EMC510S

ELECTRICAL MACHINES 215

THREE-PHASE
SYSTEMS
AN INTRODUCTION

May 2016
 1. Advantages of the three-phase system
over the single-phase system

Three-phase a.c. power systems have certain major

advantages over single-phase a.c. power systems:
(1) it is possible to get more power per kilogram of metal from
a three-phase machine than from a single-phase machine.
(2) the power delivered to a three-phase load is constant at
all times, instead of pulsating as it does in single-phase
systems.
(3) Three-phase systems also make the use of induction
motors easier by allowing them to start without special
auxiliary starting windings.
(4) Three-phase systems can transmit high powers at a better
efficiency than single-phase systems.

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 2. Generation of three-phase e.m.f.s

In Figure 2.1(a), RR1, YY1 and BB1 represent three similar

loops fixed to one another at angles of 120, each loop
terminating in a pair of slip-rings carried on the shaft as
indicated in Figure 2.1(b).
Suppose the three coils are rotated anticlockwise at a
uniform speed in the magnetic field due to poles NS. The
e.m.f. generated in loop RR1 is zero for the position shown
in Figure 2.1(a).
When the loop has moved through 90 to the position
shown in Figure 2.1(b), the generated e.m.f. is at its
maximum value, its direction round the loop being from
the start slip-ring towards the finish slip-ring.
This direction is regarded as positive; consequently the
e.m.f. induced in loop RR1 can be represented by the full-
line curve of Figure 2.2(a).
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 Generation of three-phase e.m.f.s (cont.)

(a) (b)
(a) Generation of three-phase e.m.f.s. (b) Loop RR1 at instant of
maximum e.m.f.
Figure 2.1.

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Generation of three-phase e.m.f.s (cont.)

Figure 2.2(a). Waveforms of three-phase e.m.f.s.

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Generation of three-phase e.m.f.s (cont.)

Figure 2.2(b). Waveforms of three-phase e.m.f.s.

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 Generation of three-phase e.m.f.s (cont.)

Since the loops are being rotated anticlockwise, it is

evident from Figure 2.1(a) that the e.m.f. generated in side
Y of loop YY1 has exactly the same amplitude as that
generated in side R, but lags by 120 (or one-third of a
cycle).
Similarly, the e.m.f. generated in side B of loop BB1 is
equal to but lags that in side Y by 120.
Hence the e.m.f.s generated in loops RR1, YY1 and BB1
are represented by the three equally spaced curves of
Figure 2.2(a), the e.m.f.s being assumed positive when
their directions round the loops are from start to finish of
their respective loops.

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 Generation of three-phase e.m.f.s (cont.)

If the instantaneous value of the e.m.f. generated in

phase RR1 is represented by
eR = Emsin eqn. 2.1,

then instantaneous e.m.f. in YY1 is

eY = Emsin( 120) eqn. 2.2

and instantaneous e.m.f. in BB1 is

eB = Emsin( 240) eqn. 2.3.

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 3. Delta connection of three-phase windings

The three phases of Figure 2.1(a) can, for convenience, be

represented as in Figure 3.1(a) where the phases are
shown isolated from one another; L1, L2 and L3 represent
loads connected across the respective phases.
Since it was assumed that the e.m.f.s were positive when
acting from start to finish, they can be represented by
the arrows eR, eY and eB in Figure 3.1(a).
The arrangement of Figure 3.1(a) necessitates six line
conductors and is therefore cumbersome and expensive.
It is known as a three-phase, six-wire system.

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 Delta connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

(a) (b)
Figure 3.1. (a) Three-phase windings with six line conductors. (3-phase,
6-wire system) (b) Resultant e.m.f. in a delta-connected winding.
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 Delta connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

Simplification of the three-phase, six-wire system:

In order to simplify the arrangement of Figure 3.1(a), R1
and Y are joined together as in Figure 3.1(b), thereby
enabling conductors 2 and 3 of Figure 3.1(a) to be
replaced by a single conductor.
Similarly, Y1 and B are joined together so that conductors
4 and 5 may be replaced by another single conductor.
If start B1 to finish R are joined together, there will be
three e.m.f.s chasing one another around the loop and
it could appear as if these would produce a circulating
current in that loop.
However, it can be shown that the resultant e.m.f.
between these two points is zero and that there is
therefore no circulating current when these points are
connected together.
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 Delta connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

The instantaneous value of the total e.m.f. acting from B1

to R is eR + eY + eB
= Em{sin + sin( 120) + sin( 240)}
= Em(sin + sin cos 120 cos sin 120
+ sin cos 240 cos sin 240)
= Em (sin 0.5 sin 0.866 cos 0.5 sin +
0.866 cos )
=0
Since this condition holds for every instant, it follows that
R and B1 can be joined together, as in Figure 3.2,
without any circulating current being set up around
the circuit.
The three line conductors are joined to the junctions thus
formed.
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 Delta connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)
Figure 3.2. Delta connection
of a three-phase winding
(3-phase, 3-wire delta (or
mesh)-connected system).
Actual values and directions
of the e.m.f.s at a particular
instant:
Instant P is considered in
Figure 2.2(a).
The e.m.f. generated in
phase R is positive and is
represented by PL acting
from R1 to R. The e.m.f. in
phase Y is negative and is
represented by PM acting
from Y to Y1 and that in
phase B is also negative
and is represented by PN
acting from B to B1.
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 Delta connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

Actual values and directions of the e.m.f.s at a particular

instant (cont.):
The sum of PM and PN is exactly equal, numerically, to
PL; consequently the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s round
the closed circuit formed by the three windings is zero.
It should be noted that the directions of the arrows in
Figure 3.2 represent the directions of the e.m.f. at a
particular instant, whereas arrows placed alongside symbol
e, as in Figure 3.1(b), represent the positive directions of the
e.m.f.s.
The circuit derived in Figure 3.2 is usually drawn as in
Figure 3.3 and the arrangement is referred to as a delta
connection (from the Greek capital letter ), also known as a
mesh connection.

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 Delta connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

It will be noticed that in Figure

3.3, R is connected to Y1
instead of to B1 as in Figure
3.2.
Actually, it is immaterial which
method is used.
What is of importance is that
the start of one phase
should be connected to the
finish of another phase, so
that the arrows
Figure 3.3. Conventional representing the positive
representation of a delta (or directions of the e.m.f.s
Mesh)-connected winding point in the same direction
[3-phase, 3-wire delta (mesh)- round the mesh formed by
connected system] the three windings.
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 4. Star connection of three-phase windings

(a) (b)
Figure 4.1. (a) Three-phase windings with six line conductors. (b) Star
connection of three-phase windings (3-phase, 4-wire, star-connected
system). 16 KK - 2016
 Star connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

Referring to the three-phase, six-wire system of Figure 3.1

(repeated in Figure 4.1(a) for convenience), the three
starts, R1, Y1 and B1 are now joined together at N, as in
Figure 4.1(b), so that the three conductors 2, 4 and 6 of
Figure 3.1(a) can be replaced by the single conductor NM
of Figure 4.1(b).
Since the generated e.m.f. has been assumed positive
when acting from start to finish, the current in each
phase must also be regarded as positive when flowing in
that direction, as represented by the arrows in Figure
4.1(b).
If iR, iY and iB are the instantaneous values of the
currents in the three phases, the instantaneous value of
the current in the common wire MN is (iR + iY + iB ), having
its positive direction from M to N.
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 Star connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

The arrangement of Figure 4.1(b) is referred to as a three-

phase, four-wire star-connected system and is more
conveniently represented as in Figure 4.2 and junction N is
referred to as the star or neutral point.
Three-phase motors are connected to the line conductors
R, Y and B, whereas single-phase loads such as lamps,
heaters, etc. are usually connected between the line and
neutral conductors, as indicated by L1, L2 and L3, the total
load being distributed as equally as possible, among
the three lines.

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 Star connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

Figure 4.2. Three-phase, four-wire star-connected system.

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 Star connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

If the three loads in Figure 4.1(b) or Figure 4.2 are exactly

alike, i.e. the phase currents have the same peak value,
Im, and they differ in phase by 120 (or are said to be
balanced).
Hence if the instantaneous value of the current in load L1
is represented by iR = Imsin

instantaneous current in L2 is iY = Imsin( - 120)

and instantaneous current in L3 is iB = Imsin( - 240)

Hence instantaneous value of the resultant current in the

neutral conductor MN is
iR + iY + iB = Im {sin + sin( 120) + sin( 240)}
= Im 0 = 0
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 Star connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

That is, with a balanced load the resultant current in the

neutral conductor is zero at every instant; hence this
conductor can be dispensed with, thereby giving what is
known as the three-phase, three-wire star-connected
system shown in Figure 4.3.
When considering the distribution of current in a three-
wire, three-phase system it is helpful to bear in mind that:
(1) arrows such as those of Figure 4.1(b), placed alongside
symbols, indicate the direction of the current when it is
assumed to be positive and not the direction at a particular
instant and
(2) the current flowing outwards in one or two conductors is
equal to that flowing back in the remaining conductor or
conductors (see Figure 4.3).

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 Star connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

Figure 4.3. Three-phase, three-wire star-connected system with a

balanced load.
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 Star connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

Figure 4.4(a). Waveforms of currents in a balanced three-phase system.

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 Star connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

Figure 4.4(b). Waveforms of currents in a balanced three-phase system.

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 Star connection of
three-phase windings (cont.)

Considering the second statement in greater detail. Suppose

the curves in Figure 4.4 represent the three currents differing
in phase by 120 and having a peak value of 10 A.
At instant a, the currents in phases R and B are each 5 A,
whereas the current in phase Y is 10 A. These values are
indicated above a in Figure 4.3, i.e. 5 A are flowing outwards
in phases R and B and 10 A are returning in phase Y. At
instant b the current in Y is zero, that in R is 8.66 A and that
in B is 8.66 A, i.e. 8.66 A are flowing outwards in phase R
and returning in phase B. At instant c, the currents in R, Y
and B are 2.6, 9.7 and 7.1 A, respectively, i.e. 9.7 A flow
outwards in phase Y and return via phases R (2.6 A) and B
(7.1 A).
It will be seen that the distribution of currents among the
three lines is continually changing, but at every instant the
algebraic sum of the currents is zero.
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 5. Voltages and currents
in a star-connected system

(a) Star-connected generator.

The quantities of interest are:
(i) Phase voltages:
ERN, EYN and EBN. (b) Voltage phasor diagram for (a)
(ii) Line voltages: ERY, EYB and EBR.
(iii) Phase currents: Iph and )iv) Line currents: IL Figure 5.1.

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 Voltages and currents
in a star-connected system

Figure 5.2. Derivation of the relationship between phase and line

voltages.
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 Voltages and currents
in a star-connected system (cont.)

With reference to Figure 5.2, assume the e.m.f. in each

phase to be positive when acting from the neutral point
outwards, so that the r.m.s. values of the e.m.f.s generated
in the three phases can be represented by ERN, EYN and
EBN and the values of the em.f.s generated between any
two lines are represented by ERY, EYB and EBR.
From the symmetry of the phasor diagram it is evident that
the line voltages are equal and are spaced 120 apart.
By constructing a perpendicular bisector along phasor ERY
at a, it will be seen that

ERY = 2ERNcos30 = 1.732ERN = 3ERN

i.e. Line voltage = 3 Phase (or Star) voltage eqn. 5.1.

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 Voltages and currents
in a star-connected system (cont.)

In order to determine the phase relationship between the

line and phase voltages, the phasor sum is taken as
follows: with reference to Figure 5.2, again,
_ _ _
E RY = EYN + E RN = E ph 120 + E ph 0

= E ph (0.5 j 0.866) + E ph (1.0 + j 0.0)

= E ph (1.5 + j 0.866) = 1.732 E ph 30

_
E RY = 3E ph 30 eqn. 5.2.

From equation 5.2, it is seen that the line voltage leads the
phase voltage by 30.

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 Voltages and currents
in a star-connected system (cont.)

From Figure 5.1(a) it is obvious that in a star-connected

system the current in a line conductor is the same as that
in the phase to which that line conductor is connected.
Hence, in general, if
VL = p.d. between any two line conductors
= line voltage
and
Vp = p.d. between a line conductor and the neutral point
= phase voltage (or star voltage or voltage to neutral)
and if IL and IP are line and phase currents respectively,
then for a star connected system,
VL = 3VP eqn. 5.3. and IL = IP eqn. 5.4.

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 Voltages and currents
in a star-connected system (cont.)

In practice, it is the voltage between two line conductors or

between a line conductor and the neutral point that is
measured.
Owing to the internal impedance drop in the windings, this
p.d. is different from the corresponding e.m.f. generated in
the winding, except when the generator is on open circuit;
hence, in general, it is preferable to work with the potential
difference, V, rather than with the e.m.f., E.
The voltage given for a three-phase system is always the
line voltage unless it is stated otherwise.

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 6. Voltages and Currents
in a Delta-connected System

Let IR-ph, IY-ph and IB-ph be the r.m.s. values of the phase
currents having their positive directions as indicated by the
arrows in Figure 6.1. Since the load is assumed to be
balanced, these currents are equal in magnitude and differ
in phase by 120, as shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.1.
Delta-connected
system with
balanced load
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 Voltages and Currents
in a Delta-connected System (cont.)

The phase and magnitude relationships between the

phase and line currents is obtained by applying KIL at the
node, R, Y and B. Applying KIL at node R yields the
following result:
_ _ _ _ _ _
I R + I B ph I R ph = 0 I R = I R ph I B ph
_
I R = I ph 0 I ph 120
_
I R = I ph (1.0 + j 0.0) I ph (0.5 + j 0.866)
_
I R = I ph (1.5 j 0.866) = 1.732 I ph 30
_
I R = 3I ph 30 eqn. 6.1.

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 Voltages and Currents
in a Delta-connected System (cont.)

Figure 6.2. Phasor diagram for Figure 6.1.

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 Voltages and Currents
in a Delta-connected System (cont.)

Similar results can be obtained for IY and IB.

Hence for a delta-connected system with a balanced load
Line current = 1.73 phase current
i.e. IL = 1.73Iph = 3Iph eqn. 6.2.
Also, the line current lags the phase current by 30.
From Figure 6.1 it can be seen that, in a delta-connected
system, the line and the phase voltages are the same, i.e.
VL = Vph eqn. 6.3.

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 7. Power in a three-phase
system with a balanced load

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 Power in a three-phase
system with a balanced load (cont.)

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 Power in a three-phase
system with a balanced load (cont.)

Home work 1:
Study Example 33.3 very, very carefully.

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 8. Measurement of active power in
a three-phase, three-wire system

8.1. Star-connected balanced load, with neutral point

accessible:
If a wattmeter, W, is connected with its current coil in one
line and the voltage circuit between that line and the neutral
point, as shown in Figure 8.1, the reading on the wattmeter
gives the power per phase, therefore,
Total active power = 3 wattmeter reading

Figure 8.1. Measurement of

active power in a star-connected
balanced load.

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 8. Measurement of active power in
a three-phase, three-wire system

8.2. Measurement of Power in a Balanced or unbalanced

load, star- or delta-connected. The two-wattmeter method:
Suppose the three loads L1, L2 and L3 are connected in
star, as in Figure 8.2. The current coils of the two wattmeters
are connected in any two lines, say the red and blue lines
and the voltage circuits are connected between these lines
and the third line.

Figure 8.2. Measurement

of power by two
wattmeters.
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 Balanced or unbalanced load, star- or delta-
connected. The two-wattmeter method (cont.)

Suppose vRN, vYN and vBN are the instantaneous values of the
p.d.s across the loads, these p.d.s being assumed positive
when the respective line conductors are positive in relation to
the neutral point.
Also, suppose iR, iY and iB are the corresponding
instantaneous values of the line (and phase) currents.
Therefore
instantaneous power in load L1 = iRvRN,
instantaneous power in load L2 = iYvYN
and
instantaneous power in load L3 = iBvBN .
Therefore
Total instantaneous power = iRvRN + iYvYN + iBvBN

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 Balanced or unbalanced load, star- or delta-
connected. The two-wattmeter method (cont.)

From Figure 8.2 it is seen that

instantaneous current through the current coil of W1 = iR
and
the instantaneous p.d. across the voltage circuit of W1
= vRN vYN.
Therefore,
Instantaneous power measured by W1 = iR(vRN vYN)
Similarly,
instantaneous current through the current coil of W2 = iB and
instantaneous p.d. across the voltage circuit of W2
= vBN vYN.
Therefore,
Instantaneous power measured by W2 = iB(vBN vYN)
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 Balanced or unbalanced load, star- or delta-
connected. The two-wattmeter method (cont.)

Hence the sum of the instantaneous powers of W1 and W2 is

iR(vRN vYN) + iB(vBN vYN) = iRvRN + iBvBN (iR + iB) vYN

From Kirchhoffs current law, the algebraic sum of the

instantaneous currents at N is zero, i.e.
iR + iY + iB = 0, therefore, iR + iB = iY
so that the sum of the instantaneous powers measured by
W1 and W2 is
iRvRN + iBvBN + iYvYN = total instantaneous power
Actually, the power measured by each wattmeter varies from
instant to instant, but the inertia of the moving system causes
the pointer to read the average value of the power.
Hence the sum of the wattmeter readings gives the
average value of the total power absorbed by the three
phases, i.e. the active power.
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 Balanced or unbalanced load, star- or delta-
connected. The two-wattmeter method (cont.)

Since the above proof does not assume a balanced load

or sinusoidal waveforms, it follows that
the sum of the two wattmeter readings gives the total
power under all conditions.

Home work 2:
The above proof was derived for a star-connected load.
Prove that the same conclusion holds for a delta-
connected load.

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 9. Power factor measurement by
means of two wattmeters

Suppose L in Figure 6.1 to represent three similar loads

connected in star and suppose VRN, VYN and VBN to be the
r.m.s. values of the phase voltages and IR, IY and IB to be the
r.m.s. values of the currents. Since these voltages and
currents are assumed to be sinusoidal, they can be
represented by phasors, as in Figure 6.2, the currents being
assumed to lag the corresponding phase voltages by an
angle .
Current through the current coil of W1 is IR. The potential
difference across the voltage circuit of W1 is the phasor
difference of VRN and VYN , i.e. VRY.
The phase difference between IR and VRY is 30 + .
Therefore the reading on W1 is
P1 = IRVRY cos(30 + ) eqn. 6.1.

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 Power factor measurement by
means of two wattmeters (cont.)

Figure 6.1. Measurement of

active power and power
factor by two wattmeters.

Figure 6.2.
Phasor diagram for
Figure 6.1.
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 Power factor measurement by
means of two wattmeters (cont.)

Current through the current coil of W2 = IB.

Potential difference across the voltage circuit of W2 is the
phasor difference of VBN and VYN, i.e. VBY
The phase difference between IB and VBY is 30 .
Therefore the reading on W2 is P2 = IBVBY cos(30 )
Since the load is balanced,
IR = IY = IB = (say) IL, numerically
and
VRY = VBY = (say) VL, numerically

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 Power factor measurement by
means of two wattmeters (cont.)

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 Power factor measurement by
means of two wattmeters (cont.)

Equation 6.4 is the expression deduced in section 4 for the

total active power in a balanced three-phase system.
This is an alternative method of proving that the sum of the
two wattmeter readings gives the total active power, but it
should be noted that this proof assumed a balanced load and
sinusoidal voltages and currents.
Dividing equation 6.2 by equation 6.3, yields

P1 cos(30 + ) cos 30 cos sin 30 sin

= = =y
P2 cos(30 ) cos 30 cos + sin 30 sin
0.866 cos 0.5 sin ( 3 / 2) cos (1 / 2) sin
y= =
0.866 cos + 0.5 sin ( 3 / 2) cos + (1 / 2) sin
eqn. 6.5.

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 Power factor measurement by
means of two wattmeters (cont.)

From eqn. 6.5

3 1 3 1
y cos + y sin = cos sin
2 2 2 2
3 y cos + y sin = 3 cos sin
3 y cos 3 cos = sin y sin
3 y cos + 3 cos = sin + y sin
3 (1 y ) cos = (1 + y ) sin
3 (1 y ) cos
= sin
(1 + y )
2
3 (1 y ) cos

= (sin )2
(1 + y ) eqn. 6.6.

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 Power factor measurement by
means of two wattmeters (cont.)

and from eqn. 6.6

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 Power factor measurement by
means of two wattmeters (cont.)

When the power factor of the load is 0.5 lagging, is 60;

and from equation 6.2: P1 = ILVLcos(30 + ), the reading
on W1 = ILVLcos 90 = 0.
When the power factor is less than 0.5 lagging, is
greater than 60 and (30 + ) is therefore greater than
90.
Hence the reading on W1 is negative. To measure this
active power it is necessary to reverse the connections to
either the current or the voltage coil, but the reading thus
obtained must be taken as negative when the total active
power and the ratio of the wattmeter readings are being
calculated.

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 Power factor measurement by
means of two wattmeters (cont.)

An alternative method of deriving the power factor is as

follows:
(i) From equations 6.2 and 6.3
P2 P1 = I LVL [cos(30 ) cos(30 + )]
= I LVL [(cos 30 cos + sin 30 sin ) (cos 30 cos sin 30 sin )]
= I LVL (2 sin 30 sin )
P2 P1 = I LVL sin eqn. 6.8.
(ii) Dividing eqn. 6.8 by eqn. 6.4 yields

eqn. 6.9.

Hence, and cos can be determined.

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 THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS: AN INTRODUCTION

Exercises 33
(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology 10th edition)
8. A three-phase, 400 V, star-connected motor has an output of
50 kW, with an efficiency of 90 per cent and a power factor of
0.85. Calculate the line current. Sketch a phasor diagram
showing the voltages and currents. If the motor windings were
connected in mesh, what would be the correct voltage of a
three-phase supply suitable for the motor?
10. The load connected to a three-phase supply comprises
three similar coils connected in star. The line currents are 25 A
and the apparent and active power inputs are 20 kVA and 11
kW respectively. Find the line and phase voltages, reactive
power input and the resistance and reactance of each coil. If the
coils are now connected in delta to the same three-phase
supply, calculate the line currents and the active power taken.
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 THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS: AN INTRODUCTION

Exercises 33 (cont.)
12. A factory has the following load with power factor of 0.9
lagging in each phase. Red phase 40 A, yellow phase 50 A
and blue phase 60 A. If the supply is 400 V, three-phase,
four-wire, calculate the current in the neutral and the total
active power. Draw a phasor diagram for phase and line
quantities. Assume that, relative to the current in the red
phase, the current in the yellow phase lags by 120 and that
in the blue phase leads by 120.
15. (b) The load taken by a three-phase induction motor is
measured by the two-wattmeter method, and the readings
are 860 W and 240 W. What is the active power taken by the
motor and at what power factor is it working?

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 THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS: AN INTRODUCTION

Exercises 33 (cont.)
25. Discuss the importance of power-factor correction in a.c.
systems. A 400 V, 50 Hz, three-phase distribution system
supplies a 20 kVA, three-phase induction motor load at a power
factor of 0.8 lagging, and a star-connected set of impedances,
each having a resistance of 10 and an inductive reactance of
8 . Calculate the capacitance of delta-connected capacitors
required to improve the overall power factor to 0.95 lagging.
26. State the advantages to be gained by raising the power
factor of industrial loads. A 400 V, 50 Hz, three-phase motor
takes a line current of 15.0 A when operating at a lagging power
factor of 0.65. When a capacitor bank is connected across the
motor terminals, the line current is reduced to 11.5 A. Calculate
the rating (in kVA) and the capacitance per phase of the
capacitor bank for: (a) star connection; (b) delta connection.
Find also the new overall power factor.
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