Biology

Al-Ahqar Biology Lectures For Class 10th P a g e |1
Chapter -10 Gaseous Exchange

Lecture # 1
Gaseous Exchange
As for gaseous exchange breathing is necessary so we first define it.
Breathing
The inhalation and exhalation of air is called breathing.
Breathing = Inhalation + Exhalation
Inspiration/ inhalation Expiration/ exhalation
O2=21% O2=16%
CO2=0.04% CO2=4%
Gaseous Exchange
The exchange of O2 and CO2 between lungs and blood is called gaseous exchange.
When oxygen reaches cells of the body, it results in cellular respiration.
Respiration
The process in which organic food is broken down into inorganic CO2 and H2O and energy is
released by oxidation of food is called respiration.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2+6H2O+E (36 ATPs)
(Oxidation) (By Product) (Main Product)
Purpose of Gaseous Exchange
Every living organism needs energy for:
1) Sustaining life
2) Performing life activities
Living body is a dynamic machine which performs one or the other activity all the times. So
energy for these activities comes from oxidation of food during respiration. But for respiration
breathing and gaseous exchange are essential.
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Lecture # 2
Gaseous Exchange in plants
Gaseous exchange in plants occurs during the processes of photosynthesis and respiration.
Photosynthesis
The process during which green plants prepare their own food i.e. glucose from CO2 and H2O
using energy of the sun is called photosynthesis.
Respiration
A series of oxidation reduction reactions taking place inside the living cells during which
the organic food is broken down and energy is released is called respiration.
As we know that plants are of two types i.e. aquatic and terrestrial, so G.E takes place in them by
different ways.
Aquatic plants ---------use dissolved O2 & molecular CO2through roots & leaves.
Terrestial plants -------use molecular O2 & CO2 through
1) Stomata & 2) Lenticels
Presented by: Xabiehollah Ahqar

Photosynthesis Versus Respiration
Photosynthesis Respiration
1 Constructive process 1 Destructive process
2 Energy absorbing process 2 Energy releasing process
3 Weight gaining process 3 Weight losing process
4 CO2& H2O are raw materials 4 C6H12O6 is raw material
5 C6H12O6 is produced 5 CO2, H2O & energy are produced
6 Main product is glucose 6 Main product is energy
7 By products are O2& H2O 7 By products are CO2& H2O
8 Occurs at daytime 8 Occurs day & night
9 Occurs only in plants 9 Occurs in plants as well as animals
10 Occurs only in green cells 10 Occurs in all living cells
Respiration Versus Combustion

Similarities
Respiration Combustion
1 Energy releasing process 1 Energy releasing process
2 Organic substances are used 2 Organic substances are used
3 CO2 and H2O are produced 3 CO2 and H2O are produced
Differences
Respiration Combustion
1 Energy is released stepwise 1 Energy is released as a whole
2 Occurs inside the living body 2 Occurs outside the living body
Energy is produced in the form of ATPs Energy is produced in the form of Light &
3 3 Heat
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Lecture # 3
Gaseous Exchange in Human
Gaseous exchange in humans can be discussed from the following two aspects.
1) Structure and function of different organs involved in G.E.
2) Mechanism of gaseous exchange.
So, here we only discuss briefly the various organs involved in gaseous exchange in humans. These
organs can be broadly divided into the following two parts.
A) Air passage ways
B) Lungs
Air passage ways
i) Nostrils ii) Nasal cavity iii) Pharynx
iv) Larynx v) Trachea vi) Bronchi vii) Bronchioles
Nostrils
External openings of nose which allow air to enter the nose are called nostrils.

Nasal Cavity
The cavity of the nose is known as nasal cavity. It consists of:
1. Mucus membrane 2. Cilia
When air passes through nasal cavity, the following three things happen.
The air is warmed.
The air is moistened.
The air is dust freed.
Pharynx
It is four inches in length. It contains the following two structures.
Tonsil------Either of two small masses of lymphoid tissue in the throat, one on each
side of the root of tongue. It traps and filters microorganisms from the inhaled air.
Adenoids------A mass of enlarged lymphatic tissue present b/w the back of nasal cavity and
pharynx.
Larynx
It is also known as voice box. It is behind the pharynx. It has two parts.
Cavity of larynx is called glottis which contains vocal cords.
Lid of the larynx is known as epiglottis which closes the windpipe during swallowing.
Trachea
It is also called as wind pipe. It is a long tube that passes the air to the bronchi.
It is present on ventral side. Here also the same three things happen as that in nasal cavity i.e.
a) The air is warmed. b) The air is moistened. c) The air is dust freed.
It contains from 10 20 C like structures/rings which prevent the trachea from collapsing
when empty.
It is made up of cartilage/soft bone.
Bronchi
Trachea downward divides into two parts i.e. right bronchus and left bronchus carrying
inhaled air to the right and left lung respectively.
Bronchioles
Bronchi further divide into fine structures called bronchioles. Each bronchiole opens
into the air sac of the lungs which are known as alveoli. They are the structural and functional
units of the lungs. Gaseous exchange in humans takes place here.
Lungs
1. Lungs are located in the thoracic/chest cavity.
2. Each lung is covered by a double sac like membrane called pleura.
3. The fluid in b/w the two layers of pleura reduces the friction during contraction and relaxation
of the lungs.
4. The lungs are protected from different sides in the following way.
from the right and left sides by the ribs and intercostal muscles.
from ventral side by the chest bone (sternum).
from dorsal side by the backbone.
from posterior side by the diaphragm.
anteriorly the lungs are connected through trachea to the outside.
5. The basic unit of structure and function of lung is alveoli.
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Lecture # 4
Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange Lungs
Gaseous exchange occurs in the structural and functional unit of lung i.e. the alveolus (pl.
alveoli) in the following manner.
1. Alveoli are the sacs of air so they contain frequent oxygen.
2. Each alveolus contains a large number of blood capillaries.
3. The following factors contribute to the gaseous exchange in lungs.
Thin walls of the alveoli
Thin walls of the blood capillaries
Concentration difference of oxygen and carbon dioxide b/w alveoli and capillaries.
Alveoli (O2 = 21%, CO2 = 0.04%)
Capillaries (O2 = 16%,CO2 = 4%)
Passing of blood in capillaries in a single file.
4. Due do the above mentioned factors oxygen diffuses from alveoli into the blood while carbon
dioxide diffuses out from blood into the alveoli thus making the blood oxygenated.
5. The CO2 is then eventually expelled out of the body.
As we know that gaseous exchange in lungs occurs only when there is air in the alveoli. This air is
brought to the lungs/alveoli by the process of breathing. So it is necessary to know what changes are
involved during breathing.
Breathing
Breathing = Inspiration + Expiration
Inspiration
The taking of air inside the body is known as inspiration. It is also called inhalation.
Air rushes into the body due to pressure difference b/w inside and outside the body.
The changes that take place during inspiration are as under:
Muscles of diaphragm contract and become flat.
Intercostal muscles contract to raise the ribs (Outward + Upward).
Both these changes increase the volume of chest cavity and decrease the air pressure inside. So, due to
decreased pressure as compared to the outside environment air moves into the
body and lungs.
Expiration
The giving out of air from the body is called expiration. It is also known as exhalation.
It is the reverse process of inspiration. The following changes occur during expiration.
Muscles of diaphragm relax and assume dome shape.
Intercostal muscles relax and move inward and downward.
Due to both these changes the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases and the pressure inside
increases than the atmospheric pressure. Thus air rushes out of the body.
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Truth is like a surgery, it hurts but it cures. A lie is like a pain killer, it gives you instant relief but
it has side effects later on.
Respect is the most important element of your personality. It is like an investment. Whatever you
give others it will return to you with profit.

Lecture # 5
Biological Consequences of Smoking
Smoking has negative effects on health b/c the components contained in smoke are all poisonous
and dangerous to health.
Components of Smoke
Tar, Nicotine, Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen oxide, Hydrogen cyanide, and metals are the
various components have found in cigarette smoke.
Tar
It is the dark substance formed by burning tobacco. It contains harmful organic chemicals
and has the following effects on the human body.
Causing cancer
Initiating tumors Passive Smoking:
Staining smokers fingers, teeth, and lungs Breathing in smoke laden air
or involuntary inhalation of
Increasing phlegm and mucous production smoke from others people
Nicotine cigarettes.
Its harmful effects are as under:
Constricting blood vessels
Increasing heartbeat.
Increasing blood pressure.
Damaging muscles and metabolism hormonal secretion
Causing platelet stickiness resulting in coronary diseases.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
CO causes the following negative effects.
Reducing/ weakening vision.
Coronary heart diseases.
Contributing to lung cancer.
Reducing respiratory systems ability to clean out the air ways with mucus.
Nitrogen Oxide
It damages lungs leading to emphysema (The disorder in which the walls of the alveoli are
damaged).
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
It has destroying effect on cilia. Cilia are like sweepers of the respiratory system. So
destruction of cilia means damage to the clearance system of respiratory system.
Metals
Nearly 30 different metals have found in cigarette smoke. Most of these metals are related
to cancer. Some of these metals are arsenic, nickel, cadmium, chromium and lead.
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Lecture # 6
Effect of Exercise on Rate of Breathing
The normal or resting rate of breathing is 15 20 / min. However during exercise the rate
breathing increases. Exercise affects the breathing process in two ways.
It increases the rate of breathing i.e. number of breathing per minute.
It also increases the depth of breathing to cope oxygen requirement.

Reason
The reason behind it is that under resting conditions a person needs little energy so normal
breathing rate satisfies the energy need. But during exercise the muscular activities increase which need
greater energy. So to satisfy this energy need both the rate and depth of breathing increase.
Respiratory Disorders
Some of the disorders related to respiratory system are as given below.
Bronchitis:-
The condition in which the lining of bronchi gets
Inflamed or infected is known as bronchitis. Inflammation:
Effects of bronchitis reddened + swollen +hot +painful
Reducing the flow of air to the lungs. Infection:
Increases mucus/phlegm formation in the air ways. affecting an organism with a
disease causing organism.
Causes of bronchitis
Bacteria and Viruses are the major causes of bronchitis.
Emphysema
The disorder in which the walls of the alveoli are damaged is called emphysema.
Effect of emphysema
Reduction in respiratory surface
Causing breathlessness
Causes of emphysema
Environmental pollution
Cigarette smoke
Extensive coughing
Pneumonia
The infection in which the lung air sacs fill with pus is called pneumonia.
Causes of pneumonia
Viruses, bacteria and fungi are the causes of pneumonia.
Symptoms of pneumonia
Initial symptoms
Coughing, sneezing and sore throat are the symptoms that appear in the beginning of the
infection.
Final symptoms
Final symptoms include high fever, shivering chill, and coughing with sputum.
Source of transmission
Pneumonia is generally transmitted from one person to another by the droplets given out
into the air by coughing of the infected persons.
Asthma Sputum:
A mixture of saliva
The disease in which the air ways get inflamed is known as asthma. and mucus coughed
Effects of asthma up from the
Tightening of the muscles surrounding the air ways respiratory tract.
Swelling of the lining of air passage ways
Causes of asthma
Domestic animals (Pet hair)
Dust changes in weather
Chemicals in food or air
Mold (fungi)and pollen grain
Symptoms of asthma
Cough

Chest pain
Shortness of breath.
Lung cancer
The disease caused by the uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in the lungs is called
lung cancer.
Causes of lung cancer
Tar of cigarette
Air pollution
Industrial carcinogens
Symptoms of lung cancer
Cough with sputum
Pleural chest pain
Breathlessness
Nature of lung cancer
In initial stage it is symptomless and harmless. But in advance stage it becomes painful and
fatal.
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Golden Rules
B-honest in poverty B-simple in wealth

B-polite in authority B-silent in anger
Never promise in joy Never decide in anger

Chapter -11 Homeostasis

Lecture # 7
Homeostasis
It is a combination of Greek words.
Homoios-------- like / same
Stasis -------- standing
So it means the maintenance of stable equilibrium.
Definition
The change in the internal environment of an organism to avoid the harmful effects of
changes in external environment is called homeostasis.
Our environment is not static but dynamic i.e. changing continuously. The components of the
body which are readily affected by the changes in external environment are:
Water
Solute
Temperature
Among these the most important component is water b/c:
It removes nitrogenous waste from the body by the process of excretion.
It dissolves the reactants thus facilitates metabolic reactions.
Food & blood circulate in the body due to water.
It maintains water and solute balance in the body through osmoregulation.
It helps in thermoregulation by distributing the heat in the whole body or eliminating it
from the body by perspiration thus maintaining the internal temperature within a tolerable
range.
So it is concluded that excretion, osmoregulation and thermoregulation are three important parts of
homeostasis.
Homeostasis in Plants
Osmoregulation in Plants
The maintenance of constant osmotic pressure in the fluid of an organism by controlling its
water and solute concentrations is called osmoregulation.
Classification of Plants
On the basis of water availability plants can be divided into the following types.
Hydrophytes ------ growing in plenty water area
Mesophytes -------growing in moderate water area
Xerophytes --------growing in limited water area
Due to difference in their water availability the mechanism of osmoregulation in these plants is not
similar. They differ in their adaptations to remove excess water or to conserve limited water.
O.R in Hydrophytes
As these plants grow in water their body usually contains more water than they need. So to
remove this excess water and to maintain water and solute balance they have the following
adaptations.
They have large surface area of their leaves to transpire the excess water.
They have large number of stomata which are on the upper surface of leaves.
Examples of Hydrophytes
A common example of hydrophyte is hydrilla.
O.R in Mesophytes
As these plants grow in moderately sufficient supply of water, therefore their water
availability fluctuates continuously. They have the following adaptations.
In plenty water availability their stomata open to remove excess water.
In limited supply of water their stomata close to conserve the little water.
Examples of Mesophytes
Brassica, jasmine, rose, mango and all cereal crops etc.
O.R in Xerophytes
As they grow in area where water supply is often less than their needs, so in order to fulfill
their water need and maintain water and solute balance they have assumed the following changes.
They have small thick leaves.
They have fever & sunken type stomata.
They have thick waxy cuticle on their leaves.
Their stems store water in rainy season.
Sometimes the leaves are totally absent.
Examples of Xerophytes
Cactus and calotropis etc.
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Lecture # 8
Excretion in Plants
The process by which waste products are removed from the body is called excretion.
Excretory Products
Excretory products include:
Respiratory products like CO2&excess H20.
Photosynthetic products like O2& excess H2O.
Metabolic products like latex, resin and gum etc.
Latex
It is a milky fluid found in many plants. It defends the plant from the attack of herbivores.
It oozes out when some part of the plant is injured.
Resin / Gum
They are important plant products. They are used in many industrial products.
They protect the plant from bacteria.
They reduce water loss by evaporation.
Ways of Excretion
Plants dont have specialized excretory system. The waste products are eliminated by different
ways.
By stomata
Water vapors, CO2, and O2 are removed from the plant body by the small holes in leaves
called stomata (sing. stoma).
By hydathodes
Excess water in liquid form is removed from the special cells on the margin of leaves called
hydathodes by the process of guttation.
(Guttation----the exudation of water droplets from the plant by hydathodes.)
By fall of leaves
Some metabolic wastes get deposited in leaves of plants and flowers due to which they turn
yellow and dry and finally fall off. In this way the waste is removed from the body.

By injury of plant
Metabolic wastes like latex, gums etc. are excreted from the plant when some of its part is cut
or injured.
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Lecture # 9
Homeostasis in Human
There are three homeostatic organs in human i.e.
1. Lungs, 2. Skin, 3. Kidneys
Lungs as homeostatic organ
Lungs act as excretory organs. In humans the respiratory by products are carbondioxide
and water. The CO2 produced is harmful b/c when it gets dissolved in water produces acid and
increases the acidity of the blood.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 CO2 + H2O + E
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (Acid)
Thus the CO2 must be eliminated from the body. So it is excreted through lungs in the following
manner.
Cell blood Lungs Wind pipe External environment
Skin as homeostatic organ
Skin acts as thermoregulatory organ. The normal temperature of human body is 37oC / 98.6 oF.
This temperature is kept constant in cold and warm environment by the skin in the following manner.
In cold environment
The skin keeps the temperature balance by the following ways.
Vasoconstriction takes place. During this process the blood vessels become narrow and the blood
supply to the skin is reduced. This is why a person appears pale or white in severe cold. Due to
little flow of blood in the skin most of the heat is retained in the body and thus the temperature of
the body doesnt fall.
Moreover in severe cold shivering is caused which increases the muscular activity to produce
more heat to cope with heat loss to the surrounding.
Beside this there is present an insulating layering of fat below the skin which reduces the heat the
loss to the surrounding.
In hot environment
The skin maintains the normal temperature by the following manner.
Vasodilation takes place. During this process the blood vessels expand and the blood flow to the
skin is increased. Thus more heat from the body flows to the skin which in turn is lost to the
external environment through conduction.
Moreover during hot temperature a person perspires profusely which on evaporation causes
cooling effect.
Kidneys as homeostatic organs
Kidneys act excretory as well as osmoregulatory organs. As excretory organs they filter the
nitrogenous wastes from the blood and remove them from the body. As osmoregulatory organs they
maintain the water and solute balance in the body. They perform this function by the following two
ways.
If more solute is there in the blood, less urine will be formed.
If more water is there in blood, more urine will be formed.
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Lecture # 10
Structure of Human Kidney
External Features
Number-----Human beings contain a pair of Kidneys.
Location-----They are located in the abdominal cavity.
Attachment-----They are attached to the dorsal (backside) body wall.
Color-----They are dark brown in color.
Shape-----They are bean like in their shape.
Peritoneum-----They are covered by a protective membrane called peritoneum.
Hilus-----The depression in the concave side is called hilus. Through hilus renal arteries and
veins enter and leave the kidneys.
Ureter----- A tube emerges from the hilus and runs downwards which is called ureter.
Urinary bladder----- This isa sac in the abdomen which receives urine from the kidneys
through ureter and stores it for excretion.
Urethera----- This is a tube through which urine is carried out of the body and bladder is
emptied.
Internal Features
The longitudinal section of kidney shows that it consists of two distinct parts.
Renal Cortex
It is the outer part of the kidney which is dark brown in color. It contains many pyramid
shaped structures.
Renal Medulla
It is the inner region of the kidney and is light brown in color. It contains a cavity in its
center called pelvis. It is the upper expanded portion of ureter in which renal tubules open.
Each kidney is composed of millions of urinary tubules called nephrons.
Structure of Nephron
Nephron is the structural and functional unit of kidney. A nephron consists of the
following parts.
Renal Corpuscle
It is the filtering unit of the kidney and contains the following parts.
Glomerulus----- It is a network of capillaries.
Bowmans capsule----- It is a cup shaped structure which surrounds the glomerulus.
Renal Tubule
It is the reabsorbing unit of the kidney. It is further divided into the following parts.
Proximal convoluted tubule----- It is the first coiled portion of nephron which lies just
behind the bowmanns capsule.
Loop of Henle----- It is the U shaped portion of nephron which is named after the
German anatomist Henle.
Distal convoluted tubule----- It is the last coiled portion of nephron which is connected
to collecting duct.
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Lecture # 11
Process of Urine Formation
Urine is formed in the kidneys as a result of the following three processes which take place in the
different parts of nephron.
1) Pressure filtration-----occurs in renal corpuscle
2) Reabsorption -----occurs in proximal convoluted tubule + loop of Henle
3) Tubular secretion----- occurs in distal convoluted tubule
Pressure Filtration
The process by which the blood while passing through glomerulus is filtered into the
bowmanns capsule due to the pressure exerted by the heart during the pumping of blood is called
pressure filtration.
Filtration occurs in this part of nephron b/c:
The walls of glomerulus are thin and porous.
The pressure f the blood is enough to force some contents of the blood out into the
bowmanns capsule.
The contents of the blood which are pushed out into the bowmanns capsule are collectively
known as bowmanns filtrate. It contains those things whose sizes are smaller than the pores of
glomerulus. Generally it contains the following things.
a. water, b. salts (dissolved), c. sugars, d. medicines,
e. nitrogenous wastes, f. amino acids etc.
Reabsorption
The process by which useful components of the glomerular filtrate are absorbed back into
the blood is known as reabsorption.
As the filtrate leaves bowmanns capsule and moves along the tubular part of nephron useful
substances are sent back into the blood. These substances include:
a. water, b. glucose, c. amino acids, d. salts like NaCl
When filtrate enters the last part of nephron, it mostly contains nitrogenous wastes.
Tubular Secretion
The secretion of the epithelium of nephron into its cavity is called tubular secretion.
It mainly occurs in the distal convoluted part of nephron. It mainly contains hydrogen ions,
potassium ions and organic ions which are foreign to the body. Hydrogen ion secretion helps in
maintaining the pH of the filtrate.
Urine Excretion
As a result of the above process urine is formed in the tubular system of nephron which
opens in the collecting duct and pelvis.
Urine leaves the kidneys through ureter and enters the bladder through uretheral orifice.
The bladder is then emptied through urethera during urination.
The sphincter muscle at the junction of bladder and urethera controls the urine in the bladder.
As in babies this sphincter is not well developed so they are not able to control their urination.
After collection of nearly 300 to 400ml urine in the bladder, the need to discharge is felt.
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Forgive the fault when you are right. Help the weak when you are strong. Respect the old when
you are young. Because in life one day you will be wrong, weak and old.
Speak only when you feel that your words are better than your silence.
Kindness is the language which the deaf can hear and the blind can see.

Lecture # 12
Osmoregulation and Kidneys:-
The process by which water and solute balance is maintained in the body is osmoregulation.
Kidneys, besides being excretory organs, are osmoregulatory organs too. They perform the
osmoregulatory function by the following ways.
Low Absorption
When there is more water in the blood, more urine is formed. It is b/c when water increases its
normal level in the blood, its reabsorption during the process of urine formation is decreased and
thus more urine is formed.
High Absorption
When water is less in the blood, less urine will be formed by the kidneys. It is due to the fact
that when water level falls than normal, its reabsorption from the glomerular filtrate is increased
which results in less urine formation.
Controlling Factor of Reabsorption
Reabsorption of water from the glomerulral filtrate is controlled by the by antidiuretic
hormones (ADH). This hormone is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It controls the
reabsorption of water in the following manner.
Limited Water
When the water level falls in blood, it is sensed by the pituitary gland and thus increases
the secretion of ADH. This ADH when reaches the urinary tubules increases their permeability
and porosity. Due to this more water is returned from the filtrate into the blood. This results in
maintaining the water balance of the blood and less urine formation.
Excess Water
When the excess water in the blood is sensed by the pituitary gland, it decreases or stops
the secretion of ADH. Due to this the permeability of urinary tubules decreases which in turn
reduces the reabsorption of water into the blood. As a result more urine id formed to remove the
excess water and maintain the water and solute balance of the body.
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Lecture # 13
Disorders of Kidneys
The condition in which the normal function of the kidney is disturbed is called disorder of kidney.
This disorder arises either due to internal factors or external factors.
Some common disorders of the kidneys are as under:
Kidneys stone
Renal failure
Kidneys Stone:-
The formation of calculus in the kidney is called kidneys stone.
Renal colic
The developing of stone causes a hurdle in the release of urine from the kidneys. Therefore
when the stone moves in the urinary tubule causes severe pain which is known as renal colic.
Causes of K.S
Kidneys stones are developed as a result of metabolic diseases. Some of the metabolic diseases
that contribute to stone developing in the kidneys are given below.
Hypercalcemia-----A condition in which the level of calcium ions in the blood increases is
called hypercalcemia.
Hyperoxaluria-----A condition in which oxalate ions increase in the blood.
Nature of Stone
Kidneys stones have specified chemical nature. The most common type of kidneys stones
are calcium oxalate which is about 70%of all the kidneys stones. The formation of other types of
stones such as calcium phosphate and uric acid is 15% and 10% respectively.
Prevention
As the green leafy vegetables and tomatoes contain high concentration of oxalate, so their
eating in large proportion should be avoided.
Treatment
Kidneys stone may be treated by the following two ways.
Surgical method
Non-Surgical method
Here we discuss a type of non-surgical treatment i.e. Extracorporeal Shock Wave-Lithotripsy.
Extracorporeal Shock Wave-Lithotripsy
The type of non-surgical treatment in which the K.S is shattered in the kidneys, ureter or
urinary bladder using ultrasound waves X-rays is called ESWL.
Procedure
The procedure of this method is described below.
The stone is bombarded with x-rays or ultrasound waves produced by a machine called
lithotripter.
The machine is placed on the backside of the body and the rays or waves are focused on the
stone.
The stone is broken down into powder which is observed on the screen of monitor.
The powder stone is then released out of the body during urination.
Importance of ESWL
If the length of K.S is in b/w 4mm to 2cm and it is located in the kidney, then it can be
shattered successfully with ultrasound waves/ lithotripsy.
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Lecture # 14
Renal Failure / Kidney Failure
The condition in which the nephrons stop their normal functioning is called R.F.
Cause of R.F
The main cause of renal failure is damage to the glomerular part of nephron which may be
due to pathological or chemical factors. Due to this the nephrons cannot filter the blood properly
and as a result the level of urea and other nitrogenous wastes in the blood increases. This gives rise
to various blood problems like blood pressure, anemiaetc. If the blood is not cleaned properly, it
may lead to death.
Treatment of R.F
It can be treated by the following two ways.
1) Permanent treatment-----In which a healthy kidney is transplanted.
2) Temporary treatment-----In which the blood of patient is cleaned properly and regularly. This
is known as dialysis.
Dialysis
The artificial purification of blood in case of renal failure is called dialysis.
The blood can be cleaned either by passing it through an artificial kidney or filtering it within the
body of patient. So there are two types of dialysis i.e.
1) Hemodialysis
2) Peritoneal dialysis
1) Hemodialysis
Heme (from Greek haima) means blood,
Dialysis (from Greekdialusis) means separate.
The process by which the blood is separated from the body and cleaned through a
dialyzer is called hemolysis.
Procedure
Hemodialysis is done as under.
1. The blood from the patient artery in arm is passed through a machine called artificial kidney or
dialyzer.
2. The dialyzer is composed of tubes made up of selectively permeable
membrane. Dialyzer:
3. Blood passes from one side while the dialyzer fluid from other side 1. It is a machine that works on
the same principle as kidney.
into the dialyzer. 2. It removes nitrogenous
4. As the blood flows through the tubing system of the dialyzer, the wastes and excess water from
wastes and excess water passes out into the dialysis fluid by the the blood just like a kidney.
3. It is used after the kidneys
process of diffusion. fails to carry out its proper
5. The cleaned blood is then passed into the patient vein in arm. function.
6. The used dialysis fluid (solution) is replaced by fresh dialysis fluid
regularly.
7. Dialysis is done several times a day/week depending upon the nature of disorder.
2) Peritoneal Dialysis
The process in which the blood is cleaned inside the body of patient is called
peritoneal dialysis.
Procedure
1. In this technique the peritoneal cavity (the cavity where kidney is located in the body) is filled
with dialysis fluid.
Catheter:
2. The fluid is passed into the cavity through a catheter. A flexible tube
3. The wastes and excess water diffuses out from peritoneum (a membrane that inserted through a
encloses the kidneys) into the dialysis fluid and the blood gets cleaned. narrow opening
4. The used fluid is then drawn out through the catheter. into body cavity
5. This process is repeated several times a day. for removing fluid.
Difference b/w hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis
The basic principle of both the dialyses is the same i.e. the blood is purified by the process
of diffusion.
1. The only difference is that in hemodialysis the blood is taken and cleaned outside the body while
in peritoneal dialysis it is cleaned within the body of patient.
2. Moreover peritoneal dialysis is painful as compared to hemodialysis.
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Chapter -12 Coordination and Control

Lecture # 15
Coordination and Control
Coordination means cooperation, &
Control means restriction of an activity or phenomenon.
Stimulus
Any change in the environment is known as stimulus (pl.stimuli).
Stimulus may be internal such as hunger, thirst, etc. or external such as light, sound, etc.
Response
The reaction to the change in environment is called response.
Coordination
The cooperative working of various parts of the body in responding a stimulus is known as
coordination.
Types of Coordination
Coordination may be
Nervous Coordination
Chemical Coordination
Nervous Coordination
The coordination which is under the control of nervous system is known as N.C.
The nervous system is composed of neurons i.e. the basic unit of structure and function of nervous
system. Neurons are the cells with cell bodies and thread like extensions called axons and
dendrites. Nervous system consists of two subsystems i.e.
Central Nervous System-----which is composed of the cell bodies of neurons.
Peripheral Nervous System-----which is composed of extensions arising from the cell bodies
of neurons.
Nervous System = Central Nervous System + Peripheral Nervous System
The nervous coordination controls the cooperative working of the body by transmitting
information in the form of electrical signals i.e. nerve impulse. This is why N.C is also called
electrical coordination.
Chemical Coordination
The type of coordination which is controlled by hormones is called chemical coordination.
It is also known as hormonal coordination.
There are certain structures in the body that secrete chemicals. These structures are called glands.
These glands are of two types i.e.
Endocrine glnads-----these are also known as ductless glands e.g. thyroid and adrenal glands.
Exocrine glands-----these are also known as ducted glands e.g. pancreas and liver.
The secretions of endocrine glands are collectively called hormones. These hormones are poured
directly into the blood and reach their site of activity with the circulation of blood.
Effective Coordination
Nervous coordination is effective b/c the response of nervous coordination is much more
quick than chemical coordination. N.C works at the speed of electricity while C.C works at the
speed of blood circulation.
Mechanism of Coordination
Before knowing the mechanism of coordination we should know about the following
terms.

Receptor
The organ of the body which receives a stimulus is called receptor.
The sense organs such as nose, ear, eyes, tongue and skin are the receptors which feel the changes
in the external environment.
Effector
The organ of the body that responds to a stimulus is called effector.
Muscles and glands are the effectors of our body. When muscles respond to a stimulus, they
contract and relax. When the glands respond to a stimulus, they secrete chemicals.
Coordination takes place in the following manner.
Stimuli Receptors CNS Effectors Response
It means that:
Any change in the environment is felt by associated receptors.
The receptors then send information to the central nervous system (CNS).
The CNS then, on the basis of previous experience, analyzes the information and decision is
made.
The decision is sent to the related effectors of the body.
The effectors then respond according to the decision of CNS.
Example-----Knocking of Door:-
In knocking of door the knocking is a stimulus.
Our ears that hear the knocking are receptors.
The ear after receiving the knock sends information to the hearing centre in the brain through
auditory nerves.
The brain on the basis of previous experience understands that someone wants us.
So the brain sends order to the effectors i.e. muscles of the legs and hands to move, take us to
the door and open it.
The muscles then respond by acting accordingly.
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Lecture # 16
Nervous System
The system of the body which is composed of nervous tissues is called nervous system.
Nervous System = Central Nervous System + Peripheral Nervous System
Central Nervous System = Brain + Spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System = Nerves arising from brain & spinal cord
Here we only discuss the brain part of CNS.
General Features of Brain
1. The brain is present in the skull (cranium) which provides protection to it.
2. This protection is enhanced by a tough membrane called meninges lying below the cranium.
3. Meninges is a three layered protective sheet having cerebrospinal fluid in b/w the layers.
4. CSF resembles blood plasma in composition and it has the following functions.
Keeps the neurons of brain moist which helps in impulse transmission from one neuron to
another neuron.
Lessens the effect of/absorb the physical and shocks such as jolts and bumps.
5. Brain is hollow from inside containing cavities called ventricles.
6. These ventricles are also filled with CSF.
7. The normal weight of brain in adult males ranges from 1200 to 1350 gm while in adult females it
ranges from 1000 to 1250 gm.
Structure and Function of Brain
Human brain can be divided into the following three main parts.
1) Forebrain 2) Midbrain 3) Hindbrain
1) Forebrain
Forebrain is further subdivided into the following parts.
a) Cerebrum b) Limbic system c) Thalamus
a) Cerebrum
It has the following features.
1. It is the largest part of the brain.
2. It has two halves called cerebral hemisphere.
3. Right cerebral hemisphere controls left side of the body.
4. Left cerebral hemisphere controls right side of the body.
5. The two halves are communicated by corpus callosum, a large band of axons.
6. Its outer region is called cortex which is folded to increase its surface area.
7. Cerebrum contains tens of billions of neurons.
Functions of Cerebrum
Receiving processing and storing information.
Directing voluntary actions.
Centre of speech.
Responsible for reasoning, thinking, decision making and intelligence.
b) Limbic system
1. It is located b/w cerebrum and thalamus.
2. It controls the responses related mainly to internal stimuli such as hunger, anger, thirst, fear,
pleasure and sexual responses.
c) Thalamus
It carries sensory information from eyes, ears and skin etc. to the limbic system and
cerebrum.
d) Hypothalamus:
It is a part of the limbic system and is located under the thalamus. The master gland of the
body i.e. pituitary gland is attached to it.
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Lecture # 17
Nervous System (Continued)
1) Forebrain (discussed)
2) Midbrain
1. It is present in groove of cerebral hemisphere.
2. Its dorsal part controls visual and auditory reflexes.
3. The ventral part of midbrain serves as a relay station and connects forebrain with
hindbrain.
3) Hindbrain
It consists of the following three parts.
1. Cerebellum 2. Pons 3. Medulla oblongata
Cerebellum:-
1. It is the second largest part of the brain.
2. It controls the balance of the body and coordinates voluntary movements.
3. It is also associated with learning and memory storage.
Pons
It is above the medulla and serves as a bridge for conducting impulses b/w cerebellum and
medulla. It controls
Transition b/w sleep and wakefulness.
Rate and pattern of breathing.
Medulla oblongata
It lies in the posterior part of the brain and controls the automatic functions such as
breathing, heart beat, contraction and dilation of blood vessels, blood pressure, peristalsis and
antiperistalsis etc.
Spinal Cord
It is a cylindrical bundle of nerves enclosed in spines (vertebrae) and connected to the
brain.
The cross section of spinal cord shows the following two parts.
Inner part which is composed of grey matter (cell bodies of neurons).
Outer part containing white matter (Axons + Dendrites)
General Features
The SC is present in vertebral column which provides protection to it.
This protection is enhanced by a tough membrane called meninges lying below the vertebral
column.
Meninges is a three layered protective sheet having cerebrospinal fluid in b/w the layers.
SC is hollow from inside containing cavities called ventricles.
These ventricles are also filled with CSF.
Functions
Controls reflex actions below head level.
Sends information from trunk and limbs to brain.
Transmits message (order) from the brain to lower body part.
Peripheral Nervous System
The nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord is known as PNS.
PNS is composed of two types of nerves i.e.
1. Cerebral/ cranial nerves arising from the brain. These are 12 pairs and contain sensory, mixed
and motor nerves.
2. Spinal nerves arising from the spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves and are mostly
mixed.
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Lecture # 18
Neuron
The basic unit of structure and function of nervous system is known as neuron.
There are nearly 10 12 billion neurons in human nervous system.
These neurons are of different shapes, size and have different functions.
Neurons (cell body) lack the ability to divide however axons and dendrites can regenerate.
Structure of Typical Neurons
A typical neuron consists of the following parts.
1) Cell body
The part of neuron that contains cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus and cell organelles
like mitochondria, ribosomes etc. is called cell body.
2) Axon
The single long thread like structure arising from the cell body of neuron is called axon.
It carries impulses away from the cell body of neuron.
It is covered by a sheath called myelin sheath.
The sheath is broken at different intervals called nodes.
Distance b/w two nodes is known as Schwann cell.
Myelin Sheath
It is whitish in color and is made up of fatty substance. It has the following functions.
Insulates the axon against the temperature changes.
Prevents irregular distribution of nerve impulses.
Increases the rate of impulse conduction.
3) Dendrites
The word dendrites in Greek means tree like.
The tree like short branches arising from the cell body of neurons are known dendrites (sing.
Dendron).
Function
Dendrites carry impulses to the cell body from sense organs.
Types of Neuron:-
On the basis of function neurons are classified as under.
1) Sensory Neurons
Neurons which conduct impulses from sense organs to central nervous system are known
as sensory neurons.
Features
The cell bodies of these neurons are located at one end.
Axons of these neurons are usually short and dendrites are long.
2) Motor Neurons
Neurons which carry impulses away from the CNS to effectors are called motor neurons.
Features
The cell bodies of these neurons are located in the length of neurons.
Axons in these neurons are usually long while dendrites are short.
3) Associative Neurons
Neurons which connect sensory with motor neurons are called associative neurons.
Features
These neurons are located in the CNS i.e. brain and spinal cord.
They have usually short axons and dendrites.
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Lecture # 19
Reflex Action
The automatic, quick and involuntary response to a stimulus is called reflex action.
Types
Reflex actions are of the following two types.
1) Simple reflex action-----these are inborn or inherited R.As.
2) Conditioned reflex action-----these are acquired by training.
Examples
Lifting of foot on running a nail into it.
Watering of mouth on the sight of a delicious food.
Closing of eyes on falling a flash of light on them.
Blinking of eyes on coming something to them.

Startling on hearing a loud or unexpected sound.
Withdrawing hands/ legs on touching hot surface.
Mechanism
Reflex action is carried out in the following way.
1. The stimulus is received by sensory neurons in receptors and carry it to the spinal cord (brain is
not involved in R.As).
2. Associative neurons in the spinal cord, having quick decision shifts the impulse to motor neurons.
3. The motor neurons carry it to the effectors which then respond accordingly.
Stimulus Receptor (sense organ) Sensory neuron Spinal cord
(associative neuron) Effector (muscles/glands) Response
Reflex Arc
The path followed by nerve impulse in reflex action is called reflex arc.
Interpretation of Mechanism with Example
Let a girl is sewing shirt with a needle. Suddenly the needle runs into her finger and she at
once withdraws her hand.
In this example the pricking of needle is stimulus.
Skin is the receptor which feels this stimulus and informs the spinal cord about it.
Associative neurons in the spinal cord quickly decide and send message through motor
neurons to the muscles in hand to get contracted.
So muscles of the hand are effectors and retraction of hand is response.
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Lecture # 20
Receptors in human body
The organs of the body that receive the stimuli are called receptors.
Receptors of human body can be broadly divided into two categories i.e.
A) Receptors for External Stimuli
These are the receptors which perceive the stimuli of external environment i.e. outside the
human body. These are as under:
1. Photoreceptors such as eyes-----related to the stimuli of light.
2. Sonoreceptors such as ears-----related to the stimuli of sound waves.
3. Chemical receptors such as tongue & nose-----related to the stimuli of chemicals.
4. Mechanical receptors such as skin-----related to the stimuli of pressure.
B) Receptors for Internal Stimuli
These receptors feel the stimuli related to the internal environment such as pain, hunger, thirst,
and pleasure etc.
Photoreceptor
The word photo in Greek means light.
The receptor that is responsible for receiving the changes in the quality and quantity of light is
called photoreceptor.
1. The photoreceptors of human body are known as eyes. These are also known as visual
receptors.
2. A normal human being has two eyes located in the orbits of face.
3. The shape of human eye is like a ball.
Structure & Function of Human Eye
The human eye consists of the following main parts.
1) Sclerotic---the muscular layer
The outermost white cartilaginous layer of eye is called sclerotic.
1. The interior part of sclerotic is transparent and projecting outside which is known as cornea.
2. The colored part of cornea is called iris.
3. The central hole of iris is called pupil.
4. Pupil controls the amount of light entering the eyes. It dilates in dim light and contracts in
bright light.
2) Choriod---the vascular layer
The second and vascular layer of eye is called choroid.
It contains blood vessels which provide nourishment to different parts of eyes.
3) Retina---the nervous layer
The third, interior most and nervous layer of human eye is known as retina.
1. It contains sensory cells i.e. rods and cones.
2. Rods work in dim light and just give the image of the object, not the detail of its colors.
3. Cones work in bright light and not only give the image but also detail about its colors.
4) Eye Lens---eye ball
It is the transparent part of the eye that forms image of the object on the retina.
1. It is present behind the pupil.
2. The lens is held in its position by cilliary muscles and suspensory ligaments.
3. These muscles contract and relax and thus control the focusing of the lens.
5) Aquous Humour
The space b/w cornea and the lens is known as aquous chamber. It is filled with nutritious
fluid called aquous humour.
6) Vitrous Humour
The cavity b/w the lens and retina is known as vitrous chamber. It is filled with a viscous
fluid called vitrous humour. This fluid also provide nourishment to various parts of the eye.
7) Optic Nerve
This is the nerve which transmits visual impulses from the retina to the vision center in the
brain.
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Lecture # 21
Working of Eye or
Image Formation by Eye:-
The human eye works in the following manner.
Light rays from the object enter the eye through pupil.
These rays get refracted through eye lens.
After refraction they are focused on the retina.
Thus a real, inverted and smaller image of the object is formed on the retina.
In the retina the sensory cells send an impulse to the vision center in the brain trough optic
nerve.
The brain then gives instruction about the size, distance and position of the object.
In this way we are then able to see the object in its actual form.
Disorder of Human Eyes:-
Sometimes the normal working of the eye is disturbed due to which it cannot make vision of
things properly. The condition is known as disorder. Some disorders of the eye are serious and lead to
blindness while some others are easily curable. Among the curable disorders the following two are very
common.
1) Short sightedness
2) Long sightedness
1) Short Sightedness:-
The disorder in which the near objects are clearly visible but the distant objects are not clearly
seen is known as S.S. Myopia is the other name of short sightedness.
Cause of S.S:-
When the eye lens/ eye ball increases in length, it results in S.S. In other words S.S is caused when
the converging power of the lens increases.
Effect:-
Increase in length or converging power of eye lens brings about the following disturbance.
The rays of light from the distant object are focused before the retina.
The image is visible but blurred, not clear.
Remedy:-
S.S can be corrected by increasing diverging power of the lens. This can be done by placing
concave lens before the eye lens i.e. by using spectacles with concave lens.
The use of concave lens causes:
The image to form on the retina.
The image to be clearly visible.
2) Long Sightedness:-
The disorder of eye in which the distant objects can be seen clearly but the near objects cannot be
seen clearly is called L.S. This disorder is also known as hypermetropia or hyperopia.
Cause of L.S:-
The cause of L.S is decrease in the length of eye ball/ eye lens. In other words when the diverging
power of the eye lens is increased, it results in L.S.
Effects:-
Decrease in length of eye ball causes the following effects.
The rays of light from the near object are focused behind the retina.
The image is visible but not clearly.
Remedy:
L.S can be remedied by wearing glasses with convex lens. This will help:
1) The light rays to focus exactly on the retina.
2) The image to be clearly visible once again.
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Lecture # 22
Sonoreceptors:-
Sono from sonus in Latin means sound.
The receptors for perceiving the stimuli related to sound are known as sonoreceptors. They are
also known as audio receptors.
In human body ears act as sonoreceptors.
In normal human ears are two in number and are located on the lateral sides of head.
The human ear acts in two ways i.e.
a) As hearing organ b) As balancing organ
Structure & Function of Human Ear:-
The human ear has been divided into three parts i.e.
1. External ear 2. Middle ear 3. Internal ear
1. External Ear:-
It consists of the following parts.
Pinna:-
It is a flexible flap of skin supported by cartilage.
It collects the sound and directs them to the auditory canal.
As it is not very functional in human as compared to other animals such as dogs, donkeys etc.
therefore it is considered as vestigial organ of human body.
Auditory Canal:-
It is the canal through which the collected sound waves travel to the middle ear.
It contains hair and waxy glands that trap the dust particles contained in the air.
This canal ends at ear drum.
Eardrum:-
It is also known as tympanic membrane. The sound waves when strike the eardrum, causes
vibration in it with the same frequency as that of the source of sound. This vibration is then
transmitted to the middle and internal ear.
2. Middle Ear:-
Middle ear consists of the following three small bones.
a) Malleus-----It is hammer shaped.
b) Incus-----It is anvil shaped.
c) Stapes-----It is stirrup shaped.
They are collectively known as ossicles. They are the smallest bones of the body.
Function of ossicles:-
1) They transmit the vibration from eardrum to the internal ear.
3. Internal Ear:-
It has the following important parts.
a) Cochlea:-
It is the actual organ of hearing.
It contains fluid which converts the vibration into electrical signals.
It sends these electrical signals to the center of hearing in the brain by mean of auditory nerve.
The brain interprets these signals as sound and thus we hear the sound.
Human ear can hear sounds with frequency ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
b) Three Semi-circular Canals:-
These canals contain fluid and have the following functions.
They are concerned with balance of the body.
An injury in it may cause giddiness.
Working of Human Ear:-
Human ear works in the following way.
Pinna collects the sound waves and directs it to the auditory canal.
These waves when reach the eardrum cause it to vibrate.
Eardrum transmits the vibrations to the ossicles.
Stapes being attached to cochlea when vibrate causes a stimulus which is perceived by the
fluid in cochlea.
Cochlea sends an impulse to the brain in the form of electrical signals through auditory nerve.
The brain interprets these signals as sound and we hear it.
Human Ear As Balancing Organ:-
The following structures in human ear maintain the balance and position of the body.
1) Three semi-circular canals.
2) Utriculus
3) Sacculus
These strucutres are filled with a fluid known as endolymph that contains sensory cells.
Hearing Defects:

Two common defects related to hearing are as under.
1. Hardness in Hearing:-
When one hears the loud sound easily but cannot hear the faint sound, this condition is known
as hardness in hearing. Such a person is said to be hard of hearing. This defect may be due to the
following reasons.
Damage in eardrum
Stiffness in ossicles
In this defect hearing aids are used to hear the sound properly.
2. Deafness:-
When one hears neither faint nor loud sound permanently, the condition is known as deafness.
Such a person is said to be deaf. This defect may arise when cochlea is infected. Hearing aids are
useless in this condition.
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Lecture # 23
Chemical Coordination:-
The coordination which is controlled by hormones is called chemical or hormonal coordination.
Hormones:
The organic substances produced by the endocrine glands to regulate the body functions or
coordinate the body parts are called hormones.
Endocrine Glands:-
The glands that secrete hormones are called endocrine glands. They are also known as
ductless glands b/c the secretions of these glands dont have special ducts to travel to the target.
They are therefore secreted directly into the blood to reach the point of action.
Endocrine System:-
The system composed of different types of endocrine glands (nearly 20 types) is known as
endocrine system.
Nature of E.G:-
Endocrine glands are mostly made up of protein. Some are composed of fatty acid.
Features of Hormones:-
They dont start a new biochemical reaction in the body.
They affect the already initiated chemical or enzymatic process by regulating them.
They either stimulate a process or stop it.
They also control long term activities such as growth rate, metabolic activities and sexual
maturity.
Human Endocrine Glands:-
1) Pituitary Gland:-
It is also known as hypophysis or master gland. It is located in the brain, attached to
hypothalamus. Its size is very small equivalent to the size of a pea seed. It weighs approximately 0.5
gm in adults.
Structure & Function:-
Pituitary gland consists of the following parts.
a) Anterior lobe front part
b) Posterior lobe hind part
Hormones of Anterior Lobe:-
AL produces the following hormones.
1) Somatotrophic Hormone (STH)
It is also known as growth hormone. It has the following functions.
It increases somatic cell division.
Its over secretion causes gigantisms (unusual large size).
Its under secretion causes dwarfism (unusual short size).
2) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Controls the development and function of thyroid gland.
3) Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)
Controls the development and functioning of cortex of adrenal gland.
4) Gonadotrophic Hormone (GTH)
Controls the development & function of gonads (reproductive organs).
Hormones of Posterior Lobe:-
PL secretes the following hormones.
1) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
It controls the reabsorption of nutrients from bowmans filtrate.
2) Oxytocin
It helps in muscles contraction of uterus during childbirth to expel baby out.
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Lecture # 24
Human Endocrine Glands:-
2) Thyroid Glands:-
These glands are located in the neck. They are present one on each side of the larynx. The
hormone secreted by thyroid gland is called Thyroxin. It is also known as Iodothyroxin b/c it contains
iodine in tis composition.
Functions:-
Thyroxin performs the following functions.
Increases metabolism to produce heat.
Promotes physical growth therefore secreted more in young ones.
Promotes mental maturity.
Undersecretion:-
Under secretion of thyroxin causes physical and mental retardation.
Oversecretion:-
Over secretion of thyroxin has the following effects.
High metabolic rate
Loss in body weight
Excessive sweating
Faster heartbeat
Deficiency Disease:-
Deficiency of thyroxin causes goiter i.e. swelling of the neck due to enlargement of thyroid gland.
It is common in the people of mountainous areas b/c they have less iodine content in their water. So
using iodized salts may be helpful in preventing goiter.
3) Pancreas:-
Pancreas acts in the following two ways.
1) As exocrine gland
2) As endocrine gland
As Exocrine gland:-

When pancreas acts as exocrine gland it produces pancreatic juice which helps in digestion of
food. It means that as exocrine gland it acts as digestive gland.
As Endocrine gland:-
The parts of pancreas that act as endocrine gland are known as islets of Langerhans. Islets of
Langerhans produce the following two types hormones.
1) Insulin
2) Glucagon
1. Insulin:-
This hormone decreases the blood glucose level. This is done by the following ways.
By metabolizing glucose (converting glucose into CO2, H2O, E)
By converting glucose into fats and proteins.
2. Glucagon:-
This hormone increases the blood glucose level. It performs this function by the following ways.
By breakdown of fats.
By converting glycogen into glucose.
Diabetes Mellitus:-
The disease in which blood glucose level increases causing excessive thirst and large amount of
urine is known as diabetes mellitus. It is caused by deficiency of insulin.
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Lecture # 25
Human Endocrine Glands
4) Adrenal Glands
Adrenal glands are two in number and are located on the top of each kidney. Each adrenal gland
has the following two parts.
1. Adrenal cortex-----It is reddish brown.
2. Adrenal medulla-----It is greyish in color.
Hormones of Adrenal Cortex
Adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones collectively known as corticosteroids. The hormones of
AC are as under.
Glucocorticoid
Mineralocorticoid
Sex hormones
Glucocorticoid
It increases the blood glucose level by the following ways.
By conversion of glycogen into glucose.
By breakdown of fats into carbohydrates.
Mineralocorticoid
This hormone helps in keeping the balance of water and salt in the body.
Sex hormones
They are responsible for the development of secondary sexual characters.
Hormones of Adrenal Medulla
AM secretes the following types of hormones.
Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
Non-adrenaline (Nor-epinephrine)
Adrenaline
It dilates the blood vessels in certain parts of the body. It is usually secreted in in anger and
emotion. This is why face looks red during anger and emotion.
Nor-adrenaline
It constricts the blood vessel in certain parts of the body such as face and gut. It is usually
secreted in fear. As constriction causes less blood to flow in vessels, therefore ones face looks
pale and one feels hollow in gut (intestine) during fear.
Common Functions
Both adrenaline and non-adrenaline perform the following functions in common.
Increase the blood glucose level.
Increase consumption of O2.
Increase blood pressure & heartbeat.
Increase heat production.
Both these hormones are known as fright, fight, flight or emergency hormones b/c they are
secreted under such conditions.
5) Gonads
The male and female reproductive organs are known as gonads. The male gonads are testes while
the female gonads are ovaries.
Testes
Testes act in two ways.
1) As exocrine glands producing the male gametes i.e. sperm
2) As endocrine glands producing male sex hormones androgen (testosterone)
Testosterone
This hormone has the following functions.
Before puberty it helps in growth of male reproductive organs.
After puberty it is responsible for the appearance of secondary sexual characters (SSCs).
SSCs of Males
Growth of hair such as moustaches, beard, armpit hair, chest hair, pelvic hair.
Grave voice / low pitch of voice.
Increase in sexual desire etc.
Removal of Testes
Removal of testes before puberty results in failure of SSCs to appear.
Removal of testes after puberty results in malfunctioning of reproductive system.
Ovaries
Ovaries also act in two ways.
1) As exocrine gland producing the female gametes i.e. ovum/egg.
2) As endocrine gland producing the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone.
Estrogen
This hormone is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characters in females
i.e.
Growth of mammary glands
Growth of hair such as in armpit and groin regions
High pitch of voice
Increase in sexual desire etc.
Progesterone
It has the following functions.
Helps in thickening of the uterus lining.
Helps in maintaining pregnancy.
Prevents the uterus muscles to contract before childbirth.
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Lecture # 26
Muslim Scientists
Related to optics & ophthalmology
Optics
The study of vision and behavior of light is called optics.
Ophthalmology
The study and treatment of diseases of the eyes is called ophthalmology.
1) Ibn-al-Haitham
Real Name
His real name is Abu Ali al-Hassan Ibn al-Hassan Ibn al-Haitham.
Western Name
He is known in west by the name Alhacen or Alhazen.
DOB, DOD & POB
He was born in 965 A.D. in Basra and died in 1048 A.D. in Cairo.
Title
He is entitled as the father of modern optics.
Field of Interest
He was greatly interested in optics and visual perception.
Famous Book
His valuable and famous book is Kitab ul Manazir i.e. the book of optics. This book
has seven volumes. It was written from 1011 to 1021.
Experiments
He carried out of his experiments on lenses, mirrors, and studied the reflection, refraction
and dispersion of light.
Achievements
His important achievements are as under.
He said that light is made up of particles that travel in straight lines.
He described the functional anatomy of the eyes.
He rejected the concept that light comes out of the eyes while seeing and introduced the
concept that light from the object enters our eyes to make image.
He invented the pinhole camera (a camera with very small hole and no lens).
Polymath
He was a man with wide ranging knowledge. Besides optics and visual perception he also
worked in the field of engineering, medicine, psychology, philosophy, astronomy, anatomy and
mathematics.
2) Ali Bin Isa
DOB & DOD
He was born in 940 A.D. in Baghdad and died 1010 A.D. in -----.
Field of Interest
He was mostly interested in ophthalmology and physiology. He was the most famous
physician of tenth century.
Monumental Book
His most important book is Taskhirat-ul-Kahhalin i.e. Notebook of Oculists. Some
features of this book are given below.
It is based on his personal observations.
He has described in it over 100 diseases of eyes.
It has been translated to other languages such as English, Latin, Germany etc.
It has been used by European physicians for hundreds of years.
Other Qualities
He was a good astronomer and geographer too.
*************************************

Chapter -13 Support and Movement

Lecture # 27
Support & Movement
Support
Support means to bear all or part of the weight of a body.
Movement
Movement means to change place.
The part of body that provide support to the body and helps in movement is skeleton.
Skeleton
All the hard parts of a body are collectively known as skeleton.
Types of Skeleton
Exoskeleton
The skeleton that lies external to the muscles is called exoskeleton. It is usually found in
invertebrates. It is composed of chitin.
Endoskeleton
The skeleton that lies internal to the muscles (soft parts) is called ES. This type of skeleton
is found in vertebrates and is made up of bone and cartilage.
Human Skeleton
Some features of human skeleton are as under.
It is an endoskeleton composed of bone and cartilage.
Human skeleton contains 206 bones in adult. Whereas babies have 350 bones which
reduce in number with time due to fusion.
Largest bone in HS is femur (thigh bone) while smallest bones are ossicles (found in
middle ear).
Classification of bones
Among 206 bones of HS
28 bones are present in skull
1 bone is in the neck
57 bones are in trunk (body parts other than head & limbs)
126 bones are in limbs (hands & legs)
Types of Human skeleton
Human skeleton is of two types.
1) Axial Skeleton
2) Appendicular skeleton
*************************************
Lecture # 28
Axial Skeleton
The central skeleton around which the whole body in built is known as A.S.
Axial skeleton consists of the following parts.
1. Skull 2. Vertebral column 3. Rib cage with sternum
Skull
Skull is composed of the following two types of bones.
a. Cranial bones b. Facial bones
Cranial Bones
Cranium is specially that part of the skull that encloses the brain. Cranial bones are eight.
Some of these bones are paired and some are unpaired. The paired bones are two which are:
Parietal bones-----the bones forming the central side and the upper back side of the skull.
Temporal bones-----the bones which form part of the side of the skull on each side that
encloses the middle and inner ear.
The unpaired bones are four which are as under.
Frontal bone-----the bone forming the front part of the skull and the upper part of the eye
socket.
Occipital bone-----the rearmost bone of the skull.
Sphenoid bone-----a large and compound bone that form the base of cranium.
Ethmoid bone-----a square bone at the base of nose.
Facial Bones
Bones relating to face. These are fourteen in number. Some of these are paired and some
are unpaired. The paired bones are six and are as under.
Maxilla-----jaw bones, especially the upper jaws.
Zygomatic-----bones forming the part of cheeks and the outer side of eye socket.
Nasal-----bones relating to bones.
Lacrimal-----bone forming the part of eye socket.
Palatine-----relating to the palate.
Inferior concha-----bone relating to depression in the external ear.
The unpaired bones are two and are as given below.
Mandible----- jaw bones, especially the lower jaws.
Vomer-----the small thin bone separating the right and left nasal cavities.
Vertebral Column
This is also known as spinal column or backbone. It performs the following functions.
Allows us to stand erect/upright.
Protects the spinal cord.
Vertebral column is composed of a series of small bones called vertebrae. These vertebrae are
33 in number and are categorized as under.
Cervical vertebrae-----these are 7 and are found in the neck region.
Thoracic vertebrae-----these are 12 and are present in the chest region i.e. upper back.
Lumber vertebrae-----these are 5 and are found in the lower back region.
Pelvic vertebrae-----these are 9 and are found in the pelvic region i.e. lower limbs.
Pelvic vertebrae divided into two sets i.e.
a. Sacrum-----formed by the fusion of anterior 5 pelvic vertebrae.
b. Coccyx-----formed by the fusion of posterior 4 pelvic vertebrae.
Rib cage with Sternum
A frame formed by the small bones to protect the chest cavity and its organs such as heart,
lungs etc. is known as rib cage. Sternum is the chest bone. Rib cage is formed by 12 pairs of ribs.
All the 12 pairs are dorsally attached to thoracic vertebrae.
10 of the 12 pairs are anteriorly attached to sternum.
2 of the 12 pairs are not attached to sternum. They are known as floating ribs.
*************************************

Lecture # 29
Appendicular Skeleton
The skeleton related to appendages (limbs) is known as appendicular skeleton.
Appendicular skeleton consists of
1) Girdles 2) Appendages/limbs
Girdles
Girdles are of two types.
1) Pectoral girdle 2) Pelvic girdle
Pectoral girdle
The girdle that attaches forelimbs to the sternum is called pectoral girdle. It consists of the
following parts.
1) Scapula-----it is the shoulder bone/blade.
2) Supra scapula
3) Clavicle-----it is the collar bone that joins the chest bone to shoulder bone.
Pelvic girdle
This is the girdle which attaches the hind limbs to the vertebral column. It consists of two
coxal bones. Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three bones i.e.
1) Ilium 2) Ischium 3) Pubis
Appendages/Limbs
There are two types of appendages or limbs.
Forelimbs (Hands + Arms)
Hindlimbs (Feet + Legs)
Forelimbs
Forelimbs have the following bones.
1 Humerus (upper arm bone/forearm)
1 Radius (lower arm bone) (thicker & short)
1 Ulna (lower arm bone) (thinner & longer)
8 Carpals (wrist bones)
5 Metacarpals (palm/hand bones)
14 Phalanges (finger bones)
Hindlimbs
1 Femur (upper leg bone/thigh bone)
1 Fibula (lower leg bone) (outer & smaller)
1 Tibia (lower leg bone) (inner & larger)
8 Tarsals (ankle bones)
5 Metatarsals (foot bones)
14 phalanges (finger bones)
Composition of Human Skeleton
Human skeleton is an endoskeleton that is made up of bones and cartilage.
Bone Cartilage
1) It is a type of connective tissue. 1) It is a type of connective tissue.
2) It is hard. 2) It is softer in touch.
3) It is mainly composed of calcium 3) It is mainly protein.
(collagen fibers) 4) It forms most of the skeleton in embryonic
4) It forms most of the skeleton in adults. stage. In adults is confined to Few regions
i.e. trachea, pinna, sclerotic.
Repair of Broken Bone
Causes of Bone Breaking
The two main causes of the breaking of bones are as given below.
Accident i.e. when an unexpected, unintentional or unfortunate event takes place.
Old age i.e. due to old age bones become weak and they are easily cracked or fractured.
Steps of Repairing
1) Breaking of bones causes the blood vessels in them to tear.
2) Hematoma formation takes place i.e. accumulation of blood occurs.
3) Stem cells act as fibroblast cells and produce extracellular matrix & collagen.
4) Tissues are formed around the broken ends which are then calcified.
5) Cartilage is laid down in b/w the broken ends in which absorption of calcium takes place.
6) After a month callus is absorbed and the continuity of bone is resumed.
*************************************
Lecture # 30
Joints
The points in the skeletal system which allow the bones to move in different directions to different
extent are called joints. Or joints are the points where two or more bones meet together.
Classification
On the basis of extent of movement allowed by the joints
1) Immoveable Joints
The joints that dont allow the bones to move at all, e.g.
joints of the skull
2) Slightly Moveable Joints
The joints which allow little movement of the bones are called slightly moveable joints. They are
also known as gliding or partially moveable joints e.g.
joints of vertebral column, wrist, ankle and ribs etc.
3) Free Moveable Joints
The joints allowing the bones to move freely in specific direction or all directions are called freely
moveable joints. They are of two types i.e.
1. Hinge joints
2. Ball & Socket joints
Hinge Joints
The joints that allow the bones to move only in 2 directions e.g.
elbow joints and knee joints
Ball & Socket Joints
They allow the bones to move in all directions e.g.
shoulder and hip joints
Muscles and Movement
The structures in the body that convert chemical P.E into mechanical energy in the form of heat
and work are called muscles.
Or The structures which bring about motion of bones at joints.
Types
Muscles on the basis of location are classified under the following types.
1) Cardiac Muscles
The muscles which are present in the heart walls are known as cardiac muscles.
2) Smooth Muscles
The muscles which are present in the respiratory, digestive, urinary and blood circulatory
tracts are known as smooth muscles. They are also called unstriated or unstripped muscles.
Common Features
Both cardiac and smooth muscles have the following features in common.
Both are involuntary muscles i.e. they are not under our control.
They bring about contraction & relaxation type movements.
They do not fatigue, working continually throughout life.
3) Skeletal Muscles
The muscles which are attached to the skeleton (bones) are called skeletal muscles. They are
usually found in limbs.
Features
They are also known as stripped or striated muscles.
They are voluntary muscles i.e. they act according to the animals will.
They bring about free motion & locomotion.
They are attached to bones by tendons and ligaments.
One end of these muscles is attached to immoveable bone (called origin) & the other to a
moveable bone (called insertion).
They occur as antagonistic pairs i.e. pairs of muscles working appositely.
Antagonistic Movement of SM
The muscles in a pair of skeletal muscles that have apposite action are called A.M
The pair is known as antagonistic pairs & the phenomenon is called antagonism. In these muscles
when one muscle contracts, the other relaxes and vice versa.
Flexor-----the muscle that bends the bones at joint.
Extensor-----the muscle in antagonistic pair that straightens the bones at joint.
Example
Elbow joint is the best example of antagonistic pair of muscles. Bicep and triceps are the
antagonistic muscles in this joint.
Biceps
Bicep acts as flexor and bends the arm when it contracts. Its origin is scapula and insertion
point is radius.
Triceps
This muscle acts as extensor and straightens the arm when contracts. Its origin is scapula
and insertion is ulna.
*************************************
Lecture # 31
Disorders of Skeleton System
Bone + Joints + muscles
1)Osteoporosis:
GK Osteon bone
Poras Pore
The disorder in which the bones become weak and fragile.
Causes:
Demineralization of calcium deficiency.
Mineralization:
Deposition of Ca on collagen fibres from the blood.
Demineralization:
Breaking up of Ca from the bones.
Normal blood ca level.
30 mg / 100 ml
Ca b.l 30 gm/ 100 ml mineralization
Ca b.l < 30gm / 100ml Demineralization
2)Arthristis:
Related to joint.
The disorder in which the joint get inflamed resulting in painful swelling & stiffness.
Consquences:
1) Membrane liming of the joint thickness.
2) Fluid production is decreased.
3) Frictionis increased.
4) Immobility increase.
5) Mobility is complety lost.
Types:
a. Ostearthrtis:
The type of arthristis in the eartilage at joint is decreased is degenerated.
Immild case motion at joint is reduced.
In sweve case motion is permanently lost.
b. Rheumatoid Arthristis:
The type of arthritiss caused by the attack of immure system.
c. Gauty Arthristis:
The arthritis caused by goat.

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Al-Ahqar Biology Lectures For Class 10th P a g e |1

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