2, p. 175192.
Boulder, Colorado, Euro-Nevada Mining Corporation, Inc., Sharp, J.W., 1984, West-central Utah: palinspastically restored sec
unpub. report, 24 p. tions constrained by COCORP seismic reflection data: Ithaca,
Marvin, R.F., and Dobson, S.W., 1979, Radiometric ages: Com New York, Cornell University, unpub. M.S. thesis, 60 p.
pilation B, U.S. Geological Survey: Isochron/West, no. 26, Shawe, D.R., 1972, Reconnaissance geology and mineral potential
p. 332. of Thomas, Keg, and Desert calderas, central Juab County,
McDonald, R.E., 1976, Tertiary tectonic and sedimentary rocks Utah, in Geological Survey Research 1972: U.S. Geological
along the transitionBasin and Range province to plateau and Survey Professional Paper 800B, p. B67B77.
thrust belt province, Utah, in Newman, G.W. and Goode, H.D.,
Shawe, D.R., and Stewart, J.H., 1976, Ore deposits as related to tec
eds., Basin and Range Symposium and Great Basin Field Con
tonics and magmatism, Nevada and Utah: American Institute
ference: Rocky Mountain Association Geologist Guidebook,
of Mining Engineers, Transactions, 1977 Annual Meeting, Las
p. 503514.
Vegas, Nevada, v. 260, p. 225232.
Mitchell, G.C., and McDonald, R.E., 1986, History of Cenozoic ex Shubat, M.A., and Snee, L.W., in press, High-precision 40Ar/39Ar
tension in central Sevier Desert, west-central Utah, from CO
CORP seismic reflection dataDiscussion: Bulletin of the geochronology, volcanic stratigraphy, and mineral deposits of
Keg Mountain, west-central Utah: U.S. Geological Survey
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, p. 10151021.
Bulletin 2012, Chapter G.
Morris, H.T., 1975, Geologic map and sections of the Tintic Moun
tain quadrangle and adjacent part of the McIntyre quadrange, Smith, D.L., Gans, P.B., and Miller, E.L., 1991, Palinspastic resto
ration of Cenozoic extension in the central and eastern Basin
Juab and Utah Counties, Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Miscel
laneous Investigations Series Map I-883, scale 1:24,000. and Range Province at latitude 3940N., in Raines, G.L.,
Lisle, R.E., Schafter, R.W., and Wilkinston, W.H., eds., Geol
Morris, H.T., 1982, Regional relations of Wah Wah-Frisco thrust
fault in western Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Pa ogy and Ore Deposits of the Great Basin: Geological Society
per 1150, 64 p. of Nevada, Symposium Proceedings, v. 1, p. 7586.
1983, Interrelations of thrust and transcurrent faults in the Smith, R.B., and Bruhn, R.L., 1984. Intraplate extensional tectonics
central Sevier orogenic belt near Leamington, Utah, in Miller, of the eastern Basin-RangeInferences on structural style
D.M., Tood, V.R., and Howard, K.A., eds., Tectonic and from seismic reflection data, regional tectonics, and thermal
mechanical models of brittle-ductile deformation: Journal of
Stratigraphic Studies in the Eastern Great Basin: Geological
Society of America Memoir 157, p. 7581. Geophysical Research, v. 89, p. 57335762.
1987, Preliminary geologic map of the Delta 2 quadrangle Spenser, J.E., and Welty, J.W., 1986, Possible controls of base- and
Tooele, Juab, Millard, and Utah Counties, Utah: U.S. Geolog precious-metal mineralization associated with Tertiary detach
ical Survey Open-File Report 87185, 18 p., scale 1:250,000. ment faults in the lower Colorado River trough, Arizona and
Morris, H.T., and Kopf, R.W., 1967, Breccia pipes in the West Tin California: Geology, v. 14, p. 195198.
tic and Sheeprock Mountains, Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Stein, H.J., Kelley, D.L., Kaminsky, J.F., and Gordon, I.R.,
Professional Paper 575C, p. C66C71. 1988, Field trip guide for the West Tinitic mining district,
1970a, Preliminary geologic map and cross sections of the western Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report
Maple Peak quadrangle and adjacent part of the Sabie Moun 880558, 12 p.
tain quadrangle, Juab County, Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Stokes, W.E., 1986, Geology of Utah: Salt Lake City, Utah Geo
Open-File Report 70234, scale 1:24,000. logical and Mineral Survey, 280 p.
1970b, Preliminary geologic map and cross sections of the Turley, C.H., and Nash, W.P., 1980, Petrology of late Tertiary and
Cherry Creek quadrangle and adjacent part of the Dutch Peak Quaternary volcanism in western Juab and Millard Counties,
quadrangle, Juab County, Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Utah: Utah Geological and Mineral Survey Special Study 52,
Open-File Report 70233, scale 1:24,000. p. 133.
Morris, H.T., and Lovering, T.S., 1979, General geology and mines Von Tish, D.B., Allmendinger, R.W., and Sharp, J.W., 1985, His
of the East Tintic mining district, Utah and Juab counties, tory of Cenozoic extension in central Sevier Desert, west-cen
Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1024, 203 p. tral Utah, from COCORP Seismic reflection data: Bulletin of
Pampeyan, E.H., 1989, Geologic map of the Lynndyl 30- by 60 the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 69, no.
minute quadrangle, west-central Utah: U.S. Geological Survey 7, p. 10771087.
TERTIARY CALDERAS AND REGIONAL EXTENSION, EASTERN GREAT BASIN, UTAH 23
Vries, R.D. de, 1990, Tales of Tertiary tuffs in central Utah: De Wilkins, J., Jr., Beane, R.E., and Heidrick, T.L., 1986, Mineraliza
Kalb, Northern Illinois University, unpub. M.S. thesis, 160 p. tion related to detachments faultsA model, in Beatty, B., and
Walsh, D.V., 1987, Geological and geochemical relationships of Wilkinson, P.A.K., eds., Frontiers in Geology and Ore Depos
the Desert Mountain igneous complex rocks: Salt Lake City, its of Arizona and the Southwest: Arizona Geological Society
University of Utah, unpub. M.S. thesis, 64 p. Digest, v. 16, p. 108117.
CHAPTER B
By H. RICHARD BLANK!
Regional gravity and aeromagnetic anomaly maps are objectives and involve integration of potential-field, seis
widely used to delineate first-order structural features mic, drilling, and geologic-map data. Railroad Valley
expressed by marked density and magnetization contrasts. has a strike length of nearly 175 km, with an average
In east-central Nevada and elsewhere in the miogeoclinal north-northeasterly trend. Its maximum width of about
domain of the Basin and Range extensional province, the 25 km occurs where it is flanked on the east by the
gravity method is especially effective for distinguishing Grant Range. This central sector is the locus of oil pro
areas where the bedrock is veneered by pediment gravels duction in the valley. The nearby Troy district, in the
(or by Cenozoic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks) from southern Grant Range, achieved prominence in the past
areas underlain by relatively thick, low-density valley fill. as a producer of gold, silver, and tungsten.
The density basement is generally rock of the miogeo Figure 2 shows the complete-Bouguer gravity anom
clinal carbonate succession or Mesozoic and Cenozoic
aly field of the Railroad ValleyGrant Range region. The
intrusive rock. The aeromagnetic method, on the other color interval on the map is 2 milligals (mGal), and the
hand, detects magnetic crystalline rock beneath the non absolute anomaly level at Currant is -210 mgal. Primary
magnetic carbonates. This basement may be either gravity data were obtained from files of the National Cen
Phanerozoic intrusives or the Precambrian igneous-meta ter for Geophysical and Solar-Terrestrial Data (Boulder,
morphic complex. Signatures of strongly magnetic vol
Colorado 80303), supplemented by several dozen stations
canic rocks of the Cenozoic section are typically
recorded by the USGS in conjunction with current pro
distinguished by their shorter spatial wavelengths, which
grams. A reduction density of 2.67 g/cm3 was employed,
result from greater proximity to the detector and lesser and all stations have been terrain-corrected out to a radius
depth extent.
of 167 km (see Cordell and others, 1982, for a description
The original objective of recent U.S. Geological Sur of standard USGS gravity-reduction procedures). Strati
vey (USGS) gravity and aeromagnetic investigations in form geologic units shown on the figure are: Paleozoic
east-central Nevada was to aid in mineral resource
sedimentary rocks, chiefly miogeoclinal carbonates (P.),
assessment of Bureau of Land Management Wilderness
Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary rocks (T), and Quater
Study Areas. Later, the scope of investigation was
nary surficial deposits (Qa). Granitic intrusive rocks of
expanded to include a study of the structural framework
Cretaceous and Tertiary age (KTi) are represented by a
of sedimentary basins with known or potential hydrocar
diagonal pattern; the largest such body exposed is the
bon deposits. Studies of basement structure in the Rail
Troy pluton. Also shown is the Shell No. 1 discovery hole
road ValleyGrant Range region (fig. 1) focus on both
in Railroad Valley, which intersected quartz monzonite at
a depth of 10,330 ft (3.15 km). Quartz monzonite has been
"U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 964, P.O. Box 25046, Denver intersected in several other drill holes at shallower depths
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. in the valley.
26 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
- " oak/
O 5 10 MILES
L I I
O 5 10 KILOMETERS
||
Figure 2. Complete-Bouguer gravity anomaly map of Railroad ValleyGrant Range region, east-central Nevada. Color interval 2
mCal. P., Paleozoic sedimentary rocks; KTi, Cretaceous and Tertiary granitic intrusive rocks; T, Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary
rocks; Qa, Quaternary surficial deposits. Quartz monzonite (qm) was penetrated at 10,330 ft in Shell No. 1 discovery hole.
28 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
O ; 10 MILES
O 5 10 KILOMETERS
l
Figure 3. Residual aeromagnetic total-field intensity map of Railroad ValleyGrant Range region, east-central Nevada. Color
interval 10 nT. Symbols are the same as for figure 2.
BASEMENT STRUCTURE IN EAST-CENTRAL NEVADA 29
gravity gradients, which nearly bisects it. Therefore, the are the prominent anomaly crestal areas north of the Troy
range-front fault must be listric with respect to, or termi pluton and north of the Shell No. 1 discovery hole (fig. 3).
nate at, a low-angle structure at or near the surface of the Such highs superimposed on the broad positive anomaly
magnetic body. This structure may be the low-angle nor could be expressions of structural relief, or locally
mal fault north of the Troy pluton that is interpreted from enhanced magnetization, or both. (A third prominent high
seismic data. Mississippian Chainman Shale, a source rock on the broad anomaly, centered 15-km west of Currant at
for the hydrocarbons (Barker and Peterson, 1991), could the north edge of the map, is much more intense and
locally have served as the zone of detachment. The ques sharply bounded than the other two and could be due to a
tion of whether the low-angle fault passes beneath the buried mafic volcanic complex. Unlike the others, it has
Grant Range at depth or connects with a low-angle fault no apophysis beneath Paleozoic rocks.) If these highs are
exposed on the west side of the Grant Range (as inferred produced by intrusive rock, they flag potential loci of
by Lund and others, 1991, and Potter and others, 1991) is hydrothermal alteration and mineralization. Moreover, the
not likely to be resolved from the potential-field data. gravity data strongly suggest that much of the area
Because no strongly magnetic Paleozoic or Late Prot beneath the two aeromagnetic highs is pedimented bed
erozoic strata are known from geologic mapping in the rock and is therefore possibly accessible for exploitation,
region, possible sources of the broad aeromagnetic anom should mineral deposits be proved.
aly are limited to the Precambrian igneous-metamorphic
crystalline basement complex and Phanerozoic intrusive
bodies. The most likely source is considered to be a Phan REFERENCES CITED
erozoic granitic batholith. Granitic plutons are exposed in
the southwestern White Pine Range, in the southern Grant Armstrong, R.L., 1970, Geochronology of Tertiary igneous rocks,
Range, and in the northern Quinn Canyon Range, and, as eastern Basin and Range Province, western Utah, eastern Ne
noted above, quartz monzonite has been penetrated in sev vada, and vicinity: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 34,
eral drill holes in Railroad Valley. All of these occur p. 203232.
rences are spatially associated with the broad anomaly, Barker, C.E., and Peterson, J.A., 1991, Burial history of the Missis
although typical rock of the Troy pluton (two-mica gran sippian Chainman Shale and the Eocene Sheep Pass Forma
tion, Railroad and White River Valleys, eastern Nevada, in
ite) is known to be only very weakly magnetic (M.R. Hud
Flanigan, D.M.H., Hansen, M., and Flanigan, T.E., eds., Geol
son, oral commun., 1992). Potassium-argon ages for ogy of White River Valley, the Grant Range, Eastern Railroad
biotite of the plutons range from 23 to 36 Ma, according Valley and Western Egan Range, Nevada: Reno, Nevada
to Kleinhampl and Ziony (1985), who cite Schilling Petroleum Society, 1991 Field Trip Guidebook, p. 3746.
(1965) and Armstrong (1970). Yet a 70-Ma minimum age Bortz, L.C., and Murray, D.K., 1979, Eagle Springs oil field, Nye
of crystallization has been determined for the Troy pluton County, Nevada, in Newman, G.W., and Goode, H.D., eds.,
by Fryxell (1988) on the basis of whole-rock Rb/Sr analy 1979 Basin and Range Symposium: Denver and Salt Lake
sis. These apparently contradictory results can be recon City, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists and Utah
ciled by postulating that the aeromagnetic anomaly source Geological Association, p. 441454.
is a composite body consisting of weakly magnetic granite Cordell, L.E., Keller, G.R., and Hildenbrand, T.G., 1982, Bouguer
that was emplaced during Late Cretaceous time and gravity map of the Rio Grande rift, Colorado, New Mexico,
strongly magnetic monzonitic rock emplaced during an and Texas: U.S. Geological Survey Geophysical Investigations
Map GP-949, scale 1:1,000,000.
episode of renewed heating and magmatism in the
Effimoff, I., and Pinezich, A.R., 1986, Tertiary structural develop
Tertiary.
ment of selected basinsBasin and Range Province, north
The batholith, if present, must have had a major role eastern Nevada, in Mayer, L., ed., Extensional Tectonics of the
in the tectonic evolution of the Railroad ValleyGrant Southwestern United StatesA perspective on Processes and
Range region. Initial emplacement would have occurred Kinematics: Geological Society of America Special Paper 208,
during a late stage of synkinematic regional metamor p. 3142.
phism that is recorded in lower Paleozoic rocks of the Foster, N.H., 1979, Geomorphic exploration used in the discov
southern Grant Range (Kleinhampl and Ziony, 1985). ery of the Trap Spring field, Nye County, Nevada, in New
Renewed magmatism in Oligocene-Miocene time may man, G.W., and Goode, H.D., eds., 1979 Basin and Range
have contributed to arching of the range, as well as to high Symposium: Denver and Salt Lake City, Rocky Mountain
Association of Geologists and Utah Geological Association,
heat flow in Railroad Valley. Also, a structural parallelism
p. 477488.
indicates that the batholith may have influenced the con
Foster, N.H., Vreeland, J.H., and Dolly, E.D., 1985, Basin and
figuration of youthful extensional structures, such as the
Range seismic profiles in Railroad Valley, Nye County, Ne
Railroad Valley graben. vada, in Gries, R.R., and Dyer, R.C., eds., Seismic Explora
Some implications of the batholith for mineral tion of the Rocky Mountain Region: Denver, Rocky
resource exploration have been discussed in detail else Mountain Association of Geologists and Denver Geophysi
where (Lund and others, 1987, 1988). Of special interest cal Society, p. 283288.
30 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Fryxell, J.E., 1988, Geologic map and descriptions of stratigraphy Lund, Karen, Beard, L.S., and Perry, W.J., Jr., 1991, Structures of
and structure of the west-central Grant Range, Nye County, the northern Grant Range and Railroad Valley, Nye County,
Nevada: Geological Society of America and Chart Series MCH NevadaImplications for oil occurrences, in Flanigan,
064, scale 1:24,000, 16 p. D.M.H., Hansen, M., and Flanigan, T.E., eds. Geology of
Garside, L.J., Hess, R.H., Fleming, R.C, and Weimer, B.S., 1988, White River Valley, the Grant Range, Eastern Railroad Valley
Oil and gas developments in Nevada: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Western Egan Range, Nevada: Reno, Nevada Petroleum
and Geology Bulletin 104, 136 p. Society, 1991 Field Trip Guidebook, p. 16.
Guion, D.J., and Pearson, W.C., 1979, Gravity exploration for Lund, Karen, Nash, J.T., Beard, L.S., Blank, H.R., Jr., and Tutin,
petroleum in Railroad Valley, Nevada, in Newman, G.W., and S.E., 1987, Mineral resources of the Blue Eagle Wilderness
Goode, H.D., eds., 1979 Basin and Range Symposium: Denver Study Area, Nye County, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey
and Salt Lake City, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists Bulletin 1731D, 19 p.
and Utah Geological Association, p. 544556. Potter, C.J., Grow, J.A., Lund, K., Perry, W.J., Jr., Miller, J.J., and
Hulen, J.B., Bortz, L.C., and Bereskin, S.R., 1991, Geothermal pro Lee, M.W., 1991, Comparison of basin geometry and faulting
cesses in evolution of the Grant Canyon and Bacon Flat oil res styles along a regional seismic-reflection profile from Railroad
ervoirs, Railroad Valley, Nye County, Nevada, in Flanigan, Valley to Lake Valley, Nevada, in Flanigan, D.M.H., Hansen,
D.M.H., Hansen, M., and Flanigan, T.E., eds., Geology of M., and Flanigan, T.E., eds., Geology of White River Valley,
White River Valley, the Grant Range, Eastern Railroad Valley the Grant Range, Eastern Railroad Valley and Western Egan
and Western Egan Range, Nevada: Reno, Nevada Petroleum Range, Nevada: Reno, Nevada Petroleum Society, 1991 Field
Society, 1991 Field Trip Guidebook, p. 4754. Trip Guidebook, Reno, p. 5960.
Kleinhampl. F.J., and Ziony, J.I., 1985, Geology of northern Nye Schilling, J.H., 1965, Isotopic age determinations of Nevada rocks:
County, Nevada: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology Bulle Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology Report 10.
tin 99A, [including geologic map, scale 1:250,000), 172 p. Vreeland, J.H., and Berrong, B.H., 1979, Seismic exploration in
Lund, Karen, Beard, L.S., Blank, H.R., Jr., Hofstra, A.H., and Railroad Valley, Nevada, in Newman, G.W., and Goode, H.D.,
Hamilton, M.M., 1988, Mineral resources of the Riordens Well eds., 1979 Basin and Range Symposium: Denver and Salt Lake
Wilderness Study Area, Nye County, Nevada: U.S. Geological City, Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists and Utah
Survey Bulletin 1731H, 16 p. Geological Association, p. 557572.
CHAPTER C
MAGNETIC INTERPRETATION OF A
MINERALIZED SHEAR ZONE IN THE
SOUTHERN PART OF THE
IDAHO BATHOLITH
By M. DEAN KLEINKOPF' v,
In the northwestern part of the Hailey 1x2 quadran Tertiary, epizonal plutons such as the granitic intrusions of
gle, located in the southern part of the Idaho batholith, the Sawtooth batholith (S); the stock at Steele Mountain
magnetic-anomaly data that is displayed in shaded relief (SM); and the Sheep Mountain batholith (SHM). The
reveal a conspicuous northeast-trending linear belt of steep magnetic-anomaly data indicate that these composite intru
magnetic gradient (fig. 1). This belt is interpreted as a sive complexes are more extensive in the subsurface than
buried shear zone that may have influenced emplacement in outcrop. The belt of steep magnetic gradient is nearly
of mineral deposits in this area. continuous along the southeastern side of the Sawtooth,
Analyses of magnetic-anomaly data were made as Steele Mountain, and Sheep Mountain intrusions.
part of a multidisciplinary team effort under CUSMAP The southern part of the Idaho batholith is broken
(Conterminous United States Mineral Assessment Pro into a series of rhombic blocks (Bennett and Lewis, 1989)
gram) to assess the mineral resource potential of the resulting from intersections of northeast- and northwest
Hailey and western Idaho Idaho Falls 1x2 quadrangles. trending faults. Northeast-trending faults parallel the trans
The aeromagnetic-anomaly data are applicable for direct Challis fault system (TCFS), which is related to Eocene
detection of mineralized features and are applied in con extension. Northwest-trending faults relate to basin-and
junction with other geophysical, geological, and geochem range extension in the Miocene. Many of the faults are
ical investigations to delineate major fault and shear reflected in the magnetic-anomaly data as contour align
zones, map buried intrusive complexes, and identify local ments and deflections of contours across the magnetic
ities that might be hydrothermally altered or mineralized. grain. In particular, the belts of steep magnetic gradient
The bulk of the rocks of the Cretaceous Idaho
often are seen to correlate with faults or postulated faults
batholith are biotite granodiorites or two-mica granites and shear zones. The prominent example in the study area
(Kiilsgaard and Lewis, 1985; Lewis and Kiilsgaard, 1991). (fig. 1) is the northeast-trending belt of steep magnetic
The batholithic terrane exhibits exceptionally uniformly gradient that occurs near Atlanta and is interpreted to
low magnetization and shows few distinctive anomalies, reflect a buried shear zone, probably part of the trans
except for those associated with minor occurrences of Challis fault system (TCFS). Other evidence supports the
diorite intrusions and border facies of tonalite, which are
interpretation that the belt of steep magnetic gradient may
more strongly magnetized than the main mass of the be a tectonic feature. Two regional basin-and-range faults,
batholith. The Tertiary granitic batholiths and stocks are the Deer Park (DPF) and Montezuma (MF) faults and cor
considerably more magnetic than the granitic rocks of the relative magnetic trends, systematically change strike from
Cretaceous Idaho batholith. The highest magnetic values south-southeast north of the belt of steep magnetic gradi
on the map (fig. 1) correlate spatially with high-elevation, ent to southeast on the south side of the belt (fig. 1).
Northeast of Atlanta, a number of gold deposits are
clustered along the belt of high magnetic gradient (fig. 1).
"U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 964, P.O. Box 25046, Denver Additional undiscovered mineral deposits may occur along
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. the belt to the northeast and southwest of Atlanta. If the
noetXrna2otle-qmhriuawpngetdrlnseiatzsneigrtldcnye of
Map
1.
1Figure
Idaho,
Hailey,
the
of
tpart
residual,
gashowing
relief;
shaded
in
ianomalies
geology; zone;
pshear
metals
aprecious
sources
For
ddeposits.
geology
(1989);
others
and
Kleinkopf
see
data
anomaly
min
ieosrltoyrmiaebgtunatelionc
MILES
15
O
10
5
KLOMETERS
O
15
5
10
AREA
STUDY
of
Location
Porecious
po
or
metal
deposit
lymetal ic Total-iO
shown
is
field
anomaly
magnetictensity'
n3
batholith
Mountain
SHM-Sheep Trans-Chal is
TCFS
system
fault
Mountain
Steele
at
SM-Stock >
(
terrane
batholith
Idaho
Cretaceous
|
Miocene
.
terrane
rock
volcanic
+Eocene
* .Eocene
terrane
rock
volcanic terrane batholith
rock
intrusive
-
SSawtooth terrane
shale
black
Paleozoic
Sss
DPFDeep fault
fault
Park MFMontezuma
Interpreted
==
zone
shear
intervals)
(nanoTesla
50-nt
in
ATION
Explan
Major
-
fault
--
116
114
(1989).
Johnson
and
Worl
from
modified
deposits
eral
11600'
44 43
MAGNETIC INTERPRETATION OF SHEAR ZONE, SOUTHERN IDAHO BATHOLITH 33
trend is part of the TCFS, it may hold potential for Bennett, E.H., and Lewis, R.S., 1989, The geology and ore depos
extensive epithermal gold mineralization, which is charac its of the Idaho batholith in the Hailey 1X2 quadrangle, Ida
teristic of the TCFS (Bennett, 1984; Kiilsgaard and others, ho, in Winkler, G.R., and others, eds., Geology and Mineral
1986). In order to study spatial relationships between the Deposits of the Hailey and Western Idaho Falls 1X2 Quad
rangles, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report
geophysical anomalies and the occurrence of precious
89639, p. 2632.
metals and polymetallic deposits, a generalized summary
of plots taken from Worl and Johnson (1989) was pre Cox, D.P, and Singer, D.A., eds., 1986, Mineral deposit models:
U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1693,379 p.
pared that combines distribution of precious-metal and
polymetallic-vein, stockwork, and skarn deposits. The Kiilsgaard, T.H., and Lewis, R.S., 1985, Plutonic rocks of Creta
ceous age and faults of the Atlanta Lobe of the Idaho batholith,
deposit types correspond to mineral deposit models, or
in McIntyre, D.H., ed., Symposium on the Geology and Min
modifications of models, found in Cox and Singer (1986). eral Deposits of the Challis Quadrangle, Idaho: U.S. Geologi
In summary, new potential areas for undiscovered cal Survey Bulletin 1658B, p 2942.
mineral resources may be located northeast and southwest Kiilsgaard, T.H., Fisher, F.S., and Bennett, E.H., 1986, The trans
of Atlanta along the belt of steep magnetic gradient. For Challis fault system and associated precious metal deposits,
detailed mineral resource exploration that might be consid Idaho: Economic Geology, v.81, p. 721724.
ered in the future, closely spaced magnetic data collected Kleinkopf, M.D., Bankey, Viki, and McCafferty, A.E., 1989, Grav
by aircraft or on the ground may be used to detect seg ity and magnetic anomaly patterns applied to mineral resource
ments of fault zones or granitic intrusions that are hydro exploration, Hailey 1X2 quadrangle, Idaho, in Winkler,
thermally altered and possibly mineralized. Detection is G.R., and others, eds., Geology and Mineral Deposits of the
based on the assumption that the magnetic susceptibilities Hailey and Western Idaho Falls 1x2 Quadrangles, Idaho:
of the hydrothermally altered areas would be perceptibly U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 89639, p. 2632.
reduced relative to the unaltered parts of the features. Lewis, R.S., and Kiilsgaard, T.H., 1991, Eocene plutonic rocks in
south-central Idaho: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 96,
no. B8, p. 1329513311.
REFERENCES CITED Worl, R.G., and Johnson, K.M., 1989, Geologic terranes and min
eral deposit types in the Hailey and western Idaho Falls 1X2
quadrangles, Idaho, in Winkler, G.R., and others, eds.,
Bennett, E.H., 1984, The trans-Challis fault zone: A major crustal Geology and Mineral Deposits of the Hailey and Western Ida
discontinuity in central Idaho (abs.]: Geological Society of ho Falls 1X2 Quadrangles, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey
America Abstracts with Programs v. 16, no. 6, p. 442. Open-File Report 89639, p. 316.
CHAPTER D
By DWIGHT C. BRADLEY!
INTRODUCTION Plate convergence drove the Taconic thrust belt over the
foredeep and forebulge and caused these belts to migrate
toward the craton. This paper documents an association
Ordovician-hosted Mississippi-Valley-type (MVT)
noted by Mitchell (1985) and Kaiser and Ohmoto (1988)
zinc deposits in the Appalachian fold-thrust belt and fore
land basin (fig. 1) generally are regarded as having formed
between economic MVT deposits and flexure-induced fea
tures related to an arc-passive margin collision. Explora
from basinal brines that migrated cratonward from the
tion for MVT deposits in some frontier regions may benefit
orogen or its foreland basin (Oliver, 1986; Bethke and
from similar plate-tectonic considerations.
Marshak, 1990; Kesler and Van der Pluijm, 1990). The
age of mineralization, however, has been subject to much
debate, and as a consequence, mineralization has been
linked only in very general terms to Appalachian plate THE TACONIC OROGENY AND
tectonic history. Various researchers have argued that min LATER TECTONIC EVENTS
eralization occurred during Middle Ordovician (Hoagland
and others, 1965; Callahan, 1968; Bradley, 1989a), Late
Ordovician to Devonian (Kesler and Van der Pluijm, The early Paleozoic evolution of the Appalachians
1990), and late Paleozoic (Hearn and others, 1987). was a Wilson cycle of opening, then partial closing, of the
Depending on the age of mineralization, any connections Iapetus ocean basin. Late Proterozoic rifting of Protero
between metallogenesis and plate-tectonic events would be zoic basement was followed by Cambrian and Early
sought in either the Alleghanian, Acadian, or Taconic Ordovician subsidence of a passive margin with two com
orogenies. ponents: (1) a miogeoclinal wedge of mainly platformal
One aspect of ore deposit geology that can be linked in carbonate rocks up to 3.5 km thick, which now host the
MVT deposits, and (2) farther east, a much thinner apron
detail to Appalachian plate tectonics is the geologic history
of host strata. In this paper, I discuss geologic effects of the of slope and rise facies, now preserved in far-traveled
thrust sheets.
Taconic arc-passive margin collision (Bradley and Kusky,
1986; Bradley, 1989b) that now control, in part, the distri This passive margin endured until its collision with an
bution of many MVT deposits. Two related processes are arc complex during the Ordovician Taconic orogeny (Row
of particular interest. Lithospheric flexure caused forebulge ley and Kidd, 1981; Bradley, 1989b) (fig. 2). The earliest
uplift and normal faulting; both were instrumental in stratigraphic record of collision is an Early to Middle
ground preparation. Flexure also drove subsidence of a Ordovician influx of orogen-derived flysch, which con
foredeep basin that probably expelled mineralizing fluids. formably overlies older slope and rise deposits. The arrival
of flysch from the east was synchronous with gentle uplift
of the platform. Uplift, therefore, can be viewed as a distal
"U.S. Geological Survey, Branch of Alaskan Geology, 4200 Univer effect of collision. In the carbonate rocks that now host the
sity Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508. MVT deposits, this uplift is recorded by an unconformity:
36 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
&
c
g *s. vo.
Figure 1. Map of Appalachian orogen showing main MVT deposits or districts (black dots). Taconic foredeep (foreland basin) formerly
occupied stippled area but has been partially eroded away. Late Paleozoic Alleghanian deformation front (open barbs) lies cratonward of
Taconic thrust front (solid barbs) in central and southern Appalachians.
the post-Knox unconformity in the southern Appalachians orogen. In the northern Appalachians, the Taconic thrust
(Mussman and Read, 1986), the post-Beekmantown uncon front is the cratonward limit of significant shortening in
formity in Pennsylvania and New York (Lash, 1989), and the northern Appalachians (fig. 1); Ordovician foredeep
the St. George unconformity in Newfoundland (Knight and deposits west of the Taconic thrusts are subhorizontal. In
others, 1991). Mussman and Read (1986) reported ero the northern Appalachians, the Taconic front is accurately
sional relief in Virginia up to 140 m; they also reported located by fossiliferous wildflysch deposits (olistostromes
sinkholes and caves extending down to 65 m below the and tectonic melange) that immediately flank far-traveled
unconformity. Knight and others (1991) reported erosional allochthons. In the southern and central Appalachians, late
relief in Newfoundland up to 50 m and karst features to Paleozoic thrusts and folds deform a broad region to the
depths of 120 m. Comparable erosional relief and depth of west of the Taconic thrust front; this region includes
karst features have been reported from all of the MVT dis Ordovician foredeep strata as well as MVT deposits in
tricts discussed below. The unconformity has been widely older carbonate rocks. In the central and southern Appala
attributed to passage of a forebulge (Jacobi, 1981; Rowley chians, the position of the Taconic thrust front is not
and Kidd, 1981; Bradley and Kusky, 1986; Lash, 1989; known precisely, but it can be estimated by assuming that
Knight and others, 1991) because uplift was synchronous Ordovician facies belts in the foredeep (black shales, tur
with flysch sedimentation farther east and was followed bidites) were the same width and distance from the thrust
immediately by collision-induced drowning of the platform front as in the northern Appalachians (Bradley, 1989b).
and progradation of flysch. The unconformity and subse
quent events vary in age along the orogen (Bradley,
1989b), indicating that eustatic fall in sea level cannot have
been the sole cause of emergence. ORDOVICIAN-HOSTED MVT
Overlying the unconformity is an upward-deepening, DEPOSITS
diachronous succession of carbonates, black shales, and
turbidites. The shales and turbidites comprise the synoro
genic clastic fill of the Taconic foredeep, a basin that Ordovician-hosted MVT deposits in the Appalachian
migrated cratonward through time across the former conti fold-thrust belt and (or) foreland basin (Clark, 1987) are
nental shelf (Rowley and Kidd, 1981; Bradley, 1989b). hosted by strata that were laid down only a few million
Normal faulting, induced by lithospheric flexure, accom years before the Taconic orogeny. Mineralized areas dis
panied foredeep subsidence (Bradley and Kidd, 1991). cussed below include the Elmwood and nearby deposits of
Paleogeographic relations across the Taconic foredeep are the Central Tennessee district, the MascotJefferson City
summarized in figure 3. This cross section depicts a quasi and Copper Ridge deposits of the East Tennessee district,
steady-state configuration that migrated cratonward the Timberville deposit in Virginia, the Friedensville
through time; it is appropriate for a given transect until deposit in Pennsylvania, and the Daniel's Harbour deposit
thrusting ceased. in Newfoundland. The deposits can be divided into three
Two younger collisionsthe Acadian in the Devo groups on the basis of the state and age of deformation of
nian (Osberg and others, 1989) and the Alleghanian in the the host strata: (1) flat-lying strata, (2) deformed strata
Mississippian to Permian (Hatcher and others, 1989)had that were flat-lying until the late Paleozoic Alleghanian
markedly different effects on Taconic paleogeographic orogeny, and (3) deformed strata that were overthrust dur
elements in the northern versus the southern parts of the ing the Taconic orogeny.
ROLE OF FLEXURE AND CONVERGENCE IN APPALACHIANZINC DEPOSITS 37
//orma/
marrow/ng accref/onary
Ayass/ve- OC62O/7
fau/fs
prism
marg/n
North America
Figure 2. Schematic model of Taconic orogeny as an arc-passive margin collision. Plate convergence shown in top part of figure inevi
tably led to collision illustrated in bottom part of figure. Rise of Taconic forebulge and subsidence of Taconic foredeep were secondary
effects of collision.
DEPOSITS IN FLAT-LYING STRATA Gray, 1985), and (3) the palinspastic distance (Walker and
others, 1983) from the Knoxville thrust to the eastern mar
MVT deposits of this group are exemplified by the gin of the Sevier Basin (a local depocenter of the Taconic
Central Tennessee district, on the Nashville dome (fig. 1). foredeep) (Shanmugam and Walker, 1980). At the close of
Lower Ordovician carbonate rocks of the Knox Group the Taconic orogeny, the Central Tennessee MVT district
host the mineralization, which was controlled by solution lay about 275 km cratonward of the thrust front.
collapse breccias formed during karst formation along the
post-Knox unconformity (Gaylord and Briskey, 1983).
The Nashville dome and Cincinnati arch together comprise DEPOSITS IN STRATA DEFORMED DURING
part of an elongate uplift that flanks the southern and cen THE LATE PALEOZOIC
tral Appalachian thrust belt (Quinlan and Beaumont,
1984). During Ordovician time, the axis of the Nashville MVT deposits of this group include MascotJefferson
dome was located about 65 km east of the Devonian axis City, Copper Ridge, and Timberville. These deposits are
(Stearns and Reesman, 1986). The position next to the hosted in folded and thrust-faulted Ordovician carbonate
orogenic belt, the magnitude of uplift, and the cratonward rocks within the late Paleozoic southern Appalachian fold
shift of the arch between Ordovician and Devonian times thrust belt. As in the Central Tennessee district, mineral
together suggest that the Nashville domeCincinnati arch ization is localized by karst-related solution-collapse brec
began as a flexural effect of Taconic loading (Quinlan and cias that lie immediately below the post-Knox
Beaumont, 1984). unconformity. In the East Tennessee district, detrital
Figure 3 shows the reconstructed position of the Cen sphalerite sands in solution-collapse deposits, described by
tral Tennessee district as projected onto the schematic Kendall (1960) and Hoagland and others (1965), have dips
cross section through the Taconic foredeep at the time comparable to the bedding dips of the host strata, proving
when Ordovician thrusting ceased. This distance was esti that mineralization preceded Alleghanian deformation.
mated by summing (1) the present distance from the Elm When thrusting ended in the Ordovician, the host
wood deposit on the Nashville dome to the Chattanooga strata of the MascotJefferson City, Copper Ridge, and
thrust, (2) the pre-late-Paleozoic palinspastic distance from Timberville deposits were located on the undeformed cra
the Chattanooga to the Knoxville thrust (Woodward and tonic flank of the Taconic foredeep (fig. 3). The positions
Graedlonevigcreiaongl-rihaozpshetidc buried
3.
OFigure
of
Positions
foredeep.
Taconic
through
pcross
to
relative
section
onto
projected
are
deposits
MVT
when
elements cFeorcnitveodnerigscevainlcley
(plate
occur
now
deposits
MVT
where
locations
Two
tceased.
were
Harbour)
Daniel's
and
the
during
sheets
thrust
Taconic
beneath
KILOMETERS
100
-
* - * *.
> *
*
Overriding
c..
Tennessee
ss *
*
*,
*,
* -
* *,
*
*
plate *,*,
-
-
-
-
-
THRUST *,
"Fri-edensvil e
-
-
-
-
-
LOAD * *, -
-
* * * *, -
-
-
w"
- -
* * -
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-
~ ^ -
-
ORE
F
C
GENI
RO
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POSITS
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* f
*".*.*.bul
*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*
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- -
-
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-
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-
-
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w
orebulge
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<^^^^^^ -- -
-
-
50
-
-
>|< -
-
-
-
-
-
-
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level
sea -
-
- turbidites0O
Graywacke 2
-
-
*
-
-
-
[H]
rocks
Carbonate
-
migration
-
*-
*-
-
FOREDEEP
FOREBULGE -
-
EXPLANATION
=-| -
Shale
mineralization
7
window -
MVT
possible -
- - - -
* * - - - -
* - - - - - -
- * * * - - - -
- - - - - -
- ~ * * - - - -
- - - - - -
- * * * - - - -
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- a
- - * * * - - - -
-- - - - - - -
- - * * * - - - -
~ * - - - - - -
- * * * - - - -
- - - - - -
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- - - - - -
* * * - - - -
>|< - - - - -
* * * - - -
- - - - -
-
-
- platform
margin
passive
of
rocks
* * * - - -
- - - - -
* * * - - -
migration
-
-
*~
*-
- -
- - - - - -
* * * - - -
|< - - - - -
* * * - - -
- clastic
minor
and
Carbonate
- - - - - -
* * * * - - -
- - - - - -
KS
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R
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- * * * * - - -
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- - - - - -
* * * * - - - -
- - - - - -
- * * * * - - - -
- - - - - -
- * * * * - - -
- - - - -
-
-
Precambrian
- * * * * - - - -
- *
- - - - -
* * * - - - -
- basement
- - - - - - -
- * * * * - - - -
- - - - - - -
- * * * * - - - -
- - - - - - -
^^^^^^*. - * * * * - - - -
- - - - - - -
EMERGING - * * * * - - -
- - - - -
* * * - - -
-
-
- * -
SHELF - *
- - - - -
* * * - - - -
-
- - - - - -
- * * * * - - - -
- - - - - -
* * * * - - - -
- - - - - -
* * * * * - - - - Ordovician.
*
*
- - - - -
* * * - - -
- - - - -
* * * - - -
-
*
-
- EEE
- - - - - -
* * - * - - - -
*. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. * - - - - - -
ROLE OF FLEXURE AND CONVERGENCE IN APPALACHIANZINC DEPOSITS 39
Caradocian final
4.E= Martinsburg Formation
emplacement of
thrusts ====El Jacksonburg
Limestone
--- foredeep
Llandeilian subsidence
Middle
Mainland forebulge D *% IT
- Sandstone unconformity
Ordovician Llanvirnian T l
Table Head h
Group
*~ MVT
Arenigian DE POSIT
I
HE St. George
HELEH Group
L lt. Beekmantown
OWer Tremadocian * passive Group
margin * I
Undivided subsidence : : :
I I
platform ITI
sequence Undivided
Cambrian T: platform
- - - - - - sequence
M.
~~
* * * *
*,
* * * *
S,,, G ill 'J',,, G ille
w" r f f renville * r f r f renvi
Precambrian (r basement
M. * * ^^^^l basement
kssss "S,,,
z r f * f z. z .
Figure 4. Cambrian and Ordovician stratigraphy at Daniel's Harbour and Friedensville deposits. Forebulge unconfor
mity, foredeep deposits, and Taconic thrusting differ in age between the two sections, but the relative order of events is
the same.
of the MascotJefferson City and Copper Ridge deposits and Ordovician sinkholes formed by karst processes
were estimated from a palinspastic cross section of the (Lane, 1984). These breccia bodies are elongate parallel to
Sevier Basin (Walker and others, 1983, p. 705, upper sec orogenic strike, and they appear to have nucleated along
tion). The position of Timberville was estimated from a orogen-parallel normal faults that were active during and
palinspastic cross section through northern Virginia (Read, immediately after forebulge uplift (Knight and others,
1980, p. 1582, section A). Estimated palinspastic distances 1991). Lane (1989) reported rotated geopetal sediments
to the Taconic thrust front are 55 km for the MascotJef in ore-stage cavities and displaced ore bodies along faults
ferson City deposit, 85 km for the Timberville deposit, as evidence that mineralization preceded contractional
and 115 km for the Copper Ridge deposit. deformation. Host rocks at the Daniel's Harbour deposit
are part of the gently dipping, parautochthonous platfor
mal sequence that was tectonically buried beneath the
DEPOSITS INSTRATA TECTONICALLY Humber Arm allochthon during the Middle Ordovician
BURIED DURING THE ORDOVICIAN (Cawood and Williams, 1988). When thrusting ceased, the
deposit lay at least 10 km to the east of (behind) the thrust
The Daniel's Harbour and Friedensville deposits (fig. front. In figure 3, the position of the Daniel's Harbour
1) have the most intriguing connection to Taconic paleo deposit was estimated by extrapolation 20 km along strike
geography. The Daniel's Harbour deposit in western New to the south, where the Humber Arm allochthon has not
foundland is hosted by Lower Ordovician platform been eroded away and extends at least as far west as the
carbonates of the St. George Group, and the ore bodies coast. According to Cawood and Williams (1988), the
occur immediately beneath a major karsted unconformity parautochthonous ore-hosting strata at the Daniel's Har
at the top of the St. George Group (fig. 4). Ore postdates, bour deposit were not penetratively deformed during
but is spatially associated with, dolomitic breccia bodies emplacement of the allochthon; gentle bedding dips and
40 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
=s: 75
Hamburg ##S- --
|-|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--T-r-->r-H-I-I-I-I-I-R-E
I I I I I |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--RP-e
N. M
- - --T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-T-L-T-I-T-I-T-I-T-T- E 41 o
*... - - -
76 2 *41-r-
-
-
-
-
- - - - - -
-
- -
- - - - - - - - *
- - - -
-
*
-
-
-
-
-
z *
*
z
*
-
*
-
- - - -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- - - - - - -
-
- - - - - - - - - - -
- - - ~ *
- - - - - '
- - - - - -
7.
- -
*
Friedensville -
* - ^^*. * ~ *-- ~~ - - - - -
- -
MVT deposit
~~~ *
- a z -
*.*.*.*.*.*, O 25 50 KILOMETERS
- *.*.*.*.*.
- - - - -
1 l
- - - -
- - - - - -
75
EXPLANATION
Middle Ordovician
Mesozoic rift facies carbonate rocks
Figure 5. Generalized geologic map of Friedensville, Pennsylvania, and vicinity. Friedensville was tectonically buried during the
Taconic orogeny by the Hamburg allochthon, which advanced toward N. 18 W. (large arrow; Lash and Drake, 1984). Present
erosional front of Hamburg klippe lies about 20 km cratonward of Friedensville.
high-angle reverse faults in the Daniel's Harbour area date and faulted along with enclosing strata, and hence, miner
from the Devonian Acadian orogeny. alization predated deformation (Callahan, 1968, p. 103).
The MVT deposit at Friedensville, Pennsylvania (fig. As at the Daniels Harbour deposit, host rocks at the
5) is hosted by platformal carbonate rocks of the Lower Friedensville deposit are part of the parautochthonous plat
and Middle Ordovician Beekmantown Group. The ore formal sequence that was tectonically buried beneath the
occurs in tabular, solution-collapse breccias that lie just Hamburg allochthon during the Middle Ordovician (Lash
below the post-Beekmantown unconformity (fig. 4). Stra and Drake, 1984). When thrusting ceased, the Friedens
tabound ore bodies at the Friedensville deposit are folded ville deposit lay about 20 km to the east of (behind) the
ROLE OF FLEXURE AND CONVERGENCE IN APPALACHIANZINC DEPOSITS 41
thrust front. In figure 3, the position of Friedensville was Appalachian foreland, a second event being necessary to
estimated by extrapolation 20 km along strike to the south, explain numerous MVT occurrences and small deposits in
where the Ordovician thrust front is marked by a belt of the Appalachian foreland in rocks as young as Silurian,
Ordovician wildflysch immediately west of the leading Devonian, and even Pennsylvanian (Clark, 1987).
edge of the Hamburg klippe (Root and MacLachlan, The case for Middle Ordovician mineralization is
1978). Ore-hosting strata at Friedensville are folded and summarized here. The prevailing view of Appalachian
cut by several generations of faults. Deformation is either MVT mineralization as a product of foreland basin dewa
Taconic (Lash and Drake, 1984, p. 32) or Alleghanian. tering (Kesler and others, 1988) can be reconciled with the
distribution of deposits in figure 3 only if mineralization
occurred during the Middle Ordovician. The last time the
DISCUSSION Daniel's Harbour or Friedensville deposits could have
5. been connected in any hydrologically simple way to a
foreland basin was immediately before tectonic burial dur
Events leading up to and including the Taconic orog ing the Middle Ordovician. Younger (Acadian and
eny in the Appalachians provided many of the conditions Alleghanian) foreland basins may have existed to the east
necessary for MVT mineralization. During the Cambrian of the Daniel's Harbour and Friedensville deposits, but
and Early Ordovician in the Appalachians, carbonate host any such basins would have been superimposed on the
rocks were deposited along a thermally subsiding passive eroded roots of the Taconic thrust belt and not on the
margin in a seaward-thickening miogeoclinal wedge. Dur more deeply buried parautochthon within which the ore
ing the earliest stages of collision, uplift of the platform at bodies occur. Younger foreland basins certainly existed
a forebulge resulted in widespread ground preparation, and west of the Daniel's Harbour and Friedensville deposits
much ground was prepared in this fashion because plate (fig. 5), but they are unlikely to have expelled large quan
convergence caused the forebulge to migrate. Passive-mar tities of fluid toward and beneath the frontal thrusts. Fore
gin subsidence and collision at low latitudes is a key fac land basin brines could only have migrated through the
tor because forebulge uplift exposed carbonate rocks to Daniels Harbour and Friedensville areas during the brief
karst formation. In contrast, karsted forebulge unconformi (510 m.y.) Middle Ordovician interval between the time
ties are unlikely to form during high-latitude collisions, of karst-related ground preparation at the forebulge and
such as the Brooks Range orogeny, involving a clastic the time of tectonic burial by thrusts. If this scenario is
rather than a carbonate platform. Collision drove the sub valid, the 300-km width of the belt of MVT localities
sidence of a shale- and turbidite-filled foreland basin and records the end of plate convergencethis halted an ore
also caused the basin to migrate cratonward. The migra deposit production line that had MVT deposits at vari
tion of facies belts capped the permeable carbonate plat ous places along it (fig. 3). Each deposit would have
form with an impermeable shale aquitard. Evidence from formed on the forebulge or cratonic flank of the foredeep;
the Daniels Harbour deposit suggests that flexure-induced post-mineralization plate convergence would have con
normal faults dating from early collision played a role in veyed the earlier formed deposits away from the relative
ground preparation. Normal faults also appear to have position at which they formed, toward or beneath the oro
helped to focus mineralizing fluids in the Northern Arkan gen. This orogenic-foreland setting for mineralization dif
sas MVT district in the Ouachita foredeep (Bradley and fers slightly from the setting proposed for MVT deposits
Kidd, 1991) and the Taconic foredeep of New York (Bra of the Ozarks in the foreland of the Ouachita orogen
dley and Kidd, 1991). Mitchell (1985) suggested a similar (Leach and Rowan, 1986) and those in the foreland of the
fluid-focusing mechanism for the Irish base-metal district Canadian Rockies (Garven, 1985). In the latter two
in the Variscan foreland. Flexure-induced normal faults in regions, mineralizing fluids are believed to have been
other foredeeps, therefore, are promising exploration driven by gravity across a sediment-filled foreland basin
targets. that had a surface that sloped down toward the craton. In
.
When Taconic thrusting ceased, six MVT localities contrast, Middle Ordovician mineralizing fluids in the
were distributed across a 300-km-wide belt that stretched Appalachians would necessarily have migrated across a
from forebulge to thrust belt (fig. 3): the Central Tennes foredeep that sloped up toward the craton and had a deep
mit see district on the forebulge; the Copper Ridge, Timber axial depression (as in fig. 3).
|||}| ville, and MascotJefferson City deposits on the cratonic Mineralization of the Ordovician-hosted deposits
flank of the foredeep; and the Daniel's Harbour and could be younger than Middle Ordovician; but if so, two
Friedensville deposits beneath thrust sheets. A simple very different genetic models must apply to six similar
explanation for this distribution is that mineralization deposits: one mechanism for the Daniels Harbour and
occurred during the Middle Ordovician by foreland basin Friedensville deposits, and another for the Central Tennes
dewatering, as discussed below. But if so, then there were see district and the Copper Ridge, MascotJefferson City,
at least two episodes of MVT mineralization in the and Timberville deposits. These last four could have been
42 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
formed from Acadian or early Alleghanian foreland-basin Tennessee Zinc Deposits Field Trip Guide Book: Blacksburg,
brines sometime after the Middle Ordovician. Post-Mid Virginia, Virginia Tech Department of Geological Sciences,
dle-Ordovician mineralization at the Daniels Harbour and Guide Book Number 9, p. 116151.
Hatcher, R.D., Jr., Thomas, W.A., Geiser, P.A., Snoke, A.W.,
Friedensville deposits, however, could only have taken
Mosher, S., and Wiltschko, D.V., 1989, Alleghanian Orogen,
place beneath the Taconic thrust belt, and the mineralizing in Hatcher, R.D., Jr., Thomas, W.A., and Viele, G.W., eds.,
fluids would have been something other than foreland
The Appalachian-Ouachita Orogen in the United States: Boul
basin brines.
der, Colorado, Geological Society of America, The Geology of
The distribution of deposits in figure 3, therefore, North America, v. F-2, p. 233318.
highlights an unanswered question in Appalachian metal Hearn, P.P., Sutter, J.F., and Belkin, H.E., 1987, Evidence for late
logenesis that future studies should address. One possibil Paleozoic brine migration in Cambrian carbonate rocks of the
ity is that there were two or more mineralizing events: an central and southern Appalachians: Implications for Mississip
earlier one during the Middle Ordovician and a later one pi Valley-type mineralization: Geochimica et Cosmochimica
during the late Paleozoic. The other possibility is that Acta, v. 51, p. 13231334.
there was a single late Paleozoic mineralizing event but Hoagland, A.D., Hill, W.T., and Fulweiler, R.E., 1965, Genesis of
two very different environments of mineralization: sub the Ordovician zinc deposits in East Tennessee: Economic Ge
ology, v. 60, p. 693714.
thrust and orogenic foreland. Future research should indi
cate whether the Daniels Harbour and Friedensville Jacobi, R.D., 1981, Peripheral bulgeA causal mechanism for the
Lower/Middle Ordovician unconformity along the western
deposits have textural, isotopic, fluid-inclusion, or other margin of the northern Appalachians: Earth and Planetary Sci
properties that set them apart from the other Ordovician ence Letters. v. 56, p. 245251.
hosted MVT deposits. Kaiser, C.J. and Ohmoto, H., 1988, Ore-controlling structures of
Mississippi valley-type mineralization on the North American
midcontinent as products of late Paleozoic convergent plate
REFERENCES CITED tectonism, in Kisvarsanyi, G., and Grant, S.K., eds., North
American Conference on the Tectonic Control of Ore Deposits
Bethke, C.M., and Marshak, S. 1990, Brine migrations across North and the Vertical and Horizontal Extent of Ore Systems, Pro
AmericaThe plate tectonics of groundwater: Annual Re ceedings Volume: Rolla, Missouri, University of Missouri
views of Earth and Planetary Science, v. 18, p. 228315. Rolla, p. 424430.
Bradley, D.C., 1989a, Mississippi Valley-type Pb-Zn mineraliza Kendall, D.L., 1960, Ore deposits and sedimentary features, Jef
tion during Ordovician arc-continent collision in the Appala ferson City mine, Tennessee: Economic Geology, v. 55.
chians: Geological Society of America, Abstracts with p. 9851003.
Programs, v. 21, p. A8. Kesler, S.E., Jones, L.M., and Ruiz, J., 1988, Strontium-isotopic
1989b, Taconic plate kinematics as revealed by foredeep geochemistry of Mississippi Valley-type deposits, east Ten
stratigraphy, Appalachian orogen: Tectonics, v. 8, nessee: Implications for age and source of mineralizing brines:
p. 10371049. Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 100, p. 13001307.
Bradley, D.C., and Kidd, W.S.F., 1991, Flexural extension of the Kesler, S.E., and Van der Pluijm, B.A., 1990, Timing of Mississip
upper continental crust in collisional foredeeps: Geological So pi Valley-type mineralization: Relation to Appalachian oro
ciety of America Bulletin, v. 103, p. 14161438. genic events: Geology, v. 18, p. 11151118.
Bradley, D.C., and Kusky, T.M., 1986, Geologic evidence for rate Knight, I., James, N.P., and Lane, T.E., 1991, The Ordovician St.
of plate convergence during the Taconic arc-continent colli George unconformity, northern Appalachians: The relation
sion: Journal of Geology, v. 94, p. 667681. ship of plate convergence at the St. Lawrence Promontory to
Callahan, W.H., 1968, Geology of the Friedensville zinc mine, Le the Sauk-Tippecanoe sequence boundary: Geological Society
high County, Pennsylvania, in Ridge, J.D., ed., Ore Deposits of of America Bulletin, v. 103, p. 12001225.
the United States, 19331967 [The Graton-Sales Volume, v. Lane, T.E., 1984, Preliminary classification of carbonate breccias,
1]: American Institute of Mining, Metallurgy, and Petroleum Newfoundland Zinc mines, Daniel's Harbour, Newfoundland:
Engineers, p. 95107. Geological Survey of Canada Paper 841A, p. 505512.
Cawood, P.A., and Williams, H.S., 1988, Acadian basement thrust Lane, T.E., 1989, Sphalerite/dolomite stratigraphy and the tectonic
ing, crustal delamination, and structural styles in and around origin of an MVT deposit, Daniel's Harbour, western New
the Humber Arm allochthon, western Newfoundland: foundland, Canada: Geological Society of America, Abstracts
Geology, v. 16, p. 370373. with Programs, v. 21, p. A8.
Clark, S.H.B., 1987, Metallogenic map of zinc, lead, and barium Lash, G.G., 1989, Middle and Late Ordovician shelf activation and
deposits and occurrences in Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, east foredeep evolution, central Appalachian orogen, in Keith,
central United States: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous B.D., ed., The Trenton Group (Upper Ordovician Series) of
Investigations Series Map I-773, scale 1:2,500,000. Eastern North America: Deposition, Diagenesis, and Petro
Garven, G., 1985, The role of regional fluid flow in the genesis of leum: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Studies
the Pine Point deposit, western Canada sedimentary basin: in Geology 29, p. 3753.
Economic Geology, v. 80, p. 307-324. Lash, G.G., and Drake, A.A., Jr., 1984, The Richmond and Green
Gaylord, W.B., and Briskey, J.A., 1983, Geology of the Elmwood wich slices of the Hamburg klippe in eastern Pennsylvania
and Gordonsville mines, Central Tennessee zinc district, in Stratigraphy, sedimentology, structure, and plate tectonic
ROLE OF FLEXURE AND CONVERGENCE IN APPALACHIANZINC DEPOSITS 43
implications: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1312, Read, J.F., 1980, Carbonate ramp-to-basin transitions and foreland
40 p. basin evolution, Middle Ordovician, Virginia Appalachians:
Leach, D.L., and Rowan, E.L., 1986, Genetic link between Ouach American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 64,
ita foldbelt tectonism and the Mississippi Valley-type lead p. 15751612.
zinc deposits of the Ozarks: Geology, v. 14, p. 931935. Root, S.I, and MacLachlan, D.B., 1978, Western limit of Taconic
Mitchell, A.H.G., 1985, Mineral deposits related to tectonic events allochthons in Pennsylvania: Geological Society of America
accompanying arc-continent collision: Institute for Mining Bulletin, v. 89, p. 15151528.
and Metallurgy Transactions, Section B, v. 94, p. B115B127. Rowley, D.B., and Kidd, W.S.F., 1981, Stratigraphic relationships
and detrital composition of the medial Ordovician flysch of
Mussman, W.J., and Read, J.F., 1986, Sedimentology and develop
western New England: Implications for the tectonic evolution
ment of a passive- to convergent-margin unconformity: Middle
of the Taconic orogeny: Journal of Geology, v. 89, p. 199218.
Ordovician Knox unconformity, Virginia Appalachians: Geo
Shanmugam, G., and Walker, K.R., 1980, Sedimentation, subsid
logical Society of America Bulletin, v.97, p. 282295.
ence, and evolution of a foredeep basin in the Middle Ordovi
Oliver, J., 1986, Fluids expelled tectonically from orogenic belts: cian, southern Appalachians: American Journal of Science, v.
Their role in hydrocarbon migration and other geologic phe 280, p. 479496.
nomena: Geology, v. 14, p. 99102. Stearns, R.G., and Reesman, A.L., 1986, Cambrian to Holocene
Osberg, P.H., Tull, J.F., Robinson, P., Hon, R., and Butler, J.R., structural and burial history of Nashville dome: American As
1989, The Acadian Orogen, in Hatcher, R.D., Jr., Thomas, sociation of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 70, p. 143154.
W.A., and Viele, G.W., eds., The Appalachian-Ouachita Walker, K.R., Shanmugam, G., and Ruppel, S.C., 1983, A model
Orogen in the United States: Boulder, Colorado, Geological for carbonate to terregenous clastic sequences: Geological So
Society of America, The Geology of North America, v. ciety of America Bulletin, v. 94, p. 700712.
F2, p. 179232. Woodward, N.B., and Gray, D.R., 1985, Southwest Virginia, Ten
Quinlan, G.M., and Beaumont, C., 1984, Appalachian thrusting, nessee, and northern Georgia sections, in Woodward, N.B.,
lithospheric flexure, and the Paleozoic stratigraphy of the east ed., Valley and Ridge Thrust Belt: Balanced Structural Sec
ern interior of North America: Canadian Journal of Earth Sci tions, Pennsylvania to Alabama: Knoxville, University of Ten
ence, v. 21, p. 973996. nessee, Studies in Geology, v. 12.
CHAPTER E
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
O e \
N
132. .*
_/ Attean \
\
_2^ pluton \
T ~~ Hog Island
T ~~~ pluton
T-- ~ Sally Mtn
T ~~~ pluton
EXPLANATION Chain
|
Lakes * ~
pluton
[T] Quartz-sericitic
[T] Propylitic
Figure 1. Map showing the generalized hydrothermal alteration areas and location of the drill core samples used at Catheart Mountain
(modified after Schmidt, 1974). Line AB represents the southernmost extension of the North American basement (Grenville) proposed by
Zen (1983). Numbered dots identify drill hole locations; numbered X's show locations of outcrops.
preliminary characterization of the fluid inclusions associ Pb isotopic compositions, and Ayuso (1989) presented
ated with the alteration. results of a study of the geochemistry of the Catheart
Schmidt (1974) determined the extent of the regional Mountain stock. Recently, in an effort to systematically
alteration zones at Catheart Mountain. He proposed that characterize the chemical and mineralogical changes dur
the stock was associated with a porphyry Cu-Mo system ing hydrothermal alteration, an index of alteration was
similar to that described in the classical porphyry model developed for samples at varying stages of alteration at
(Lowell and Guilbert, 1970). Atkinson (1977) identified Catheart Mountain (Molling and Ayuso, 1990).
breccia pipes and proposed that the alteration also
included a silicic, fluorite-rich phase. Ayuso (1987)
established compositional variations in white micas from ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
all the alteration zones and attempted to relate white-mica
chemistry to the Cu and Mo content of the bulk rocks; One hundred and sixteen holes were drilled on Cat
Ayuso and others (1988) determined the range in O and heart Mountain by the Scott Paper Company, and 45 sam
CATHEART MOUNTAIN Cu-Mo DEPOSIT, MAINE 47
from these holes were obtained for geochemical studies. GEOLOGIC SETTING
Modal abundances were estimated by point counting and
used a computational technique that employed whole-rock The Catheart Mountain stock lies within the Attean
data and microprobe compositions of minerals of each rock
pluton on the southeast flank of the Boundary Mountains
(Molling and Ayuso, 1990) in a scheme first proposed by
anticlinorium (Albee and Boudette, 1972) in the Chain
Ferry (1985). A suite of samples containing abundant fluid
Lakes massif, an allochthonous crustal block consisting
inclusions in quartz phenocrysts and in narrow quartz +
muscovite + sulfide veins was selected from 19 core loca
for the most part of a thick sequence of diamictite,
metasedimentary rocks (quartzites, feldspathic metasand
tions within and adjacent to the two mineralized centers at
stone), and sparse mafic metavolcanic rocks (Boone and
Catheart Mountain (fig. 1). Fluid inclusions in samples of
others, 1970). The Chain Lakes massif was regionally
the Attean pluton and of nearby plutons, including Sally
metamorphosed to sillimanite grade and retrograded to
Mountain, Hog Island, and Chain of Ponds, were also chlorite facies in the middle Paleozoic. Granitic rocks
examined for comparison. Petrographic studies of fluid exposed at Sally Mountain also contain molybdenite min
inclusions were made on over 35 thin sections of material
eralization (Albee and Boudette, 1972), but the extent of
from the equigranular and porphyritic parts of the stock. mineralization is minor relative to Catheart Mountain, and
The thermometry data were collected using equipment mar the regional alteration zones are not well developed.
keted by Fluid, Inc. of Denver, Colorado. The stage was
calibrated using the melting point of ice, synthetic fluid
inclusions prepared by Fluid, Inc., and various other stan
CATHEART MOUNTAIN PETROLOGY
dards of known melting point. A small number of samples
were crushed in oil, with a crushing stage constructed by
Chaixmeca, Ltd. (France), to confirm the presence of non The Catheart Mountain stock consists of equigranular,
compressible gas in some inclusions. The distribution of all fine- to medium-grained granitic to granodioritic rocks
types of inclusions in phenocrystic quartz and vein quartz (referred to as quartz monzonites by Schmidt, 1974) and
and calcite was characterized, and heating and freezing irregular dikes of porphyritic granodiorite and granite
studies were conducted on representative inclusions; initial (quartz porphyries of Schmidt, 1974). Sulfide mineraliza
tion is found in both the dikes and host rocks, in contrast to
results are summarized in table 1 and compared with data
for other granite-related mineral deposits of the northern the Attean pluton, which is generally sulfide free. Schmidt
Appalachian Mountains and with porphyry Cu deposits in (1974) delineated two main centers of hydrothermal alter
the Western United States and Canada. ation and five major gradational regional alteration zones.
In relative order of increasing intensity of alteration, they
Whole-rock splits of nine samples from Catheart consist of the propylitic, outer phyllic, phyllic, quartzose
Mountain were analyzed by isotope dilution for Rb and Sr potassic, and potassic alteration zones (fig. 1 shows a sum
using a 6-inch, 60-degree-sector, NBS-type mass spec mary of the alteration zones). Sulfide minerals are found
trometer at the U.S. Geological Survey in Reston, Vir within siliceous veinlets (stockwork) and are disseminated
ginia. A special effort was made to obtain the least altered in the granodiorites and dikes; these veinlets are oriented
samples available from drill core in an attempt to estimate generally east-west, especially within the potassic alteration
the original isotopic composition of the Catheart Mountain zone. Some of the veinlets in the propylitically altered zone
stock. Five of the samples from Catheart Mountain are consist of a central zone, containing ore minerals and
from the porphyritic dikes, and four are from equigranular quartz-sericite (phyllic) alteration, surrounded by a K-feld
host rocks. Three outcrop samples from the nearby Sally spar-rich alteration zone (potassic) (Ayuso, 1987); this is in
Mountain Mo occurrence were also analyzed for compari agreement with the zonal arrangement in many porphyry
son with the Catheart Mountain stock. The ratio of *Sr/ Cu deposits (e.g., Titley, 1975; Titley, 1982; Gustafson and
*Sr of 0.1194 was used for normalizing the Sr isotopic Hunt, 1975; Brimhall, 1977).
measurements. Sr blanks are less than 2 ng and those for Granitic rocks at Catheart Mountain, which have pre
Rb are 0.2 ng or less. Replicate analyses of NBS SRM served textural remnants of probable magmatic origin,
987 give an averge *'Sr.Sr of 0.71016+0.00006 (95 per consist of alkali feldspar and plagioclase, quartz, biotite,
cent confidence level). The precision of individual sam and accessory minerals (sphene, zircon, allanite, apatite,
ples at the 95 percent confidence level is 0.022 percent for and magnetite) (Ayuso, 1987). Hornblende may have been
*'Sr*Sr, 1.2 percent for Rb, and 2.0 percent for Sr. The originally present; virtually all rocks contain large
isotopic and decay constants recommended by Steiger and amounts of secondary minerals, predominantly secondary
Jager (1977) were used for all the isotopic calculations. K-feldspar, quartz and muscovite; epidote and chlorite are
The regression and uncertainty calculation of York (1966) also ubiquitous, as are calcite, pyrite, and hematite. Trace
was used to determine ages and their uncertainty at the 2 amounts of gypsum were also found. Together with the
sigma level. paragenetic relations established by textural studies on the
&
Canyon
Copper
1973)
Nash,
Theodore
1971,
Theodore,
and
(Nash
L(~5
vol.)
X
150
500
Cu
(Reynolds
1981)
Titley,
Beane
1985,
Beane,
and
Rita
Santa
Cu
V
X
22()
+800
Gasp
Madeleine
(Cu
1989)
others,
and
LW(~590);
X il iams-Jones
120
420 Aipncrlouxsimoantse
V*
and
IV
types
for
contents
percent.
volume
vol,
noted,
unless
percent
mole
in
given
all
vapor,
V,
liquid,
L,
only,
1985)
Spooner,
and
(Thomas
TV327
Tanco
X
265
aariable
-Sn-Li-Cs Bagdad
C(X
Cuand
1974)
unNash
L ingham,
(Preece
1982)
Beane,
and
Sierrita
X
120
440
Cu (ranWilson
1980)
others,
and
+1,000
GCu
200
X isle/Bel
1976)
Nash,
study,
(This
L(~20250)
Catheart
X
199
>300
Cu-Mo
George
Lake
1987)
others,
and
(Seal
L(~1710 )
Sb-W-MO
X
142
405
Mountain
Sally
(93
Xstudy)
This
Cu-Mo
~200
L
content?
CO2
types!
Inclusion
Deposit
late
initial
Th,
Metals
References
Gasp
Mines
1983)
(Shelton,
L(~515
vol.)
5()6
Cu-Mo
X
11() (Samson,
1990)
W-Mo-Sn-F
Pleasant
Mount
X
100
49()
City
Park
(John,
1989)
X
185
+600
Cu-Au
Crhanriatce-reilsatiecds
1.
gTable
selected
Canada.
States
United
Western
and
Eastern
the
of
deposits
mineral
Ianclusion
h!
III,
H2O-rich,
I,
(1976).
Nash
from
modified
types
CO2.
L-V
V,
H2O-CO2,
mixed
IV,
lite-bearing,
Canada
and
States
United
Eastern Canada
and
States
United
Western
I-mole
((C)
I90)
location
V
IV
IIII
Combined
*
CH4.
equivalent
as
expressed
CO2+CH4+N2
hoemopgenriaztauiroen
t[Th,
C)
in 2emper,ature
t
unknown.
.
Columbia
British
Brunswick.
New
Mexico.
New
Manitoba.
Maine.
Quebec: Arizona. Nevada.
Utah.
CATHEART MOUNTAIN Cu-Mo DEPOSIT, MAINE 49
basis of fracture density and alteration intensity (Ayuso, as a result of the hydrothermal event (Molling and Ayuso,
1987), the alteration index (AI) defined by Molling and 1990). In addition, deuteric, fine- to medium-grained mus
Ayuso (1990), which consists of the sum of the abun covite, as found in most evolved granitic rocks, is found
dances of K-feldspar + muscovite + quartz (weight per as elongated blades oriented along cleavage planes replac
cent), can be used to monitor the relative degree of ing plagioclase. Growth of deuteric muscovite was not
alteration in these rocks. This alteration index uses miner accompanied by significant addition of sulfide minerals.
als that are normally produced during potassic and quartz Infiltration of hydrothermal fluids at the onset of the
sericite alteration in classical porphyry Cu systemsthese hydrothermal event reequilibrated the deuteric muscovite
minerals are usually abundant and are normally associated and produced coarse-grained muscovite during the first
with rocks containing variable amounts of alteration, up to stage of mineralization (pyrite + molybdenite). This first
the highest grades of mineralization. Values for the alter influx of sulfides was overprinted in the porphyritic dike
ation index are thus thought to provide useful, systematic rocks by an assemblage that included fine-grained musco
estimates of the relative alteration intensity in this hydro vite and quartzthis is broadly equivalent to quartz-seri
thermal system because virtually all rocks can be cite alteration (sericitic) in classical porphyry-type Cu
expressed in terms of different combinations of K-feld deposits. Fine-grained muscovite thus replaced all other
spar, muscovite, and quartz. minerals, and in particular, fine-grained muscovite was
Most mineralized samples are characterized by a high produced as a result of recrystallization and reequilibration
density of quartz veins and a high abundance of sulfide of coarser grained muscovite contemporaneously with the
minerals and especially by the occurrence of abundant, second influx of sulfide minerals into the veins (chalcopy
turbid K-feldspars (Molling and Ayuso, 1990); the turbid rite + sphalerite + galena + quartz + pyrite it calcite).
ity is thought to represent very small fluid inclusions and Muscovites have a wide range in octahedral cation con
(or) a network of grain boundaries produced during exso tents, and average compositions of coarse-grained musco
lution (Ferry, 1985). In fact, tiny fluid inclusions have vites are more aluminous adjacent to molybdenite than the
been found in some hydrothermal K-feldspars that finer grained muscovites in contact with pyrite and chal
exchanged their oxygen isotopic composition during alter copyrite (Ayuso, 1987; Molling and Ayuso, 1990). This
ation (O'Neil and Taylor, 1967). In general, turbid K-feld trend may reflect temperature of formation because more
pars at Catheart Mountain are particularly abundant in aluminous muscovites reflect higher temperatures (Velde,
rocks with the highest values of AI and have much lower 1965; McDowell and Elders, 1980), and because, in gen
contents of Na and Ba relative to non-turbid K-feldspars eral, in many porphyry systems, molybdenite is associated
this is consistent with the suggestion that these elements with higher temperatures and earlier episodes of mineral
are removed from igneous rocks as a result of hydrother ization and chalcopyrite is associated with lower tempera
mal alteration (Molling and Ayuso, 1990). Plagioclase is tures and later episodes of mineralization (e.g., Brimhall,
found as sparse phenocrysts in the granodiorite, but it is 1977; Gustafson and Hunt, 1975).
most abundant in the matrix where it has been replaced by Preliminary temperature estimates obtained by a two
muscovite, epidote, and calcite; plagioclase was replaced feldspar geothermometer (Haselton and others, 1983), a
by hydrothermal K-feldspar in the strongly altered sam plagioclase-muscovite geothermometer (Green and Usdan
ples. Reaction of feldspars and fluids has also produced sky, 1986), and chlorite geothermometers (e.g., Cathelineau,
albitic rims surrounding plagioclase and turbid K-feldspar; 1988) indicate temperatures in the range of about 300+50C.
plagioclase compositions are increasingly more potassic as Molling and Ayuso (1990) suggested that mineral composi
a function of alteration, again indicating wholesale tions recorded progressive reequilibration during hydrother
removal of Ca and Na and influx of K during alteration mal activity at Catheart Mountain, consistent with a system
and mineralization of the system. Biotite was first altered initially dominated by magmatic water with temperatures of
to chlorite and sphene and, subsequently, to complexly approximately 400C. Subsequent alteration may have
intergrown epidote and chlorite. Clusters of rutile in resulted from influx of meteoric water at temperatures as
biotite are thought to represent exsolution of Ti during low as 200250C (generally in the temperature range found
recrystallization. Epidote compositions depend almost in many other porphyry Cu systems: 200350C at Butte
exclusively on the composition of the mineral undergoing (Brimhall, 1979); less than 350C in El Salvador (Gustafson
replacement. In fact, epidote compositional variability at and Hunt, 1975)). In most porphyry Cu deposits, tempera
Catheart Mountain may indicate availability of Fe" as tures of later stages of mineralization reported from fluid
controlled by the prevailing O fugacity. Chlorite ranges inclusion studies are near 200C (e.g., table 1), and salinities
from chlinochlore to pycnochlorite and is strongly depen are low. P-T ranges typical of later mineralizing stages of
dent on the composition of the precursor mineral (Molling many Cu porphyry deposits (less than 400C and less than
and Ayuso, 1990). 4 kb) are shown on figure 2; fluids responsible for most Cu
Two generations of muscovite that differ in size, porphyry deposits are CO2 poor and highly saline, at least
abundance, and sulfide mineral association were produced initially (table 1) (e.g., Hollister, 1978; Nash, 1976).
50 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
4
FLUID INCLUSIONS AND
THE NATURE OF THE
- Salinity = 6 wt % NaCl HYDROTHERMAL FLUIDS
- - 2|+vrs
-
- -
- \
*
D H
52 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
inclusions with highly variable volumetric proportions pre hydrothermal system generally was pervasive, occurring
dominate in the coarse vein quartz (fig. 3F). Vapor-rich throughout the pluton.
inclusions also occur with L1-L2-V inclusions; however, Homogenization temperatures of primary and second
they are less common. The three-phase inclusions have ary inclusions in quartz from Catheart Mountain range
visually estimated C2O2/(H2O+CO2) ratios that range from 199C to 305C. Visual estimates of low liquid-to
from 5 to 47 percent; gas-rich inclusions are also present. vapor ratios for some other inclusions (e.g., vapor-rich
The majority of these inclusions have CO2/(H2O+CO2) of inclusions in fig. 3A, 3B) suggest that the actual tempera
3045 percent. Some L1-L2-V inclusions also contain one ture range may be even higher. Many CO2-bearing inclu
or two solids (fig. 3G); these inclusions are found in the sions decrepitated prior to homogenization. CO2
narrower sulfide-bearing quartz veins that cut the core of effervescence is suggested by inclusions in coarse vein
the stock. Some of these liquid CO2-bearing inclusions quartz that have highly variable H2O/CO2 values and
are attached to muscovite blades partially imbedded in coexisting L-V, L1-L2-V, and V-rich inclusions. Esti
quartz; hence, they are probably primary in origin (fig. mates of the salinity of measured inclusions based on last
3H). The volumetric proportions of CO2 and H2O in melting temperatures of solids (ice or clathrate-hydrate)
these inclusions are more regular than those found in the range from about 0 to 5 weight percent NaCl according to
coarse quartz veins, volume percent CO2 ranges from 5 to data summarized by Collins (1979). Methane is assumed
15 for the larger, more readily visible inclusions. to be virtually absent based on melting temperatures of
Secondary L-V inclusions and inclusions of an solid CO2 to liquid CO2 in the presence of vapor of about
ambiguous nature are abundant in quartz phenocrysts and 56+1C.
in vein quartz and calcite. These inclusions occur in Most of the inclusion data presented here are repre
numerous curved and linear arrays that cut across aggre sentative of the later hydrothermal fluid that resulted in
gates of the host mineral. The inclusions are generally the second pervasive influx of sulfide minerals into the
small and have regular liquid-to-vapor ratios; they rarely system consisting of veins of chalcopyrite + sphalerite +
contain trapped solids. galena + quartz + pyrite + calcite and fine-grained musco
Preliminary optical study of selected samples of vite. The preliminary results suggest a model whereby a
molybdenite-bearing rocks in the Sally Mountain stock hydrothermal fluid of moderate temperature and salinity
indicates that L-V, V, and L-V-S are the predominant (1), gradually became saturated in CO2 with decreasing
types of inclusions. Only one single inclusion has been temperature and (2), began to effervesce and deposited
found containing two liquids plus vapor (L1-L2-V ) in quartz, chalcopyrite, and a second generation of muscovite
samples from Sally Mountain. Quartz phenocrysts in the in veins. This effervescence due to CO2 followed an initial
Attean pluton also contain L-V, V, and L-V-S inclusions, phase of mineralization that deposited quartz, molybden
and it apparently contains no two-liquid-plus-vapor inclu ite, and the first generation of muscovite in veins at Cathe
sions. Quartz phenocrysts in samples of the nearby Devo art Mountain. Magmatic feldspars, the primary sinks for
nian Hog Island and Chain of Ponds plutons (Albee and Rb and Sr in the granodioritic rocks, were systematically
Boudette, 1972; Heizler and Lux, 1984) also contain destroyed during this alteration, and, in their place, hydro
mainly inclusions of L-V, V, and L-V-S types. A single thermal albite and K-feldspar were formed. Figure 2
inclusion in quartz from the Chain of Ponds pluton is pos shows the probable P-T range for formation of the second
sibly of the L1-L2-V type. Further studies are in progress stage of sulfide mineralization; an onset of CO2 efferves
to place more quantitative limits on the temperature distri cence occurring at about 300340C would yield pressures
bution, salinities, gas contents, and daughter minerals or in the range of about 1.42.3 kb, consistent with geologic
trapped solids present in primary and secondary inclusions estimates of a shallow depth of emplacement for the Cat
occurring in these plutons. heart Mountain stock (35 km). CO2 is not typical of Cu
At the present time, the data suggest that the liquid, Mo porphyry systems, although it has been identified in
CO2-bearing inclusions are restricted predominantly to the some deposits (table 1). For deposits where CO2 is
granitic rocks associated with mineralization at Catheart present, amounts of CO2 may range from as low as about
Mountain. The generally uniform spatial distribution of 3 mole percent CO2 (limits of optical detection) to more
inclusion types in vein quartz and in quartz phenocrysts, than 30 mole percent in CO2-rich inclusions; some inclu
and the large number of L1-L2-V inclusions compared to sions may have no optically detectable CO2 but may have
other plutonic rocks in the region, suggests that the ore large CO2 pressures at room temperature (Nash, 1976).
fluids were localized in and around the Catheart Mountain Liquid, CO2-bearing inclusions are thought to be associ
stock. The regular distribution of inclusion types (all types ated with relatively low-temperature porphyry-type depos
are generally found at all depths in all drill core) also sug its or the low-temperature stages of such deposits (Nash,
gests that fractures and veinlets were open to most fluids, 1976). Unlike H2O boiling of a brine, CO2 effervescence
at least during the later stages of the evolution of the generally results in an inital drop in total salinity due to
hydrothermal system, and that the fluid flow in the loss of CO2 to the vapor phase; this is followed by a
CATHEART MOUNTAIN Cu-Mo DEPOSIT, MAINE 53
Table 2. Rb-Sr isotopic data and alteration indices of the Catheart Mountain porphyry Cu-Mo
deposit and Sally Mountain Cu-Mo occurrence, Maine.
[--, data not available]
gradual increase in salinity with continued boiling as salts samples were eliminated from the age calculation, the
are concentrated in the fluid. The low and variable salini remaining six samples would indicate an age of 420+4 Ma
ties of the late hydrothermal fluid may reflect this process for the Catheart Mountain stock; the initial *'SrSr ratio
in part. In the Eastern United States and Canada, CO2 is a for these six samples is 0.7060910.00003these results are
more commonly reported constituent of inclusions in very similar to the entire set of data.
quartz from granite-related mineral deposits compared to In a general way, measured Sr isotopic ratios are
deposits from the Western United States and Canada higher in rocks with higher alteration indicesthis is con
(table 1). However, compared to such granite-related sistent with the idea that the fluids associated with alter
deposits, those from the East have a distinct metallogenic ation were enriched in radiogenic Sr. The fluids could
association, are possibly more deeply eroded, are generally have acquired their isotopic composition by leaching of
older, and have penetrated fundamentally different base older minerals with high Rb/Sr values, such as biotite. The
ment rocks. Other explanations are also possible, and fur resulting isotopic composition, thus, would have been
ther interpretation must await a more comprehensive enriched in radiogenic *'Sr, and this mechanism would
database.
have produced enrichment of radiogenic Sr in newly pre
cipitated albite rims and epidote involved in the destruc
RUBIDIUM AND STRONTIUM tion of magmatic plagioclase.
Rb and Sr abundances in the Catheart Mountain stock
GEOCHEMISTRY
are directly related to the extent of alteration of the rock
(fig. 5). With increasing alteration, as indicated by AI val
Isotopic data for Rb and Sr are given in table 2 and are ues, Rb contents are relatively enhanced and Sr contents
plotted in figure 4. Whole-rock data for nine samples from are relatively lowered (fig. 5A, 5B). The coherent changes
both petrographic units of Catheart Mountain plot on or in Rb and Sr contents reflect the progressive destruction of
near the regression line within analytical uncertainty and plagioclase by hydrothermal fluids. As a result of this
indicate an age of 422+15 Ma (fig. 4). The initial *'Sr.Sr alteration, relatively calcic magmatic plagioclase eventu
is 0.70603+0.00019. Two samples of the porphyritic dikes ally disappeared, and this also resulted in a net removal of
and one from the equigranular host fall off the regression Sr from the whole rocks. Although rims of albite and epi
line, suggesting that they were geochemically disturbed in a dote were also formed as a result of the alteration, these
different manner than the rest of the samples. If these three minerals are Sr poor (e.g., Dickin and Jones, 1983; Andre
54 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
.7350
250
Catheart Mountain, Maine | O
.7300 H.
I O [H D
,7250 H. 200 [T] L
b
on
7200 H. E 1504 [] O
s
on Cl + [] O
r
Co 7150 -
Cl. | D O
.C. -
.71 OO H. r 100+. O
.7050 H.
Age = 422 +15 m.y.
it; 21 87c, 186 -
tion that the two hydrothermal systems did not share the
same type of mineralizing fluids.
| e.
2 e
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION O
component plus an assimilation component). These two would have lost Sr (higher Rb/Sr values only), but the ini
alternatives are explored in more detail below. tial 87Sr/86Sr signature would have been preserved, and
In the event that new Rb-Sr heterogeneities were the estimated age would be a general approximation of the
established by the remobilization of Rb and Sr isotopes age of the hydrothermal event.
and a common initial Sr ratio developed at the onset of Age-corrected Sr initial ratios at 434 Ma, which is
alteration (perhaps by mechanisms similar to those found the suggested Ar-Ar age of muscovite associated with the
in other altered systems elsewhere (Zeck and Wallin, mineralization at Catheart Mountain (Ayuso and Kunk,
1980)), it is conceivable that whole-rock Rb-Sr ages unpub. data), range from about 0.7055 to about 0.7066.
reported in this study approximate the age of crystalliza The only striking exception is from a highly altered sam
tion (and mineralization) of the Catheart Mountain stock. ple (31282; AI = 74) that does not contain epidote and
that has a value of initial Sr of about 0.7044. In contrast
In this case, the whole-rock Rb-Sr isochron would provide
a minimum estimate of the crystallization agean esti to hydrothermal alteration systems elsewhere (Andre and
mate that would be aproximately similar to the mineraliza Deutsch, 1986), epidote-poor rocks (higher alteration
tion age because mineralization usually occurs shortly index) at Catheart Mountain are the most intensely
after crystallization of the pluton, in a way similar to that altered, and we think that they are unlikely to contain pri
of other porphyry Cu systems (Norton, 1978). mary isotopic features. If, as we think, the hydrothermal
fluids differed from the magmatic fluids and were proba
This interpretation of the Rb-Sr isotopic data, how
bly more radiogenic than the rocks, the resulting Sr initial
ever, does not appear to be viable because the hydrother
ratio represents a mixture of the magmatic Sr initial ratio
mal system was open to migration of Rb (resulting in a
and the radiogenic ratio of the contaminating fluid,
net gain in Rb content) and Sr (net loss of Sr) as both the
although the end-member compositions cannot be estab
original fabric and mineralogy of the pluton were drasti
lished at this time. In fact, the plot of age-corrected initial
cally modified. A net loss of Sr in the system implies that
Sr versus 1/Sr (not shown) demonstrates that the porphy
radiogenic Sr was also lost. Moreover, a magmatic inter
ritic dikes and the equigranular host rocks can be sepa
pretation of the whole-rock Rb-Sr age is in conflict with
rated into two general fields and that, at least in the
previously reported age determinations on muscovite from
porphyritic dikes, there is a hint that the higher initial Sr
molybdenite veins from Catheart Mountain that yielded
values are in the Sr-poor rocks (high AI).
somewhat older ages (K-Ar = 441+8 Ma; Rb-Sr model
At the height of hydrothermal activity at Catheart
age = 447+10 Ma) (Lyons and others, 1986); the analyti
Mountain, the fluid was probably moderately hot (at least
cal uncertainties of these determinations, however, indi
as hot as 300C), oxidizing (high values of Fe"/Fe"),
cate that all of these ages are roughly equivalent. Lyons
and saline (occurrence of halite, table 1). The hydrother
and others (1986) indicated that the Rb-Sr model age
(447+10 Ma) obtained on Catheart Mountain was similar
mal fluid progressively became saturated in CO2 with
decreasing temperature, effervesced, and deposited quartz,
to the zircon age of 443+4 Ma of the Attean pluton; they
chalcopyrite, and fine-grained muscovite in veins. Effer
also suggested that the Attean and the Catheart Mountain
vescence may indicate a period of second boiling as a
stock were comagmaticwe do not favor this interpreta
result of CO2a period subsequent to the event that
tion on the basis of geochemical contrasts between the
deposited quartz, molybdenite, and coarser muscovite.
Attean and the Catheart Mountain stock (Ayuso, 1989). In
Destruction of biotite accounts for the loss of Mg in the
fact, the K-Ar muscovite age and Rb-Sr model age (Lyons
whole rock. Igneous plagioclase released Ca and Na (and
and others, 1986) contrast with preliminary results of our Sr) to the fluid, and reactions with the fluid ultimately pre
Ongoing Ar-Ar dating study, indicating that muscovites in cipitated hydrothermal K-feldspar and produced an enrich
textural equilibrium with molybdenite and chalcopyrite ment in K and Rb; these reactions also produced high
have Ar-Ar plateau ages of about 435+2 Ma (Ayuso and values of K/Na and Fe"/Fe in hydrothermally altered
Kunk, unpub. data). If this Ar-Ar muscovite age is mean rocks by base-exchange reactions (Hemley and Jones,
ingful, the implication is that neither our whole-rock Rb 1964)this also lowered the KCl/HCl ratio in the aqueous
Sr results (422+15 Ma) nor the previously determined Rb phase (Burnham, 1979). The fluid was thus probably
Sr model ages and K-Ar ages (447+10 Ma and 441+8 Ma, enriched in radiogenic Sr as a result of these reactions.
respectively; Lyons and others, 1986) give a precise esti Hydrothermally produced K-feldspar and muscovite
mate of the age of the hydrothermal event. However, one account for the bulk of the K and H2O influx into the
important and unexpected result of this study is that, system; albitic plagioclase accounts for the Na and at least
despite the strong alteration effects at Catheart Mountain, some of the Sr retained in the rock after alteration. Epi
the whole-rock Rb-Sr age differs by less than 3 percent dote and chlorite formed during alteration also partially
from our preliminary Ar-Ar age. account for the Ca, Fe, Mg, and Sr in the rock, and the
There is no direct way to recover the original 87Sr/ sulfide minerals account for the influx of Cu, Mo, and S.
86Sr value, unless contamination throughout the life of the Toward the end of the alteration events, hydrolysis reac
hydrothermal event was produced by magmatic fluids con tions increased values of the KCl/HCl ratio and formed
taining the same "Sr/"Sr ratio as the rocks. The samples muscovite from K-feldspar (Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980).
56 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
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copper deposits and applications to exploration: U.S. Geolog Characterization of the crust of Maine by seismic reflection
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ies of the porphyry copper deposit at Bagdad, Arizona: U.S. Theodore, T.G., and Nash, J.T., 1973, Geochemical and fluid zona
Geological Survey Journal Research, v. 2, p. 3134. tion at Copper Canyon, Lander County, Nevada: Economic
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and fluid inclusion characteristics of tantalum mineralization
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Southwestern North America: Tucson, Arizona, University of
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Reynolds, T.J., and Beane, R.E., 1985, Evolution of hydrothermal
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fluid characteristics at the Santa Rita, New Mexico, porphyry
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Samson, I.M., 1990, Fluid evolution and mineralization in a sub
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Catheart Mountain molybdenum-copper deposit, Maine: U.S. Wilson, J.W.J., Kessler, S.E., Cloke, P.L., and Kelly, W.C., 1980,
Geological Survey Journal Research, v. 2, p. 189194. Fluid inclusion geochemistry of the Granisle and Bell porphyry
Seal, R.R., II, Clark, A.H., and Morrissy, C.J., 1987, Stockwork copper deposits, British Columbia: Economic Geology, v. 75,
tungsten (scheelite)-molybdenum mineralization, Lake p. 45661.
George, southwestern New Brunswick: Economic Geology, York, D., 1966, Least squares fitting of a straight line: Canadian
v. 82, p. 12591282. Journal of Physics, v. 44, p. 10791086.
Shelton, K.L., 1983, Composition and origin of ore-forming fluids Zeck, H.P., and Wallin, B., 1980, A 1,220+60 m.y. Rb-Sr isochron
in a carbonate-hosted porphyry copper and skarn deposit: A age representing a Taylor-convection caused recrystallization
fluid inclusions and stable isotope study of mines, Gasp, Que event in a granitic rocks suite: Contributions to Mineralogy and
bec: Economic Geology, v. 78, p. 387421. Petrology, v. 74, p. 4553.
Steiger, R.H., and Jager, E., 1977, Convention on the use of decay Zen, E-an, 1983, Exotic terranes in the New England Appala
constants in geo- and cosmochronology: Earth and Planetary chiansLimits, candidates, and ages: A speculative essay:
Science Letters, v. 36, p. 359362. Geological Society of America Memoir 158, p. 5581.
CHAPTER F
7230'
4400' 7215 largely of hornblende-plagioclase amphibolite, with a local
EXPLANATION tholeiitic chemistry (Hepburn, 1984; J.F. Slack, unpub.
Gile Mountain Formation data) and generally has been interpreted as a series of
(Middle Silurian to tally Devonian)
basalt flows transgressing a regional pelite-carbonate
Standing Pond Volcanic member
SP (Middle Silurian)
GM facies boundary (see Annis and others, 1983). Near
P, Waits River Formation
Springfield, Vermont, 70 km south of Ely, a felsic dike
(Middle Silurian) Vershire
O Center that cuts the Standing Pond has been dated as Middle Sil
\; 3
?
\ *
Ely
inine
urian (423+4 Ma) by Aleinikoff and Karabinos (1990)
\ z WR
this requires that the underlying Waits River Formation be
i; 3: no younger than Middle Silurian in age. The Gile Moun
West
| A Fairlee o tain Formation is here given an age of Middle Silurian(?)
A walker Gove to Early Devonian. The Connecticut Valley trough
../ mine 2 mine
sequence, therefore, is apparently Silurian and Devonian
in age, deposited shortly before the Devonian Acadian
GM orogeny.
SP
Most structural studies of the region identified two
A South stages of deformation that were assumed to be products of
, Strafford Elizabeth
i O finine the Acadian orogeny (e.g., White and Jahns, 1950; Lyons,
O : 1955; Chang and others, 1965; Fisher and Karabinos,
E
SP
Li i 1980). These and other workers considered the deforma
LL :
< |
CC :
tion to have involved pervasive isoclinal folding followed
F- | by an episode of regional arching that included the forma
C/D :
! tion of local structural domes. This arching broadly
WR l o 1 2 3 MILES
warped the older foliation about an axis that trends
/
- 2 3 kilomet ERs approximately north-south along the west side of the cop
4345'
per district. Large folds (the zigzag folds of Doll, 1944)
outlined by the Standing Pond Volcanic Member (fig. 1)
Figure 1. Map showing structural pattern and Ely and Elizabeth were believed to have formed in the arching episode and
deposits in the Orange County copper district. Geology after Howard were interpreted by White and Jahns (1950) as reverse
(1969). drags that cascaded off the rising Strafford dome (fig. 1).
The earlier studies also concluded that the two deforma
tions each were accompanied by episodes of metamor
of the sulfide syngenetic (volcanogenic) with deposition of
phism to garnet grade or higher.
sulfide prior to deformation and metamorphism.
Our recent geologic studies indicate, instead, that at
least three episodes of deformation occurred and that the
regional arching and structural doming warped rocks
GEOLOGIC SETTING
already deformed by two episodes of intense folding. This
more complicated deformational history was also recog
The rock units in the study area make up the Con nized by Woodland (1977) in an area about 18 km south
necticut Valley trough sequence, which extends nearly 400 west of the Ely mine, and evidence documenting it has
km from western Massachusetts to southeastern Quebec been found consistently throughout the Connecticut Valley
(Hatch, 1988). The Gile Mountain Formation, stratigraphi trough sequence of east-central Vermont by the authors
cally at the top of the sequence, consists predominantly of (Offield and Slack, 1990). The metamorphic history asso
pelitic schist, with minor quartzite and amphibolite in ciated with this series of deformations has been docu
places. It is considered to be, in part, Early Devonian on mented and described by Menard (1991) and Menard and
the basis of plant fossils found in rocks in Quebec that are Spear (1991). D1, evidenced by abundant, small-scale
believed, but not proven, to be equivalent (Hueber and isoclines and layer-parallel axial-surface foliation, was
others, 1990). The Gile Mountain overlies calcareous accompanied by biotite-grade metamorphism. D2 formed
metapelite and minor quartzose marble of the Waits River open to isoclinal folds with highly variable development
Formation in apparent lithologic transition, suggesting a of axial-surface foliation, depending on rock type and
transgressive facies boundary (e.g., Lyons, 1955). The structural locus. D2 was associated with garnet-grade
Standing Pond Volcanic Member of the Waits River metamorphism during a significant increase in pressure.
occurs mainly along the mapped Waits RiverGile Moun D3, the regional arching event, was associated with the
tain contact but departs slightly from it to the north of the development of metamorphic grades up to sillimanite in
Strafford dome (fig. 1). The Standing Pond consists the Ely area, decreasing in grade to the east and west.
ELY COPPER DEPOSIT, EAST CENTRAL VERMONT 61
4355'42"
EXPLANATION
L' shaft
Underground workings
H Drill hole
E E. Y. Y'
1 Mine sections, Fig. 6
A A" - -
--
0 500 FEET
Figure 5. Map showing mine-area topography, mine workings, and structural elements in the area of the Ely deposit (after White and
Eric, 1944, pl. 2). AA' is section line for face of block diagram shown on figure 7. E-E' and Y-Y are mine sections shown on figure 6.
Contour interval is 50 ft.
they had localized epigenetically introduced sulfides. The considerable sulfide below is marked by an intense shear
structures are not specifically delineated on the map of fabric and structural truncations. This thrust contact
White and Eric (1944) and are not readily discernible in appears to represent a structure associated with F1 isocli
the pattern of 717 foliation readings shown on their map. nal folding and foliation development because it is
White and Eric (1944) may have interpreted bends in ore deformed by tight F2 folds on the east side of the adit. In
layers and curved ore connections from one stope to an adit about 25 m below this locality, White and Eric
another, shown on their mine sections, as indicating these (1944) described a thrust fault that bounded sulfide ore.
cleavage rolls. Because warps of foliation would be Their map shows the thrust connecting both adits (see fig.
expected from both inhomogeneous F2 folding and the 5), but this connection seems doubtful unless there is
effects of D3/F3 deformation, we cannot assign the cleav structural repetition of the thrust by F2 folding.
age rolls or stepdowns to one or the other of these Mining was done primarily in tunnels and stopes off
eVentS.
a main shaft (actually an inclined adit that followed the
All three phases of deformation involved shear that ore down plunge in the crestal area of a structurally com
resulted in the rotation or offset of marker layers and any plex system of folds). It was driven about N. 40 E. more
earlier structures. Discrete thrust faults are rarely than 1,000 m down an incline of about 25, approximately
exposed, however. One excellent example of an exposed on the trend and plunge of the mesoscopic F2 folds (fig.
thrust is in a small adit halfway between the two main 5). Figure 6 presents mine sections drawn by White and
mine openings. The contact zone between psammitic Eric (1944) of workings off the upper part of the main
schist in the roof of the adit and pelitic schist containing shaft. They show that ore occurs in thin layers, commonly
64 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
regional metamorphism (Wheeler, 1883; Smith, 1905; In modern submarine vent areas, sulfides can be irreg
Weed, 1911; White and Eric, 1944). Their interpretations ularly distributed in layers, lenses, and talus flows on the
were influenced greatly by theories, popular at the time, of sea floor. Sulfides may also occur irregularly below the sea
epigenetic ore genesis and were supported by the fact that floor, a product of the movement of hydrothermal fluids
the sulfide bodies at Ely in places crosscut previously though permeable sediments. In the Orange County copper
deformed silicate wallrocks (Smyth and Smith, 1904, p. district, such inferred complexities have been compounded
678; Smith, 1905, p. 127). Mine sections of White and Eric by intense deformation and metamorphism. Most of the
(1944) also show sulfide layers that appear to lie in the small-scale structures evident in the mine sections por
axial planes of F2 folds, indicating emplacement of some trayed by White and Eric (1944) involve folding and fault
sulfide after D2 deformation. We consider such occurrences ing of ore layers and S1=0 foliation; they thus must be part
to be misleading, however, and believe that they represent of the F2 folding event. Much of the detail of individual ore
minor tectonic repositioning or mobilization of sulfides, layers, however, and perhaps even the occurrence of ore in
like those recognized in many other deformed and meta lenses, may be due to F1 folding or to the original configu
morphosed massive sulfide deposits throughout the world ration of syngenetic (or synsedimentary) sulfides.
(e.g., Vokes, 1971; Gilligan and Marshall, 1987). From Wheeler's (1883) description given above, it
seems likely that the two main ore layers are stratigraphi
We suggest that the massive sulfide deposits at Ely
cally separate and distinct and not a single layer repeated
are largely of exhalative volcanogenic origin and that the
by folding. The abundance of tiny F1 isoclines distributed
majority of the sulfide lenses originally formed more or
throughout the host rocks, however, virtually requires the
less synchronously with deposition of the Gile Mountain
sulfide layers to have been deformed and reconfigured by
Formation. Evidence for an early volcanogenic origin of
F1. Because such tight isoclinal folding seldom occurs
the sulfides at Ely includes their overall stratabound
without shearing and thrust faulting, the ore lenses
geometry, their association with mafic metavolcanic rocks,
described as having internal septa of schist may be isocli
and their deformation by two periods of folding; a photo
nal F1 fold forms, sheared or offset by layer-parallel thrust
graph of folded, alternating layers of pyrrhotite and chal
faults so as to make fold crests difficult to recognize. On
copyrite shown by Weed (1911, pl. IV) clearly documents
the other hand, the shaping of ore in lenses by a combina
a predeformational age for the sulfides. Similar arguments
tion of original sea floor accumulation and F1 deformation
can be made with respect to the other massive sulfides of
does not readily account for the en echelon distribution of
the Orange County copper district, which also are believed
those lenses down the plunge of the first-order F2 fold
to be of submarine volcanogenic origin. The largely sedi
structure. We believe that this geometry is a result of the
ment-hosted copper deposits of the district are considered
configuration of F2 parasitic folds, perhaps with later mod
excellent examples of the Besshi class of massive sulfide
ification of trends and plunges by rotation and shear
deposits (Slack, in press).
during D3.
Because of the intense deformation in the mine area, Concentration of sulfide in semi-massive to massive
we cannot distinguish between a purely exhalative origin sulfide bodies would offer a conspicuous ductility contrast
for the sulfides and an origin involving replacement of with silicate wallrocks and promote mobility during defor
permeable sediments during sedimentation or diagenesis. mation (e.g., Vokes, 1971; Gilligan and Marshall, 1987).
Although sub-sea-floor replacement, in part or whole, can This ductility contrast locally would influence and accen
not be ruled out, we prefer a largely exhalative origin, par tuate deformation, and these effects probably would be
ticularly because of the layered association of sulfide heightened by the accompanying regional metamorphism.
deposits with amphibolite (metabasalt) and coticule. Coti Both F1 and F2 folding would produce or exaggerate the
cules are believed to represent metamorphosed mixtures of lenticular shape of ore layers on fold limbs and result in
detrital, clastic sediments and exhalative metalliferous pre prominent lensing of sulfide in fold crests. Ore layers
cipitates enriched in iron and manganese (e.g., Spry, 1990) would readily serve as slip surfaces in thrust dislocations,
that formed directly on the sea floor. and sulfides under high P-T metamorpic conditions would
Diagenetic mineralization seems less likely, based on be subject to remobilization, including injection as vein
the massive character of most of the ores and their similar like bodies into adjacent rock. Such injected sulfide was
ity in composition and setting to the massive sulfide depos observed in the mine (e.g., Wheeler, 1883; Weed, 1911)
its that are actively forming on sediment-covered ridge and was considered evidence of ore localization in open
crests. Modern analogs in such settings are at Guaymas space and for the structurally controlled, epigenetic intro
Basin in the Gulf of California (Koski and others, 1985; duction of sulfides.
Peter and Scott, 1988) and Middle Valley and Escanaba Using surface structural observations and lithologic
Trough, off the coasts of Washington and California, information from a fence of nine drill holes, we interpret
respectively (Goodfellow and Blaise, 1988; Koski and oth the setting of the Ely deposit as shown in figure 7. The ore
ers, in press). occurs principally in a stratigraphic section of pelitic schist
ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
EXPLANATION
Figure 7. Block diagram showing interpreted position of ore zone on F2 fold structure, location of main shaft, drill-hole
information (drill holes shown by circled numbers), small-scale fold shapes observed in outcrop and drill holes (M, Z, S),
and representative surface measurements of foliations and F2 axial lineations. The drill holes lie off the section drawn on
the front face of the block by as much as 200 m (in front and behind) and are presented in assumed simple updip and downdip
projections to the face. Brown, dominantly pelitic schist with subordinate psammitic schist and amphibolite. Yellow, dom
inantly psammitic schist with subordinate pelitic schist and amphibolite. Thick black portions of drill holes, significant am
phibolite layers. xx, sulfide in stopes and adits; x, significant sulfide occurrence in drill hole. AS, axial surface of large F2
fold. Front face is section AA on figure 5.
and amphibolite between sections of mixed psammitic layers originally extended laterally beyond the small area
schist and amphibolite. Ore lenses are localized in small explored by mining, however, our interpretation suggests
folds on the flank and crest of a much larger fold (F2). The that the most favorable structural locus for thickening and
drill-hole information indicates little likelihood for ore lay repetition of sulfide layers would be in the crestal zone of
ers to occur on the upper flank of the large fold. If sulfide the large fold. Projection of drill holes 4 and 5 downdip
ELY COPPER DEPOSIT, EAST-CENTRAL VERMONT 67
puts sulfide occurrences exactly in that crestal zone on the Hepburn, J.C., 1984, Geochemical evidence for the origin of the
cross section illustrated. Assuming continuity of the origi Standing Pond Volcanics, eastern Vermont [abs.]: Geologi
nal sea-floor distribution of sulfides, lenses of ore may cal Society of America, Abstracts with Programs, v. 16, no.
occur far down the plunge of the main F2 fold. 1, p. 23.
Hermance, H.P., Neumann, G.L., and Mosier, McHenry, 1949, In
A more general conclusion regarding mineral deposits
vestigation of Ely mine copper deposit, Orange County, Vt.:
in the district is that massive sulfide bodies might reason U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 4395, 11 p.
ably be expected anywhere within amphibolite-rich strati
Hitchcock, C.H., 1912, The Strafford quadrangle: Vermont Geo
graphic intervals in the Gile Mountain Formation. Within logical Survey, Report of the State Geologist, 8th, 19111912,
those intervals, the axial zones of the reclined folds would p. 10045.
be sites where sulfide layers, if present, could have been Howard, P.F., 1969, The geology of the Elizabeth mine, Vermont:
thickened and perhaps enhanced by the polyphase deforma Vermont Geological Survey, Economic Geology No. 5, 73 p.
tion recognized in the area (Offield and Slack, 1990). These Hueber, F.M., Bothner, W.A., Hatch, N.L., Jr., Finney, S.C., and
stratigraphic and structural considerations, together with Aleinikoff, J.N., 1990, Devonian plants from southern Que
recent geochemical data (Watts, 1990; Slack and others, bec and northern New Hampshire and the age of the Con
1990), provide guidelines in the exploration for new mas necticut Valley trough: American Journal of Science, v.
sive sulfide deposits in the district. 290, p. 360395.
Koski, R.A., Benninger, L.M., Zierenberg, R.A., and Jonasson,
I.R., in press, Composition and growth history of hydrothermal
deposits in Escanaba Trough, southern Gorda Ridge, in Mor
ton, J.L., Zierenberg, R.A., and Reiss, C.A., eds., Geologic,
REFERENCES CITED
Hydrothermal, and Biologic Studies at Escanaba Trough, Gor
da Ridge, Offshore Northern California: U.S. Geological Sur
Aleinikoff J.N., and Karabinos, Paul, 1990, Zircon U-Pb data for vey Bulletin 2022.
the Moretown and Barnard Volcanic Members of the Missis Koski, R.A., Lonsdale, P.F., Shanks, W.C., Berndt, M.E., and
quoi Formation and a dike cutting the Standing Pond Volca Howe, S.S., 1985, Mineralogy and geochemistry of a sedi
nics, Southeastern Vermont, in Slack, J.F., ed., Summary ment-hosted hydrothermal sulfide deposit from the southern
Results of the Glens Falls CUSMAP Project, New York, Ver trough of Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California: Journal of Geo
mont, and New Hampshire: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin physical Research, v.90, p. 66956707.
1887, p. D1D10. Lyons, J.B., 1955, Geology of the Hanover quadrangle, New
Annis, M.P., Slack, J.F., and Rolph, A.L., 1983, Stratabound mas HampshireVermont: Geological Society of America Bulletin,
sive sulphide deposits of the Elizabeth mine, Orange County, v. 66, p. 105145.
Vermont, in Sangster, D.F., ed., Field Trip Guidebook to Stra Menard, Thomas, 1991, Metamorphism of calcitic pelitic schists,
tabound Sulphide Deposits, Bathurst Area, N.B., Canada and Strafford dome, Vermont: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
West-Central New England, U.S.A.: Geological Survey of unpub. Ph.D. thesis, 295 p.
Canada Miscellaneous Report 36, p. 4151. Menard, Thomas, and Spear, F.S., 1991, Metamorphic history of
Buerger, N.W., 1935, The copper ores of Orange County, Vermont: the Strafford dome, Vermont: An update [abs.]: Geological So
Economic Geology, v. 30, p. 434443. ciety of America, Abstracts with Programs, v. 23, no.1, p. 103.
Chang, P.H., Ern, E.H., Jr., and Thompson, J.B., Jr., 1965, Bedrock Offield, T.W., and Slack, J.F., 1990, Polyphase folding and thrust
geology of the Woodstock quadrangle, Vermont: Vermont faulting in the Vermont copper belt [abs.]: Geological Society
Geological Survey Bulletin 29, 65 p. of America, Abstracts with Programs, v. 22, no. 2, p. 61.
Doll, C.G., 1944, A preliminary report on the geology of the Straf Peter, J.M., and Scott, S.D., 1988, Mineralogy, composition, and
ford quadrangle, Vermont: Vermont Geological Survey, Re fluid-inclusion microthermometry of seafloor hydrothermal
port of the State Geologist, 24th, 19431944, p. 1428. deposits in the southern trough of Guaymas Basin, Gulf of Cal
Fisher, G.W., and Karabinos, Paul, 1980, Stratigraphic sequence ifornia: Canadian Mineralogist, v. 26, p. 567587.
of the Gile Mountain and Waits River Formations near Roy Slack, J.F., in press, Descriptive and grade-tonnage models for
alton, Vermont: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. Besshi-type massive sulphide deposits, in Kirkham, R.V.,
91, p. 282286. Sinclair, W.D., Thorpe, R.I., and Duke, J.M., eds., Ore De
Gilligan, L.B., and Marshall, Brian, 1987, Textural evidence for re posit Models: Geological Association of Canada Special
mobilization in metamorphic environments: Ore Geology Re Publication.
views, v. 2, p. 205229. Slack, J.F., Atelsek, P.J., and Whitlow, J.W., 1990, Geochemistry
Goodfellow, W.D., and Blaise, Bertrand, 1988, Sulfide formation of stream sediments and heavy-mineral concentrates from the
and hydrothermal alteration of hemipelagic sediment in Mid Orange County copper district, east-central Vermont, in Slack,
dle Valley, northern Juan de Fuca Ridge: Canadian Mineralo J.F., ed., Summary Results of the Glens Falls CUSMAP
gist, v. 26, p. 675696. Project, New York, Vermont, and New Hampshire: U.S. Geo
Hatch, N.L., Jr., 1988, Some revisions to the stratigraphy and struc logical Survey Bulletin 1887, p. Q1Q21.
ture of the Connecticut Valley trough, eastern Vermont: Smith, P.S., 1905, Orange County copper district, Vermont: Har
American Journal of Science, v. 288, p. 10411059. vard University, unpub. Ph.D. thesis, 177 p.
68 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Smyth, H.L., and Smith, P.S., 1904, The copper deposits of Falls CUSMAP Project, New York, Vermont, and New Hamp
Orange County, Vermont: Engineering and Mining Journal, shire: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1887, p. F1F70.
v. 77, p. 667678. Weed, W.H., 1911, Copper deposits of the Appalachian States:
Spry, P.G., 1990, Geochemistry and origin of coticules (spessar U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 455, 166 p.
tine-quartz rocks) associated with metamorphosed massive Wheeler, H.A., 1883, The copper deposits of Vermont:
sulfide deposits, in Spry, P.G., and Bryndzia, L.T., eds., Re School of Mines Quarterly, Columbia College, New York,
gional Metamorphism of Ore Deposits and Genetic Implica v.4, p. 219224.
tions: Ultrecht, The Netherlands, VSP Publishers, p. 4975.
Stevens, H.J., 1911, The copper handbook [19101911): Hough White, W.S., and Eric, J.H., 1944, Preliminary report, Geology of
ton, Michigan, H.J. Stevens, Publisher, v. 10, 1902 p. the Orange County copper district, Vermont: U.S. Geological
Survey Open-File Report, 37p.
Vokes, F.M., 1971, Some aspects of the regional metamorphic mo
bilization of pre-existing sulphide deposits: Mineralium White, W.S., and Jahns, R.H., 1950, Structure of central and east
Deposita, v. 6, p. 122129. central Vermont; Journal of Geology, v. 58, p. 179220.
Watts, K.C., Jr., 1990, Regional exploration geochemistry of the Woodland, B.G., 1977, Structural analysis of the Silurian
Glens Falls 1x2 quadrangle, New York, Vermont, and New Devonian rocks of the Royalton area, Vermont: Geological So
Hampshire, in Slack, J.F., ed., Summary Results of the Glens ciety of America Bulletin, v. 88, p. 11111123.
CHAPTER G
By JOHN-MARK G. STAUDE'
ABSTRACT veins. The compilation also shows that deposits are more
gold dominated in the northwest part of the Gulf of Cali
fornia and more base metal and silver rich in the southeast
A compilation of epithermal precious-metal occur portion of the Gulf of California region. These composi
rences and major tectonic structures around the Gulf of tional differences may indicate differences in hydrother
California indicates that there is a regional correspondence mal fluid chemistries, different source-rock compositions,
and control of mineral deposits. This analysis is a regional or different degrees of magmatic gas input into the epi
evaluation rather than a mine- or district-specific study,
thermal system. The deposits are diachronous around the
and it permits better assessment of the overall correlation Gulf: the hot-spring-type deposits in Baja formed more
between locations and types of structures and their relative recently than the Late Cretaceousearly Tertiary (Lara
mineral endowment.
mide) and middle Tertiary (Oligocene-Miocene) epither
Compilation of 133 lode-gold, base-metal (Ag + Pb + mal vein systems.
Zn), and copper occurrences from western and northwest Regional mineral exploration in transform-fault-tec
ern Mexico shows that most of the deposits are structur tonic settings should not only focus on following the main
ally controlled. The structural controls vary in style and tectonic suture but also upon sampling, mapping, and
size as do the types of deposits hosted throughout the Gulf determining the associated fault splays off the main suture.
extensional province. Systematic trends in mineralization Few known deposits in the area studied are located
types, fault directions, and fault offsets indicate that the directly on the major transform (i.e., San Andreas);
correspondence is not uniform throughout western Mexico instead, most structurally associated metal occurrences are
and that different regions have varying types of deposits along splays associated with smaller extensional and
and degrees of correspondence to major tectonic features. strike-slip faults.
The percentage of deposits occurring along major
faults is highest in Sonora and North Baja and lowest in
western mainland Mexico. The map compilation indicates INTRODUCTION
a control of deposit type by different basement regions
and by proximity to rift centers. Deposits close to the rift
axis (i.e., northeastern Baja) are more gold rich and are of Structural control of ore deposits is by no means a new
the hot-spring type, whereas those around the periphery of topic. Agricola (1556) recognized the importance of frac
the Gulf are fissure veins and quartz-adularia-sericite tures for permitting metal-bearing fluids to infiltrate the
host rock and to deposit metals in open spaces. Early in this
century Spurr (1916), Hulin (1925), and Lindgren (1933)
'U.S. Geological Survey, Center for InterAmerican Mineral suggested that structural features were keys to ore deposi
Resources Investigations, Tucson, AZ 85705. tion. Recently, the merging of structural interpretation with
70 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
mineral deposits has become significant: many new ore San Andreas structural system continues southward from
deposit discoveries have been made from structural analy California into North Baja, California and Sonora, eventu
ses (e.g., Mesquite mine, McLaughlin mine, etc.). Most ally becoming obscured by the Colorado River delta and
recent studies concentrate on theoretical models (Sibson, the sedimentary basins of the Gulf. The main transform
1981, 1986) or individual occurrences, including such work goes into the Gulf north of Puerto Penasco (PP on plate
as the investigation of the Henderson mine by Guha and 1), but tensional graben faults and transtensional shear
others (1983) and the Sigma mine study by Robert and zones can be traced on land for over 1,200 km down both
Brown (1986). Regional studies of Proterozoic ductile sides of the Gulf. Splays like the Imperial Valley fault and
shear in the Canadian Abitibi Belt (Poulsen and Robert, Laguna Salada fault host active hydrothermal centers like
1989; Robert, 1990) and Archean ductile domains such as those at Cerro Prieto (CP on plate 1).
the Norseman-Wiluna Belt of Western Australia (Barley The continuation of the transform fault system in the
and Groves, 1988; Groves and Barley, 1988) have contrib submarine environment has been studied by means of
uted to an overall understanding of the regional association bathymetric mapping, seismic reflection, and direct sub
of mineralization in ductile environments. However, com marine observations (e.g., Von Damm and others, 1985;
paratively little analysis of regional data with precise mine Lonsdale, 1989; and many others). Few geologic maps
and structure locations has been done for brittle environ compare this detailed submarine information with surface
ments; the relation between plate margins and structurally mapping on both sides of the Gulf. The relations between
controlled epithermal ore deposits has, likewise, received submarine and subaerial tectonics need to be integrated to
preliminary analysis. In the Gulf of California region, tec look at the structures of the entire Gulf extensional region.
tonic exposures are mostly shallow and expose cataclastic Analysis of tectonic features in the Gulf gives insight into
shear zones, making this area ideal for a regional study of the principle stresses, styles of faulting, and relative tim
structures and mineralization. ing of offset. The results of this analysis can then be used
The Gulf of California region is a distinguishing fea to assess and predict ore deposit occurrences around the
ture of the North American Cordilleran orogenic system Gulf region. The map (plate 1) differs from previously
because of its unique tectonic history and complex geo published maps of the Gulf of California because it com
logic relations. The Gulf extends over 1,700 km south bines mineral deposit locations with detailed structures.
from the U.S.-Mexico border to Jalisco, Mexico (JA on By compiling structures and ore deposits on the same
fig. 1). A simplified compilation of the geologic structures map, it becomes possible to determine which deposits
and mineral occurrences is presented on plate 1 (plate 1 is occur along faultsthis compilation is useful for regional
in the pocket on cover 3 of this volume). The Gulf is long geologic studies.
and narrow, forming an actively extending graben between This paper (1) investigates the dip orientation and
the 5,000-ft-high peaks of the Sierra Pedro Martir (Baja types of faults most commonly hosting mineralization
California batholith) and the Basin and Range province of around the Gulf of California, (2) quantifies the percent
western Sonora (Stock and Hodges, 1989). Proposed mod age of the known occurrences that are associated with dif
els that attempt to explain the tectonic relations and impli ferent types of faults, (3) discusses how plate tectonics
cations of gulf formation and rifting are varied in their and mineral-deposit studies together can be used to deter
interpretations of age, mechanisms, and rate of opening. mine the geologic history of the Gulf, and (4) presents
In 1980, Homestake Mining Company discovered the data showing that submarine rift-graben faults and strike
McLaughlin orebody in Calistoga, California, and in 1984, slip splays from transform faults can be matched with doc
Gold Fields Mining Company found a large orebody that umented structures on land.
EXPLANATION
Area of plate 1
- - - - - - State boundary
USA
*--
EXICO
CH
Area of report
Cocos plate
Figure 1. Gulf of California extended region and area covered in plate 1. The solid line outlines the limits of the structural
and mineral deposit compilation. Abbreviations are Arizona (AZ), California (CA), Chihuahua (CH), Colima (CO),
Durango (DU), Jalisco (JA), Nayarit (NA), Michoacan (MI), North Baja California (NBC), Sierra Pedro Martir fault
(SPMF), Sonora (SN), and South Baja California (SBC).
72 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
(1980), aid in defining submarine topography and hydro The eastern limit of extensional structures is also dif
thermal-fluid characteristics. Deep sea drilling results and ficult to define. On the east, the transition grades into the
maps published in deep sea drilling reports add significant Basin and Range province, and there is no single escarp
tectonic-structural data useful in compiling maps (Curray ment or main tectonic feature separating the Gulf from the
and Moore, 1982). Heat flow studies by Lawyer and Will entire Basin and Range. Geologically, the Gulf with its
iams (1979) provide data that can be used to verify asym transtensional faulting is a continuation of basin-and-range
metric extension and general structural regimes. extension. The Sierra Madre Occidental is a comparatively
Published tectonic maps from eastern Baja California stable block and, in the southern part of the study area
by Rangin (1986), Hamilton (1971), Stock and Hodges (Sinaloa and points further south), it is the eastern limit of
(1989), Lonsdale (1989), de Cserna (1989), Dokka and the Gulf extensional province. In the northern part of the
Merriam (1982), Gastil and others (1975), Lopez Ramos study area, the boundary is limited to within 200 km east
(1982), and Sociedad Programacin and Presupuesto (a of the eastern edge of the Gulf of California. This defini
Mexican governmental agency) were combined with maps tion is necessary to confine the study area to the Gulf
showing mineral deposits from Wisser (1954), de la region and not the entire Basin and Range province.
Fuente Moises (1985), and Leonard (1989) to generate
plate 1. Additional field mapping and visits to mineral
deposit sites by the author where conducted from 1987 DATA ANALYSIS
through 1992.
The map compilation for the western Mexican main By comparing the tectonic features, hot springs, and
land combines data from Gastil and Krummenacher mineralization around the Gulf on the map compilation,
(1977), Henry and Fredrikson (1987), Wahl (1973), and certain spatial and temporal correlations become apparent.
Swanson and McDowell (1984) in addition to information The mineral occurrences can be quantified by counting the
from the Baja California maps listed above. Mineral number of mineral occurrences that occur along major
resource maps by Leonard (1989), Gonzalez Reyna faults versus those not on regionally mapped faults. For
(1956), Wisser (1966), Salas (1975), Consejo de Recursos the occurrences on faults, the direction and style (either
Minerales (1985, 1987), Consejo de Recursos Minerales normal or strike-slip) can be tabulated. For all occur
and State of Durango (1980), Universidad Autonima de rences, the principal commodities (gold, base metals, or
Mexico (197477), Anaconda Mining Company (unpub. copper) are distinguished for later comparison among
data), as well as files from the USGS Center for Mineral deposit types.
Resource Investigations and mines shown on the geotec The circum-Gulf region can be divided into 5 regions
tonic maps listed above were used to construct plate 1. based on geographic position and State in order to facili
The boundaries of the Gulf extensional province are tate comparison of structural and other data. North Baja
difficult to define (see Stock and Hodges, 1989, for dis California, South Baja California, and Sonora are each
cussion) but are important for identifying the scope of this treated independently. Sinaloa and Durango comprise the
study. The western limit is defined by the eastern range fourth region, and the southern mainland States of Nayarit,
front fault of the Peninsular batholith (SPMF, fig. 1). West Jalisco, and Colima are grouped as the fifth region. A tab
of the major range-front normal fault, there is considerably ulation of the number of mineral occurrences associated
less faulting, and the batholith acts as a coherent block. with strike-slip faults, normal faults, and those not associ
The range-front fault system continues south along the ated with any fault using the five geographic groups is
east coast of the Baja Peninsula for nearly 800 km. In cen presented in table 1. Histograms based on this data table
tral Baja, the boundary becomes more difficult to define showing comparative features of structural control and
because, in many places, normal and strike-slip faults are mineral deposits around the Gulf are presented in figures
covered by young volcanics, and where exposed, fault that follow.
scarps often become diffuse (e.g., Bahia de Los Angeles Comparing the various types of regional information
(BL, plate 1), Santa Rosalia (SR, plate 1)). highlights some broad correlations. Firstly, the percentage
In southern Baja, the escarpment follows the coast, of mineral occurrences located on mapped faults differs
and, in places, the sea cliffs themselves mark the escarp throughout the Gulf of California region, as shown on fig
ment. Faulting at the southern tip of Baja likely occurred ure 2. In North Baja and Sonora, the number of mineral
before the early Miocene strike-slip motion that is associ occurrences on faults greatly exceeds those not coincident
ated with oblique subduction west of the Baja Peninsula with structural features. However, in the southern part of
(Spencer and Normack, 1979) and was not part of the late the study area (South Baja, Sonora, and Sinaloa-Durango),
Miocene opening of the Gulf. Faults extending from La the correspondence is only 50 percent, and in the southern
Paz to Cabo San Lucas are older than the rift faults but mainland region, only about 30 percent of the mineral
may have been reactivated and further mineralized during occurrences are on faults. The difference in mineralization
the rift-extensional events. and structural control around the Gulf indicates that there
BASE METAL MINERAL DEPOSITS, GULF OF CALIFORNIA, MEXICO 73
Table 1. Number of mineral deposits associated with each type of Mineral occurrences
structure in the Gulf of California extended region.
on faults
[The southern mainland Mexico group (S. mainland Mex.) includes the States of
Nayarit, Jalisco, and Colima) Mineral occurrences
not on faults
Au-Ag-base-metal deposits
N. Baja 2 6 1 9
S. Baja l 3 2 6
Sonora 7 2 4 13
Sinaloa-Durango 7 4 8 19
S. mainland Mex. 6 () 19 25
Gold-dominated deposits
N. Baja 9 8 4 21
S. Baja 2 l () 3
o co to - to
Sonora 6 2 3 |1 ~ *- -> C
CO CO 2 O ~
Sinaloa-Durango 2 () () 2 - C
2 C/D C/D 5
S. mainland Mex. () () () () v) E
Copper deposits Regions v.
N. Baja 2 3 l 6
S. Baja () l 5 6 Figure 2. Comparison of mineral occurrences on faults to
Sonora 3 () 7 10 those not on faults in each of five regions: North Baja (N.
Sinaloa-Durango () () 1 l Baja); South Baja (S. Baja); Sonora; Sinaloa and Durango (Sina
S. mainland Mex. () l () l Dur); and the southern mainland group of Nayarit, Jalisco, and
Colima, (S. mainland).
Totals: 47 31 55 133
Au-dominated deposits
Base-metal-dominated N
deposits
Cu-dominated deposits
i
!
\
,
( CH
} MEXICO
; :
Regions |
Figure 3. Comparison of mineralization types (showing the ma
jor metallic element) in each of five regions.
O 400 KILOMETERS
|
East-dipping
normal fault
C/D C/D
C
*7, :
--
w
Regions
TECTONIC ANALYSIS
Figure 4. Diagram of dip directions of mineralized normal faults
around the Gulf of California.
The geology of the Gulf of California has been stud
ied in detail, and the references cited in the Principal Data
Sources and Study-Area Boundaries section of this report
Baja occur along faults that can be traced back to active provide many of the basic observations used in outlining
transforms in the Gulf. Cerro Prieto (CP) and other hot the geologic history of the Gulf. However, from the map
spring areas have mineralized areas at the surface and and data presented in this compilation, several newly
extensive alteration along local structures (Elders and oth observed features become apparent. To put these in the
ers, 1981). A simplified hot-spring location map is pre tectonic context, we will first briefly summarize the salient
sented to show the location of geothermal fields (fig. 5). tectonic events.
BASE METAL MINERAL DEPOSITS, GULF OF CALIFORNIA, MEXICO 75
and subaerial geologic mapping. From this structural com maps. For example, in the Baha Los Angeles area (BL on
parison, it is apparent that fault splays and en echelon plate 1), strike-slip faults come on land and host small
transform faults extend significant distances away from gold concentrations in Pliocene sandstones. And at Puer
the main transform plate boundary (e.g., Puertocitos, Isla tocitos (PU on plate 1), the Puertocitos fault (a splay off
La Guardia, etc.) and act as conduit structures for mineral the main transform) comes on land and hosts the hot
izing fluids. The Gulf region plate boundary is a zone of spring-type Au occurrence. In Puertocitos, active hot
rifting and transtensional shear through which heat is con springs in Pliocene and Quaternary volcanics are localized
vected and hydrothermal fluids evolve. These fluids may along this same splay. This has important implications for
transport metals, carrying them into and along fault struc mineral exploration in the Gulf of California and other
tures in over 50 percent of the known epithermal mineral similar regions where submarine faults could be traced on
occurrences. Present-day geothermal activity in the Gulf land to discover new deposits.
seems to be continuing this production and convection of Other transtensional settings, like the Red Sea, also
enriched fluids in the Gulf province. Compiled mineral show regional structural variations, and these appear to be
occurrences show that structural control is a significant controlled by preexisting structurally weak zones. In the
factor for epithermal mineral deposits, particularly in the Red Sea, the rift is superimposed upon deformed Precam
gold-dominated deposits and especially in Sonora and brian basement. The preexisting weaknesses control the
northern Baja California. location of later structural failure. The Gulf of California
Oxide and sulfide copper deposits, such as those at inhabits a structurally weak trough, and the asymmetries
Boleo and southwest of Caborca, may be related at depth can be explained from preexisting structures. Along the
to large structures, but these structures are not mapped at Atacama fault in western Chile, brittle transtensional shear
the surface. Perhaps additional geophysics and satellite structures host many gold deposits, yet, unlike the Gulf of
image interpretation will be useful in not only locating California, the Atacama fault does not have hot-spring
alteration areas but also major faults. Copper porphyries type features (Brown and others, 1991).
are older than the Gulf extension and are not included in
Around the Gulf of California, the epithermal metal
this project. Detailed maps for El Arco and porphyries in systems are gold dominated in the north and base metal
Sonora and Sinaloa show that major structures play a criti dominated in the souththis could be caused by vertical
cal role in magma emplacement and hydrothermal fluid zoning, crustal contamination, fluid chemistries, or timing
flow.
and spatial relations to fluid and heat sources. The chemi
The greater abundances of hot springs in the western cal variations might be due to preferential metal complex
Gulf rather than in the eastern Gulf indicates that an asym ing and carrying of different metals or fluid dynamics and
metry exists across the Gulf. This suggests the possibility water-rock interactions. The fluid chemistry could likely
of hotter crust and more active tectonics to the west. Heat be constrained by fluid-inclusion studies and detailed pet
flow studies by Lawyer and Williams (1979) support this rographic analyses of deposits throughout the region; how
idea by showing increased heat flow in the western Gulf. ever, this information is not available. Other options, such
Another observation of apparent asymmetry is that fault as differences in basement composition or magmatic
ing on the western side of the Gulf is confined to a narrow sources could explain the variation. In North Baja and
strip, within a few tens of kilometers of the coastline. Sonora, mineralization is commonly very shallow, with
Faulting in western mainland Mexico, on the other hand, aprons of hot-spring cinter, open-space cavities, and reed
extends from the Gulf extensional region hundreds of kilo and plant detritus that is silicified in auriferous hematitic
meters eastward into the southern Basin and Range exten silica in the Tertiary volcanic and sediment-hosted occur
sional regime (plate 1). The Gulf of California is also rences. In the eastern Baja Peninsula, mesothermal quartz
asymmetric in that it has a thinner crust in the west com veins are common in metamorphosed Paleozoic vol
pared to that in the east (Gastil and others, 1975). The canosedimentary rocks and granitic intrusions. These
thinner crust has higher heat flow, which may drive the veins are probably related to mid to late Mesozoic
geothermal anomalies and which may concentrate the hot batholithic plutonism and not to the waning stages of Ter
spring-type gold mineralization along the western side of tiary subduction and the onset of extension in the Gulf of
the Gulf, particularly in North Baja, where the transform California. The mesothermal veins are not included in
comes on land (i.e., Imperial fault, Laguna Salada fault, this study because they likely predate Gulf extension. The
etc.). vein deposits on the mainland are of a higher temperature
Another significant observation based on the map type than those that commonly contain tourmaline, quartz,
compilation (plate 1) is that faults originating at or near pyrite and minor sericite. These veins are, in general,
the transform extend long distances away from transforms breccia zones with a quartz + carbonate matrix, and their
and can be matched with faults mapped on land, thus orientation varies as does their age. In this preliminary
tying the submarine-seafloor maps with circum-Gulf land analysis, the veins and ore breccias are simply compared
BASE METAL MINERAL DEPOSITS, GULF OF CALIFORNIA, MEXICO 77
in terms of their metal association. Further age dating will Consejo de Recursos Minerales and State of Durango, 1980, Topo
help constrain the relative timing of different mineraliza graphic and mineral commodities map of Durango, [1st ed.]:
tion events. Consejo Recursos Minerales Publication, scale 1:500,000.
In conclusion, the map compilation (plate 1) provides Cserna, Z. de, 1989, An outline of the geology of Mexico: Geolog
a timely summary of existing tectonic data and correlates ical Society of America, Decade of North American Geology,
Geology of North America, Volume A., p. 233264.
this data with a new mineral deposit map for western
Curray, J.R., and Moore, D.G., eds., 1982, Reports of the Deep Sea
Mexico. Many of the epithermal mineral deposits are Drilling Project, v. 64, Parts I and II: Washington, U.S. Gov
structurally controlled, particularly the gold-rich deposits ernment Printing Office, 260p.
in North Baja and Sonora. The type of mineralization Dokka, R.K., and Merriam, R.H., 1982, Late Cenozoic extension of
changes from gold rich in the north to base metal rich in northeastern Baja California, Mexico: Geological Society of
the south. Finally, gold deposits are most often associated America Bulletin, v. 93, p. 371378.
with strike-slip faults, whereas the base-metal deposits Elders, W.A., Hoagland, J.R., and Williams, A.E., 1981, Distri
occur in roughly equal numbers on both normal and bution of hydrothermal mineral zones in the Cerro Prieto
strike-slip structures. geothermal field of Baja California, Mexico: Geothermics, v.
10, p. 245253.
Fuente Moises, M. de la, 1985, Analisis metalogenetico regional de
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS la Peninsula de Baja California: Mexico City, Universidad Au
tonima de Mexico, unpub. thesis, 156 p.
Gastil, R.G., and Krummenacher, D., 1977, Reconnaissance geolo
This paper has benefited from careful review by gy of coastal Sonora between Puerto Lobos and Bahia Kino:
Geoff Plumlee, Robert Kamilli, and Floyd Gray. Earlier Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 88, p. 189198.
drafts were reviewed by Peter Coney and Spencer Titley Gastil, R.G., Morgan, G.J., and Krummenacher, D., 1981, The
of the University of Arizona. Acknowledgments are tectonic history of peninsular California and adjacent Mexi
extended to Mark Barton, Joaquin Ruiz, and Norm Page, co, in Ernst, W.G., ed., The Geotectonic Development of
who have contributed to discussions of the data and inter California, Rubey Volume 1: Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Pren
pretations. Felipe Rendon, Porfirio Padilla, Dave Johnson, tice-Hall, p. 284306.
and Ryan Mouser accompanied me in the field and helped Gastil, R.G., Phillips, R.P., and Allison, E.C., 1975, Reconnais
obtain hard-to-find Mexican geologic data. Thanks are due sance geology of the State of Baja California: Geological Soci
ety of America Memoir 140, 170 p.
to Perry Durning of Fisher-Watt Gold Company and to the
Gonzalez Reyna, J., 1956 [updated in 1966], Los criadores de Au,
many other property owners who allowed access to their
Ag, Pb, Zn, Cuen la Republica Mexicana: Mexico City, Twen
properties over the past five years while this study was tieth International Geologic Congress, scale 1:2,000,000.
completed. Groves, D.I., and Barley, M.E., 1988, Part 2: Gold mineralization
in the Norseman-Wiluna Belt, Eastern Goldfields Province,
Western Australia: Geological Society of Australia, Bicenten
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Guha, J., Archambault, G., and Leroy, J., 1983, A correlation
Agricola, G., 1556, De Re Metallica, [English translation by H.C. between the evolution of mineralizing fluids and the geo
Hoover and L.H. Hoover, 1950), New York, Dover Publica mechanical development of a shear zone as illustrated by
tions, 130 p. the Henderson 2 mine, Quebec: Economic Geology, v. 78,
p. 16051618.
Atwater, T., 1989, Plate tectonic history of the northeast Pacific and
western North America: Geological Society of America, Hamilton, W., 1971, Recognition on space photographs of struc
Decade of North American Geology, Geology of North Amer tural elements of Baja California: U.S. Geological Survey Pro
ica, Volume N, p. 2172. fessional Paper 718, 26 p.
Barley, M.E., and Groves, D.I., 1988, Geological setting of gold Henry, C.D., and Fredrikson, G., 1987, Geology of part of southern
mineralization in the Norseman-Wiluna Belt, Eastern Gold Sinaloa, Mexico adjacent to the Gulf of California: Geological
fields Province, Western Australia: Geological Society of Aus Society of America, Map and Chart Series MCH063, [text and
tralia, Bicentennial Gold 88, Excursion no. 6, p. 1846. map), scale 1:250,000.
Brown, M., Daz, F., and Grocott, J., 1991, Atacama Fault system; Hulin, C.D., 1925, Structural control of ore deposition: Economic
history of displacement and tectonic significance for the Meso Geology, v.24, p. 1549.
zoic-Recent evolution of northern Chile: Santiago, Chile, Con Karig, D.E., and Jensky, W., 1972, The protoGulf of California:
greso Geologico Chileno, Resumenes Ampliados, p. 129132. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 17, p. 169174.
Consejo de Recursos Minerales, 1985, Geologic and mineral dis Larson, R.L., 1972, Bathymetry, magnetic anomalies, and plate tec
trict map of Durango: Consejo Recursos Minerales Publica tonic history of the mouth of the Gulf of California: Geologi
tion, scale 1:500,000, 2 sheets. cal Society of America Bulletin, v. 83, p. 33453360.
Consejo de Recursos Minerales, 1987, Plano de recursos mineros Lawyer, L.A., and Williams, D.L., 1979, Heat flow in the cen
activos y potenciales del Estado de Nayarit: Consejo Recursos tral Gulf of California: Journal of Geophysical Research, v.
Minerales unpub. map, scale 1:400,000. 84, p. 34653478.
78 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Leonard, K.R., 1989, Preliminary deposit-type map of northwest 1. Geologic relations and formation of the vein system: Eco
ern Mexico: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report nomic Geology, v. 81, p. 578592.
89158,330 p. Salas, G.P., 1975, Carta y provincias metalogeneticas de la Repub
Lindgren, W., 1933, Mineral Deposits: New York, McGraw-Hill, lica Mexicana: Consejo de Recursos Minerales, Publication 21
930 p. E., Scale 1:2,000,000.
Lonsdale, P.F., 1989, Geology and tectonic history of the Gulf of Sibson, R.H., 1981, Fluid flow accompanying faulting; field evi
California: Geological Society of America, Decade of North dence and models, in Simpson, D.W., Richards, P.G., eds.,
American Geology, The Geology of North America, Volume Earthquake Prediction, an International Review: American
N, p. 499521. Geophysical Union, Maurice Ewing Series, v.4, p. 593603.
Lonsdale, P.F., Bischoff, J.L., Burns, V.M., Kastner, M., and
Sibson, R.H., 1986, Brecciation processes in fault zones: Pure and
Sweeney, R.E., 1980, A high-temperature hydrothermal de Applied Geophysics, v. 124, p. 159175.
posit on the seabed at a Gulf of California spreading center:
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 49, p. 820. Sibson, R.H., 1987, Earthquake rupturing as a mineralizing agent in
hydrothermal systems: Geology, v. 15, p. 701704.
Lopez Ramos, E., 1982, Geologia de Mexico, [3rd ed.]: Mexico
City, Universidad Autonima de Mexico, 454 p. Spencer, J.E., and Normack, W.R., 1979, Tosco-Abreojos fault
McLean, H., Hausback, B.P., and Knapp. J.H., 1987, The geology zone; a Neogene transform plate boundary within the Pacif
of west-central Baja California Sur, Mexico: U.S. Geological ic margin of southern Baja California, Mexico: Geology, v.
Survey Bulletin 1579, 16 p. 7, p. 554557.
Moore, D.G., 1973, Plate-edge deformation and crustal growth, Spurr, J.E., 1916. The relation of ore-deposition to faulting: Eco
Gulf of California structural province: Geological Society of nomic Geology, v. 11, p. 601622.
America Bulletin, v. 84, p. 18831906. Stock, J.M., and Hodges, K.V., 1989, Pre-Pliocene extension
Moore, D.G., and Buffington, E.C., 1968, Transform faulting and around the Gulf of California and the transfer of Baja Califor
growth of the Gulf of California since the late Pliocene: Sci nia to the Pacific plate: Tectonics. v. 8, no. 1, p. 991 15.
ence, v. 161, p. 12381241. Swanson, E.R., and McDowell, F.W., 1984, Calderas of the Sierra
Poulsen, K.H., and Robert, F., 1989, Shear zones and goldprac Madre Occidental volcanic field, western Mexico: Journal of
tical examples from the southern Canadian Shield, in Bursnall, Geophysical Research, v. 89, p. 87878799.
J.T., ed., Mineralization and Shear Zones: Geological Associ Universidad Autonima de Mexico, 19741977, Carta Geologica de
ation of Canada, Short Course Notes 6, p. 239266. Sinaloa, Mexico: U.N.A.M. Instituto de Geologia, scale
Rangin, C., 1986, Contribution a L'etude geologique du systeme 1:100,000, [series of 32 maps).
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coupe de la Basse Californie centrale a la Sierra Madre occi
1985, Chemistry of submarine hydrothermal solutions at
dentale en Sonora: Paris, Memoires de la Societe Geologique
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eralization in the Abitibi Subprovince, Canada, with Emphasis Wisser, E., 1954, Geology and ore deposits of Baja California,
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Short Course, p. 167209. Wisser, E., 1966, The epithermal precious-metal province of north
Robert, F., and Brown, A.C., 1986, Archean gold-bearing quartz west Mexico: Nevada Bureau Mines Geological Report No.
veins at the Sigma Mine, Abitibi greenstone belt, Quebec; Part 13, p. 6392.
CHAPTER H
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
The Berenguela Ag-Pb-Zn-Cd district of the north The Berenguela district, approximately 160 km south
western Bolivian Altiplano was the site of episodic mid to west of La Paz, Bolivia (fig. 1), consists of a network of
late Tertiary deformation during basin sedimentation and mineralized faults that have been mined intermittently since
explosive volcanism. Oligocene continental sedimentation Spanish colonial times, in the 1500's. The ores are hosted
produced the Berenguela Formation and the lower member by Cenozoic continental sedimentary rocks, inviting com
of the Mauri Formation, both of which were buried by parison with the Corocoro district to the east, and by
ignimbrites and volcaniclastic sediments of the Miocene Miocene volcanic and intrusive rocks. Although the Beren
upper member of the Mauri Formation. Dacitic to rhyolitic guela district is of only minor economic importance, geo
domes, lahars, and ash-flow tuffs were emplaced during logic relations provide many clues to the Cenozoic history
middle Miocene to Pliocene time. Episodic tectonism and of the northwestern Altiplano. Recent mapping by U.S.
associated broad folding and high-angle faulting produced Geological Survey (USGS) and the Servicio Geolgico de
major unconformities in the sedimentary record. Bolivia (GEOBOL) geologists redefined the stratigraphic
The district contains two types of base- and precious and tectonic history of the region and placed the mineral
metal deposits. Late Oligoceneearly Miocene(?) cad deposits in a more regional geologic framework.
mium-rich veins formed along fractures in the Berenguela
and lower member of the Mauri Formations, and middle
Miocene or younger cadmium-poor veins formed in REGIONAL GEOLOGIC SETTING
Miocene volcaniclastic and intrusive rocks. The different
chemistries and mineralogies suggest different ages and The Berenguela district, which surrounds the small
metal sources for the two vein systems. Distinct thoro town of the same name, is in the western Altiplano (fig.
genic Pb isotopic compositions for galena in the two types 1), the middle of three Andean morphotectonic elements
of veins are consistent with this interpretation. that formed in response to subduction of the Nazca plate
beneath the South American craton along the western mar
gin of the continent (Baranzagi and Isacks, 1976). To the
west, the Cordillera Occidental is underlain by Proterozoic
to Tertiary metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks
'U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 905, P.O. Box 25046, Denver and is capped by a chain of Oligocene to Holocene strato
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. volcanoes. To the east, the Cordillera Oriental is domi
*U.S. Geological Survey, University of Nevada, Mackay Building, nated by thin-skinned thrust belts (Jordan and others,
Reno, NV 89557.
1983; Sheffels, 1990). The Altiplano is underlain by an
*U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop901,345 Middlefield Road, Menlo
Park, CA 94025. easterly thickening section of Tertiary sedimentary rocks
Servicio Geolgico de Bolivia, Calle Frederico Zuazo No. 1673, that overlie, at varying depths, Proterozoic to Mesozoic
Casilla 2729, La Paz, Bolivia. sedimentary and crystalline rocks.
80 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
72- 64-
-
- -
68"
- -
-
SEDIMENTARY AND
B RA ZI L IGNEOUS ROCK UNITS
\ 27 -----
c- ! 2^ l
N /* The rocks of the Berenguela district record Oligocene
Ys--S w, i |
and younger clastic sedimentation and plutonic and volca
RSS \ | nic igneous activity. The oldest rocks exposed in the area
A N & ^
are continental redbeds of the Oligocene Berenguela For
| PERU N *... -->.S.
N (q, **~ mation (fig. 2), which includes more than 1,000 m of red
ttzo N. ! *. \ *4. S. ~
quartz arenite, siltstone, and mudstone. Thin conglomerate
14 H
N.
\
/
, N
&
,
^*
|
:
beds are present locally, and they contain subrounded
S ( c. N *, S o / clasts of granite, gneiss, chert, and quartzite (110 cm in
\ N.) N N \
diameter), which were presumably derived from either a
*Nsv
A.
Aar
AREQUIPA
S :
** N
*
*>
&
N
N
\.
". pre-Tertiary source or reworked from older Tertiary con
N. Y/ v N- ~o N glomerate layers. Bedding is generally parallel, although
N Fs{
: o,
e
Coc HABAMBA | 4,
e sania ("Ruz
Y~
* channelling is locally common beneath massive sandstone
18- o oruro \ -
/
A R G E N T IN A
I
.
N.
Corocoro Formation, which has a late Oligocene to early
Miocene age (1725 Ma; data from A.H. Clark, cited in
- o too 200 300 MILES
6930' 6915'
1700'
Z \ |
e Santiago de Machaca
Q
Co. Huaricunca
1715'
Trnu
- is p
- Q Q
- Ta
|
1730'
0 5 10 MILES
| |
T I
0 5 10 KILOMETERS
EXPLANATION
Lavas and pyroclastic rocks, Cerke and Mauri Formation, lower member
Tcy ... -- Trn!
Huaricunca volcanoes (upper Miocene) (Oligocene)
-
Fi Intrusive
middlerocks, undivided (upper to
Miocene) Tb Berenguela Formation (Oligocene)
-
Figure 2. Generalized geologic map of the Berenguela region. CT, Cerro Tatitocollo prospect; DA,
Dos Amigos prospect; X, mine or group of mines. Based on unpublished mapping (1990) by the au
thors of this paper.
82 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
ignimbrite. As such, the upper member represents a pro the Mauri and the 5-Ma dacitic volcanic rocks of Cerro
found change in type and source of sedimentation from Cerke. The contact between the Berenguela and lower
the rocks of the lower member. The units in the upper member of the Mauri is essentially parallel in the center of
member, previously included as Mauri 5 And 6 on the east the district, but south of Berenguela, it is an angular
side of the area and the Cerke Formation to the west (Sir unconformity of as much as 10; also, the thick, prominent
vas C., 1964), represent dynamic and rapid basin filling sandstone bed at the top of the Berenguela Formation was
east of an active, explosive volcanic source. Units on the locally eroded prior to Mauri deposition. This indicates
east side of the Berenguela district include interbedded broad folding and erosion of the Berenguela prior to
sandstone, conglomerate, reworked tuffaceous sediments, Mauri time, and the distinct change in lithology between
and pyroclastic airfall deposits. To the west, the section is the two formations indicates a profound change in source
composed of predominantly pyroclastic deposits derived terranes. Regional stratigraphic correlations and limited
from a chain of volcanoes that include the modern Cerros geochronologic data indicate that this unconformity proba
Cerke and Huaricunca. Basalt-rich conglomerates in the bly developed in the late Oligocene, perhaps between
Mauri east of Berenguela probably were derived from the about 30 and 26 Ma. This time is regionally correlative
late Oligocene to middle Miocene Abaroa Formation to with the onset of Cordilleran uplift and formation of the
the south. To the east, the younger rocks disconformably Bolivian orocline (Sempere and others, 1990; Isacks,
overlie the upper part of the lower member of the Mauri, 1988).
and to the west, they unconformably overlie the Beren The second major disconformity occurs below the
guela and lower part of the lower member of the Mauri upper member of the Mauri Formation and related pyro
Formations. In the central part of the Berenguela district, clastic rocks. These sediments and tuffs were deposited on
isolated remnants of a locally derived, trough-filling sedi various eroded levels of the lower member of the Mauri
mentary breccia overlie the Berenguela and the lowermost and, in places, the Berenguela. The disconformity sepa
part of the Mauri Formations. A tuff in the upper member rates the dominantly continental clastic sedimentary rocks
of the Mauri, northeast of Berenguela, has been dated at of the lower member of the Mauri and Berenguela Forma
about 10.5 Ma (Evernden and others, 1977). Construc tions from the dominantly volcanic and volcaniclastic
tional dacitic to andesitic volcanic activity along the rocks of the upper member of the Mauri Formation. The
Cerke-Huaricunca chain buried the older, more felsic age of the disconformity can only generally be placed
pyroclastic material with flows and extensive mudflow between 26 Ma (the age of basalt flows in the lower mem
breccias. These andesites and dacites were erupted at ber of the Mauri) and 10 Ma (the age of a tuff in the
5.7+0.5 Ma (Lavenu and others, 1989). upper member of the Mauri). This major unconformity
Subvolcanic intrusive bodies of rhyolite to dacite were likely correlates with a regionally extensive period of
emplaced along a north-northwest-trending belt in the west Neogene deformation, perhaps broadly equivalent to the
ern part of the study area. The stocks intrude the Beren Quechua period of deformation (McKee and Noble, 1989).
guela Formation and both the lower and upper members of This episode, recognized in Peru, peaked at about 19 Ma.
the Mauri Formation, but they are overlain by mudflow The third unconformity is between the upper member
breccias of Cerro Cerke. Therefore, intrusive ages probably of the Mauri/Cerke sequence and the dacitic volcanic
range from about 15 to 5 Ma, based upon existing geochro rocks and mudflows derived from Cerros Cerke and Huar
nologic data and new stratigraphic relations. icunca. The older rocks, including the 10-Ma tuff, are
The youngest unit in the area is the Perez ignimbrite, broadly folded and faulted, and some erosion occurred
a moderately welded, quartz-phenocrystic tuff that was prior to deposition of the dacitic material at about 5 Ma.
erupted at 2.23.3 Ma (Evernden and others, 1977; This event reflects deformation throughout the region
Lavenu and others, 1989). The tuff sheet extends for per this event is referred to as the late Miocene Quechua II
haps 100 km south of Berenguela and west to near the deformational event in Peru (McKee and Noble, 1982,
borders with Peru and Chile; it represents at least 250 km3 1989). The flat-lying 2-Ma Perez ignimbrite indicates that
of erupted magma. the region has been tectonically quiet since that time.
Deformational structures within the Berenguela dis
trict include broad, open folds and high-angle faults.
Polyphase brittle structures in the Berenguela Formation
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY formed during four distinct deformation events. Open
folds with westerly trending fold axes (N. 90 W.N. 70
Major unconformities and changes in sediment grain W.) that deform the Berenguela Formation but not the
size and composition record regional tectonic events. overlying Mauri Formation formed during the oldest
Major unconformities occur between the Berenguela and event. This event records mild north-south-oriented con
lower member of the Mauri, between the lower and upper traction and was responsible for the observed unconfor
members of the Mauri, and between the upper member of mity between the Berenguela and Mauri Formations.
GEOLOGY AND MINERAL DEPOSITS, BERENGUELA DISTRICT, NORTHWESTERN BOLIVIA 83
The second event is recorded by high-angle faults that A fourth episode of deformation is recorded by north
are best exposed north of the town of Berenguela. Here, erly striking, high-angle faults that cut Mauri and Beren
faults cut the sedimentary rocks and basalt intrusions of the guela Formation. Movement on faults is consistently
Berenguela and lower Mauri Formations and the previously normal. Faults cutting the Pliocene volcanic rocks west of
open folds. Two major trends of steeply dipping (60-90) Berenguela (Sirvas C., 1964) perhaps formed at this time.
faults are evident. One set is dominated by conjugate faults
that strike generally east-west and dip to the north and
south; less common faults trend northwesterly, N. 2050 MINERAL DEPOSITS
W., and commonly link longer strike segments of the more
westerly striking faults. A second fault set strikes northeast The Berenguela district includes two similar, but nev
erly, N. 2050 E., and cuts and is cut by the westerly ertheless distinct, types of silver-bearing mineral deposits:
striking faults; this mutually crosscutting relationship indi cadmium-rich, quartz-poor, base-metal veins in the Beren
cates that the faults are contemporaneous. Slickensides on guela and lower member of the Mauri Formations, and
exhumed fault planes indicate multiple stages of movement cadmium-poor, quartz-rich veins associated with Miocene
on the faults, and most faults show evidence of normal-slip, volcanic rocks. These were previously described by
oblique-slip, and (or) locally strike-slip movements, with Schneider-Scherbina (1962) and Sirvas C. (1964).
both dextral and sinistral sense of shear. Fracture and
microfault geometries in the sandstones of the Berenguela
Formation are identical to the map-scale fault geometry, DEPOSITS HOSTED BY
and these structures are commonly filled with silica and SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
control the bleaching alteration of the red sandstones.
Moreover, the cadmium-rich veins are localized along these Silver- and base-metal-rich veins occur in steeply
faults and fractures, and they probably formed during this dipping fractures in the upper part of the Berenguela For
second faulting event. mation, in the lower member of the Mauri sedimentary
The conjugate, westerly striking faults of the older rocks, and occasionally in the andesites in the lower mem
fault set bound grabens in which the contact between the ber of the Mauri (fig. 2). Many of the veins were exposed
lower member of the Mauri Formation and the underlying at the surface; concealed or buried veins were exploited in
Berenguela Formation has been downdropped with respect Colonial times by piques (steep, narrow, stone-lined
to the bounding mesas. The evidence for oblique slip on declines that lead to drifts along the veins).
the faults indicates that the grabens formed during limited The veins formed along east-northeast- and north
horizontal shearing, and the geometry of the grabens and west-trending faults in the sedimentary rocks, and major
the slickslides indicates that the regional tectonic regime ore intercepts occur at the intersections of these two fault
was dextral shear. In this interpretation, the westerly strik sets. Slickensides along fault surfaces cut the ore, indicat
ing faults are analogous to Riedel shears, which form ing that fault movement continued after mineralization.
early in the development of a strike-slip fault system (Tch The depth of oxidation is shallow (1020 m), and most of
alenko, 1970; Wilcox and others, 1973), and the north the dumps from the shallow workings contain minor
westerly striking faults, veins, and fractures formed as amounts of sulfides that could not be processed during
normal or extensional structures. Shortening at this time Colonial times. Therefore, the veins likely continue to
would have been oriented approximately northwest-south greater depths than those reached by historical mining.
east, and extension would have been oriented northeast Topographic relations indicate that veins extend at least
southwest. 200 m above and at least 100 m below the Berenguela
A third event is recorded by broad, open folds with Mauri contact.
north-trending (N. 0 E.-N. 15 E.) axes that deform the As exposed in surface workings, the veins are gener
upper member of the Mauri Formation and subjacent ally less than 10 cm wide, although millimeter-wide, silica
rocks. The folds record mild west-east-oriented contrac filled fractures cut altered wallrocks on either side of some
tion. Near the town of Berenguela, the conjugate westerly veins. Rocks for a few centimeters to a meter on either side
striking faults that formed during the previous event were of the vein are bleached; in some areas of greater fracture
reactivated; the cadmium-rich veins were extensively brec density, the entire mass of host rock has been bleached.
ciated during this deformation. Sinistral oblique movement Some beds, especially massive sandstones bounded by
on the conjugate faults is suggested by the slickslides mudstones, are preferentially bleached as much a 20 meters
along the exhumed fault planes. This sense of movement from the vein. Petrographic observations indicate that the
is consistent with the inferred direction of contraction. The major apparent chemical change is wholesale removal of
superposition of folds and faults that developed during the iron during alteration. In some zones, barite has completely
first three deformations formed the broad structural dome replaced the original quartz cement of the sandstones, and
in the Berenguela region. secondary copper carbonates and sulfates indicate that
84 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
copper (and other elements?) was deposited in the altered by preliminary geochemical data, very little cadmium (a
rocks. Evidence of silicification and carbonatization is few tens of parts per million versus several percent; J.L.
notably absent in the alteration halo. Lizeca, unpub. data, 1991). Dos Amigos, a vein 2 km
Vein minerals, as identified in samples collected from southwest of Berenguela, is along a fault that trends N.
dumps, include galena, greenockite, barite, and sphalerite, 70 W. in the Berenguela Formation along which a pre
with minor amounts of chalcopyrite, chalcocite, and rare mineralization rhyolite dike was emplaced; slickensides in
marcasite. Paragenetic relations indicate that bleaching and ore indicate subsequent fault movement. All rocks are
minor dissemination of sulfides into the wallrock was the altered to a quartz-sericite assemblage, and quartz is the
earliest paragenetic event. Barite was then deposited as a dominant gangue mineral. Galena, pyrite, and sphalerite
cement in the wallrocks, and the rock was then cut locally were observed on the dumps; Sirvas C. (1964) reported
by thin chalcedonic veinlets. Bladed barite was the first tennantite and pearceite. Both fault and hydrothermal
major mineral to be deposited in the veins, followed by breccias are common along the vein. Recent carbonate
minor marcasite. Subsequently, sphalerite, galena, and bearing, low-temperature waters have formed a line of
greenockite were deposited in the vein. Galena and travertine aprons along the fault zone.
sphalerite are intergrown with delicately banded, yellow At Cerro Tatitocollo, 1 km south of Berenguela,
ish, colloform minerals; in part, these might be secondary rocks of the lowermost part of the lower member of the
anglesite derived from the galena, but textures indicate Mauri are unconformably overlain by volcaniclastic rocks
that many of these bands are primary. The ores, both pri of the upper member of the Mauri. The dominant host
mary and secondary, are texturally and paragenetically rock is an epiclastic breccia to pebble conglomerate of the
similar throughout the district, and no systematic zoning upper member of the Mauri that is composed largely of
was noted. subangular rhyolite fragments in a coarse-sand matrix.
Much of the silver-rich ore mined from the oxidized These rocks were intruded by flow-banded rhyolite plugs.
parts of the veins was selectively hand sorted by Colonial Mineralization was concentrated along north-trending frac
miners and is therefore largely unavailable for study. Sec tures; hydrothermal fumarolic breccias were localized
ondary iron oxides are primarily orangish goethite, with along the fractures, and silicification increased towards the
considerably less hematite and even less jarosite. Second breccias. Silver, copper, arsenic, zinc, lead, and antimony
ary copper carbonates and sulfates, including malachite, have been reported from this zone, which has a maximum
azurite, and possibly antlerite, form ubiquitous coatings on dimension of no more than a few hundred meters; gold
fractures. These secondary iron and copper minerals sug occurs in a small area southwest of the silver and base
gest that chalcocite was the primary copper sulfide in the metal zone.
veins and that pyrite, chalcopyrite, and the total volume of
iron and copper sulfides were relatively minor (Anderson,
1982). AGES AND GENESIS OF THE DEPOSITS
A number of prospects occur along a fault that is in
the upper part of the lower member of the Mauri and that The distinct differences in cadmium and silica in the
continues into the upper member of the Mauri, east of two types of ore deposits suggest two ages of mineraliza
Berenguela. These deposits are characterized by abundant tion and different sources of fluids and metals. The rela
malachite, tenorite, milky quartz, and chalcedony, and tex tively more radiogenic thorogenic Pb isotopic
tures are very different from those in the Berenguela dis compositions in the cadmium-rich veins (208Pb/204Pb =
trict. This striking difference may indicate that these 38.7338.84; 4 deposits, 8 samples) relative to the volca
deposits are products of a mineralizing event unrelated to nic rock and associated veins (208Pb/204Pb = 38.36; 1
and possibly younger than the typical Berenguela ores. deposit, 1 sample) furthermore suggest that the two fluids
Conversely, the veins may represent a distal silica- and interacted, or were derived from, two reservoirs of slightly
copper-rich zonation of the Berenguela mineralizing different Pb isotopic compositions. Veins in the Beren
system. guela and lower member of the Mauri Formations formed
after deposition of at least the lower member of the Mauri
and emplacement of the basaltthese events have been
DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH dated at 25 Ma. Sparse field relations suggest that veins in
VOLCANIC ROCKS the Berenguela are unconformably overlain by unmineral
ized volcaniclastic rocks of the upper member of the
The mineral deposits that are associated with volcanic Mauri Formation, thereby placing an upper age limit on
rocks occur in Miocene volcaniclastic and volcanic rocks the mineralization. In contrast, the volcanic-associated,
at the Dos Amigos and Cerro Tatitocollo prospects. In cadmium-poor deposits are no older than middle Miocene,
contrast to the sedimentary-rock-hosted deposits, these the inferred age of the igneous host rocks. The copper
deposits contain abundant silicified rock and, as indicated silica deposits, for which no cadmium data are available,
GEOLOGY AND MINERAL DEPOSITS, BERENGUELA DISTRICT, NORTHWESTERN BOLIVIA 85
in the upper member of the Mauri east of Berenguela, are of the Porphyry Copper Deposits, Southwestern North Ameri
likely less than 10 m.y. old, the same age as the tuff unit ca: Tucson, University of Arizona Press, p. 275295.
in the upper member. Barazangi, M., and Isacks, B.L., 1976, Spatial distribution of earth
Mineralizing fluids and contained metals could have quakes and subduction of the Nazca plate beneath South Amer
been derived from more than one source. Unlike ores in ica: Geology, v.4, p. 686692.
Evernden, J.F., Kriz, S.J., and Cherroni M.C., 1977, Potassium
the Corocoro district to the east, which formed in host
argon ages of some Bolivian rocks: Economic Geology, v.
rocks during diagenesis and were later remobilized into 72, p. 10421061.
fractures (Flint, 1990), the ores at Berenguela are epige Flint, S.S., 1990, Sediment-hosted stratabound copper deposits of
netic. As a result, these deposits may not have formed in a the central Andes, in Boyle, R.W., Brown, A.C., Jefferson,
manner like those at Corocoro, where the metals were C.W., Jowett, E.C., and Kirkham, R.V., eds., Sediment-Hosted
remobilized by basin fluids from copper-rich basalts or Stratiform Copper Deposits: St. John's Geological Association
copper deposits in the Cordillera Occidental (Flint, 1990). of Canada, p. 371398.
However, cadmium-rich ores are typically derived from Isacks, B.L., 1988, Uplift of the central Andean plateau and bend
basin fluids; fluids of demonstrable igneous derivation ing of the Bolivian orocline: Journal of Geophysical Research,
rarely contain abundant cadmium. Therefore, the abun v. 93, p. 32113231.
Jordan, T.E., and Alonso, R.N., 1987, Cenozoic stratigraphy and
dance of cadmium in the Berenguela-hosted ores strongly
basin tectonics of the Andes Mountains, 2028 south lati
suggests a basin fluid-origin for some or all of the tude: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin,
metalsthe difference between the deposits at Berenguela v. 71, p. 4964.
and Corocoro might be the presence or absence of fracture Jordan, T.E., Isacks, B.L., Allmendinger, R.W., Brewer, J.A., Ra
permeability at the time of initial fluid migration. If mos, V.A., and Ando, C.J., 1983, Andean tectonics related to
indeed the deposits formed before deposition of upper geometry of subducted Nazca plate: Geological Society of
member of the Mauri volcaniclastic sediments, then min America Bulletin, v. 94, p. 341361.
eralization might have occurred during the early to middle Lavenu, A., Bonhomme, M.G., Vatin-Perignon, N., and De Pacht
Miocene deformational event. ere, P., 1989, Neogene magmatism in the Bolivian Andes be
In contrast, the fluids involved in the formation of the tween 16 S. and 18 S.: Stratigraphy and K/Ar
igneous-hosted deposits formed during or after late Mauri geochronology: Journal of Latin American Geosciences, v. 2,
p. 3547.
sedimentation and related igneous activity. Metals may
McKee, E.H., and Noble, D.C., 1982, Miocene volcanism and
have been derived from an igneous source during Miocene
deformation in the western Cordillera and high plateaus of
volcanic activity; as with many volcanic-hosted epithermal south-central Peru: Geological Society of America Bulletin,
systems, much of the mineralizing fluid may have been v. 93, p. 657662.
heated meteoric water. Remobilization of some of the older McKee, E.H., and Noble, D.C., 1989, Cenozoic tectonic events,
mineral deposits cannot be discounted; however, the rela magmatic pulses, and base- and precious-metal mineralization
tive absence of cadmium in the volcanic-hosted veins rela in the central Andes, in Ericksen, G.E., Canas Pinochet, M.T.,
tive to silver and zinc, which have very similar mobilities and Reinemund, J.A., eds., Geology of the Andes and its Rela
(Rose and others, 1979), argues against significant remobi tion to Hydrocarbon and Mineral Resources: Circum-Pacific
lization of the metals in the older Zn-Cd-Ag-Pb veins. Council for Energy and Mineral Resources Earth Science Se
ries, v. 11, p. 189194.
Rose, A.W., Hawkes, H.E., and Webb, J.S., 1979, Geochemistry in
Mineral Exploration, [2nd ed.]: New York, Academic Press,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 657 p.
Schneider-Scherbina, A., 1962, Los yacimientos polimetalicos de
The field work for this study was part of a joint Berenguela: Departmento Nacionl de Geologia, Informe No.
project, funded by the Interamerican Development Bank, 39 de la Misin Geologica Alemana en Bolivia, 54 p.
between the USGS and GEOBOL to study precious-metal Sempere, T., Herail, G., Oller, J., and Bonhomme, M.G., 1990, Late
deposits in the Altiplano. C.G. Cunningham of the USGS Oligoceneearly Miocene major tectonic crisis and related ba
served as overall project coordinator; Marcello Claure and sins in Bolivia: Geology, v. 18, p. 946949.
Franz Tavera of GEOBOL were invaluable for their coor Sheffels, Barbara M., 1990, Lower bound on the amount of crustal
dinating efforts in Bolivia. We thank Compaa Minera shortening in the central Andes: Geology, v. 18, p. 812815.
del Sur (COMSUR) and Rio Tinto Zinc for the use of Sirvas C., J.F., 1964, Estudio geolgico de la regin Tambo Mauri
Berenguela, Provincia Pacajes del Departamento de La Paz,
their facilities in Berenguela.
Republica de Bolivia: unpub. thesis, Universidad Mayor de
San Andreas.
Swanson, K.E., Noble, D.C., McKee, E.H., Sempere, T., Martinez,
REFERENCES CITED C., and Cirbian, M., 1987, Major revisions in the age of rock
units and tectonic events in the northern Altiplano basin of Bo
Anderson, J.A., 1982, Characteristics of leached capping and tech livia (abs.]: Geological Society of America Abstracts Pro
niques of appraisal, in Titley, S.R., ed., Advances in Geology grams. v. 19, no. 6, p. 456.
86 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Tchalenko, J.S., 1970, Similarities between shear zones of differ Tosdal, R.M., Clark, A.H., and Farrar, E., 1984, Cenozoic
ent magnitudes: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. polyphase landscape and tectonic evolution of the Cordillera
81, p. 1625640. Occidental, southernmost Peru: Geological Society of America
Thorpe, R.S., 1984, The tectonic setting of active Andean magma Bulletin, v. 95, p. 13181332.
tism, in Harmon, R.S., and Barreiro, B.A., eds., Andean Mag Wilcox, R.E., Harding, T.P., and Seely, D.R., 1973, Basic wrench
matism: Chemical and Isotopic Constraints: Nantwhich, tectonics: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bul
United Kingdom, Shiva Publishing Limited, p. 48. letin, v. 57, p. 7496.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
'U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop984, 345 Middlefield Road, Men Twelve new conventional K-Ar age determinations,
lo Park, CA 94025.
from ten mineral deposits in the Cordillera Occidental and
*U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 901, 345 Middlefield Road, Men
lo Park, CA 94025. on the Altiplano of Bolivia, were performed during this
*U.S. Geological Survey, Branch of Alaskan Geology, 4200 Univer study. The ages and analytical data are presented in table
sity Drive, Anchorage, AK 99508. 1. Five of the ages directly date mineralization and (or)
88 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Table 1. K-Arages and analytical data for samples from the Altiplano and Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia.
[rad, radiogenic. Constants used were *K/K=1.167x10" mol/mol; l-4.962x10"/yr. 1.-1.-0.581z10"/yr. Samples 90BSLO14, 109, 110,90BDR010, 90BBR004a, 10, 14, and
90BBG024 were analyzed by E.H. McKee, Samples 90BDR030, 35, 53, and 55 were analyzed in duplicate for argon by Nora Shew, yielding a single age. Potassium measurements
by S.T. Pribble. Mass spectrometry by J.Y. Saburomaru, J.C. Von Essen]
alteration events. The other seven ages are on intrusions, The new ages, along with brief descriptions of the
tuffs, or lava flows at five additional localities and indi mineral deposits, are given below. More detailed deposit
rectly aid in constraining the time of mineralization. The descriptions can be found in a report on the mineral
mineral deposits dated during this study were selected resources of the Bolivian Cordillera Occidental and Alti
because they are broadly representative of Bolivian min plano (U.S. Geological Survey and Servicio Geolgico
eral deposits in the central Andes and little was known of de Bolivia, 1991). Locations of the studied deposits
their geochronology. Samples from the deposits dated together with all known major polymetallic vein deposits
directly yielded alunite, biotite, or sericite for dating; are shown on figure 2, which includes the new K-Ar
biotite and hornblende from the intrusions, ash-flow tuffs, ages reported here and all known previously reported
and lava flows were used for age determination (table 1). ages (Ludington, Orris, and others, 1991) for polymetal
K-Ar analyses were performed using standard iso lic vein deposits.
tope-dilution techniques similar to those described by Dal
rymple and Lanphere (1969). The mineral concentrates
were made by heavy-liquid, magnetic, electrostatic, and KORI KOLLO DEPOSIT
hand-picking procedures. Potassium analyses were by lith
ium-metaborate-flux-fusion flame photometry, the lithium The La Joya district includes several polymetallic
serving as an internal standard (Ingamells, 1970). Argon vein deposits. Principal among them is the one at Cerro
analyses were done using a five-collector mass spectrome Kori Kollo, which contains about 150 tonnes of gold and
ter (Stacy and others, 1981). The precision of the data, 1,000 tonnes of silver and is the first Bolivian polymetal
shown as the value in table 1, is the estimated analytical lic vein deposit to produce substantial amounts of gold
uncertainty at one standard deviation (Cox and Dalrymple, (Long and others, 1991). Cerro Kori Kollo is one of four
1967). It represents uncertainties in the measurement of hills in the district that are apparently cupolas on a large
radiogenic 40Ar and K2O based on experience with hun dacitic intrusive body that intrudes siltstone and sandstone
dreds of replicated analyses in the Menlo Park laboratories of Silurian age. The ore consists of sulfide and oxide veins
of the U.S. Geological Survey. Mass discrimination of the that cut a sericitized dacite porphyry.
spectrometer is routinely determined on the basis of multi The age of the La Joya dacite intrusion, based on a
ple analyses of purified air. The constants used in age biotite K-Ar date, is 14.3+0.4 Ma, whereas an age deter
determination are those from the Subcommission on Geo mined on sericite from the orebody at Kori Kollo was
chronology (Steiger and Jaeger, 1977). 15.7+0.5 Ma (Redwood, 1987). These dates, although
K-Ar AGES OF BOLIVIAN TERTIARY POLYMETALLIC VEIN DEPOSITS
69 68 67 66
FIL i I I
Z y
* uticaca
S 13 Ma LA PAZ
,--" OUIMSA CHATA 24 Ma
SJ S VILOCO
A
17 H.
3%;
( &
" . canacoles
23 Ma
( } -
J
2-
BERENGUELA CHICOTE
O
S O 23 Ma 79
| - COLOUIRI o
& y 14 Ma Y."
3. N\ * -
La JA
s O
Ye -
HUARI
.colav
20 Ma.
caRGUAlcoLLo \ ^* 9ERRo Rico
Z. DE POTosi
13 Ma
PORCO
O
2,
~~
--
SANTA Rosa
DE KASIRI -
EL ASIENTO y -
PULACAYO
*
*.
-> UBINA
- O
Uyuni TASNA
16 Ma
CHOROLOUE
CHOCAYA o 16 Ma
13 Ma -
0.5 Ma
O TATAs.
O O ISCA ISCA
SAN cRESTOBAL.
e SAN
16 MaviceNTE O CHOROMA
Escala
comuniDAD e < 18 Ma. SANTA ISABEL
- - - - - - - - - - e "-.
sAN e sueNA w87A 11 Me
. ANTONIO e!ESMORACA
. *NYPole B
; ...?& " " " `MoRoKF ---t-via
~" AR
GFAr
N- -
23 20 o 20 40 Go so 100 kilometers
|- Ececem-e
I I I 1 I
Figure 2. Map showing locations and ages of mineral deposits discussed in this study and additional polymetallic
vein deposits in western Bolivia. Solid circles are polymetallic vein deposits; X's are other types of deposits. Names
and dates in bold italics indicate deposits specifically studied. Shaded area indicates the young volcanic rocks of the
Cordillera Occidental, which are post-mineral cover to the polymetallic vein deposits.
90 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
discordant in detail, are consistent with field evidence that the two domes are temporally equivalent, the mineraliza
indicates that intrusion of the dacite bodies and mineral tion at Todos Santos may have formed less than 6.1 m.y.
ization are closely related. We dated a quartz-alunite vein ago.
that crosscuts mineralized structures in the Kori Kollo
mine and obtained a K-Ar age of 4.7+0.2 Ma (table 1). If
SAN CRISTOBAL DISTRICT (TOLDOS MINE)
all the dates are accurate, they indicate that the hydrother
mal system was extremely long lived. Additional studies Mineral deposits in the San Cristobal district occur
are needed to eliminate the possibility that the alunite age near the center of a deeply eroded late Tertiary volcanic
documents either a later hydrothermal event that is unre complex that consists of a number of subvolcanic stocks
lated to the Miocene intrusion or supergene alteration. that intrude siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate of
probable Eocene and Oligocene age and younger volcanic
and volcaniclastic rocks of probable Miocene age (Richter,
NEGRILLOS AREA Brooks, Ludington, and others, 1991). Currently, the most
important mineral deposit in the district is being exploited
In the Negrillos area, silver-bearing polymetallic at the Toldos mine, where an open-pit, heap-leach opera
veins are emplaced in a series of andesitic lava flows and tion recovers silver from an orebody of approximately
volcanic breccias (Gamble and others, 1991). These rock 3,000,000 tonnes at about 120 grams/tonne (g/t) silver.
units appear to be stratigraphically above an ash-flow tuff The district is typical of many Altiplano polymetallic
dated at 21.7+0.7 Ma (table 1), suggesting that the veins at vein districts in that tin and gold are found in very low
Negrillos are younger than 21.7 Ma. concentrations. In the Toldos deposit, alteration envelopes
around silver-bearing pyrite veins are primarily composed
of sericite. The dacite porphyry that hosts the deposit and
CARANGAS AREA others in the district have been affected by a form of potas
sic alteration that has resulted in whole-rock K2O contents
In the Carangas area, silver-bearing polymetallic greater than 8 weight percent, even though petrographic
veins are emplaced in altered tuffs of the Tertiary Caran studies have been unable to document and clarify the nature
gas Formation (Gamble and others, 1991). The most sig of the alteration. Fresh biotite phenocrysts are a distinctive
nificant deposits appear to be on Cerro Espritu Santo, characteristic of these altered rocks, and K-Arages on these
where zones of intense hydrothermal alteration are biotites yielded ages of 8.0+0.1 Ma (90BDR030) and
present. A distinctive rhyolite porphyry is found both as 8.5+0.3 Ma (90BDR010) (table 1). Sample 90BDR010 is
dikes and small plutons that intrude the hydrothermally from the open pit at the Toldos mine, whereas sample
altered rocks on the hill and as clasts within hydrother 90BDR030 is from an outcrop of a separate intrusion, sev
mal(?) mineralized breccias. Analysis of biotite from a eral kilometers to the north. Thus, 8.5 Ma would appear to
dike in this rhyolite porphyry gave an age of 15.4+0.5 Ma be the maximum age of mineralization.
(table 1). Although the field relations that constrain the
meaning of this date are equivocal, the age of mineraliza ESCALA DEPOSIT
tion may be about 15 Ma.
The Escala deposit consists of a series of silver-bear
ing polymetallic veins emplaced in a subvolcanic rhyolite
TODOS SANTOS DEPOSIT porphyry stock (Richter, Brooks, Cox, and others, 1991).
The rhyolite stock intrudes a series of dacitic ash-flow
The deposit at the Todo Santos mine is related to a tuffs and debris flows. Near the deposit, a date of 18.2+0.3
rhyolite dome complex that intrudes rock of the Tertiary Ma was obtained from biotite in a dacitic debris flow in
Carangas Formation (Gamble and others, 1991). The the upper part of this volcanic series (table 1). Biotite
main Todos Santos dome consists of flow-banded rhyo from fresh intrusive rhyolite porphyry a few kilometers
lite that intrudes its own carapace of tuffs and breccias. north of the Escala deposit yielded an age of 18.0+0.2 Ma.
The associated mineral deposit consists of a group of These dates constrain the age of the Escala deposit to be
veins and disseminations in and near a fault that cuts the less than 18 Ma (table 1).
dome and its carapace of pyroclastic rocks. The prospect
is of interest primarily for its precious-metal values, but BUENA VISTA DEPOSIT
base-metal values are also appreciable. Biotite from a
coarse block-and-ash flow of pumiceous rhyodacite In the Buena Vista area, several polymetallic veins are
yielded a K-Ar age of 6.1+0.2 Ma (table 1); the block emplaced in Miocene dacitic ash-flow tuffs, lava flows, and
and-ash flow is intruded by a small rhyolite dome, simi volcanic breccias (Ludington, Czamanske, and others,
lar in appearance to the main dome at Todos Santos. If 1991). Unlike most of the Bolivian polymetallic vein
K-Ar AGES OF BOLIVIAN TERTIARY POLYMETALLIC VEIN DEPOSITS 91
deposits, they have no obvious association with dacitic Table 2. Ages of mineral deposits on the Altiplano and in the
intrusive bodies. The veins contain lead, zinc, silver, anti Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia.
mony, and gold; the principal ore minerals are stibnite, [Deposits followed by an asterisk (*) are not polymetallic vein deposits; Mara Elena
galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, argentite, and various sil and the Cuidado mine on Cerro Eskapa are probably epithermal precious-metal depos
its; Kiska is not assignable at present]
ver sulfosalts. Alteration sericite that is part of a quartz
sericite-pyrite envelope around a vein yields a K-Ar age of
11.1+0.3 Ma (table 1). This confirms an earlier determina Mineral deposit Age
Kori Kollo >5 Ma
tion of 11.3+0.6 Ma (Instituto de Geologa Econmica,
Negrillos <21.7 Ma
1985). This age is considered to be the age of mineraliza
Carangas 15 Ma
tion at Buena Vista; it is considerably younger than the
Todos Santos <6 Ma
enclosing pyroclastic rocks, which appear to have been San Cristobal (Toldos mine) 8.5 Ma
erupted between about 24 Ma and 15 Ma (Kussmaul and Mina Escala <18 Ma
others, 1975). Buena Vista 11 Ma
Mara Elena >6 Ma
Eskapa (Cuidado mine)* <6 Ma
MARA ELENA PROSPECT Kiska" > 14 Ma
DISCUSSION
CERRO ESKAPA AREA (CUIDADO MINE)
Cerro Eskapa is part of a large field of late Tertiary The available radiometric ages of minerals associated
and Quaternary stratovolcanoes in the Cordillera Occiden with Tertiary polymetallic vein deposits in the Bolivian
tal and is about 125 km southwest of Uyuni. Two mineral Andes south of La Paz are latest Oligocene or Miocene.
deposits are hosted in the lavas of this volcano. One, the This includes 14 ages taken from published sources (Lud
Cuidado mine, is near the summit of the volcano and con ington, Orris, and others, 1991) and the ages determined
sists of an area of conspicuous epithermal, chiefly argillic, or constrained during this study (table 2, fig. 2). The ages
hydrothermally altered dacitic breccias that contains range from about 24 Ma to about 5 Ma and span the entire
anomalous values of gold, silver, arsenic, antimony, and Miocene with no apparent temporal maxima in mineraliza
tellurium. The other is on the flanks of the volcano and tion. Three other deposits (Mara Elena, Eskapa, Kiska),
consists of copper veins in a massive dacitic lava dome which are not polymetallic vein deposits, also have com
flow that contains phenocrysts of sanidine, plagioclase, parable ages.
biotite, and some quartz (Richter, Brooks, Shew, and oth There do seem, however, to be spatial patterns in time
ers, 1991). Biotite from this rock yielded a K-Ar age of of-mineralization in this region. Deposits in the Cordillera
6.3+0.1 Ma (table 1)this serves as a maximum age of Oriental are older than in the Altiplano and Cordillera
mineralization for the copper deposit. Occidental, and deposits become progressively younger
southward in both Cordilleras and in the Altiplano.
In the Cordillera Oriental, over a distance of about
KISKA PROSPECT 500 km, the deposits decrease in age from about 24 Ma, at
Viloco in the north, to about 16 Ma, at San Vicente in the
The Kiska gold-silver prospect is on an isolated hill south (Cerro Rico de Potos appears to be an exception at
southwest of the Kori Kollo deposit in the La Joya district 13 Ma).
(Ludington, du Bray, and others, 1991). The entire hill, A similar but less well-defined pattern of westward
which is composed primarily of Paleozoic sedimentary younging of polymetallic vein deposits is seen in the
92 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Cordillera Occidental and on the Altiplano of Bolivia. The late-stage part of the igneous system (McKee and Noble,
ages of deposits in this belt are significantly younger than 1990).
in the Cordillera Oriental to the east: from about 15 Ma at Bolivian polymetallic vein deposits appear to be
Kori Kollo to less than 6 Ma at Todos Santos. smaller and less common on the Altiplano and in the Cor
dillera Occidental than in the Cordillera Oriental. This
may be more apparent than real and could be the result of
the relative lack of erosion of the younger volcanoes in the
RELATIONSHIP OF MINERAL west or burial of older, mineralized hydrothermal systems
DEPOSITS TO ANDEAN VOLCANISM by young, unaltered lava flows and ash-flow tuffs.
Because it is much less deeply eroded, the western arc
The Andean Cordillera of western South America is
(Cordillera Occidental) appears to be more likely to host
commonly referred to as the classic example of a conver epithermal precious-metal deposits than polymetallic vein
gent continental plate margin (Dewey and Bird, 1970). deposits. Because of the generally younger age of the
The area of this report, southwestern Bolivia, lies in the igneous rocks, mineralization there is also younger.
central Andes, astride a major oroclinal bend in the Cor
dillera. Differences in the tectonic and igneous history of
different parts of the Andes are the result of different rates
and (or) angles of subduction between the Pacific Nazca REFERENCES CITED
plate and the continental South American plate, as well as
Cox, Allan, and Dalrymple, G.B., 1967, Statistical analysis of
to varying crustal thickness. Offshore from Bolivia and
geomagnetic reversal data and the precision of potassium-ar
northern Chile, a segment of the subducting Nazca plate is
gon dating: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 72, no. 10,
bounded on the north by the Easter fault zone (subparallel p. 26032614.
to the Nazca Ridge) and on the south by the Challenger Dalrymple, G.B., and Lanphere, M.A., 1969, Potassium-argon dat
fault zone (Schweller and others, 1981). This Nazca plate ingPrinciples, techniques, and applications to geochronolo
segment is directly related to tectonism and volcanism in gy: San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, 258 p.
the Bolivian portion of the Andes. Dewey, J.F., and Bird, J.M., 1970, Mountain belts and new
In Bolivia, the Cordillera consists of three contiguous global tectonics: Journal of Gcophsyical Research, v. 75,
morphotectonic provinces, which are, from east to west, p.26252647.
Francis, P.W., Halls, C., and Baker, M.C.W., 1983, Relationships
the Cordillera Oriental, Altiplano, and the Cordillera Occi between mineralization and silicic volcanism in the central
dental (figs. 1 and 2). Built across these provinces is the Andes: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v.
central volcanic zone (Thorpe and others, 1982), the 18, p. 165190.
largest of the three active volcanic chains in the Andean Gamble, B.M., Ratt, J.C., Carrasco, Raul, Soria-Escalante, Edu
Cordillera. Here, volcanism has also been voluminous dur ardo, and McKee, E.H., 1991, Todos Santos district, in U.S.
ing most of the latter half of the Cenozoic, especially dur Geological Survey and Servicio Geolgico de Bolivia, Geolo
ing the last 27 million years. The sites of former gy and mineral resources of the Altiplano and Cordillera Occi
volcanoes define two arcs that merge at the southern end dental, Bolivia, with a section on Application of economic
of the Altiplano. The eastern arc lies primarily in the Cor evaluations to mineral deposit models, by D.I. Bleiwas and
dillera Oriental and consists of eroded calc-alkaline volca R.G. Christiansen, U.S. Bureau of Mines: U.S. Geological Sur
noes that are late Oligocene and early to middle Miocene vey Bulletin 1975, p. 136143.
Ingamells, C.O., 1970, Lithium metaborate flux in silicate analysis:
in age (27 to 11 Ma). The western arc (primarily in the
Analytica Chimica Acta, v. 52, p. 323334.
Cordillera Occidental) forms the high crest of the Andes
Instituto de Geologa Econmica, 1985, K-Arages of mineraliza
and is comprised of late Miocene to Holocene andesitic tion at the Caracoles, Siglo XX, Colquechaca, Colavi, Huari
stratovolcanoes and voluminous ignimbrite sheets (Francis Huari, Unificada, Tasna, Inocentes, and Buena Vista mines
and others, 1983). in Bolivia: La Paz, Universidad Mayor de San Andres de
Calc-alkaline volcanic and intrusive rocks in the Bolivia, Instituto de Geologa Econmica, Publicacin Espe
eastern arc (Cordillera Oriental) are the host for most of cial No. 2, p. 270281.
the Cenozoic polymetallic vein deposits in Bolivia and Kussmaul, S., Jordan, L., and Ploskonka, E., 1975. Isotopic ages of
Tertiary volcanic rocks of SW. Bolivia: Bundesanstalt fr
are closely associated with the hydrothermal activity that
Bodenforschung und geologischen Landesmter, Geologische
formed the veins. The volcanic and intrusive rocks range
Jahrbuch, part B. v. 14, p. 111120.
in age from about 27 to 11 Ma. Mineralization dates
Long, K.R., Ludington, Steve, du Bray, E.A., Andr-Ramos, Or
coincide with this time interval, with an apparent concen lando, and McKee, E.H., 1991, La Joya district, in U.S.
tration between about 25 Ma and 15 Ma. In most miner
Geological Survey and Servicio Geolgico de Bolivia, Geol
alized areas, the age of mineralization is only slightly ogy and mineral resources of the Altiplano and Cordillera
younger than intrusive and extrusive ages, confirming the Occidental, Bolivia, with a section on Application of eco
observation that hydrothermal activity is fundamentally a nomic evaluations to mineral deposit models, by D.I.
K-Ar AGES OF BOLIVIAN TERTIARY POLYMETALLIC VEIN DEPOSITS 93
Bleiwas and R.G. Christiansen, U.S. Bureau of Mines: U.S. 1991, Escala district, in U.S. Geological Survey and Servicio
Geological Survey Bulletin 1975, p. 131136 Geolgico de Bolivia, Geology and mineral resources of the
Ludington, Steve, Czamanske, G.K., Carrasco, Raul, Hinojosa-Ve Altiplano and Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia, with a section on
lasco, Alberto, and McKee, E.H., 1991, Buena Vista area, in Application of economic evaluations to mineral deposit mod
U.S. Geological Survey and Servicio Geolgico de Bolivia, els, by D.I. Bleiwas and R.G. Christiansen, U.S. Bureau of
Geology and mineral resources of the Altiplano and Cordillera Mines: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1975, p. 159161.
Occidental, Bolivia, with a section on Application of economic Richter, D.H., Brooks, W.E., Ludington, Steve, Hinojosa-Velasco,
evaluations to mineral deposit models, by D.I. Bleiwas and Alberto, Escobar-Diaz, Angel, McKee, E.H., and Shew, Nora,
R.G. Christiansen, U.S. Bureau of Mines: U.S. Geological Sur 1991, San Cristobal district, in U.S. Geological Survey and
vey Bulletin 1975, p. 164174. Servicio Geolgico de Bolivia, Geology and mineral resources
Ludington, Steve, du Bray, E.A., and McKee, E.H., 1991, Kiska of the Altiplano and Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia, with a sec
prospect, in U.S. Geological Survey and Servicio Geolgico de tion on Application of economic evaluations to mineral deposit
Bolivia, Geology and mineral resources of the Altiplano and models, by D.I. Bleiwas and R.G. Christiansen, U.S. Bureau of
Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia, with a section on Application Mines: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1975, p. 153156.
of economic evaluations to mineral deposit models, by D.I. Richter, D.H., Brooks, W.E., Shew, Nora, Hinojosa-Velasco, Al
Bleiwas and R.G. Christiansen, U.S. Bureau of Mines: U.S. berto, and Escobar-Diaz, Angel, 1991, Cerro Eskapa, in U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin 1975, p. 191192. Geological Survey and Servicio Geolgico de Bolivia, Geolo
Ludington, Steve, Orris, G.J., Cox, D.P., and Asher-Bolinder, Si gy and mineral resources of the Altiplano and Cordillera Occi
grid, 1991, Mineral deposit models, in U.S. Geological Survey dental, Bolivia, with a section on Application of economic
and Servicio Geolgico de Bolivia, Geology and mineral re evaluations to mineral deposit models, by D.I. Bleiwas and
sources of the Altiplano and Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia, R.G. Christiansen, U.S. Bureau of Mines: U.S. Geological Sur
with a section on Application of economic evaluations to min vey Bulletin 1975, p. 116118.
eral deposit models, by D.I. Bleiwas and R.G. Christiansen, Schweller, W.J., Kulm, L.D., and Prince, R.A., 1981, Tectonics,
U.S. Bureau of Mines: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1975, structure, and sedimentary framework of the Peru-Chile
p. 6490. trench, in Kulm, L.D., Dymend, E.J., Dasch, E.J., and Hus
McKee, E.H., and Noble, D.C., 1990, Cenozoic tectonic events, song, D.M., eds., Nazca plateCrustal formation and An
magmatic pulses, and base- and precious-metal mineralization dean convergence: Geological Society of America Memoir
in the central Andes, in Ericksen, G.E., Pinochet, Maria Teresa 154, p. 323349.
Caaas, and Reinemund, J.A., eds., Geology of the Andes and Stacey, J.S., Sherrill, N.D., Dalrymple, G.B., Lanphere, M.A., and
its relation to hydrocarbon and mineral resources: Circum-Pa Carpenter, N.V., 1981, A five-collector system for the simulta
cific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources Earth Science neous measurement of argon isotopic ratios in a static mass
Series, v. 11, p. 189194. spectrometer: International Journal of Mass Spectrometry and
Ratt, J.C., Gamble, B.M., McKee, E.H., Soria-Escalante, Eduardo, Ion Physics, v. 39, p. 167180.
and Carrasco, Raul, 1991, Mara Elena prospect (Cerro Cule Steiger, R.H. and Jaeger, E., 1977, Subcommission on Geochronol
bra), in U.S. Geological Survey and Servicio Geolgico de Bo ogyConvention on the use of decay constants in geo- and
livia, Geology and mineral resources of the Altiplano and cosmochronology: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 36,
Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia, with a section on Application p. 359362.
of economic evaluations to mineral deposit models, by D.I. Thorpe, R.S., Francis, P.W., Hammill, M., and Baker, M.C.W.,
Bleiwas and R.G. Christiansen, U.S. Bureau of Mines: U.S. 1982, The Andes, in Thorpe, R.S., ed., Andesites: New York,
Geological Survey Bulletin 1975, p. 110112. John Wiley and Sons, p. 187205.
Redwood, S.D., 1987, The Soledad Caldera, BoliviaA Mi U.S. Geological Survey and Servicio Geolgico de Bolivia, 1991,
ocene caldera with associated epithermal Au-Ag-Cu-Pb-Zn Geology and mineral resources of the Altiplano and Cordillera
mineralization: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. Occidental, Bolivia, with a section on Application of economic
99, p. 395404. evaluations to mineral deposit models, by D.I. Bleiwas and
Richter, D.H., Brooks, W.E., Cox, D.P., Shew, Nora, Bailey, Eliz R.G. Christiansen, U.S. Bureau of Mines: U.S. Geological
abeth, Hinojosa-Velasco, Alberto, and Escobar-Diaz, Angel, Survey Bulletin 1975, 365 p.
CHAPTER J
76 72 68
12 I I
sensing, volcanology, and hydrothermal systems, followed
Lima
by field and laboratory studies of several anomalous areas.
PERU Processing of the remote-sensing imagery during the
first year lead to the discovery of a strong color anomaly
3- C)
at the La Espaola prospect that is indicative of iron
BOLIVIA oxides and sericite (Jimenez and others, 1991). This is the
largest and most intense anomaly recognized in the region.
|6 ||- Agy oLa Paz -
During the second year, the La Espaola prospect was the
La Espaola site of preliminary geologic mapping at scales of 1:50,000
N D. Oruro
and 1:10,000 by geologists at GEOBOL. Much of the
()
-
8098
11.2 + 0.7 Ma e -
8096
370 Trn
A 10S,
Tik Tik
| 1 km |
8092
441 443 445 447
Explanation
C Pervasive quartz-sericite-pyrite alteration Qal Quaternary alluvium
SN Tid 1-4 Post-mineralization
& Gold-bearing quartz stockworks
dacite porphyry intrusives
G D Acid-sulfate alteration Tid Pre-mineralization dacite porphyry
Z- - -
intrusives, Tid" has miarolitic cavities
g Intrusive breccia Ttk Volcanics at Thola Kkollu
X Prospect pit Trm Mauri and Abaroa Formations
Figure 2. Simplified geologic map of La Espaola prospect, modified from mapping by L. Barrera and Expromin geologists. AA' is the
line of cross section for figure 11. Coordinates in thousands of meters are from zone 19 of the transverse Mercator projection, international
spheroid.
98 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Thola Kkollu
San Geronimo
Jichu Cunca
- -
- -
. -
*** - -
Figure 3. Photograph of La Espaola prospect looking southwest. San Geromino hill (4,584 m) and Jichu Cunca hill (4,521 m) are
comprised of the altered dacite porphyry intrusive complex. Thola Kkollu hill (4,842 m) is visible in the background, and the crest of
the Cordillera Occidental is in the far background.
of La Espaola and strike approximately N. 30 W. and therefore been combined on figure 2 (area labeled Tm).
dip to the west at about 40 (fig. 2). The steep dips are The upper age limit of the lower Mauri is constrained by a
probably due to block faulting associated with an episode K-Ar age on biotite from a tuff near Berenguela that
of middle Miocene uplift that affected this part of the Alti yielded an age of 13.6+1.1 Ma (Carlos Perez de Arce R.,
plano (Wallace and others, 1991). The base of the Mauri Laboratorio De Geocronologia, Servicio Nacional De Geo
Formation is not exposed at La Espaola, although, about logia Y MineriaChile, unpub. data). Evernden and oth
20 km to the east, it lies unconformably on red arkosic ers (1977) and Lavenu and others (1989) report ages for
sandstones of the middle Oligocene Berenguela Formation the Abaroa Formation that range from 21.6 to 13.5 Ma.
(Jimenez and others, 1991; Wallace and others, 1991). In
the Berenguela area, the Mauri Formation has been
divided into upper and lower parts. The upper part is not VOLCANICS AT THOLA KKOLLU
present in the La Espaola area. The lower part consists
of purple and green volcaniclastic conglomerate, sand At La Espaola, the Mauri Formation is unconform
stone, siltstone, and mudstones deposited in an alluvial-fan ably overlain by a sequence of nearly flat-lying lahars and
environment. These rock units are overlain by the Abaroa dacite flows informally named here the volcanics at Thola
Formation, which consists of volcaniclastic breccias and Kkollu (Ttk on fig. 2). Some of the flows appear to be
lahars that contain blocks of pyroxene andesite in a volca derived from a volcanic center at Thola Kkollu hill (fig.
niclastic matrix. Small pyroxene andesite flows and dikes 3), 1 km southwest of the map area on figure 2, although
are also present. Recent mapping by GEOBOL and this remains to be confirmed. Dips measured in these
USGS geologists indicate that the Abaroa Formation is the units are less than 12, suggesting that there has been little
time-equivalent western facies of the lower Mauri in the or no tilting since deposition. The age of the rocks is
Berenguela area. The Mauri and Abaroa Formations have constrained by two K-Ar determinations. Hornblende
GOLD AND SILVER, LA ESPANOLA PROSPECT, NORTHWESTERN ALTIPLANO, BOLIVIA 99
: -
ACID-SULFATE ALTERATION ON
SANGEROMINO HILL
were also observed on Jichu Cunca hill, suggesting that A small, dark reddish-brown gossan about 1 by 3 m in size
acid-sulfate alteration is present in the southern part of the was also observed at this locality, suggesting that larger
intrusive complex. concentrations of sulfides are present locally within this
ZOne.
The geologic setting, presence of vuggy silica with
quartz-alunite alteration, and the dike-like morphology of The geologic features of the Kollota mine are charac
the altered zones are characteristic of magmatic hydrother teristic of epithermal acid-sulfate or high-sulfidation sys
mal acid-sulfate systems (Rye and others, 1991). This tems (Heald and others, 1987; Hedenquist, 1987). The
type of acid-sulfate alteration typically develops at shallow geologic setting, mineral assemblages, and two-stage
levels some distance above the mineralized portions of paragenesis characterized by early acid-sulfate alteration
porphyry systems (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991). These rocks followed by later quartz-pyrite-barite-enargite-gold precip
are also often the site of subsequent precious-metal miner itation is typical of these systems.
alization (Heald and others, 1987; Hedenquist, 1987). The
textural characteristics of the acid-sulfate alteration pre
served on San Geronimo suggest that it formed at some SANTA ROSA MINE
distance below the surface and that there has been signifi
cant erosion since its formation. Opaline silica and chal On the south side of Jichu Cunca hill are several
cedonic quartz are absent; quartz and alunite are relatively prospect pits and adits of the Santa Rosa mine that date
coarsely crystalline; pyrophyllite is present, suggesting from Spanish Colonial times. The workings are along a
temperatures of 260C or more (White and Hedenquist, pyritic, silicified fracture zone that contains high silver
1990); and no flat-lying paleosurface or paleo-water-table values. The structure strikes approximately N. 45 E.
features are preserved. within QSP-altered dacite porphyry (fig. 2). Many of the
A sample of coarsely crystalline (12 mm) alunite rocks on the dump are breccias that contain fragments of
from the acid-sulfate-altered zone on top of San Geronimo vuggy-silica-altered dacite porphyry that are cemented by
hill (fig. 2) was dated by the K-Ar method and yielded an sugary, fine-grained quartz and pyrite. However, no
age of 10.3+0.3 Ma (E.H. McKee, unpub. data). This is alunite or kaolinite alteration was recognized in the field.
about 1 m.y. younger than the age (11.8+0.8 Ma) of the Some of the breccias are cemented by a later stage of fine
biotite-rich phase of the host intrusive complex. grained quartz containing pyrite, barite, sphalerite, galena,
and a relatively abundant, unidentified, dark-gray sulfosalt
mineral. The sulfides and sulfosalt minerals are generally
less than 2 mm in size, whereas barite crystals range up to
KOLLOTA MINE
1 cm. A later stage of silicification consists of gray to
white chalcedonic quartz that locally fills the remaining
The Kollota mine is located on the west side of the porosity in the breccia. Mineralization and silicification at
intrusive complex where several prospect pits and an adit Santa Rosa appears to be younger than the pervasive QSP
are developed along an east-west-striking fracture zone alteration in the host dacite porphyry.
(fig. 2). The volcanic dacite flows along the structure are The mineralization at Santa Rosa has many similari
pervasively altered in a 2- to 4-m-wide zone to vuggy sil ties to the epithermal acid-sulfate mineralization at Kol
ica, quartz-alunite, or quartz-kaolinite that are resistant to lota, except that alunite and kaolinite alteration is poorly
erosion (fig. 9A). Figure 9B is a photomicrograph of developed, and greater amounts of silica and base-metals
quartz-alunite alteration from this outcrop. The acid-sulfate were introduced. The breccia fragments of vuggy silica,
alteration is surrounded by a 10- to 25-m-wide envelope of intense silification, abundance of pyrite and barite, and the
quartz-sericite-pyrite alteration that abruptly grades into the relatively small amounts of open-space filling are charac
propylitically altered volcanics. Locally, the fracture zone teristic of epithermal acid-sulfate systems.
is brecciated and partially cemented with sugary, fine
grained quartz and pyrite. Unoxidized samples of vuggy
silica often contain as much as 10 percent disseminated TARUTANIVEINS
pyrite (< 1 mm size), and barite crystals up to 2 cm long are
locally present in open spaces. Some of the acid-sulfate On the northeast flank of the main intrusive body, the
altered dump samples are also crosscut by barite-enargite lower Mauri Formation is host to Cu-Zn-bearing quartz
veinlets. Figure 9C is a photo of a hand sample that split veins of the adularia-sericite type (figs. 2 and 10). All of
along a barite-enargite veinlet. A rock sample containing the Tarutani veins fill open spaces along fractures with lit
barite-enargite veinlets contained 2 ppm gold (R. Terrazas, tle or no silicification of the wallrock. Pyrite, chalcopy
Expromin, oral commun., 1991). X-ray diffraction studies rite, and sphalerite are the main sulfides present. To date,
of samples from the Kollota mine dumps confirmed the no geochemistry has been done to determine whether the
field identification of alunite, barite, kaolinite, and sericite. veins carry significant gold or silver values. Figure 2
104 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
SUPERGENE ALTERATION
A
Acid-sulfate
! A"
alteration
METERS
soo-N-Tholakkollu hill
4400
| mineralization
Tarutani
-300 veins
4200
--00
Magmatic vapor plume
--~~~
Tim (?)
3900 -----
Possible stockwork\G
3700
~~ \- water
3500
Inferred porphyry intrusion
3400
Figure 11. Schematic cross section along the line of section AA on figure 2 showing the major features of La Espaola prospect. Two
phases of the dacite porphyry stock (Tid) are shown, although the position of the contact between the two intrusive phases is only approxi
mate. One or the other of these intrusive phases is thought to be responsible for the stockwork zone observed at the surface. Also shown
is an inferred porphyry intrusion that is thought to be the source of the magmatic volatiles that produced the acid-sulfate alteration on San
Geronimo hill and at the Kollota mine. The inferred porphyry intrusion may also have produced stockwork mineralization similar to that
observed at the surface. The curved arrows represent possible flow paths of convecting meteoric water. See figure 2 for explanation of map
symbols. See the Discussion section of the text for more details.
magmatic fluids waned, convectively circulating cells of has been attributed to cooling, to pH increases associated
meteoric water collapsed into the earlier formed zone of with progressive mixing between magmatic and meteoric
potassic alteration to produce pervasive quartz-sericite waters, and to boiling (White and Hedenquist, 1990).
pyrite alteration. The QSP stockwork zones may have Acid-sulfate alteration and mineralization typically
formed outboard of the potassic zone as magmatic brines forms well above the level of potassic alteration in por
cooled and mixed with meteoric water. This sequence of phyry systems (often 500700 m). The presence of acid
intrusion, magmatic fluid generation and escape, and col sulfate alteration within rocks formerly subjected to potas
lapse of meteoric fluids into the system may have sic alteration at La Espaola suggests that the hydrology
occurred several times. The three stockwork zones dis of the system changed significantly. A drop in the water
covered at La Espaola may have been produced by sepa table or erosional unroofing during the life span of the
rate intrusive events. igneous-hydrothermal system has been called upon to
Magmatic hydrothermal acid-sulfate alteration formed explain the lowering of magmatic-hydrothermal acid-sul
at shallower levels in the system. The vuggy silica and fate alteration into the sericitic and potassic zones of por
quartz-alunite alteration observed on San Geronimo hill, at phyry systems (White and Hedenquist, 1990; Vila and
the Kollota mine, and at the Santa Rosa mine typically Sillitoe, 1991). Further, based on the magmatic hydrother
forms at the top of the magmatic vapor plume (fig. 11) mal acid-sulfate model (Rye and others, 1991), it is possi
where volatiles such as HCl, HF, and SO2 condense and ble to infer the presence of an unexposed intrusion at
where SO2 disproportionates to H2SO4 and H2S (Rye and depth (e.g., fig. 11) that was the source of the magmatic
others, 1991). In the zone of condensation above the volatiles necessary to produce the acid-sulfate alteration
vapor plume, small volumes of extremely acidic fluid are observed at the surface. The inferred intrusion may also
generated that are progressively neutralized by reaction have produced stockwork mineralization similar to that
with the host rocks and by dilution with meteoric water. observed at the surface (fig. 11).
The acid-sulfate-altered rocks produced by this process are The dacite porphyry intrusive complex provided the
usually permeable and often are the site of subsequent thermal drive for convecting cells of meteoric water (fig.
quartz-pyrite-barite + enargite + gold + silver + base-metal 11) that produced widespread propylitic alteration in the
mineralization such as that observed at the Kollota and surrounding host rocks. Locally, these fluids were
d Santa Rosa mines. Ore deposition in acid-sulfate systems focused along high-angle faults and fractures in the
106 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
upwelling part of the cell to produce adularia-sericite-type Ericksen, G.E., Eyzaguirre, V.R., Urquidi, F., and Salas, R., 1986,
veins, such as the Tarutani veins (fig. 11). Ore deposition Neogene-Quaternary volcanism and mineralization in the cen
in these veins may have occurred by mixing of meteoric tral Andes, in Horn, M.K., ed., Transactions of the Fourth Cir
water and fluids emanating from the intrusive or by boil cum-Pacific Energy and Mineral Resources Conference,
Singapore, p. 537550.
ing. The predominance of base-metal sulfides and lack of
Evernden, J.F., Kriz, J.S., and Cherroni, C., 1977, Potassium-ar
adularia in the veins suggests that fluid mixing was more
important. gon ages of some Bolivian rocks: Economic Geology, v. 72,
p. 10421061.
After the early dacite porphyry intrusions cooled and
the hydrothermal system collapsed, La Espaola continued Heald, P.W., Foley, N.K., and Hayba, D.O., 1987, Comparative
to be the site of intrusive activity. Numerous small plugs anatomy of volcanic-hosted epithermal deposits: Acid-sulfate
and adularia-sericite types: Economic Geology, v. 82, p. 125.
and dikes were emplaced into rocks that had previously
been the site of hydrothermal activity. The later dacite Hedenquist, J.W., 1987, Mineralization associated with volca
porphyry intrusions probably remained unaltered because nic-related hydrothermal systems in the circum-Pacific ba
sin, in Horn, M.K., ed., Transactions of the Fourth Circum
they contained lower concentrations of volatiles or were
Pacific Energy and Mineral Resources Conference, Sin
too small to drive convecting cells of meteoric water. gapore, p. 513524.
Uplift and erosion over the last 10 million years
Jimenez, N., Lizeca, J.L., Murillo, F., Sanjines, O., Barrera, L., and
exposed the altered and mineralized rocks and produced
Flores, O., 1991, Aplicacion de metodos de percepcion remota
the topographic relief observed today. Gold-bearing rock, en el estudio geolgico del area Berenguela-Charana, Bolivia
which likely was present in the shallower parts of the sys [WorkshopRemote sensing applied to geological investiga
tem, was removed by erosion. Potential for placer gold tions]. Sevicio Geolgico de Bolivia, Proyecto BID - USGS -
may therefore exist in alluvial valley fill on the flanks of GEOBOL,1221 de Agosto de 1991, 8 p.
the La Espaola prospect. Lavenu, A., Bonhomme, M.G., Vatin-Perignon, N, and de Pacht
ere, P., 1989, Neogene magmatism in the Bolivian Andes be
tween 16 S. and 18 S. Stratigraphy and K/Ar
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS geochronology: Journal of South American Earth Sciences, v.
2, p. 3547.
The authors would like to acknowledge our colleges, Margolis, J., Reed, M.H., and Albino, G.V., 1991, A process orient
ed classification of epithermal systems: Magmatic volatile
F. Tavera, N. Jimenez, J.L. Lizeca, F. Murillo, O. Flores,
rich versus volatile-poor fluid paths [abs.]: Geological Society
and R. Learned for stimulating discussions in the field that
of America, Abstracts with Programs, v. 23, no. 5, p. A230.
improved our understanding of La Espaola. We thank
Rose, A.W., and Burt, D.M., 1979, Hydrothermal alteration, in Bar
our drivers W. Mallea, W. Nina, J. Valdez, and R. Tapia
nes, H.L., ed., Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits,
for their help and support in camp. Publication was 2nd ed., New York, John Wiley and Sons, p. 173235.
encouraged by F. Tavera and authorized by GEOBOL.
Rye, R.O., Bethke, P.M., and Wasserman, M.D., 1991, The stable
Special thanks are offered to R. Terrazas of Expromin
isotope geochemistry of acid-sulfate alteration and vein form
S.R.L. for allowing us to examine geologic maps and ing alunite: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 91257,
geochemical data collected during the course of explora 58 p.
tion at La Espaola and for discussions regarding the ori
Rytuba, J.J., and Cox, D.P., 1991, Porphyry gold: A supplement to
gin of the mineralization. We are grateful to S. Sutley and U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1693: U.S. Geological Sur
T. Botinelly for help with the identification of minerals vey Open-File Report 91116. 7 p.
from X-ray diffraction spectra. And lastly, we thank the
Vila, T., and Sillitoe, R.H., 1991, Gold-rich porphyry systems in
Inter-American Development Bank for funding. the Maricunga belt, northern Chile: Economic Geology, v.
86, p. 12381260.
Wallace, A.R., Hardyman, R.F., Tosqal, R.M., Jimenez, N., Lizeca.
REFERENCES CITED J.L., and Murillo, F., 1991, Episodic midlate Tertiary defor
mation during basin sedimentation and explosive volcanism.
Cox, D.P., 1986, Descriptive model of porphyry Cu-Au, in Cox, northwestern Altiplano, Bolivia {abs.]: Geological Society of
D.P., and Singer, D.A., eds., Mineral Deposit Models: U.S. America, Abstracts with Programs, v. 23, no. 5, p. A 132.
Geological Survey Bulletin 1693, p. 110114. White, N.C., and Hedenquist, J.W., 1990, Epithermal environments
Cunningham, C.G., McNamee, J., Vasquez, J.P., and Ericksen, and styles of mineralization: Variations and their causes, and
G.E., 1991. A model of volcanic dome-hosted precious metal guidelines for exploration: Journal of Geochemical Explora
deposits in Bolivia: Economic Geology, v. 86, p. 415421. tion, v. 36, p. 445474.
CHAPTER K
By JANE M. HAMMARSTROM"
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
Gold mineralization is associated with skarn formed Gold has been mined in the Zamora Province of
in a heterogeneous xenolith or roof pendant within the southeastern Ecuador since the 16th century. In the early
Jurassic Zamora batholith in southeastern Ecuador. Petro 1980's, the gold potential of the area was rediscovered,
graphic descriptions, electron microprobe data for miner initiating a modern gold rush centered around the town of
als, and geochemical data for rock samples are presented Nambija, which is along the eastern edge of the Cordillera
for a suite of 16 samples collected as part of a reconnais de Nanguipa (Barragn, 1989). Gold deposits at Nambija,
sance study of the Nambija gold deposit (McKelvey, and nearby at Campana and Campanilla (fig. 1), form a
1991). Hydrothermal alteration affected all the lithologies north-south belt of structurally controlled mineralization
present at Nambija, including syenite porphyry, volcanic hosted by a polylithologic xenolith or roof pendant within
the Jurassic Zamora batholith. The xenolith rocks are ten
rocks and tuffs, and breccias. Zoned, anisotropic grossu
lar-andradite garnet partially replaces phenocrysts and tatively correlated with the Jurassic Santiago and Macuma
groundmass in breccia and is the dominant mineral in Formations (Salazar, 1988). McKelvey (1991) described
massive skarn; isotropic, pure andradite is locally devel the general geology of the Nambija deposits and showed
that the host rocks at Nambija include limestone, shale,
oped. Other minerals present in skarn include diopsidic
sandstone, and volcanic tuffs and flows, all of which are
pyroxene, epidote, K-feldspar, actinolite, chlorite, quartz,
variably altered to skarn. Mineralization appears to be
apatite, calcite, pyrite, and traces of chalcopyrite. Free
concentrated in a structurally controlled zone that extends
gold is present as electrum in quartz within massive garnet for 1.5 km along strike, especially where breccias, faults,
skarn and in garnet-rich breccia; gold is not associated and dikes cut the skarn assemblages. The extremely high
with sulfide minerals in the sample suite studied. Temper gold grade of the Nambija ore, purported to be in excess
ature estimates from chlorite geothermometry are compati of 50 g/t (grams per tonne), has previously attracted inten
ble with a < 300C retrograde skarn stage. The Nambija sive, small-scale, unorganized mining activities and,
deposit has some characteristics of relatively oxidized recently, the attention of the international mining industry.
gold-bearing skarn deposits elsewhere but is unusually The coarse-grained nature of the gold at Nambija and also
gold rich and copper poor. at Campanilla makes it difficult, due to nugget effects, to
assess ore grades based on reconnaissance sampling. No
reliable grade or tonnage data are available, but geologists
visiting the area in the late 1980's speculated that the
Nambija deposit has a potential ore tonnage of 25,000,000
short tons (23,000,000 metric tonnes) or more and that
'U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 959, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, grade estimates for the active mining at the time of their
National Center, Reston, VA 22092. visit were probably on the order of 0.5 to 1 oz Au/short
108 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
oja
Pl
aCes
s
(Cmpana & T
most significant gold-bearing skarns in the world.
*a.
Zamoras frambla : METHODS OF STUDY
, , ., ,. . ." S, s i
Paleozoic * \ , , , X."
Petrographic descriptions reported here are based on
metamorphic rocks * , , , , s examination of hand specimens and thin sections for 16
(Zamora Group) . . . . . ;-) samples collected by McKelvey (1991). Polished thin sec
Zamora (; tions were prepared for 11 samples; several sections were
tholith ,:
N. S - - -- prepared for some samples to include variations in texture
\ *v - 1> .
within individual specimens. Minerals were analyzed by
*~ , , .
the author using an ARL-SEMQ electron microprobe at
t . .
t * . S- S
\ * .. . $ the U.S. Geological Survey in Reston, Va. Natural and
ECUADOR ... .. synthetic mineral standards were used for silicate miner
\w
>, --
-
als; synthetic electrum standards were used for precious
\ > - s metal analyses. The number of analyses determined for a
PERU is ...' given mineral reflects the modal abundances of that min
eral in the sample suite. A scanning electron microscope
N. 0 20
was used for qualitative analyses and identification of sub
X------- -
5* * . KILOMETERS -
- I microscopic minerals. Fifteen 2-kg bulk-rock samples (fig.
2, NAM-1 through NAM-15) were analyzed for a suite of
Figure 1. Location map for the Nambija, Campanilla, Campana, 44 elements in U.S. Geological Survey analytical laborato
and placer gold deposits, Zamora Province, Ecuador. Geology from ries in Denver.
Mapa Geolgico Nacional de la Repblica del Ecuador (1982).
SAMPLE DESCRIPTIONS
ton (14 to 484 g/t) (Mineral Resources Data System, 1991,
record number TC00085). Lithologies sampled include altered syenite porphyry,
Campanilla, a gold deposit recently developed by Pla tuff, breccia, chlorite skarn, and garnet skarn. Sample
teau Mining Plc., reportedly has a significant tonnage of locations and the distribution of lithologies are shown in
ore with gold grades of 0.5 oz/ton or more (Mining Maga figure 2. McKelvey's (1991) sketch map of the district
zine, 1990). The deposit at Campanilla is hosted by andes shows the distribution of outcrops; it also shows a central
itic volcanic tuff. The tuff is locally altered to skarn; gold is zone of garnet skarn cut by dikes and breccias that is
associated with late quartz-carbonate veins that cut the flanked by an outer zone of chlorite skarn. Mining activity
skarn. Campanilla is classified as a vein-type gold deposit is concentrated along the central zone. The distribution of
(Mining Magazine, 1990) that postdates skarn formation. rock types on figure 2 is generalized; the distribution of
Nambija has been described (Salazar, 1988) as a complex garnet-rich versus chlorite-rich skarn in this sample suite
skarn deposit that cannot be readily classified using the is much more erratic. This relation is not surprising in
criteria for different classes of calcic skarns defined by Ein light of the heterogeneous skarn protolith and the extent of
audi and others (1981). Among the unusual features of the shearing and brecciation in the immediate area of the
skarn at Nambija, Salazar (1988) noted that gold is present deposit.
in a variety of textures and lithologies, that scheelite is Rock types (field names assigned by McKelvey,
present with sulfides, and that gold is deposited late in the 1991) and mineral assemblages for samples studied by
paragenesis and may have been remobilized. electron microprobe are summarized in table 1. A number
Mineral assemblages are one of the most useful of minerals reported from Nambija were not observed in
guides for classifying skarn deposits and for understanding the samples examined for this study, including scheelite,
the environment of ore deposition. In this study, new data arsenopyrite, rhodochrosite, and brochantite.
on mineral chemistry are presented for samples collected
by McKelvey (1991) from Nambija, and the data are eval SYENITE PORPHYRY
uated in terms of recent models for gold skarns (Meinert,
1989; Theodore and others, 1991; Ettlinger and Ray, The predominant rock type in the Zamora batholith
1989). The apparent size and grade of the Nambija is a quartz-plagioclase-K-feldspar-hornblende tonalite
MINERALOGY AND CHEMISTRY OF SKARN, ZAMORA PROVINCE, ECUADOR 109
Sample NAM-10 is a distinctive black rock, K-feldspar is ubiquitous in breccia and in skarn. In
described as a tuff (McKelvey, 1991), from an outcrop in some samples, K-feldspar grew along or selectively
the garnet skarn zone on figure 1. Based on thin-section replaced zones in garnet, imparting a bullseye texture to
study, the rock is composed of a dense swarm of plagio the garnet. K-feldspar forms monomineralic veinlets, or
clase laths (0.5 mm wide by 2 mm long) altered to clays. veinlets cored by calcite, and some K-feldspar appears to
E
heden
%Hd,
andradite;
percent
mole
%'Ad,
observed;
not
---,
amount
trace
Tr,
present;
mineral
X,
numbers.
sample
are
porphyry)
tuff,
breccia,
(skarn,
headings
rock-type
under
(Numbers Porphyry
Tuff
Breccia
Skarn
NAM-13
NMineral
]
89TT
NAM-11
NAM-5
NAM-l
NAM-15
NAM-14
NAM-12
NAM-9
NAM-8
NAM-7
NAM-3
AM-10 K-feldspar. . . . . .
X -
----
--
---
--
-- X
Chlorite. . . . . . .
---
--
---
--- Magneti e. . . . . .
X ---
--
---
---
-
-
--
-
---
Plagioclase. . . . .
X ---
--- X
Bioti e. . . . . . . .
---
---
---
--
--- Bioti e/chlorite. . . .
X -
---
---
--- Quartz. . . . . . . .
X --
---
-- TPyrite. . r. . . .
X ---
---
---
---
X
.........
Electrum
-
---
-
--
--
---
--- (%P6-36
Epidote
s). . . . . . .
22430
X ---
---
-
--- X
Calcite. . . . . . .
---
---
---
--- Sphen . . . . . . .
X ---
----
--
---
-
---
--
.X
Amphibole
.......
---
--
---
--
---
--
---
---
aiscreompbrloabge.s
mineral
of
Summary
1.
mTable
electron
by
studied
were
that
Nambija
from
samples
13
in
present
21-63
98
34-55,
(%Ad). . . . .
Garnet
X
58-65
3272
44-69
33-58
2945
4862--
--
---
---
Apati e. . . . . . .
X ---
---
---
--
-
--- Chalcopyrite. . . . .
X --
---
--
---
---
pOther
s!
galena,
zircon,
includes
barite.
and
halerite,
pistacite]
percent
mole
Ps,
k
bergite,
.X
Other!
.......
---
---
---
-
---
---
(%Hd). . .
Pyroxene
16-17
22
28
2134
24 ---
-
--
----
--
MINERALOGY AND CHEMISTRY OF SKARN, ZAMORA PROVINCE, ECUADOR 111
Analysis number
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Al2O3 ......... 17.05 15.58 17.43 16.81 17.67 15.01 2008 20.73 17.70
FeC)............. 14.84 14.27 17.26 15, 19 14.99 13.49 17.54 17.41 15.66
MnO.............. 1.23 1.16 3.23 1.07 3.61 ().71 (),63 ().7] 0.41
MgO............ 23.31 22.59 19.71 21.58 21.38 24.20 21.07 21.75 14.23
CaO............... 0.25 (),66 (). 14 ().28 0.05 0.41 ().06 0.03 0.01
have grown unimpeded into open space before infilling by described as sulfide rich where pyrite forms a network of
calcite (fig. 3B). Calcite veinlets, generally on the order of massive and mottled grains that enclose rounded crystals of
0.2 mm in width, crosscut all other assemblages and garnet and other silicates. This mottling results from
appear to record the latest mineral deposition within these incomplete replacement of preexisting silicate minerals.
rocks. Chalcopyrite is the second most abundant sulfide present,
Pyrite is sparsely disseminated throughout most of the and micron-size blebs of galena, pyrrhotite, and barite were
samples; however, only one sample, NAM-3, can be identified in pyrite by scanning electron miscroscopy.
112 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
MINERAL CHEMISTRY
GARNET
Figure 3. Photomicrographs showing skarn mineral textures in Most of the garnet at Nambija is yellowish green to
sample NAM-9, plane polarized light, field of view 1 mm across. green in hand sample. In thin section, the garnet is color
A, Blebby, opaque quartz vein (Q) cutting chlorite (chl) interstitial less or locally yellow in plane polarized light. Garnet var
to massive garnet (grt). B, Potassium feldspar (kfs) and calcite (cal) ies in texture from patchy, to veins, to massive and is
vein in garnet (grt). sector twinned, mostly anisotropic, and shows delicate,
oscillatory growth zoning. Microprobe data for garnet
were recalculated in terms of ideal garnet stoichiometry (8
Pyrite grains are brecciated and veined by late silicate min
erals and calcite.
cations per 12 oxygens and assuming no hydrogarnet com
ponent) for the estimation of ferric and ferrous iron con
tents and the calculation of molecular proportions of end
members. Most Nambija garnets are intermediate in com
GOLD MINERALIZATION
position between grossular and andradite, and the sums of
the pyrope, almandine, and spessartine components are
Salazar (1988) described six types of gold occur less than or equal to 10 mole percent (fig. 5A). Garnet
rences at Nambija: (1) an interstitial, late phase between rims tend to be cleaner (inclusion-free) and enriched in
garnet crystals in assemblages with quartz, K-feldspar, cal iron (i.e., normally zoned) relative to cores, despite fine
cite, and plagioclase; (2) with disseminated pyrite in calc scale oscillations in composition (see McKelvey and Ham
silicate minerals and volcanic breccias; (3) on K-feldspar marstrom, 1991, fig. 1). In gold-bearing garnet skarn sam
grain boundaries; (4) in siliceous sedimentary rocks; (5) in ple NAM-15, however, cores, zones, and irregular patches
quartz veins and veinlets; and (6) in fractures in shear of yellow, isotropic, nearly pure andradite are locally
zones. He concluded that gold was deposited after garnet developed. Andradite is rimmed by garnet of intermediate
and perhaps after K-feldspar and probably had a pro composition, typically in coarse-grained pods. Hammar
tracted history of deposition and remobilization that strom (in Theodore and others, 1992) noted similar
E
analyzed
Flonaredstcumytca-rteoalistevcomelpinyct
pi2
scoupled
emission
Sb,
Pb,
Mo,
Cu,
Cd,
Bi,
As,
Ag
for
analysis
partial
with
1983)
Crock
1987,
others,
and
(Lichte
package
analytical
NAM-7
NAM-6
NAM-5
NAM-4
NAM-3
NAM-2
NAM-1
NAM-15
NAM-14
NAM-13
NAM-12
NAM-11
NAM-10
NAM-9
NAM-8 TpbAesrtrace
d|
(elements
methods
following
by
Hg,
1990).
visible
W,
method,
vapor
ascold
furnace
graphite
Au,
atomic
Te, cobetropgmstaicosnpoteny,d
0.35
0.15
0.10
2.80
0.30
Te
0.05
0.50
N0.05
<0.05
E|||
BfCCCIdTuff
Porphyry
Skarn
Breccia
3
Yb
1
2
4
l
Ag
2.9
0.30
0.051
0.55
0.25
0.58
0.28
N0.045
1.1
0.5
1.0
W
6.0
N0.5
11.0
2.0
1.0
0.002
0.90
NO.002
7.30
0.024
1.20
0.008
<0.002
0.012
0.028
0.034
47.0
1.65
Au
million)
per
parts
(in
analysis"
element
Trace spectroscopy?
Optical
million)
per
parts
(in
spectroscopy?
Optical
percent)
weight
(in
eadings
tuff,
skam,
(breccia,
copnecenitfriateido]n
the
at
detected
not
N,
numbers.
sample
are
sporphyry)
Be
1
<
2
<<l
<1
1l
Hg
0.18
0.20
0.12
0.04
0.02
0.36
0.08
N0.02
0.28
1pm0
<
Bi
1988).
(Motooka,
pZn
2
&
Cd
and
ppm
analyst.
Fey,
D.L.
samples.
all
for
1.6
12
N0.60
2.5
8.6
4.1
3.6
9.4
7.3
48
20
0.68
As
absorption.
analysts.
Roumer,
T.A.
and
Roushey,
B.H.
Hageman,
P.L.
forsamples
"data
"ock
Nambija.
from
head;
WPe
halytic
-
errock-l
Table
3 A
und
(Numbers
1.
-
14
8.
Al
12
6.
9.53
5.56
7.94
9.95
8.65
8.04
10.0
8.26
6.84 15.3
10.7
5.93
5.43
10.3 8.57
Ca 3.65
6.89
0.49
1.93
10.1
1.74
5.60
21.0
1.29
12
2.
0.61
11.0
0.11 6.68
12.3
3.47
3.26
Fe
7.18
2.43
1.78
6.03
4.32
7.91
3.73
7.40
14
1.
9.74 Mg
0.56
2.47
0.45 2.31
2.79
0.48
3.62
3.18
0.27
0.62
4.85
0.70
0.91
0.10
0.06
0.49 0.85
4.40
3.56
0.02
0.23
2.92
Na
0.89
4.88
3.17
4.78
4.66
3.33
3.54
0.04 Ti
0.34
0.49
0.31
0.53
0.62
0.21
0.28
0.54
0.42
().38
0.26
0.35
0.32 2,070
1,880
57
602
625
120
853
772
Ba
103
196
200
16
685
597
14 17
18
56
31
<48 18
8
10
Ce
227
7
14
15
11
63
21 118
6
Co
7
29
18
2
4
31
708 33
122
329
36
34
77
38
15
13
10
3Cr
475 203
54
2
|Cu
1
|
9
6 | 23
250
117
239
745
662
50
46 18 40
20
24
32
26
17
19
27
16
Ga 914384 Li
La
5
210
7
48
13
6
1
| 5
6
764176 5,910
310
17
12
8
11
4 8,320
4,480
4,320
2,630
6,770
2,660
4,440
7,550
8,630
2,570
4,860
1,130
135
Mn
1,350 <2
<Mo
3
8
42 5
Nb
8
<6
<4
4 33
9
Nd
17 427 Ni
1<14
5
11
221
8
35
12
16 <2
421
9
27
5
15
1101420 13
1<4
5
Pb
16
14
12
73
8
4
24
22
8 8
<5
Sb
<
5
15
7
9 0 16
12
18
Sc
19
20
9
323
8
30
100 45
133 0 7
1178
1
92
261
4
31
65
Sr
166
61
509
195
39
18
62 <Th04
6
19
5
<4
4 13
35
15
19
2Zn
8
171
83
26
239
125
223
69
36
10
33.32
0.75
6.77
3.48
1.33
0.87
6.64
1.23
13
().
3.49
K
5.79
1.79
0.14
0.80
.97 00.58
P
0.03
0.04
0.14
0.07
0.06
0.09
0.11
0.41
.06 147
1154
138
133
123
80
200
97
V
84
172
59
239
302
298
28 28
26
1Y7
6
10
21
15
22
38
40
16
11
114 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Py + Alm + Sp
o NAM 1
NAM 3
NAM 7
NAM8
NAM9
NAM 12
NAM 15
89|| 1
Gr Ad
Figure 4. Photomicrograph showing coarse electrum (E) in
quartz (Q) with zoned garnet (grt). Sample NAM-15, plane polar A
ized light, field of view 2 mm across.
2.00
n lt n 1 O 32
occurrences of multiple generations of garnet, including a s lony- 5 (0.26 o
a ! Iqt 7 O 28
break in composition between isotropic and anisotropic | Jorn 8 0 21
* ! or Q () 4 o $3
varieties, in skarn associated with gold mineralization in I lm 12 5 * n
*a
part of such a process. Therefore, samples that only con 0.00 l-i--------, 1 * * *a fl-* . . . . . ------------
tain garnet populations of a uniform composition may be O 20 40 60 80 1 OO
less prospective than samples with more complex garnet
Andradite, in mole percent
populations. B
TiO2 contents of the pure andradites are negligible.
Garnets in the two breccia samples (open symbols in fig Figure 5. A, Ternary diagram showing Nambija garnet composi
ure 5B) are more titaniferous than those in massive skarn, tions plotted in terms of pyrope (Py) + almandine (Alm) + spessar
tine (Sp) components, grossular (Gr) component, and andradite
which is typical of skarn developed in an igneous rather (Ad) component. B. Variation of TiO2 contents of Nambija garnets
than a carbonate-rock protolith. Titanium content of garnet as a function of andradite content. Numbers in parentheses refer to
does not reflect the whole-rock titanium concentrations
whole-rock Ti content reported by McKelvey (1991).
(table 3); the least titaniferous garnets are in pyroxene
and sphene-bearing samples.
diopsidic (fig. 6), with a persistent, but relatively minor,
manganese component (MnO ranges from 1.5 to 3.0
PYROXENE weight percent). Titanium contents are negligible, and alu
mina varies from below detection limits to 0.5 weight per
Pyroxene is much less common than garnet in the cent Al2O3. Pyroxene compositions for Nambija samples
samples studied. Where present, pyroxene is finer grained overlap pyroxenes from other mineralized skarns but lack
and less abundant than coexisting garnet. The pyroxene is the enhanced Al2O3 and TiO2 contents noted by Ettlinger
MINERALOGY AND CHEMISTRY OF SKARN, ZAMORA PROVINCE, ECUADOR 115
5.0
intergrown with chlorite or chlorite replacing a preexisting
/ *
, ITT N- N n=22
layer silicate may invalidate the use of the method. Chlo
H. Y , Gold and silver rite geothermometry was used in a study of a massive sul
f | s/ fide deposit by Krandidiotis and MacLean (1987), and
Jowett (1991) reevaluated their conclusion that a correc
Lll ~- | \ tion is needed to account for variations in chlorite Fe/Mg
h- S ] \ ratios. Temperatures computed for Nambija chlorites
H. X
5 3.0 r ||N \ (table 2) from Jowett's (1991) equation range from 165C
to 362C. Relatively high concentrations of CaO and K2O
uj |||}| \ Base and
in analyses 2, 4, 6, and 7 (table 2) suggest that intergrown
> | \ ferrous
2: 2.0 H. | \ metal
smectite or mica may be present. Temperatures computed
for analyses containing these impurities are low (< 200C
for analyses 2, 4, and 6; table 2) relative to temperatures
+ 1.0 H. | N-l-l-l-l- / computed for other analyses. For two analyses from tuff
sample NAM-10, a lower temperature is obtained for K
g f y - |/ bearing analysis 7 (337C; table 2) than for K-free analy
sis 8 (362C; table 2); both temperatures are high, beyond
the range of 150325C for which Jowett's (1991) equa
O 10 20 30
tion is applicable, and textures suggest that chlorite
Feo, IN WEIGHT PERCENT replaces biotite or other mafic silicate minerals in this
EXPLANATION rock. Similarly, the temperature computed for brown, K
D Sample 3 x Sample 12 and Ca-bearing chlorite in skarn sample NAM-7 (table 2,
Sample 8 e Sample 14 analysis 4) is lower than the temperature computed for
purer green chlorite from the same rock. The Nambija
Figure 6. Pyroxene compositions, plotted in terms of weight per chlorites are much more manganiferous than the chlorites
cent Al2O3 + TiO2 vs Fe0. Fields for pyroxenes associated with from geothermal systems on which the geothermometers
gold and silver skarns and base- and ferrous-metal skarns from Et are based, and the assumption of low ferric iron content
tlinger and Ray (1989). may be invalid. Chlorite in skarn samples such as the
interstitial rosettes, represented by analysis 3 and analysis
5, which yield temperatures of 264C and 288C, respec
tively, are the most likely chlorites to record meaningful
and Ray (1989) for pyroxenes from precious-metal
enriched skarns elsewhere.
temperatures in the data set because textures are compati
ble with growth from a fluid, and Ca and K contents are
negligible. Although it would be presumptuous to attach
any significance to the individual absolute temperatures,
CHLORITE
the range of temperatures for chlorite overlaps the temper
Chlorite is a relatively minor mineral in most of the ature range (220320C) of fluid inclusions in chlorite
calc-silicate-bearing samples studied, despite the extensive dominant skarn at the Tomboy-Minnie gold skarn deposit
(Theodore and others, 1986).
area mapped as chlorite skarn on figure 2. Chlorite clearly
postdates garnet and tends to form clots of pale-green to Johnson (1991) applied chlorite geothermometry to
brownish rosettes interstitial to garnet in samples of skarn. hydrothermally altered sedimentary rocks, including skarn,
Chlorite compositions (table 2) are all relatively magne in the New World gold-copper district, Montana, to exam
sian (Mg/(Mg+Fe) = 0.68 to 0.76). Cathelineau and Nieva ine district-wide temperature gradients and fluid-flow
(1985) described a chlorite solid-solution geothermometer paths. His study, with caveats on the application of such
based on an empirical correlation between observed authi methods to different hydrothermal systems, showed a gen
genic chlorite compositions and temperatures measured in eral pattern of temperature decrease away from postulated
active geothermal systems (e.g., Salton Sea geothermal fluid conduits such as sills and dikes, fault zones, and
field, McDowell and Elders, 1980). Cathelineau (1988) lithologic contacts. Most of the calculated temperatures
refined this geothermometer and suggested that the fell in the range 226321C. Nambija may be an excel
method could be applied with caution to hydrothermal and lent mining district for similar studies, especially if cou
metamorphic chlorites because the temperature-sensitive pled with fluid-inclusion work. Unfortunately, the
parameter, the tetrahedral aluminum content (AllW), available data set for Nambija is as yet too limited in dis
appears to be independent of lithology or fluid composi tribution and number of samples to rigorously evaluate
tion. However, he noted that the presence of smectite trends in chlorite temperatures.
116 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
OTHER MINERALS 4.
| --~~
I
- | ----. Fe
Feldspars in all rock types are nearly pure albite or f
st I
. . . CU
Cu * -----
orthoclase. Intermediate plagioclase compositions (Ab2) t | - e , .. .. . t
Figure 7. Metal ratios for Nambija rock samples. Fields for gold,
GEOCHEMISTRY silver-gold, copper, and iron skarns from Ettlinger and Ray (1989).
preserved or with a late quartz-pyrite overprint. The avail Table 4. Characteristics of gold skarn deposits.
able data for the Nambija deposits (McKelvey, 1991;
[Based on Theodore and others, 1991; Meinert, 1989; and Ettlinger and Ray, 1989)
Salazar, 1988; this study) show that Nambija exhibits some
of the characteristics of a relatively oxidized gold skarn, as
indicated by garnet and pyroxene compositions, the pres Clastic or volcaniclastic rock component in skarn protolith
ence of epidote, and the nature of the sulfide minerals Relatively reduced, mafic calcalkaline/subalkalic plutons
(pyrite > pyrrhotite). More reduced mineral assemblages Anomalous contents of As, Bi, and (or) Te
may lie at depth, and the gold observed in quartz within Gold enriched in distal skarn
preserved prograde skarn assemblages may represent gold
Gold deposited in retrograde skarn, together with sulfides
that was deposited or remobilized late in the history of the
Dominant skarn minerals:
system. The protolith, albeit a diverse assemblage, appears
to be dominated by volcaniclastic material rather than a [Reduced type]
Pyroxene (hedenbergitic, Al rich) > garnet (andradite
relatively pure carbonate protolith. Neither copper, bis
grossular)
muth, arsenic, nor tellurium appear to be present in anoma
Narrow, Al-rich zones in pyroxene and garnet
lous concentrations in the reconnaissance sample suite
[Oxidized type]
(table 4), although a Te-bearing mineral has been identified
Garnet (andradite-grossular) > pyroxene (diopside rich)
in pyrite. Gold/silver ratios are high, and copper/gold ratios
for the Nambija samples appear to be extremely low com Reverse zoning and multiple generations of garnet
pared to most gold skarn systems (McKelvey and Hammar Dominant sulfides:
California, USA: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, Salazar, Edgar, 1988, Nambija: Conacimiento geologico y mineral
v. 74, p. 293310. ogico hasta la presente: INEMIN, Quito, 11 p.
McKelvey, G.E., 1991, Interest shown in Nambija gold deposits, Sillitoe, R.H., 1991, Intrusion-related gold deposits, in Foster, R.P.,
Zamora Province, Ecuador: Mining Engineering, v.43, no. 12, ed., Gold Metallogeny and Exploration: Glasgow and London,
p. 14121414. Blackie, p. 165209.
McKelvey, G.E., and Hammarstrom, J.M., 1991, A reconnaissance Theodore, T.G., Blake, D.W., Loucks, T.A., and Johnson, C.A.,
study of gold mineralization associated with garnet skarn at 1992, Geology of the Buckingham stockwork molybdenum
Nambija, Zamora Province, Ecuador [abs.], in Good, E.E., deposit and surrounding area, Lander County, Nevada, with a
Slack, J.F., and Kotra, R.K., eds., USGS Research on Mineral section on Potassium-argon and 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of
Resources1991, Program and Abstracts: U.S. Geological selected plutons in the Buckingham area, by E.H. McKee, and
Survey Circular 1062, p.55. a section on Economic geology, by T.A. Loucks and C.A.
Johnson, and a section on Supergene copper deposits at Cop
Meinert, L.D., 1989, Gold skarn depositsGeology and explora
per Basin by D.W. Blake, and a section on Mineral chemistry
tion criteria, in Keays, R.R., Ramsay, W.R.H., and Groves,
of Late Cretaceous and Tertiary skarns, by J.M. Hammarstrom:
D.I., eds., The Geology of Gold Deposits: The Perspective in
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 798D, 307 p.
1988: Economic Geology Monograph 6, p. 537552.
Theodore, T.G., Howe, S.S., Blake, D.W., and Wotruba, P.R.,
Mining Magazine, November 1990, Campanilla gold mine, p. 1986, Geochemical and fluid zonation in the skarn environ
322323.
ment at the Tomboy-Minnie gold deposits, Lander County, Ne
Mineral Resources Data System (MRDS) [computer database], vada, in Nichols, E.E., ed., Exploration for Ore Deposits of the
1991, U.S. Geological Survey, Branch of Resource Analysis, North American Cordillera; Selected Papers of the Symposium
Record number TC00085 for the Nambija district, Ecuador. of the Association of Exploration Geochemists held in Reno,
[Available from USGS, BORA, MS 920, 12201 Sunrise Valley Nevada, March 2528, 1984: Journal of Geochemical Explora
Drive, Reston, VA 22092]. tion, v. 25, nos. 1, 2, p. 99128.
Motooka, J.M., 1988, An exploration geochemical technique for Theodore, T.G., Orris, G.J., Hammarstrom, J.M., and Bliss, J.D.,
the determination of preconcentrated organometallic halides 1991, Gold-bearing skarns: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin
by ICP-AES: Applied Spectroscopy, v.42, p. 12931296. 1930, 61 p.
CHAPTER L
I I 1 ----------------
for a distance of over 250 km off the east coast of New -- - PNG >
Pigiput deposit w
Ireland, Papua New Guinea (fig. 1). Several gold deposits Simberi TABAR islands - So *
- r
S.
and prospects are present within the volcanic chain, which o \!-------
T I
extends southeastward toward Bougainville Island, the site 3 -> LIHIR 154* 155
of the Panguna porphyry coppergold deposit. The world ISLANDS
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
Figure 1. Location of Lihir and Tabar Islands and the Ladolam,
Volcanoes within the Tabar-Feni chain have been Pigiput, Simberi, and Tatau gold deposits and prospects. PNG, Pap
ua New Guinea.
regarded to range in age from Miocene to Holocene
based primarily on their morphology and a few isotopic
age determinations. The five K-Ar isotopic ages reported previously for the chain range from 1.5 to 0.18 Ma with
no systematic age progression along the chain (Wallace
and others, 1983). The volcanic chain is characterized
'U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 901, 345 Middlefield Road, by shoshonitic alkaline volcanism, and petrochemical
Menlo Park, CA 94025.
*U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 984, 345 Middlefield Road, studies of volcanic suites from the volcanic chain by
Menlo Park, CA 94025. Wallace and others (1983) demonstrate a broad range of
120 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Table 1. Data for samples collected from islands of Lihir, Simberi, and Tatau, Papua New Guinea.
nepheline-normative volcanic and intrusive rocks. The for one sample (Stacey and others, 1981) and using a
geochemical data, including radiogenic isotopic values, 15.2-cm-radius, Neir-type mass spectrometer for five sam
suggest similarities to an intraoceanic arc; however, the ples. The precision of the data, shown as the t value
absence of andesitic volcanic rocks and the distinctly (table 1), is the estimated analytical uncertainty at one
alkaline character of the volcanism makes the origin of standard deviation (Cox and Dalrymple, 1967). It repre
the volcanism problematic (Plimer and others, 1988; sents uncertainties in the measurement of radiogenic 40Ar
Wallace and others, 1983; and Johnson, 1979). and K2O based on experience with hundreds of replicated
Johnson's (1979) hypothesis that the volcanism results analyses in the Menlo Park laboratories of the U.S. Geo
from partial melting of mantle lithosphere previously logical Survey. Mass discrimination of the spectrometer is
modified by subduction is favored by recent studies. routinely determined on the basis of multiple analyses of
purified air. The constants used in age determination are
those recommended by the Subcommission on Geochro
K-Ar DATING nology (Steiger and Jaeger, 1977).
CALDERA IN HIGH-K
BASALTIC LAVAS ACTIVE HOT SPRING WITH LOCALIZED
ALUNITE-SULFUR-PYRITE SINTER
TEXTURES
ALTERATION
BREccia witH
VOLCANIC CLASTS
OPEN TExTURED
\
| ALUNITED, wancaste
CLAY WITH SPOTTY Au
BREccia MINEPALIZATION
500m
BREccla witH
CLASIS of K BKOTITE-ANHYDRITE
syenite X MAGNETITE-(PYRITE)
| ]/, , V,
| Stockwork
SYENITE ; , \ UNALTERED
MOnzoni TE
- -
Samples in which primary minerals were totally the volcanic chain. The four volcanic units dated from
replaced by alunite retained their original texture so that Simberi represent the major geologic units on the island
breccia clasts and igneous rock textures could be and span a short interval from 3.5 to 2.3 Ma. Based on the
observed. Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide, and marca analytical uncertainty in the sample ages, the volcanic
site is subordinate in abundance. Pyrite forms inclusion event could have lasted as little as 0.8 m.y. or as long as
filled grains surrounded by overgrowths of inclusion-free 2.0 m.y. (table 1). The alunite ages, 1.2+2.0 and 2.8+0.6
pyrite. It also occurs as fine wisps, atolls, and framboids. Ma, from the mineralized zones on Simberi are younger
Magnetite was observed as inclusions in pyrite. Rarely, than the volcanic rocks, but because of the large analytical
chalcopyrite replaces both pyrite and magnetite. Other uncertainty in the ages, alunite could have formed during
inclusions in pyrite grains were identified by SEM meth mineralization that occurred either during the last stage of
ods as lead sulfide, molybdenum sulfide, and silver-gold volcanic activity or just after volcanism ended, at about
telluride. 2.2 Ma.
H160
Makopena
3Bx
57ydr10o6thermal
910
8535
50
970
16
6,700
19
12
110
0.1
11
6.9
413
6,660
l
0.5
41
ore
stwk
monz
Bio
1L63-424.8
2
220
1,680
Lihir
zone,
2Lienetz
l
42
1,900
989
3
18
20
6.9
23
105
1
6.1
17
54
l 00
0.44
flow
in
ore
Oxide
8
S3
1
93
260
18]
0.2
140
Simberi
0Samat,
535
3.6
10
120
ll
6.8
37
.30
40
145
3.1
2.5
4
Tatau
Makapena,
veins
py-q
Feldpor,
32
1.7
1.6
3.4
8
2
33
1,100
2
M3
100
0.9
298
18
2.1
10
28
7
5
4.l
1.493
.3
Geioncehreamliszterdy
2.
mTable
rocks
plutonic
volcanic
of
Guinea.
New
Papua
Islands,
Tabar
and
Simberi
Tatau,
Lihir,
from
samples
flow
por
Basalt
LC2
Lihir
wall,
W.
caldera
Luise
1.3
28
4.8
2ll
77
38
060
l
23
1
29
5
5
90
0.4
196
0.5
.2
80
]
ore
Sulfide
L54-1945
Lihir
zone,
ore
Lienetz
210
3.6
1.9
16
8.4
8210
6
100
1,460
78
130,000
l
5.2
0.2
246
14
137
162
150
4200
ore
Oxide
L16
Lihir
zone,
ore
2Lienetz
8
72
2.2
2.5
l
110
1,200
60
0.6
504
4
l
10
26
1
5
0.2
84
8.6486 Simberi
Pigiput,
FeC)
and
Mn
Vein,
9
240
5.4
5.7
15
360
540
4,100
0.2
19,020
P3
8l
1
19
90
67
162
60
37
0.1
43
60
6
flow
por
Hb
Lihir
wall,
caldera
Luise
2018
l
133
104
0.5
1.2
34
5.8
0.2
48
LCl
2
3.3
80
90
.6
13
7.7
51
144 tuff
Mafic
Lihir
wall,
W.
caldera
Luise
59LC8
l
40
15
078
2
380
1.1
48
5.1
0.2
100
.2
2.1
4
108
1
|
10
11 Lihir
zone,
Lienetz
Monzonite
L63-568.2
7120
l
32
340
220
6
13
15
588
5
12
4.9
1.8
2
147
0.8
0.9
0.2 40
250
14
1.2
13040 Monzonite
.843 Sulfide
Lihir
zone,
ore
Lienetz
zone
ore
4L71-177
l
5,800
655
5.8
4,050
4,130
120
7.3
27
3,600
10
8.2
235
1,250
0.4 por
Lihir
zone,
ore
64Lienetz
l
30
310
0.7
80
2
122
1.5
1.9
6.9
8074
.4
L87-411
9
0.2
22
27
1
4
6
53
4.4 Tatau
Makapena,
por
Trachyte
54
48
144
2.3
1.5
24
5.8
M2
1.9
22
3.8
15
265
160
l.
40
970
36
0.1
130
10
4 flow
in
ore
Oxide
Simberi
1Samat,
l
72
290
29
5.5
10
1,700
215
5.3
40
8.5
13
01,230
2
2.9
418
0.8
4
8
S420
.2
80 Tabar
Big
flow
mafic
Por
10
8.3
2
275
0.7
0.9
27
4.3
1.3
140
1TBl
l
16
420
24
0.2
46
157
6
4
5 60 ore
grade
high
Vein,
Tabar
Big
3 34
170
2
305
1.5
1.3
20
6.3
l
45
410
746
0.1
11,500
22
TB2
5
6
8
2.2
15
8.80 2.2
7 Simberi
Sorowar,
vein
Alunite
3
2
300
l
68
270
1,200
0.5
2,590
03
16
8.5
31
28
8528
8
10
50
1.3
37 2 2
.2
8 flow
mafic
Por
28531
l
52
170
87
0.1
1,370
Simberi
Manambu,
1Mt.
19
8.7
39
80
7.2
21
20
4
7306
.3
220
0.8
1.3 flow
mafic
Por
Simberi
coast
NE.
Asllawa,
2
172
1.2
1.3
32
6.7
78533
l
54
100
0.1
1330
62
120
1.9
83
21804 Por
7.4
4
5 .9 Simberi
coast
NE.
Asllawa,
flow
mafic
2
8534
3480
l
53
170
34
10.2
3
19
7.3
39
1156
5
35
6.2
1.8
004
.8
188
0.9
1.6
Lihir
wall,
W.
caldera
Luise
LC4
3.9
2
1.2
l
0.1
515
1
019
34
67
0.3
14
0089 Flow
Flow
2
3
10
290
0.6 Lihir
wall,
W.
LC5 1 Basalt
caldera
Luise
1301.1
43
155
21
39.3
28
9.1
0.3
2
250
0.5
6
l.3
10
40
44
5.4 flow
por
Creek
Kapit
LC6
2
30.2
9l
32
1
53082
||
7.8
37
140
205
0.5
1.1
27
4.8
0.2
Simberi
Samat,
ore
vein
1Oxidized
1
220
510
130
44
10
265
0.3
57
2.7
l
1.5
30,000
2 ,800
64590
6.2.
47
S5
221
31
572
Simberi
Pigiput,
Tuff
3
7.7
9.2
1P2
l
O.
0100
2
5,110
390
5
1 .240
4.6
10
191
7
8
1.1
112
406
flow
por
Basalt
LC7
Lihir
wall,
E.
caldera
Luise
2
304
13
35
17
7.6
32
2162
5
20
5.9
5.32
00
30
.9
210
1.3
1.7
0.3 76
200
Lihir
wall,
W.
caldera
Luise
tuff
Mafic
2]
27
31
2
235
1.8
2.6
43
6.6
LCl2
0.2
2
1
4.
050
10
1.3
.3
8
flow
Mafic
2
Simberi
Manambu,
2Mt.
50
1310
3
22
6.6
331
3.9
10
17
1.9
8606
.6
175
1.7
44
0.1
140
70
8532
sotnzcoknwiotrek];
Stwk,
mbiotite;
Monz,
quartz;
Q, Tatau
Makapena,
7Ml
47
1540
14
64
0.5
Lava
2
163
93
3
9 49
20.9
4
19
5.9
24
.2
.6 Simberi
Pigiput,
tuff
Pumice
20
58
4.4
7.5
9.5
1,660
0.1
4,970
6
1
36
100
4
8
8.9
35
1.4
113
10
48
0.2
Pl2
1 Simberi
Pigput,
15
179
3.5
3.7
8.8
1
88
280
1,850
0.1
2,630
6
020
2 5 Por
intrusive
Por
P4
6
310
77
250
17.28 Simberi
Pigiput,
4.7
intrusive
9P54 zone
3
71
100
2,470
0.2
3,070
150
12
0.2
17
26
8.2
15
132
19
11
68
27
260
4.3
prospect
Tiro
0Mt.
lava
Altered
5
255
1.4
18538
4
62
3,100
1,310
26
180
10
140
192
29
5.3
35
150
23
6
8.2
10 2
1.9 prospect
Tiro
Mt.
lava
Por
45
1670
17
6.3
32
157
230
1.2
1.4
20
6.5
5.7
10
1.1
25
.2
20
8539
71
31
Argillic
Simberi
Samat,
1S1A
8
58
640
0.2
267
5.7
24
3108
392202
.2
168
2.6
1.9
26
8.2
1.3
Makopena
2
flow
mafic
Por
16
228.3
6
215
0.7
18537
1
31
940
53
0.4
51
.1
508
88
4
10
39
60
1.4
type
no.
124 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Table 3. Array of orthogonal varimax loadings for three factors determined for the Ladolam and
Pigiput deposits.
[Bold numbers indicate elements defining each factor. See text for definition of factors)
group in the northernmost part of the chain range in age open-space breccia at depths of 50 to 200 m below the
from about 3.5 to 1.9 Ma. Within the Tabar group, vol paleosurface. Near-surface argillic, advanced argillic, and
canic units on Simberi and Tabar Island overlap in age. phyllic alteration developed in the shallow hot-spring
A previously reported age of 0.99+0.08 Ma (Wallace environment, and alunite from the advanced argillic zone
and others, 1983), for a quartz trachyte on Tabar Island, has an age of 151#15 ka (Davies and Ballantyne, 1987).
is considerably younger and may reflect an episode of Detailed geochemical studies of REE demonstrates that
younger volcanic activity separate from the mid-Pliocene boiling of the LREE-enriched magmatic fluids occurred
eVent. at depth and resulted in condensation of vapor phases
The Ladolam deposit on Lihir Island represents a into the meteoric system, and this developed an acid-sul
unique gold deposit in many aspects. The deposit is the fate fluid in the near surface (Lottermoser, 1990). The
single largest gold orebody known and contains a geo presence of active hot-spring and solfatara activity
logical reserve of 43 million oz (1,330 t) of gold (Getz within the deposit is indicative of this waning stage of
and Ward, 1990). The close relationship of the gold acid-sulfate hydrothermal activity. The episode of por
deposit to a subvolcanic porphyry that intruded to very phyry intrusion, porphyry-style alteration and mineraliza
shallow levels of the volcanic edifice (within 400 m of tion, and hot-spring gold deposition occurred over a
the floor of the summit caldera) (fig. 3) demonstrates remarkably short interval of about 360,000 years and
the transition from porphyry to hot-spring environment demonstrates that long-lived hydrothermal systems are
over a very telescoped interval. The age of the por not necessary for the formation of world-class gold
phyry, about 360 ka, and the associated stockwork vein deposits. As Henley (1990) has noted, the Ladolam
ing, about 340 ka, indicate a genetic relationship deposit demonstrates a clear continuum from magmatic
between the porphyry and the gold deposit. Biotite dated hydrothermal to the meteoric-water-dominated hydrother
from coarse-grained biotite-magnetite-gold stockwork mal ore deposition.
represents the older, high-density, hydrothermal fluid Similarities and differences between Ladolam and
associated with the subvolcanic-porphyry style of miner typical porphyry coppergold deposits are listed in table
alization. Mixing of the older, high-density fluid with 4. These differences imply that the Ladolam deposit
meteoric water resulted in deposition of gold in the formed at a much higher level in the crust than is typical
LADOLAM GOLD DEPOSIT, LIHIR ISLAND, PAPUA NEW GUINEA 125
of porphyry systems. The pressure quench that produces each of the deposits. Our appreciation goes to Rick Roger
a porphyry texture did not occur during the late mag son of the Papua New Guinea Geological Survey for
matic phase of intrusion nor did the evolution of a high logistical help and discussions during our field work.
pressure fluid capable of hydrofracturing the intrusion to
produce stockwork veins. Breccia, more characteristic of
phreatic explosive activity, became the important ore REFERENCES CITED
trapping structure. The anhydrite stockwork, as pointed
out by Moyle and others (1990), probably formed during
Cox, Alan, and Dalrymple, G.B., 1967, Statistical analysis of
invasion by marine water. This conclusion is supported
geomagnetic reversal data in the precision of potassium
by the presence of strontium sulfate as the important argon dating: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 72, no.
daughter mineral in the fluid inclusions. 110, p. 26032614.
Ladolam differs from epithermal deposits mainly in Dalrymple, G.B., and Lanphere, M.A., 1969, Potassium-Argon
its high content of hydrothermal biotite. It differs from Dating: San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, 258 p.
epithermal, alunite-rich deposits in the low abundance of Davies, R.G., and Ballantyne, G., 1987, Geology of the Ladolam
enargite or luzonite. It differs from gold telluride deposits gold deposit, Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea: Proceedings,
associated with alkalic igneous rocks (Cripple Creek, Col Pacific Rim Congress, 1987, Gold Coast, Queensland, Austra
orado, and Emperor, Fiji) in its low abundance of gold or lia Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, p. 943949.
silver tellurides. Although vanadium content is high at Davis, J.C., 1986, Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology: New
Ladolam, the green vanadium mica typical of gold tellu York, John Wiley, 646 p.
ride deposits has not been observed. Getz, A.J., and Ward, R.J., 1990, Western Pacific precious metals
In conclusion, it is difficult to find similarities projects updated: Mining Engineering, v. 42, no. 9, p.
10671070.
between Ladolam and any known type of deposit. More
Henley, R.W., 1991, Epithermal gold deposits in volcanic ter
over, it does not resemble any of the known prospects in
ranes, in Foster, R.P., ed., Gold Metallogeny and Exploration:
the Tabar-Feni island chain. Until other similar deposits Glasgow and London, Blackie, p. 133164.
are discovered, Ladolam must be considered unique.
Ingamells, C.O., 1970, Lithium metaborate flux in silicate analysis:
Analytica Chimica Acta, v. 52, p. 323334.
John, D.A., Nash, Thomas, Clark, C.W., and Wolftange, W.H.,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1991, Geology, hydrothermal alteration, and mineralization at
the Paradise Peak gold-silver deposit, Nye County, Nevada, in
Geology and Ore Deposits of the Great Basin: Reno, Nevada,
We wish to express out gratitude to Kennecott Explo Geological Society of Nevada, p. 10201049.
ration (Australia, Ltd.) for providing access to the deposits Johnson, R.W., 1979, Geotectonics and volcanism in Papua New
on Lihir, Tatau, and Simberi. In particular we wish to GuineaA review of the late Cainozoic: Bureau Mineral Re
thank Rod Davies, Peter Morrissey, and John Wier for sources, Journal of Australian Geology and Geophysics, no. 4,
providing information and ideas as well as samples from p 18.1207.
126 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Lottermoser, B.G., 1990, Rare-earth element and heavy-metal be Stacey, J.S., Sherrill, N.D., Dalrymple, G.B., Lanphere, M.A., and
havior associated with the epithermal gold deposit on Lihir Is Carpenter, N.V., 1981, A five-collector system for the simulta
land, Papua New Guinea: Journal of Volcanology and neous measurement of argon isotopic ratios in a static mass
Geothermal Research, v. 40, p. 269289. spectrometer: International Journal of Mass Spectrometry and
Ion Physics, v. 39, p. 167180.
Moyle, A.J., Doyle, B.J., Hoogvliet, H. and Ware, A.R., 1990, Lad
Steiger, R.H. and Jaeger, E., 1977, Subcommission on geochronol
olam gold deposit, Lihir Island, in Hughes, F.E., ed., Geology
ogyConvention on the use of decay constants in geo- and
of the Mineral Deposits of Australia and Papua New Guinea:
cosmochronology: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 36,
Australia Institute Mining and Metallurgy Monograph No. 14,
p. 359362.
v. 2, p. 17931805.
Wallace, D.A., Johnson, R.W., Chappell, B.W., Arculus, R.J., Per
Plimer, I.R., Andrew, A.S., Jenkins, R., Lottermoser, B.G., 1988, fit, M.R., and Crick, I.H., 1983, Cainozoic volcanism of the
The geology and geochemistry of the Lihir gold deposit, Papua Tabar, Lihir, Tanga, and Feni Islands, Papua New Guinea; ge
New Guinea: Melbourne, Geological Society of Australia, ology, whole rock analyses and rock forming mineral compo
Extended Abstracts and Programs, Bicentennial Gold 88, p. sition: Bureau Mineral Resources, Geology and Geophysic
139143. Australia Report, 243 p.
CHAPTER M
"U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 904, P.O. Box 25046, Denver
Clay minerals may form and react in a variety of
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. aqueous fluids but are usually too fine grained to contain
*U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 905, P.O. Box 25046, Denver useful fluid inclusions. Do these fine-grained minerals
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. retain traces of the fluids (including volatile components)
128 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
are the most restrictive because the silicate layer structure Table 1. Description of samples selected for this study.
will accommodate only a few species that do not disrupt
the crystal structure because of charge and ionic-radius Sample number Mineralogy and description
constraints. Therefore, nitrates, sulfates, carbonates, and PRB3 .................. Authigenic
interstratified illite/smectite (15
organic species must reside in the interlayer space or on percent expandable) from Upper Cretaceous
Shannon Sandstone Member of the Steele
surface sites: they cannot be accommodated in the silicate
Shale, Powder River Basin, Wyoming.
layer structure.
Sample contains < 10 percent chlorite as
The range of species that may occupy the three dif the only identifiable impurity. Particle size
ferent sites in clay minerals, and the temperatures at which < 0.2 plm.
they are likely to be liberated, varies greatly for the three B2408G................. Illite from the Alum Mountain fossil
types of sites. Surface sites may be occupied by any vola geothermal system. Contains trace amounts
tile species that exists in the environment that will attach of kaolinite, K-feldspar and calcite(?).
to the mineral. These volatiles are generally loosely bound Particle size ~ 1.0 pum.
GW-86-53 ............. Illitic clay from Alum Mountain fossil
and are released at relatively low temperatures (~ 100C),
though chemisorption may cause some species to be geothermal system. Contains < 15 percent
retained until heating to 300C or above (Adamson, 1982). kaolinite and a trace of jarosite. Particle
size ~ 1.0 p.m.
Interlayer species are somewhat more restricted and are GW-8644 .............Kaolinite from Alum Mountain fossil
likely to be released at temperatures of 100C to 300C
geothermal system. Contains a trace of
(Wicks and Ramik, 1990). Structural volatiles are limited
natroalunite or jarosite. Particle size ~ 1.0
almost exclusively to anions that may occupy hydroxyl |Im.
sites. These species are released at temperatures from GW-8640 ............. Smectite from Alum Mountain fossil
450C to 1,200C, depending upon the specific clay and geothermal system. Contains a trace of
its structure (Mackenzie, 1970, 1972). Adsorbed molecular kaolinite. Particle size ~ 1.0 pum.
water and structural hydroxyl are consistently the most GW-86-33 ............. Mixture of smectite, kaolinite, and illite
abundant volatiles released from clays upon heating. Nev from Alum Mountain fossil geothermal
ertheless, it may be minor volatile species that reveal the system. May contain a trace of sulfate
composition of formation fluids or the presence of hydro mineral. Particle size ~ 1.0 p.m.
carbons or other distinctive volatiles in a particular geo
logic environment.
separated by centrifugation. Size separates were oriented
on glass slides using the technique of Drever (1973), and
SAMPLES AND clay mineral composition was determined by X-ray dif
fraction. Air-dried, ethylene-glycol-saturated, and heated
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS (550C) mounts of each sample were X-rayed for mineral
identification. Separate aliquots of each sample were dried
In order to systematically investigate the ability of in Teflon beakers at 60C for subsequent thermal and vol
clay minerals to retain volatiles from their environment of atile analysis.
formation, two suites of well-characterized samples were Each sample was subjected to thermogravimetric
selected for preliminary analysis (table 1). The first set analysis using a Perkin-Elmer TGS-2 programmable ana
consists of authigenic clay minerals from core samples of lyzer. Ten milligrams of each sample were heated at
petroleum reservoir sandstones in the Powder River Basin, 10C/min from ambient to 1,000C in a flowing-nitrogen
Wyoming (Hansley and Whitney, 1991). The second set atmosphere at approximately 1 bar (105 Pa) pressure.
of samples is from outcrop samples of a fossil acid-sulfate Weight loss and first derivative of weight loss were
geothermal system at Alum Mountain, New Mexico recorded with a computer-aided data-acquisition system
(Northrop and Whitney, 1987). The intent of sample selec consisting of MacADIOS interface hardware and Lab
tion was to check the variation in volatile composition of VIEW II data-collection and analysis software on an
different clay minerals from the same environment, and Apple Macintosh computer.
the same (or similar) minerals from different environ Analysis of volatile species was performed by placing
ments, in order to assess how well the volatiles reflected a separate 20 mg aliquot of each sample in a quartz tube
the environment of formation and whether particular clay (7 mm inside diameter) located in a muffle furnace and
minerals tend to collect particular volatile species. Only connected to the mass spectrometer. The quartz sample
selected samples from each suite are described here. tube was evacuated, and the sample was heated stepwise
The laboratory preparation for all samples was the from 60C to 1,060C at 5C/min under high vacuum (10
same. Each whole-rock sample was disaggregated ultra 8 torr). Samples were routinely baked out at 60C or
sonically in distilled water and the fine-size fractions were 100C prior to analysis. Evolved volatiles were analyzed
130 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
with a Balzers 511 quadrupole mass spectrometer auto surface adsorption of atmospheric gases will not play a
mated with a DEC PDP-11/83 data-collection system significant role in the analysis of clay volatiles.
(Landis and Hofstra, 1991). Twenty masses (m/e) were The third test measured the reproducibility for multi
measured every 12 seconds during the temperature ramp ple analyses of a single sample. Figure 4 shows duplicate
and recorded digitally. runs of sample GW-86-44 for three species. The tempera
tures at which volatiles are released are reproducible
within the precision of the temperature-measurement tech
RESULTS: BACKGROUND AND nique. The absolute amounts of volatiles released varied
somewhat from run to run, but these changes may be
REPRODUCIBILITY TESTS
attributable to sample size and different surface areas, and
to sample inhomogeneity.
We performed a set of analyses designed to test the
sample-preparation and analytical techniques and to estab
lish background and reproducibility for a variety of vola RESULTS AND PRELIMINARY
tiles. Of particular concern is the adsorption of INTERPRETATION:
atmospheric gases by fine-grained clay samples. It is VOLATILE COMPOSITIONS OF
important to distinguish geologically important gases from NATURAL CLAYS
those adsorbed from the atmosphere during the sample
preparation process. In addition, we wanted to detect any 1. PETROLEUM RESERVOIR CLAYS
gases being given off by the quartz sample tubes (or
leaked gases) during heating. The first clay sample analyzed was an authigenic
The first test measured the amount of gas released by interstratified illite/smectite (I/S) from the Upper Creta
the quartz sample tubes, attributable to either adsorption of ceous Shannon Sandstone Member of the Steele Shale in
atmospheric gases or the presence of gas bubbles within the the Powder River Basin, Wyoming. This sandstone has
quartz that makes up the tubes. Figure 2 shows a direct served as a petroleum reservoir and still contains petro
comparison of the empty quartz sample tubes heated after leum (Hansley and Whitney, 1991). Thermogravimetric
exposure to the atmosphere and then reheated without (TGA) analysis (in N2 at 1 atmosphere pressure) of the
exposure to the atmosphere. This test determines what <0.2-pum fraction of this reservoir clay reveals the loss of
gases are from the atmosphere and what gases are from the adsorbed volatiles at 100C and dehydroxylation and
quartz. Detectable amounts of atmospheric gases are structural modification of the clay at about 570C (fig. 5).
clearly present on the opened tubes, whereas the quartz The evolution of water during heating (under vacuum) in
tubes kept under vacuum show virtually no extraneous the furnace attached to the quadrupole mass spectrometer
gases. The rise in background of both opened and produced a peak at around 450500C (fig. 6A). In both
unopened tubes must represent virtual leakage into the the TGA and the mass spectrometer pyrolysis analyses,
mass spectrometer at the higher temperatures from vac the water-loss events are composed of multiple peaks, but
uum-system surfaces. It is important to note that the gas it is not certain what each of these peaks indicates. The
release events exhibited by the opened tube actually con lower temperature at which dehydroxylation occurs in the
stitute very low level background compared to the amounts mass spectrometer is attributable to the vacuum because
of gas released by samples (fig. 3, for comparison). gas-release reactions are accelerated under high vacuum.
The second test utilized quartz powder (clear, euhe Virtually all of the adsorbed water on the clay had been
dral crystals ground and elutriated to a 20- to 54-pum grain lost during the 100C bakeout prior to the analysis.
size and acid treated to remove hyperfine particles) to In addition to the release of structural water, several
determine amounts of volatiles released by surface pro other species were released from this petroleum-reservoir
cesses alone. (In order to measure the effects of surface clay in significant amounts during the water-release event.
adsorption for an inert solid, the solid must release only For example, HF (m/e = 20) and HCl (m/e = 36) mimic
surface species and no volatiles from its own structure.) the water-release event exactly, as would be expected for
For the quartz powder used in this test, CO2 and H2O anion species that substitute for structural hydroxyl. Other
exhibit sudden release events near 200C, 290C and species that cannot substitute for structural anions, such as
520C, suggesting that the quartz may contain microinclu H2S (m/e = 34) and Ar (m/e = 40), also exhibit events at
sions that burst at those temperatures (fig. 3A). Neverthe the dehydroxylation temperature (fig. 6B, 6C), suggesting
less, the amounts of gases released are roughly two orders that they occupy interlayer spaces of the clay and are only
of magnitude smaller than the amounts of these gases released during the structural breakdown of the mineral.
released during a typical clay analysis (fig. 3B). Aside On the other hand, several volatiles were released that
from these small events from the quartz, no significant show no correlation whatsoever with the dehydroxylation
amounts of volatiles are released, suggesting that simple event of the clay. These include several organic species or
VOLATILES IN CLAY MINERALS 131
1.2x10"
4.0.10" H- +------
3.0x10* H
2.010* |
1.0x10* H
Pretired tube
l l l
100 300 500 700 900 1,100 100 300 500 700 900 1100
1.5x10" I I i r 8.0x10 I I I I I
1.2x10" F
6.0x10" | | | | -
9.0x10" F
4.0x10" H
6.0x10" H
20x10' HAL W -
3.0x10" |
Prefred tube *~
I I
8.0x1 0.11 - T I I T T
3.6x10
2.710
6.0x10"
1.8x10
4.0x10"
9.0x10"
2.0x10"
- - - : - Pietired tube
0 i i 1 i i i i 11
C 100 300 500 700 900 1,100 100 300 500 700 900 1100
Figure 3. Background test for the sample tube and an inert sub
Figure 2. Background test. Comparison of the gas evolution pro stance (in this case quartz powder) illustrating the relative amounts
files (for m/e = 28, 34,64) for a quartz sample tube exposed to the at of water (m/e = 18) adsorbed and then released from exposure to at
mosphere (opened) compared to the same quartz sample tube mosphere versus that of sample (smectite clay). A, release from
reanalyzed without exposure to the atmosphere (prefired). Volatiles quartz powder in opened vacuum furnace tube; B, release from typ
released are clearly attributable to adsorption of atmospheric compo ical clay sample, smectite; C, release from prefired vacuum furnace
nents. A, m/e = 28, attributable to N2 and the CO ion fragment from tube. Although the quartz powder exhibits some evolution of water,
CO2; B, m/e = 64, attributable to SO2: C, m/e = 34, attributable to the concentrations are at least two orders of magnitude lower than
H2S. during a clay analysis and occurs at lower temperatures.
132 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
4.0x10 i I T T I T I I T I _ 100 -
3 98 T-I- | - -
2. H,o = 0. wn |
# 3.0x10
9
94 - - -
3.
: 92 | | | | |
> 90 /~ - -
# 2.010 4 - * \- -
E -- t - - - - -
2 1st derivative
|
- -
s 1.0x10
=
l -
Temperature (C)
* 100 900 1 100
3. 4.010* ||
E 2. FOSSIL ACID-SULFATE GEOTHERMAL
3.
> 3.0x10" H SYSTEM CLAYS
7,
E
S
Analysis of several samples with different clay-min
5 2.010* H
c eral compositions from a fossil acid-sulfate geothermal
r
quo system permits evaluation of how volatile retention varies
= 1.0x10" H as a function of mineralogy and permits qualitative analy
sis of gas species present. Five samples from the Alum
0 Mountain fossil geothermal system were selected (table 1).
B 100 These samples come from different alteration zones within
the geothermal system (Northrop and Whitney, 1987), so
each mineral or assemblage may have formed in contact
8.0x10 I T T T-I- T I I T I
with fluids with slightly (but systematically) different
compositions. Such variations of fluid composition within
2. N2. co, CO2 : - ! -
*\^ /*N
:-- Run 1 high vacuum. There is little evidence for adsorbed water
or for any other minerals with different breakdown tem
0 I l l l | l l l
peratures in this sample. The illitic samples (fig. 8B, 8C)
C
100 300 500 700 900 1100 exhibit more complex dehydroxylation events, but both
Temperature (C) occur near 430450C. The smectite (fig. 8D) dehydrox
ylates at 600C but shows water evolution almost continu
Figure 4. Duplicate analyses of the same material, analyzed two
weeks apart. A, m/e = 18, the major peak of water; B, m/e = 20, a mi ally from 100C to 600C. In fact, both the smectite
nor peak of water and the major peak of HF: C, m/e = 28, the major sample and the illitic samples (which contain a small pro
peak of N2 and CO and ion-fragment peak of CO2. portion of smectitic layers) exhibit low-to-moderate-tem
perature gas evolution. This effect probably reflects
retention of water in the interlayer space of these clays
fragments with m/e = 27, 28, and 29 (fig. 7A, B, C). These that is greater than simple adsorption (Sposito, 1984;
events probably represent thermal pyrolysis of organic Sposito and Prost, 1982). As would be expected, a sample
matter that is associated with the clay but is not contained consisting of mixtures of these minerals exhibits volatile
structurally in the clay. evolution curves that are composites of the individual
VOLATILES IN CLAY MINERALS 133
3.6x10' 7.2x10 T T T i I T I T T i
2.7x10' 5.4x10 - -
1.8x10" 3.6x10 - -
9.0x10" 1.8x10 - -
0 i l l I I i i i i i
A 100 300 500 700 900 A 100 300 500 700 900 1100
2.010 1.2x10' I T i I I I
1.5x10 9.0x10"
1.0x10 6.0x10"
5.0x10" 3.0x10"
B 100 300 500 700 900 B 100 300 500 700 900 1100
1.6x10 I I T I T-I- I T I T
6.0x10
1.210 H -
-
4.5x10
| 8.0x10" H
4.0x10" H
3.0x10
: 1.5x10
Figure 6. Gas-evolution profiles for sample PRB3. Both structur Figure 7. Gas-evolution profiles for organic species or ion frag
al and nonstructural volatile species are evolved over a narrow tem ments in sample PRB3 (m/e = 27, 28, 29). The m/e = 28 peak (part
perature range. A, water, m/e = 18; B, hydrogen sulfide, m/e = 34; B) saturates the electrometer at 1x10' amps from the major nitro
C, argon, m/e = 40. gen peak at the same m/e as organic-species ion fragments.
134 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
A Kaolinite 3. 7 Smectite
1.5x10" H * - 5 5.4x10' -
>
1.0x10 3.610' -
E
oc
5.0x10 a 1.8x10" -
1.5x10 I-I-I-I-I-I-I-T-T
,- - Mineral mixture
Illite 1
3. Illite + kaolinite + smectite
5 - -
... 1.010
'7,
S
E
* 5.010'
E
1.610 2.0x10" T I I i I I I I I
1.210 1.5x10"
8.010" 1.0x10"
4.0x10" 5.0x10"
Mineral mixture
Illite + kaolinite + smectite
2.4x10 9.0x10" H
1.610
8.0x10"
| 6.010"
3.0x10"
:
500 700 900 1,100
Temperature (C)
1.2x10" I 3.6x10"
9.0x10 2.7x10"
| 6.0x10
3.0x10
| 1.8x10"
9.0x10
: :
D 100 300 500 700 900 1100
Mineral mixture i
1.8x10" H
:
9.0x10
-|
900 1,100 E 100 300 500 700
Temperature (C)
900 1,100
Figure 10. Sulfur dioxide evolution profiles (m/e = 64) for geother
mal clays from Alum Mountain showing great diversity of release
1.0x10"
for different minerals from the same geochemical environment. A
through E are the same as in figure 8.
1.2x10" I I T I I T T I I T 2.8x10 I I I I I I I I T i
? HF HF
2.110 Smectite
5 9.010 Kaolinite .1x10' -
5
# 6.0x10
c
r
# 3.0x10
A
0
1,100
-
| 1.4x10
7.0x10"
C
0
-
? HCI HCI
2.7x10" H Kaolinite - Smectite
- ... I X - : -
> 1.0x10" -
= 1.8x10" |
\
er,
s
E 9.0x10-11
B
0 l
500
1 l
700
l
900
l l 1
1,100
-
| 5.0x10"
D
0
100 300 500 700 900
|
1100
-
Figure 11. Comparison of HF (m/e = 20) and HCl (m/e = 36) liberation behavior for smectite and kaolinite from the Alum Mountain
fossil geothermal system.A, kaolinite HF, B, kaolinite HCl; C, smectite HF: D, smectite HCl.
s: 3.0x10
E
The purpose of the present study was to determine
whether clay minerals formed in different geochemical 0 l 1 l-l l l
environments might retain some memory of the compo 100 300 500 700 900 1,100
sition of formation fluids as volatiles adsorbed on their
Temperature (C)
surfaces, trapped in interlayer spaces of clays, or incorpo
rated within structural sites in the silicate layers of the Figure 12. Dehydroxylation profiles of mineralogically similar
clay. Although a great deal of systematic study is still illitic samples from both the petroleum reservoir (PRB3) and geo
required, it is apparent that the gas chemistry of mineral thermal (B2408) systems. Although the geothermal sample (illite)
ogically similar clays from a petroleum environment and a has more low-temperature activity than the petroleum-reservoir
geothermal-hydrothermal environment give strikingly sample (I/S), comparable dehydroxylation behavior is achieved
different gas-evolution profiles when heated. Further, from the same basic mineralogy.
138 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Hydrothermal illite
- - Hydrothermal
.9 || Petroleum, illite Petroleum I/S
#
,-
8.0x10 Is N i
3 8.010" |
- -
S. ; : I 5
* 6.0x10 H
wn : :
= 6.010
v
5.
5 4.0x10 H N.
;
:
:
:
S
5 4.0x10
\-
r
s s
E 2.010 H E 2.010
0 Id l l I I l l l l 1
0
A 100 300 500 700 900 1,100 A 100
1.0x10 T I
1.610
2.
3. 8.010 F
E # 1.210" |
3. 3.
> 6.0x10 H : ; >
*2 ydrothermal
5. illite # 8.0x10" |
5 4.0x10 -
E
t
en
s 4.0x10" H
s
B 2.010 : E Q
Hydrothermal illite
0 I l 1 1 I l l l l I I I I l I
0
B 100 300 500 700 900 1,100 B 100 300 500 700 900 1,100
s 4.0x10 F l s, 1.010* ||
E * \ E
: Hydroth *
i i
l i illite l l i l l i l
0
1 1 1 l l 1 l
C 100 300 500 700 900 1,100 C 100 300 500 700 900 1.100
Temperature (C) Temperature (C)
Figure 13. Comparison of the organic-species and ion-fragment Figure 14. Carbon dioxide gas release. Comparison of the evolu
(m/e = 26, 27, 29) evolution for illitic samples from both environ tion of C+ (m/e = 12), CO+ (m/e = 28), and CO2+ (m/e = 44) ion
ments. Despite their mineralogic similarity, there is almost no cor fragments for the illitic clay sample from the petroleum reservoir (L/
relation between the evolution of these species. The geothermal S) and for the illitic clay sample from the geothermal system (illite).
system (illite) and petroleum reservoir (I/S) are labeled on the dia A, m/e = 12; B, m/e = 28; C, m/e = 44.
grams for A, m/e = 26; B, m/e = 27; and C, m/e = 29.
VOLATILES IN CLAY MINERALS 139
2.010 H--- -- I samples with organic solvents may alter the compositions
: : i : Petroleum I/S :
drastically. Are any adsorbed species retained during sam
Hydrothermal i Ni 1 :
2. i illite ple preparation or are they replaced by different species
# 1.510 ; : from preparation solutions or from the atmosphere? A sys
&
tematic analysis of samples during the course of sample
P
separation and preparation would help answer this ques
# 1.010 tion. A corollary to this question is the effect of particle
E size. Small particles have a higher surface area per unit
r
er, 10
mass than larger particles and would therefore retain a
s 5.0x10"
B higher concentration of adsorbed species. On the other
hand, small particles have less volume for the retention of
0 i interlayer or intracrystalline species and would contain a
lower concentration of these volatiles. Thus, a detailed
A 100 300 500 700 900 1,100
analysis of particle-size effects for a uniform gas-mineral
1.0x10 I I I I I I I I combination would be beneficial.
Petroleum I's Il y rm. Third, and most critically, the quantitative incorpora
3 8.0x10 [. \ . tion of volatiles into a particular mineral, and their exact
E location within the mineral sample, must be determined.
3.
For example, if kaolinite evolves significant amounts of
* 6.0x10 H Cl during dehydroxylation but smectite does not, does
Imaging spectroscopy is a new mapping tool and rep features from data in our digital spectral library to corre
resents the next generation in remote-sensing technology. sponding spectral features in the image data. The algo
The narrow spectral channels of an imaging spectrometer rithm does not force a detection as do many other
form a continuous reflectance spectrum of the Earth's sur algorithms in use. For example, many algorithms take a
facethis contrasts with the 4 to 7 channels of the previ set of curves and best fit them to the observed data, often
ous generation of imaging instruments, like the Landsat requiring a set of parameters (like mineral fraction) to sum
Thematic Mapper (TM) and Multispectral Scanner (MSS) to one. Our algorithm only produces values indicating the
instruments. Although systems like Landsat can distin presence of those minerals we choose to map. If the min
guish general brightness and slope differences in the erals do not exist in that area, the algorithm produces
reflectance spectrum of the surface, imaging spectroscopy zeros, indicating they are not detected.
not only does that but also resolves absorption bands in
Our mapping algorithm produces, for each pixel in
the spectrum that can be used to identify specific species.
the image, a spectral feature depth (correlated to abun
Spectroscopic analysis of imaging-spectroscopy data
dance) and a fit number (least-squares correlation coeffi
allows any material (mineral, vegetation, man-made,
cient) to the reference spectra (giving a measure of
water, snow, etc.) with unique absorption features in the
confidence in the result) for each mineral mapped. The
measured spectral region to be mapped.
depth values for each pixel and each mineral form a set of
NASA is now flying the Advanced Visual and Infra images of the minerals correlating to abundance. The fit
Red Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) instrument. values form a set of images corresponding to the confi
AVIRIS acquires data in the spectral range from 0.4 to dence level of the identification. We combine single-min
2.45 m in 224 spectral channels. The instrument is flown eral fit and depth images from several minerals, assigning
in an ER-2 aircraft (a modified U-2 spy plane) at an alti a color to each mineral map. In this way, we produce
tude of 19,800 m (65,000 ft). The ground resolution is 20 multi-mineral maps. For example, red might be assigned
m; the swath width is about 11 km (614 pixels); and the to hematite; shades of red (from bright red to dark red)
swath length can be up to about 1,000 km. After initial show relative abundance of hematite, brighter red indicat
poor performance in 1987 and 1989, the AVIRIS instru ing a stronger spectral signature. In these maps of miner
ment now produces superb signal-to-noise data. als, black indicates none of the given set of minerals were
In 1989, we developed a new analysis algorithm that detected at that location.
uses a digital spectral library of known materials and a
We have used the algorithm on AVIRIS data of
fast, modified-least-squares method of determining if a
Cuprite, Nevada, to illustrate some of the mapping possi
single spectral feature for a given material is present
bilities with the new generation of sensors. The geologic
(Clark and others, 1990). We have made a major advance
and alteration maps are shown in figures 1 and 2. A false
in the mapping algorithm: now multiple minerals using
color image of Cuprite (like one that might be produced
multiple spectral features are mapped simultaneously.
by broad-band remote-sensing instruments) is shown in
This is done by a modified-least-squares fit of spectral
image A (all image figures are shown at the end of this
chapter). An example minerals map is shown for iron
"U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 964, P.O. Box 25046, Denver bearing minerals (image B). A color mineral map of clays
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. and sulfates is shown in image C.
ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
QAL
T
ALA uvial f Arus And
STREAM CHANNEL of Posits
OP
GRAVELS AND
Ou DER ALLuvial FANS
TF
[ ]
POPPH Y RiT C FEL si TE Dix ES
Tr
1 kilometer
|
;. T HiRST Y CAN YOn TuFF
(SPEARHEAD AND TRAIL RIDGE MEMBERS)
TB
[T]
: ; TS
BAS ALT
[T]
sie BERT TUFF
ce
i#
EMIGRANT FORMATION
CMS
cH f
N, : HARKLE'ss Formation
2-N.
Map Location
|
-
\
NEVADA
Figure 1. Geologic map of the Cuprite, Nevada mining district. The map was produced by conventional field work combined with remote
sensing TM data. From Abrams and Ashley (1980) and R.P. Ashley and R.C. Evarts (unpub. data, 1976) as modified by Hook (1990).
We can detect very subtle spectral differences, like before. Coupled with further geochemical research, detec
degrees of kaolinite crystallinity (see image D), the differ tion of spectral variations in mineral solid solution series
ence between Na-montmorillonite versus Ca-montmorillo may provide a means to map temperature gradients on a
nite (see image C), and individual members of the Na-K large scale in a matter of hours. This information can also
alunite solid-solution series (images E1 and E2). At be used to locate areas where critical relationships need
Cuprite, maps of these subtle differences depict the alter investigation. The applications seem boundless.
ation zone remarkably well. For example, poorly crystal
line kaolinite or halloysite seems to be a general We have developed our methodology of calibration
weathering product that occurs throughout the image, but and mapping analysis to be a near-routine method. Imag
as one moves closer to alteration zones, the kaolinite ing spectroscopy could now be used in U.S. Geological
becomes progressively more crystalline. The highly crys Survey (USGS) projects, and we believe the results illus
talline kaolinite occurs just outside of the alunite zones. trated here show that imaging spectroscopy could greatly
Alunite zones can be subdivided spectrally into areas enhance mineral mapping by the USGS. We also feel the
where K-alunite occurs at the center and is surrounded by method could be used for environmental problems because
Na-alunite (see images E1 and E2). the spectral mapping algorithm will work on any material
These mineral maps have the potential to be extraor having diagnostic spectral absorption or emission features.
dinary tools for mineral exploration because they show Imaging spectroscopy could also be used in laboratory
variations in mineral chemistry and, hence, pressure, tem analysis of hand samples or in the field for investigating
perature, and chemcal gradients in areal detail never seen small areas.
MAPPING MINERALS WITH IMAGING SPECTROSCOPY 143
37030'
ALTERATION MAP OF
CUPRITE, NEVADA
SILICIFIED
& OPALIZED
E ARGILLIZED
[ ] UNALTERED
MILES
Figure 2. Alteration map of the Cuprite, Nevada mining district. The map was produced by conventional field work combined with
remote-sensing TM data. From Abrams and Ashley (1980) and R.P. Ashley and R.C. Evarts (unpub. data, 1976) as modified by Hook
(1990).
144 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
REFERENCES CITED using a complete band shape least-squares fit with library ref
erence spectra: Proceedings of the 2nd Airborne Visible Infra
red Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) Workshop, Jet
Abrams, M.J., and Ashley, R.P., 1980, Alteration mapping using Propulsion Laboratory, Publication 9054, p. 176186.
multispectral imagesCuprite Mining district, Esmeralda Hook, S.J., 1990, The combined use of multispectral remotely
County, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report sensed data from the short wave infrared (SWIR) and thermal
80367, 17 p. infrared (TIR) for lithological mapping and mineral explora
Clark, R.N., Gallagher, A.J., and Swayze, G.A., 1990, Material ab- tion: Fifth Australasian Remote Sensing Conference, Proceed
sorption band depth mapping of imaging spectrometer data ings, Oct., 1990, v. 1, p. 371-380.
MAPPING MINERALS WITH IMAGING SPECTROSCOPY 145
1170 10
37023
F
2 KILOMETERS
Image A. A color infrared image of Cuprite, Nevada from AVIRIS data. North is up in this 11-km-wide by 14-km-long scene. Ground
resolution is 20 m. The linear feature running north-south to the right of center in the image is Highway 95. The area to the east of the road
is the well-studied Cuprite mining district. This area consists of hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks and contains an intensely altered
central silica cap surrounded by less altered zones of opalized and argillized rock. The area west of the highway consists of altered volcanic
rocks and Cambrian siltstones and limestones. It also contains silicified, opalized, and argillized zones. Altered siltstones comprise most
of the altered rocks in the northern part of the Cuprite Hills.
146 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
1170 10
37023
|--
2 Kll OMETERS
Image B. A color mineral map of iron-bearing minerals for Cuprite, Nevada. Hematite is red and is restricted to the opalized and argillized
volcanic rocks on both sides of the highway. Goethite is green and is probably a weathering product (it is a common soil component).
Jarosite is blue and occurs in the opalized zones on both sides of the highway; the largest occurrences are west of the highway.
MAPPING MINERALS WITH IMAGING SPECTROSCOPY 147
1170 10
Image C. A color mineral map of clays and sulfates for Cuprite, Nevada. Alunite is red and occurs in opalized and argillic zones on both
sides of the highway. Dickite is orange and is closely associated with kaolinite in the altered zones. Kaolinite (well crystallized) is yellow.
Kaolinite (medium crystallized) is yellow green. Kaolinite (poorly crystallized) is green. (Halloysite and poorly crystallized kaolinite are
spectrally indistinguishable at 2.2 p.m.) Ca-montmorillonite is light blue and occurs in the northeastern portion of the scene. Na-montmoril
lonite is blue and occurs in rock units and as loess accumulations on alluvial fans and in playas. Some muscovites have a similar spectral
signature and are also mapped as montmorillonite (with further research, these minerals may be separated). Buddingtonite is purple and is
located only in a few pixels east of the highway. Buddingtonite can be better seen in white on the expanded image E2. Paragonite is magenta
and occurs mostly in the lower left center of the image. Chlorite occurs as an intimate mixture with the paragonite. Opalized tuff is white
and occurs in the lower left corner as well as in the central region of the Cuprite alteration zone.
148 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
1170 10.
3723'
Image D. A color mineral map of kaolinite crystallinity for Cuprite, Nevada. Well crystallized kaolinite is blue and occurs near the outer
margins of the alunite areas (which are black in this image). Medium crystallized kaolinite is green and occurs between the highly crys
tallized and poorly crystallized kaolinite. Poorly crystallized kaolinite is red and occurs farthest from the alunite areas. Poorly crystallized
kaolinite or halloysite may be due to weathering processes. (Halloysite and poorly crystallized kaolinite are spectrally indistinguishable
at 2.2 pum.)
MAPPING MINERALS WITH IMAGING SPECTROSCOPY 149
3723'
Image E1. A color mineral map of the alunite-natroalunite solid solution series, ammonium minerals, and two clays for Cuprite, Nevada.
Potassium alunite is green and occurs in opalized and argillic zones on both sides of the highway. Natroalunite (Na mole fraction 0.65) is
magenta and occurs next to potassium alunite, mostly to the west of the highway. Natroalunite (Na mole fraction 0.80) is blue and occurs
with other natroalunites, mostly to the west of the highway. Buddingtonite is white and is located in a few pixels east of the highway and in
a few small areas west of the highway. Ammonium illite-smectite is yellow and occurs in the alteration zones near alunite and buddingtonite.
Kaolinite (well crystallized) is red and occurs near alunites in the alteration zones. Na-montmorillonite is cyan and occurs in rock units and
loess accumulations on alluvial fans and in playas.
150 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
1170 10
3705.
23 ER.
Image E2. An enlarged color mineral map of the alteration zones. This is an enlargement of the east-central part of image El and includes
the alunite-natroalunite solid solution series, ammonium minerals, and two clays for Cuprite, Nevada. Potassium alunite is green and occurs
in opalized and argillic zones on both sides of the highway. Natroalunite (Na mole fraction 0.65) is magenta and occurs next to potassium
alunite, mostly to the west of the highway. Note how this natroalunite surrounds many of the potassium alunite zones (in green). Natroalunite
(Na mole fraction 0.80) is blue and occurs with other natroalunites, mostly to the west of the highway. Buddingtonite is white and is located
in a few pixels east of the highway and in a few small areas west of the highway. Note that buddingtonite is surrounded by ammonium illite
smectite. A few buddingtonite localities occur west of the highway. Ammonium illite-smectite is yellow and occurs in the alteration zones
near alunite and buddingtonite. Note how the ammonium illite-smectite occurs at the edges of potassium alunite (green) zones. Kaolinite
(well crystallized) is red and occurs near alunites in the alteration zones. Na-montmorillonite is cyan and occurs in rock units and loess ac
cumulations on alluvial fans and in playas.
CHAPTER O
REFERENCES CITED
GEOLOGIC SUMMARY
LANDER COUNTY
40 l
The Buckingham stockwork molybdenum deposit in
north-central Nevada, about 10 km southwest of the town
Figure 1. Map of north-central Nevada, showing Battle
Mountain district and mineral deposits within it. of Battle Mountain (fig. 1), contains one of the largest
known resources of molybdenum in the United States.
However, under present (1991) economic conditions, the
relatively low molybdenum grades of the deposit make it
K-Ar dating. Little work has been published on K-Ar or uneconomic. The Buckingham deposit is a calc-alkaline,
40Ar/39Ar dating of fluid inclusions since these studies. stockwork-molybdenum-bearing system located on the
Recently, Kelly and others (1986) examined, by east flank of the Battle Mountain mining district (fig. 1).
incremental heating 40Ar/39Ar techniques, the Ar isotopes The deposit contains an estimated 1,000 million tons of
of fluid inclusions in quartz veins associated with granite mineralized rock, averaging approximately 0.10 percent
hosted tungsten mineralization in southwestern and north molybdenum (as MoS2). The deposit also contains small
ern England. In this study, the authors noted that argon in amounts of silver, tungsten, copper, and gold (Theodore
the fluid inclusions is released during incremental heating and others, 1992). Molybdenum mineralization is related
in amounts that correlate with the potassium and chlorine to emplacement of a Late Cretaceous composite porphyry
content of fluid inclusions. The argon in the potassium system that intruded surrounding Paleozoic rocks and
correlated component is derived primarily from in situ altered much of the country rock to hornfels.
decay of potassium in solid phases in the inclusions.
Two periods of plutonism have been recognized in
Argon from the chlorine-correlated component is associ
the Battle Mountain area (Theodore and others, 1992).
ated with brines that constitute the liquid phase of the
inclusions. Inherited argon from the original magmatic The older period, represented by monzonites at Bucking
fluid was not noted. ham and the granodiorite of Trenton Canyon (on the west
edge of the mining district and about 9.5 km due west of
the Buckingham system), has been dated at about 86 Ma
METHODS (McKee, 1992) (table 1, fig. 2). The younger period
includes at least six Tertiary intrusive bodies in the
Samples 79C103 and 79C104 were irradiated in the Buckingham vicinity, ranging in age from 41.1 to 37.3 Ma
U.S. Geological Survey TRIGA reactor (Denver, Colo.) (Theodore and others, 1973) (table 1, fig. 2).
*ArAr STUDIES, BATTLE MOUNTAIN, NEVADA 157
Table 1. K-Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages of Buckingham stockwork umbrella-shaped shells of molybdenite mineralization that
system and nearby intrusive rocks. drape over the stocks (Theodore and others, 1992).
(o, standard deviation. Modified from McKee (1992)]
Approximately one-half of the Buckingham deposit is
hosted in metamorphosed and intensely veined rocks
Rock Mineral Apparent age belonging to the Upper Cambrian Harmony Formation.
type dated (Mato) Secondary, partially chloritized biotite is pervasive
Samples from the Buckingham stockwork system throughout the Buckingham porphyry and yields a K-Ar
Monzogranite porphyry Muscovite 61.3 + 1.5
age significantly younger (by 10 to 15 percent) than the
Monzogranite porphyry Muscovite 61.7+ 1.5 86-Ma age that is considered to be the age of initial cool
Monzogranite porphyry Biotite and chlorite 65.1 + 1.6 ing of the pluton. This younger age is interpreted to result
Monzogranite porphyry Muscovite 68.6 + 1.5 from partial loss of argon from the 86-Ma porphyry
Aplite Whole rock 70.3 + 1.7
(McKee, 1992).
Monzogranite porphyry Muscovite 75.7+ 1.6
Monzogranite porphyry Muscovite 77.4 + 1.6 The argon release pattern from the incremental-heat
Monzogranite porphyry Muscovite 85.5 + 1.9 ing 40Ar/39Ar experiment support the partial-argon-loss
Monzogranite porphyry Biotite 85.7+0.4! model, indicating a complex thermal history. The second
Monzogranite porphyry Muscovite 86.1 + 2.0 ary thermal event, although not pervasive enough to com
Monzogranite porphyry Muscovite 88.0+2.0
pletely reset the K-Ar clock, is clearly recognized in the
Sampies of intrusive rocks north and southwest of
release pattern (fig. 3). Heat and hydrothermal activity
the Buckingham stockwork system
Rhyolite Biotite 37.3 + 1.1
generated by the late Eocene and early Oligocene igneous
Leucotonalite Hornblende 37.7+ 1.4 events show varying amounts of intensity at different
Monzogranite Biotite 38.8 + 1.1 places throughout the Buckingham system. Almost all
Monzogranite Hornblende 39.0 + 1.1 samples from the western part of the system yield ages
Monzogranite Hornblende 39.3+ 1.0 that are variably reset, although none of them are com
Rhyolite Biotite 39.1 + 1.0
pletely reset to the approximate 38-Ma age of the younger,
Sample of intrusive rock northeast of and cutting nearby plutons.
the Buckingham stockwork system
Granodiorite porphyry Hornblende 35.4 + 1.1
1 Age from the two greatest release steps from an incremental TERTIARY GRANITIC AND RHYOLITIC
heating 40Ar/39Ar experiment.
INTRUSIVE ROCKS
81TT121
(38 Ma)
| Q 6.5
tt-d
+ Kit CMETER
EXPLANATION
Figure 2. Geologic map of the Buckingham stockwork molybdenum deposit and surrounding area. Sample sites for this report
are represented by squares; K-Ar sample sites and one 40Ar/39Ar incremental-heating-age sample site represented by circles.
*ArAr STUDIES, BATTLE MOUNTAIN, NEVADA 159
120
100HH-85.7+0.4 Ma
FUSE
1015C
60 H.
] 525
40
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 3. 40Ar/39Ar age spectra for a biotite from the Buckingham stockwork system (monzogranite porphyry). The six heating steps
(and thus temperature in C) are shown as horizontal bars. This release pattern is similar to patterns produced from minerals with disturbed
thermal histories. The most likely age calculated using the two oldest steps (which produced more than 50 percent of the Ar) is 85.7+0.4
Ma (from McKee, 1992).
Miocene time (Theodore and others, 1992). Imbricate, NaCl-rich fluids. High in the system, very sparse halite
down-to-the-east, listric-normal faults merge into a single, bearing fluid inclusions formed through condensation
flat-lying dislocation east of the Buckingham porphyry from an earlier, higher temperature saline fluid. In the
system. In addition, major reverse dislocations in the western part of the system, the high-temperature and
hanging wall of the major fault probably reflect develop high-saline halite-bearing fluid inclusions, having salini
ment of antithetic reverse faults in the toe region of a ties as much as 65 weight percent NaCl equivalent and
rigid-body glide block (Theodore and others, 1992). homogenization temperatures as high as 500C, probably
reflect ponded magmatic fluids from a deep source. Over
all distribution of veins associated with such fluids
FLUID INCLUSIONS
appears to be restricted. Although a fluid-immiscibility
model is probably applicable to some porphyry molybde
Hydrothermal fluids in the Buckingham system show num systems where the exposed parts of the system are
complex histories that reflect successive influxes of fluids above a buried concentration of molybdenum, the geome
from newly injected magma into loci of earlier emplaced try of the molybdenite-enriched shells and their proximity
igneous phases (Theodore and others, 1992). In distal to the igneous source at the Buckingham deposit argue
parts of the system, fluid inclusions in andradite-diopside against this model. These shells are tightly constrained to
suggest temperatures of about 300C at extremely low the flanks and apical parts of the two mineralized stocks,
mole fractions of CO2. In proximal parts of the system, and the shells show a genetic relationship to a quartzpo
where the bulk of the quartz stockworks and molybdenite tassium feldspar porphyry phase in the core of the stocks.
was deposited, fluids were relatively low-density, low Furthermore, an approximately 1-km-long composite ver
salinity NaCl brines that included variable amounts of tical section through the Buckingham system is available
CO2. These early-stage fluids established an ascending for study in the three tectonically offset blocks, and
plume of fluid that was considerably less saline than flu nowhere is there widespread occurrence of hypersaline
ids associated with most porphyry copper systems in the fluids. The bulk of the moderately saline, H2O-NaCl-CO2
southwestern United States. The magmas at the Bucking mineralizing fluids associated with this deposit is related
ham deposit did not evolve large volumes of very dense, to quartzpotassium feldspar porphyry and slightly deeper
160 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Table 2. Temperature and salinity data for vein quartz samples used for fluid inclusion studies.
[Locations of samples used for *ArAr analyses shown on fig. 2; salinity ranges given in weight percent NaCl equivalent, --, not determined]
Homogenization Fluid
Sample no. Host rock" temperature inclusion Salinity range? Comments
range (C)2 types
Outcrop samples
79C77 Km -- I,II, IV - Quartz veins on Vail Ridge associated
with Buckingham system.
81TT121 Km 229324 I, IV 011.6 Quartz veins in upper copper-rich part of
Buckingham system.
78C103 Ch -- I, II, III, IV -- Quartz stockworks near Tertiary
leucogranite.
78C104 Ch -- I, II, III -- Quartz stockworks in pendant within
Tertiary leucogranite.
87TT215A Chg 175550 I, II, III 1.348.5 Quartz stockworks near Tertiary
leucogranite.
87TT215B Chg 250600 I, II, III 3.062 Quartz stockworks near Tertiary
leucogranite.
Samples from diamond drill core
1453259.8 Km 261328 I, II 7.810.8 Drill hole collared in east stock of
Buckingham system.
1471-173 Km -- I, II, IV -- Drill hole collared in Vail block part of
Buckingham system.
1471760 Km 292345 I, II, IV - Drill hole collared in Vail block part of
Buckingham System.
1 Km, Cretaceous monzogranite; Ch, Upper Cambrian Harmony Formation hornfels; Chg, garnet skarn developed in Upper Cambrian
Harmony Formation and related genetically to 38-Ma leucogranite (see text).
* From Theodore and others (1992); Theodore and Hammarstrom (1991).
* At 22+2C: I, low vapor volume, mostly liquid H2O. II, high vapor volume, mostly liquid H2O, III, halite bearing, commonly with other
daughter minerals; IV, mostly CO2 vapor with some liquid CO2, mostly H2O liquid (see text).
equivalent igneous phases. A summary of fluid-inclusion associated with the 38-Ma leucogranite contains abundant
types recognized in the Buckingham stockwork system is concentrations of type III, daughter-mineral-bearing fluid
shown in figure 4, and temperature and salinity data for inclusions (fig. 4). Many of these type-III fluid inclusions
the fluid inclusions is in table 2. contain sylvite (Theodore and others, 1992; Theodore and
In this study, 40Ar/39Ar values from fluid inclusions Hammarstrom, 1991).
were measured on 29 approximately 1-mm grains from
four samples of vein quartz from three localities (includ
ing a drill core) that are associated genetically with the 40Ar/39Ar ANALYSIS OF FLUID
Cretaceous Buckingham stockwork molybdenum system
INCLUSIONS
(table 2). These four samples were not found to include
any of the type-III fluid inclusions (fig. 4), i.e., the daugh
ter-mineral-bearing variety; nonetheless, it is possible that 40Ar/39Ar analyses on fluid inclusions in quartz from
some sylvite and (or) other potassium-bearing minerals the Battle Mountain district show a wide range of ages.
may have been present in the quartz fragments selected for Apparent ages of individual quartz grains are from about 40
argon analysis because other samples from the system Ma to about 1,747 Ma (table 3, no. 101-6). These ages are
contain some sylvite-bearing fluid inclusions. In addition, interpreted to represent the product of inherited excess 40Ar
40Ar/39Ar measurements were made from fragments of from magmatic sources trapped in fluid inclusions plus the
vein quartz associated with the 38-Ma leucogranite. These component of radiogenic 40Ar derived from the decay of
samples are from two localities (fig. 2): one vein potassium-bearing fluids and solids trapped in fluid inclu
(780.104) intrudes the Harmony Formation about 500 m sions. This interpretation is supported by the association of
west of a relatively large body of leucogranite, and the the younger ages with a relatively high release of 39Ar and
other (78C103) intrudes the leucogranite. In contrast with a corresponding increase in age with lower 39Ar releases.
the samples from the Buckingham system, the vein quartz Fluid inclusions containing essentially no potassium
*ArAr STUDIES, BATTLE MOUNTAIN, NEVADA 161
LH2O (+ Liquid CO2 at temperatures < 20C) This is similar to the range of K-Ar and 40Ar/39Ar incre
mental heating ages from biotite, muscovite, and whole
Type I -
Table 3. Summary of single-grain laser-fusion 40Ar/39Ar analyses of quartz from the Battle Mountain district.
[Ages calculated using Ae=0.581x1019 yr", Ap=496210"yr", "K/Kotal=1.167x10"moles/mole. Emors are estimates of the standard deviation (o) of analytical precision]
Sample Experiment 40Ar/ 38A/ 37A/ 36A/ 40Ar rad 40Ar rad/ 40Ar rad Apparent age
no. no. 39Ar 39Ar 39Ar 39Ar (x 1014 moles) 39Ar (percent) (+10) (Ma)
Quartz veins from the Buckingham stockwork system
1471-760 100-1 143.36 (). 17742 1,0008 ().29231 3.1992 57,085 39.81 268.4 + 46.2
(fig. 5) 100-2 542.86 ().65356 0.93087 1.631.4 6.8823 60.881 11.21 284.9 + 18.1
1003 17.762 0.021477 0.0501.99 0.008106 50.853 15.363 86.49 76.24 + 0.59
100-4 184.32 0.54344 0.54672 (). 19733 0.78051 126,07 68.39 547.1 + 113.0
100-5 17,213 ().019658 0.000707 ().005415 21.353 15.604 90.65 77.42 + 0.73
100-6 874.42 1.6889 0.48291 1.4799 0.87615 437.22 49.99 1,445 + 1,022
1007 1183.2 1.5772 0.38085 2.7903 ().91207 358.75 30.32 1,257+ 1,343
1471-1731 114-1 17569 ().27240 0.025 152 0.31226 4.5563 83,411 47.48 379.9 + 60.0
(fig. 6) 114-2 29,938 ().047228 0.35130 ().03736 27,980 18,922 63.20 93.46 + 2.77
114-3 33.953 0.057976 ().38035 (),05322 9.6808 18.253 53.75 90.23 + 6.63
114-4 183.46 0.46293 5.2656 ().21 180 1,5298 121.52 66.14 530.0+ 312.0
79C771 101-1 168.64 0.28784 0.058985 0.369.45 12.585 59.465 35.26 278.8 + 28.7
(fig. 7) 101-2 470.22 ().83678 0.29027 1.1120 19,681 141.64 30. 12 604.4 + 65.0
101-3 167.31 ().39749 ().022914 ().23509 2.7926 97.837 58.47 438.2 + 75.9
101-4 1077.0 3.5915 (). 19807 2.3541 1.870.9 381.39 35.41 1,314 + 659
101-5 22.366 0.024696 ().003383 ().02698 19,424 14.387 64.32 71.50 + 1.92
101-6 1272.3 3.4560 0.32611 2.3367 1.7346 581.86 45.73 1,747+ 1,306
81TT1211 99-1 11.777 ().021847 () () 12340 0.012292 25,827 8.1376 69.10 40.79 + 5.57
(fig. 8) 99-3 21.739 0.025867 0.000779 0.036843 14.269 10.844 49.88 54.15 + 2.42
99-4 17.261 0.024.701 0.003130 0.010519 54,165 14.145 81.94 70.31 + 0.89
99-5 21.742 0.013739 ().000925 0.026,141 0.97.164 14,009 64.43 69.65 + 22.58
996 238.79 1,0214 0.019467 ().55847 ().36695 73.750 30.89 339.8 + 276.8
99-7 44,022 (). 11787 ().001111 ().091029 1.4932 17.115 38.88 84.74 + 16.84
99-8 321.18 1.38.10 1,1708 0.62517 0.89.309 136.58 42.51 586.0 + 287.1
99-9 16.615 ().02.1366 ().000136 () ()20051 7.6325 10.682 64.29 53.35 + 2.24
Quartz veins associated with late Eocene to early Oligocene igneous event
79C1032 8970.245 5.0156 (). 12399 0.22852 () ()()31478 9.4073 4.0745 81.22 45.51 + 0.28
(fig. 9) 8970246 8,5362 0.38236 ().067216 ().011091 1.4048 5.2356 61.33 58.27+ 0.48
897.0247 10.825 0.47548 1.5676 0.015082 0.674.11 6.4626 59.64 71.66 + 0.85
897.0248 7.5420 ().36763 1.1612 ().010515 ().70169 4.4961 59.57 50.15 + 0.58
897.0249 5.1823 (). 16034 1.2324 0.004525 1,0897 3.9112 75.41 43.71 + 0.38
897.0250 3,8967 0.037980 ().35426 ().0011497 2.8827 3,5556 91.22 39.78 + 0.25
79C1043 8970.240 4,6007 0.20468 0.008.856 0.0028211 7.4874 3.7393 81.27 41.68 + 0.25
(ig. 10) 897.0242 8.3961 1,5301 (),029.108 0.012850 0.49378 4.5726 54.46 50.83 + 0.76
897.0243 7.2386 ().7508 2.1875 ().010203 0.41811 4.3639 60.20 48.54 + 0.82
897.0244 3.9638 ().075151 0.055961 ().0013574 10.673 3.5385 89.27 39.46 + 0.24
897.0251 3.7181 ().031822 ().50.783 ().0005269 0.47926 3.5728 96.06 39.84 + 0.59
897.0252 5.2010 ().54699 ().3.1335 () ()()38603 0.23390 4,0559 7797 45.16 + 1.27
| Reactor corrections: *"Ark/*Ark =0.0086, *Arca/?'Arca = 0.0003, and *Arca/'Arca = 0.0003. J = 0.00281.
* Reactor corrections "Ark/3Arg = 0.0285, *Arca/?'Arca =0.000671, and *Arca/37Arca = 0.000251. J = 0.00627.
* Reactor corrections: *"Ark/*Ark = 0.0285, *Arca/37Arc, = 0.000671, and *Arca/?'Arca = 0.00025 1. J = 0.00625.
*ArAr STUDIES, BATTLE MOUNTAIN, NEVADA 163
4000 1000
;3OOO 800
*-
600
3.
2000 k
<
S.
400
1OOO
200 k
- + not used in fit age=51.1+3.7 Ma
age=75.5+1.1 Ma L O used in fit 40Ar/36Ar-420.1+11.7
40Ar/36Ar-324.6+6.6
I I L 1 O |- 1 I 1 1 I I I
39AT/36Ar. 39Ar/36Ar.
Figure 5, 40Ar/39Ar versus 39Ar?6Ar diagram with isochron plot Figure 7. 40Ar/39Ar versus 39Ar?6Ar diagram with isochron plot
for sample 1471-760. Isochron age is 75.5+1.1 Ma. for sample 79C77. Isochron age is 55.1+3.7 Ma.
1OOO 2OOO
8OO M. +
1500
600 3.
Q 1000
<
< | c
<r
400 H.
5OO
2OO }
|- + not used in fit age=51.2+16.3 Ma |- age=37.2+5.3 Ma
|- O used in fit 40Ar/36Ar:-507.2+76.2 - 40Ar/36Ar-437+45.9
O - l l I I 1 o I I I l 1111 l 1 11111111 1
O 10 2O 30 O 25 50 75 100
39AI/36Ar. 39Ar/36Ar.
Figure 6. 40Ar/39Ar versus 39Ar?6Ar diagram with isochron plot Figure 8, 40Ar/39Ar versus 39Ar?6Ar diagram with isochron plot
for sample 1471-173. Isochron age is 51.2+16.3 Ma. for sample 81TT121. Isochron age is 37.2+5.3 Ma.
164 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
4OOO 10000
|
|- + not used in fit
- O used in fit T O used in fit
3OOOH 7500
3. |
H
-
&
$ 2000!
; 5O00
1 OOOH 2500
age=38.5+0.3 Ma age=38.3+0.6 Ma
40Ar/36Ar-4OO.2+6.1 40Ar/36Ar-395+20
O I 1 1 11111 I 1 L I 1 I I I 1 I l
O L-111111111111111111111111.
O 250 500 750 1OOO O 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
39Ar/36Ar. 39AI/36Ar.
Figure 9. 40Ar/36Ar versus 39Ar/36Ar diagram with isochron plot Figure 10. 40Ar/36Ar versus 39Ar/36Ar diagram with isochron
for sample 78C103. Isochron age is 38.5+0.3 Ma. plot for sample 78C 104. Isochron age is 38.3+0.6 Ma.
on fig. 2) gives the best data for drawing an isochron Buckingham quartz stockwork system produce well
because two analyzed grains had relatively large amounts defined isochron ages of 38.5+0.3 Ma and 38.3+0.6 Ma,
of potassium (fig. 5). The influence on the isochron by respectively (figs. 9 and 10). The leucogranite bodies
samples with a high value of 39Ar6Ar (an indication of have K-Ar ages on hornblende and biotite of 37.7+1.4 Ma,
the amount of potassium) is a significant factor because 38.8+1.1 Ma, and 39.0+1.1 Ma (table 1); this is identical
the points plot far from the ordinate on the 40Ar/36Ar ver to the fluid-inclusion ages. The trapping of fluid in the
sus 39Ar6Ar diagram and have relatively more leverage quartz must have taken place at the time of cooling of
in drawing the best line fit between the plotted points. Six these igneous bodies, and there has been no subsequent
grains define an isochron that is 75.1+1.1 Ma (fig. 5). modification of the igneous system.
A second sample from the drill hole, 1471-173, also A summary 40Ar/36Ar versus 39Ar/36Ar diagram (fig.
yields an isochron that can be interpreted as Late Creta 11) shows the data points from all the analyses used from
ceous in age (fig. 6). It is much less well constrained, the four samples of quartz from the Buckingham quartz
however, and has a much larger uncertainty due to the stockwork. The age is shown above or below each line.
small amount of potassium in the six grains analyzed. This figure emphasizes the fact that samples with low
The isochron age of 51.2+16.3 Ma, based on three points, potassium (and, hence, a low 39Ar36Ar. ratio) cluster near
the ordinate and limit the construction of an isochron if
is of little value in determining the age of the quartz fluid
inclusions. grains that have a higher potassium content are not avail
Sample 79C77 presented the same problems as sam able. Ideally, a wide variation of potassium content would
produce the best isochrons. Samples 78C103 and 78C104
ple 1471-173 (see above). Because of very small amounts
(figs. 9 and 10) are examples in which isochrons are con
of potassium and consequently small amounts of 39Ar, the
trolled by a wide spread of 39Ar36Ar values. They are
analysis is heavily biased by the excess 40Ar in the fluid
not plotted on figure l l because they have points an order
of the inclusion. The isochron drawn through four points
of magnitude higher on the 39Ar/36Ar axis than the other
defines an age of 55.1+3.7 Ma (fig. 7). The slope of the
samples.
line is strongly influenced by one analysis with the highest
40Ar/39Ar value (101-5, table 3); the other three analyses
cluster near the ordinate and near the 425 ratio, indicating CONCLUSIONS
about 30 percent excess argon.
Two samples (78C103 and 78C104, fig. 2) of vein 40Ar/39Ar dating of fluid inclusions in igneous miner
quartz associated with a 38-Ma leucogranite north of the als has promise as a means of dating the fluid and, hence,
*ArAr STUDIES, BATTLE MOUNTAIN, NEVADA 165
ABSTRACT as the site for monazite, zircon, rutile, and ilmenite accu
mulations.
Placers are concentrations of heavy minerals sorted Upper Cretaceous fluvial sediments near the Fall
by density and shape through fluvial, littoral, and (or) Zone in Georgia and South Carolina contain small concen
trations of monazite, as well as zircon, rutile, and ilmenite.
eolian processes. A minerals specific gravity and
hydraulic equivalence relative to quartz determines the Fine-grained Cretaceous sands and silts of the upper delta
type of sedimentary deposit in which it is found. For and delta facies concentrate less dense, but hydraulically
example, a grain of gold or a titanium mineral such as equivalent, heavy mineral suites that are characterized by
ilmenite or rutile in the very fine sand range (0.060.12 staurolite, kyanite, amphiboles, pyroxenes, epidote, and
mm) tends to concentrate in dissimilarly sized deposits. rutile. A similar gradation of heavy minerals is also
Gold of this size occurs with very coarse quartz sand present within the Cenozoic fluvial facies of the Coastal
Plain.
(1.02.0 mm) or gravel. Very fine grained titanium min
erals, as well as zircon and monazite, are deposited with Although a qualitative relationship between certain
fine-grained quartz sand (0.130.25 mm). heavy mineral suites and the inner Coastal Plain fluvial
The size of sediment carried and subsequently deposits has been known for some time, the role of stream
depostied by a river depends on its discharge, slope, gradient has not been examined critically. Detailed geo
depth, and velocity. Sediments with limiting grain sizes morphological and stratigraphic research in the Fall Zone
that host placers are deposited in predictable reaches of region will allow development of more effective predictive
the system where slope and velocity decrease. In the models of placer mineral occurrence. Drainage basin
southeastern U.S., rivers draining the eastern Appalachians analysis utilizing stream discharge, gradient, and channel
commonly decrease in gradient and velocity until they width and depth, can be linked with geologic studies of
reach the outer edge of the Piedmont. Gradients of streams favorable source terranes to identify for exploration spe
cific river reaches that contain sediment sizes that are con
flowing across the Piedmont steepen where crossing struc
tural or lithologic boundaries and then flatten abruptly at ductive to specific heavy mineral suites. Such studies
allow the extensive database of stream flow characteristics
the Fall Zone, where rivers enter the Coastal Plain. The
abrupt change in river dynamics preferentially deposits in the southeastern U.S. to be coupled with economic geo
coarse-grained sediments near the Fall Zone and medium logic knowledge to refine heavy mineral prospecting tech
and fine-grained sand at the inner edge of the Coastal niques in the Fall Zone region.
Plain. Depending on upstream source terranes, the Fall
Zone may be targeted for exploration for placer gold,
whereas the inner edge of the Coastal Plain has potential INTRODUCTION
of heavy mineral deposits, but differential sorting by draining the same source terranes, and it may have local
facies in fluvial systems is another important determinant ized undiscovered paleoplacers.
of their location and is an effective guide to exploration.
This paper examines heavy mineral occurrences near the
inner edge of the Coastal Plain of southeastern U.S. and HEAVY MINERAL EQUIVALENCE
their relationship to stream gradients and fluvial facies. It
The formation of heavy mineral placers is a function
is focused on the Deep RiverCape Fear River system of
North Carolina to model downstream changes in heavy of weathering of primary source terranes, transport of
mineral location. detrital material, and deposition in suitable environments.
Concentration of heavy minerals in placers results from
River systems draining the eastern flank of the Appa
differential sorting by specific gravity and shape through
lachian Mountains commonly decrease in gradient until
fluvial, littoral, and (or) eolian processes. The relationship
they reach the outer edge of the Piedmont Upland. Gradi
is complex but is controlled by density differences
ents are commonly abruptly steeper at structural or litho
between heavy minerals and other minerals (quartz, feld
logic boundaries in crystalline rocks and then decrease at
spar) and their host deposit.
the inner edge of the Coastal Plain, where rivers cross
Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments. Coastal Plain rivers The weight equivalence and hydraulic-equivalent set
are graded to sea level. Zones of rapids near the contact tling velocity relative to quartz (Rubey, 1933; Ritten
between the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont and the sed house, 1953; Tourtelot, 1968; Pettijohn and others, 1973)
iments of the Coastal Plain have historically been termed bear directly on the type of sedimentary deposit in which
the Fall Line or, more accurately, the Fall Zone (Fenne it is found. For example, a 1-mm diameter sphere of
man, 1938). quartz (specific gravity 2.65) is weight equivalent to a
A change in river dynamics takes place near the Fall gold sphere (specific gravity 18.0) of 0.528-mm diameter,
Zone. Rivers flowing through constricted channels in the less than one phi-size interval smaller than the quartz. On
crystalline terranes of the Piedmont carry the bulk of dis the basis of settling velocities in water, the hydraulically
charge from their drainage basins along with the sus equivalent size variation between gold and quartz is dif
pended and entrained sediment load. Upon entering the ferent. The same 1-mm diameter sphere of quartz is
more erodable sediments of the Coastal Plain, channels hydraulically equivalent to a gold sphere of 0.15-mm
widen, causing a related decrease in stream velocity. As a diameter, approximately 2.5 phi sizes smaller than the
result, river systems tend to deposit coarse-grained sedi quartz equivalent. Less dense heavy minerals such as
ments near the Fall Zone, and they tend to deposit ilmenite (specific gravity 4.75) settle at velocities nearer
medium- and fine-grained sand in the fluvial-deltaic facies to that of quartz. In terms of size, ilmenite spheres tend to
downstream. concentrate with equivalent-size quartz that are from 0.75
Heavy mineral species are closely allied with the to 1.0 phi size larger.
grain size of their host sediments. Partially as the result of Particle shape further complicates simple weight
hydraulic equivalence, grain shape, and bed roughness, equivalence. Flakes settle far less rapidly than spheres. A
flake with a diameter 10 times its thickness tends to settle
heavy minerals supplied to the fluvial system are differen
tially sorted by decreasing specific gravity. Although at only about one quarter the rate of a sphere of similar
source terrane is critical, differentiation by sorting is also diameter (Tourtelot, 1968). This translates to less than a
a critical control on the location of deposits. Stratigraphic one-phi size difference.
studies by Sohl and Owens (1991), Owens (1989), and Where sediments enter the fluvial system, laminar
Owens and Gohn (1985) have indicated qualitative rela and turbulent flow in channels dominate heavy mineral
tionships between heavy minerals and sedimentary facies sorting and deposition. Laminar flow at low discharge
in the Cretaceous sediments of the Coastal Plain, but the periods relegates sediment to entrained transport move
concept of linking facies with grain size to evaluate the ment of grains along stream beds by saltation. As velocity
heavy mineral potential of the Coastal Plain has not previ increases, turbulent flow captures saltating grains and car
ously been attempted. ries them as suspended load to where velocity decreases.
The Cape Fear River system of North Carolina is an Differential-density settling velocity returns grains to the
example of discharge and gradient changes conductive to sediment entrained in the bed load (Friedman and Sanders,
preferred deposition of heavy mineral suites. The Fall 1978). The heavy minerals are the first to be returned to
Zone, marking the approximate inland boundary between the bed load, where they begin to be concentrated. Sling
the Atlantic Coastal Plain and Piedmont Uplands, suggests erland (1977, 1984) studied the relative movement and
a representative model for preferential heavy mineral dep concentration of magnetite as entrained grains in bed load
osition at gradient changes along rivers draining the Caro in laboratory experiments. He demonstrated that heavy
lina slate belt. This river system provides a model for mineral concentration within a sandy bed load is less
gradient and grain-size changes along former river courses dependent on the hydraulic equivalency of grains than on
HEAVY MINERALS AT THE FALL ZONE 169
3 ro 'S no S 3. - - RS 3 op
c g c c c g 5 c c g c c
O ! 1 I l l l l l l l l 1 l l
- & -
s
5
- v -
q)
- c -
- 3 -
7. -
i e Coase Sand to # I
10- ------> t
f
H. 5
z t
LL - C -
C 3.
5 - Percent Heavy Minerals -> M.
Cl
H - |
5
LL
:
-
|
3. - I
10 O- very Fine Sand 3-4c -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - N.
1 D-
-
sT__
Fine Sand 2-30
_ _ _ _ C.
-
1001 I I I T I I I I I i I T
Figure 1. Grain size and heavy mineral distributions in stratified Holocene alluvial fill, Richard B. Russell Reservoir, Savannah River,
Georgia.
the coarseness of the bed load itself. Increasing bed rough the variables shown by similarity between curves. Figure
ness corresponds to a greater heavy mineral concentration. 1 shows greatest similarity between the total heavy min
Heavy minerals tend to nest in the interstices of larger eral suite and the medium-sand fraction of each sample.
grains. - Total heavy minerals are in ratio with the medium-grained
Studies of heavy mineral deposition in glaciolacus sand. These curves are emphasized with solid lines. The
trine deltas by Force and Stone (1990) examined grain comparison indicates that the heavy minerals present in
size differences and heavy mineral species in natural set each sample are dominantly found within this size frac
tings. They noted that the grain size of the host bed was tion. Heavy mineral species for the same samples are
the only variable correlating well with the percentage of shown on figure 2. Epidote and the amphiboles, the least
heavy minerals. Each species showed maximum concen dense of the suite (specific gravity 3.03.5), are the most
tration at a particular grain size of the host bed. In general, abundant species. Epidote and, to a lesser extent, the
the more equant-shaped heavy mineral grains studied, amphiboles account for the pattern of the total heavy min
ranging in composition and density from magnetite (spe eral curve on figure 1. As mineral species of greater
cific gravity 5.18) to tourmaline (specific gravity 3.25), density are considered, the similarity with the medium
showed median grain sizes from 0.5 phi to 1 phi size finer grained fraction becomes less distinct, and higher density
than the total sample mode. minerals tend to track with the fine- and very fine grained
Similar relationships between grain size of the heavy fractions. Differentiation by grain size and density is
mineral species and the host are evident in alluvial depos apparent.
its as well. Figure 1 shows an example of a stratigraphic The relationship between density and grain size of
analysis of Holocene, overbank, floodplain deposits along the host deposit is clearly illustrated on figure 3, which
the Savannah River in the Richard B. Russell Reservoir. plots Rittenhouse's (1943) data on heavy mineral suites
The weight percent of the total heavy mineral content of from fluvial samples as adapted by Pettijohn and others
each sample is plotted with the percentage of the individ (1973). Heavy mineral species are plotted as the log of
ual sand fractions. Weight percent is plotted logarithmi specific gravity versus the difference in phi size between
cally, but depth is shown arithmetically on the x-axis. the size of heavy minerals and the size of the host quartz
This plotting technique identifies potential ratios among grains in the deposit. Species with specific gravities
170 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
; f ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; f
001
Zircon
O :
-
H.
H. -
z
LL -
O - -
CC - -
Lll - -
Q- ! 0 F
E
(2 AmpnboleS
LL |
3.
-- - - - - - - - - - - - *- ~ - 25 9.25 mn ~ N
C St. T
I E
OC) | I | | T | | |
Figure 2. Distribution of heavy mineral species and grain size in stratified Holocene alluvial fill, Richard B. Russell Reservoir, Savannah
River, Georgia.
between 2.8 and 5.0 tend to correlate with host quartz grain size of entrained deposits in bed load. Observations
sands that are as much as 1.2 phi units coarser. The origi by Force and Stone (1990) are useful for understanding
nal work (Pettijohn and others, 1973) has been adapted heavy mineral concentrations in a single natural setting.
here by extending the curve to include higher density min None of these techniques alone, however, specifically
erals, such as cassiterite, silver, the platinum-group ele addresses heavy mineral resource potential. Figure 3 pre
ments, and gold. Whereas the relationship shown between sents a testable procedure for identifying and assessing the
heavy mineral grains and their quartz equivalents on fig heavy mineral resource of fluvial sand bodies on the basis
ure 3 is simplified and applies to equant-shaped grains, it of grain size.
is useful for assessing the heavy mineral potential of sand
bodies on the basis of grain size. STREAM GRADIENT AND
Weight equivalency and hydraulically equivalent set SEDIMENT SIZE
tling velocities as described by Rubey (1933) and Tourte
lot (1968) are based on ideal shapes and conditions. The relationship between the slope of a stream chan
Fluvial experiments by Slingerland (1977, 1984), on the nel and the size of its sediment load is complex. As early
other hand, rely on mathmatical expressions to explain as 1877, Gilbert (1877) tried to relate decrease in stream
complex relationships between heavy minerals and the gradient with the quantity of stream discharge. Sternberg,
HEAVY MINERALS AT THE FALL ZONE 171
100.0 -
-
>- o T
O I Gold
E 3: I
3. O
-C
-- --
N
CC O Platinum Group Elements (PGE's)
(D s * - .
O 10.0 - * * O- Silver
L - g *; ;
# 5 3- 555
C
LL - 92 a 5 * : D- Cassite rite
0
Q) |s# s; 53:# S= *|
#3
- = e g; oq |
; : I Lee
J.O
3 | |
| Garnet
1.0 I I I I I
O 1 2 3 4 5
PHI UNITS SMALLER THAN OUARTZ EOU!VALENT
Figure 3. Relationship of heavy mineral grains to hydraulically equivalent quartz grains in a fluvial environment (adapted from Pettijohn
and others, 1973; Rittenhouse, 1943).
on the other hand, (cf. Woodford, 1951, p. 813) believed Hack (1957) attempted to clarify this relationship.
that the slope of the stream channel is directly related to He noted that stream discharge is important in controlling
the size of the bed load. Rubey (1933) analyzed stream slope, but it was difficult to measure as a quantity. On the
slopes using data from Gilbert's (1914) classic flume stud other hand, stream discharge relates to its drainage area.
ies. He concluded that, if the depth-to-width ratio of the He was able to show a direct relationship with the slope
channel was constant, the graded slope decreased with a of a stream and the mean diameter of the bed material
decrease in sediment load or particle size or with an when drainage area was taken into account. For example,
increase in discharge. Hence, a stream might be adjusted a clear relationship was present between slope and the
to an increase in particle size by an increase in depth (rel ratio of mean sediment size to drainage area, and sediment
ative to width) or an increase of slope. size clearly decreased with a downstream decrease in
172 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
slope. In general, perennial streams show concave pro conditions, is a key factor in sediment transport and sort
files, with coarse debris associated with steep slopes and ing and is related to channel depth and width. Particles of
fine debris with gentle slopes. a certain size are transported at a given velocity and set of
The complexity of the relationship between sediment flow conditions. They will be deposited where the flow
size and slope in stream channels was pointed out by conditions are no longer able to carry them as saltating or
Leopold and others (1964). They showed that slope, suspended grains. Particles transported along confined
channel roughness (size of bed load), depth, and velocity channels are commonly not deposited along river reaches
are interrelated through stream discharge. As discharge until the channels are no longer restricted and channel
increases downstream by the entrance of tributaries, a width can increase. As the channel width varies, a con
channel may respond by an increase in width, depth, or comitant decrease in velocity results. Particles carried in
velocity. With perennial streams, the response is normally suspension in the higher velocity flow of the confined
an adjustment through increased width and depth of the channels are subsequently deposited as overbank deposits
downstream channel; concomitantly, velocity decreases. where channel constriction is removed. These are left as
Expressed somewhat differently, the rate of change in alluvial deposits of predictable grain size. Examples might
depth increases with a decrease in the rate of change in include local areas of abrupt lithologic variation between
slope. The rate of change in velocity decreases with the resistant and less resistant rock types that allow locally
increase in depth and decrease in slope. Roughness wider channels due to differential erosion. Similarly,
decreases with slope and velocity as well (Leopold and down-faulted or subsiding basins may exert geologic con
others, 1964, p. 257). All the variables adjust to overall trol on channel width as well as gradient. Using hydraulic
changes in discharge, such as those caused by increased equivalence as a guide and adjacent source terranes as a
precipitation. The processes of differential sorting of sed requirement, anticipated heavy mineral suites may be
iments by shape, size, and density takes place within this sought in such areas on the basis of the predicted grain
fluvial framework. Stream velocity and channel form are size of deposits.
key factors in sediment transport and deposition. Turbu Figure 4 presents a longitudinal profile of the Deep
lent and laminar flow within reaches of river systems RiverCape Fear River system superimposed on the
influence the size and concentration of sediment carried underlying geologic controls of the Carolina slate belt,
by saltation as bed load, or by suspension. Changes in Deep River Mesozoic Basin, and the Atlantic Coastal
slope and channel form, however, determine where such Plain. The profile of the Haw River, the major tributary of
sediments are deposited. This is of major importance in the Cape Fear River is also shown. Gaging stations along
the study of heavy mineral placers because it serves as an the profile are plotted as well. The profile shows a strong
aid in the location of specific economic deposits. geologic control with steep gradients associated with felsic
Slope or stream gradient, with respect to drainage volcanic rocks and gentler gradients corresponding with
area, has been shown by Hack, (1957, fig. 21) to have a the metamudstone, argillite, siltstone, and shale. The low
predictable relationship with the median size of bed mate est gradients occur with the sediments of the Coastal
rial. Hack showed the interrelationship with the equation: Plain. Table 1 presents the calculated median grain size
for this river system on the basis of drainage area and
M 0.6
slope from Hacks equation above. Downstream from the
s- (*) confluence of the Deep River and Haw River, grain size
of the Cape Fear River bed load decreases with increasing
where
discharge and decreasing slope. The most pronounced
S is the channel slope in ft/mi, change in grain size is between the Fall Line, near Lilling
M is the median size of bed material in mm, ton, N.C. (Md = 129 mm), and Huske Lock (Md = 6.65
mm). Although the abrupt decrease in grain size down
A is the drainage area in mi2, and
stream from the Fall Line is partially attributable to the
18 is a constant determined for the units of
grain size of the underlying Cretaceous sediments, the
measurement.
change in slope also contributes to this variation.
Tourtelot's (1968) presentation of hydraulic-equivalent Abrupt gradient changes along stream systems also
grain sizes for heavy minerals can be adapted to Hack's offer controls on the preferential deposition of sediment
geomorphic presentation. This is useful because the drain and associated heavy minerals. Although influenced by
age basin is already used as a common unit to define channel depth and width, locally or regionally steepened
stream-sediment sampling sites in mineral resource assess gradients coincide with increased stream velocities and
ment studies.
larger diameter particles as bed or suspended loads.
Channel form displays similar controls on the grain Changes to less steep slopes have the opposite effect,
size of deposits and the associated heavy minerals. Stream with finer sized grains deposited rapidly along the channel
velocity, together with turbulent and laminar flow as an adjustment to a decrease in stream velocity.
300
Carolina
1
69
belt
Slate
Q)
~\
9. .9-
2C.
o
9
5
> 9O
200 2 Cn
C/D
3=
co
*
=
C)
-- -
=5
> L
LLi-
O
deposits
Quaternary
#s"
Coastal -
- s
O Q)
A.Q)
so.
#Plain
|OZone
Fall
3.S
~
2 -
w -
3
#*2\
f N Confluence
o
ov)
Riv 5 -.
dQ
wn
Rivers
Haw
and
Deep
Ne
##: un
-
S
> s% S/-
-
%:SSChatham
(Upper
Group
*-
-$Triassic)
3
7
69
do I
CQ
RpExPLANATION
;:3.Rp -
Formation
Pekin
~
-
c
M &3C9
9
`s
-
-;
C
Format
k
urnation
o
Fear
Cape
River
$Sozo
*::: nnock r
(Tertiary,
Formation
Duplin
Td
-
`-yr
Pliocene) -
e
wan-
+--
terrace IC PPg
Pennsylvanian)
(Permian
rocks
Granitic
and
P
i*rac
~ -
>
-
Seea
(Upper
Formation
Peedee
Kp
basin -
Cretaceous)
C9.
granitic
Metamorphosed
(Cambrian)
rocks
Kp
Lve
>
*
undett
Krn/Kct etentiated
c
(Upper
Group
Creek
Black
Ctv
Cretaceous)
rocks
metavolcanic
Felsic
(Cambrian)
`s~
Ko
t~ *...Kb K
-
cmv
rocks
metavolcanic
Mafic
`s Formation
Creek
Donoho
Krn
(Cambrian)
Ko
*-
s
Formation
Bladen
Cmd
Ko
metaargillite
and
Metamudstone
(Cambrian)
~
>
*
Metavolcanic-epielastic
Cve
Formation
Heel
Tar
Kt
rocks
(Cambrian)
~
99
stations
Gaging
Fear
Middendorf-Cape
Kmy
Formation,
>
(Upper
undivided
Kc
Cretaceous)
*~
T
-
-
T
I-T
500 200
400
300
O
100
DISTANCE
(KILoMETERs)
4.
Figure
profile
Longitudinal
Fear
Cape
the
of
North
system,
River
Carolina.
174 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Table 1. Calculated median grain size for the Cape Fear River formed a barrier to navigation (McGee, 1888). Fenneman
system bed load as a function of cumulative drainage area and (1938) broadened the definition to represent a zone, 510
slope. mi wide, that denoted a transition from the crystalline
rocks of the Piedmont to unconsolidated sediments of the
[Gaging station numbers are shown on figs. 4 and 7]
Coastal Plain. The term Fall Line was used instead to
Gaging station Cumulative Slope Median grain mark the point where Piedmont rocks passed beneath the
drainage area (mi') (ft mi) size (mm) sediments of the Coastal Plain. In this respect, the term
1. Deep River near became a boundary between physiographic provinces
High Point, N.C. ............ 46.9 |3 | 27.6 rather than a fluvial attribute. Hack (1982) returned to a
2. Deep River near fluvial definition. He showed that major breaks in modern
Randelman, N.C........... 125.() 4.5 12.4 stream gradients occurred within the Fall Zone and that
3. Deep River near these were often found within the Piedmont rather than the
Ramseur, N.C. ............. 349 () 1().5 142.1 Coastal Plain. Thus, there is ambiguity in the use of the
4. Haw River at
term. In this paper, Fall Line denotes the contact
Haw River, N.C. .......... 596.() 5.() 70.5 between Piedmont rocks and Coastal Plain sediments
5, Haw River near
Pittsboro, N.C. .......... 1,310.0 7. 9 332.()
exposed along modern stream beds. Fall Zone, on the
6. Deep River at
other hand, incorporates the steepened reaches upstream
Moncure, N.C.'......... 1,434.0 3.7 102.7
from the Fall Line to the inner edge of Coastal Plain sedi
7. Cape Fear River at ments. In this respect, the changing position of the contact
Lillington, N.C.......... 3,464.0 2.5 129 ()
between the Piedmont and Coastal Plain can be taken into
----------------------------- Fall Line ---------------------------------- account as major stream systems were incised or alluvi
8. Cape Fear River at ated during the post-Mesozoic history of tectonically and
Huske Lock.............. 4,810.0 0.34 6.7 eustatically induced base-level changes. Fall Zone, in this
9. Cape Fear River at view, incorporates the innermost deposits of the Coastal
Lock No. 1 ................ 5,2200 (). 12 1.3
Plain but recognizes the potential proximity of former
!Confluence of Deep River and Haw River. Head of Cape Fall Line positions with the contemporaneous fluvial
Fear River. facies of inner Coastal Plain deposits.
On the basis of past and present stream gradient
Hydraulic equivalency of heavy minerals in natural changes, similar in pattern to those of the modern system,
settings is coupled with the composite array of variables the inner Coastal Plain is preferentially suited for heavy
that influence stream velocity and particle size in fluvial mineral deposition and presents its own placer potential.
systems. The relationship is complex and resists simple Here again, the gradient change of streams draining the
explanation. In a general sense, however, specific reaches Piedmont played the major role.
along river channels may be highlighted as having the The Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks of the
greatest potential for differential deposition of specific Coastal Plain form a complex wedge of fluvial and marine
heavy mineral suites as a response to settling velocities sediments that rises in altitude inland until pinching out
and stream flow. Two clear examples are geologic against the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont. Upper Creta
boundaries that (1) allow for abrupt widening of channels ceous strata rest unconformably on the weathered surface
in areas downstream from confined channels, and (2) of the crystalline rocks. This relationship is common for
abrupt changes to less steep gradients. Lithologic the Atlantic Coastal Plain from New Jersey to Georgia
changes from resistant to less resistant rock types, either (Frazier, 1979; Gohn and others, 1979; Owens and Gohn,
locally or regionally, can contribute to both types of pre 1985; Sohl and Owens, 1991). The basal Cretaceous units
ferred depositional settings. are sometimes weathered, both in outcrop and in subsur
face, and consist of very coarse to fine-grained sand. At
their basal contact they often incorporate coarse clasts of
LATE MESOZOIC AND CENOZOIC crystalline rocks. The basal Cretaceous formations include
the Tuscaloosa Formation in Georgia, the Cape Fear and
PLACER POTENTIAL Middendorf Formations in the Carolinas, and the Potomac
AT THE FALL ZONE Group in the Middle Atlantic area. All are fluvial sedi
ments related to ancestral river systems that once drained
the Piedmont. They are upper delta plain sediments correl
The Fall Line is loosely associated with the inner ative with contemporaneous shoreline positions that lie
edge of the Coastal Plain in the southeastern U.S., where east of the present coastline (Sohl and Owens, 1991). The
it originally implied an imaginary line drawn through the Lower Cretaceous sediments are overlain by Upper Creta
downstream location of falls on major river systems that ceous deltaic and shelf deposits.
HEAVY MINERALS AT THE FALL ZONE 175
35 81 o 80 79 73: 76
i -
3. s
3. . &
$2. *\}}
&
*...
S e.
Pamlico
Sound
Lw
34,- \
-
-
jockinghai, a
A.
NQRTHCARQLINA.Z.
SOUTHCAROLINA DELTA PLAIN
zirconvmonazite
2: #
flix V, II PRODELTA
FRONTs *. staurolite
II * s <art.
DELTA PLAIN
*F - O
rence
zirconmonazite QNT
33%- P -
\)
W
IV
PRODELTA SHELF
& &V EXPLANATION
ee * ITar Heel Formation
II-Bladen Formation
&. IIIDonoho Creek Formation
2
(? O 10 20 30 40 50 MILES IVPeedee Formation
- 25 & 6 rs
32 1 S) I I l
Figure 5. Generalized paleoenvironmental facies analysis of the Black River Group and lower Peedee Formation between Columbia,
South Carolina, and Greenville, North Carolina.
The crystalline basement is an eastward subsurface example, the modern gradient of the Deep River in the
extension of rocks of the Piedmont Province. From the eastern Piedmont is approximately 1.7 m/km (fig. 5). This
inner edge of the Coastal Plain, the surface of the base compares with the slope of the basement below the adja
ment slopes eastward at about 3.43.8 m/km to where the cent inner Coastal Plain of 2.0 m/km. By contrast, the
surface is about 450 m below sea level at the present modern gradient of the Cape Fear River across the Coastal
coastline. In the southeastern U.S., the surface is tectoni Plain is approximately 0.28 m/km (Soller, 1988). Thus,
cally deformed by the Cape Fear arch in the Carolinas and Cenozoic deposition, complicated by tectonism and sea
by the Georgia uplift in Georgia and Florida. The Salis level changes, has built up the Coastal Plain surface and
bury Embayment lies northeast of the Cape Fear arch and decreased stream gradients relative to the eastern edge of
the Southeast Georgia Embayment lies to the southeast. the Piedmont. The change in gradient at the inner edge of
Both are basins with thick sedimentary sequences that the Coastal Plain represents a hydraulic break conducive
show Cretaceous and Cenozoic deformation. to preferential heavy mineral deposition.
Along the axis of the Cape Fear arch, the slope of the The PiedmontCoastal Plain transition zone was
basement surface beneath the inner Coastal Plain is 2.0 m/ identified by Mertie (1958, 1975) as a favorable location
km for 100 km downstream from the Deep River Meso for accumulations of detrital monazite and zircon. He
zoic Basin. Farther east, however, the slope of the base found these minerals within the heavy mineral suites of
ment surface is comparable to steeper areas both north and basal Cretaceous sediments deposited on Piedmont crystal
south of the arch (3.8 m/km). The slope of the basement line rocks in the Carolinas and Georgia. Mertie attributed
below the Coastal Plain is similar to that of the present the monazite-zircon concentrations in Cretaceous rocks of
Piedmont surface and suggests continuity of this surface the inner Coastal Plain to simple heavy mineral dispersal
through time, although river systems have changed. As an from source terranes in granitic rocks at the eastern edge
176 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
of the Piedmont. Detrital heavy mineral concentrations available, in the overlying Black Creek Group. The Upper
decreased rapidly downstream from the source deposits Cretaceous of the Carolinas was formerly thought to rep
because they were diluted by mineral suites supplied by resent a single transgressive event with the Middendorf
nearby sources (Pettijohn, 1957, p. 566567). Grain-size, Formation, Black Creek Group, and Peedee Formation as
hydraulic-equivlance, and sedimentary-facies relationships lithofacies of the same unit that increased in altitude west
received less coverage in Mertie's reports. Nonetheless, he ward across the basement during transgression (Swift
identified reworked sediments of Cretaceous and Tertiary and Heron, 1969). Sohl and Owens (1991) more reliable
age at the Fall Zone as potential sites for placers of mona dating of lithofacies along the Cape Fear valley shows a
zite and zircon. Following a dispersal model, he sought series of transgressive and regressive events, each charac
out enriched fluvial placers for monazite and zircon along terized by separate fluvial-deltaic facies.
specific secondary stream drainages that drained basal As redefined by Owens (1989), the Black Creek
Cretaceous formations. Group includes the Tar Heel Formation, the Bladen For
mation, and the Donoho Creek Formation. The Tar Heel
Formation incorporates fluvial sediments once identified
HYDRAULIC SORTING WITHIN as Middendorf along the Cape Fear River. The group is
CRETACEOUS FLUVIAL-DELTAIC DEPOSITS overlain by shelf deposits of the Peedee Formation. Figure
5 shows the outcrop pattern and facies relationships of the
The dispersal model was limited by the outcrop area Black Creek Group and Peedee Formation (Owens, 1989;
of basal Cretaceous rocks. There was little knowledge of Sohl and Owens, 1991). Changes from delta plain, and
the heavy mineral suites of subsurface rocksnot much delta front, prodelta, to shelf are apparent from southwest
was known of their grain size, stratigraphy, or depositional to northeast and across the Cape Fear arch.
environments. Recent work by Sohl and Owens (1991) on Heavy mineral suites in these formations reflect the
the Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Carolina Coastal Plain facies changes. The coarse-grained Tar Heel Formation is
provides insights into the heavy mineral suites. Here, the a representative example. Along the Peedee River, the
basal Cretaceous is represented by the Cape Fear Forma upper delta plain facies of the Tar Heel Formation con
tion, which rests unconformably on the basement. The tains abundant zircon and monazite. The delta front facies
Cape Fear Formation, consists of poorly sorted, fine- to exposed along the Cape Fear valley has little monazite and
coarse-grained fluvial sand. Sohl and Owens point out that less zircon, but garnet is abundant. In the prodelta facies
the heavy mineral suite in the outcrop area along the Cape that crops out along the Neuse River, garnet decreases
Fear River consists of ilmenite, zircon, tourmaline, rutile, with an increase of staurolite and kyanite. The shelf
and significant monazite. To the northeast, along the Tar deposits contain chloritoid as the dominant heavy mineral
River, monazite is subordinate to staurolite and kyanite. In species. The Bladen and Donoho Creek Formations are
subsurface deposits, the heavy minerals at Charleston, progressively finer grained than the Tar Heel but show
S.C., are more varied but contain zircon, rutile, and mona similar heavy mineral suites and similar density sorting in
zite. The coarse- to fine-grained fluvial sediments of the the identified deltaic facies.
Cape Fear Formation represent deposits of the upper delta The theoretical relationship between heavy mineral
plain of a drainage system with a shoreline position near suites, grain size, and deltaic facies is shown on figure 6,
the present coastline. which illustrates grain-size changes of the Upper Creta
The overlying Middendorf Formation displays differ ceous formations exposed along the Cape Fear valley from
ent lithofacies and mineralological relationships from the Fall Line to the coast. This figure shows first percen
those of the Cape Fear. Both are of fluvial-deltaic origin tile and median grain sizes analyzed and plotted by Swift
however, and the lithofacies of each changes from upper and Heron (1969) to illustrate a downstream decrease
delta plain to delta plain and delta front deposits from grain size in a fluvial-marine depositonal system. Their
southwest to northeast along the strike of the outcrop area. data are adapted here to reflect the redefined facies
The terrestrial facies grade into marine facies between the mapped on figure 5. It should be noted that Sohl and
Pee Dee and Cape Fear Rivers. Prodelta and shelf deposits Owens (1991) show downstream lithofacies in each for
of the Middendorf are present in the subsurface near mation of the Black Creek Group to progess from south
Charleston. A decrease in grain size accompanies the west to northeast along the strike of the outcrop rather
facies transition, as does an apparent hydraulically equiva than along the Cape Fear River. Nonetheless, sections
lent change in the heavy mineral suites. Zircon, rutile, and exposed along the Cape Fear River show the same pro
monazite are common in the upper delta plain deposits gression between individual facies, although, in this case,
(Owens and Grosz, 1989), but are replaced by epidote, each facies represents a different formation. The grain-size
garnet, and andalusite along the delta front and prodelta. data show a consistent decrease and are used here to
Hydraulic sorting by grain size, density, and lithofa model downstream heavy mineral distribution at the inner
cies is well defined, where appropriate grain-size data are edge of the Coastal Plain or Fall Zone.
HEAVY MINERALS AT THE FALL ZONE 177
ExPL ANATION
O Cass tet ite
O autue
O-Stauroitte
O Garnet
O Epidote
2 O Amphiboles
J O Chior it ord
* O Kyante
- Deep River - Outer Li- O I out malim
line
U) ~
= ~ ~ very fine pebbles
-> - 1 H. > C. -
- Ad
r ~
d- ven y coarse sand
LL O H. -
N
coarse sand
2: 1 -
<
C.
O medium sand
2 H. -
fine sand
3- Meta- Meta- -
Figure 6. Grain size of Upper Cretaceous Formations exposed along the Cape Fear River (adapted from Swift and Heron, 1969). Median
and first percentile grain size is plotted downstream from the Fall Line. Shown above are the theoretical ranges of heavy mineral species
calculated from median grain size of the Cape Fear Formation and Black River Group along the Cape Fear River. Heavy mineral popula
tions are calculated from an assumed mean grain size of 2 phi + 1 phi unit. The ranges of heavy mineral species are from figure 3.
Grain size progressively decreases from delta plain density as a key factor in the location of specific heavy
facies through delta front facies in the Tar Heel to mineral suites.
prodelta facies in the Bladen and finally shelf facies in The Cretaceous fluvial-marine distribution of heavy
the Donoho Creek. Anomalous, coarse grain sizes in the mineral suites provides a conceptual model for understand
overlying Peedee Formation, a shelf deposit, reflects a ing the depositional context of heavy mineral deposits on
basal concentration of reworked phosphatic clasts consist the Coastal Plain. Figure 7 shows the heavy mineral ranges
ing of bored, subrounded cobbles, internal molds of mol of figure 6 superimposed on the longitudinal profile of the
lusks, and bone and teeth material. Plotted above the Cape Fear River system (fig. 4) and plotted relative to the
grain size data on figure 6 are the calculated equivalent Fall Line. The monazite-ilmenite-zircon-rutile zone, char
ranges for fine-grained heavy mineral species (+ one phi acterized by the grain size of the delta plain and delta front
size) shown on figure 3 and keyed to the median grain facies of the Tar Heel Formation and the Cape Fear Forma
size data of Swift and Heron (1969). The heavy mineral tion, lies immediately downstream from the modern Fall
suite characterized by monazite, ilmenite, zircon, and Line in the vicinity of the Orangeburg Scarp and the inner
rutile plot within the delta plain and delta front facies edge of the Duplin Formation. The less dense staurolite
suggested by Sohl and Owens (1991). The less dense epidote-garnet-amphibole zone within the Cretaceous is
heavy minerals staurolite, garnet, epidote, and the anticipated farther downstream and beneath the Duplin sur
amphiboles plot farther downstream in the delta front and face and Quaternary alluvial deposits. Above the Fall Line
prodelta facies. The theoretical and observed heavy min the coarser grained upper delta plain sediments would be
eral identifications point to downstream sorting by more conducive to gold and PGE deposition.
:
IC
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:
*E
HEAVY MINERALS AT THE FALL ZONE 179
CENOZOIC REWORKING OF THE INNER Fear drain the Piedmont and enter the Coastal Plain at the
COASTAL PLAIN OF THE CAROLINAS Fall Line, where stream gradients become gentle and the
grain size of sediments often begins a pronounced down
The surficial deposits of the Atlantic Coastal Plain stream decrease. Although the position of the Fall Line
are dominantly Cenozoic in age. Although lower Tertiary has changed since the Mesozoic, the Coastal Plain sedi
(Paleocene and Eocene) sediments are preserved at depth ments preserve a characteristic facies transition from upper
within the subsiding Southeast Georgia and Salisbury delta plain, to delta front, prodelta, and shelf that begins at
Embayments, they are commonly absent from the adjacent the edge of the Piedmont. A downstream decrease in grain
arches (Gohn and others, 1979; Owens, 1989). Instead, size is accompanied by a related sorting of heavy mineral
Miocene and lower Pliocene marine and coastal margin species by density and size. Coarser delta plain sediments
facies transgress the innermost Coastal Plain deposits from near the Fall Line receive more dense heavy minerals like
the Carolinas (Owens, 1989) to Virginia (Mixon and oth monazite, ilmenite, and zircon. Farther downstream the
ers, 1989). The transgressive events reworked the underly assemblage is more often comprised of staurolite, garnet,
ing Upper Cretaceous formations, as demonstrated by the amphiboles, and epidote.
Duplin Formation on figure 7, and incorporated equivalent Low-gradient coastal plains offer a resource opportu
heavy mineral suites within younger fluvial-deltaic and nity for concentrations of heavy minerals in suites gov
marine facies. Quaternary transgressive deposits occur at erned by grain size and density that are dependent on
progressively lower altitudes eastward across the Coastal upstream source terranes. With the Atlantic Coastal Plain
Plain to the present coast and are contemporaneous with of the southeastern U.S. as an example, and given appro
alluvial fills along the major river systems. priate source terranes, medium- to coarse-grained sand of
The Cenozoic deposits of the Coastal Plain continue the upper delta plain facies can be expected to concentrate
the fluvial-deltaic style of heavy mineral sorting demon a fine-grained heavy mineral suite characterized by mag
strated for the Cretaceous. Stream gradients across the netite, monazite, ilmenite, zircon, and subordinate rutile.
Coastal Plain, however, decreased progressively through The fine- to medium-grained sand of the delta front, on
time relative to the Piedmont and the Fall Zone while a
the other hand, has an anticipated heavy mineral suite
thickening wedge of sediment was deposited across the dominated by very fine grained amphiboles, pyroxenes,
Mesozoic Coastal Plain. In effect, a rising base level staurolite, kyanite, epidote, and tourmaline with subordi
adjusted to eustatic sea level and local tectonic and isos nate and even finer grained ilmenite, zircon, and rutile.
tatic changes gave rise to lower gradient rivers across the
In short, coarse clastics are deposited in proximity to
Coastal Plain and emphasized the abrupt change to a
the Fall Zone, with grain size decreasing with distance
lower gradient at the Fall Zone. As a consequence, finer
downstream from the edge of the Piedmont. The con
grained fluvial facies were deposited across the Coastal
tained heavy mineral suites are sorted accordingly by
Plain together with a suite of hydraulically equivalent
grain size, governed by hydraulic equivalence. A close
lighter heavy minerals dominated by staurolite, kyanite,
relationship between heavy minerals and fluvial facies
amphiboles, pyroxenes, and epidote. In contrast, the some
suggests that economic exploration should more closely
what coarser grained facies nearer the Fall Zone produced
investigate extant stratigraphic facies reconstructions for
concentrations of a high-density mineral suite: monazite, future economic studies.
magnetite, ilmenite, zircon, and rutile. Thus using stream
gradient and hydraulic equivalence as the dominant vari
ables, the Coastal Plain Cenozoic deposits near the Fall
Zone, as well as their Upper Cretaceous counterparts, tend REFERENCES CITED
to be the preferred setting for monazite, ilmenite, rutile,
and zircon (Owens and Grosz, 1989). Subsequent rework Conley, J.F., 1962, Geology and mineral resources of Moore Coun
ing by coastal processes at the higher interglacial sea level ty, North Carolina: North Carolina Department of Conserva
stands further concentrated the inner Coastal Plain fluvial tion and Development Bulletin 76, 40 p.
placers into barrier island beach and dune facies. These, in Fenneman, N.M., 1938, Physiography of the Eastern United States:
turn, resemble the classic economic coastal placer settings New York, McGraw-Hill, 714 p.
of southeastern Georgia and northern Florida. Force, E.R., and Stone, B.D., 1990, Heavy mineral dispersal and
deposition in sandy deltas of glacial Lake Quinebaug, Con
necticut: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1874, 21 p.
CONCLUSION Friedman, G.M., and Sanders, J.E., 1978, Principles of Sedimentol
ogy: New York, John Wiley & Sons, 792 p.
Frazier, W.J., 1979, Sedimentology and paleoenvironmental analy
The Fall Zone marks the transition between the crys sis of the Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa and Eutaw Formations
talline terranes of the Piedmont and the sediments of the in western Georgia, in Arden, D.D., Beck, B.F., and Morrow,
Atlantic Coastal Plain. Modern river systems like the Cape E., eds., Proceedings, Second Symposium on the Geology of
180 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
the Southeastern Coastal Plain: Georgia Geologic Survey In Owens, J.P., and Gohn, G.S., 1985, Depositional history of the Cre
formation Circular 53, p. 3952. taceous Series in the U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain: Stratigraphy,
Gallagher, P.E. and Hoffman, C.W., 1990, Geology and heavy paleoenvironments, and tectonic controls of sedimentation, in
mineral exploration of sedimentary deposits along the Fall Poag, C.W., ed., Geological Evolution of the United States At
Zone of Northampton, Halifax, Nash, and Wilson Counties, lantic Margin: New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, p. 2586.
North Carolina: North Carolina Geological Survey Open-File Owens, J.P., and Grosz, A.E., 1989, Rare-earth resource poten
Report 904, 16p. tialMonazite distribution in the Fall Zone Coastal Plain
Gilbert, G.K., 1877, Report of the geology of the Henry Mountains: sediments of western South Carolina: U.S. Geological Sur
U.S. Geographic and Geological Survey, Rocky Mountain vey Research on Mineral Resources1989 Program with
Region, 160 p. Abstracts, Fifth Annual V.E. McKelvey Forum on Mineral
Gilbert, G.K., 1914, The transportation of debris by running water: and Energy Resources: U.S. Geological Survey Circular
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 86, 259 p. 1035, p. 51.
Gohn, G.S., Bybell, L.M., Christopher, R.A., Owens, J.P., and Pettijohn, F.J., 1957, Sedimentary Rocks: New York, Harper &
Row.
Smith, C.C., 1979, A stratigraphic framework for Cretaceous
and Paleogene margins along the South Carolina and Georgia Pettijohn, F.J., Potter, P.E., and Siever, Raymond, 1973, Sand and
coastal Sediments, in Arden, D.D., Beck, B.F., and Morrow, E., Sandstone: New York, Springer Verlag, 618 p.
eds., Proceedings, Second Symposium on the Geology of the Rittenhouse, Gordon, 1953, Transportation and deposition of
Southeastern Coastal Plain: Georgia Geologic Survey Infor heavy minerals: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v.
mation Circular 53, p. 6474. 54, p. 17251780.
Hack, J.T., 1957, Studies of longitudinal stream profiles in Virginia Rubey, W.W., 1933, Settling velocities of gravel, sand, and silt
and Maryland: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper particles: American Journal of Science, 5th series, v. 25,
294B, p. 5363. p. 325338.
Hack, J.T., 1982, Physiographic divisions and differential uplift in Slingerland, R.L., 1977, The effects of entrainment on the hydraulic
the Piedmont and Blue Ridge: U.S. Geological Survey Profes eqivalence relationships of light and heavy minerals in sands:
sional Paper 1265, 49 p. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 47, p. 753770.
Leopold, L.B., Wolman, M.G., and Miller, J.P., 1964, Fluvial 1984, Role of hydraulic sorting in the orgin of fluvial plac
Processes in Geomorphology: San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, ers: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 54, p. 137150.
522 p. Sohl, N.F., and Owens, J.P., 1991, Cretaceous stratigraphy of the
McGee, W.J., 1888, The geology of the head of the Chesapeake Carolina Coastal Plain, in Horton, J.W., Jr., and Zullo, V.A.,
Bay, U.S. Geological Survey, 7th Annual Report (18851886), eds., Geology of the Carolinas: University of Tennessee Press,
p. 537646. p. 191220.
Mertie, J.B., Jr., 1958, Zirconium and hafnium in the Southeastern Soller, D.R., 1988, Geology and tectonic history of the lower Cape
Atlantic States: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1082A, 25 p. Fear River valley, southeastern North Carolina: U.S. Geologi
1975, Monazite placers in the Southeastern Atlantic States: cal Survey Professional Paper 1466A, 60 p.
U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1390, 41 p. Swift, D.J.P., and Heron, S.D., Jr., 1969, Stratigraphy of the Caro
Mixon, R.B., Berquist, C.R., Jr., Newell, W.L., and Johnson, G.H., lina Cretaceous: Southeastern Geology, v. 10, p. 201245.
1989, Geologic map and generalized cross sections of the Tourtelot, H.A., 1968, Hydraulic equivalence of grains of quartz
Coastal Plain and adjacent parts of the Piedmont, Virginia: and heavier minerals, and implications for the study of placers:
U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Series U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 594F, p. FlF13.
Map I2033, 2 sheets. Wilson, W.F., Carpenter, P.A., III, Burt, E.R., McDaniel, R.D.,
Owens, J.P., 1989, Geologic Map of the Cape Fear region, Florence Coffey, J.C., and McKensie, B.J., 1978, Geology of the Ra
1X2 quadrangle and northern half of the Georgetown 1%x2 leigh 192 quadrangle, North Carolina: U.S. Department of
quadrangle, North Carolina and South Carolina: U.S. Geolog Energy, Grand Junction, Colo., Report no. GJBX51.
ical Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Series Map Woodford, A.O., 1951, Stream gradients and Monterey Sea Valley:
I1948A, Scale 1:250,000, 2 sheets. Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 62, p. 799852.
CHAPTER R
By ANDREW E. GROSZ!
More recently, airborne gamma-ray radiation and analyzed in HSSR). The rare-earth elements (REE) cerium
high-resolution magnetic surveys have been shown to be (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), europium (Eu), lanthanum (La),
useful in outlining targets for sampling (Robson and Sam lutetium (Lu), samarium (Sm), and ytterbium (Yb) are
path, 1977; Force and others, 1982; Grosz, 1983; Grosz commonly associated with yttrium (Y), thorium (Th), and
and others, 1989). Induced polarization is another promis uranium (U) in heavy minerals such as monazite
ing technique for onshore and offshore placer exploration ((Ce,La,Y,Th)PO4), xenotime (YPO4), and allanite (epi
(Wynn and others, 1990). dote group: (Ca,Ce,Y)2(Al,Fe)3(SiO4)3(OH))other REE
This report details principles and techniques of placer were not analyzed in HSSR. Because zirconium and
deposits exploration by use of stream-sediment geochemi hafnium possess extraordinary geochemical affinity, Hf
cal data and provides examples from the Carolinas that are usually indicates the presence of zircon (Vlasov, 1966).
applicable to the conterminous States and Alaska. The Although other commonly occurring heavy and light min
principles and techniques are applicable to a host of other eral species can carry these elements as well (for example
deposit types, metallic and nonmetallic, in hard-rock and Ti in amphiboles; Hf in pyroxenes; REE, U, and Th in
sedimentary settings. They may also prove useful in apatite), they typically contain only trace abundances of
these elements.
regional geologic mapping.
Mertie (1975), OverStreet (1967), Force and others
(1982), and Owens and others (1989) show that monazite
THE NURE-HSSR PROGRAM and zircon are present in the area of this report and that
the sediments have undergone extensive weathering that
The National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) removed much of the labile mineral component (amphib
Program was established by the U.S. Department of oles and pyroxenes, for example). Force and others (1982)
Energy to gather data with which to evaluate uranium and Owens and others (1989) also show that monazite
resources and to identify areas in the United States poten (with its Th and U content) and zircon (with its U and Th
tially favorable for uranium deposits (Averett, 1984). The content) control the aeroradiometric signature of surfi
hydrogeochemical and stream sediment reconnaissance cially exposed heavy-mineral concentrations.
(HSSR) was one element of the NURE program. The The HSSR database for each quadrangle contains all
HSSR effort involved collection and analysis of samples the sample types, their location coordinates, various
of stream sediment, ground water, and surface water from descriptive fields, and their analytical data. The database
the conterminous 48 States and Alaska to determine con for each of the quadrangles discussed in this report was
centrations of uranium and other selected elements searched for stream-sediment samples (sample type 50 in
(Arendt and others, 1980). The data were expected to help the database; 100 mesh (149 micron) sieve fraction)
outline geochemical provinces and to suggest favorable having data for Be, Ce, Cr, Dy, Eu, Hf, La, Lu, Nb, P,
areas for more detailed studies. Tabulations of areas sur Sm, Sn, Th, Ti, U, W, Y, and Yb by use of a query-by
veyed during the HSSR and the information that is avail example relational database program.
able for those areas are given by Averett (1984). For the 10 1x2 quadrangles used in this study,
Sampling and reporting in the HSSR were done on a 10,093 stream-sediment samples met the search criteria.
quadrangle basis using the 1X2 quadrangles of the For any given sample, elemental data were: (1) a positive
National Topographic Map Series (NTMS) of the U.S. number (expressed as parts per billion (ppb)), (2) zero, (3)
Geological Survey. HSSR data reports were issued for a negative number (signifying less than a given level of
330 (70.5 percent) of the 468 quadrangles in the 48 con concentration; i.e., -2,000 ppb), or (4) no value (analytical
terminous States and in 104 (68 percent) of the 153 quad data not available). In this study, only positive numbers
rangles in Alaska. About 70 percent of the Nation has were utilized for statistical analyses and graphic displays;
geochemical coverage. All samples were analyzed for data are discussed in percent format.
uranium, and nearly all were also analyzed for up to 59 First, cumulative frequency plots for individual ele
elements (Averett, 1984). ments were constructed to identify anomalous outliers. As
an example, figure 1 shows REE4-Y for 8,174 samples. A
maximum flexure in the curve near 7,600 on the abscissa
METHODOLOGY indicates that the upper 9.3 percentile group (758 samples)
has > 0.05 percent REE+Y. This group was plotted on a
The approach used in this study is based on the generalized geologic base map for North and South Caro
hypothesis that elements such as titanium (Ti) and lina on which the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary sedi
hafnium (Hf) in stream-sediment samples reflect on the ments (excluding those on the lower portions of the
presence of common economic heavy minerals such as Coastal Plain) are shown as a single unit (fig. 2). The Fall
ilmenite (FeTiO3) and rutile (TiO2) in the case of Ti, and Zone, at an average altitude of 240 feet, is generally
zircon ((Zr, Hf)SiO2) in the case of Hf (Zr was not coincident with the western edge of this unit. This
USE OF GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS IN PLACER EXPLORATION 183
2 +
been intermixed to any great extent. The correlation of Th
>
and REE4Y for both populations is expected for monazite;
20 f this is confirmed below. However, xenotime can be shown
E # to be important locally by plots of the Y-subgroup (heavy
cc
|-- REE) and the Ce-subgroup (light REE). Variability in the
C 0.5
Th content of monazite (Overstreet, 1967) may also
; account for the two populations.
O Zircon is a commonly occurring U-bearing mineral
O l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 in terrigenous clastic assemblages. A plot of Hf versus U
NUMBER OF SAMPLES, IN THOUSANDS (fig. 4) for the group of Hf-bearing samples (60 percent
of the total sample population) suggests that at least two
Figure 1. Cumulative frequency plot of 8,174 samples having incompletely mixed groups (end members) differing in
REE+Y > 0.0 percent. Maximum flexure in the curve near 7,600
their U/Hf ratios exist in the sample suite. Because the
on the abscissa indicates that the upper 9.3 percentile group (758
samples) has > 0.05 percent REE4-Y. samples used for this plot span a broad spectrum of geo
logic units, compositional differences in zircons (for
example, perhaps normal zircons and a metamict zircon
approach was followed for Hf, U+Th, and Ti. Other population with low concentrations of U) may account
placer-mineral-indicating elements mentioned above were for the scatter. However, other mineral species (for exam
also plotted and showed patterns of distribution paralleling ple Hf-rich pyroxenes) contributing to the scatter may be
those shown in the figures. represented as well. Moreover, a plot of Th versus U for
81O 77o
I I
IVIRGINIA
- - - +-----: F---ey
360
No data
Nort N CAROLINA+
+
7.A dj
-
N alliico
Sound
#; + -'g
*CARQLINA i:
0.15
DISCUSSION
: 0.05
Samples from the locations shown on figure 2 con
tain more than 0.05 percent REE+Y and represent 758
(7.5 percent) of the total sample population. The greatest
concentration of anomalous values follows the western
. +
extend to the lower reaches of the Coastal Plain, particu
larly along the Cape Fear and Cooper Rivers. Sedimentary
phosphorite is also known to occur in this region (Force
and others, 1982). Shoreward dispersal of monazite-bear
ing sediments by rivers seems to be an important mecha
O. 10 0.15 0.20 0.25 nism only to the south of the Cape Fear arch. Anomalous
Hf, IN PERCENT REE+Y concentrations are also evident in the region of
the Horse Creek deposit, located at the Fall Zone near the
Figure 4. Plot of Hf against U for the Hf-bearing sample population
(N = 6,102).
GeorgiaSouth Carolina State line (Mertie, 1975). Staatz
and Armbrustmacher (1979) defined a rare-earth province
coincident with the Cretaceous and Tertiary trend because
of the high monazite content of the sediments.
0.04
The locations shown on figure 6 contain more than
0.15 percent Ti and represent 671 (6.6 percent) of the total
0.03 sample population and 11.4 percent of the Ti-bearing sam
ples. The distribution pattern is significantly different
from that of REE4-Y, although no less remarkable in its
0.02 persistence and localization over Fall Zone sediments in
. 0.01
north-central North Carolina.
810
I
Rl
O Cata
NS r;
f F:
- - ++
north; the locations of samples containing anomalous con discussed above. South of the Cape Fear arch, anomalous
centrations of Ti shift westward onto crystalline rocks Hf is remarkably persistent along the western boundary of
above the Fall Zone. In southern North Carolina, anoma Upper Cretaceous sediments. Crystalline rocks, specifi
lous Ti values persist over the western edge of Upper Cre cally Silurian to Pennsylvanian intrusives appear to be
taceous sediments. In the North Carolina Piedmont, important Hf (and REE+Y) sources in South Carolina.
anomalous Ti concentrations occur in distinctive north Figure 8 shows the geographic distribution pattern of
east-southwest-trending belts over Cambrian and Late Pro 631 (6.3 percent) of the total sample population and 8.8
terozoic metasedimentary, metavolcanic, and igneous percent of the samples that contain more than 0.01 percent
rocks. The few anomalies over beach-complex sediments U and Th combined. As predicted by figures 2, 3, and 4,
in coastal South Carolina are approximately coincident the distribution pattern shown by these radioactive ele
with heavy-mineral concentrations found by previous aer ments is remarkably consistent with that for REE+Y and
oradiometric surveys (Force and others, 1982). much less so with that for Hf. This suggests that monazite
Samples from the locations shown on figure 7 con may be the major control on both the U and Th distribu
tain more than 0.015 percent Hf and represent 523 (5.2 tion. Although less well defined because of large flight
percent) of the total sample population and 8.6 percent of line spacing, NURE spectral aeroradiometric surveys
the Hf-bearing samples. The distribution pattern shows (Duval and others, 1989, 1990) also show anomalous U
more scatter than do the REE--Y and Ti distributions and Th signatures over many of these same areas. More
(compare fig. 7 with figs. 2 and 6). Over Fall Zone sedi closely spaced total-count aeroradiometric data are also in
ments in northern North Carolina, the Hf distribution agreement (Force and others, 1982; Owens and others,
closely resembles that of Ti, and over Coastal Plain sedi 1989).
ments in South Carolina, the Hf pattern closely resembles In contrast, the NURE-HSSR chemical data clearly
that of Ti and REE+Y. The high cutoff value used to outline the area of heavy-mineral deposits at the North
delimit anomalous Hf concealed subtle Hf anomalies that CarolinaVirginia State line where gamma-ray radiation
coincide with the Ti anomalies in coastal North Carolina, surveys do not. Thus, the NURE data may be used to find
186 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
810 770
T |
+ VIRGINI -
*
h **'. - ;
Ti-bearing placer deposits that do not contain appreciable of this geochemical pattern. Examination of only the most
quantities of radioactive heavy minerals (i.e., monazite + anomalous samples in the total sample population for any
zircon). The congruence of a number of elements indica given element, as done in this paper, excludes much valu
tive of several placer minerals, therefore, is interpreted as able information on potential large-volume/low-grade
an unambiguous indicator of the presence, and relative deposits of heavy minerals, particularly in coastal plain
abundance, of commercially important heavy minerals. sediments where their geochemical expression is subdued.
Thus, in conjunction with geologic, topographic, and Examination of the 70 to 90 percentile group of the popu
airborne geophysical information, the HSSR stream-sedi lations reveals persistent anomalies in Atlantic Coastal
ment data can be used as a powerful exploration tool for Plain sediments. The 50 to 90 percentile group over some
placer deposits. midcontinent and western areas show similar geochemical
signatures. Large areas in northeastern Kansas and eastern
Nebraska, for example, may also have exploration poten
CONCLUSIONS tial for this mineral suite. The potential for Ti-Hf-REE-U
Th-bearing deposits of placer heavy minerals in surficially
NURE-HSSR geochemical data is well suited for out exposed sediments in the U.S. may be much greater than
lining small- to large-scale areas within the conterminous previously thought.
U.S. and Alaska permissive of Ti-Hf-REE-U-Th-bearing
deposits of placer heavy minerals. The geochemical signa
ture of known deposits of heavy minerals is identified
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
over a large portion of North Carolinas Coastal Plain and
Fall Zone regions. The Fall Zone region (generally coinci
dent with exposures of Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments) Appreciation is extended to John C. Reed, Jr. for pro
in central Georgia, south-central Alabama, northeastern viding the digital geographic and geologic base map and
Mississippi, and western Tennessee shows a continuation to Terry L. Klein for reformatting the data. E. Force, J.
USE OF GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS IN PLACER EXPLORATION 187
810 77o
VIRGINIA
F---ty
\
f + -
NORTR CAROLINA+". +
W -
; : ...
Figure 8. Locations of samples having > 0.01 percent U and Th combined (N = 631).
Philpotts, and K. Schulz provided thoughtful and construc U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 90-338, 16 p., scale
tive technical reviews. 1:2,500,000.
Force, E.R., Grosz, A.E., Loferski. P.J., and Maybin, A.H., 1982,
Aeroradioactivity maps in heavy-mineral exploration
REFERENCES CITED Charleston, South Carolina, area: U.S. Geological Survey Pro
fessional Paper 1218, 19 p.
Grosz, A.E., 1983, Application of total-count aeroradiometric maps
Arendt, J.W., Butz, T.R., Cagle, G.W., Kane, V.E., and Nichols, to the exploration for heavy-mineral deposits in the coastal
C.E., 1980, Hydrogeochemical and stream sediment recon plain of Virginia, with a section on Field-spectrometer-data re
naissance procedures of the uranium resource evaluation duction, by K.L. Kosanke: U.S. Geological Survey Profession
project: U.S. Department of Energy, GJBX32(80), 53 p. al Paper 1263, 20 p.
Averett, W.R., 1984, National uranium resource evaluation
Grosz, A.E., Cathcart, J.B., Macke, D.L., Knapp, M.S., Schmidt,
guide to data reports of the hydrogeochemical and stream
Walter, and Scott, T.M., 1989, Geologic interpretation of the
sediment reconnaissance: U.S. Department of Energy,
gamma-ray aeroradiometric maps of central and northern Flor
GJBX5(84), 119 p.
ida: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1461, 48 p.
Blackwelder, B.W., and Cronin, T.M., 1981, Atlantic Coastal Plain
geomorphology illustrated by computer-generated block dia Mertie, J.B., Jr., 1975, Monazite placers in the southeastern Atlan
grams: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies tic States: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1390, 41 p.
Map MF-1242. Overstreet, W.C., 1967, The geologic occurrence of monazite: U.S.
Duval, J.S., Jones, W.J., Riggle, F.R., and Pitkin, J.A., 1989, Equiv Geological Survey Professional Paper 530, 327 p.
alent uranium map of the conterminous United States: U.S. Owens, J.P., Grosz, A.E., and Fisher, J.C., 1989, Aeroradiometric
Geological Survey Open-File Report 89-478, 10 p., scale map and geologic interpretation of part of the Florence and
1:2,500,000. Georgetown 1%2 quadrangles, South Carolina: U.S. Geolog
Duval, J.S., Jones, W.J., Riggle, F.R., and Pitkin, J.A., 1990, Potas ical Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Series Map
sium and thorium maps of the conterminous United States: I1948B.
188 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Robson, D.F., and Sampath, N., 1977, Geophysical response of from Russian by Z. Lerman and Y. Brenner, Israel Pro
heavy-mineral sand deposits at Jerusalem Creek, New South gram for Scientific Translations): Jerusalem, Israel, 1633 p.
Wales: Bureau of Mineral Resources Journal of Australian Ge
ology and Geophysics, v. 2, p. 149154. Wynn, J.C., Grosz, A.E., and Carlson-Fosca, V.L., 1990, In
Staatz, M.H., and Armbrustmacher, T.J., 1979, Preliminary map of duced polarization response of some titanium-bearing plac
rare-earth provinces in the conterminous United States: U.S. er deposits in the southeastern United States, in Fink, J.B.,
Geological Survey Open-File Report 79576-T. ed., Induced PolarizationApplication and Case Histories:
Vlasov, K.A., ed., 1966, Geochemistry and mineralogy of rare Tulsa, Oklahoma, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, In
elements and genetic types of their deposits [translated vestigations in Geophysics No. 4, p. 280303.
CHAPTERS
.
KENTUCKY 2 V | R G|N|A DAN RIVER BASIN
-
- ~~
|- - - - - - - - -
TENNESSEE
//
%hapel;5||
As%
ft;
elegy's
&\s
O 50 100 KILOMETERS
Figure 1. Index map showing the location of the Snow CampSaxapahaw study area (rectangle with diagonal line pattern) in the Carolina
slate belt, North Carolina.
Identification of areas of hydrothermally altered rocks laid out using magnetic compass, and observation sites on
using processed Landsat images has been tested in the the lines were spaced 20 m apart with a calibrated nylon
region with some success (Schmidt and Koslow, 1986; rope. At each field observation point, the immediately sur
Schmidt and others, 1987). rounding area was divided into four equiangular quadrants
Objectives.The major objective of this study was to measured from the compass bearing of the transect line. In
more precisely define the factors enabling discrimination each quadrant, the closest canopy tree (tree whose top is
on satellite images of forest areas that are present over not shaded by another) was selected, the species and diam
bedrocks that have undergone intense hydrothermal alter eter 1 m above the base determined, and the distance from
ation. We wanted to compare forest characteristics at the observation point measured. Observation-site-to-tree
approximately the same date, November 9, as that of our distances were measured by tape and tree diameters by
two image sets from previous years. caliper. Identification of species was made in situ, and for
Field survey method.Surveys were conducted a few less common trees such as Carya, only genus was
November 110, 1989, to determine species present, size, determined. Four visual approximations of leaf abundance
tree density, canopy density, and foliage condition in areas and greenness were made per 20 m interval by each of
with different slopes. Transects were run in areas of two observers, and the results were averaged. Relative
altered rocks and also on unaltered background areas; greenness is a value obtained by estimating percent of
these transects were restricted to locations where we chlorophyll retention (G values of 1 to 4 indicate: 1,
believed the geology to be well known. Transects were 125 percent of leaves present are green; 2, 2550 percent
LANDSAT TM IMAGERY, SNOW CAMP-SAXAPAHAW AREA, NORTH CAROLINA 191
are green; 3, 5075 percent are green; and 4, 75100 per Testing Section, for analyses of available nutrients in soils
cent are green), and percent of leaves remaining on tree we collected from the study area.
(L values of 1 to 4 indicate: 1, 025 percent of leaves
remain on tree; 2, 2550 percent remain; 3, 5075 percent
remain; and 4, 75100 percent remain). The relative GEOLOGY
greenness was then derived by multiplying G times L,
yielding index values of 116, which were subsequently
normalized to 100. Percent canopy cover was determined The study area, in central North Carolina, is under
by observers who used sighting frames (camera view find lain by rocks that are generally typical of the Carolina
slate belt in central and northern North Carolina. The slate
ers) to estimate the amount of sky covered by tree canopy.
Two observers each made four observations per site, and belt consists of mostly arc volcanics of a variety of com
the results were averaged. From the data collected in this positions, and they have been intruded by several genera
manner, graphs were prepared showing the abundance of tions of subvolcanic and plutonic rocks. These rocks and
Quercus prinus (chestnut oak), relative greenness, canopy the hydrothermal alteration that has affected many of them
density, and trees per hectare. have been discussed in greater detail by Schmidt and oth
ers (1990).
Soil samples for nutrient analysis were collected from
points on the transects in March 1990 in the manner Volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks.-Roughly four
described in Milton and others (1983). fifths of the area is underlain by volcanic and volcaniclas
Time of data collection.Our study was restricted to tic rocks that are provisionally divided into two volcanic
Landsat TM data sets already in hand, and these data sets rock groups (fig. 2). The oldest group is a complex of
were obtained during the normal time of leaf coloration small heterogeneous volcanic units within which only a
and leaf fall (November 9, 1982, and November 9, 1988). few units could be mapped separately, and the younger is
These data sets gave good results in our study, but we do an extensive crystal-rich rhyodacite and dacite unit that
not know if a different time of year would have been rests unconformably upon the older group (Schmidt and
better. Forest foliage changes rapidly from day to day others, 1990). Both groups are tentatively interpreted to
during leaf senescence, and one assumes that conditions correspond to 600560-Ma rocks that have been dated in
vary somewhat on the same calendar date from year to other parts of the slate belt. The basaltic to rhyolitic older
year. However, in applying Landsat data to forest studies, group is mostly andesitic and dacitic but includes a flow
we are comparing one part of the forest to another in banded siliceous rhyodacite-rhyolite unit shown separately
essentially an instant of time rather than comparing in figure 2.
against any fixed standard. Certainly some of the foliage Intrusive rocks.Plutonic and subvolcanic rocks of
characteristics that we found significant may not be sig several ages are very common in parts of the Snow
nificant at other times of the year. The 1982 TM data CampSaxapahaw area. The largest plutonic bodies are
gave much better discrimination of quartz-rich soils in granite, quartz diorite, or tonalite, in part forming intrusive
tilled fields, perhaps as a result of dryer soil on the data complexes with masses and screens of hornfels and
collection date. metavolcanic rocks. Fine-grained granophyric granite and
Acknowledgments.-Our research was undertaken quartz monzonite form plutons in the Cane Creek Moun
cooperatively by the U.S. Geological Survey, Branch of tains that probably connect to form one body at depth.
Eastern Mineral Resources, and the Servei Geolgic de Formed at shallow depth, these plutons are surrounded by
Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain. It has built upon earlier work somewhat silicified zones, their extent indicated by soils
in the area by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation type. All of these pre-metamorphic intrusives may have
with Instituto Tecnolgico GeoMinero de Espaa, Madrid. been formed during a long span of time, but before about
Transportation and field expenses in North Carolina 320 Ma. The younger tonalite and quartz diorite are proba
for Pays and Bonet were supported by NATO Collabora bly close to 300 Ma, the approximate age of several, dated
tive Project No. 530/88. Images for field use were pro young plutons of the slate belt. Areas mapped as little
cessed by the Institut Cartografic de Catalunya, Barcelona, metamorphosed tonalite and quartz diorite also include
Spain, which also transcribed Landsat TM data sets to considerable pre-metamorphism granitic rock into which
floppy disks for further processing in the United States. masses of the younger rock have intruded. The youngest
We greatly appreciate discussions of methods and inter intrusive rocks are mafic dikes of Mesozoic age that are
pretations as well as help in the field by L.C. Rowan, not shown on figure 2.
N.M. Milton, C.M. Ager, M.S. Power, M.H. Podwysocki, Metamorphism.All of the volcanic rocks and per
Richard Brooks, Karl Shaffer, and E.M. Haskin. We are haps three-fourths of the intrusive rocks in the area have
especially grateful to the North Carolina Department of undergone regional metamorphism, mostly to mid-green
Agriculture, Agronomic Division, Soil Testing Laboratory, schist facies, with local development of new actinolite or
Dr. D.W. Eaddy, Director, and M.R. Tucker, Chief, Soil hornblende at a few sites. Open fractures and vugs have
192 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
7925 79 20
I
Q FG |
------------
I
- I | CAT W
U.e. GR T==
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S5 i
S. --
\-. Saxapahaw
FR `----" "
N&S
KN
|FB/ | GB
\
V N DAT
GB
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35
55
359
50'
O 3 KILOMETERS
Figure 2 (above and facing page). Geologic map of the Snow CampSaxapahaw study area showing the distribution of hydrothermal al
teration, former gold mines, and gold anomalies as determined by panning of stream sediments. Field mapping, 19851989, by Robert G.
Schmidt, Elizabeth H. Hughes, Pablo Gumiel, Alba Pays, and Carmen Anton-Pacheco. Geologic units in southeast corner of map adapted
from Wilkinson (1978).
been eliminated in the strongly altered rocks, thus chang mappable. Straight, northeast-trending, linear features sug
ing their appearance substantially from that of unmetamor gest faults and shear zones, and many of those checked in
phosed equivalents as observed in other regions. The the field were found to be zones of sheared or brecciated
youngest plutonic and subvolcanic granitoid intrusives are rocks. A few north- and northwest-trending faults are sug
essentially unmetamorphosed. gested by offset alteration zones and rock units, but none
Structural geology.Volcanic rocks of all of the of these were specifically identified in the field.
Snow CampSaxapahaw area have open to tight folding, Hydrothermal alteration.Extensive hydrothermal
but recognizable layering is so rare that folding is not alteration has taken place in the volcanic and intrusive
LANDSAT TM IMAGERY, SNOW CAMP-SAXAPAHAWAREA, NORTH CAROLINA 193
EXPLANATION
VOLCANIC ROCKS INTRUSIVE ROCKS
REGIONAL METAMORPHISM-----------------------------------
HYDROTHERMALLY
ALTERED ROCKS ~~~ Geologic contact, dashed where inferred
Quartz-sericite-pyrite and quartz-paragonite Inferred fault
rocks; also includes potassic and epidote
rich alteration near plutons. Protolith tex
tures generally destroyed in central parts MINES AND PROSPECTS
of zones
Intensely altered very siliceous central core O Pyrophyllite or sericite mines and prospects
zones and associated pods of pyrophyl
lite-andalusite-pyrite rock N Gold prospects and Small mines
rocks, and it is most significant in the oldest units where now mostly surrounded by extensive envelopes of
alteration is of the high-sulfidation type as defined by quartzwhite mica (sericite and paragonite) altered volca
White and Hedenquist (1990). The very large Snow nic and subvolcanic rocks. Propylitic alteration probably
CampSaxapahaw alteration systems make up a northeast formed a zone exterior to the quartzwhite mica envelope,
trending zone about 13 km long and up to nearly 4 km but we were not able to map it separately from the sur
wide (Hughes, 1987). They share many characteristics rounding volcanic rocks that have undergone greenschist
with over 40 similar areas in the Carolina slate belt facies metamorphism.
(Schmidt, 1985; Schmidt and Klein, 1985). Metallic mineralization and pyrophyllite deposit.
The most intensely altered parts of the systems, pre Presently recognized gold and silver mineralizations are
sumably innermost as the systems were formed, consist of mostly in areas of strong quartzwhite mica and probably
large volumes of almost pure, fine-grained quartz rock. propylitic alteration. Such mineralization is also found in
Near the edges of these cores are several smaller, in part some narrow zones along northeast-trending shears and is
minable, masses of pyrophyllite-quartz, including various generally accompanied by quartz-sericite alteration (fig. 2)
amounts of pyrite and andalusite. These core zones are (DAgostino and Schmidt, 1986; Schmidt and others,
194 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Table 1. Nutrient elements available to plants in composite sam composition and condition can be recognized in pro
ples of A-horizon soils. cessed Landsat TM imagery. At the same time, this
[Analyses by Soil Testing Section, Agronomic Division, North Carolina Department
application has greatly increased the need for better
of Agriculture. The soil test indices and factors for conversion of indices to parts per understanding of the processes involved.
million are used as defined in the Soil Testing Section, Standard Soil Test Report]
The most common soil types in the area are the Hern
don, Goldston, and Goldsboro silt loams. Although certain
Substrate
Unaltered Probably Strongly
mapped soil types correlate well with specific mapped
rocks altered rocks altered rocks bedrock, the quartz-rich soil types associated with highly
(2 samples) (2 samples) (16 samples) altered bedrock are also commonly present on other rock
substrates.
Cation exchange capacity
(CEC, in meg/100 cm)..... 3.3, 4.4 3.3, 3.5 2.34.3 Bedrock-controlled soil characteristics that strongly
avg 3.3 influence forest condition in this area include available
Base saturation nutrients, textures, and trace metals, as well as drainage,
(percent of CEC) .............. 36, 40 21, 28 720 rockiness, soil depth, and slope direction.
avg | 1.3 We suspected intuitively that the core-zone soils
pH.... 4.5, 5 44, 4.4 3.84.6 lacked available nutrients because of the siliceous nature
avg 4.2 of the altered bedrock and the slow growth of trees on
Phosphorus index x these sites, but standard total chemical analyses were inad
conversion factor (ppm)...... 1, 5 l, 4 15
equate to measure the soil nutrients available to growing
Potassium index, converted to
plants. Consequently, 16 soil samples, each a composite of
available K (ppm)............. 63,35 70, 78 3163
avg 44 more than 10 subsamples taken within a 10 m circle, were
Calcium (percent of CEC) obtained from the A horizon, below the organic layer, in
converted to areas of strongly hydrothermally altered bedrock, and 4
available Ca (ppm)......... 159, 18] 60, 100 2080 soil samples were obtained from areas of relatively weak
avg 28 alteration or unaltered rock. These were analyzed for a
Magnesium (percent of CEC) variety of constituents (table 1), and several distinct and
converted to consistent variations were found between areas of unal
available Mg (ppm).......... 62, 53 29, 29 1020 tered and highly altered bedrock; however, we recognize
avg 15 the limitations of our small data set for unaltered rock.
Manganese index
Soils and vegetation, areas of unaltered bedrock.
(converted to ppm).......... 98, -100 30, 20 145
Most areas of volcanic and plutonic rocks in the Carolina
avg 5
Copper index
slate belt are overlain by soils that support healthy natural
(converted to ppm)........... 0.6, 0.4 0.2,0.4 0.21.0
forests with many species of deciduous and evergreen
avg ().4 trees and understory trees and shrubs. We recorded 1015
species on single transects in normal forests, and a total of
24 species were recorded in all transects on unaltered
rocks, not including shrubs and understory trees. The can
1987). Several spotty occurrences of anomalous gold con opy is generally closed, but when openings are present,
centrations have been found in high-silica core-zone rocks they permit a dense second growth of canopy-tree saplings
as well. Pyrophyllite ore was extracted from one major and understory species.
quarry and two smaller pits in the area. In five forest transects (252 trees observed) in areas
of unaltered rocks, no species exceeds 19 percent (table
2). The seven most abundant species are: Acer rubrum,
BEDROCK, SOILS, AND FOREST 19.0 percent; Quercus alba, 17.5 percent; Q. stellata, 10.0
percent; Q. velutina, 9.0 percent; Carya sp., 6.0 percent;
VEGETATION ASSOCIATIONS
Liquidambar styraciflua, 4.8 percent; and Liriodendron
tulipifera, 4.0 percent. Typical understory trees and shrubs
General correlations of bedrock type, especially include Ilex, Vaccinium, Gaylussacia, Azalea, Rhododen
hydrothermally altered rocks, and forest tree communities dron, Hamamelis, and Oxydendrum.
have been understood in a general way and have been Nutrient analyses in the normal forest, especially for
used in prospecting for pyrophyllite for many decades. calcium and magnesium, tend to be relatively low (table
By using Landsat remote-sensing techniques during geo 1) but seem adequate to permit healthy forest growth. In
logic mapping in the region, we have been able to greatly normal forests (areas of unaltered rock) that were not on
expand the known areas of hydrothermal alteration any transect, metals analyses ranged from below detection
because, to an important degree, forests of unique up to (in ppm), Cu = 120, Mo = 27, Pb = 39, and Zn = 73
LANDSAT TM IMAGERY, SNOW CAMPSAXAPAHAW AREA, NORTH CAROLINA 195
Table 2. Tree species abundance related to bedrock type. on highly altered bedrock, the spectral reflectances in TM
bands 4 and 5 are reduced there about 30 percent; band 3
[All numbers, except total number of trees in sample, in percent. Rk, rock; sl, slopes)
is reduced about 20 percent; but band 2 is reduced only
Underlying bedrock type and slope about 4 percent (fig. 4). Our estimates of greenness,
Species Unaltered rk Strongly altered rock admittedly somewhat subjective, indicate more chlorophyll
All All South, North, remaining in the canopy on level and sun-facing slopes,
slopes slopes SE. Sl N.W. sl
which one would expect to reduce spectral reflectance
Quercus prinus 1.2 58.5 53.9 55.0 there (fig. 4, transects L and D-1).
alba 17.5 10.3 14.4 10.6
In soil analyses made to determine available nutri
falcata 3.6 2.4 1.1 3.3
ents, base-exchangeable Ca and Mg in hydrothermally
velutina 9.1 5.8 5.6 6.1
marilandica 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.7
altered areas were found to be only fractions (one-sixth
stellata 10.0 1.2 0.6 1.1 and one-fourth) of the amounts present in forest soils
formed on unaltered volcanic rock substrates (table 1),
phellos 3.2
Fraxinus sp. 3.6 which are already relatively poor in Ca and Mg, thus sug
Prunus serotina ().8 gesting a significant deficiency in these important nutri
Acer rubrum 19 () 6.0 8.3 5.6 ents. The relative amounts of other available nutrients
Pinus virginiana ().8 3.4 4.4 3.3 determined do not seem significantly different from those
echinata 2.8 5.8 5.() 5.6 in nearby forest soils over unaltered bedrock.
taeda 0.4
Maximum metal values within areas of strong hydro
Liriodendron tulipifera 4.0 0.4 (),6
thermal alteration and anomalous forest vegetation ranged
Liquidambar styraciflua 4.8
from below detection to the following (in ppm): Cu = 49,
Ulmus sp. 1.2
Pb = 30, Zn = 20, and Mo = 7.3. These contrast with the
Juniperus virginiana 2.4
Cornus florida 3.6 greater range (from below detection to greater amounts for
Oxydendrum arboreum 3.2 2.0 1.7 2.8 each metal) in areas without anomalous vegetation. Thus,
Nyssa sp. 0.4 1.2 1.1 2.2 the distribution of these metals in the Snow CampSaxap
Carya sp. 6.0 1.6 2.8 1.7 ahaw area does not appear to be a factor in the growth of
Fagus grandifolia 1.2 0.2 0.6 the anomalous forests.
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.2
Although there seems to be no significant difference
in tree species present on north and northwest slopes as
Total trees in sample 252 5()4 18() 180
compared with sun-facing slopes (table 2), visual exami
nation of the forests indicates considerable difference in
the condition of the trees in these two topographic situa
(all total element present) without observable effects on tions. While the forest canopy in both tends to be rela
the condition of trees.
tively open and the understory vegetation very sparse
Soils and vegetation, areas of hydrothermally altered despite the favorable light conditions, trees on the south
bedrock.The forest community common on areas of facing slopes are more spreading, slower growing, and
intensely hydrothermally altered bedrock is noticeably less some have many dead or weakened limbs. In contrast,
diverse than the surrounding forest (table 2, fig. 3). Some trees on the north-facing slopes are of normal height and
what fewer total species are present411 on each of robustness. It would appear, therefore, that differences in
seven transectsand of these, a small number generally the spectral response between the two slope environments
dominate. Only six species, Quercus prinus, Q. alba, Q. recorded in Landsat data depend on forest conditionthis
velutina, Acer rubrum, Pinus virginiana, and P. echinata may include tree structure that permits more sunlight on
make up 89.8 percent of the 504 trees sampled. However, the sunny-slope forest floor, although this effect would be
the most noticeable difference is in the abundance of
partly counteracted by more green leaf retention.
Quercus prinus, the chestnut oak. This species makes up
most of the canopy forest over extensive areas at these
sites and averages 58 percent of the forest for all of the
DATA ANALYSIS
altered area sampled (table 2). Furthermore, forests at
these sites are characterized by a relatively open canopy
and lack of a significant understory. Except on transect B, Geobotanical data collected in the field were com
fewer species were present on the northwest-facing slope pared with bedrock geology and with spectral reflectance
than on the sun-facing slope. The north slope of transect D data collected by satellite (Landsat Thematic Mapper). Of
had only four species (fig. 3). Because species composi 12 transects surveyed November 110, 1989, six were
tion of the forests on north and northwest slopes is much selected for final analysis on the basis of completeness of
like that on the sunny slope and remains typical of forests data and the representative nature of the forests.
R
T
C
E
S
N
A
LD1
D2
level)
(relatively
(south
slope)
(north
Substrate
Unaltered
Strongly
Altered
Substrate
No
prinus
Quercus
present
density
Tree
and
abundance
600
600
600
e
hectare
per
Trees
soo
Le-Trees
per
hectare
hectare
per
eTrees
H.
500
500
prinus,
E
Q.
E
of
number
out
trees
4psite
ofer
400
-
H.
400
400
k
300 H.
300
300
g00
.S
S.200
H.
200
200
-4
-4
G
+3
-
100
100
H.
100
H2
$
oII
L
l
o
EO1
ll
L
I11
209
L208
213
212
21.1
210
217
216
215
214
89
90
D91
84
85
86
87
88
->
81
82
83
95
94
93
D92
OO
99
98
97
96
10
2.
Site
number
SPECIES
(Canopy
PRESENT
AT
trees)
OBSERVATION
SITES
,(7.5%)
(2.3%)
(6.7%)
(11.4%)
(2.5%)
sp.
Carya
Q.
ego
marilandica
P.
echinata
(1.7%)
P.
echinata
Liriodendron
P.
virginiana
tulipifera
(4.5%)
..
styraciflua
P.
virginiana
(3.3%)
J.
virginiana
(2.3%)
(5.0%) Nyssa
sp.
(1.7%)
falcata
Q. Prunus
serotina
(23.2%)
(79.5%)
stellata
Q.
prinus
Q.
(14.9%)
sp.
Fraxinus
(1.7%)
(1.7%)
marilandica
Q.
phellos
Q.
Trees
3.
Figure
Quercus
and
hectare
per
distribution
prinus
species
figures),
(top
three
for
abundance
conditions.
forest
typical
L epresents
rorest
afTransect
level
on
ground
unaltered
represents
D-1
sbedrock;
aftransect
non outh-facing
highly
with
slope
and
altered
corest
is
D-2
ontinuation
D-1,
of
bedrock,
similar
orth-facing
genera
Some
slope.
as
abbreviated
are
J,
Cornus;
C,
follows:
Liquidambar;
L.
Juniperus;
Quercus.
Q,
Pinus;
P:
3
Go
go
co H
E 4-
$ -
2c.
-
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20
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Percent
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greenness 330
-
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0 28
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25
5 2-0O
go --
0. eolorest
Site
4.
rFigure
cTM
forest
typical
three
for
cover
canopy
of
percent
greenness,
relative
fvalues,
a
represents
L.
Transect
and
ground
level
onnfedlvieatcioansc.e, of
fornuorest
represents
D-1
csunaltered
is
D-2
transect
and
altered
highly
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a
on
bedrock,
similar
with
D-1,
thi-nfuactinog
230
- 8
as
3so
+35H
H
canopy
of
Percent
---
s5o
; 2
O 5
1
o
greenness-
Relative
-e- 440
70
* 0
77o
||
TM-2
-- 0TM-4
Elevation
-e-
--TM-4
70 -
5
TM-2
---
TM-5
e-
TM-5
Q_
numbers
Site
slope)
(north numbers
Site
D2
Substrate
Altered
Strongly
211
210
209
L2O8
217
216
215
214
213
212
88
89
82
83
64
85
97
96
90
D91
at
94
as
87
93
D92
95
101
100
99
98
80
90
Bo
250
80
250
250 TM-3190
-- 1*-*
0-1o
O -11-1-1-1-1 80
Bo
45
A8O
45 P.
70
7o -
Reflectance
Spectral
Sites
of
Elevation
and
15
*1"
tts-t-t-t-t-t-t-ta-.
E,
l
1210; -
greenness -
Relative
e- canopy
of
Percent
I
l
1
I
L
l
C
E
S
N
A
R
T Canopy
and
Greenness
*T*T-
*-*---e.
w-w-w
"H
--
Elevation
-e-
TM-4
10
-
numbers
Site
slope)
(south -
TM-2
---
TM-5
e-200
D1
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
D91
s_eeo
:so
230
so
3
|
Substrate
Unaltered
(relatively
level)
numbers
Site
5
Elevation
-e-
M-4
||
-*-
240
-2-
-24040
L
55F
2
50
30
30 20 slope.
>
co co
* 9
40
o
40 > 85
c
198 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
(351). WLZ
PA
1 KILOMETER
Figure 5. Detail of a digitally classified image of the Major Hill area superimposed on a stan
dard topographic map. Green, ordinary forest; red, forest on high-silica or altered rock substrate;
yellow, ordinary bare earth or stubble field or green, cropped field; dark blue, water. Geologic
units are coded as follows: RD, crystal-rich rhyodacite/dacite; DAT, dacitic and andesitic tuffs;
FR, flow-banded rhyodacite/rhyolite; QS, quartz-sericite-pyrite altered rock; QC, quartz-rich core
zone. In our trials, a supervised classification using a maximum likelihood method resulted in im
ages that most accurately represented forested areas above altered bedrock or highly siliceous bed
rock and general cultural features. Some, if not most, of the areas that seem to be falsely classified
as forest on altered or high-silica bedrock are mixed pixels of forest and field or grassed areas.
These generally include pasture with scattered trees (probably areas P, P', P) or unusually open
forest (F). Falsely classified forests marked F are not explained. C, D, K, and I are botanical
transects. The image was generated on a 286-type personal computer using the Dragon Image Pro
cessing System and a maximum likelihood classifier. The circles show typical areas used to obtain
characteristic TM reflectance values for hydrothermally altered rock (circles 1, 2, and 3) and nor
mal forest (circles 4, 5, and 6). Statistical characteristics for the supervised classification of field
and water areas were extracted in a similar manner.
Digital values for TM bands 2, 3, 4, and 5 along the reliable on north-facing slopes. Five transects were laid
transects were extracted by generating an enlarged portion out on areas of highly altered rocks, each one including
of a classified image on a CRT screen and superimposing both south or southeast slopes and north- or northwest
a topographic map on which the transect had been plotted facing slopes, but full data for greenness index and canopy
in the field. Some inaccuracy in transect location is were not collected for three of the transects. These slopes
assumed because the 1:24,000 topographic maps are range from about 1:4.5 to 1:8. Transect D, the one judged
imperfect representations of minor land-surface details, to have the most typical forests throughout, is shown
and some areas lacked features that could be used as exact graphically in figures 3 and 4 and on a detailed segment
reference points. Digital numbers were extracted for each of a classified image with topography superimposed (fig.
TM band for each pixel on the transect line and for one 5). The abundance of Quercus prinus on the north slope is
pixel on each side. Reflectance values that were finally similar to that on the south slope (fig. 3); and the percent
used were moving averages on the center points of nine age of forest canopy is about the same, but there are sig
point squares. Spectra for three typical transects are nificant differences in the relative greenness (table 3).
shown in figure 4. Reflectance spectra of the north slope more closely resem
Influence of slope direction on forest characteris ble those of transect L and of other areas with unaltered
tics.-Digital classification of Landsat data can be used to bedrock than they do those of the south slope of transect
identify forests growing on strongly altered rock substrates D (fig. 4). We believe that the anomalous forests can be
on level ground and sun-facing slopes but is much less distinguished by their TM reflectance spectra where the
LANDSAT TM IMAGERY, SNOW CAMPSAXAPAHAW AREA, NORTH CAROLINA 199
Table 3. Relative greenness of canopy forests on contrasting Mg in the soil, (2) a thin and (or) very rocky soil that
slope environments. accentuates moisture stress during dry periods, and (3)
position of the forest on top of a dry ridge or on a south
Date of Mean
or southeast-facing slope, causing additional moisture
Group Transect observation relative
stress. The many ridge crests and south- or southeast
(Nov. 1989) greenness
facing slope areas identified as anomalous by digital
Hydrothermally altered substrate
SE. slopes D-1 5 44.7
classification had all three factors present. Other anoma
K-2 8 26.1 lous ridges, generally with Quercus prinus forests, are
Relatively level F 6 35.1 underlain by siliceous rocks that are either unaltered or not
I 7 25.0 more than moderately altered.
NW, slopes K-1 8 29.1 Metals present in the hydrothermally altered rocks do
D-2 5 22.7 not appear to be a stress-causing factor in this study area.
Unaltered substrate Several areas have been identified where the species
E 5 24.6 present reliably reflect the strongly altered rock substrate
J 7 21.1 but where, due to a location on north- or northwest-facing
L 9 20.0 slopes, water stress is presumably less and the forest floor
G 6 5.3 less illuminated in mid-morning (the time of satellite data
collection). These sites have reflectance spectra closer to
those of a normal forest.
The Landsat data sets available to us were collected
relatively open canopy combined with flat or sun-facing
slope permit good illumination of the ground surface, irre during periods of partial leaf coloration and leaf fall. All
other experiments with which we are familiar using digital
spective of the measured greater greenness there. We also
classification of images of southeastern Piedmont forests
believe that more bare ground is exposed on the sun
have used autumn or winter data sets. Obviously, data sets
facing slopes. Not surprisingly, spectra characteristic of
obtained earlier in the growing season need to be studied
anomalous forests are also obtained in open, forested pas
before we will know what part of the year gives the best
tureland and where individual pixels are made up of part
forest and part field. images for these geologic purposes.
Digital classification.Detailed results of a maxi
mum likelihood digital classification of a small part of REFERENCES CITED
the area are shown in figure 5. Identification of anoma
lous forests growing on highly altered substrates is quite Braun, E.L., 1950, Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America:
reliable on ridge crests and sun-facing slopes, but the sim Philadelphia, Blakiston, 596 p.
ilar forests on north and northwest slopes are generally not D'Agostino, J.P., and Schmidt, R.G., 1986, Gold in panned concen
differentiated. Anomalous bedrock classifications in trates from southern Alamance County, central North Caroli
unaltered areas are believed to be related to very siliceous na: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 86453, 5 p.
bedrocks, and some appear to be edge effects caused by Hughes, E.H., 1987, The geology and alteration centers of the
pixels including more than one surface type. A few unex Snow Camp mineMajor Hill area, central Carolina slate belt,
Alamance and Chatham Counties, North Carolina: U.S. Geo
plained anomalous areas remain to be field checked.
logical Survey Open-File Report 87180, 29 p.
Milton, N.M., Collins, William, Chang, Sheng-Huei, and Schmidt,
R.G., 1983, Remote detection of metal anomalies on Pilot
CONCLUSIONS Mountain, Randolph County, North Carolina: Economic Geol
ogy, v. 78, p. 605617.
Schmidt, R.G., 1985, High-alumina alteration systems in volcanic
Many areas of intensely hydrothermally altered rocks rocks and their significance to mineral prospecting in the Caro
of the Carolina slate belt can be identified on processed lina slate belt: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1562, 59 p.
Landsat TM imagery, thus providing a useful aid to min Schmidt, R.G., and Klein, T.L., 1985, High-alumina alteration sys
eral exploration. Our data confirm that forests in areas of tems and their role in mineral exploration, southeastern United
intensely altered rocks are characterized by a diminished States, in Krafft, Kathleen, ed., USGS Research on Mineral
number of species and by dominance of Quercus prinus, Resources1985, Program and Abstracts: U.S. Geological
Survey Circular 949, p. 4748.
the chestnut oak, as well as by differences in tree
Structure. Schmidt, R.G., and Koslow, M.H., 1986, Preliminary map showing
the occurrence of siliceous rocks in central North Carolina de
We believe that three main factors contribute to the
rived from enhanced principal component Landsat images:
forest conditions that can be recognized in Landsat TM U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map
data. These are: (1) seriously diminished available Ca and MF1817.
200 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Schmidt, R.G., Pays, Alba, Gumiel, Pablo, and D'Agostino, White, N.C., and Hedenquist, J.W., 1990, Epithermal environments
J.P., 1987, The Saxapahaw, North Carolina, gold occurren- and styles of mineralization: Variations and their causes, and
cesSearch for a deposit model and new remote sensing guidelines for exploration: Journal of Geochemical Explora
techniques, in Sachs, J.S., ed., USGS Research on Mineral tion, v. 36, p. 445474.
Resources1987, Program and Abstracts: U.S. Geological
Survey Circular 995, p. 6263. Wilkinson, S.E., 1978, The geology of the northeast quarter of the
Schmidt, R.G., Gumiel, Pablo, and Pays, Alba, 1990, Provisional Silk Hope quadrangle, Carolina slate belt, North Carolina:
geologic map of the Snow CampSaxapahaw area, North Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina, unpub. M.S. thesis,
Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 90417. 56 p.
CHAPTER T
AEROMAGNETIC SURVEY OF
NORTH-CENTRAL MINNESOTA
"U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 964, P.O. Box 25046, Denver
MAGNETIC CHARACTERISTICS
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225
*U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 905, P.O. Box 25046, Denver The rocks of the Wabigoon subprovince have a wide
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225 range of magnetic characteristics. The granitic rocks of the
202 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
9315'
Minn
STUDY AREA
-**
* -->
Sl
E:
AND of
-
. ..
15 3O KM
Figure 1. Diagram showing the location of the north-central Minnesota aeromagnetic survey and major lithotectonic terranes and
StructureS.
Wabigoon generally produce broad, low-amplitude mag Within this metasedimentary terrane, an east-west-striking
netic anomalies. The Wabigoon greenstone belts produce magnetic high is produced by the migmatites of the Late
the relatively long, narrow, high-amplitude anomalies that Archean Vermilion Granitic Complex (Southwick and
are visible across the eastern third of the survey's northern Sims, 1980), which are more magnetic than the metasedi
border and along the west-central boundary of the survey mentary units. Two prominent west-northwest-trending
area. Within these greenstone belts, iron formations pro Archean dikes, located in the western portion of the Quet
duce the thin, highly magnetic anomalies. Mafic intrusive ico subprovince, are offset by younger, northwest-trending
bodies produce two irregularly shaped, moderately high Proterozoic dikes.
amplitude anomalies seen in the north-central portion of The rocks of the Wawa-Shebandowan subprovince
the survey area. also have a wide range of magnetic characteristics. As in
The metasedimentary rocks of the Quetico subprov the Wabigoon subprovince, the granitic rocks generally
ince produce the low-gradient, low-amplitude magnetic produce broad, low-amplitude magnetic anomalies,
terrane across the central portion of the survey area. whereas the greenstone belts produce the relatively long,
AEROMAGNETIC SURVEY OF NORTH-CENTRAL MINNESOTA 203
93 15'
4730' +
Figure 2. Color shaded relief aeromagnetic map of the north-central Minnesota survey. The color changes represent broad changes in
magnetic field strength. The warm colors (red, orange, and yellow) represent areas of magnetic field highs, the cool colors (green, blue,
and purple) represent magnetic field lows. The apparent relief is computer generated by illumination from the southwest. The illumination
emphasizes subtle level changes in magnetic amplitude and enhances features that are aligned oblique to the illumination direction.
narrow, high-amplitude anomalies. Iron formations pro thought to be produced by a magnetic border phase within
duce thin, high-amplitude magnetic anomalies. The large, the pluton. In the extreme southeastern corner of the
broad feature in the southwestern corner of the survey area mapped area, the irregularly shaped, high-amplitude
is produce by the Bemidji batholith. Numerous low-ampli anomaly is produced by an iron formation deformed by
tude, subrounded anomalies are produced by granitoid faulting and intense folding.
intrusions. Many of these granitoid intrusions are partially, Several prominent structural features are readily seen
or wholly, encircled by narrow magnetic highs. These in the aeromagnetic map (figs. 1 and 2). The Vermilion
narrow, encircling magnetic features are usually caused by fault strikes west-northwestward across the center of the
magnetic units within the enclosing greenstone terrain. survey area. Faults that separate the rocks of the Wabi
However, in the southeastern corner of the subprovince, goon and Quetico subprovinces (the Rainy LakeSeine
the magnetic ring around the elliptical anomaly (which is River and Four Town faults) lie within the high, northeast
hosted within the northeast-trending magnetic high) is tending gradients produced by the magnetic greenstone
204 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
terrane in contact with metasediments. The Early Protero Minnesota: Sioux Falls, South Dakota, USGS-EROS Data
zoic mafic dikes are readily apparent and can be seen cut Center, Data release serial no. D91-0597.
ting across major structural features and the three Bracken, Robert, and Petrafeso, Frank, 1991, Description of mag
subprovince terranesthese dikes produce narrow, north netic tapes containing north-central Minnesota aeromagnetic
west-tending, linear anomalies. flight line data: Souix Falls, South Dakota, USGS-EROS Data
Center, Data release serial no. D91-0439.
Day, W.C., Klein, T.L., and Schulz, K.J., 1990a, Preliminary bed
SUMMARY rock geologic map of the Roseau 192 quadrangle, Minneso
ta, U.S.A., and Ontario, Canada: U.S. Geological Survey
Open-File Report 900544A and 900544B, scale 1:250,000.
The north-central Minnesota airborne survey covered
Day, W.C., Southwick, D.L., Schulz, K.J., and Klein, T.L., 1990b,
an extensive area where bedrock is buried by thick glacial
Bedrock geologic map of the International Falls 1x2 quad
deposits. Reliable geologic maps could not be produced rangle, Minnesota, U.S.A., and Ontario, Canada: U.S. Geolog
based on the available outcrop and drill hole information; ical Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Map Series
however, aeromagnetic data provided a means of mapping I1965B, scale 1:250,000.
buried bedrock features, such as contacts and structures,
Horton, R.J., Meyer, G.N., and Bajc, A.F., 1989, Reconnaissance
by their magnetic characteristics. The high resolution of Quaternary geology map of the International Falls 1x2quad
the survey generated data that is detailed enough to pro rangle: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 89654,
duce 1:24,000-scale aeromagnetic maps that greatly aid in Scale 1:250,000.
geologic mapping. This survey demonstrates that aero Klein, T.L., and Day, W.C., 1989, Tabular summary of lithologic
magnetic data, when used in conjunction with drill-core logs and geologic characteristics from diamond drill holes in
information, geochemical studies, and other geophysical the western International Falls and Roseau 192 quadrangles,
methods, can be used to interpret bedrock geology and aid northern Minnesota: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File
in mineral assessment in terranes with little or no bedrock Report 89346.
exposure.
Southwick, D.L., and Day, W.C., 1983, Geology and petrology of
Proterozoic mafic dikes, north-central Minnesota: Canadian
Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 20, no. 4, p. 622638.
REFERENCES CITED Southwick, D.L., and Sims, P.K., 1980, The Vermilion Granitic
ComplexA new name for old rocks in northern Minnesota:
Bracken, Robert, 1991, Description of magnetic tapes contain U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1124A, p.
ing gridded aeromagnetic anomaly data from north-central AlA11.
CHAPTER U
ABSTRACT derived from the magnetite ore system, that boiled. The
breccia pipes were rapidly and explosively emplaced at a
temperature of about 300C.
Iron ore and reserves of rare-earth-element ore at the
Pea Ridge mine occur in what is thought to be an eroded
volcano-plutonic complex in the St. Francois Mountains
of southeast Missouri. Middle Proterozoic rhyolitic tuffs
INTRODUCTION
host the iron ore. Rare-earth-element-bearing breccia
pipes cut the iron ore and altered wallrocks. Comagmatic
aplite dikes cut the deposit, which suggests that the min This study represents a contribution from the ongoing
eralization was contemporaneous with the igneous activ Midcontinent Strategic and Critical Minerals Program's
ity in the St. Francois terrane. Olympic Dam Project, which is a cooperative effort
The Pea Ridge deposit consists of four mappable between the U.S. Geological Survey and the Missouri
zones: the amphib ole-quartz, magnetite, hematite, and Geological Survey. The project is funded through the
silicified zones. Fluid-inclusion studies indicate that the USGS Office of Mineral Resources. Research on the Pea
deposit formed from highly saline, high-temperature, Ridge deposit was an outgrowth of work by Sims and oth
magmatically derived hydrothermal fluids. The mineral ers (1987), who recognized that the Middle Proterozoic
izing fluids are possibly related to rocks of an iron-rich granite-rhyolite terranes in the Midcontinent may host
trachyte suite, which is present regionally as ring intru Olympic-Dam-type copper-uranium-gold-silver deposits
sions associated with the volcano-plutonic complex. (Reeve and others, 1990).
Halite homogenization in three-phase fluid inclusions in A critical facet of the study of the Pea Ridge iron
the amphibole-quartz, magnetite, hematite, and silicified rare-earth-element deposit is to establish the type, compo
zones indicate that temperatures varied from greater than sition, and paragenesis of ore and alteration minerals.
530C to about 400C during deposition and alteration Detailed underground mapping combined with petro
associated with the magnetite ore. The rare-earth graphic and electron microbeam analyses have docu
element-bearing breccia pipes formed as late-stage fluids, mented the paragenesis in the Pea Ridge deposit and the
nature of the ore and alteration minerals. This paper
highlights new ore-petrography, mineral-chemistry, and
fluid-inclusion data in an attempt to assess the conditions
'U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 905, P.O. Box 25046, Denver
of ore formation. The reader is referred to Nuelle and
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225
*Doe Run Co., P.O. Box 500, Viburnum, MO 65566 others (1992) for a detailed description of the ore deposit,
*Division of Geology and Land Survey, Missouri Department of mineral paragenesis, and ideas on formation of the rare
Natural Resources, P.O. Box 250, Rolla, MO 65401 earth-element-bearing breccia pipes.
206 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
EXPLANATION
The host rocks in the Pea Ridge deposit consist of
crystal-rich, subalkaline, rhyolitic ash-flow tuffs that
Z% Granite central pluton Active underground mine strike N. 80 W. and dip about 75 NE. Both the deposit
and host rocks are interpreted to form a large roof pen
N Trachyte ring intrusion O Inactive mine
dant on top of a circular, 20-km-wide, central granite
s.ss. Granite ring intrusion A Undeveloped deposit pluton (Nuelle and others, 1992) (fig. 1). This pluton was
interpreted as the core of a buried caldera complex (Kis
Subvolcanic granite
varsanyi, 1981; Nuelle and others, 1991) on the basis of
. . . . . . . . . . Rhyolite regional compilations of aeromagnetic and gravity data.
The margin of the caldera complex is delineated by an
iron-rich trachyte ring intrusion (fig. 1). The Pea Ridge
Figure 1. Geologic map of the Middle Proterozoic St. Francois
terrane, southeast Missouri (from Kisvarsanyi, 1980). ore system may have evolved as immiscible fluids from
the source or a derivative magma of the iron-rich trachyte
suite (Kisvarsanyi and Kisvarsanyi, 1981; Day and
others, 1991).
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The tabular Pea Ridge iron orebody discordantly cuts
its host rhyolitic rocks (fig. 2). The orebody strikes N.
Middle Proterozoic rocks, 1,4801,450 Ma (Bickford, 55-60 E. and dips 75 SE. to nearly vertical (Husman,
1988), of the St. Francois granite-rhyolite terrane in south 1989). Replacement and open-space fill textures character
east Missouri host 32 known magnetite and hematite ize the deposit (Nuelle, Seeger, and others, 1989), and
deposits and prospects that together form the Missouri cross-cutting, replacement, and alteration relations define
iron metallogenic province (Kisvarsanyi and Proctor, four mappable zones (Nuelle and others, 1992). They are,
1967). The St. Francois terrane consists predominantly of from earliest to latest: (1) the amphibole-quartz zone; (2)
rhyolite, which was intruded by coeval subvolcanic granite the magnetite ore zone, with massive magnetite and mag
massifs (fig. 1). Later, granite porphyry and an iron-rich netite-cemented breccia ore; (3) the hematite zone; and (4)
trachyte suite were emplaced as ring-dike intrusions the silicified zone (fig. 2). Quartz veins, mafic dikes, and
around the margins of caldera complexes. Bodies of two aplite dikes cut the four main zones. REE-bearing breccia
mica granite, which are enriched in fluorine, uranium, and pipes cut rocks of the footwall and the eastern margin of
thorium in addition to large-ion-lithophile elements the deposit (Marikos, Nuelle, and Seeger, 1989; Nuelle
(LILE), such as Sn, W, Nb, Y, Be, Li, Rb, and Ba, are and others, 1992).
PEA RIDGE IRON-RARE-EARTH-ELEMENT DEPOSIT, SOUTHEAST MISSOURI 207
MINE
LEVEL
(feet)
1375
1475
1675
1825
1975
2125
2275
237O
2475
Figure 2. Isometric view of the Pea Ridge deposit. View looking northwest.
AMPHIBOLE-QUARTZ ZONE magnetite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and calcite (fig. 3). Actin
olite forms crystals as much as 5 cm long with seams and
disseminations of magnetite and sulfides. Fluorine content
The amphibole-quartz zone occurs on both the hang in actinolite ranges from about 0.20 to 0.90 weight per
ing wall and footwall of the deposit. This zone thins from cent, whereas chlorine concentration is less than 0.05
about 40 m wide on the eastern edge of the hanging wall weight percent. Quartz is present as both interstitial
westward into host rock with fractures that are filled with
grains and as massive pods 1 to 50 cm in diameter.
amphibole and have silicified walls (Emery, 1968). The
The amphibole-quartz zone represents a metasomatic
footwall amphibole-quartz zone is less brecciated and con
alteration front that preceded emplacement of the magne
tains fewer quartz pods than that of the hanging wall.
tite orebody and formed a skarn in the host rhyolitic rocks.
Contacts between the amphibole-quartz zone and host rhy
Relict textures of rhyolite in the amphibole-quartz zone of
olite wallrock are generally gradational; some wallrock
the hanging wall and incipient replacement of rhyolite by
exhibits only incipient replacement by actinolite (Nuelle
actinolite confirm that rhyolite is the protolith of the
and others, 1992).
amphibole-quartz zone (Nuelle, Marikos, and others, 1989;
The amphibole-quartz zone consists of massive, Nuelle, Seeger, and others, 1989; Nuelle and others,
coarse-grained actinolite with interstitial quartz, apatite, 1992).
208 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
: ---
Its composition ranges from magnesian-rich chlorite (Mg/
---
t
-
HEMATITE ZONE
J
ally gradational, with irregularly distributed patches of C- - r. -
|
t:
299.52 MICRONS H
Figure 6B. Element maps of sample in 6A. Elements are, left to right, Sn, Fe, Hg, and Te on top, and S, Ni, Cu, and P on bottom.
- -
---
1UPM 2CKU CU J.
(
S
77.87 MICRONS H-4
Figure 6B. Element maps of sample in 6D. Elements are, left to right, Sn, Fe, Hg, and Te on top; S, Ni, Cu, and Mg on bottom.
The forms of the hard and soft breccia pipes are simi
lar. The pipes dip > 60 and are elongate to ovoid in plan
view (Nuelle and others, 1992). They range in length from
several meters to as much as 60 m and in width from 3 1
to about 15 m. Their maximum vertical extent is not
known, but at least one pipe is exposed over a distance of
about 120 m.
Fragments of rhyolite, magnetite- and hematite-rich
ore, and silicified-zone rocks in the breccia pipes range in
diameter from 3 1 mm to several meters and document the
late-stage emplacement of the pipes. Some minerals such
as sanidine, quartz, and barite form megacrysts or possibly
phenocrysts (Nuelle and others, 1991). These breccias are
both matrix and clast supported (Nuelle and others, 1992).
The matrix of the breccias consists predominantly of rock
flour, potassium feldspar (predominantly orthoclase), chlo
rite, barite, monazite, xenotime, quartz, apatite, allanite,
and calcite (Marikos, Seeger, and Nuelle, 1989). Other
accessory minerals present in trace quantities include other
REE-bearing minerals, altaite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, hema
tite, galena, thorite, and cassiterite.
Monazite is the predominant REE-bearing mineral in
the breccia pipes. Lesser amounts of xenotime and uncom
mon bastnaesite ((Ce,La)CO3(FOH)), britholite ((Ca,Ce);
(SiO4,PO4)3(OH,F)), allanite, and possibly tengerite
(Cay3(CO3)4(OH)33H2O) and synchisite ((Y,Ce)Ca
(CO3)F2) have also been observed (Husman, 1989;
Whitten and Cornell, 1991; Sidder, unpub. data, 1991).
These minerals generally occur as small crystals that are
< 4.0 mm in diameter in the matrix, as fill in cracks in
barite and sanidine megacrysts that are > 2 cm long, and
as disseminations in rock fragments. Allanite forms euhe
dral tablets in acicular groups within the matrix of the
hard breccia pipe. Total REE-oxide (REO) concentrations
Figure 8. Photographs, taken underground, of the silicified zone. from grab samples range from about 5 to 38 weight per
Top, Zone of massive silicification. Bottom, Silicified pseudo cent, with an average of 20 weight percent. Grades from
breccia.
bulk samples range from about 7 to 25 weight percent
REO and average about 12 weight percent (Nuelle and
between the silicified and magnetite zones, and another is others, 1992). Ore reserves of about 600,000 tons at 12
between the silicified and hematite zones. Locally, apo weight percent REO have been estimated for the hard
physes of breccia pipes protrude into adjacent rocks breccia pipe at Pea Ridge (Whitten and Yancey, 1990).
(Nuelle and others, 1992). Three pipes are relatively soft Thorium and uranium are present in minor quantities
and friable, whereas one is hard and indurated. in the breccia pipes. The thorium concentration in grab
The temporal relation between the silicified zone and samples averages about 3,320 ppm, and the uranium con
the REE-bearing breccia pipes is apparently ambiguous. tent averages about 190 ppm (Nuelle and others, 1992).
Fragments of silicified wallrock and massive quartz from Thorite has been identified as grains disseminated in the
the silicified zone in the friable, soft, REE-bearing breccia REE-bearing breccia pipes associated with altaite (PbTe),
pipes clearly indicate that silicification preceded emplace monazite, and other REE-bearing minerals (Husman,
ment of the breccia pipes, whereas the hard pipe is appar 1989; Sidder unpub. data, 1991). Radioactivity imparted
ently silicified (Marikos, Seeger, and Nuelle, 1989). by thorium and uranium serves as an exploration guide for
However, the hardness of the latter is probably related to a the breccia pipes.
greater abundance of primary quartz in the pipe and is not Precious metals are distributed erratically in the brec
an overprint due to secondary quartz introduced into the cia pipes. Gold and silver are present in trace amounts,
breccia pipe after its emplacement. The matrix of the hard with 58 grab samples of breccia pipe material averaging
breccia pipe is not silicified. about 0.9 ppm gold and 1.2 ppm silver (L.J. Tucker, Pea
214 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Silicified Zone = m n ml
Hematite Zone
f Magnetite Zone
Amphibole-Quartz Zone
m, m-m
|--|--|--|--|--|
300 350 400 450 500 550
Temperature (C)
about 410C (fig. 10), and a quartz-hematite pair yields a REFERENCES CITED
calculated temperature of 395C (Sidder and others, 1991).
The calculated salinity in the hematite zone is about 47 Amli, Reidar, 1975, Mineralogy and rare earth geochemistry of
equivalent weight percent NaCl. apatite and xenotime from the Gloserheia granite pegma
Multi-phase fluid inclusions are abundant in the silic tite, Froland, southern Norway: American Mineralogist, v.
ified zone. Liquid + vapor + halit inclusions are most 60, p. 607620.
common, but some inclusions contain additional daughter Bickford, M.E., 1988, The formation of continental crust: Part 1.
minerals. Some of these daughter minerals include hema A review of some principles; Part 2. An application to the Pro
tite, recognized by its orangish color; an opaque mineral; terozoic evolution of southern North America: Geological So
and tabular or rounded translucent crystals, some of which ciety of America Bulletin, v. 100, p. 13751391.
Cunningham, C.G., 1978, Pressure gradients and boiling as mech
are birefringent. These inclusions all homogenize by halite
anisms for localizing ore in porphyry systems: U.S. Geologi
dissolution, although some of the other daughter minerals cal Survey Journal of Research, v. 6, no. 6, p. 745754.
do not disappear before halite. The temperature of homog Day, W.C., Kisvarsanyi, E.B., Nuelle, L.M., Marikos, M.A., and
enization in the silicified zone ranges from about 320C to Seeger, C.M., 1989, New data on the origin of the Pea Ridge
430C, and the salinity ranges from about 39 to 49 equiva iron-apatite deposit, southeast MissouriImplications for
lent weight percent NaCl. Olympic Dam-type deposits [abs.]: Geological Society of
Two-phase liquid-and-vapor fluid inclusions with America, Abstracts with Programs, v. 21, no. 6, p. A 132.
variable liquid-to-vapor proportions coexist in quartz Day, W.C., Sidder, G.B., Rye, R.O., Nuelle, L.M., and Kisvarsanyi,
within the matrix of the breccia pipes. Such coexisting E.B., 1991, The Middle Proterozoic rhyolite-hosted Pea Ridge
populations of vapor- and liquid-rich fluid inclusions are iron and rare-earth element depositA magmatic source for
Olympic Dam-type deposits in the Midcontinent region of the
commonly indicative of entrapment of fluids that under
United States [abs.], in Chappell, B.W., ed., Second Hutton
went boiling (Cunningham, 1978). Because of the variable Symposium on Granites and Related Rocks: Canberra, Austra
proportion of liquid and vapor in these inclusions, temper lia, Sept. 1991, Abstracts with Program, p. 30.
atures of disappearance of the vapor or liquid are not nec Emery, J.A., 1968, Geology of the Pea Ridge iron orebody, in
essarily representative of the trapping temperature. The Ridge, J.D., ed., Ore Deposits of the United States,
temperature calculated from the sulfur isotope composition 19331967: New York, American Institute of Mining, Met
of barite and pyrite in the breccia pipes yielded 305C allurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., The Graton-Sales
(Sidder and others, 1991). Volume, v. 1, p. 359369.
Husman, J.R., 1989, Gold, rare earth element, and other potential
by-products of the Pea Ridge iron ore mine: Missouri Depart
ment of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Sur
vey, Contributions to Precambrian Geology No. 21, Open File
CONCLUSIONS Report OFR-89-78-MR, 18 p.
Kisvarsanyi, E.B., 1980, Granitic ring complexes and hotspot activ
ity in the St. Francois terrane, Midcontinent region, United
The Pea Ridge iron and rare-earth-element orebody is
States: Geology, v. 8, p. 4347.
a high-temperature, magmatic-hydrothermal deposit. The
Kisvarsanyi, E.B., 1981, Geology of the Precambrian St. Francois
ore was emplaced within what is thought to be an eroded terrane, southeastern Missouri: Missouri Department of Natu
caldera complex at a relatively shallow level (< 2 km) of ral Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey, Report
the crust. The deposit consists of four mappable zones, the of Investigations No. 64, 58 p.
amphibole-quartz, magnetite, hematite, and silicified Kisvarsanyi, E.B., and Kisvarsanyi, Geza, 1989a, Alkaline granite
zones, which formed paragenetically in succession as tem ring complexes and metallogeny in the Middle Proterozoic St.
perature decreased from greater than 530C to about Francois terrane, southeastern Missouri, U.S.A.: Geological
300C. Ambiguous relations between the silicified and Association of Canada Special Paper 38, 14 p.
magnetite zones indicate that their period(s) of deposition Kisvarsanyi, Geza, and Kisvarsanyi, E.B., 1981, Genetic relation
may have overlapped in part of the deposit. Fluids intersti ship of Kiruna-type apatitic iron ores to magnetite trachyte and
tial to magnetite in the iron orebody may have escaped, syenite in the St. Francois terrane, Missouri [abs.]: Geological
boiled, and caused brecciation during rapid and explosive Society of America, Abstracts with Programs, v. 13, p. 488.
1989b, Precambrian geology and ore deposits of the south
emplacement of the REE-bearing breccia pipes. The mag
east Missouri iron metallogenic province, in Brown, V.M.,
netite deposit (and the REE-bearing breccia pipes by Kisvarsanyi, E.B., and Hagni, R.D., eds., Olympic Dam
direct association and geologic relations such as the pres Type Deposits and Geology of Middle Proterozoic Rocks in
ence of sanidine as a phenocryst phase) formed from the St. Francois Mountains Terrane, Missouri: Society of Eco
highly saline, high-temperature, magmatically derived nomic Geologists Guidebook Series, v.4, p. 140.
hydrothermal fluids. It is possible that the mineralizing Kisvarsanyi, Geza, and Proctor, P.D., 1967, Trace element content
fluids are genetically associated with rocks of the iron-rich of magnetites and hematites, southeast Missouri iron metallo
trachyte suite and that they formed as immiscible fluids. genic province, U.S.A.: Economic Geology, v. 62, p. 449471.
216 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Marikos, M.A., Nuelle, L.M., and Seeger, C.M., 1989, Geology of Oreskes, Naomi, and Einaudi, M.T., 1990, Origin of rare earth ele
the Pea Ridge Mine, in Brown, V.M., Kisvarsanyi, E.B., and ment-enriched hematite breccias at the Olympic Dam Cu-U
Hagni, R.D., eds., Olympic Dam-Type Deposits and Geolo Au-Agdeposit, Roxby Downs, South Australia: Economic Ge
gy of Middle Proterozoic Rocks in the St. Francois Mountains ology, v. 85, p. 128.
Terrane, Missouri: Society of Economic Geologists Guide Potter, R.W., II, Babcock, R.S., and Brown, D.L., 1977, A new
book Series, v.4, p. 4154. method for determining the solubility of salts in aqueous solu
Marikos, M.A., Seeger, C.M., and Nuelle, L.M., 1989, REE-miner tions at elevated temperatures: U.S. Geological Survey Journal
alized breccia pipes in the Pea Ridge deposit of southeast Mis of Research, v. 5, no. 3, p. 389395.
souri [abs.]: Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Reeve, J.S., Cross, K.C., Smith, R.N., and Oreskes, Naomi, 1990,
Programs, v. 21, no. 6, p. A34. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver deposit, in Hughes,
McKeown, F.A., and Klemic, Harry, 1956, Rare-earth-bearing ap F.E., ed., Geology of the Mineral Deposits of Australia and
atite at Mineville, Essex County, New York: U.S. Geological Papua New Guinea: Australasian Institute of Mining and Met
Survey Bulletin 1046B, p. 923. allurgy, Monograph no. 14, p. 10091035.
Seeger, C.M., Nuelle, L.M., and Marikos, M.A., 1989, Massive
Nuelle, L.M., Day, W.C., Sidder, G.B., and Seeger, C.M., 1992,
silicification and late stage quartz veining in the Pea Ridge Fe
Geology and mineral paragenesis of the Pea Ridge iron ore
REE deposit, southeast Missouri [abs.]: Geological Society of
mine, Washington County, MissouriOrigin of the rare-earth
America, Abstracts with Programs, v. 21, no. 6, p. A34.
element- and gold-bearing breccia pipes, in Day, W.C., and
Sidder, G.B., Nuelle, L.M., Day, W.C., Rye, R.O., Seeger, C.M.,
Lane, D.E., Strategic and Critical Minerals in the Midcontinent
and Kisvarsanyi, E.B., 1991, Paragenesis and conditions of
Region, United States: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1989,
formation of the Pea Ridge iron and rare-earth element deposit,
Chapter A, p. A1-A11.
Missouri [abs.]: Geological Society of America, Abstracts with
Nuelle, L.M., Kisvarsanyi, E.B., Seeger, C.M., Day, W.C., and Sid Programs, v. 23, no. 5, p. A292.
der, G.B., 1991, Structural setting and control of the Pea Ridge Sims, P.K., Kisvarsanyi, E.B., and Morey, G.B., 1987, Geology and
magnetite deposit, Middle Proterozoic St. Francois terrane, metallogeny of Archean and Proterozoic basement terranes in
Missouri [abs.]: Geological Society of America, Abstracts with the northern midcontinent, U.S.A.An overview: U.S. Geo
Programs, v. 23, no. 5, p. A292. logical Survey Bulletin 1815, 51 p.
Nuelle, L.M., Marikos, M.A., Seeger, C.M., and Day, W.C., 1989, Stormer, J.C., Jr., 1983, The effects of recalculation on esti
Hydrothermal aspects of amphibole and magnetite emplace mates of temperature and oxygen fugacity from analyses of
ment in the Pea Ridge Fe-REE deposit, Washington County, multicomponent iron-titanium oxides: American Mineralo
Missouri [abs.]: Geological Society of America, Abstracts with gist, v. 68, p. 586594.
Programs, v. 21, no. 6, p. A248. Whitten, C.W., and Cornell, W.L., 1991, Rare earth occurrences
Nuelle, L.M., Seeger, C.M., Marikos, M.A., and Day, W.C., 1989, in the Pea Ridge tailings: American Institute of Mining En
Mineral assemblages of the Pea Ridge Fe-REE deposit: Impli gineers Preprint, 20 p.
cations of an Olympic Dam-type variant in southeast Missouri Whitten, C.W., and Yancey, R.J., 1990, Characterization of the rare
[abs.]: Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Pro earth mineralogy at the Pea Ridge deposit: U.S. Bureau of
grams, v. 21, no. 6, p. A34. Mines, Report of Investigations 9331, 15 p.
CHAPTER V
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
The mineral resource potential of the White River The assessment of the mineral resource potential of
National Forest and Dillon Ranger District of the Arapaho the White River National Forest and Dillon Ranger Dis
National Forest (referred to as the Forest in this report) trict of the Arapaho National Forest, Colorado (fig. 1),
was evaluated by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). was made to assist the U.S. Forest Service in fulfilling the
Geological, geochemical, and geophysical data were com requirements of Title 36, Chapter 2, part 219.22, Code of
piled and compared to characteristics of known and Federal Regulations and to supply resource information
inferred deposits within or close to the Forest. Models for and interpretations so that the mineral resources of the
14 locatable commodities and five leasable commodities Forest could be considered, along with other resources, in
were identified and evaluated. For locatable commodities, land-use planning. The Dillon Ranger District of the Arap
the Forest contains 751 mi2 of high resource potential, 535 aho National Forest was included in the report on the
mi2 of moderate resource potential, 83 mi2 of low White River National Forest because the two areas are
resource potential, and 6 mi2 of unknown resource poten administered by the staff of the White River Forest and
tial. For leasable commodities, the Forest contains 433 are included in a single planning document. For simplic
mi2 of high resource potential and 85 mi2 of low resource ity, only figure 1 distinguishes or outlines the Dillon
potential. Ranger District; in all other figures the district is included
within the Forest boundary. The identified, or known,
resources of the Forest were studied by the U.S. Bureau of
Mines (Brown, 1990); the potential for undiscovered min
eral and energy resources was studied by the U.S. Geolog
ical Survey (Toth and others, in press). This report is an
"U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 922, P.O. Box 25046, Denver abbreviated summary of Toth and others (in press).
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225.
The Forest encompasses about 2.4 million acres in
*U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 905, P.O. Box 25046, Denver
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. central and northwestern Colorado in two separate parcels:
*U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 937, P.O. Box 25046, Denver a southern parcel that is elongate in an east-west direction
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. and a northern, square-shaped parcel. Eight distinct moun
*U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 964, P.O. Box 25046, Denver tain ranges and parts or all of ten counties are within the
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225.
Forest. The entire Forest is on the western side of the
*U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 973, P.O. Box 25046, Denver
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. Continental Divide, which forms the eastern boundary of
U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 11177 W. 8th parts of the Forest in many places. Except for some water
Avenue, P.O. Box 25127, Lakewood, CO 80225. diversion projects, the Forest watershed drains into the
108 1079 1069
:
|
APPROXIMATE
OF
BOUNDARY
THE
WHITE
FOREST
NATIONAL
RIVER
4.
%.
iver Ri
3. Colorado
Granby
D
-
Meeker
Kremmling
C
c
f APPROXIMATE
BOUNDARY
THE
OF
[7
40
H.
Buford
JP DISTRICT
RANGER
D|LLON
THE
OF
<& NATIONAL
ARAPAHO
FOREST
&
&
Red
G)
River A.
Mountain
-
-
White
l Plateau
2
or
Ay
99
6
Castle
New
C
[]
Rifl ic
li
Glenwood
Springs
Battlement
st'
**
&
&
Elk
Mountains
Marble
D
Castle
Peak
c 14,265
39H.
pCrested
Butle
O
10
20 3.MILES
lI |
National
Colorado.
Forest,
Index
1.
Figure
location
the
showing
map
National
River
White
of
Ranger
Dillon
and
Forest
Arapaho
District
MINERAL RESOURCE POTENTIAL, WHITE RIVER N.F., COLORADO 219
eastern sides and are also exposed in the northwestern formed data were considered to represent slightly
part of the Forest. Mesozoic sedimentary rocks are anomalous concentrations; values of 3 to 5 were treated as
located principally in the northeastern part of the Forest moderately anomalous; and values above 5 were consid
and along the western boundary of the Forest, including ered highly anomalous. Interpretations were derived from
exposures along the Grand Hogback monocline. To the graphical displays that could simultaneously include all
available data.
west of the monocline, Tertiary sedimentary rocks are
exposed in the Piceance Basin. Tertiary basalt flows are These data were spatially interpolated, and contour
mostly in the northwestern part of the Forest, where they plots were produced to provide areal representations of
overlie Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. Laramide and anomalous concentrations of various elements in the study
younger plutons are concentrated along a northeast-trend area. Point plots of element suites were also generated to
ing zone through the southern and eastern parts of the give a detailed accounting of the sample-site locations for
Forest. Mineral deposits are also concentrated along this the anomalous areas as well as a view of associations of
zone, known as the Colorado Mineral Belt (Tweto and elements that are thought to be likely constituents of various
Sims, 1963) (fig. 3). mineral-deposit types. In the Forest, samples containing
220 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
-I | |
APPROxIMATE BOUNDARY OF THE
WHITE RIVERNATIONAL FOREST AND
DILLON RANGER DISTRICT OF THE
ARAPAHO. NATIONAL FOREST
3.
3.
40- -
. . . p. N illiams Range
:r. 38 rust fault
&
o 10 20 30 MILES
- |
EXPLANATION
Syncline
NNN
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks t Anticline
Figure 2. Map showing simplified geology and some of the major structural elements within or close to the White River National Forest
and Dillon Ranger District of the Arapaho National Forest, Colorado.
MINING HISTORY
2.
* e 26 - colorap Riv
40H.
3. a Meeker
B *\
Kremmlinge
-
LDotsero to
25 24
Glenwood
Springs
s
O
s}
SV
C
D
Leadville
*2.
&
3e. 2.
39H. S. -
| | |
O 10 2O 30 MILES
Figure 4. Index map showing mining districts within or close to White River National Forest and Dillon Ranger District of the Arapaho
National Forest, Colorado. Numbers on map are keyed to mining districts as follows: 1, Green Mountain; 2, North Rock Creek; 3, Frisco;
4, Montezuma; 5, Breckenridge; 6, Upper Blue River; 7, Kokomo-Tenmile; 8, Tennessee Pass; 9, Eagle; 10, Gilman; 11, Fulford; 12,
New York Lake; 13, East Lake Creek; 14, East Lake CreekCross Creek; 15, Middle Mountain; 16, Holy Cross CityCross Creek; 17,
Independence; 18, Lincoln Gulch; 19, Aspen; 20, Columbia-Ashcroft; 21, Taylor Peak, 22, Crystal River; 23, Spring Butte; 24, Carbon
ate; 25, Rifle Creek; 26, Uranium Peak. Map modified from Brown (1990).
Table 1. Resource potential of lands in the White River National Forest and Dillon Ranger District
of the Arapaho National Forest classified according to type of deposit.
[The White River National Forest and Dillon Ranger District of the Arapaho National Forest contain a total of 3,928 mi. Figures
in columns under each category of resource potential in mi and rounded to the nearest mi. Letters in parentheses preceding the
deposit type indicate the deposit type as discussed below. --, no area of resource potential for that category of resource potential)
Locatable resources
(P) Coal................................... 38 33 - -
(Q) Methane............................. 38 33 - -
C. Polymetallic skarn.Formed at the contact Leadville Limestone have moderate resource potential
between intrusive igneous rocks and chemically reactive (fig. 6B).
host rocks, such as limestone; valuable mainly for copper, F. Polymetallic veins.Related to Laramide and Ter
lead, zinc, silver, tungsten, manganese, and iron, but may tiary igneous intrusions; contain lead, zinc, copper, silver,
also contain trace amounts of gold. An area of high gold, and manganese; likely byproducts are tin, antimony,
resource potential occurs south of Aspen, where an iron and arsenic. Principal areas of high resource potential are
skarn was previously mined. Two small areas of moderate in the Carbonate, Crystal River, Independence and Lincoln
resource potential (fig. 5) and two small areas of low Gulch, Fulford, New York Lake, East Lake Creek, Cross
resource potential are in the southeastern part of the Forest. Creek, Middle Mountain, Holy Cross City, Gilman, Breck
D. Polymetallic replacement.Formed by hydrother enridge, Montezuma, North Rock Creek, and Green
mal solutions traversing limestone and dolomite; contain Mountain mining districts (figs. 4, 7); three large areas of
copper, lead, zinc, silver, and manganese, but many also moderate resource potential are along the southern and
contain tungsten and gold. The principal area of high southeastern parts of the Forest.
resource potential is along the flanks of the Sawatch G. Vein uranium.Formed from hydrothermal solu
Range where the Leadville Limestone is present (fig. 6A). tions associated with igneous intrusions; containing ura
Three other small areas have high resource potential, and nium and trace amounts of gold, silver, antimony, lead,
two have moderate resource potential; these areas are usu zinc, and molybdenum. One small area, northeast of
ally associated with polymetallic vein deposits. Aspen, has high resource potential (fig. 7); two small
E. Sherman-type Pb-Zn-Ag.Formed by the infilling areas have moderate resource potential.
of solution-collapse structures in the Leadville Limestone; H. Vein tungsten.Formed from hydrothermal solu
contain lead, zinc, and silver. The Leadville Limestone tions associated with igneous intrusions; contain tungsten,
has a high resource potential in a small area along the gold, silver, and zinc. Two small areas in the eastern part
southwestern flank of the Sawatch Range and in a small of the Forest, near Frisco, have moderate resource poten
area along the eastern flank. The remaining outcrops of tial (fig. 7).
224 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
I | |
APPROXIMATE BOUNDARY OF THE
WHITE RIVER NATIONAL FOREST AND
DILLON RANGER DISTRICT OF THE
ARAPAHO NATIONAL FOREST
Kremmling
- Meeker c
40+ -
[...]
Glenwood
Springs
Leadville
->
3.
z.
wn
EXPLANATION (r,
2.
r,
39- High potential
Moderate potential
20 30 MILES
Figure 5. Mineral resource potential map for stockwork molybdenum (deposit type A), stockwork copper-molybdenum (deposit type
B), and polymetallic skarn deposits (deposit type C) in the White River National Forest and Dillon Ranger District of the Arapaho Na
tional Forest, Colorado.
1079 106
40 I I
EXPLANATION
39
O 10 2O 30 MILES
107 1069
40
EXPLANATION
APPROXIMATE BOUNDARY OF THE
high potential WHITE RIVER NATIONAL FOREST
AND DILLON DISTRICT OF THE
moderate potential ARAPAHO NATIONAL FOREST
39
polymetal ic River
for
map
potential
resource
Mineral
7.
Figure
White
the
in
deposits
H)
tungsten
and
G),
uranium
F),
type
(deposit
vein shown;
is
high
area
overlap,
potential
areas
Where
Colorado.
Forest,
Arapaho
the
of
District
Ranger
Dillon
and
Forest
National
(mod)
G
F
s
(mod)
G
(mod)
H
108
1069
1079
Leadville
O
oLoRAP
*-
-
D
3.
Kremmlinga
C Meeker
- D
*
MILES
30
1200
O
AND
FOREST
NATIONAL
RIVER
WHITE
AP ROXIMATE
THE
OF
BOUNDARY THE
OF
DISTRICT
RANGER
DILLON
FOREST
NATIONAL
ARAPAHO
|
|
I
I
L
|
H.
40
L -
39H. potential
Moderate
potential
High
EXPLANATION (mod).
by
indicated
is
potential
moderate
of
3. C
4.
uranium-vanadium in
I),
copper
sandstone
for
map
potential
resource
Mineral
8.
Figure
deposits
K)
gold
placer
and
J),
type
(deposit high
area
only
overlap,
potential
different
areas
Where
Colorado.
Forest,
Arapaho
of
District
Ranger
Dillon
and
Forest
National
River
White
the
108
1069
1079
&
ER |
IV Leadville
R
O
e
coLoRAP
*-
-
[]
'y.v
%
*
KremmlingMeeker[T]
-
3.
MILES
AND
FOREST
NATIONAL
RIVER
WHITE
AP ROXIMATE
THE
OF
BOUNDARY THE
OF
DISTRICT
RANGER
DILLON
FOREST
NATIONAL
ARAPAHO
DotseroD 10
O
2O
l
|
potential
Moderate
&
potential
High
E&
XPLANATION
I
| |
shown.
is
potential
s89
C
H.
40 H.
399
73
108
1070
1069
I|
APPROXIMATE
BOUNDARY
THE
OF
RIVER
WHITE
FOREST
NATIONAL
AND
RANGER
DILLON
DISTRICT
THE
OF
ARAPAHO
FOREST
NATIONAL
3.
&.
40H
s
89
C
EXPLANATION
potential
High
H.
399
potential
Moderate
_| l
20
1
MILES
30
O0
I
Figure
9.
resource
Mineral
for
map
potential
high-calcium
(deposit
limestone
and
M)
type
evaporite
in
gypsum
River
White
deposits
National
N)
the
Dillon
and
Forest
District
Ranger
Arapaho
the
of
Forest,
Colorado.
National
different
areas
Where
potential
only
overlap,
high
area
shown.
is
MINERAL RESOURCE POTENTIAL, WHITE RIVER N.F., COLORADO 229
&
e
3. a Meeker
40 H. -
PQ (mod.)
s
89
C
EXPLANATION
High potential
39 H. -
Moderate potential
l l |
O 10 20 30 MILES
Figure 10. Mineral resource potential map for oil and gas (deposit type O), coal (deposit type P), coalbed methane (deposit type Q),
and oil shale (deposit type R), and geothermal resources (deposit type S) in the White River National Forest and Dillon Ranger District
of the Arapaho National Forest, Colorado. Where areas of different potential overlap, the area of high potential is shown; the area of
moderate potential is indicated by (mod).
N. Gypsum in evaporite deposits.-Formed in shal the Forest and two areas in the southwestern part of the
low-water marine environment. Resource potential is high Forest have moderate resource potential (fig. 10).
north of Aspen, where thick and relatively pure beds of Q. Coalbed methane.Generated in the maturation
evaporite are present; resource potential is moderate in process of coal. One area in the southwestern part of the
several areas in the northwestern and central parts of the Forest has high resource potential; one area in the north
Forest (fig. 9). western part of the Forest and two areas in the southwest
ern part of the Forest have moderate resource potential
(fig. 10).
LEASABLE COMMODITIES
R. Oil shale.Formed in a large, shallow lake and
O. Oil and gas.-Formed in a near-shore and on broad playa fringes. One large area in the southwest
coastal-plain environments. Two large areas of high ern part of the Forest has moderate resource potential
resource potential are along the western part of the Forest (fig. 10).
(fig. 10). S. Geothermal energy.Resource areas consist of
P. CoalFormed in a deltaic system from the thermal springs located along fault zones. One large area
decomposition and alteration of organic remains. One near Glenwood Springs has high resource potential and
area in the southwestern part of the Forest has high two smaller areas in the south-central part of the Forest
resource potential; one area in the northwestern part of have high resource potential (fig. 10).
230 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Stockwork molybdenum
Mo.. () 230,000 1,200,000 430,000
Total mineralized rock ......... O 130,000,000 620,000,000 220,000,000
Number of deposits............... () | l
Polymetallic veins
Pb. 57 4,600 55,000 20,400
Zn. () 1,300 39,000 14,000
Cu...... () 53 370 330
Ag 16,400 oz 1,029,000 oz 14,468,000 oz 8,037,500 oz
Au.... () 612 oz 41,800 oz 22,800 oz
Total mineralized rock.......... 350 56,000 840,000 280,000
Number of deposits............... () 3 5
Polymetallic replacement
Pb. () 29,000 510,000 220,000
Zn...... () 14,000 620,000 250,000
Cu.. () () 21,000 9,800
Ag () 1,896,900 oz 67,515,400 oz. 26,041,500 oz
Au... () () 147,900 oz 99,600 oz
Total mineralized rock.......... () 6,200,000 12,000,000 4,100,000
Number of deposits............... () l l
Placer gold
Au.. 180 oz 3,100 oz 23,000 oz 7,000 oz
Total mineralized rock.......... 1,500 130,000 1,000,000 330,000
Number of deposits............... () l 2
remaining deposits that are known or predicted for the and Pitkin Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Mis
Forest lack sufficient data, or the deposit type is too cellaneous Field Studies Map MF-1647A, scale 1:100,000.
poorly defined for quantitative assessment. Hildenbrand, T.G., 1983, FFTFILA filtering program based on
two-dimensional Fourier analysis on geophysical data: U.S.
Geological Survey Open-File Report 83237, 61 p.
REFERENCES CITED Isaacson, L.B., and Smithson, S.B., 1976, Gravity anomalies and
granite emplacement in west-central Colorado: Geological So
ciety of America Bulletin, v. 87, p. 2228.
Behrendt, J.E., and Bajwa, L.Y., 1974, Bouguer gravity map of Langfeldt, S.L., Youngquist, C.A., D'Andrea, Jr., R.F., Zinkl, R.J.,
Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Geophysical Investigations Shettel, Jr., D.L., Broxton, D.E., Hansel, J.N., McInteer, C.,
Map GP-895, scale 1:500,000. and Minor, M.M., 1981, Uranium hydrogeochemical and
Bolivar, S.L., Hill, D.E., Bunker, M.E., Cheadle III, J., Minor, stream sediment reconnaissance data release for the Grand
M.M., Sandoval, W., Talcott, C.L., Trujillo, L., and Water Junction NTMS Quadrangle, Colorado/Utah: U.S. Department
bury, G.R., 1979, Uranium hydrogeochemical and stream sed of Energy Open-File Report GJBX264(81), 142 p., 7 plates.
iment reconnaissance data release for the Craig NTMS Ludington, Steve, and Ellis, C.E., 1981, Mineral resource potential
quadrangle, Colorado, including concentrations of forty-three of the Hunter-Fryingpan Wilderness area and the Porphyry
additional elements: U.S. Department of Energy Open-File Re Mountain Wilderness Study Area, Pitkin County, Colorado:
port GJBX76(79), 238 p., 5 plates. U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map
Broxton, D.E., Morris, W.A., Bolivar, S.L., Apel, C.T., Gallimore, MF-1236D, scale 1:50,000.
D.L., George, W.E., Hensley, W.K., McInteer, C., Minor, Mallory, W.W., Post, E.V., Ruane, P.J., Lehmbeck, W.L., and Sto
M.M., and Zelezny, W.F., 1979, Uranium hydrogeochemical telmeyer, R.B., 1966, Mineral resources of the Flat Tops Prim
and stream sediment reconnaissance data release for the Mon itive Area, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin
trose NTMS quadrangle, Colorado, including concentrations 1230C, 30 p.
of forty-three additional elements: U.S. Department of Energy Moss, C.K., and Abrams, G.A., 1985, Geophysical maps of the
Open-File Report GJBX125(79), 255 p., 5 plates. Vasquez Peak Wilderness Study Area and the Williams Fork
Brown, S.D., 1990, Mineral appraisal of the White River National and St. Louis Peak Roadless Areas, Clear Creek, Grand, and
Forest, Colorado: U.S. Bureau of Mines Open-File Report Summit Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Miscella
MLA 990, 378 p. neous Field Studies Map MF-1588D, scale 1:50,000.
Campbell, D.L., 1981, Aeromagnetic and complete Bouguer grav Mutschler, F.E., Larson, E.E., and Bruce, R.M., 1987, Laramide
ity anomaly maps of the Hunter-Fryingpan Wilderness area, and younger magmatism in ColoradoNew petrologic and
Pitkin County, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Miscella tectonic variations on old themes, in Drexler, J.W., and Larson,
neous Field Studies Map MF-1236C, scale 1:50,000. E.E., eds., Cenozoic Volcanism in the Southern Rocky Moun
Campbell, D.L., 1985, Gravity and aeromagnetic maps of the Ma tains Revisited: A Tribute to Rudy C. EpisPart 1: Colorado
roon BellsSnowmass Wilderness and additions, Pitkin and School of Mines Quarterly, v. 82, no. 4, p. 147.
Gunnison Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Mis Planner, H.N., Apel, C.T., Fuka, M.A., George, W.E., Hansel, J.M.,
cellaneous Field Studies Map MF-1647B, scale 1:100,000. Hensley, W.K., and Pirtle, J., 1981, Uranium hydrogeochemi
Campbell, D.L., and Wallace, A.R., 1986, Aeromagnetic map of cal and stream sediment reconnaissance data release for the
the Holy Cross Wilderness area, Eagle, Lake, and Pitkin Coun Leadville NTMS quadrangle, Colorado, including concentra
ties, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field tions of forty-two additional elements: U.S. Department of En
Studies Map MF1841B, scale 1:100,000. ergy Open-File Report GJBX13(81), 185 p., 1 plate.
Case, J.E., 1965, Gravitational evidence for a batholithic mass of Shawe, D.R., 1981, U.S. Geological Survey workshop on non-fuel
low density along a segment of the Colorado Mineral Belt mineral-resource appraisal of Wilderness and CUSMAP areas:
[abs.]: Geological Society of America Special Paper 82, p. 26. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 845, 18 p.
1966, Geophysical investigations over Precambrian rocks, Shettel, Jr., D.L., Langfeldt, S.L., Youngquist, C.A., D'Andrea, Jr.,
northwestern Uncompahgre Plateau, Utah and Colorado: R.F., Zinkl, R.J., Bolivar, S.L., Garcia, S.R., George, W.E., and
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 50, Hanks, D., 1981, Uranium hydrogeochemical and stream sedi
p. 14231443. ment reconnaissance data release for the Denver NTMS Quad
1967, Geophysical ore guides along the Colorado Mineral rangle, Colorado: U.S. Department of Energy Open-File
Belt: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 67039, 13 p. Report GJBX263(81), 153 p., 17 plates.
Cordell, Lindrith, and Grauch, V.J.S., 1985, Mapping basement Soulliere, S.J., Arnold, M.A., Kluender, S.E., and Zelten, J.E.,
magnetization zones from aeromagnetic data in the San Juan 1985a, Mineral resources of the Eagle Mountain Wilderness
Basin, New Mexico, in Hinze, W.J., ed., The Utility of Region Study Area, Pitkin County, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey
al Gravity and Magnetic Anomaly Maps: Society of Explora Bulletin 1717B, 9 p.
tion Geophysics, p. 181197. Soulliere, S.J., Arnold, M.A., Kluender, S.E., 1985b, Mineral re
Cox, D.P., and Singer, D.A., 1986, Mineral deposit models: U.S. sources of the Hack Lake Wilderness Study Area, Garfield
Geological Survey Bulletin 1693,379 p. County, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin
Freeman, V.L., Campbell, D.L., King, H.D., Weisner, R.C., and 1717A, 5 p.
Bieniewski, C.L., 1985, Mineral resource potential of the Ma Soulliere, S.J., Arnold, M.A., Hassemer, J.R., Martin, R.A., Klu
roon BellsSnowmass Wilderness and additions, Gunnison ender, S.E., and Zelten, J.E., 1986, Mineral resources of the
232 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Bull Gulch Wilderness Study Area, Eagle County, Colorado: Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 726C,
U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1717C, 12 p. 31 p.
Taylor, R.B., and Steven, T.A., 1983, Definition of mineral Tweto, Ogden, and Sims P.C., 1963, Precambrian ancestry of the
resource potential: Economic Geology, v. 78, no. 6, p. Colorado Mineral Belt: Geological Society of America Bulle
12681270.
tin, v. 74, p. 9911014.
Theobald, P.K., Bielski, A.M., Eppinger, R.G., Moss, C.K., Kre
Tweto, Ogden, Bryant, Bruce, and Williams, F.E., 1970, Mineral
idler, T.J., and Barton, H.N., 1983, Mineral resource potential
resources of the Gore RangeEagle's Nest Primitive Area and
map of the Vasquez Peak Wilderness Study Area, and the Wil vicinity, Summit and Eagle Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geolog
liams Fork and St. Louis Peak Roadless Areas, Clear Creek,
ical Survey Bulletin 1319C, 127 p.
Grand, and Summit Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geological Sur
vey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF 1588A, scale Van Loenen, R.E., Lee, G.K., Campbell, D.L., and Thompson, J.R.,
1:50,000. 1989, Mineral resource appraisal of the Mount Massive Wil
Toth, M.I., Wilson, A.B., Cookro, T.M., Bankey, Viki, Lee, G.K., derness, Lake County, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Bul
and Case, J.E., in press, Mineral resource potential and geology letin 1636, 18 p.
of the White River National Forest and the Dillon Ranger Dis Wallace, A.R., 1990, Regional geologic and tectonic setting of the
trict of the Arapaho National Forest, Colorado, with a section central Colorado Mineral Belt, in Beaty, D.W., Landis, G.P.,
on Salable commodities, by J.S. Dersch: U.S. Geological Sur and Thompson, T.B., eds., Carbonate-Hosted Sulfide Deposits
vey Bulletin 2035. of the Central Colorado Mineral Belt: Economic Geology
Tweto, Ogden, 1980, Tectonic history of Colorado, in Kent, H.C., Monograph No. 7, p. 1928.
and Porter, K.W., eds. Colorado Geology: Denver, Rocky Wallace, A.R., Lee, G.K., Campbell, D.L., Lundby, William, and
Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 59. Brown, S.D., 1989, Mineral resources of the Holy Cross Wil
Tweto, Ogden, and Case, J.E., 1972, Gravity and magnetic features derness Area, Eagle, Pitkin, and Lake Counties, Colorado: U.S.
as related to geology in the Leadville 30-minute quadrangle, Geological Survey Bulletin 1879, 22 p.
CHAPTER W
By VIKI BANKEY!
INTRODUCTION ville 1x2 quadrangle (Wallace and others, 1988) and for
six Wilderness Study Areas (Campbell, 1981, 1985;
Campbell and Wallace, 1986; Moss and Abrams, 1985;
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is undertaking a and Van Loenen and others, 1989). Geophysical studies to
multidisciplinary study to assess the mineral resource support mineral resource evaluations of the Colorado Min
potential of the White River National Forest and part of eral Belt were made by Case and Tweto (Case, 1965,
the Arapaho National Forest (referred to in this report as 1966, 1967; Tweto and Case, 1972), Behrendt and Bajwa
the Forest; fig. 1). The results of this study are summa (1974), and Isaacson and Smithson (1976).
rized elsewhere in this volume (Toth and others). Twenty Gravity and magnetic data contribute significantly to
six mining districts or mineralized areas are found within the understanding of geologic features associated with min
or adjacent to the Forest boundaries and include some of eral deposits. Some of these features include Proterozoic
the largest concentrations of metallic mineral deposits in faults and shear zones, sometimes characterized by offsets
the Rocky Mountain region, notably in the Gilman, Lead in gravity or magnetic anomalies or both, that provided
ville, and Climax districts. Most of these deposits formed conduits for Phanerozoic intrusive magmas and mineraliz
within a zone of hydrothermal mineralization that charac ing fluids that formed the metallic mineral deposits of the
terizes the Colorado Mineral Belt in the southeastern part Colorado Mineral Belt. Gravity anomalies may distinguish
of the Forest (figs. 1 and 2). The deposits of the Colorado low-density porous sandstones (which may host copper, sil
Mineral Belt are associated with Late Cretaceous to late
ver, uranium, or vanadium deposits in the Forest) or Paleo
Tertiary felsic to intermediate intrusive and volcanic rocks zoic evaporites (host to gypsum, halite, and potassium salts,
that were localized by numerous northeast-trending base and oil and gas reservoirs) or high-density limestones
ment shear faults (Toth and others, this volume). A promi (which are host to many of the significant metallic ore
nent 3050 milli(Sal (mGal) gravity low is centered over deposits in the area (Toth and others, in press)).
the Colorado Mineral Belt and is produced by a low-den
sity, silicic, batholithic mass that underlies a large part of
the area (Case, 1965; Tweto and Case, 1972; Isaacson and
GRAVITY STUDIES
Smithson, 1976). The outline of this gravity low is shown
on figures 1 and 2. Many of the mapped intrusions and
related mineralized areas probably formed as apophyses Gravity anomalies occur from the juxtaposition of
from the top of this massive batholith. rocks having measurable density contrasts, which result
Gravity and aeromagnetic anomaly maps were com from structural or geologic features such as faults, folds,
piled and interpreted for the White River National Forest downwarps, intrusions, basin fill, lithologic contacts, or
area as part of the assessment study. The present work facies changes. The number and quality of gravity stations
builds on previous geophysical studies made for the Lead limits the accuracy of anomaly definition, especially in
mountainous areas where station spacing is often sparse.
However, on a regional scale, gravity mapping is a useful
"U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 964, P.O. Box 25046, Denver tool for locating structural breaks and folds and for delin
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. eating shallow, buried pediments.
234 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
9.
8.
7.
6.
5.
- 4.
| 2.
! .
0.0
-1 .
- 2.
3.
- 4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
o i 9.
3 || -10.
E - 1 1 .
5 L -30.
Figure 1. High-pass filtered residual gravity map of the White River National Forest. The map shows the Bouguer gravity field with
broad, presumably deep, features removed and shallower features emphasized. Bouguer gravity mapping (Behrendt and Bajwa, 1974)
shows a broad gravity low (hachured outlines) over the low-density batholith underlying the Colorado Mineral Belt.
Aproximate Forest
40
|
* Batt.
i
Figure 2. Aeromagnetic anomaly map of the White River National Forest and vicinity. The aeromagnetic maps of the area were digitally
merged to generate this aeromagnetic compilation map.
magnetic minerals; for example, in a magnetite-bearing occurs on a northeast trend from the stocks at Climax to
skarn. Small magnetic lows may occur where less mag Montezuma to Red Mountain (fig. 1), suggesting that
netic Tertiary stocks have intruded more magnetic Protero these features are related. Because buried batholiths play
zoic rocks. such an important role as a source of mineralizing fluids
Nine aeromagnetic surveys were flown over separate and heat in this area, this trend of gravity lows may be
parts of the Forest, with flight-line spacing ranging from significant.
0.5 to 3 mi apart. These aeromagnetic data sets were sepa Among aeromagnetic anomalies of interest to mineral
rately gridded and digitally merged to a common datum to assessments are the high-amplitude, high-frequency anom
produce the map in figure 2. alies associated with the mid-Tertiary outcrops of the Mt.
Sopris, Snowmass, and White Rock plutons that are in the
Elk Mountains in the south-central part of the Forest.
GEOPHYSICAL INTERPRETATIONS These three plutons are connected at depth, as suggested
by the gravity high that encompasses the area and demon
The Forest has been divided into three geophysical strated in models by Campbell (1985). However, these
provinces for this report: the Colorado Mineral Belt and plutons are separated from the Ragged Mountain pluton to
Gore Range in the eastern and southern Forest; the White the southwest by the geophysically distinct granite of
River uplift in the northern Forest; and the Battlement Treasure Mountain. The gravity and magnetic anomalies
Mesa area in the western Forest. show the subsurface extent of these mineralized plutons
In the Colorado Mineral Belt, residual gravity lows and indicate some occurrences of magnetic alteration.
may indicate the presence and subsurface extent of shal In the Sawatch and Gore Ranges, Cretaceous and Ter
low apophyses of the low-density, silicic, batholithic mass tiary intrusive rocks are commonly, but not always, associ
of Cretaceous to Tertiary age that is presumed to underlie ated with gravity and magnetic lows, whereas the
a large part of the belt. One such string of gravity lows Proterozoic schists, granites, and gneisses are characterized
236 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
by magnetic highs. Magnetic gradients, caused by contrast that serve as host rocks for metallic minerals, and evapor
ing lithologies or locally increased magnetization, mark ite-sequence rocks that are both host rocks for oil and gas
Proterozoic shear zones and metamorphic layering and deposits and source rocks for salts.
northwest-trending, uplift-related, high-angle faults of
Laramide and younger age. These numerous zones of
crustal weakness are often the location of mineral deposits REFERENCES CITED
(Toth and others, in press).
Between the Sawatch Range and the Gore Range lies Behrendt, J.E., and Bajwa, L.Y., 1974, Bouguer gravity map of
an interesting east-northeast-trending zone of magnetic Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Geophysical Investigations
lows that corresponds to a residual gravity low. This Map GP-895, scale 1:500,000.
zone, which extends from west of Vail to Dillon and Campbell, D.L., 1981, Aeromagnetic and complete Bouguer grav
crosses many north-northwest-trending topographic and ity anomaly maps of the Hunter-Fryingpan Wilderness area,
structural features, may reflect a larger volume of Phaner Pitkin County, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Miscella
ozoic intrusive rocks. neous Field Studies Map MF-1236C, scale 1:50,000.
1985, Gravity and aeromagnetic maps of the Maroon
The magnetic field in the area of the White River BellsSnowmass Wilderness and additions, Pitkin and Gunni
uplift is characterized by high-frequency, small, positive son Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Miscella
and negative anomalies over basalt outcrops, some of neous Field Studies Map MF-1647B, scale 1:100,000.
which formed during periods of reversed magnetization. Campbell, D.L., and Wallace, A.R., 1986, Aeromagnetic map of
Low residual gravity values occur where basalt becomes the Holy Cross Wilderness Area, Eagle, Lake, and Pitkin
the major rock type at the surface. Because the basalt Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous
magmas intruded through evaporites, the potential exists Field Studies Map MF-1841B, scale 1:100,000.
Case, J.E., 1965, Gravitational evidence for a batholithic mass of
for Norilsk-type copper-nickel-platinum deposits (Toth
and others, in press). The southern and southwestern mar low density along a segment of the Colorado Mineral Belt
[abs.): Geological Society of America Special Paper 82, p. 26.
gins of the uplift are flanked by four magnetic highs that
1966, Geophysical investigations over Precambrian rocks,
are all similar in appearance, magnitude, extent, and northwestern Uncompahgre Plateau, Utah and Colorado:
depth-to-source. A broad, positive gravity anomaly is American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 50,
associated with these magnetic highs. Because of the loca p. 14231443.
tion of these anomalies along the edge of the uplift, they 1967, Geophysical ore guides along the Colorado Mineral
are presumed to be structurally controlled and may be Belt: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 67039, 13 p.
caused by locally exposed Proterozoic rocks that are found Hildenbrand, T.G., 1983, FFTFILA filtering program based on
in the bottom of some canyons in the southern White two-dimensional Fourier analysis on geophysical data: U.S.
River uplift. Geological Survey Open-File Report 83237, 61 p.
Isaacson, L.B., and Smithson, S.B., 1976, Gravity anomalies and
Gravity lows east of the White River uplift are asso granite emplacement in west-central Colorado: Geological So
ciated with evaporite facies rocks within the Eagle Valley ciety of America Bulletin, v. 87, p. 2228.
Evaporite. These rocks are a source of gypsum, halite, and Moss, C.K., and Abrams, G.A., 1985, Geophysical maps of the
potassium salts and may also host oil and gas deposits Vasquez Peak Wilderness Study Area and the Williams Fork
(Toth and others, this volume). and St. Louis Peak Roadless Areas, Clear Creek, Grand, and
The Battlement Mesa area, in the westernmost part of Summit Counties, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Miscella
the Forest, is associated with a residual gravity low and a neous Field Studies Map MF-1588D, scale 1:50,000.
Toth, M.I., Wilson, A.B., Cookro, T.M., Bankey, Viki, Lee, G.K.,
broad magnetic high that reflect a presumably deep
and Case, J.E., in press, Mineral resource potential and geology
source. However, the data are of poor resolution so that
of the White River National Forest and the Dillon Ranger Dis
smaller, shallower sources are not represented well. trict of the Arapaho National Forest, Colorado, with a section
on Salable commodities, by J.S. Dersch: U.S. Geological Sur
vey Bulletin 2035.
CONCLUSIONS
Tweto, Ogden, and Case, J.E., 1972, Gravity and magnetic features
as related to geology in the Leadville 30-minute quadrangle,
Analysis of geophysical features provide new insights Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 726C.
into structural history and subsurface configurations and 31 p.
can help geologists target new areas for mineral explora Van Loenen, R.E., Lee, G.K., Campbell, D.L., and Thompson, J.R.,
1989, Mineral resource appraisal of the Mount Massive Wil
tion. Recognizable patterns of geophysical anomalies cor
derness, Lake County, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Bul
respond to geological targets for mineral potential, such as
letin 1636, 18 p.
Proterozoic shear zones and Phanerozoic faults that pro Wallace, A.R., Ludington, Steve, Lovering, T.G., Campbell, D.L.,
vided conduits for mineralizing fluids, Cretaceous and Case, J.E., Grauch, V.J.S., and Knepper, Dan, 1988, A mineral
Tertiary intrusive rocks that provided the fluids and heat preassessment of the Leadville 1x2 quadrangle, Colorado:
for hydrothermal systems, Paleozoic sedimentary rocks U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 88074, 56 p.
CHAPTER X
"U.S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 964, P.O. Box 25046, Denver The Getchell trend lies along the eastern side of the
Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225. Osgood Mountains, a structurally complicated range
238 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
117 15'
I
EXPLANATION
Ouaternary alluvium -
Contact
41
15'
41 |_
OO'
o 5 MILES
H
O 5 KILOMETERS
240 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
survey was flown 30 m (100 ft) above ground along north conductivity and the amount of decrease in resistivity with
west- and southeast-trending lines spaced 402 m (1/4 depth is great. The highest E values represent places
mile) apart (except over the gold deposits, where they where there is a large, probably abrupt, decrease in resis
were spaced 201 m (1/8 mile) apart). Data were acquired tivity at depth. Moreover, the change in resistivity must
using frequencies of 56,000, 7,200, and 900 Hz, and occur at fairly shallow depths because the depth of explo
apparent resistivities were calculated for each of these fre ration is diminished by the presence of the low resistivities
quencies. Details of the data-acquisition system and the in the subsurface.
computation of apparent resistivity are described in Pierce
and Hoover (1991).
RESULTS FOR THE
The alluvial cover in the Getchell-trend area is typi
cally fairly conductive, so that the depth of exploration GETCHELL-TREND AREA
using 900 Hz in those areas ranges from about 10 m (33
ft) to 100 m (330 ft). In areas of exposed rock, exploration The result of applying the above buried-conductor
depths are generally greater and, for most lithologies, enhancement to apparent resisitivity data for the Getchell
range from about 100 m (330 ft) to 1,000 m (3,300 ft). trend area is shown on figure 3. The highlighted features
Pierce and Hoover (1991) discuss the apparent resistivity of the enhanced map are present on both the 900-Hz
results for the Getchell-trend area. apparent resistivity and ratio maps of Pierce and Hoover
(1991) as expected from equation (1), but there are many
fewer targets on the enhanced map. The smaller number
BURIED-CONDUCTOR greatly facilitates follow-up investigations.
ENHANCEMENT
As shown by Pierce and Hoover (1991), the loga NATURE OF THE CONDUCTIVE MATERIAL
rithm of the ratio between apparent resistivities calculated
for 7,200-Hz and 900-Hz frequencies, respectively, gives We surmise that the broad regions of slightly higher
information about how resistivity changes with depth. values on figure 3 are due to buried lithologies that are
Roughly speaking, where the ratio is greater than one (the less resistive than the overlying lithology, whereas the
logarithm is positive), resisitivity is decreasing with depth. high enhanced values that occur as spots, lines, or string
Where it is less than one (the logarithm is negative), resis ers are due to local concentrations of buried conductive
tivity is increasing with depth. For the buried-conductor material. In the case of the spot of high enhanced values
enhancement, this ratio is then multiplied by the logarithm near lat 4102'N., long 11717'W., the conductive material
of the 900-Hz apparent conductivity (the inverse of appar likely is a buried warm spring. In most other cases, we
ent resisitivity) after adding a constant to ensure only posi deduce that graphite primarily comprises the conductive
tive logarithms for the conductivity. The conductivity for material from the following observations: (1) Most of the
the 900-Hz frequency is used because it represents the highest enhanced spots where subsurface information is
deepest looking frequency. In equation form, the results of available correlate with rocks that contain large concentra
the enhancement (E) can be written for each grid point as: tions of carbonaceous matter, moderate to large amounts
of clay or other argillaceous rock, and small amounts of
1 p
F -es (...)") (...)
900
log
900
(1)
11722'30
4115' +
| | | | | | | | I_I_
+
-
0 1 2 3 4 5 KM
1
242 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
sulfides; (2) occurrences of argillaceous rock without car coincides with part of a mapped thrust fault (Willden,
bonaceous matter do not correspond to low resistivities on 1964); carbonaceous rocks and some sulfide mineraliza
the apparent resistivity maps; (3) the amount of sulfides is tion are present at depth (B. Berger, written commun.,
not sufficient to produce the low resistivities measured; 1977). At the Pinson and Mag deposits, linear enhanced
and (4) graphite can lower resistivies of rocks quite dra areas trend north and northeast, corresponding to Tertiary
matically, even when present in small quantities (Nelson structure (E. Kretschmer, written commun., 1991). The
and others, 1982; Grant and West, 1965). Moreover, labo north-south-trending linear enhanced area east of the Pre
ratory analyses of carbonaceous matter sampled from sedi ble deposit is associated with the west edge of a graben
mentary-hosted disseminated gold deposits elsewhere in like feature that is interpreted from geophysical data
northern Nevada indicate cryptocrystalline graphite (Lev (Hoover and others, 1991; Grauch and others, 1991) and
enthal and Hofstra, 1990) with an anthracite or higher coal corraborated by drilling (E. Kretschmer, oral commun.,
rank (Leventhal and Hofstra, 1990; Hausen and Park, 1990). To the east, a more subtle linear area of low values
1986). Both anthracite coal and graphite are excellent on the enhanced map that trends northeast may represent
electrical conductors. Moreover, if the cryptocrystalline the east edge of the graben. A northeasterly trend is sug
graphite is localized along bedding or fault planes, as is gested by connecting linear enhanced areas to the north
carbonaceous matter at the Carlin deposit (Hausen and east and southwest of the Preble deposit. The trend may
Park, 1986), the interconnectivity of the crystals would be a major fault related to the northerly trending fault
further increase conduction. mapped in the pit (Kretschmer, 1984).
From these observations we infer that many, if not Faults are also expressed by abrupt changes in char
most, of the moderate to high values on the enhanced map acter on the enhanced map, such as the two northeast
reflect carbonaceous matter that is at least partially graphi trending faults along the southeastern and northeastern
tized. Thus, the enhanced map can help determine the edges of the study area. These faults are corraborated by
location and nature of buried carbonaceous matter in the other geophysical evidence (Hoover and others, 1991).
Getchell-trend area.
ore exhibits higher resistivities compared to carbonaceous Grant, F.S., and West, G.F., 1965, Interpretation theory in applied
non-ore (Hoover and others, 1987). This observation also geophysics: New York, McGraw-Hill, 584 p.
suggests an interrelation between the conductive properties Grauch, V.J.S., Hoover, D.B., and Wojniak, W.S., 1991, Subsur
of carbonaceous matter and associated gold mineralization. face structure and lithology near the Getchell gold trend, Os
We predict that abundant carbonaceous material (par good Mountains, NevadaGeophysical insights: U.S.
tially or wholly graphitized) will be found at depth at the Geological Survey Circular 1062, 34 p.
Hausen, D.M. and Park, W.C., 1986, Observations on the associa
spots of highly enhanced values under the basalt south of
tion of gold mineralization with organic matter in Carlin-type
the Silver Coin mine (fig. 2); under Paleozoic sedimentary
ores, in Dean, W.C., ed., Proceedings of the Denver Region
rocks just to the northeast of Turquoise Ridge mineraliza
Exploration Geologists Society Symposium on Organics and
tion and near lat 417'30"N., long 11722'30"W.; and Ore Deposits: Denver Region Exploration Geologists Society,
under alluvium near the northern tip of the study area. In p. 119136.
addition, faul ts containing conductive material that may Hoover, D.B., Grauch, V.J.S., Pitkin, J.A., Krohn, M.D., and
have controlled hydrothermal fluid flow in the past occur Pierce, H.A., 1991, An integrated airborne geophysical study
along the southeastern edge of basalt northeast of the Sil along the Getchell trend of gold deposits, north-central Neva
ver Coin mine, along the contact between Preble Forma da, in Raines, G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafer, R.W., and Wilkinson,
tion and alluvium 2 km west of Lone Butte, under W.H., eds., Geology and Ore Deposits of the Great Basin,
alluvium about 1 and 2 km southeast of the Pinson mine, Symposium Proceedings: Reno, Geological Society of Neva
and possibly within the Paleozoic rocks west of the sec da, p. 739758.
tion 13 mineralization. Even if no gold is found in these Hoover, D.B., Smith, B.D., Grauch, V.J.S., and Podwysocki, M.H.,
areas, the buried-conductor enhancement does well in iso 1987, Geophysical studies in the vicinity of the Getchell fault
lating conductive fault zones that may be related to miner system, Humboldt County, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey
alization. This technique may become extremely useful in Circular 995, p. 3132.
studying the role of carbonaceous matter in sedimentary Hotz, P.E., and Willden, Ronald, 1964, Geology and mineral de
hosted, disseminated gold deposits. posits of the Osgood Mountains quadrangle, Humboldt Coun
ty, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 431,
128 p.
Keller, G.V., and Frischknect, F.C., 1966, Electrical methods in
geophysical prospecting: New York, Pergamon Press, 523 p.
REFERENCES CITED
Kretschmer, E.L., 1984, Geology of the Pinson and Preble gold de
posits, Humboldt County, Nevada: Arizona Geological Soci
Bagby, W.C. and Berger, B.R., 1985, Geologic characteristics of
ety Digest, v. 15, p. 5966.
sediment-hosted disseminated precious-metal deposits in the
Leventhal, Joel, and Hofstra, Albert, 1990, Characterization of car
Western United States, in Berger, B.R., and Bethke, P.M., eds.,
bon in sediment-hosted disseminated gold deposits, north cen
Reviews in Economic Geology, Volume 2Geology and
tral Nevada, in Hausen, D.M., Petersen, E.U., and Tafuri, W.J.,
Geochemistry of Epithermal Systems: El Paso, Society of Eco
eds., Gold '90, Symposium Proceedings: Littleton, Colorado,
nomic Geologists, p. 169232.
Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, p. 365368.
Bloomstein, E.I., Massingill, G.L., Parratt, R.L., and Peltonen,
Leventhal, J.S., Hofstra, A.H., Vuletich, A.K., and Mancuso, T.B.,
D.R., 1991, Discovery, geology, and mineralization of the
Rabbit Creek gold deposit, Humboldt County, Nevada, in 1987, Sediment-hosted disseminated gold mineralization at
Raines, G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafer, R.W., and Wilkinson, Jerritt Canyon, Nevada. IIIRole of organic carbon [abs.]:
Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs, v.
W.H., eds., Geology and Ore Deposits of the Great Basin,
Symposium Proceedings: Reno, Geological Society of Neva 19, no. 7, p. 745.
da, p. 821845. Nelson, P.H., Hansen, W.H., and Sweeney, M.J., 1982, Induced
Broili, C., French, G. McN., Saddrick, D.R., and Weaver, R.R., polarization response of zeolitic conglomerate and carbon
1988, Geology and gold mineralization of the Gold Bar depos aceous siltstone: Geophysics, v. 47, no. 1, p. 7188.
it, Eureka County, Nevada, in Schafer, R.W., Cooper, J.J., and Osterberg, M.W., and Guilbert, J.M., 1991, Geology, wall-rock
Vikre, P.G., eds., Bulk Mineable Precious Metal Deposits of alteration, and new exploration techniques at the Chimney
the Western United States Symposium Proceedings: Reno, Creek sediment-hosted gold deposit, Humboldt County, Ne
Geological Society of Nevada, p. 5772. vada, in Raines, G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafer, R.W., and
Erickson, R.L., and Marsh, S.P., 1974, Geologic map of the Gol Wilkinson, W.H., e ds., Geology and Ore Deposits of the
conda quadrangle, Humboldt County, Nevada: U.S. Geologi Great Basin, Symposium Proceedings: Reno, Geological So
cal Survey Geologic Quadrangle Map GQ1174, scale ciety of Nevada, p. 805820.
1:24,000. Palacky, G.J., 1986, Geological background to resistivity mapping:
Foster, J.M., and Kretschmer, E.L., 1991, Geology of the Mag de Geological Survey of Canada Paper 8622, p. 1927.
posit, Pinson mine, Humboldt County, Nevada, in Raines, Percival, T.J., Bagby, W.C., and Radtke, A.S., 1988, Physical and
G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafer, R.W., and Wilkinson, W.H., eds., chemical features of precous metal deposits hosted by sedi
Geology and Ore Deposits of the Great Basin, Symposium Pro mentary rocks in the Western United States, in Schafer, R.W.,
ceedings: Reno, Geological Society of Nevada, p. 845856. Cooper, J.J., and Vikre, P.G., eds., Bulk Mineable Precious
244 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Metal Deposits of the Western United States Symposium Pro Silberman, M.L., Berger, B.R., and Koski, R.A., 1974, K-Ar age
ceedings: Reno, Geological Society of Nevada, p. 1134. relations of granodiorite emplacement and tungsten and
Pierce, H.A., and Hoover, D.B., 1991, Airborne electromagnetic gold mineralization near the Getchell mine, Humboldt Coun
applicationsMapping structure and electrical boundaries be ty, Nevada: Economic Geology, v. 69, p. 646656.
neath cover along the Getchell trend, Nevada, in Raines, G.L.,
Lisle, R.E., Schafer, R.W., and Wilkinson, W.H., eds., Geolo Willden, Ronald, 1964, Geology and mineral deposits of Hum
gy and Ore Deposits of the Great Basin, Symposium Proceed boldt County, Nevada: Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geolo
ings: Reno, Geological Society of Nevada, p. 771780. gy Bulletin 59, 154 p.
CHAPTER Y
1150 114052'30"
41022'30" I ;: :
SUMMER CAMP
Plate 4 QUADRANGLE
Plate 5
41015' H -
OXLEY PEAK
QUADRANGLE
Plate 5
O 1 2 3 4
L- I l l I
MILES
41007'30' H -
O Wells
Figure 1. Map showing location of Cedar Peak study area (black rectangle) in the southern Snake
Mountains and the principal structural plates (northern half of map modified after Smith and others,
1990).
GOLD IN CARBONATE ROCKS, CEDAR PEAK, NEVADA 247
Mm Ma
| Lower Mississippian
Mtp -*
Dg ri Dw Dsh
DSOw
Yrk Sw H Silurian
Ow Ordovician
Figure 2. Distribution of pre-Tertiary rocks in thrust plates in the Oxley Peak quadrangle and adjacent quadrangles. Arrow between
units Ma and Dw indicate subordinate thrust within plate 4. See appendix for description of map units.
Tertiary time, the area underwent two major compres carbonate (miogeoclinal) rocks and western, siliciclastic
sional orogenic events, the Middle to Late Jurassic Elko (eugeoclinal) rocks of Ordovician through Devonian age
orogeny (Thorman and others, 1991) and the Early Creta are present in separate thrust plates that are bounded by
ceous to early Tertiary Sevier orogeny. These two oroge both bedding-parallel and high-angle faults. The altered
nies resulted in regional metamorphism of miogeoclinal rocks discussed below are part of the eastern facies
rocks, the formation of large-scale southeast- and east sequence. Tertiary rocks range in age from late Eocene
directed structures, some extensional structures, plutonism, (= 41 Ma) to Miocene and Pliocene and have undergone
and regional uplift resulting in the shedding of enormous extensional deformation only.
quantities of detritus into basins to the east. Sporadically
preserved intermontane basinal deposits accumulated dur
ing this time (Vandervoort and Schmitt, 1990). The third STRUCTURES IN THE CEDAR PEAK
major rock sequence was deposited after the Sevier orog BLOCK AREA
eny; its age ranges from Eocene to Holocene. Rocks of
this sequence accumulated during an extensional orogenic The Cedar Peak block (fig. 3) consists of east-dipping
period that is still going on. Middle Devonian Simonson Dolomite, Upper Devonian
The southern Snake Mountains are underlain by a Guilmette Formation, Lower Mississippian Tripon Pass
sequence of Paleozoic, Triassic, and Cenozoic sedimentary Limestone, and the Mississippian sandstone of Melandco
and volcanic rocks (Thorman and Brooks, 1988; Thorman (Thorman and Brooks, 1988). These rocks comprise the
and others, 1991; Smith and others, 1990). Direct and indi lowest thrust sheet, herein referred to as the Bishop Creek
rect evidence indicates that these rocks were deformed dur plate (plate 1 of Smith and others, 1990) in the Oxley Peak
ing the Antler, Humboldt, Sonoma, Elko, and Sevier quadranglethese rocks belong to the eastern (miogeocli
orogenies and by Oligocene to Holocene basin-and-range nal) facies sequence of the Paleozoic miogeocline. The
extensional faulting. Compression and extension were ori Finks Canyon plate (plate 5 of Smith and others, 1990)
ented in the same general directions during these events tectonically overlies the Bishop Creek plate and is com
and caused the reactivation of many faults, especially west prised of Devonian limestone, shale, chert, and argillite,
northwest-trending, high-angle faults. Pre-Tertiary rocks in herein interpreted to be transitional between eastern (mio
the southern Snake Mountains range in age from Ordovi geoclinal) and western (eugeoclinal) facies strata. The
cian through Triassic and occur in a series of imbricate Oxley Peak plate tectonically overlies both of these plates
thrust plates (Thorman and Brooks, 1988; Thorman and and consists of limestone, dolomite, chert, and siltstone of
others, 1991). The strata within the thrust plates strike sub the Permian Murdock Mountain Formation.
parallel to the bounding faults, which are subparallel to Two types of faults dominate the structure at and near
each other. Figure 2 shows the various units in these thrust Cedar Peak: high-angle, west-northwest-trending faults
plates; lithologic descriptions of the units are listed in the (which probably have both lateral and vertical displace
Appendix to this chapter. At Cedar Peak, facies of eastern, ment) and faults that are subparallel or parallel to bedding
248 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
; its
t - - - - -
Bishop Creek
Reservoir spillway
1 \2^ 15 ee 14
41 O +
15 - e16 O 13
O
*** 17
Cedar Peak 21 10
6 of 1
| - _y e3O
Figures 3B & 3C
Oxley Peak e12
quadrangle e 18
e 29 Wells Peak
28 quadrangle
Oxley Peak * 22
- O e e 24
27 23
8 .
25. 26
7
O 1 2 Miles
41
07 - -
|
30"
Figure 3A. Map showing samples sites 1 through 30 (see table 1) and location of areas shown in figures 3B and 3C.
GOLD IN CARBONATE ROCKS, CEDAR PEAK, NEVADA 249
Mm
6
- ~ *-
Mtp 21 1O
Mm
/
/
7
Dg
CEDAR PEAK
A \ .
Hso O
34
35
Ds i 65, 36 s \ .N. o ... .
43 - 4.4 N
DS h - -* 2 k 20 Mtp
\ ` - . . . . " 46 __ -/*
. T T ~ .*
4 10 Y - - - - - ~~ Dg
13' ~~!
Figure 3B. Geologic map of the Cedar Peak block showing location of samples collected from the Simonson Dolomite, Guilmette For
mation, and from fault zones. See tables 1 and 2. Topographic base digitized from Oxley Peak 7"h-minute quadrangle. Location of figure
shown on figure 3A. Dotted lines are contours; heavy solid lines are high-angle faults (dashed where inferred); heavy solid lines with teeth
are low-angle to bedding-parallel faults with teeth on upper plate; light dashed lines are jeep trails. See Appendix for description of map
units Dsi, Dg, Mtp, Mm, and Dsh.
(herein referred to as bedding-parallel faults). The bed during either the Middle to Late Jurassic Elko or during the
ding-parallel faults are of two types: those that bound Late Cretaceousearly Tertiary Sevier orogenies. No data
major imbricate thrust sheets (both younger-over-older and exist that may suggest (1) whether fault movement began
older-over-younger relationships) and subordinate bedding during the Elko orogeny and was subsequently reactivated
parallel faults within the thrust sheets that occur at bound during the Sevier orogeny, or (2) whether fault movement
aries between contrasting lithologies. In addition, northerly occurred during only one orogeny or the other. At the east
trending, down-to-the-west normal faults occur in the west ern foot of the Snake Mountains, the high-angle faults jux
ern portion of the rangethe largest of these is at the west tapose middle Miocene rhyolite flows against sandstone of
ern foot of the range. Melandco in the Bishop Creek platethis dates some of
The Cedar Peak block, a west-northwest-trending the faulting as middle Miocene or younger.
block about 0.7 miles wide comprised of middle Paleozoic The northern bounding fault has left separation of
miogeoclinal units, is bounded by high-angle faults that about 0.7 miles and juxtaposes rocks of the Bishop Creek
transect the Snake Mountains. The high-angle faults cut plate against higher plates on the eastern side of the
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Tertiary rocks. At least two peri range. The southern bounding fault has apparent down-to
ods of movement are interpreted to have taken place along the-south movement and juxtaposes the structurally
these faults: one during late Mesozoic and the other during higher Finks Canyon and Oxley Peak plates, on the
middle to late Tertiary. We consider the faults to be part of south, against the Bishop Creek plate. It is not possible,
the Wells fault system, a Late Mesozoic west-northwest at this time, to determine the amount and direction of the
trending right-slip fault system that extends across north slip along these faults.
eastern Nevada (Thorman and Ketner, 1979). Initial dis The bedding-parallel faults are interpreted to be pre
placement is believed to have occurred in the Mesozoic, late-Eocene in age because 39-Ma to 40-Ma ash-flow tuffs
250 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
42.99" Mm /
Dg
r CEDAR PEAK
A -
40
O. O.02
N
. .
*...
\
s * 0.150 oo,
<0.002 . -
O. 10 <0.002 D
.0. 100 / " * , 9
DS . N'
, :
e
- --O /
<0.002 /
O. O.O4s. _<0.002 ^
e * D / ^ - -
0.002 0.002 9 ^
''... 2 - N Mt p
D sh * ~ - O ~ T
\ > -- - - N -/*
41
13'o 1 --.
.
- - ~~
9
13.75" O 500 1000 1500 FEET
L | 1 |
Figure 3C. Geologic map of Cedar Peak block showing gold values for sites shown in figure 3B. See Appendix for description of
map units.
overlie these structures on the eastern flank of the range marked contrast to the otherwise dark-colored rocks in this
(Thorman and others, 1991). At Cedar Peak, west-north portion of the stratigraphic section (fig. 5).
west-trending, high-angle faults cut both types of bedding Two lithologies form the zebra-banded rock: a light
parallel faults (see fig. 3). colored, bleached-looking, coarse-grained, massive dolo
mite and a darker, coarse-grained, weakly laminated dolo
mite (fig. 6). The darker rock is similar to the typical
STRATIGRAPHY OF GOLD-BEARING laminated Simonson Dolomite lithology but is much
coarser grained. Discontinuous, flat, tabular fragments of
ROCKS AT CEDAR PEAK
the darker rock occur in a matrix of the light-colored dolo
mite, with the amount of light-colored dolomite ranging
The Simonson Dolomite in this part of northeastern from zero to more than 95 percent. Some of the zebra
Nevada typically is comprised of dolomite, locally with banded rock structure has the appearance of crossbedding
subordinate limestone. In contrast, the lower Guilmette is (fig. 6); some has the appearance of edgewise conglomer
comprised of a lower unit of argillaceous, platy limestone ate; and, in some beds, the dark fragments are randomly
approximately 100 ft thick that is overlain by several hun oriented. In the rocks that appear to be crossbedded or
dred feet of thin- to medium-bedded limestone with vari edgewise conglomerates, the light-colored dolomite crys
able amounts of dolomite beds (generally less than 50 tals typically are oriented normal to the edges of the dark
percent). Both the dolomite and limestone beds are charac fragments, forming comb structure, commonly with open
terized by laminated, medium-grained, medium- to dark spaces. The upper Simonson Dolomite contains numerous
gray rocks (fig. 4). At Cedar Peak, the upper 400 ft of the irregular-shaped bodies of zebra-banded rock that are
Simonson Dolomite contains approximately 4080 percent grossly stratabound, but in detail they cut across bedding
zebra-banded dolomite of an irregular, stratabound nature and die out laterally. Small-scale collapse features within
and forms a light-colored band on the hillsidethis is in coarse-grained veinlets cut across bedding (fig. 7).
GOLD IN CARBONATE ROCKS, CEDAR PEAK, NEVADA 251
Figure 4. Typical exposure of weathered, laminated beds in the Figure 6. Zebra-banded dolomite beds in upper Simonson Dolo
Simonson Dolomite. mite. Note cross bedded appearance and variation in amount of
light and dark lithology.
The origin of zebra-banded dolomite, or zebra rock, dolomite of a higher temperature that is associated with ore
has been discussed by many workers. Two different pro deposition. We have not studied the small-scale features of
cesses considered to be essential to the formation of the the Cedar Peak zebra rock with regard to the origin of the
basic zebra structure are: the development of stromatactis zebra structure or with regard to how many generations of
structure synchronous with carbonate sedimentation during dolomite may be present.
which episodic submarine lithification of the carbonate
muds, which forms a series of crusts between which cavi
ties (stripes) are eroded, cemented, and filled with rhombs, NATURE OF MINERALIZED ROCKS
occurs near the sediment-seawater interface (Landis and
Tschauder, 1990, p. 340); or the development of zebra
banded dolomite is best developed adjacent to karst chan During mapping of the Oxley Peak quadrangle and
nelways, and the zebra spar precipitated into voids created adjacent areas, samples were routinely collected for
by karst dissolution (Horton and De Voto, 1990, p. 86). geochemical analyses from altered rocks and from several
Both models describe early-stage, low-temperature, light black-shale-bearing western-facies units to determine their
colored (zebra spar) dolomite overgrown by late-stage metal content. Samples were also collected from fault
252 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Table 1. Samples collected in 1988 from the Oxley Peak, northwestern Wells Peak, south
western Melandco, and southeastern Summer Camp quadrangles, northeast Nevada.
[See figure 3A for sample locations. Most of the samples were collected from fault zones; the other samples were from
undeformed rocks to determine background geochemical characteristics. Abbreviations for formation names are presented
in the Appendix; lower limits of detection for gold and mercury are 0.05 ppm and 0.02 ppm, respectively; n, not detected
at limit of determination; H, greater than 36 ppm, V, high-angle fault, B, bedding-parallel fault, E-W, east-west-trending
fault; N-S, north-south-trending fault; X, feature observed in sample, -, feature not observed in sample; /, separates symbols
for map units in fault contact; ?, indicates uncertainty regarding nature of sample]
Map Field Formation Gold Mercury Fault Brecciated Silicified Vein Iron
number number nannes (ppm) (ppm) stained
l 88T()] Mtp n 0.18 V-B X - - X
2 88T02 Mtp n 0.42 V(E-W) X - - X
3 88T03 Mtp n 0.68 V(E-W) X - - X
4 88T04 Dg 0.05 H - - - X X
5 88T06 Ds. 0.10 n Rock samplezebra-banded dolomite
6 88T07 Dg'Mm n () 02 V X X X
7 88E07 Ttm n 0.18 V(N-S) X X - X
8 88E08 Ttm n n V(N-S) X X - X
9 88T10 Trau n n - - X - -
19 88T27b Dg/Mtp n () 12 B o X - X
20 88T28 Dg/Mtp n 0.12 B o X X
2] 88T29 Dg/Mlp n 0.04 V(E-W) X X X
22 88T30 Prm/Mm n 0 32 B X X X
23 88T3 . Prm/Dsh n n B X o -
24 88T32 Prm n 0 16 B o X - X
24 88T33 Pm n 0.04 B X - X
25 88T34 Ttm n n B(N-S) X X - X
26 88T35 Ttm n () 32 B(N-S) X X X
27 SST52 Dsh n 0.40 o - - - X
28 88T57 Pm n 0.80 B X X - X
29 88T58 Dsh n 0.40 Rock sample dark siltstone with black chert and
siliceous nodules
30 88T80 Trp n n V(E-W) X o - -
zones and veins of various types. Figure 3A shows the loca The rocks of primary concern in this report are zebra
tions of samples collected in 1988. Figure 3B shows the banded dolomites in the upper 440 ft of the Simonson
locations of samples collected in 1989 and figure 3C shows Dolomite and lower 300 ft of the Guilmette Formation
the gold content detected from each sample in 1989. Tables because they are the only rocks that contained detectable
1 and 2 list the 54 samples collected in 1988 and 1989, gold. However, various fault zones contain elevated con
respectively, and indicate formation name, gold and mer centrations of some metals, suggesting that some of the
cury content, structural setting, and nature of each sample mineralizing fluids that deposited the gold may have passed
(breccia, silicified, iron stained, high-angle or bedding-par through the fault zones.
allel fault). Tables 3, 4, and 5 list the samples according to Gold values in the zebra-banded rocks range from
the formation or structure sampled; table 3 lists samples 0.02 to 0.150 ppm (parts per million); in some cases gold
from the Simonson Dolomite and Guilmette Formation; was detected but below the limit of detection (tables 1, 2, 3,
table 4 lists samples from fault zones; and table 5 lists and 4). Twenty-three samples were collected from these
samples collected for geochemical background data from formations (tables 1 and 2), of which 14 were from the
black shales. Table 6 lists the latitude and longitude of the Simonson, 8 were from the Guilmette, and 1 was from an
samples shown on figure 3A and listed in table 1. east-west-trending fault zone along which the Simonson
GOLD IN CARBONATE ROCKS, CEDAR PEAK, NEVADA
Table 2. Samples collected from the Simonson Dolomite (Dsi) and Guilmette Formation (Dg) at Cedar Peak in 1989
in the Oxley Peak quadrangle, northeast Nevada.
[See figure 3A for sample locations. Lower limits of detection for gold and mercury are 0.002 ppm and 0.02 ppm, respectively; n, not detected at limit of
determination; c, detected but below limit of determination shown; /, separates map units in fault contact)
38 89T36 Dsi 0.002 0.20 Medium- to coarse-grained dolomite with fossil hash.
39 89T37 Dsi <0.002 0.04 Medium- to coarse-grained, zebra-banded dolomite.
40 89T38 DSi n n Medium- to coarse-grained, zebra-banded dolomite.
44 89T.42 Dg 0.002 0.08 Brecciated and iron-stained dolomite with calcite veinlets.
45 89T43 Dg <0.002 (). 16 Brecciated and iron-stained limestone and dolomite with
calcite veinlets.
and Guilmette are juxtaposed. Eight samples from the mette: zinc, mercury, lead, molybdenum, copper, antimony,
Simonson, seven from the Guilmette, and the fault-zone cadmium, arsenic, zirconium, yttrium, vanadium, nickel,
sample contained detectable gold. We can see no difference gallium, chromium, cobalt, beryllium, barium, boron, sil
in hand specimen between the gold-bearing and barren ver, titanium, phosphorous, and iron.
samples.
Distribution of several other metals in the Simonson
and Guilmette show the following relationships: mercury OBSERVATIONS
generally occurs with gold but was not detected in two of
the four samples with the highest gold values (88T06 and
88T25); antimony, arsenic, cadmium, copper, molybde Conclusions regarding the zebra-banded dolomites
num, and zinc have distribution patterns similar to that of and the alteration and distribution of gold and other metals
are:
mercury. Silver was detected in only one sample at Cedar
Peak (89T26), which also had anomalous amounts of zinc, 1. Gold appears to have been deposited primarily in the
antimony, gold, copper, molybdenum, and mercury. Cedar Peak block;
In general, the following elements have higher con 2. The zebra-banded beds occur primarily in the Cedar
centrations in the faults than in the Simonson and Guil Peak block; Simonson Dolomite and Guilmette
;
[eAtnearmliyntaitcioanl,
method
analyzed,
element
show
headings
column
The
percent.
which
Ti,
P,
Fe,Mg,Na,
Ca,
for
except
million,
per
parts
in
given
are
dresults
of
limit
lower
the
and rebtserpomrvciptnaitvieolny;s
analyses,
furnace
graphite
aag,
vapor
cold
aac,
analyses;
atomic
aaaf,
Other
analysis.
dflame
of
limit
lower
the
at
detected
not
n,
are:
detected,
*,
pena0tdr-ceutrcnmlotigenhrmavetpsihnleotysnc
d(shown
of
Methods
percent).
are
which
Ti,
and
P,
Mg,Na,
Fe,
Ca,
for
except
million,
per
parts
sin
emission
s,
1are:
5-
i-10,
or
i-5
ianalyses;
plasma
coupled Mg
Sample
Cd
Bi
Mn
LaAg
TMo
P
Na
Fe
Ca
BAs
B
Be
Ge
Ga
Cu
Cr
Co
Au
ia
number
s (5)(50)
(10)
(1)
(20)
(200)
(0.5)
(0.002)
(0.2)
(0.02)
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quadrangle,
Peak
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in
Formation
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and
Dolomite
Simonson
Devonian
the
from
collected
samples
of
Analyses
3.
Table
Nevada.
northeast
of
limit
lower
below
dbut
>,
shown]
value
the
than
greater
be
to
eteremrinmaitnioend;
for
except
million,
per
parts
in
given
are
dresults
of
limit
lower
the
and
(shown dpenatdrceutrcnmotignihravetpsihleoysnc *,
[eAtnearmliyntaitcioanl, coupled
method
analyzed,
element
show
headings
column
The
percent.
which
Ti,
P,
Mg,Na,
Fe,
Ca, of
Methods
percent).
are
which
Ti,
and
P,
Fe,Mg,Na,
Ca,
for
except
million,
per
parts
sin
emission
s,
iare:
10-element
5-
i-10,
or
i-5
analyses;
respec
analyses,
plasma vapor
cold
aac,
analyses;
furnace
graphite
aag,
atively;
Other
analysis.
flame
absorption
atomic
daaf,
of
limit
at
detected
not
n,
are:
lower
the
below
but
detected,
ebtseroemrvipnatiton;s
Ni
Nb
Sample
Hg
Ag
Th
Sr
W
Zn
Sb
Cd
Bi
Pb
Mo
Cu
Snn i-10
Sc
ZV
Y
As
Zr
Au inumber
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(20)
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3.
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northeast
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be
to
eteremrinmaitnioend;
[eAtnearmliyntaitcioanl, coupled
method
analyzed,
element
show
headings
column
The
percent.
which
Ti,
P,
Fe,Mg,Na,
Ca,
for
except
million,
per
parts
in
given
are
dresults
of
limit
lower
the
and penatdrceutrcnmotignihravetpsihleoysnc
d(shown
of
Methods
percent).
are
which
Ti,
and
P,
Fe,Mg,Na,
Ca,
for
except
million,
per
parts
sin
emission
s,
iare:
10-element
5-
i-10,
or
i-5
analyses;
plasma
Mg
Sample
Cd
Bl
Be
Ag
Fe
Ca
TCo
P
Na
B
B
Mo
Mn
La
Au
As
Ge.
Ga
Cu
Cri
a number
s
s
(002)
(0.05)
(02)
(50)
(1)
(20)
(200)
(0.5)
(0.002)
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0.01
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0.02
5,000
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7
20
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200
|
<
5n
rebtserpoemrvciptnaitviteolny;s
analyses,
vapor
cold
aac,
analyses;
furnace
graphite
aaag,
Other
analysis.
flame
absorption
atomic
daaf,
of
limit
lower
the
at
detected
not
n,
are:
*,
50
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0
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0.2
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5 .1
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100
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quadrangles,
adjacent
and
quadrangle
Peak
Oxley
the
in
faults
from
collected
samples
of
Analyses
4.
Table
Nevada.
northeast
Bed ing-paral el
faults
North-south
faults
faults
East-west
of
limit
lower
below
but
ddetected,
>,
shown]
value
the
than
greater
be
to
eteremrinmaitnioend;
for
except
million,
per
parts
in
given
are
dresults
of
limit
lower
the
and
(shown dpena0tdr-ceutrcnmlotigenhrmavetpsihnleotysnc *,
[eAtnearmliyntaitcioanl, coupled
method
analyzed,
element
show
headings
column
The
percent.
which
Ti,
P,
Fe,Mg,Na,
Ca, of
Methods
percent).
are
which
Ti,
and
P,
Fe,Mg,Na,
Ca,
for
except
million,
per
parts
sin
emission
s,
1are:
5-
i-10,
or
i-5
ianalyses;
respec
analyses,
plasma vapor
cold
aac,
analyses;
furnace
graphite
aag,
atively;
Other
analysis.
flame
absorption
atomic
daaf,
of
limit
at
detected
not
n,
are:
lower
the
below
but
detected,
ebtseroemrvipnatiton;s
Hg
Ag
Sample
Sb
Cd
Bi
Mo
Cu
ZAs
Y
Th
Sr
Sn
Sc
Zr
Au
Pb
Zn
W
VPb
Ni
Nbn i-10
number
aag
aac
s
(0.002)
(0.02)
(0.06)
(0.09)
(0.045)
(0.03)
(0.6)
(200)
(100)
(10)
(5)
(20)
3.0
3.2
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07.6
0.16
4.5
110
<
40
4.8
89T.40
5.004
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Hg
Pb
Ni
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Sb
Cd
Bi
Zn
As
Y
W
V
Th
Sr.
Sn
Sc
Zr
Au
Zn s
(0.05)
(0.02)
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301
20
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4 .180
n
n
Peak
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the
in
faults
from
collected
samples
of
Analyses
4.
qTable
adjacent
Nand
northeast
euvadadrCaongtnilgneulsde,.
number
s
(0.1)
(2)
(5)
(100)
(10)
(20)
(200)
Bed ing-paral el
faults
North-south
faults
faults
East-west
of
dlimit
>,
shown]
value
the
than
greater
be
to
eteremrinmaitnioend;
[eAtnearmliyntaitcioanl, coupled
method
analyzed,
element
show
headings
column
The
percent.
which
Ti,
P,
Fe,Mg,Na,
Ca,
for
except
million,
per
parts
in
given
are
dresults
of
limit
lower
the
and pena0tdr-ceutrcnmlotigenhrmavetpsihnleotysnc
d(shown
of
Methods
percent).
are
which
Ti,
and
P,
Na,
Mg,
Fe,
Ca,
for
except
million,
per
parts
sin
emission
s,
1are:
5-
i-10,
or
i-5
ianalyses,
plasma
rebtserpomrvciptnaitvieolny;s,
furnace
graphite
aag,
vapor
cold
aac,
analyses,
atomic
aaaf,
Other
analysis.
dflame
of
limit
lower
the
at
detected
not
n,
are:
<, Mg
Sample
Co
Cd
Ag
Na
Fe
Ca
Mo
Mn
La
Ge
Ga
Cu
B
B
B1
Be
Cri number
TAs
PAu
a s
s
(200)
(0.5)
(0.002)
(02)
(0.05)
(5)
(10)
(0.02)
(50)
(1)
(20) 70
5
1
<
01,000
150
05
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5 1005,000
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200
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0.7
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150
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1100
2,000
500
<
5)
(88T20
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()
0
1
0 ()
n
n) 300
2
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l()
l
7
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()
88T2]
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700
100
nn
50
88T26a
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10
300
3
5
(
(<
2
15
500
200
).
n
n) 150
7n
88T26b
l.000
200
1,500
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(
2
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150
20
7
< 2,000
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007
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Au
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Sb
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Y
w
V
Th
Zr
H1
Sr
Sn
Sc
Pb
N1
As s (002)
n number
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(0.1)
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(10)
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(20) 120
015
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70
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6
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(
20
n
n (150
<
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150
15
6
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70
10
00
n
n 05
2
<
7 .370 ()
200
1
70
88T26a
15
50
nn 2
<
950
22
200
01
5
88T26b
1()
5n.4
0
gueaodcrhaenmgilceasl,
for
collected
samples
of
Analyses
5.
qTable
adjacent
and
quadrangle
Peak
Oxley
the
from
background
Nevada.
northeast
of
limit
lower
below
but
ddetected,
>,
shown]
value
the
than
greater
be
to
eteremrinmaitnioend;
GOLD IN CARBONATE ROCKS, CEDAR PEAK, NEVADA 259
Table 6. Latitude and longitude of samples collected in 1988 range-front fault (which is currently active). This
from the Oxley Peak, northwestern Wells Peak, southwestern Me might explain the higher values for molybdenum and
landco, and southeastern Summer Camp quadrangles, northeast silver obtained from samples along these faults.
Nevada.
Geochemical anomalies have been noted from Middle
(See figure 3A for approximate location of sites: *, degrees;', minutes;", seconds] and Upper Devonian rocks in the northern Pequop Moun
tains (approximately 20 miles east of Wells, Nevada) and in
Map Latitude (N.) Longitude (W.) the Kings Canyon area, in the southern Confusion Range in
number o - -- O - --
Thorman, C.H., and Brooks, W.E., 1988, Preliminary geologic map the Great Basin, Symposium Proceedings: Geological Society
of the Oxley Peak quadrangle, Elko County, Nevada: U.S. of Nevada, v. I, p. 2545.
Geological Survey Open-File Report 88755, scale 1:24,000. Vandervoort, D.S., and Schmitt, J.G., 1990, Cretaceous to early
Thorman, C.H., and Ketner, K.B., 1979, West-northwest strike-slip Tertiary paleogeography in the hinterland of the Sevier thrust
faults and other structures in allochthonous rocks in central and
best, east-central Nevada: Geology, v. 18, p. 567570.
eastern Nevada and western Utah, in Newman, G.W., and
Goode, H.D., eds., 1979 Basin and Range Symposium: Rocky Zimbleman, D.R., Nutt, C.J., Hageman, Phil, Hill, R.H., Fey, D.L.,
Mountain Association of Geologists, p. 621636. Arbogast, B.F., and Bullock, J.H., Jr., 1990, Selected analytical
Thorman, C.H., Ketner, K.B., Brooks, W.E., Snee, L.W., and Zim results, sample locality map, and discussion of trace-element
mermann, R.A., 1991, Late MesozoicCenozoic tectonics in anomalies for rock samples near Kings Canyon, Confusion
northeastern Nevada, in Raines, G.L., Lisle, R.E., Schafer, Range, Millard County, Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey
R.W., and Wilkinson, W.H., eds., Geology and Ore Deposits of Open-File Report 90317, 16 p.
als
r
w
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER Y
R.
l.
::
1 * 4
-
|
<)
North Fork
-y
SCALE
O 5 10 m i le s
|--|--|-1
*_-3 -
Diamond Creek
e
& Word Gu ch
:z Smith
Gu ch
CO
Leesburg ~
&2o
*2,.
*.
3.
Cobo t ->
45 -
Hayne's Creek
Tendoy
McDev i t t Creek
L
( )
2.
10 <
Po is on C.
Creek Lemhi
T
X &ear *zz. /
| DAHO _*& H
****/ c
>
* Boise A lv
Poco te | | o
Figure 1. Drainages and sample localities (solid circles) in Lemhi County, Idaho.
electron-microscope (SEM) techniques coupled with and to establish local and regional variations in the
simultaneous semiquantitative energy dispersive analysis. geochemistry of native gold.
The results of these analyses are used to interpret the ori Previous studies of gold in stream sediments from
gin of the gold grains and included or attached minerals Lemhi County indicated that native gold grains are
NATIVE GOLD, LEMHI COUNTY. IDAHO 265
abundant in areas that have little or no history of mining and palladium-bearing grains were found. Copper-bearing
or prospecting (Desborough and others, 1990). These areas grains were not found. The highest amount of palladium
had been previously considered to be unfavorable for the (2 weight percent) was found at this locality. The
occurrence of gold deposits. Native gold was concentrated geochemical signature for this locality is similar to that of
in the laboratory from bulk stream-sediment samples. Poison Creek; both of these localities are along or near a
The gold grains were examined with a binocular large north-south-trending fault that juxtaposes Middle
microscope (40 or 80), and the sizes and masses of gold Proterozoic and Cenozoic rocks.
grains were estimated. Based on this examination, the Arnett Creek.This locality is upstream from the
number of gold grains per kilogram of bulk stream Haidee lode gold mine and is in the headwaters of Arnett
sediment sample was reported, and estimated gold concen Creek. Only 12 native gold grains, ranging up to 200 pum
trations in parts per million (ppm) were reported. in average diameter, were analyzed. Grains from this
For the present study, bulk samples collected in the locality contain all five elements for which samples were
field ranged from about 1 to 5 kg; the number of gold analyzed (table 1) and also contain the highest proportion
grains in these ranged from about 10 to 50 gold grains per of copper-bearing grains. The geochemical signature is
kg. A large sample was selected in order to collect a mini similar to those from the four other sample localities in
mum of about 20 gold grains for each locality. However, group 3 (figs. 1 and 2). Only traces of pyrite are present
this was not achieved for several samples. Locations of in the concentrate.
samples studied and major drainages in the area are shown Bear Valley Creek-This locality, near the mouth of
on figure 1. the creek, has the largest native gold grain (800 pum in
Native gold grains in stream sediments were concen diameter) recovered and also has grains of the highest
trated and isolated by laboratory mechanical-panning tech average purity. Two SEM mounts were made. Of 20
niques (English and others, 1987). The size of the native grains analyzed, 7 are pure gold. A SEM photo of 14
gold grains range from about 20 to 800 pum; most grains grains is shown on figure 3A. Palladium, copper and mer
were in the size range of 20 to 100 pum. Individual gold cury were not detected. One gold grain has a pyrite inclu
grains were hand picked with a single bristle on an artists sion; another has both quartz and a potassium-, iron-,
paint brush and mounted on sticky tape attached to SEM magnesium-, aluminum-silicate inclusion with micaceous
mounts that were then coated with carbon. Because of morphology that is presumed to be biotite. Both pyrite
their small size and the difficulty of handling of each and chalcopyrite are present in the heavy-mineral concen
grain, about 10 to 20 percent of the grains were lost in trate. The geochemical signature is simple, but it is unlike
transfer from the pan to the SEM mount. the other samples studied (fig. 2).
Prior to chemical analysis (for Au, Ag, Cu, Pd, and Blackbird Creek.-This sample was collected less
than 1 km downstream from the Blackbird cobalt mine.
Hg), the morphology of the native gold grains was exam
ined. Most of the gold grains were relatively smooth; The largest of 23 grains studied is about 200 pum in diame
some were slightly porous and had amorphous or irregular ter. Neither mercury nor copper was detected, and thus,
shapes. Subhedral grains were sparse or rare, and euhedral this sample is similar to those from Allison Creek and Poi
shapes were virtually absent. son Creek (fig. 2).
For this SEM study, detection limits of palladium and Fourth of July Creek. Seventeen grains ranging
silver are about 0.1 weight percent. The detection limits up to 250 pum in diameter were analyzed from the mouth
for copper and mercury are estimated to be about 0.2 and of the creek. A SEM photo of these grains is shown on
about 1.0 weight percent, respectively. The high detection figure 3B. Palladium and copper are present, but mercury
limit for mercury is due to interference by gold. These is not; this sample has the highest mean silver content of
detection limits are about 100 times higher than those all samples (table 1). It is also from the mouth of a very
from the semiquantitative emission spectroscopy method large drainage basin (about 50 km2), as is the Sandy Creek
and about 10 times higher than those from the electron sample, which has a similar geochemical signature (fig. 2).
microprobe, which requires a flat, polished surface. Freeman Creek-Twenty-six grains from near the
head of Freeman Creek were analyzed. Two SEM
mounts, one of 21 grains and one of 19 grains were made.
RESULTS A SEM photo of the 19-grain mount is shown on figure
3C. In addition to gold, the concentrate contains abundant
pyrite and minor galena and chalcopyrite. The locality is
A summary of the compositional data for grains from downstream from the Ore Cash gold mine, which ceased
each locality studied is given in table 1. operations around 1900. A single grain was pure gold.
Allison Creek.-Seven native gold grains from this The largest grain is about 200 pum in the largest dimen
locality range from about 40 to 80 pum in their largest sion, but most grains are smaller than 100 pm (fig. 3C).
dimensions. Pure gold, silver-bearing, mercury-bearing, The high proportion of mercury-bearing grains is thought
266 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
Table 1. Number of grains and percentage of native gold grains containing only gold, silver, palla
dium, copper, or mercury for localities in Lemhi County, Idaho.
[Number in parentheses is the percentage of grains containing that metal. Number in brackets is the range or amount of metal
concentration(s). Number in bold print is mean silver content of silver-bearing grains)
GROUPS
1 | 2 1 3
80
Ag bearing
7O
Cubearing
6O - Pd bearing
50 [] 100% Au
40
30
2O
1O
O i ||
i| ; ! :| | :; ii
Figure 2. Percentages of gold grains that are silver bearing, copper bearing, palladium bearing, and pure gold for each locality stud
ied. Five geochemical groups are tentatively recognized. Percentages were obtained by dividing the number of grains in each category
by the total number of grains at each locality. These four parameters were normalized to 100 percent.
to be an artifact, and thus, the geochemical signature is pum in diameter. A SEM photomicrograph of one of these
placed with that of the Sourdough Gulch sample (fig. 2). grains (fig. 4) shows a gold-replaced bacterial colony at
Hayden Creek.-A sample from above the Bear Val low and high magnifications. Only silver and gold were
ley Creek confluence contained two grains of gold-copper detected, and the silver content is 3.6 weight percent.
minerals. One grain has Au-70.5, Cu=22.0, Ag=5.0, and Poison Creek.-These gold grains range in size from
Zn=2.6 (all weight percent), corresponding to Auo.425 about 20 to 250 pum; only five are 100 pum or larger (fig.
Cu0.438Ag0.0582no,051, which is the mineral tetraauricu 3E). Forty-three grains were analyzed (table 1). One grain
pride (AuCu). The second grain has Au-58.6, Cu-37.8, is a complex intergrowth of gold and pyrite and an uni
and Ag+3.6 (all weight percent), corresponding to dentified mercury mineral that could not be analyzed;
Cu3Au/Ag0.125, which is essentially the composition of th another grain (not analyzed) is a finely intergrown mixture
e mineral auricupride (Cu3Au). Both grains are 40 to 50 of biotite and gold. Pyrite is present in the concentrate as
pum in their largest dimension. No native gold was recov grains that are mostly smaller than 100 pum. A very small
ered from this sample site. spherical grain (a on figure 3E) is an artifact (discussed
Lake Creek.-This sample was taken about 1.5 km later).
upstream from Williams Lake. Twenty-nine grains were Sandy CreekTwenty grains analyzed from this
studied (fig. 3D). Pyrite is present in the concentrate. In locality range up to about 200 pum in maximum diameter
addition to the grains shown on figure 3D, three coin (table 1). Mercury was not detected. Minor pyrite is
shaped grains of gold (mounted separately) appear to be of present in the concentrate. This sample is from a large
bacterial-replacement origin based on the ornate morphol drainage area (about 30 km2), and thus, the gold may be
ogy observed at high magnification in SEM studies (J.R. from many sources (fig. 1).
Watterson, oral commun., 1991; Brooks and Watterson, in Smith Gulch.-This locality lies on the south side of
press). These three grains range from about 100 to 300 the Beartrack gold deposit of Meridian Gold, Inc., near
268 ADVANCES RELATED TO U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL MINERAL RESOURCES, 1992
400nM Flw
4001N 2UAV
Figure 3. Scanning electron microscope photographs of native gold grains from six localities in Lemhi County, Idaho. Bar
Scales on each photo are in micrometers. Whitest grains are gold; gray grains present in some photos are other heavy minerals.
Samples are from: A, Bear Valley Creek (14 gold grains); B, Fourth of July Creek (17 gold grains); C, Freeman Creek (19 gold
grains); D, Lake Creek (29 gold grains); E, Poison Creek (44 gold grains); a is spherical artifact with 13 weight percent Cu
and 5 weight percent Hg; F. Ward Gulch (43 gold grains).
NATIVE GOLD, LEMHI COUNTY. IDAHO 269
GEOCHEMICAL SIGNATURES OF
NATIVE GOLDPRIOR STUDIES
Table 2. Summary of reported emission-spectrographic analytical data for copper, palladium, and
mercury in native gold for Alaskan lode deposits and summary of copper and palladium in native gold
for Alaskan placer deposits.
[Maximum palladium, copper, and mercury concentrations are shown in weight percent; conc., concentration. Mercury values re
ported for Alaskan placer gold are not given here because of possible introduction of mercury during commercial gold-recovery
efforts. Detection limits are: Cu=0.0001 weight percent, Hg=0.002 weight percent, Pd=0.0005 weight percent (Mosier, 1975)]
Lode gold
Fairbanks mining district
plus others'...... 191 28 0.002 0.24 6.2
Placer gold
Circlequadrangle ------------------------- 476 51 0.002 0.85
An electron microprobe study of native gold and gold minerals. Two grains contain 24 and 22.7 weight percent
rich alloys in the gold-bearing horizon of the Skaergaard copper, respectively, and were identified as tetraauricu
intrusion, East Greenland (Bird and others, 1991, table 1, p. pride. Another grain contains 5.3 weight percent copper
1090), reports copper values of 1.5 and 11 weight percent, and is a gold-silver alloy referred to as electrum. The
respectively, in 2 native gold grains (analyses 1 and 2); 3 two tetraauricupride grains contain 6.1 and 6.3 weight per
other grains (analyses 3, 4, and 5) are the mineral tetraauri cent palladium. The copper-bearing electrum grain con
cupride, which contains 23.225.5 weight percent copper, tains 0.6 weight percent palladium.
although the authors refer to all 5 analyses as representing
gold-rich alloys. In addition, the two copper-bearing
native gold grains contain 0.8 and 5.8 weight percent palla CONTAMINATION, ARTIFACT, AND
dium; the three tetraauricupride grains contain 0.15, 3.0,
and 5.5 weight percent palladium and from 0.25 to 1.6 BACTERIAL GOLD
weight percent platinum (Bird and others, 1991, table 1).
Electron microprobe studies of precious-metal miner DiLabio and others (1988) conducted an interesting
als in the Jijal layered ultramafic-mafic complex, study of the spherical form of gold, which investigated
Pakastani Himalayas (Miller and others, 1991, table 2, p. many aspects of the chemical signature of both natural and
1100), have revealed three gold- and copper-bearing artifactual (e.g., jewelry-scrap gold) gold alloys. Laboratory
NATIVE GOLD, LEMHI COUNTY. IDAHO 271
unusual. Differences and similarities in the populations of Brooks, R.R. and Watterson, J.R., in press, On the microbial bio
gold grains from each locality studied are shown on figure geochemistry of noble metals, in Brooks, R.R., ed, Biological
2. The number of silver-bearing grains, copper-bearing Systems and Noble Metals, Chapter 6: West Palm Beach, Flor
ida, CRC Press.
grains, palladium-bearing grains, and pure gold grains was
Cathrall, J.B., Albanese, M., VanTrump, G., Mosier, E.L., and
determined for each sample, and the relative percentage of
Lueck, L., 1989, Geochemical signatures, analytical results,
each of these parameters was normalized to 100. On this mineralogical data, and sample locality map of placer and lode
basis, five compositional groups of native gold signatures gold, and heavy-mineral concentrates from the Fortymile min
are tentatively identified on figure 2. The first group has ing district, Eagle quadrangle, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey
no copper-bearing grains and has a high proportion of Open-File Report 89451, 32 p.
pure gold grains. The second group of only one locality Cathrall, J.B., Antweiler, J.C., and Mosier, E.L., 1987, Occurrence
has neither copper- nor palladium-bearing grains but has a of platinum in gold samples from the Tolovana and Rampart
high proportion of pure gold grains. The third group has a mining districts, Livengood quadrangle, Alaska: U.S. Geolog
high proportion of copper-bearing grains and also has pal ical Survey Open-File Report 87300, 12 p.
Cathrall, J.B., Antweiler, J.C., VanTrump, G., and Mosier,
ladium-bearing grains; all of these localities are west of
E.L., 1989a, Gold analytical results and gold signatures from
the Salmon River (fig. 1). The fourth group has a very the Fairbanks mining district, Fairbanks and Livengood quad
high proportion of silver-bearing grains and a low propor rangles, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report
tion of copper-bearing grains in comparison to the propor 89490, 23 p.
tion of palladium-bearing grains. The fifth group has a 1989b, Gold, platinum, and silver analytical results and
modest percentage of copper- and palladium-bearing gold signatures from the Bonnifield mining district, Fairbanks
grains; this group might be better considered as part of the and Healy quadrangles, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open
third group. However, the average silver content of the File Report 89461, 23 p.
third group is 5.3 weight percent, whereas the average sil 1990, Gold analytical results and gold signatures from the
ver content of the fifth group is 9 weight percent. We Anchorage, Charley River, Healy, Iditarod, Juneau, Mt. Hayes,
Mt. McKinley, Ophir, Ruby, and Talkeetna quadrangles, Alas
hope that additional studies will determine whether or not
ka: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 90210, 25 p.
these tentative groups of gold geochemical signatures will Cathrall, J.B., McDanal, S.K., VanTrump. G., Mosier, E.L., and
be distinct or not.
Tripp, R.B., 1988, Analytical results, geochemical signatures,
Based on the occurrences of native gold along post mineralogical data, and sample locality map of lode gold, plac
Eocene faults, we infer that some of the gold was depos er gold, and heavy mineral concentrates from the Tolovana
ited during Cenozoic time. The extensive occurrence of mining district, Livengood quadrangle, Alaska: U.S. Geologi
cal Survey Open-File Report 88578, 32 p.
gold in areas underlain chiefly by Proterozoic metasedi
Cathrall, J.B., Tripp, R.B., McDanal, S.K., Mosier, E.L., and Van
mentary rocks (lower greenschist facies) and locally by Trump, G., 1988, Analytical results, geochemical signatures.
Proterozoic igneous granitic rocks or thin mafic sills and mineralogical data, and sample locality map of placer gold and
dikes is inferred to indicate the strong possibility that heavy mineral concentrates from the Circle mining district,
some of the gold may have been deposited during Protero Circle quadrangle, Alaska; U.S. Geological Survey Open-File
zoic time. We tentatively infer that some of the unusual Report 88676, 48 p.
compositions of the gold in this area may be related to Desborough, G.A., 1970, Silver depletion indicated by microanal
Proterozoic mineralization. Another possibility is that ysis of gold from placer occurrences, Western United States:
some of the gold was deposited in Proterozoic rocks but Economic Geology, v. 65, p. 304311.
was remobilized by later mineralizing events that may not Desborough, G.A., Raymond, W.H., and Iagmin, P.J., 1970, Distri
bution of silver and copper in placer gold derived from the
have destroyed the Proterozoic geochemical signatures.
northeastern part of the Colorado Mineral Belt: Economic Ge
Further research on the native gold in the region ology, v. 65, p. 937944.
should reveal whether or not the copper-bearing and pal Desborough, G.A., Heidel, R.H., Raymond, W.H., and Tripp, J.,
ladium-bearing gold is geologically and (or) geographi 1971, Primary distribution of silver and copper in native gold
cally limited to certain terranes. Focus will be placed on from six deposits in the Western United States: Mineralium
Deposita; v. 6, p. 321334.
greater sample density in areas currently being geologi
Desborough, G.A., Raymond, W.H., and Evans, K.V., 1990,
cally mapped.
Fine-grained gold in stream sediments of east-central Lemhi
County, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report
90332, 9 p.
DiLabio, R.N.W., Newsome, J.W., McIvor, D.F., and Lowenstein.
REFERENCES CITED P.L., 1988. The spherical form or gold: Man-made or second
ary: Economic Geology, v. 83, p. 153162.
English, B.L., Desborough, G.A., and Raymond, W.H., 1987. A
Bird, D.K., Brooks, C.K., Gannicott, R.A., and Turner, P.A., 1991, mechanical panning technique for separation of fine-grained
A gold-bearing horizon in the Skaergaard intrusion, East gold and other heavy minerals: U. S. Geological Survey Open
Greenland: Economic Geology, v. 86, p. 10831092. File Report 87364.9 p.
NATIVE GOLD, LEMHI COUNTY, IDAHO 273
McDanal, S.K., Cathrall, J.B., Mosier, E.L., Antweiler, J.C.,and Mosier, E.L., Cathrall, J.B., Antweiler, J.C., and Tripp, R.B.,
Tripp, R.B., 1988, Analytical reseults, geochemical signatures, 1989, Geochemistry of placer gold, Koyukuk-Chandalar
mineralogical data, and sample locality map of placer gold and mining district, Alaska: Journal of Geochemical Explora
heavy-mineral concentrates from the Manley Hot Springs, tion, v. 31, p. 97-115.
Tofty, Eureka, and Rampart mining districts, Tanana and Liv Mosier, E.L. and Lewis, J.S., 1986, Analytical results, geochemical
engood quadrangles, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open signatures, and sample locality map of lode gold, placer gold,
File Report 88443, 54 p. and heavy-mineral concentrates from the Koyukuk-Chandalar
Miller, D.J., Loucks, R.R., and Ashraf, M., 1991, Platinum-group mining district, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Re
element mineralization in the Jijal layered ultramafic-mafic port 86345, 172 p.
complex, Pakastani Himalayas: Economic Geology, v. 86, Ruppel, E.T. and Lopez, D.A., 1988, Regional geology and mineral
p. 10931102. deposits in and near the central part of the Lemhi Range, Lemhi
Mosier, E.L., 1975, Use of emission spectroscopy for the semi County, Idaho: U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
quantitative analysis of trace elements and silver in native gold, 1480, 121 p.
in Ward, F.N., ed., New and Refined Methods of Trace Analy Watterson, J.R., 1992, Preliminary evidence for the involvement of
sis Useful in Geochemical Exploration: U.S. Geological Sur budding bacteria in the origin of Alaskan placer gold: Geology,
vey Bulletin 1408, p. 97105. v. 20, p. 315318.
CHAPTER AA
By BRUCE R. DOE'
duration of hydrothermal systems are limited), formation of ore deposits, a source of sulfur is clearly needed. Indeed,
supergiant ore deposits should be favored by enriched the reason that a major deposit has not been found in the
sources. The reasoning is simple. At 1 ppm of an element, Salton Basin that was deposited from the hot, metal-rich,
there are only 10,000 tons of an element in a cubic mile of chloride brines owes to a lack of sulfur. But other anions
rock. Therefore, 100 mi of rock that contains this element are also important (e.g., chlorine, carbon dioxide, ammo
at a concentration of 1 ppm would have to be extracted to nia, fluorine), and organic compounds are often mentioned
get a deposit yielding 1 million tons of metal. But the as being important for ore formation. Chlorine can be of
largest deposits would require a considerably greater rock paramount importance in complexing metals to more solu
volume. Broken Hill, Australia, will produce more than 20 ble form. For example, hot, chloride-rich brines (e.g., Sal
million tons (20 Mt) of zinc, which would require more ton-Sea brine) can carry metals that are enriched in the
than 2,000 mi with only 1 ppm extraction. It stands to 1001,000 ppm range. These brines also are highly reac
reason that formation of a supergiant ore deposit would tive: They will acquire the necessary concentrations of
be easier at the 10 or 100 ppm level than at the 1 ppm level. heavy metals even from metal-poor source rocks if the
More subtle concentration fluctuations may also be para high solubility of these metals can be maintained either
mount. For example, a parent magma that starts with twice through remaining hot or through decreasing pressure
the copper content of a normal magmatic system may (Hemley and others, 1992) over a long flow path. The
yield a porphyry copper deposit of 0.45 percent rather than source of chlorine in such brines seems to be some combi
0.23 percent. The former may well be economic to mine, nation of connate water and evaporites because the sulfur
the latter will not. Thus, we may have to look for small isotopic composition (634S) is usually heavy (as expected
enrichments in concentrations. for sulfur derived from anhydrite in evolved sea water and
In my experience, most people who feel that source evaporites). Thus a dry hole in a sedimentary basin that
rocks are not important in the generation of major ore shows the presence of evaporites might still be encourag
deposits feel that way because they imagine that the ing for the presence of mineral deposits.
source being considered is just a lower grade mineraliza Philip Candela and colleagues at the University of
tion, i.e., a regeneration of older deposits (these people Maryland have stressed the importance of both water and
oppose the geostill hypothesis, where ore fluids are chlorine in the source in order to produce certain kinds of
either directly derived from subducted, metal-rich, exhala ore deposits (e.g., Candela and Holland, 1986). They feel
tive sediments or indirectly from magmas in which such that a porphyry copper results from incorporating a
sediments are a component). There is no doubt that nature hydrous source in the melt so that a chloride-rich fluid
does form some ores through a succession of enrichment phase separates early in magmatic differentiation before
stages (a bootstrap operation)supergene enrichment of copper, a compatible element, becomes too depleted in the
porphyry copper may be among the least controversial melt. Paucity of water in a source, such that a fluid phase
examples. Indeed, supergene enrichment is often more might form late in magmatic differentiation, might pro
important for putting the metal into a form in which the duce a different kind of mineralization for an incompatible
ore may be economically processed (e.g., by heap leaching element such as molybdenum (i.e., molybdenum por
of oxides and carbonates rather than sulfides) than it is for phyry). Thus, one might deduce that amphibolite in the
enriching concentrations; however, element enrichment is lower crust may favor copper porphyry, and granulite may
also important (e.g., gossan gold). The importance of favor molybdenum porphyry. Firming up such deductions
regeneration certainly needs to be considered. may not be beyond our abilities. In some cases, the nature
2. Site of the metals.In addition to the abundance of the lower crust may be deduced from surface geology,
of an element in the source rock, the location of the ele in other cases from seismology or isotopes.
menti.e., the accessibility of the elementwithin the 4. Accompanying metals.-The metals accompany
rock can also be important. This factor is recognized as ing those elements of economic interest may also play an
most important in the generation of uranium ore deposits. important role in ore formation. The importance of the
Uranium in a major uranium-bearing phase like zircon is cationic elements not of economic interest (e.g., iron) is
relatively inaccessible to leaching, whereas much uranium well known. Although copper is as abundant as zinc in
is often in cryptic, easily-mobilized phases. In sediments most mafic source-rock candidates, the richest porphyry
containing normal concentrations of uranium, volcanic copper ores rarely reach 3.5 percent, whereas zinc deposits
glass shards, from which uranium is readily mobilized, have supergiant representatives that average 17 percent
have been proposed as the source of uranium in some (e.g., Broken Hill, Australia, and Red Dog, Alaska).
major sandstone uranium deposits (Zielinski, 1983). Thus, These deposits also tend to contain greater ore grades for
unusual concentrations of an element may not be required lead (about 5 percent) than the best copper ores, even
if the element is readily available to the ore fluid. though lead is almost certainly much less abundant in the
3. Anions.There is little doubt that anions can play source rocks. A part of this discrepancy may relate to
a predominant role in ore formation. For metallic-sulfide discussions by Hemley and others (1992), who point out
FORMATION OF METALLIC-SULFIDE ORE DEPOSITS 277
that iron is relatively common in ore fluids. Iron readily ride-rich brines will acquire metals from anything through
combines with copper to form only a moderately rich cop which they pass, so the problem in forming a major ore
per mineral, chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), rather than a richer deposit may be more one of acquiring the chloride and
equivalent, such a bornite (Cu5FeS4). Thus, an iron-poor keeping the solubility up over long flow paths than the
source might favor richer copper deposits, such as the cop need for metal-rich sources. The author would like to hear
per-rich Colorado Pipe in Mexico, although relations of from you concerning interesting references and any ideas
sulfur and oxygen in the ore fluid can be important also. you might wish to relate concerning the importance of
5. Complex sources.Although there are many anal source rocks in the formation of metallic-sulfide ore
ogies between petroleum and metallic-sulfide deposits, deposits. In return, he will send you a copy of his paper
there are also clear differences. Metals may be acquired (Doe, 1991) upon request.
from several sources and from over the total path length of
the ore fluid; yet, petroleum may have mixed sources too.
Both require permeability and some sort of trap (structural REFERENCES CITED
control). Both may involve a large range of temperatures
of-generation (e.g., biogenic gas and thermal gas; red-bed
Candela, P.A., and Holland, H.D., 1986, A mass transfer model for
copper deposits and Mississippi Valley Zn-Pb deposits; or
copper and molybdenum in magmatic hydrothermal systems
porphyry copper deposits and massive sulfide Cu-Zn-Pb
The origin of porphyry-type ore deposits: Economic Geology,
deposits). Both can be spoiled by gangue, which for v. 81, p. 117.
crude oil is the presence of hydrogen sulfide or carbon
Doe, B.R., 1991, Source rocks and the genesis of metallic mineral
dioxide. Petroleum formation, however, has nothing simi deposits: Global Tectonics and Metallogeny, v. 3, p. 1319.
lar to important controls on ore deposition, such as: con
Hemley, J.J., Cygan, G.L., Fein, J.B., Robinson, G.R., and d'An
centration by solution cooling or neutralization; the need
gelo, W.M., 1992, Hydrothermal ore-forming processes in
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There are no illusions about the difficulty of what is 814826.
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