Running head: GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 1

Gender Inequality in Education

Saiaana Sahadeo
First Colonial High School
Legal Studies Academy
December 13, 2016

Abstract
Thepurposeofthisresearchpaperistoraiseawarenessofgenderdiscriminationinthe

educationalsystemandtheimpactithasonthelivesofthosediscriminatedagainst.Thispaper

studiesthesocialissueofgenderinequalityineducation,focusingonthosewhoface

discriminationintheeducationsystemandwhythisissuedeservessignificantawareness.

Backgroundinformationprovidesinsightastowhythisproblemexistsandhowithasdeveloped

intoahumanrightsissueaswell.Evidencefromeverydayexperiencesaroundtheworldwill

depictgenderinequalityasasignificant,andalarming,issueathand.Fromtheresearch

displayedinthispaper,itisapparentthatfemalesarediscriminatedagainstmorefrequentlythan

menbecauseofthetraditionalgenderroles,forinstanceawomansidealplaceisinthehome;

although,thereareafewcasesinwhichmenaretheoneswhoarealsosufferingfromgender

inequalityineducation.
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 2

Keywords:education,genderdiscrimination,andimpactofapropereducation

Gender Inequality in Education

Former South African President Nelson Mandela once said, Education is the most

powerful weapon which you can use to change the world (GoodReads, n.d.). Every human

around the world should be given the opportunity to receive a proper education, although that is

not always the case because gender inequality exists in education. The amount of girls who are

not given the opportunity to enroll in school around the world is astonishing. In primary school,

31 million girls are supposed to be attending school but are not given the opportunity; the

statistics increased for secondary schools where 32 million girls are supposed to be enrolled in

this level of education. In the Arab States and sub-Saharan Africa, two-thirds of girls are not

expected to start school (UNICEF, 2014). There is a large disparity between the number of boys

that should be in school and the amount of girls that should be in school; in West and South Asia,

80% of girls that are not currently enrolled are unlikely to start school compared to 16% of boys

that will not start school. This disparity between the amount of males and females receiving an

education is the reason why this social issue needs to be solved; gender inequality in education

reduces the amount of opportunities given to the gender discriminated by treating that gender as

an inferior gender (UNICEF, 2015).

History of Gender Inequality
Ancient Greece
In Ancient Greece, females were discriminated against because males were thought to be

superior to females. This was shown through discrimination in the Ancient Greeks educational
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 3

system; females in Ancient Greece were denied access to an education that was guaranteed to

males because Ancient Greeks focused on athletics more than academics. The major city-states

of Athens and Sparta focused on training their men to become warriors; boys were athletically

trained in order to defend their home. Ancient Greeks did not believe that women would have

been able to defend their own city-state, which is why they did not invest in womens education;

City-states believed that An educated man from their own assessment was a brave soldier who

could withstand the winter, cold and dare the enemy with courage and determination (Abraham

and Omoregie, 2009).

Educational discrimination was not the extent of gender inequality in Ancient Greece;

gender inequality also existed in the everyday lives of women. An example of this was in

marriage; Marriage was considered one of the most important decisions and events in a

womans life, but she had no direct control over it (Pace University, n.d.). Males dominated

marriage by not giving the women the right to decide whom she married; the male members of

the womans family arranged the marriage without any say from the woman being married.

Another shocking factor about marriages in Ancient Greece is the age gap between the females

and their husbands; it was normal for a fourteen-year old girl to marry a thirty-year old man. The

disturbing age difference between a husband and a wife led to children being orphaned early in

life because of low life expectancy and the deaths of young mother in childbirth. Even though

the young wives would be widowed early on, she did not have access to her husbands property

when he died (Pace University, n.d.).

United States of America
Even though America was founded on the principle of equality, men thought they were

superior to women. The first schools established in the United States were founded for the sole

purpose of educating men; the first high school in Boston was established in 1821 and only

allowed males to enroll (Abraham and Omoregie, 2009). This lack of equality is what fueled the
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 4

fight for equality for women during the 19th century; the fight for women was successful because

co-educational schools were established for the first time during the beginning of the 19th

century. While this was the extent of the fight for womens rights as far as education, women

were able to achieve other milestones. During this time period, women were able to persuade

state governments to pass laws that allowed women to retain their property after marriage

(American Law and Legal Information, n.d.). This was significant in the fight for womens rights

because if a woman owned property before she was married, it was no longer belonged to her

when she said her marriage vows.

After the U.S Civil War, the Wyoming Territory surprisingly allowed women to vote and

serve on juries; this led other states to allow women to vote, even though women did not

nationally gain this right until the 20th century. Women thought they were finally seen as equal to

men, until the 15th Amendment to the U.S Constitution was passed, which prohibited states from

denying the right to vote based on ethnicity; women were outraged that the amendment did not

prohibit discrimination based on gender. Eight years later, the U.S Congress considered passing a

Constitutional amendment giving women the right to vote, but the amendment failed (American

Law and Legal Information, n.d.).

Global Evidence
Nigeria
Despite extensive efforts from the Nigerian government, there is still disparity between

the amount of males and females educated in this nation. An indicator of the difference in

education levels is the literacy rate of the males and the literacy rate of the females; the male

literacy rate is four times higher than the females in the northern area of Nigeria due to early

marriages, unbelief in western education and other religious constraints (Fatimayin, n.d.).

Traditionally, women are thought to be inferior because males are the ones that are going to carry

on the family lineage; it also thought that a womans place is in the house. Another factor in the
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 5

disparity in education is early withdrawal, females are given the opportunity to finish primary

school, but then are pressured by their families to withdraw from school; this can be seen

specifically in the states of Abia, Anambra, Enugu, and Imo. This results in an inequity in the

amount of females and males enrolled in school; in the city of Kaduna, 532,137 males are

enrolled and 223,749 females are enrolled in school. While it seems females are discriminated

against more than males, males also feel the burden of the inequality in the education system. In

the states that speak Igbo, parents encourage their daughters to enroll in school and their sons to

learn a trade. For example, in the Igbo speaking state of Anambra, 85,351 females are enrolled in

school compared to 33,035 males enrolled; these statistics show that inequality impacts both

genders (Fatimayin, n.d.).

Pakistan
In Pakistan, the discrimination of women in regards to education has seen an increase.

During the period 2004-2009, the Gender Parity index decreased from 0.85 to 0.84; this shows

how the amount of females going to school is decreasing and the inequality between the two

genders is increasing. While most people in Pakistan are against women receiving an education,

this lack of education has an impact on the nation as a whole. Women who lack an education

cannot work in the labor force; this denies Pakistan a significant amount of potential workers.

The reason the amount of potential workers is critical is because this would improve Pakistans

economic activity and social conditions. Society as a whole can benefit from gender equality

education; reduction in gender equality in education can lead to an improvement in child

mortality rates, fertility rates, and the spread of education. One of the main reasons that females

are not able to attend school is because of their parents; parents in Pakistan do not want to spend

their money and time educating their girls. The parents believe there are more benefits from
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 6

sending their sons to school than there are in sending their daughters (Akram,Hamid,&Bashir,

2011).
MalalaYousafzaigrewupinSwatValley,Pakistanwithathirstforknowledgeanda

passionforlearning.In2007,theareaMalalaYousafzaicalledherhome,cameunderthecontrol

oftheTaliban,andgirlswereprohibitedfromattendingschool.Bytheendof2008,theTaliban

haddestroyedsome400schools(NobelPrize.org,n.d.).ThisdidnotdeterMalalaYousafzai

fromwantingtoattendschool;sheandherfatherstoodupagainsttheTalibanandcriticizedthe

TalibanshorrificactionsonPakistanitelevision.WhenMalalawaselevenyearsold,shewrote

ananonymousblogontheBritishBroadcastingCorporation(BBC);shedescribedherfearofa

fullblownwarandhernightmaresaboutbeingafraidtogoschool(NobelPrize.org,n.d.).As

warbetweenPakistanandtheTalibanbecameimminent,Malalawasforcedtoleaveherhomein

Pakistanandseekshelterhundredsofmilesawayforfearofhersafety.AfterMalalareturned

home,sheandherfathercontinuedtocriticizethemethodsoftheTaliban,andinafewyearsher

fatherandherbecameknownasoutspokenadvocatesforfemaleeducationrights.TheTaliban

thentargetedMalalabecauseofherdenunciationoftheirtactics;onOctober9,2012,theTaliban

shotMalalathreetimes,onceinthehead;shewasthenairliftedtoahospitalinBirmingham,

England.MalalasurvivedbeingshotbytheTalibanandcontinuedtoattendschoolin

Birmingham,England.ForspeakingoutagainsttheTalibanandadvocacyforfemaleeducation

rights,MalalaYousafzaiwonthe2014NobelPeacePrize,makinghertheyoungestpersonto

receivethishonor(NobelPrize.org,n.d.).
Literacy Rates
The literacy rate of a country is a strong indicator of the level of education of the people

in that country; by comparing the male and female literacy rate, an insight is gained into the

depth of the gender inequality in education. In Pakistan, women are shown as inferior to men
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 7

with a literacy rate of 43% compared to the male literacy rate of 70%. Females in the Central

African Republic have a horrific literacy rate of 24.4% compared to males obtaining a literacy

rate of 50.7%; Afghanistans literacy rate is close to the Central African Republic with females

obtaining a literacy of 24.2% and males having a literacy rate of 52%. Finally, females in

Mozambique achieved a literacy rate of 45.4% and males earned a literacy rate of 73.3%. While

these statistics are simply for a small number of countries, these numbers show a larger pattern of

gap in the education levels of the males and females in the world (UNESCO, n.d.).
School Statistics
The school statistics show the depth of the inequality in the education system by

comparing the amount of males enrolled in school and the amount of females enrolled. In Mali,

males are at an advantage with 29% enrolled in primary school and 16% of females enrolled in

primary school. Females and males should both be guaranteed the most basic form of education;

both small boys and young girls have the right to start school. The amount of children enrolled in

school decreases with secondary education; males have an enrollment rate of 16% in lower

secondary school and 7% of females attend lower secondary school. Malawi and Mali have the

same male enrollment rate of 29% in primary school, but females in Malawi have a primary

school attendance rate of 11%. The amount of students that enrolled in secondary education

decreased significantly in Malawi; 13% of males had the opportunity to complete a lower

secondary education, while only 4% of females had the same chance. When it comes to upper

secondary education, 8% of males were able to achieve this level of education and 2% of females

achieved the same accomplishment (UNESCO, n.d.).

School Life Expectancy
The school life expectancy portrays the disparity in the educational system by stating the

amount of years males are expected to attend school compared to the amount of years females

are predicted to be enrolled in school. These statistics are important because each additional year
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 8

of information provides invaluable information to the student who receives the knowledge.

Unfortunately, the gap between the school life expectancy in Afghanistan is evident; males are

expected to attend school for thirteen years and females are anticipated to attend schools for

eight years. The number of years students are expected to stay in school is lower in the African

nation of Chad than in Afghanistan; in Chad, males are projected to stay in school for nine years

and females are predicted to attend school for six years. The difference between the school life

expectancy of males and females demonstrate how females are not receiving the same education

level as males ("Central Intelligence Agency," n.d.)

Obstacles
Obstacles of equality denies the discriminated the opportunity to receive a proper

education. Unfortunately, the economic situation of a family deters parents from sending their

daughters to school; school fees are expensive, so most parents sent their sons to school because

they needed their daughters to help with household duties. Another impediment in the fight for

equality is culture of society; in certain nations, a cultural norm exists that favors males receiving

an education versus females receiving an education. This point of view leads to appalling

learning environments for females; such as horrible sanitation resources, meaning that there is no

separate bathrooms for males and females, and violence towards females in school, such as

exploitation or corporal punishment (UNICEF, 2015). Additionally, females also face child

marriages, which hinder their chances to attend school because they are forced to become a wife

to someone the same age as their parents. Countries that favor males also face a lack of female

educators in the classroom, which is one of the factors of inequality in education (UNICEF,

2015).
Effects of the Economy
Gender inequality in education does not only impact the lives of women, this social issue

also impacts the nations economy. Prohibiting women for receiving an education denies a
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 9

nations economy much needed human capital, which in turn reduces productivity due to a lack

of workers in the labor force. Gender inequality in education is the reason for differences in

economic growth among nations because this social issue reduces the growth of the economy,

which in turn stops the nation from developing. Ifanationweretopromotegenderequality,it

wouldthenstimulateabetterlifeforthepeopleinthatnation;ifanationweretoreducethis

disparity,thiswouldstimulatetheeconomyandleadtoahigherlivingstandard(Akram,Hamid,

&Bashir,2011).
While comparing two distributions, one in which half of the age cohort that gets educated

is male and half is female, both being equal in comparison while in the other 70 percent

were males and 30 percent were females. On comparison it was found that the

return on capital in the latter was 13 percent less than the distribution which had a 50/50

proportion. (Akram,Hamid,&Bashir,2011).
Case Law
Berkelman v. San Francisco Unified School District (1974)
In 1970, Lowell High School, part of the San Francisco Unified District, implemented a

policy to accept the same number of boys and girls in their school. This policy led to female

applicants having stricter test standards than the male applicants. The plaintiffs in this case claim

to represent students who were denied admission to Lowell High School because they were

deprived equal protection under the law. The US District Court sided with the defendants that

Lowell High Schools admissions policy does not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th

Amendment of the US Constitution. The plaintiffs then appealed their case to the US Court of

Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, where the original decision was reversed. The Court of Appeals

decided that the schools admission policy violated the Equal Protection Clause; therefore, the

school cannot ask for higher test scores from female students. This case states that Lowell High

School in San Francisco asked for higher scores for females than men; this would make it harder
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 10

for females because they would have to aim higher than male students. Berkelman v. Unified

School District portrays an inequality in this district because they are not requiring the same

scores for male and females (HeinOnine, n.d).

Brayv.Lee(1972)

In March 1970, the plaintiffs took an examination for admission into the Girls Latin

School in Boston for admission into September that year. Plaintiffs allegethey are

representatives of a class with an outside figure of 177 members, all of whom took the same

examination for admission in September 1970, scored from 120 to 133, andwere not

admitted in the fall of 1970 ("Brayv.Lee,337F.Supp.934(D.Mass.1972),"n.d.).The

plaintiffsclaimthatmaleswhotookthesameexamandreceivedascoreof120pointsoutof200

pointswereadmittedandfemaleswererequiredtoreceiveascoreofatleast133pointsinorder

toattendtheschool.Theplaintiffsaccusedtheschoolofdiscriminatingagainstfemaleapplicants

byrequiringahighercutoffscoreforfemalesthanmales,inviolationoftheEqualProtection

Clauseofthe14thAmendmentoftheUnitedStatesConstitution.Thecourtruledinfavorofthe

plaintiff,the use of separate and different standards to evaluate the examination results to

determine the admissibility of boys and girls to the Boston Latin schools constitutes a violation

of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment ("Brayv.Lee,337F.Supp.934

(D.Mass.1972),"n.d.).Thiscasestatesthatitisunjustforfemalestohavetoreceiveahigher

scorethanmalesbecauseitwouldmakeitharderforfemalestobeacceptedintotheschool;this

showshowtheUnitedStatesCourtSystemwasabletoputanendtodiscriminationinthis

schoolinBoston("Brayv.Lee,337F.Supp.934(D.Mass.1972),"n.d.).
Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan (1982)
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 11

Mississippi University for Women was established in 1884, and is the oldest state-

supported all female college in the United States of America. Joe Hogan, a registered nurse,

claims he was denied admission to Mississippi University for Womens nursing program because

of his gender. Mississippi University claimed that this program was affirmative action for

females, attempting to make the argument that females lack opportunities in nursing; the court

decided that there was not a lack of openings for women in the field of nursing. Justice

OConnor argued that the statute the college was founded on feeds into the stereotype that

nursing is primarily a job for women. The courts sided with the plaintiff, Joe Hogan, and stated

Mississippi Universitys acceptance policy violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th

Amendment to the US Constitution. This case is interesting because it proves that males are also

discriminated against in the educational system; females are not the only ones being denied the

chance to receive a proper education because of their gender ("MississippiUniversityfor

Womenv.Hogan,"n.d.).
U.S v. Virginia (1996)
The Virginia Military Institute (VMI) was the only male institution of higher learning that

limited its students to males in Virginia. Due to this admission policy, the United States filed a

lawsuit against the institution because of the policys violation of the Equal Protection Clause of

the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution. The case was then brought to the United

States District Court; the court favored the Virginia Military Institutes admission policy. The

United States decided to appeal the case to the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals; the Court of

Appeals sided with the United States and reversed the decision of the US District Court. In light

of this new decision, VMI suggested the creation of the Virginia Womens Institute for

Leadership (VWIL); this school would a parallel program for women ("UnitedStatesv.

Virginia,"n.d.).TheUSDistrictruledinfavoroftheestablishmentoftheVirginiaWomens
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 12

InstituteforLeadership,thisledtheUnitedStatestoappealtheFourthCircuitCourtofAppeals.

TheUnitedStatesdidnotreceivetheoutcometheywantedfromtheCourtofAppeals,sothey

appealedtotheUSSupremeCourt.TheUSSupremeCourtruledthatVMIsadmissionpolicy

violatedtheEqualProtectionClauseofthe14thamendmentbecausetheinstitutionfailedto

providereasoningforwhythisadmissionspolicywasinplacetobeginwith;thecourtalsoruled

againsttheestablishmentoftheVirginiaWomensInstituteforLeadershipbecauseTheVWIL

wouldnotprovidewomenwiththesamerigorousmilitarytraining,faculty,courses,facilities,

financialopportunities,oralumnireputationandconnectionsthatVMIaffordsitsmalecadets

("UnitedStatesv.Virginia,"n.d.).
Effects of Equality in Education on Society
Fertility Rate
The impact of gender inequality in education impacts the nation as a whole; this social

issue does not only impact the lives of individual people. If a nation were to work towards equity

in nations education system, it would benefit everyone citizen of the nation. One of the reasons

gender inequality is prominent is because of the traditional idea that a womens place is in the

house taking care of the children; this leads to a high fertility rate in nations that support this

ideal. If women were to become educated, this would lower the fertility rate in the country

because a womans place would no longer be only in the house; if the fertility rate were to

decrease, the rate of population growth would also decrease and that would lead to more

available food resources for the population. More available food resources would reduce the

number of children suffering with malnutrition because there would be able to have a more

nutritious diet with the increase in food availability (UNESCO, n.d.).

Child Mortality Rate
Countries that have a high rate of gender inequality in the education system tend to have

a high rate of child mortality. Women suffer from violence and negligence due to the idea that

they are not of any value, which could lead to complications during their pregnancy. In
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 13

countries with high gender inequality, women are more likely to suffer from malnutrition,

increasing the chances of problems during pregnancy ("Research Links Gender Inequality and

Child Mortality," n.d.). The lack of education women receive also raises the issue that women

may be unable to care for their children because they do not have the knowledge to know how

("Research Links Gender Inequality and Child Mortality," n.d.) If women were to receive a

proper education, it would decrease the rate of child mortality; Each year of a mothers

schooling reduces the probability of infant mortality by 5%-10% ("Women ED Facts and Figure

| United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization," n.d.).

Effects of Education on Girls
Decrease in Childbirth Deaths
The lives of women would experience a positive change if they were to receive a quality

education, one comparable to the education of men. Women who give birth to a child face the

risk of losing their life during childbirth, if women were to receive a primary school education,

number of women who die in childbirth would be reduced by two thirds. In sub-Saharan Africa,

if all women completed primary education, maternal deaths would be reduced by 70%, saving

almost 50,000 lives (Education For All Global Monitoring Report, 2013). The amount of

childbirth deaths would decrease because as women have more children, the risk of the mother

losing her life increases; women who are more educated tend to have less children ("Why Do

Women Die in Childbirth in Low-income Countries?," n.d.).

Increase in Wages
If women were to gain a proper education, the pay gap between men and women would

decrease because women would not be seen as inferior and they would have a comparable

education. In Pakistan, women with a primary education earn 51% what men earn, with a

secondary education, they earn 70% of what men earn (Education For All Global Monitoring

Report, 2013). This is proven true in Jordan as well, if a woman were to receive a primary

education, she could earn 53% of a males salary, and 67% if she earned a secondary school
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 14

education. Each year a female returns to secondary school corresponds to a 25% increase in the

amount of money she earns (Education For All Global Monitoring Report, 2013). Although, a

number of women do not finish their schooling; the number of females enrolled in school

decrease as they progress through the education system (Education For All Global Monitoring

Report, 2013).
Conclusion
Gender inequality in education denies the gender discriminated the right to a proper

education; while more females are discriminated against, this horrific issue does affect males.

This issue has been around since ancient times with females in Ancient Greece being denied an

education because of the educations system concentration on athletics, rather than academics.

Even though the United States was founded on equality, females in Early America were not safe

from discrimination either. The main reason this problem exists in todays society is because of

poverty; sometimes families cannot afford to send each of their children to school, so they have

to decide which one they would rather educate. Another is due to the traditional idea that males

are superior to males; females would not be educated because they would not seem worthy of

gaining an education. Every child has the right to an education because children have the right to

expand their horizons. If females were educated, it would have a positive impact on the nation as

a whole and on the lives of females.

Professor Jeffrey A. Brauch, of Regent University, views gender inequality in education

as a violation of human rights; Brauch has a background in human rights as a professor of

International Human Rights. Professor Brauch first got interested in human rights because of his

strong faith in Christianity because he wants to spread Jesus message of equality and

acceptance. He believes that all humans have the capacity to do good, and the capacity to do

evil and that is why Professor Brauch believes that several human rights are violated. Professor

Brauch is one of the founders of the Center for Global Justice, Human Rights, and the Rule of
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 15

Law at Regent University. Professor Brauch said that this organization was formed because he

noticed more law students coming to law school and not wanting to work for law firms; these

students were more interested in speaking for the voiceless. While this organization is mainly

educational, these students get hands on experience all over the world; students have gained

internships all over the world to combat abuse, such as with the International Justice Mission (J.

Brauch, Personal communication, November 16, 2016).

References
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 16

Akram, N., Hamid, A., & Bashir, S. (2011). Gender Differentials in Education and their Impact

on Economic Growth of Pakistan. Journal of Business & Economics, 3(1), 102-122.

Retrieved November 7, 2016, from ProQuest Central K-12.

Brauch, J. (2016, November 16). Professional Interview [Personal interview].

Bray v. Lee, 337 F. Supp. 934 (D. Mass. 1972). (n.d.). Retrieved December 19, 2016, from

http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/337/934/1469666/

Central Intelligence Agency. (n.d.). Retrieved October 26, 2016, from

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2205.html

Collins, C. M., & Mayo-Jefferies, D. (2006). Equal educational opportunity for all children: A

research guide to discrimination in education (1950-2005). Buffalo, NY: W.S. Hein.

Constitutional Law - Equal Protection - Sex Discriminatory Admission Policies in Public

Schools Subject to Stringent Judicial Review Case Note 6 St. Mary's Law Journal 1974-

1975. (n.d.). Retrieved November 29, 2016, from

http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals

%2Fstmlj6&div=70&id=&page=

Education Counts. (2011). Retrieved December 21, 2016, from

http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/ED/pdf/gmr-ec-4-50.pdf

Education For All Global Monitoring Report. (2013). Girls Education the Facts. Retrieved

October 21, 2016, from http://en.unesco.org/gem-report/sites/gem-report/files/girls-

factsheet-en.pdf

Fatimayin, F. (n.d.). Gender inequality in Education: Implications for National Development.

Retrieved December 14, 2016, from

GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 17

http://www.academia.edu/3849566/Gender_inequality_in_Education_Implications_for_N

ational_Development

Gender Discrimination - History. (n.d.). Retrieved December 14, 2016, from

http://law.jrank.org/pages/22615/Gender-Discrimination-History.html

Gender Equality, HIVand Education | Education | United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization. (n.d.). Retrieved December 18, 2016, from

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/resources/in-focus-articles/gender-equality-

hivand-education/

Gender equality in education. (n.d.). OECD Education Statistics. Retrieved December 18, 2016,

from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002221/222121E.pdf

Girls' Edcuation. (2014, March). Retrieved October 21, 2016, from

http://www.unicef.org/media/media_45452.html

Girls' education and gender equality. (2015). Retrieved October 11, 2016, from

http://www.unicef.org/education/bege_70640.html

History: Women in Ancient Greece. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2016, from

http://webpage.pace.edu/nreagin/f2004ws267/annacho/finalhistory.html

Key Messages and Data on Girls and Womens Education and Literacy. (2012). Retrieved

December 21, 2016, from

http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/ED/pdf/globalpartners-key-

messages.pdf

Left behind. (n.d.). Retrieved October 26, 2016, from

http://www.uis.unesco.org/_LAYOUTS/UNESCO/no-girl-left-

behind/index.html#moreTeachers-2
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 18

Malala Yousafzai - Biographical. (n.d.). Retrieved January 5, 2017, from

https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2014/yousafzai-bio.html

Mind the Gap . (n.d.). Retrieved October 26, 2016, from

http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Pages/mind-the-gap.aspx?SPSLanguage=EN

Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan. (n.d.). Retrieved December 19, 2016, from

https://www.oyez.org/cases/1981/81-406

NEPAL: Gender Inequality in Education Has Deep Roots. (n.d.). Retrieved November 29, 2016,

from http://www.ipsnews.net/2008/06/nepal-gender-inequality-in-education-has-deep-

roots/

Omoregie, N., & Abraham, I. O. (2009). Persistent Gender Inequality in Nigerian Education.

Retrieved November 15, 2016, from

https://nau.edu/uploadedFiles/Academic/COE/About/Projects/Persistent%20Gender

%20Inequality%20in%20Nigerian%20Education.pdf

A quote by Nelson Mandela. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2016, from

http://www.goodreads.com/quotes/16243-education-is-the-most-powerful-weapon-

which-you-can-use

S. (n.d.). Research links gender inequality and child mortality. Retrieved December 21, 2016,

from http://www.scidev.net/global/gender/news/research-gender-inequality-child-

mortality.html

United States v. Virginia. (n.d.). Retrieved December 19, 2016, from

https://www.oyez.org/cases/1995/94-1941

Why do women die in childbirth in low-income countries? (n.d.). Retrieved December 22, 2016,

from http://www.maternityworldwide.org/the-issues/women-die-childbirth/
GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 19

Women ED facts and figure | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

(n.d.). Retrieved October 28, 2016, from

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/events/prizes-and-

celebrations/celebrations/international-days/international-womens-day-2014/women-ed-

facts-and-figure/