MO-13-10 Traffic Study Technical Report PDF

Air Quality in Halton:
Traffic Corridor Report

Major Arterial Roads
March 2010
Reference:
Halton Region Health Department, Air Quality in Halton: Traffic Corridor Report,
Oakville, Ontario: 2010
Author:
Kim McAdam, M.Sc., Environmental Health Specialist, Halton Region Health
Department
Acknowledgements:
Thank you to Peter Steer, Environmental Health Senior Policy Analyst for contributing
valuable air quality monitoring and policy expertise to this research, and editorial advice
towards the preparation of this report.
Thanks also to Dr. Monir Taha, Associate Medical Officer of Health for offering valuable
expertise in environmental health and guidance on data presentation during the
circulation of this report.
Thank you to Neil Buonocore, CleanAir Environmental Inc. for supporting this work with
regards to the technical aspects of the portable air monitoring equipment and the
sampling site selection for this study.
Finally, thank you to all of the reviewers who have offered policy direction and editorial
support from which this report has benefited greatly.
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Executive Summary
Poor outdoor air quality can cause a significant burden of illness. A large body of
evidence concludes that four of the five common air pollutantsfine particulate matter
(PM2.5), ground-level ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2)
adversely affect health at levels commonly experienced in southern Ontario1. Computer
models developed by the Ontario Medical Association, Illness Cost of Air Pollution,
predict that in 2010 these four air pollutants will contribute to over 350 premature
deaths, approximately 1,200 hospital admissions, 1,500 emergency department visits,
and nearly 400,000 minor illness days in Halton Region (ICAP Version 3, 2008).
Federal and provincial governments have used fixed stations for decades to monitor
regional air quality in Ontario. More recently, the Regional Municipality of Halton
established a fixed air monitoring station in North Halton. All of these stations provide
information on background ambient air pollution levels; they are not designed to capture
variability in air quality at a local level. Research has shown that the levels of air
pollution measured in micro-environments, such as traffic corridors, can differ
considerably from levels of air pollution measured by regional air quality monitoring
sites.
At the local level, traffic-related emissions create small-scale variations in air pollution
within a region. Research consistently documents steep decays in traffic-related air
pollution with distance from major roads and highways. It has been estimated that in
large North American cities such as Toronto, approximately 45% of the total population
live within 500 metres (m) of a highway and 33% of the total population live within 50 m
of a major road (Jerrett et al., 2007). Residents living or spending significant amounts of
time in such impact zones are more likely to be adversely affected by exposure to
traffic-related air pollution.
This report summarizes research undertaken by the Health Department to collect and
analyze air data near a secondary highway in Halton Region. The report consists of two
major sections. The first half of the report summarizes the peer-reviewed health
literature related to traffic corridors and establishes the context in which this air
monitoring study was conceptualized. The second half of the report describes the study
design, methodology, results, and discusses the implications of the results.
The purpose of this research was to use two portable air monitors to measure the
concentrations of seven air pollutants under four scenarios of distance and height from
a major road in Halton Region with greater than 30,000 vehicles per day. The goal was
to characterize the distribution of traffic-related air pollution in order to inform land-use
planning and policy regarding separation distances that are protective of sensitive land
uses such as residential, hospitals, schools, child care facilities and nursing homes.
1
An expert panel of reviewers for the Canadian Medical Association has concluded that there are no increased
health risks associated with exposure to carbon monoxide (CO) at levels present in the outdoor environment.
3
Results show that there is substantial spatial and temporal variability in the
concentrations of nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and
fine particulate matter (PM2.5) based on proximity to a secondary highway in Halton
Region. There was no evidence to suggest any measurable traffic impacts on outdoor
concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO2), ground-level ozone (O3), or carbon monoxide
(CO) based one-hour average measurements at distance or height from the road.
Outdoor air levels of NO and NOx were distinguishably higher closer to the road and
decreased with distance and height from the road. NO2 was relatively stable within 30
m distance, but demonstrated the same diurnal peak in the early morning hours
observed for NO and NOx. Height above ground had a mitigating influence on the levels
of NO, NO2, and NOx. Measured concentrations of NO, NO2 and NOx at 10 m distance
from the road and 9 m height were equal to or less than those measured at 30 m
distance at ground-level.
For PM2.5 the contribution of traffic was evident however less consistent, with elevated
levels close to the road, at further distance from the road, and pronounced at height
above ground, relative to simultaneous monitoring conducted at 30 m distance and
ground-level.
Meteorological conditions had significant impacts on the concentrations of PM2.5, NO,

NO2, and NOx with distance and height from the road. The impact of meteorological
conditions on ambient measurements of SO2, O3 and CO was not examined. Downwind
conditions typically accentuated the concentration differences observed with distance
and height. Wind speeds greater than average (>4.5 kilometres per hour) typically
attenuated the impact of downwind distance effects, and accentuated the impact of
height effects.
This study provides the Region with a detailed spatial and temporal picture of the
influence of traffic-related emissions of seven air pollutants on local air quality near a
secondary highway in Halton Region. This research can be used by the Region together
with previous studies in the published literature to support land-use planning and policy
with respect to separation distances that are protective of sensitive land-uses. Results
from this study suggest adverse health impacts associated with exposure to NO, NO2
and NOx may be mitigated by reducing exposure through improvements to building mix
and design, without limiting development near secondary highways. Recommendations
in terms of measured PM2.5 levels are inconclusive on the basis of a potentially
significant contribution of background sources to the ambient PM2.5 levels and the
secondary nature of PM2.5 formation.
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary ........................................................................................................ 3
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ 5
Glossary of Terms ........................................................................................................... 6
Abbreviations .................................................................................................................. 9
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 10
2.0 Traffic Corridors & Health Effects: Summary of the Literature................................. 12
3.0 Methodology............................................................................................................ 15
4.0 Results .................................................................................................................... 17
5.0 Discussion............................................................................................................... 31
6.0 Conclusions and Recommendations ....................................................................... 38
References.................................................................................................................... 39
Attachment 1 ................................................................................................................. 44
Attachment 2 ................................................................................................................. 45
5
Glossary of Terms
Acute exposure
One or a series of short-term exposures received over a period of 24 hours or
less.
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)

The annualized average 24-hour volume of vehicles at a given point or section of
highway. Also known as traffic count, and usually given as number of
vehicles/day.
Case-control study
A type of epidemiological study which identifies a group of people with a disease
(or other outcome) and a group of people without the disease (or other outcome),
and determines their status with respect to an exposure of interest (such as a
toxic chemical).
Chronic exposure
Exposures received over a long period of time, generally from 6 months to a
lifetime.
Coarse particulate matter (PM10)

Particles with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 microns or less.
Cohort study
A type of epidemiological study which begins with a group of people free of
disease (or outcome of interest), who are followed over time, either
retrospectively or prospectively, to examine whether those who are exposed to
an agent or insult of interest are more likely to develop a disease (or condition of
interest).
Confidence interval (CI)

A measure of the precision of an estimated value. The interval represents the
range of values, consistent with the data, that is believed to encompass the "true"
value with high probability (usually 95%). The confidence interval is expressed in
the same units as the estimate. Wider intervals indicate lower precision; narrow
intervals indicate greater precision.
Confounding factor
A factor which is an independent risk factor for the disease (or outcome of
interest), is associated with the exposure of interest, and is not in the same
causal pathway linking the exposure and disease of interest. Uncontrolled
confounding factors may bias the conclusions of a study.
Correlation coefficient
A measure of the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two
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variables. A correlation coefficient greater than 0.8 is generally described as
strong, whereas a correlation less than 0.5 is generally described as weak.
Cross-sectional study
A type of epidemiological study which examines the relationship between
exposure(s) and outcome(s) in a group of people at one point in time, that is,
without regard to past conditions.
Density
Typically measured as employment or population per square kilometre/mile.
Traffic density typically represents the combined influence of road networks and
vehicle volume.
Diurnal
Daily fluctuation, for example, in levels of pollution.
Downwind
For this study, the term downwind is used to refer to sampling conditions when
the wind is blowing from the road to the monitors, i.e., the monitors are
downwind of the road.
Effect size
A measure of the difference in outcome between intervention groups. Commonly
expressed as a risk ratio (relative risk), odds ratio, or risk difference for either/or
outcomes and as the difference in means for continuous outcomes. Also referred
to as the "treatment effect."
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5)

Particles with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 microns or less.
Hazard Ratio (HR)

A number obtained by dividing the concentration of a contaminant by its
exposure limit. A hazard ratio of one means that there is no difference between
the concentration and the exposure limit. A hazard ratio of greater than one
means that the concentration is higher than the exposure limit.
High volume road

In this report, a high-volume road is a road with greater than 30,000 vehicles per
day Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT), but does not include any of the 400
series highways (including the QEW) that traverse the Region.
Odds Ratio (OR)

A means of measuring the association between an exposure (such as toxic
substances) and a disease or condition which represents the best estimate of
relative risk. An odds ratio of greater than 1 is considered to indicate greater risk
of disease in the exposed group compared to the unexposed group.
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Primary Particulate Matter
Particulate matter emitted directly from a source.
Relative Risk (RR)

The ratio of the probability of an event (such as disease or death) occurring in the
exposed group versus a non-exposed group.
Secondary Particulate Matter

Particulate matter that is not emitted directly from a source but is formed when
other pollutants react in the atmosphere.
Sensitive land-use
A building, amenity area or outdoor space where routine or normal activities
occurring at reasonably expected times would experience one or more adverse
effects from contaminant discharges generated by a nearby facility. Common to
most examples of sensitive land uses are residential uses, hospitals, schools,
child care facilities and nursing homes.
Ultrafine particulate (UFP)

Particles less than 0.1 microns in aerodynamic diameter.
Upwind
For this study, the term upwind is used to refer to sampling conditions when the
wind is blowing to the road from the monitors, i.e., the monitors are upwind of
the road.
Urban Design
Refers to the design of the city and the physical elements within it, including both
their arrangements and their appearances and is concerned with the function and
appeal of public spaces
8
Abbreviations
AADT average annual daily traffic

AP airpointer
BC black carbon
CHD coronary heart disease
CI confidence interval
CO carbon monoxide
EC elemental carbon
FEV1 forced expiratory volume at 1 second
HAPs hazardous air pollutants
HEI Health Effects Institute
HR hazard ratio
HRHD Halton Region Health Department
LBW low birth weight
MMEF maximum mid-expiratory flow rate
MOE (Ontario) Ministry of the Environment
NO nitric oxide
NOx oxides of nitrogen
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
O3 ground-level ozone
OR odds ratio
PAHs polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PM2.5 fine particulate matter
PM10 course particulate matter
ppb parts per billion
ppm parts per million
QEW Queen Elizabeth Way
RR relative risk
SES socioeconomic status
SGA small for gestational age
SO2 sulphur dioxide
TPH Toronto Public Health
UFP ultra-fine particulate
VOCs volatile organic compounds
WD wind direction
WHO World Health Organization
g/m3 micrograms per cubic metre
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1.0 Introduction
Vehicle-related emissions are a significant source of air pollutants emitted within Halton
Region and Ontario. Based on data collected and estimated by the Ontario Ministry of
the Environment (MOE), the transportation sector appears to be the most significant
source of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) and a significant source of
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and primary fine
particulate matter (PM2.5) (MOE, 2008). The Primary PM2.5 is emitted
transportation sector is also a significant source of directly from a source.
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Canada,
accounting for approximately 24% of all GHG Secondary PM2.5 is formed
emitted in the country in 2007. The total quantity of indirectly through reactions
GHG emissions from the transportation sector has with other gases and
risen by 37% from 1990 to 2007 (Environment particles.
Canada, 2007).
Studies characterizing vehicle-related air pollution emissions consistently document

steep gradients in vehicle-related levels of air pollution near busy roads. Research has
consistently reported elevated air levels of several pollutants (specifically ultra-fine
particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide) in the near-road environment, with
concentrations decreasing exponentially with increasing distance. It has been
demonstrated that air levels can remain elevated up to 150 to 500 metres downwind of
major highways (Health Effects Institute, 2009; World Health Organization, 2005; Gilbert
et al., 2005; Zhu et al., 2002a), and up to 50 to 100 metres downwind of a major road in
Canadian cities (Gilbert et al., 2005; Jerrett et al., 2007). The wide range in air levels
and distances reflects traffic volume, the type of vehicles on the roads, and differences
in meteorological conditions such as wind speed and direction. It has been estimated
that 30% to 45% of people in large North American cities such as Toronto live within 50
to 500 metres of a major road or highway (HEI, 2009; Jerrett et al., 2007), and may thus
be exposed to levels of air pollution that are associated with elevated health risks.
A large number of epidemiological studies, published in peer-reviewed journals, have

reported statistically significant increases in a broad array of adverse health effects
using a broad range of parameters as indicators of exposure. Indicators of exposure
include traffic density (which accounts for the combined influence of road networks and
vehicle volume), vehicle volume alone, and distance or proximity from the road.
Increases in non-traumatic deaths, hospital admissions for heart and lung conditions
including asthma, reduced lung function, cancer, and adverse birth outcomes are
among the adverse health effects that have been linked to traffic corridors (Boothe &
Shendell, 2008). These epidemiological studies demonstrate that vehicle emissions can
have a significant impact on local air quality and human health.
Toronto Public Health (TPH) has estimated that traffic pollution gives rise to about 440
premature deaths and 1,700 hospital admissions each year in the City of Toronto (TPH,
2007). TPH has predicted that the implementation of comprehensive and integrated
policies that reduce vehicle travel and motor vehicle emissions by 30% could save
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nearly 200 lives per year and nearly $900 million in health care costs annually (TPH,
2007).
In Halton Region, the population and employment are expected to double by the year
2031 relative to 2001 (Ontario Ministry of Public Infrastructure Renewal, 2006). With
urban growth it is plausible to assume that an increasing number of people, vehicles on
the roads, traffic congestion, and changes in land-use patterns could increase the
number of people situated near the impact zone of major roads and highways.
Local and regional governments have the potential to influence patterns of emissions
from the transportation sector through transportation and land-use planning decisions.
In 2007, a policy paper produced by the Halton Region Health Department entitled Air
Quality, Human Health, and the Built Environment: Protecting Air Quality Through the
Land Use Planning Process identified actions that could be taken by the Region to
address air quality issues associated with land use planning and development
processes (Halton Region Health Department, 2007). A subsequent discussion paper,
Protecting Health: Air Quality and Land Use Compatibility offered a number of
directions and recommendations for the protection of human health from incompatible
land uses for consideration in the Sustainable Halton and Regional Official Plan Review
processes (HRHD, 2009). These included two recommendations directed at high
volume traffic corridors:
a) Sensitive land uses not be located closer than 150 m to highways anticipated
to have greater than 100,000 vehicles per day based on ultimate planned
capacity. At present, this would apply to only the QEW and 400-series highways;
and
b) Sensitive land uses not be located closer than 30 m to roads with greater than
30,000 vehicles per day annual average daily traffic (AADT) based on ultimate
planned capacity. Exceptions to this guidance are condominiums and mixed-use
buildings, which could locate closer than 30 m provided appropriate controls are
incorporated in the building design to protect indoor air quality for the occupants.
This report focuses on secondary highways with greater than 30,000 vehicles per day
(hereafter called high volume roads). The goal of this study is to document levels of
seven air pollutants at different distances and heights from one high volume road in
Halton Region for the purpose of informing policy development related to high volume
roads in Halton Region. The next section of this report will provide a weight of evidence
summary of the health literature related to traffic corridors and air pollution, with relative
emphasis given to systematic literature reviews and meta-analysis, with examples from
primary studies with robust methodologies and/or which may be relevant to Halton
Region because of geography, meteorology, or community design. The sections
following the literature review will address the methodology, results, and conclusions
from Haltons traffic corridor study.
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2.0 Traffic Corridors & Health Effects: Summary of the Literature
Evidence of the health effects of traffic-related air pollution has increased substantially
in recent decades. Two international health research organizations have recently
produced qualitative conclusions about the health hazards of traffic-related air pollution
based on comprehensive evaluations of the literature.
A systematic review by the World Health Organization (WHO)Health Effects of

Transport-Related Air Pollution (2005)concluded that exposure to traffic-related air
pollution:
increases the risk of mortality, particularly from cardiopulmonary causes; and
increases the risk of respiratory symptoms and respiratory diseases that are not
allergy-related.
The review also suggests that traffic corridor exposures are associated with significant
increases in the risk of other health effects including myocardial infarction, childhood
cancer, and adverse outcomes in pregnancy, although it found that the available
evidence is inconsistent for these health effects (WHO, 2005).
These conclusions were supported by a recent meta-analysis conducted by the Health

Effects Institute (HEI) in the United States. The HEI critical review of emissions,
exposures and health effects from traffic found:
evidence sufficient to infer a causal linkage between exposure to traffic-related
air pollution with the exacerbation of asthma; and
evidence suggestive to infer a causal linkage with the onset of childhood asthma,
non-asthma respiratory symptoms, impaired lung function, and all-cause and
cardiovascular mortality (HEI, 2009).
These results have been demonstrated in a wide

array of studies using a diverse range of designs Cohort study: follows a healthy
(cohort, case-control, cross-sectional), exposure group of people over time to assess
assessment methods (traffic density, distance to whether those who are exposed are
roadway, regional air monitoring, monitoring at more likely to develop a disease.
home or school, air modelling, land-use
Case-control study: examines
regression models), health outcome measures
whether a group of people with a
(self-report, physician diagnosis), and
disease were more likely to have
geographic areas (Europe, Asia, California, been exposed than a group of
Ontario). people without the disease.
While the body of literature demonstrates Cross-sectional study:
significant increases in the risk of an array of simultaneously collects information
health effects near traffic corridors, there has on exposure and disease status
been little consistency in the indicators used to among a group of people to examine
estimate exposure or in air sampling correlations.
methodology employed. There has been
considerable variation in defining traffic volume
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on busy roads. Adverse health effects have been reported with residential proximity to
roadways with traffic counts as low as 5,500 9,000 vehicles per day (English et al.,
1999) and with busy highways with more than 100,000 vehicles per day (Jerrett et al.,
2009). Some examples of these studies are highlighted below.
Toronto Non-Traumatic Deaths Short-Term

Study
Relative Risk (RR): measure used
in cohort studies to assess the risk of
In Toronto, Ontario, among a cohort of 2,360 developing a disease among the
patients diagnosed with various cardiopulmonary exposed versus the unexposed.
conditions, researchers found a 17% increase in
all non-traumatic deaths and a 40% increase in Odds Ratio (OR): measure used in
non-traumatic deaths for circulatory problems case-control studies to assess the
among patients who lived within 50 metres of a risk of developing a disease among
major road (>10,000 vehicles/day) or 100 metres the exposed versus the unexposed.
of a highway. The findings were corrected for age,
sex, lung function, obesity, smoking and RR or OR = 1 means there is no
neighbourhood deprivation (Jerrett et al., 2009). difference in risk between those
exposed and unexposed
Atherosclerosis Risk in Four Communities in the RR or OR < 1 = means there is a
United States Long-Term Study higher risk of disease among
those not exposed
Kan et al. (2008) examined the link between long- RR or OR > 1 = means there is a
term exposure to traffic and incident coronary higher risk of disease among
heart disease (CHD) in a prospective cohort of those exposed
over 13,000 healthy middle-aged men and
women. After 13 years of follow-up, there was a Hazard Ratio (HR): measure used
statistically significant 32% increase in CHD in survival analysis to assess the
frequency of a hazard in one group
observed among people living in the highest traffic
compared to another group, over
density quartile compared to the lowest (HR 1.32,
time.
95% CI 1.06-1.65). The study included adjustment
for background air levels and a number of HR = 1 means there is no
potential confounding factors (Kan et al., 2008). difference in survival between
Findings suggest that traffic-related air pollution two groups
can influence the development of CHD in healthy HR > 1 or < 1 means survival
middle-aged adults. was better in one group
compared to the other.
California Asthma Causation Long-Term Study
Confidence Interval (CI): used in
Gauderman et al. (2005) studied the relationship statistics to indicate the reliability of a
between childhood asthma and traffic-related air point estimate, e.g., there is a 95%
pollution in a cohort of 208 children from ten likelihood that the real value is within
southern California communities identified through the range of a 95% CI. The narrower
the Childrens Health Study. A history of physician- the CI, the greater the accuracy of
diagnosed asthma was statistically associated with the point estimate.
exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (OR 1.83, 95%
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CI 1.04-3.22) and residential distance to a freeway with 50,000 to 270,000 vehicles per
day (OR 1.89, 95% CI 1.19-3.02). Results were corrected for all potential confounding
factors, including environmental tobacco smoke, socio-economic status (SES), gas
stoves, mildew, water damage, pests, and pets (Gauderman et al., 2005).
California Lung Function Growth Long-Term Study
After eight years of follow-up of over 3,600 children from 12 southern California
communities enrolled in the Childrens Health Study, Gauderman et al. (2007) found
that children living within 500 metres of a freeway had significant deficits in two
measures of lung function: forced expiratory volume (FEV1 -81ml, 95% CI -143 to -18)
and maximum mid-expiratory flow rate (MMEF -127 ml/s, 95% CI -243 to -11) compared
to children living at least 1500 metres from a freeway. Local freeways and regional air
pollution had severe and independent impacts on lung function growth, which could lead
to deficits in lung function in later life. Results indicate that children living near traffic
corridors are at increased risk of health effects even in areas with low levels of
background air pollution.
Vancouver Study Birth Outcomes
Brauer et al. (2008) observed statistically significant association between traffic-related

air pollution and adverse birth outcomes in a population-based cohort of over 70,000
singleton births in Vancouver. Living within 50 metres of a highway (>21,000
vehicles/day) was associated with a 26% increase in small for gestation age (SGA) birth
(RR 1.26, 95% CI 1.07-1.49) and an 11% increase in low birth weight (LBW) birth (RR
1.11, 95% CI 1.01-1.23). There was no increased risk observed living further from the
highway (150 metres) or close to a major road (within 50 metres of a road with 15,000-
18,000 vehicles/day). Given the high correlation between NO, NO2, CO, and SO2 it was
not possible to differentiate impacts of specific pollutants.
Summary
The weight of evidence supports a high correlation between traffic-related air pollutants
and adverse health impacts (Garshick et al., 2003; Jerrett, Finkelstein et al., 2009;
Gauderman et al., 2007; Brauer et al., 2008; Brauer et al., 2002; Kim et al., 2008).
However, a conclusion about which pollutant(s) or pollutant constituent(s) are causally
linked to adverse health effects cannot be made at this time. Health effects, chronic and
acute, may result from a range of criteria air contaminants and air toxics emitted from
motor vehicles (Table 1).
Table 1: Summary of pollutants studied as indicators of traffic-related air pollution

black carbon (BC) aldehydes and metals (HAPs)
elemental carbon (EC) ultra-fine particles (UFP)
carbon monoxide (CO) fine particulate matter (PM2.5)
nitrogen oxides (NOx) course particulate matter (PM10)
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) ground-level ozone (O3)
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
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Air Monitoring Ambient Air vs. Micro-environments
Provincial and federal air monitoring systems are designed to collect and measure
ambient air quality at a regional level. These stations are purposefully sited away from
known pollution sources to provide information on background ambient air pollution
levels (RWDI, 2008). They are not intended to capture variability in air quality at a local
level or street level. Finer-scale air monitoring is necessary to capture the variability in
measured air pollution levels in local micro-environments such as traffic corridors. A
better understanding of how air levels vary with distance from major roads can help
ensure public health protection by providing information to support land-use policy in
Halton with respect to separation distances for sensitive land uses.
3.0 Methodology
Description of the sampling site
The study was conducted at the City of Burlington Fire Station #7 adjacent to Dundas
Street between June 17 and August 5, 2009. Dundas Street is Regional Road #5,
classified as a major arterial, which generally runs northeast and southwest. The Fire
Station, located at municipal address 4100 Dundas Street, is approximately halfway
between Walkers Line and Appleby Line, with an annual average daily traffic (AADT)
volume of 34,229 vehicles in 2007, approximately 96% being passenger cars (Halton
Region, 2007 ATR Summary). Dundas Street has 4 lanes, 2 eastbound and 2
westbound.
The placement of each air monitor at the study site was determined by measuring its
distance from curb-side. An aerial view of the monitoring site illustrating the location and
schedule of the two portable air monitors is shown in Attachment 1. Pictures of the air
monitoring equipment at the sampling site during each scenario of the study are shown
in Attachment 2.
Air Pollutants Targeted
Meteorological data and ambient concentrations of seven (7) air pollutants were
measured at height and several distances from Dundas Street at the sampling site
during the study term. Two portable air monitoring devices, called airpointer, owned by
Halton Region, were deployed to monitor nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
oxides of nitrogen (NOx), fine particulate matter (PM2.5), sulphur dioxide (SO2), ground-
level ozone (O3), and carbon monoxide (CO).
Measurement of other vehicle-related air pollutants that have been associated with
health impacts, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ultrafine particles,
elemental carbon, black smoke, and air toxics such as acetaldehyde, was beyond the
scope of this study.
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Air Monitoring Instruments and Accessory Equipment
The airpointer is a portable monitoring system containing monitors for the air
pollutants of interest, meteorological sensors, and a built-in data logger, identical to the
equipment at the stationary monitoring site in Milton. Meteorological and air data are
measured at five minute intervals. Data access is available through cellular
communication. The airpointer equipment has been audited by the Ontario Ministry of
the Environment (MOE)
The unit is 0.7W x 0.4D x 1.1H m and was secured to a 1.2 x 1.8 m wooden platform. A
security fence with signage was installed around the unit, with an intrusion alarm
remotely monitored. Each unit operates on one 120 volt electrical (500 watts) circuit.
The equipment was serviced by Rotek Environmental Inc. once per week during the
study.
Power to each airpointer was provided by two exterior outlets at the fire station,
identified as Hydro Line #1 and Hydro Line #2 in Attachment 1. Two 1.8L x 0.3W x 0.1H
m Reflexor Speed Bumps were temporarily installed on the sampling site driveway to
protect an extension cord traversing from the exterior outlet located at Hydro Line #2 to
the sampling location at the 10 metre distance from Dundas Street.
A DC Electric Scissor Lift was used to elevate one airpointer to height, with temporary
ground-level fencing and signage installed to secure the scissor lift and air monitor
during the sampling period.
Scenarios Monitored
Air sampling was conducted under four scenarios outlined in Table 2. Airpointer 1
remained at the same sampling location at 30 metres perpendicular to the road and at
ground-level throughout the study period, while airpointer 2 was located at four sites
throughout the study term:
at 30 metres perpendicular to the road at ground level;

at 60 metres perpendicular to the road at ground level;
at 10 metres perpendicular to the road at ground level; and
at 10 metres perpendicular to the road at 9 m height.
Table 2: Air sampling schedule for two portable air monitors

Airpointer 1 Airpointer 2
Scenario 1 Duration (Date)
Height Distance Height Distance1
1 ground 30 m ground 30 m 9 days (06/17/2009 06/25/2009)
4 ground 30 m 9m 10 m 16 days (07/21/2009 08/05/2009)
1
Distance of Airpointer in metres (m) from Dundas Street
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Wind direction influenced the duration of each sampling scenario. A minimum number of
hours with the correct wind direction (270 to 340 vector) were required to constitute a
valid sampling period for this study. Generally 40% to 50% of winds from the critical
wind sector are considered average to above average, which translates to 84 downwind
hours for a one-week period. Extension beyond a one-week period was required in
scenarios two and three to achieve the acceptable 84 hours of data with the critical wind
direction for the study. Extension beyond a two-week sampling period failed to acquire
the desired number of sampling hours in scenario four, as a result of unfavourable
meteorological conditions at the time.
Analysis
This study was an exploratory analysis based on knowledge of an exponential

dispersion in traffic-related air pollution with distance from highways and major roads.
Since there are currently gaps in the existing knowledge about which air pollutant(s), or
pollutant constituent(s), and exposure magnitudes (effect sizes) have been consistently
associated with health effects, a-priori hypotheses could not be generated to
meaningfully test for statistical significance.
This study collected five-minute average concentrations of seven air pollutants,

measured by two portable air monitors, assuming four scenarios of distance and height
from a major arterial road in Halton Region (Table 2). Five-minute average
concentrations were aggregated to one-hour averages. Analysis was completed using
SPSS statistical software. The goal was to examine variation in air levels at 10 m, 30 m,
and 60 m distance, and 9 m elevation from a secondary highway in Halton Region, in
order to inform land-use planning and policy regarding separation distances that are
protective of sensitive land-uses. The public health implications of the air data collected
are described in the discussion section following the study results.
4.0 Results
The results herein represent a total of 50 days of continuous sampling, which collected
between 1,050 and 1,208 hours of data on the air levels of sulphur dioxide (SO2),
ground-level ozone (O3), fine particulate matter (PM2.5), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides
of nitrogen (NOx), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and nitric oxide (NO), and the meteorological
conditions of temperature, wind speed, wind direction, barometric pressure, relative
humidity, and rainfall.
The average temperature during the sampling period was 20 degrees Celsius (C), with
a minimum temperature of 10.7 C and maximum temperature of 32.0 C. Wind was
generally from the southwest (227 vector) with an average speed of 4.5 kilometres per
hour (km/h) and ranging between 0.1 km/h and 16.0 km/h. Over 282 hours of data were
collected with winds from the favourable direction (270 to 340 vector). Typical
sampling conditions during each sampling scenario are described in Table 3. Table 4
17
describes the minimum, maximum and average hourly concentrations of each pollutant
measured during typical sampling conditions during the study.2
Table 3: Typical sampling conditions during each study scenario

Average Sampling Conditions Minimum Hours of
Sampling Data with
Scenario Minimum Wind Wind Speed
Days (#) Favourable Winds
Hours of Data Vector () (km/hr)
(270-340)
30 m & 30 m 9 187 185.0 4.6 35
30 m & 60 m 14 281 258.3 4.4 104
30 m & 10 m 14 231 245.5 4.6 82
30 m & height 16 343 212.0 4.8 61
Table 4: Minimum, maximum and average concentrations under typical sampling conditions
Minimum Maximum Average
AP1 AP2 AP1 AP2 AP1 AP2
SO2 (ppb) 0.0 0.0 11.0 10.0 0.0 0.0
O3 (ppb) 0.0 0.0 89.0 78.0 29.0 29.0
3
PM2.5 (g/m ) 0.0 0.0 48.0 31.0 4.0 6.0
CO (ppm) 0.0 0.0 1.28 1.54 0.24 0.25
NO (ppb) 0.0 0.0 68.0 83.0 3.0 3.0
NO2 (ppb) 0.0 0.0 27.0 30.0 6.0 6.0
NOx (ppb) 1.0 0.0 93.0 109.0 10.0 9.0
The remainder of this section will report air monitoring results organized by pollutant.
AP herein denotes airpointer, with the immediate numerical value indicating whether
the reference is to airpointer 1 or airpointer 2. The preceding -# denotes the
distance (or height) from the road, indicated as 10, 30, 60 or HT. Distances and height
are measured in metres (m). Results of typical sampling conditions (e.g. all wind
directions) are presented first. Analysis of the impact of meteorological conditions (e.g.
wind direction) is later reported and discussed.
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Ozone, (O3) and Carbon Monoxide (CO)
There was moderate to very strong correlation in SO2, O3 and CO samples between
AP1-30 and AP2-30 sited side-by-side in scenario 1. For SO2 and O3 the correlation
coefficients were each 0.96, and for CO the correlation coefficient was 0.74.
There were no distinguishable differences in SO2, O3 or CO with distance or height from

the road, as shown in Figures 1 through 3 and described in Table 5. The absolute
difference in Table 5 was calculated assuming that pollutant concentrations would be
2
Average sampling conditions were derived assuming airpointer 1 as the reference monitor throughout the study.
18
lower further from the road and higher closer to the road. A negative value (-) indicates
that the air levels were generally higher further from the road.
Results of this study indicate that there were no distinguishable differences in the
concentrations of SO2, O3 and CO with distance or height from the road when
measurements are averaged over one hour.
0.7
0.6
SO2 Concentration (ppb)
AP1
0.5
AP2
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4
Figure 1: 1-hour average SO2 concentration (ppb) during each scenario.
Scenario 1: 30 m + gound (G) and 30 m + G. Scenario 2: 30 m + G and 60 m + G.
Scenario 3: 30 m + G and 10 m + G. Scenario 4: 30 m + G and 10 m + height.
40
35
O3 Concentration (ppb)
30 AP1
25 AP2
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 2: 1-hour average O3 concentration (ppb) during each scenario.
Scenario 1: 30 m + ground (G) and 30 m + G. Scenario 2: 30 m + G and 60 m + G.
19
0.35
0.30
CO Concentration (ppm)
0.25 AP1
0.20 AP2
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
Figure 3: 1-hour average CO concentration (ppm) during each scenario.
Table 5: Difference in 1-hour average SO2, O3 & CO air levels between AP1 & AP2 by scenario3
Absolute difference between AP1 and AP2 SO2 (ppb) O3 (ppb) CO (ppm)
Scenario 2: 30m+G & 60m+G (AP1-30 minus AP2-60) 0.0 0.4 -0.01
Scenario 3: 30m+G & 10m+G (AP2-10 minus AP1-30) 0.1 -0.9 -0.02
Scenario 4: 30m+G & 10m+HT (AP1-30 minus AP2-HT) 0.0 0.7 0.02
Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
There was very strong correlation in PM2.5 samples between the two monitors sited
side-by-side in scenario 1. The correlation coefficient for PM2.5 was 0.98.
Figure 4 illustrates that the one-hour average PM2.5 concentration was 27% higher at 60
m distance relative to 30 m distance at ground-level in scenario 2, indicating PM2.5 was
higher further from the road. This unexpected finding is discussed further in the
discussion section of this report. However in scenario 3, the one-hour average PM2.5
concentration was 39% higher at 10 m distance relative to 30 m distance at ground-
level, indicating PM2.5 was higher closer to the road. Scenario 4, like scenario 3, also
shows higher concentrationsat 9 m heightcloser to the road.
3
The absolute difference in hourly concentrations was calculated under the hypothesis that pollution levels would be
lower further from the road and higher closer to the road. A negative value (-) indicates that average hourly
concentrations were higher at monitoring conducted further from the road. The absolute difference was not
calculated when the monitors were side-by-side at 30m distance.
20
10
PM2.5 Concentration (g/m 3)
8
AP1
6
AP2
4
0
3
Figure 4: 1-hour PM2.5 concentration (g/m ) during each scenario.
With monitors sited at 10 m and 30 m distances and ground-level in scenario 3, the

hourly average PM2.5 concentration throughout the day was consistently 0.8-1.8 g/m3
higher closer to the road (10 m), with a slight diurnal peak observed between 6:00 a.m.
and 8:00 a.m., as shown in Figure 5. In contrast to scenario 2 findings which indicate
higher concentrations further from the road, this finding does suggest that vehicle
emissions may be a significant source of localized PM2.5 exposure close to major roads.
9
8
PM2.5 Concentration (g/m 3)
7 AP1:
6 30 m +
ground
5
AP2:
4 10m +
ground
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Hour of Day
Figure 5: Diurnal pattern in 1-hour average PM2.5 concentration (g/m 3).
Scenario 3: monitors located at 30 m and 10 m distance and ground-level.
Also shown by data in Figure 4, as mentioned above, the one-hour average PM2.5
concentration was 38% higher at 9 m height and 10 m distance relative to 30 m
21
distance and ground-level in scenario 4. This trend was also observed in the diurnal
pattern (Figure 6), and suggests that 9 m height above ground in close proximity to the
road does not offer protection from traffic emissions of PM2.5 near secondary highways.
12
PM2.5 concentration (g/m 3)
10
AP1:
30 m +
8
ground
6 AP2:
10 m +
4 height
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Hour of Day
Figure 6: Diurnal pattern in 1-hour average PM2.5 concentration (g/m 3).
Scenario 4: monitors located at 30 m + ground and 10 m + 9 m height.
The absolute difference in one-hour average PM2.5 concentrations between AP1 and
AP2 during scenarios 2 through 4 is summarized in Table 6. The absolute difference is
again calculated assuming that concentrations would be lower further from the road and
higher closer to the road, with a negative value indicating the unexpected observation of
higher concentrations further away from the road.
Table 6: Difference in 1-hour average PM2.5 concentrations between AP1 and AP2 by scenario4
Absolute difference between AP1 and AP2 PM2.5 (g/m3)
Scenario 2: 30m+G & 60m+G (AP1-30 minus AP2-60) -0.8
Scenario 3: 30m+G & 10m+G (AP2-10 minus AP1-30) 1.5
Scenario 4: 30m+G & 10m+HT(AP1-30 minus AP2-HT) 2.4
Nitric Oxide (NO), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), and Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
There was very strong correlation in NO, NO2 and NOx samples between the two
monitors sited side-by-side in scenario 1. The correlation coefficients exceeded 0.97 for
each pollutant.
In addition to establishing correlation in scenario 1, a temporal pattern emerged,

possibly corresponding to traffic volume. Figures 7 through 9 illustrate a pronounced
4
Refer to footnote 3 on page 20 for further detail on calculation of the absolute difference
22
diurnal peak in the hourly average concentrations of NO, NO2 and NOx between 5:00
a.m. and 9:00 a.m. coinciding with the morning commute.
18
16
NO Concentration (ppb)
14 AP1:
12 30 m +
ground
10
8 AP2:
30 m +
6 ground
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Hour of Day
Figure 7: Diurnal pattern in 1-hour average NO concentration (ppb).
Scenario 1: monitors side-by-side 30 m + ground-level.
16
14
NO2 Concentration (ppb)
12 AP1:
30 m +
10 ground
8 AP2:
6 30 m +
ground
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Hour of Day
Figure 8: Diurnal pattern in 1-hour average NO2 concentration (ppb).
Scenario 1: monitors side-by-side 30 m + ground-level.
23
35
NOx Concentration (ppb) 30
AP1:
25
30 m +
20 ground
AP2:
15 30 m +
ground
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Hour of Day
Figure 9: Diurnal pattern in 1-hour average NOx concentration (ppb).
Scenario 1: monitors sited side-by-side 30 m + ground-level.
Figures 10 through 12 illustrate that the one-hour average concentrations of NO, NO2
and NOx were distinguishably higher closer to the road. Specifically,
In scenario 2, concentrations of NO, NO2 and NOx were 62%, 10% and 23%
higher 30 m from the road relative to 60 m from the road, at ground-level.
In scenario 3, concentrations of NO and NOx were 44% and 19% higher 10 m
from the road relative to 30 m from the road, at ground-level. The difference in
NO2 between 10 m and 30 m was not notable.
In scenario 4, there were no significant differences in the concentrations of NO,
NO2 and NOx at 30 m and ground-level and at 10 m distance at 9 m height.
5
AP1
4
AP2
3
0
Figure 10: 1-hour average NO concentration (ppb) during each scenario.
24
9
8
7
6
5 AP1
4 AP2
3
2
1
0
Figure 11: 1-hour average NO2 concentration (ppb) during each scenario.
14
12
NOx Concentration (ppb)
10
AP1
8
AP2
6
0
Figure 12: 1-hour average NOx concentration (ppb) during each scenario.
As shown by figures 13 and 15, for NO and NOx, the concentration difference was most
pronounced at the start of the morning rush hour. When monitors were paired at 30 m
and 60 m at ground-level, air levels were between 3.0 and 4.0 ppb higher closer to the
road (30 m) at 6:00 a.m. When monitors were paired at 30 m and 10 m at ground-level,
air levels were nearly 5.0 to 6.0 ppb higher closer to the road (10 m) between 5:00 a.m
and 7:00 a.m. These findings indicate that the variation of NO and NOx by distance
from the road is also dependant on the time of the day.
25
N O C o n c e n tra tio n (p p b ) 25 14
AP1: 30m+G 12
20 AP1: 30m+G
AP2: 10m+G 10 AP2: 10m+HT
15
8
10 6
4
5
2
0
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Time of the Day Time of the Day
Figure 13: Diurnal pattern in 1-hour average NO concentration (ppb).
Scenario 3 (left): 30m + ground (G) and 10m + G. Scenario 4 (right): 30m + G and 10m + 9m height
12 12
N O 2 C o n c e n tra tio n (p p b )
AP1: 30m+G AP1: 30m+G

10 10
AP2: 10m+G AP2: 10m+HT
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Figure 14: Diurnal pattern in 1-hour average NO2 concentration (ppb).
35 25
N O x C o n c e n tra tio n (p p b )
30 AP1: 30m+G AP1: 30m+G

20
25 AP2: 10m+G AP2: 10m+HT
20 15
15 10
10
5
5
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Figure 15: Diurnal pattern in 1-hour average NOx concentration (ppb).
26
Figures 13 through 15 illustrate the hourly average concentrations of NO, NO2, and NOx
during scenario 3 (30 m & 10 m, ground-level), and scenario 4 (30 m, ground & 10 m,
height). During scenario 3, ground-level concentrations were notably higher closer to
the road (e.g. 10 m). However in scenario 4, concentrations at 9 m height and 10 m
distance appear nearly identical to ground-level concentrations at 30 m distance.
The absolute difference in one-hour average NO, NO2 and NOx concentrations between
AP1 and AP2 during scenarios 2 through 4 of the study are summarized in Table 7.
Once again, a negative value indicates the unexpected observation of higher
concentration further away from the road.
Table 7: Difference in 1-hour average NO, NO2, NOx air levels between AP1 & AP2 by
scenario5
Absolute difference between AP1 and AP2 NO (ppb) NO2 (ppb) NOX (ppb)
Scenario 2: 30m+G & 60m+G (AP1-30 minus AP2-60) 1.3 0.5 1.8
Scenario 3: 30m+G & 10m+G (AP2-10 minus AP1-30) 1.6 0.2 1.8
Scenario 4: 30m & 10m + HT (AP1-30 minus AP2-HT) -0.1 -0.3 -0.3
Impact of Meteorological Conditions on PM2.5, NO, NO2 and NOx
Further analysis was undertaken to examine the impact of meteorological conditions

specifically the impact of wind directionon pollutants which demonstrated
distinguishable distance effects in the above analysis. Traditionally, concurrent upwind
and downwind measurements are very useful to determine the impact of a point (or in
the case of a road, a linear) source. Unfortunately, the limitations imposed by resources
and logistics did not allow such concurrent measurements. However, a more coarse
assessment of the impact of wind direction was conducted within the following results.
Figures 16 through 19 graphically illustrate the one-hour average concentrations of

PM2.5, NOx, NO2 and NO under downwind conditions, e.g., winds coming from the
direction of the road (270 to 340 vector), and upwind conditions, e.g., winds heading
from the monitors towards the road (90 to160 vector) during each sampling scenario.
The violet and yellow bars illustrate concentrations under downwind conditions, and the
mauve and pale blue bars illustrate concentrations under upwind conditions. The figures
graphically describe the absolute concentrations for illustrative purposes; the percent
difference in concentrations between distances under downwind and upwind conditions
is discussed. Table 8, following the figures, summarizes the average downwind
concentrations and upwind concentrations of all pollutants sampled throughout the
entire study; however, only PM2.5, NOx, NO2 and NO are examined in detail.
5
Refer to footnote 3 on page 20 for description of the calculation of absolute difference
27
PM2.5 Concentration (g/m 3) 12
10
AP1 Downwind
8
AP1 Upwind
6
AP2 Downwind
4 AP2 Upwind
0
Figure 16: 1-hour average upwind and downwind concentration of PM2.5 (g/m 3).
Scenario 1: 30m + ground (G) and 30m + G. Scenario 2: 30m + G and 60m + G.
Scenario 3: 30m + G and 10m + G. Scenario 4: 30m + G and 10m + height.
9
8
7
6 AP1 Downwind
5 AP1 Upwind
4 AP2 Downwind
3 AP2 Upwind
2
1
0
Figure 17: 1-hour average upwind and downwind concentration of NO (ppb).
Scenario 1: 30m+ ground (G) and 30m + G. Scenario 2: 30m + G and 60m + G.
28
12
10
8
AP1 Downwind
6
AP1 Upwind
4 AP2 Downwind
AP2 Upwind
2
0
Figure 18: 1-hour average upwind and downwind concentration of NO2 (ppb).
Scenario 1: 30m + ground (G) and 30m + G. Scenario 2: 30m + G and 60m + G.
20
18
16
NOx Concentration (ppb)
14
12 AP1 Downwind
10 AP1 Upwind
8 AP2 Downwind
6 AP2 Upwind
4
2
0
Figure 19: 1-hour average upwind and downwind concentration of NOx (ppb).
Scenario 1: 30m + ground (G) and 30m + G. Scenario 3: 30m + G and 60m + G. Scenario
3: 30m + G and 10 m + G. Scenario 4: 30m + G and 10m + height.
Table 8: Average downwind and upwind concentrations of each pollutant throughout the study
Average Downwind concentration Upwind concentration
1-hour concentration (270 to 340) (90 to160)
AP1 AP2 AP1 AP2
SO2 (ppb) 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.2
O3 (ppb) 25.0 25.0 40.2 41.9
3
PM2.5 (g/m ) 3.5 5.4 5.7 6.1
CO (ppm) 0.20 0.20 0.27 0.30
NO (ppb) 3.9 4.4 2.5 3.1
NO2 (ppb) 5.2 5.6 6.4 6.6
NOx (ppb) 9.6 10.5 9.4 10.3
29
Wind direction had a significant impact on the concentrations of PM2.5, NO, NO2 and
NOx with distance and height from the road. At ground-level (scenarios 1 through 3 in
figures 16 through 19), the percent difference in the one-hour average concentrations of
PM2.5, NO, NO2 and NOx between monitoring distances were intensified when the
winds were coming directly from the road (e.g., downwind conditions).
At height (scenario 4 of figures 16 through 19), data indicate the one-hour average
downwind concentration of PM2.5 was distinguishably higher at 10 m distance and 9 m
height than at 30 m distance and ground-level. In contrast, for NO, NO2 and NOx, data
indicate the one-hour average concentrations were distinguishably lower at 10 m
distance and 9 m height than at 30 m distance and ground-level under downwind
conditions.
Table 9 summarizes the percent and absolute difference in the one-hour average
downwind concentrations of PM2.5, NO, NO2 and NOx at 10 m and ground-level, 60 m
and ground-level, and 10 m at height, relative to simultaneous monitoring at 30 m and
ground-level.
Table 9: Percent and absolute increase or decrease in the 1-hour average downwind
concentration of PM2.5, NO, NO2 & NOx relative to monitoring 30 m from the road at ground.
10 m distance +
10 m from the roada 60 m from the roada
Pollutant 9 m heighta
Percent Absolute Percent Absolute Percent Absolute
PM2.5 83% 2.0 g/m3 45% 1.3 g/m3 54% 2.8 g/m3
NO 58% 2.2 ppb 68% 1.3 ppb 33% 1.5 ppb
NO2 11% 0.4 ppb 22% 1.0 ppb 1% 0.1 ppb
NOx 33% 2.2 ppb 1% 0.1 ppb 14% 1.6 ppb
a
relative to simultaneous monitoring at 30 m from the road and ground-level.
Sub-study: Analysis of the impact of meteorological conditions using 5-minute data
The influence of wind conditions on ambient measurements was examined in greater

detail for all seven pollutants (SO2, O3, CO, PM2.5, NOx, NO2 and NO) using the 5-
minute data.
A brief period on June 19, 2009 during scenario 1 saw the winds steadily fluctuate from
a downwind direction, to an upwind direction, to running parallel to the road over a 2.5
hour period during the morning rush hour between 5:40 a.m. and 7:50 a.m. This allowed
more detailed examination of ambient measurements at 30 m from the road and
ground-level using five 5-minute intervals of data with winds coming directly from the
road, heading towards the road, and running parallel to the road (Table 10). However,
caution is required in extrapolating results presented in Table 10, as this subset of
measurements represents a very short sampling interval, in which shifting winds on a
particular day would also be associated with a unique set of background pollution levels.
30
Table 10: Example of five-minute average air data measured by airpointer 1 with wind
direction downwind, upwind, and parallel to the road on June 19, 2009.
Downwind Concentration Upwind Concentration Parallel Concentration
5:40 am 6:05 am 6:55 am 7:20 am 7:25 am 7:50 am
SO2 (ppb) 0.09 0.01 0.43
O3 (ppb) 3.00 3.73 2.71
CO (ppm) 0.49 0.47 0.63
3
PM2.5 (g/m ) 7.98 10.45 11.42
NOx (ppb) 56.94 40.22 88.74
NO2 (ppb) 21.42 16.60 23.31
NO (ppb) 35.52 23.62 65.44
Table 10 shows that concentrations were highest when winds were parallel to the road
for all pollutants except O3. Concentrations of NOx, NO2 and NO were consistently
higher when winds were coming directly from the road (downwind versus upwind),
demonstrating the significant influence of traffic emissions on ambient concentrations of
NOx, NO2 and NO in the near-road environment.
In contrast, PM2.5 levels were higher with winds upwind of the road (versus downwind),
suggesting that the background contribution of PM2.5 was more influential than traffic
emissions on ambient concentrations at 30 m distance and ground-level, from a road
with >30,000 vehicles per day. The increased concentration of PM2.5 under the parallel
wind direction is consistent with other findings, particularly for O3 which drops under
parallel winds as may be expected because of a scavenging effect (discussed later),
and thus suggests a significant contribution by traffic emissions.
The hourly average wind speed during each sampling scenario indicated that winds
were generally light throughout the study period (refer to Table 3 on page 18). Further
examination of the 5-minute data revealed that wind speeds in the morning hours were
consistently lighter than wind speeds in the late afternoon and evening hours (data not
shown). Higher wind speeds late afternoon and early evening resulting in faster
horizontal dispersion and greater vertical mixing may have attenuated the impact of
traffic emissions on ambient concentrations during the evening commute.
5.0 Discussion
This study measured the concentrations of seven air pollutants, by two portable air
monitors, assuming four scenarios of distance and height from a secondary highway in
Halton Region. The goal of this study was to characterize the distribution of traffic-
related air pollution near a high volume road with greater than 30,000 vehicles per day
in order to inform land-use planning and policy regarding separation distances that are
protective of sensitive land-uses.
31
This study was limited to direct air monitoring and did not include modelling of
atmospheric chemistry or dispersion process. Analysis was completed using SPSS
software; statistical analysis was not undertaken.
This study has shown that there is spatial and temporal variation in the concentrations
of NO, NO2, NOx, and PM2.5, with proximity to a secondary highway in Halton Region.
Outdoor air levels of NO and NOx were distinguishably higher close to the road and
decreased with distance from the road. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) was relatively stable
within 30 m distance from the road, but demonstrated the same pronounced diurnal
peak in the early morning hours evident for NO and NOx. For PM2.5, the contribution of
traffic was evident however less consistent, with elevated levels closest to the road, with
effects carrying to further distance and pronounced at height. There was no evidence to
suggest any differences in the concentrations of SO2, O3 and CO with distance or height
from the road based on analysis of one-hour average data.
Meteorological conditions (specifically wind direction) had significant impacts on the

concentrations of PM2.5, NO, NO2 and NOx at all distances from the road. Downwind
conditions accentuated the differences in air levels of PM2.5, NO, NO2, and NOx
observed with distance and height from the road. Wind speeds greater than average
typically attenuated the impact of downwind conditions on distance effects, and
accentuated the impact on height effects (data not shown). The impact of wind direction
on SO2, O3, and CO was not analyzed in detail, though analysis of 5-minute data
indicated that both SO2 and CO increased under parallel wind conditions and O3
decreased, as may be predicted.
The remainder of this discussion will focus on further examination of NO, NO2, NOx and
PM2.5, and also summarize the strengths and limitations of this study.
Oxides of Nitrogen, Nitric Oxide & Nitrogen Dioxide
Downwind concentrations of NO and NOx were on average 2.2 ppb higher 10 m from
the road relative to simultaneous sampling 30 m from the road, and NO was 1.3 ppb
higher 30 m from the road relative to simultaneous sampling 60 m from the road.
Our finding of elevated NO and NOx close to the road is supported by previous
research from the Raleigh Near-Road Study in North Carolina, which found that NO
more closely tracks roadway activity than NO2 (Thoma et al., 2008).
For NO2, the relatively stable level observed within 30 m from the road, and higher
concentration observed further from the road at 60 m likely in part reflects atmospheric
transformation processes. NOx emissions from transportation are predominantly
emitted as NO (>90%), with the remaining 5 to 10% emitted as NO2. NO is chemically
converted to NO2 in the atmosphere as a function of the intensity of turbulent mixing,
sunlight, and the concentration of ground-level ozone. An increase in the concentration
of NO2 further from the road at 60 m may reflect its rate of formation from traffic-emitted
32
NO reacting with ground-level ozone, which has been suggested to occur within tens of
seconds of emissions from the tailpipe (Health Effects Institute, 2009).
Results of this study clearly indicate that NO and NOx may be the preferred indicators
to monitor the spatial distribution of traffic-related air pollution for a secondary highway.
For a road with greater volume however, in which air sampling is conducted further from
the road, the steep distance decay in NO (and atmospheric conversion to NO2) has
been suggested to lead to air sampling detection difficulty at further distance (Levy et
al., 2006). This implies that NO2 may be more appropriate to monitor the spatial
distribution of traffic-related air pollution from a highway or freeway.
Health and air studies have most commonly used NO2 as the indicator to evaluate
health and environmental effects of traffic-related air pollution with distance from a
highway or freeway. A greater ratio of diesel transport fleet compared to passenger cars
on highways and freeways may also contribute to a stronger gradient in NO2 as a result
of direct vehicle emissions. In Europe, the ratio of NO2/NOx from road traffic emissions
has increased over the last decade. This has been attributed to an increase in direct
NO2 emissions as the result of an increased use of oxidizing catalytic converters in
diesel vehicles combined with an increase in the number of diesel vehicles on the road
(Keuken et al., 2009; Kousoulidou et al., 2008).
The degree of the distance-decay is also a function of the reactivity of the pollutant. In
this study, air sampling was conducted exclusively in the summer season. A higher
intensity of turbulence and/or concentration of O3 may have contributed to a high rate of
atmospheric NO2 formation within 30 m distance from the road. It is possible that the
sampling season impacted the measurements collected, and that different
measurements may have been obtained under winter meteorological conditions
(Moreno et al., 2009; Roorda-Knape et al., 1998).
The effect of the reactivity of summer O3 levels on the concentration of NOx compounds
is shown by air data from scenario 1 in figure 20. Chemical transformation processes
near the road can clearly reduce the concentrations of primary pollutants emitted from
motor vehicles (NOx), and result in the formation of secondary pollutants (O3). Figure 20
illustrates the ozone scavenging effect reducing O3 when NOx is elevated early
morning (yet before sunlight begins to elevate O3) as well as the photochemical reaction
between NOx and VOCs observed in the secondary formation of O3 as the sun is at its
strongest around the noon hour with resulting accumulations of O3 into the late
afternoon.
33
60
50 Ozone AP1
30m+G
Concentration (ppb)
40 Ozone AP2
30m+G
30
NOx AP1
20 30m+G
NOx AP2
10 30m+G
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Hour of Day
Figure 20: Diurnal pattern in 1-hour average O3 and NOx concentration (ppb).
Scenario 1: AP1 sited 30 m + ground (G) and AP2 sited 30 m + G.
Our observation of a prominent peak in the levels of NOx, NO and NO2 corresponding
to higher traffic volume during the morning rush-hour is consistent with previous
research. In a near-road air monitoring study conducted by Moreno et al., (2009), NO
and NO2 levels increased with traffic flow after 5:00 am and reached a prominent peak
between 8:00 am - 9:00 am. The sampling season had a significant impact, with peak
NO levels increasing three-fold (16 ppb) in the summer and six-fold (40 ppb) in the
winter. Our study found that downwind concentrations of NO and NOx during the
summer were on average 6.7 ppb and 8.7 ppb higher 10 m from the road compared to
30 m from the road during the morning rush hour.
Although the spike in air pollution observed in this study dissipates within hours, high-
risk populations such as children, the elderly, and those with a pre-existing
cardiovascular or respiratory condition have been suggested to be particularly
vulnerable to such transient spikes (Delfino et al., 2002). While research is still
emerging, these brief peaks in air levels may saturate natural lung defence mechanisms
in those compromised by age or by a pre-existing condition. It follows that information
on the frequency, duration and magnitude of transient peaks in air pollution near high
volume roads (as well as point sources of emissions) should be considered in
developing land-use policy on separation distances that are protective of public health.
As this study was restricted to air monitoring, epidemiological data on adverse health
events was not collected in the study area during air sampling. However, an
epidemiological study would have lacked sufficient power to demonstrate true adverse
health effects with a relatively small population size.
Results indicate that height above ground has a mitigating influence on the air levels of
NO, NOx, and NO2. At 10 m distance from the road, concentrations at 9 m height were
similar to or less than those measured at 30 m distance and ground-level. On this basis,
our results suggest that individuals living or working in the second or third storey of a
building located 10 m from a major road, may be exposed to lower NO, NOx, NO2
34
concentrations than they are exposed to at ground-level6. The finding of decreased NOx
pollutants with height has important implications for new residential development in
Halton as the Region prepares plans to accommodate growth into the year 2031. Our
results suggest that adverse health impacts associated with exposure to NO, NOx, and
NO2 near high volume roads may be mitigated by reducing exposure through
improvements to building type and design, without limiting development in the near-road
environment. The consideration of the effect of height on PM2.5, which in our study did
not behave like the NOx pollutants, is discussed in the next section.
Fine Particulate Matter
This study found measurable impacts of the contribution of traffic to ambient PM2.5
concentrations with distance and height from the road. Results indicate that PM2.5 is
elevated close to the road, at further distance from the road, and at height above
ground. Downwind concentrations of PM2.5 were 83% higher (2.0 g/m3) 10 m from the
road, 45% higher (1.3 g/m3) 60 m from the road, and 54% higher (2.8 g/m3) 10 m
from the road at 9 m height relative to reference monitoring conducted at 30 m distance
and ground-level.
The higher concentration of PM2.5 at further distance from the road is consistent with
results from bridge traffic studies conducted by the Ontario Ministry of the Environment,
along the Sarnia-Windsor corridor (MOE, 2004; MOE, 2005). During normal, free-
flowing traffic conditions, air monitoring results saw very minor increases in the level of
PM2.5 close to the road, with the level increasing slightly further from the road (MOE,
2004; MOE, 2005). Although the MOE studies were conducted on roads transporting a
significantly different vehicle mix (e.g., diesel truck traffic with dispersion of air
emissions influenced by exhaust pipe height), the trend suggests that PM2.5 from traffic
travels further downwind from the line source (MOE, 2005). Higher wind speeds may
disperse particulates more quickly (Roorda-Knape et al., 1998), attenuating the
downwind gradient in PM2.5 concentration observed with distance from the road.
These findings are supported by a recent systematic review from the World Health
Organization on the Health Effects of Transportation Related Air Pollution which
concluded that the highest concentrations of secondary pollutants such as PM2.5 and O3
may occur at considerable distance from the roadway (WHO, 2005).
The higher concentration of PM2.5 further from the road may be partially explained by its
nature as a secondary pollutant. As mentioned in the introduction, PM2.5 is directly
emitted into the atmosphere during the combustion of fossil fuels (primary PM2.5) and
also forms secondarily in the atmosphere through reactions among a number gaseous
compounds and solid particles emitted from motor vehicles and other sources. Although
the same source may contribute to primary and secondary PM2.5, the distribution of
6
On the other hand, it is theoretically possible that when buildings are extremely close together and tall enough to
create a canyon effect pollutant concentrations may decrease with height at a much slower rate than when air can
move easily laterally. Comparison of outdoor to indoor air concentrations was beyond the scope of this study.
35
primary and secondary particles in the atmosphere differs. Where primary PM2.5 may
rapidly decrease with distance from the road, secondary PM2.5 may increase with
distance downwind of the road (White, 2010).
Furthermore, PM2.5 is a regional pollutant and is suggested to be well-mixed and

relatively homogeneous across a region. Although the transportation sector is a major
source of primary PM2.5, given a substantial contribution from long-range atmospheric
transportation the higher concentration of PM2.5 further from the road may also partially
be explained by background air levels (HEI, 2009; Lena et al., 2002; Morawska et al.,
1999). At further distance from the road, traffic emissions of PM2.5 may be more likely to
have mixed with other emissions in the study area and from beyond. In a study of the
horizontal and vertical profile of particulates in relation to a busy road in Australia,
Morawska et al, (1999) found no statistically significant differences in PM2.5 at ground-
level and distances from 15 m to 200 m from the road.
PM2.5 also differed from NOx compounds in its pattern of exposure vertically. Relative to
air sampling at ground-level and 30 m distance from the road, the downwind
concentration of PM2.5 was substantially higher 10 m from the road at 9 m height, with
effects accentuated by higher winds.
There is a limited amount of research on the distribution of traffic emissions at height.

However, our findings are similar to those of Morawska et al. (1999) in which
concentrations of PM2.5 at 15 m distance and elevation were up to three-fold higher than
the reference ground-level concentration. This suggests that the plume for undiluted fine
particulates may be drawn upwards from the road.
Turbulent mixing and atmospheric stability may also have had a significant impact on
the dispersion of PM2.5 from the road, and the resulting ambient concentrations.
Turbulence is predominant in mixing and diluting pollutants under low wind speed
conditions (Solazzo et al., 2007), typical of our sampling period.
Results from this study indicate that height above ground near high volume roads does
not have the same potential health protection effect for PM2.5 that is observed for NOx,
NO, and NO2. In terms of separation distance, if the PM2.5 plume travels with distance
further downwind, a 30 m buffer zone may not be sufficient to protect public health from
transportation-related emissions; however, if downwind concentrations are elevated as
a result of non-road sources, there may not be any additional health benefit to a
separation distance beyond 30 m. As this study was limited to air monitoring of outdoor
concentrations at distance and height from the road, analysis of source attribution was
not undertaken. Simultaneous measurements of upwind and downwind concentrations
may also help to further characterize the uncertainties in PM2.5 concentrations in relation
to high volume roads.
36
Study Strengths & Limitations
A unique strength of this study was the methodological rigour and duration of
continuous air sampling. Continuous real-time air sampling was conducted over a 50-
day period, at two sites simultaneously, with the same sampling and quality
assurance/quality control procedures (QA/QC) at all sites. The quality of the
methodology ensures that differences in air measurements between two sites were
most likely the result of true differences in the spatial and temporal distribution of traffic
emissions on a high-volume road, as opposed to sampling, meteorological, temporal, or
methodological variability. Greater rigour could only have been achieved through
continuous sampling at all four sites simultaneously and with concurrent upwind
sampling.
Although sampling was conducted exclusively through the summer, conditions were
relatively stable during the sampling period. During the summer of 2009, regional air
quality (referring to the combined effect of PM2.5 and O3) was considerably healthier
than typical for southern Ontario. There were no smog episodes in Halton-Peel and only
one exceedance of an air standard during the sampling period, in which the 1-hour O3
concentration peaked at 89 ppb at noon on June 21, 2009. Relatively stable air
conditions facilitated the analysis of the local microenvironment air trends, with an
absence of extreme day-to-day temperature and meteorological fluctuations.
Conclusions from this study are based on air monitoring and measurement of a limited
number of pollutants on a secondary highway (>30,000 vehicles/day) such that the
study did not capture all exposures of interest from a public health perspective.
Specifically, a number of studies have implicated ultra-fine particles (UFP) as key
markers of transportation-related air pollution, with links to adverse health effects. It has
recently been suggested that while traffic emissions contribute to PM2.5 at the regional
level, traffic emissions impact UFP at the local level in the near-road micro-environment.
For example, one study found that traffic volume explained little variability in PM2.5
concentration, but had a significant impact on UFP count (Kaur & Nieuwenhuijsen,
2009); meanwhile, other studies have found poor correlation between UFP count and
PM2.5 measurements in the near-road environment (Hagler et al., 2009; Molnar et al.,
2002).
Furthermore, in our study the magnitude and distribution of traffic emissions of PM2.5
may have been underestimated with a low volume of diesel transport traffic on Dundas
Street (<4%).
Finally, vehicular volume was estimated. Haltons airpointer equipment lacks counting
instrumentation, such that conclusions regarding peak in concentrations corresponding
with higher vehicle volume during the morning rush hour are based on well established
assumptions supported by the literature rather than direct vehicle counts.
37
6.0 Conclusion and Recommendations
The adverse health impacts of vehicle-related air pollution are well documented in the
literature. This near-road air monitoring study provides the Region with Halton-specific
data, which adds to the weight of evidence from other air monitoring studies, to
conclude that the concentrations of oxides of nitrogen and to some extent, fine
particulate matter, are distinguishably elevated in close proximity to high volume roads.
This study also indicated that concentrations of NOx compounds decrease with
increasing distance from the road and height above ground.
This research can be used by the Region, together with previous studies in the
published literature, to support the development of a Land Use Compatibility Guideline
for sensitive land use development near major arterial roads in Halton Region, as
referenced in section 143(12) of the Regional Official Plan Amendment 38.
Results from this study add to the weight of evidence of the need for prudent measures
to protect sensitive receptors from elevated concentrations of vehicle-related air
pollution measured near high volume roads.
38
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43
Attachment 1
Location of the two common air pollutant monitors at the sampling site of the traffic
corridor study
Burlington Fire Dept

Hydro Line #2 (10, 30 metres) #7 Dundas and
120 volt power available in
front of building receptacle Berwick
Hydro
lines Cable
protector
Hydro Line #1 (60 metres)
Outside 120 volt receptacle
Scissor jack
44
Attachment 2
Airpointer equipment during each scenario of traffic corridor study
30m
60m
30msidebyside
2.a) 30 m & 30m, ground-level (scenario 1) 2.b) 30 m & 60 m, ground-level (scenario 2)
9m
10m
10m
2.c) 30 m & 10 m, ground-level (scenario 3) 2.d) 30 m, ground & 10 m, height (scenario 4)
45

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Meteorological conditions had significant impacts on the concentrations of PM2.5, NO,

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ 5

Glossary of Terms ........................................................................................................... 6

1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 10

2.0 Traffic Corridors & Health Effects: Summary of the Literature................................. 12

4.0 Results .................................................................................................................... 17

6.0 Conclusions and Recommendations ....................................................................... 38

Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)

Coarse particulate matter (PM10)

Confidence interval (CI)

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5)

Hazard Ratio (HR)

High volume road

Odds Ratio (OR)

Relative Risk (RR)

Secondary Particulate Matter

Ultrafine particulate (UFP)

AADT average annual daily traffic

Studies characterizing vehicle-related air pollution emissions consistently document

A large number of epidemiological studies, published in peer-reviewed journals, have

A systematic review by the World Health Organization (WHO)Health Effects of

These conclusions were supported by a recent meta-analysis conducted by the Health

These results have been demonstrated in a wide

Toronto Non-Traumatic Deaths Short-Term

California Lung Function Growth Long-Term Study

Vancouver Study Birth Outcomes

Brauer et al. (2008) observed statistically significant association between traffic-related

Table 1: Summary of pollutants studied as indicators of traffic-related air pollution

Air Pollutants Targeted

at 30 metres perpendicular to the road at ground level;

Table 2: Air sampling schedule for two portable air monitors

This study was an exploratory analysis based on knowledge of an exponential

This study collected five-minute average concentrations of seven air pollutants,

Table 3: Typical sampling conditions during each study scenario

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Ozone, (O3) and Carbon Monoxide (CO)

There were no distinguishable differences in SO2, O3 or CO with distance or height from

Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5)

With monitors sited at 10 m and 30 m distances and ground-level in scenario 3, the

In addition to establishing correlation in scenario 1, a temporal pattern emerged,

AP1: 30m+G AP1: 30m+G

30 AP1: 30m+G AP1: 30m+G

Impact of Meteorological Conditions on PM2.5, NO, NO2 and NOx

Further analysis was undertaken to examine the impact of meteorological conditions

Figures 16 through 19 graphically illustrate the one-hour average concentrations of

Sub-study: Analysis of the impact of meteorological conditions using 5-minute data

The influence of wind conditions on ambient measurements was examined in greater

Meteorological conditions (specifically wind direction) had significant impacts on the

Oxides of Nitrogen, Nitric Oxide & Nitrogen Dioxide

Fine Particulate Matter

Furthermore, PM2.5 is a regional pollutant and is suggested to be well-mixed and

There is a limited amount of research on the distribution of traffic emissions at height.

Burlington Fire Dept

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