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Although there have been attempts at generalising the denition of bainite, the
most appropriate description remains that the microstructure consists of a non-
lamellar mixture of ferrite and carbides, which can be classied further into
upper and lower bainite. This latter distinction is of value because there are
clear differences in the mechanical properties of upper and lower bainite. The
two microstructures can easily be distinguished using transmission electron
microscopy and hence can be discussed in the context of mechanical properties
and the growth mechanism.
Lower bainite is obtained by transformation at relatively low temperatures.
Both upper and lower bainite form as aggregates of small plates or laths (sub-
units) of ferrite. The essential difference between them is in the nature of the
carbide precipitates. Upper bainitic ferrite is free of precipitation, any carbides
growing from the carbon-enriched residual austenite between the plates of
ferrite. In addition to this kind of precipitation, there are carbide particles
present inside lower bainitic ferrite. We shall see that the precipitates in
lower bainitic ferrite can be any of the carbides reported to occur during the
tempering of martensite, for example, , , or cementite.
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Bainite in Steels
Fig. 7.1 Schematic representation of the transition from upper to lower bainite.
After Takahashi and Bhadeshia (1990).
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Upper & Lower Bainite
Fig. 7.2 Calculated time for the decarburisation of supersaturated ferrite plates (of
thickness 0.2 m) in plain carbon steels with 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4 wt% carbon
respectively. The calculated martensite-start and bainite-start temperatures are
also indicated.
191
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Bainite in Steels
However, for plain carbon steels, and in some cases for alloy steels, martensite
tempering data can be adapted to derive reasonable functions for the purpose
of predicting the transition from upper to lower bainite (Takahashi and
Bhadeshia, 1990, 1991).
The rst change that happens during the tempering of supersaturated
martensite is that the excess carbon precipitates in the form of carbides.
Prolonged annealing can also lead to recovery, recrystallisation and the
coarsening of cementite precipitates. To derive a function representing pre-
cipitation alone, it is necessary to focus on the early stages of tempering.
Speich (1969) reported that the change in hardness of martensite in plain
carbon steels after an hour of tempering at temperatures above 320 8C, includes
signicant contributions from recovery, recrystallisation and coarsening of
cementite particles (Fig. 7.3). The data representing hardness changes during
tempering below 320 8C can be used to derive a function which expresses the
change in the volume fraction of cementite precipitation as a function of time
and temperature. An Avrami equation can then be used empirically to
represent the tempering reaction:
Fig. 7.3 Hardness curves for ironcarbon martensitic samples which were
tempered for 1 hour at the temperatures indicated; the ve curves represent steels
with different carbon concentrations (data due to Speich, 1969). The data to the left
of the vertical line reect changes due to the precipitation of carbides rather than
recovery or coarsening processes.
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Upper & Lower Bainite
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Bainite in Steels
y 0 k 1 1 kp 1 ; MPa 7:5
194
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Upper & Lower Bainite
Fig. 7.4 Illustration of how differences in the relative variation of the decarbur-
isation time td and the precipitation time t can lead to: (a) a steel which is
incapable of transforming to lower bainite; (b) a steel which should, under
appropriate conditions, be able to transform to upper or lower bainite; (c) a
steel in which bainitic transformation always leads to the formation of lower
bainite.
Fig. 7.5 Calculated lower bainite transformation start temperatures for plain
carbon steels, as a function of transformation temperature. The calculated
martensite-start and bainite-start temperatures are also presented. After
Takahashi and Bhadeshia, 1990.
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Bainite in Steels
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Upper & Lower Bainite
Fig. 7.6 (a) Experimental data (Oka and Okamoto, 1986) illustrating the tempera-
tures at which ne nodules of pearlite, classical lower bainite and martensite were
obtained by isothermal transformation of plain carbon steels. The lines represent
calculated bainite-start and martensite-start temperatures (Takahashi and
Bhadeshia, 1990). (b) The effect of carbon concentration on the temperature
range where each microstructure is formed (Ohmori and Honeycombe, 1971).
197
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Bainite in Steels
curve at 0.4 wt% of carbon concentration (560 8C), leads to the identication of
three regimes for bainite on the FeC phase diagram (Fig. 7.7). In steels with
more than 0.4 wt% of the initial bulk carbon content (region B), lower bainite is
to be expected from the earliest stages of transformation. For steels whose
composition lies in region A, lower bainite is expected to be absent during
isothermal transformation at all temperatures above MS , and this behaviour is
valid for any stage of transformation since the austenite cannot be super-
saturated with cementite as far as regime A is concerned. The behaviour in
the region marked C should be more complex. The residual austenite for these
steels (region C) may at some stage of transformation contain enough carbon to
precipitate cementite. If the kinetics of cementite precipitation from austenite
are rapid, then lower bainite may not be obtained in steels with an average
carbon concentration less than 0.32 wt%, but otherwise, a mixed microstructure
of upper and lower bainite might arise.
Two of the trends described above have been veried by Chang (1999) who
not only found that the lower bainie start temperature LS could be depressed
by retarding the precipitation of cementite, but also showed that a mixture of
upper and lower bainite can be obtained by transformation at temperatures
just above LS .
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Upper & Lower Bainite
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Bainite in Steels
7.6 Summary
A comparison between the times required to decarburise supersaturated ferrite
plates with that required to precipitate cementite within the plates is a reason-
able way to interpret the transition from upper to lower bainite. If the decar-
burisation process dominates, upper bainite is predicted whereas relatively
rapid carbide precipitation within the ferrite leads to the microstructure of
lower bainite.
A number of predictions from this theory are in agreement with experimen-
tal data. Thus, lower bainite cannot form in plain carbon steels containing less
than about 0.3 wt% carbon. Similarly, upper bainite is predicted and found to
be absent in plain carbon steels containing more than 0.4 wt% carbon.
200
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