24th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1971: It affirms the

power of the Parliament to amend any part of the

Constitution including Fundamental Rights.

31st Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1973: Increases the

elective strength of the Lok Sabha from 525 to 545

36th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1975: Sikkim became

the 22nd State of the Indian Union.

37th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1975: Was passed by

the parliament on April 26, 1975, to provide for a Legislative Assembly and 1
Council of Ministers to Arunachal Pradesh, the countrys north-eastern most
nation Territory.

Pr Constitution (38th Amendment) Act, 1975: The Act makes the

declaration of emergency non-judiciable.

Constitution (39th Amendment) Act, 1975: The Act places beyond

challenge in courts the election to Parliament of a person holding the office
of Prime Minister or Speaker and the election of President and Vice-President.

40th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1976: This

Amendment has three-fold objectives :

It places beyond challenge in courts some major Central laws;

It gives similar protection to several State enactments;

It provides that the limits of the territorial waters and the maritime
zones of India .

The Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976: (also known as mini-

constitution)
43rd Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1978: This Act
repealed some of the provisions of the Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act
passed during the Emergency.

45th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1980: seeks to extend

reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and the
representation of the Anglo- Indians in the Lok Sabha and the State
Assemblies for 10 years.

The Constitution (46th Amendment) Act, 1982: plug loopholes and

realize sales tax dues

49th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1984: the provisions

of the Sixth Schedule to the Constitution to be made applicable to the tribal
areas of the State of Tripura.

The Constitution (52nd Amendment) Act, 1985: popularly known as Anti

Defection Law.

53rd Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1986: It confers

Statehood on Mizoram and ensures against unnecessary interference by the
Central Government by the laws relative to spheres of social relationship and
community conduct applicable to Mizoram.

The Constitution (54th Amendment) Act, 1986: It enhances the salaries

of Judges of High Courts and Supreme Court of India.

The Constitution (55th Amendment) Act, 1987: It grants Statehood to

Arunachal Pradesh which consequently became the 24th State of the Indian
Union.

56th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1987: It confers

Statehood on Goa and forms a new Union Territory of Daman and Diu. Goa
thus became the 25th State of the Indian Republic.
The Constitution (57th Amendment) Act, 1987: It made a special
provision for the setting up of the new State of Goa.

58th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1988: It provides for

special arrangements with regard to reservation of seats for Scheduled Tribes
in the State of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Meghalaya.

The Constitution (59th Amendment) Act, 1988: It empowered the

Central Government to impose Emergency in Punjab when deemed
necessary.

The Constitution (61st Amendment) Act, 1989: It lowered the voting

age from 21 to 18.

62nd Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1989: It provided for

the extension by another 10 years of reservation of seats in the Parliament
and State Assemblies for the Scheduled Castes and Tribes and reservation for
Anglo-Indian Community by nomination.

The Constitution (63rd Amendment) Act, 1989: It repealed Amendment

59 which empowered the government to impose emergency in Punjab.

The Constitution (64th Amendment) Act, 1990: It extended the

Presidents rule in Punjab by six months.

66th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1990: To bring land

reforms within the purview of 9th Schedule of the Constitution.

The Constitution (68th Amendment) Act, 1991: It extended the

Presidents rule in Punjab up to a total period of 5 years.

1987-1991 : Punjab placed under presidents rule

The Constitution (69th Amendment) Act, 1991: Delhi made National
Capital Region. The Act also made provision for Legislative assembly and a
council of ministers for Delhi.

70th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1992: The

amendment provides for the inclusion of members of the legislature of
Pondicherry and Delhi.

71st Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1992: to include

Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali Languages in the 8th Schedule of the
Constitution.

The Constitution (72nd Amendment) Act, 1992: to determine the

number of reserved seats for STs in the State Assembly of Tripura.

73rd Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1993: relating

to Panchayats inserted in the constitution to provide Gram Sabha,
the constitution of panchayats at the village and other levels, direct elections
to all seats, fixing the tenures, reservation for SC, ST and 33% seats for
women etc.

74th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 1993: relating to

Municipalities, i.e., Nagar Panchayats, Municipal Councils and Municipal
Corporations.

The Constitution (77th Amendment) Act, 1995: (constitutional validity

in the debate) Article 16(4A) provides reservation in promotion for the SC
and the ST.

The Constitution (One Hundred Seventeenth Amendment): It provides

that all the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes notified in the
Constitutional shall be deemed to be backward.
The Constitution (79th Amendment) Act, 1999: Extended the
reservations for SC/ST in services as also nomination of 2 Anglo-Indians
to Lok Sabha up to 2010.

80th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 2000: Related to the

revenue sharing between the Centre and the States

The Constitution (81st Amendment) Act, 2000: Related to carrying

forward backlog vacancies of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

82nd Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 2000: Related to

relaxation in qualifying marks and reservation of posts in super specialty
courses in Medical and Engineering disciplines, etc. for Scheduled
Castes/Tribes etc.

83rd Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 2000: Related to the

reservation of seats under Panchayati Raj in Arunachal Pradesh.

The Constitution (84th Amendment) Act, 2000: (NDA govt. smaller

states) Related to creating of new States of the Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, and
Uttaranchal.

85th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 2001: Amended

Article 16(4A) to provide for consequential seniority in promotion by virtue of
the rule of reservation for the Government servants belonging to the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.

The Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002: State shall provide free
and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years.

87th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 2003: shall be

substituted.

The Constitution (88th Amendment) Act, 2003: (service tax) This

Article provides for the insertion of a new article 268A which states that
taxes on services shall be levied by the Government of India and such tax
shall be collected and appropriated by the government of India and the
States in the manner provided in clause

The Constitution (89th Amendment) Act, 2003:(Bifurcation of Nat.

Commission for SC and ST) This Article provides for the amendment of
Article 338 and insertion of a new article 338A which provides that there
shall be a National Commission for ST.

The Constitution (90 Amendments) Act, 2003: This Amendment

provided that for elections to the Legislative Assembly of the State of Assam,
the representation of the Scheduled Tribes and non-Scheduled Tribes in the
constituencies included in the Bodoland Territorial Areas District, so notified,
and existing prior to the constitution of the Bodoland Territorial Areas
District, shall be maintained.

91st Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 2003: (strengthens

anti-defection law) This Article provides that the total number of Ministers,
including the Prime Minister, in the Council of Ministers shall not exceed
fifteen percent of the total number members of the House of the people.

The Constitution (92nd Amendment) Act, 2003: This Article provides for
the inclusion of four new languages, viz. Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali in
the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.

93rd Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 2005: In this

Amendment, a provision has been inserted that the State can make laws for
the advancement of the SC, ST or the OBCs of citizens in matters of
admission to educational institutions.

The Constitution (94th Amendment) Act, 2006: This article provides

that in the proviso, for the word Bihar, the words Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
shall be substituted.
The Constitution (95th Amendment) Act, 2009: This article provides
that the words sixty years, the words seventy years shall be substituted.

96th Amendment of the Indian Constitution Act, 2011: This article

provides that the word, Oriya, the word Odia shall be substituted.

The Constitution (97th Amendment) Act, 2011: This article provides

that Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy

The Constitution (98th Amendment) Act, 2012: to empower the

Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad-Karnataka
Region. As per the Statements of Objects and Reasons of the Bill, this
Region includes the districts of Gulbarga, Bidar, Raichur, Koppal, Yadgir, and
Bellary.

First of all, before knowing the provisions provided in the Indian constitution for the schedule
castes and tribes, we should know who comes under the ambit of SCs and STs. These are well
defined under the article 366 (24) and 341 as under:

Article 366(24) in the Constitution of India 1949

(24) Scheduled Caste means such cases, races or tribes or parts of or groups within such
castes, races or tribes as are deemed under Article 341 to be Scheduled Castes for the purposes
of this Constitution;

Article 341 in the Constitution of India 1949

341. Scheduled Castes

(1) The President may with respect to any State or Union territory, and where it is a State after
consultation with the Governor thereof, by public notification, specify the castes, races or tribes
or parts of or groups within castes, races or tribes which shall for the purposes of this
Constitution be deemed to be Scheduled Castes in relation to that State or Union territory, as the
case may be
(2) Parliament may by law include in or exclude from the list of Scheduled Castes specified in a
notification issued under clause ( 1 ) any caste, race or tribe or part of or group within any caste,
race or tribe, but save as aforesaid a notification issued under the said clause shall not be varied
by any subsequent notification

Safeguards for SCs and STs:

SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS:
1. Article 17: it relates to abolition of untouchability being practiced in the society. The Parliament
also enacted the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 to tackle the problem of untouchability being practiced
against Scheduled Castes.

2. Article 23: this prohibits human trafficking and begar and other similar forms of forced labour
and provides that any contravention of this provision shall be a punishable offence. Although this
article is not specifically articulated for the SCs and STs but because majority of bonded labour is
from SCs so it holds significance for them.

3. Article 25 (2)(b) : it provides that Hindu religious institutions of a public character shall be
opened to all classes and sections of Hindu.

ECONOMIC SAFEGUARDS:

Article 46 : it provides ,The state shall promote with special care the educational and economic
interest of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.

EDUCATIONAL AND CULTURAL SAFEGUARDS:

Article 15(4) : it empowers the State to make special provisions for the advancement of any
socially and educationally backward class of the citizens and for SCs. This article enabled the
State to reserve seats for SCs in educational institutions.
Article 335: Allows relaxation in qualifying marks for admission in educational institutes or
promotions for SCs/STs.

POLITICAL SAFEGUARDS

1. Article 243D: Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in
every Panchayat.
2. Article 243T: Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in every
Municipality.
3. Article 330: Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in the
House of the People.
4. Article 332: Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in the
Legislative Assemblies of the States.
5. Article 334: Reservation of seats and the special representation to cease after sixty years.

SERVICE SAFEGAURDS

1. Article 16(4): This clause allows the state to reserve vacancies in public service for any
backward classes of the state that are not adequately represented in the public services.
2. Article 16 (4A): This allows the state to implement reservation in the matter of promotion for
SCs and STs.
3. Article 16(4B): This allows the state to consider unfilled vacancies reserved for backward
classes as a separate class of vacancies not subject to a limit of 50% reservation.

OTHER SAFEGUARDS
1. Article 164: Appoint special minister for tribal welfare in the states of MP, Bihar, and Orrisa.
2. Article 275: Allows special grant in aids to states for tribal welfare.
3. Article 338/338A/339: Establishes a National Commission of SCs and STs. Article 339 allows
the central govt. to direct states to implement and execute plans for the betterment of SC/STs.
4. Article 340: Allows the president to appoint a commission to investigate the condition of
socially and economically backward classes and table the report in the parliament.

Winds and Their Types

Three broad categories of wind types are:

Regular Winds: e.g. Trade winds, Easterlies and Polar Easterlies

Prevailing Winds/ Planetary Periodical Winds: (which blow seasonally)

Monsoon

Variable Winds: Cyclones and other local winds

Also Read: Monsoon, Floods and Droughts

Trade Winds
Trade in German means Track. To blow trade means to blow steadily in the
same direction and in a constant course.

They blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the equatorial
low pressure belt. Under the influence of the Coriolis force they blow from
the north-east SW in the northern hemisphere and from the south-east NW
direction in the southern hemisphere.

Westerlies
Blow from subtropical High pressure to sub-polar low pressure belt.

They blow in SW to NE direction in Northern hemisphere and NW and SE

direction in Southern hemisphere.
In the northern hemisphere, land masses cause considerable disruption in
the westerly wind belt. But between 40 degree and 60 degree south lies the
almost unbroken ocean belt. Westerlies are strong and persistent here,
giving rise to mariners expressions Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties, and
Shrieking Sixties.

Polar Easterlies
Move from high pressure poles to sub-polar low pressure area in east and
west direction.

These are deflected by the Earths rotation to become east winds or polar
easterlies.

Local Winds
Chinook: Hot dry wind in Rockies also called snow eater

Hoehn: Hot, dry wind in Alps

Khamsin: Hot, dry wind in Egypt

Sirocco: Hot, moist wind from Sahara to Mediterranean Sea.

Solano: Hot, moist wind from Sahara towards Iberian Peninsula

Hamattan: Hot dry wind blowing outwards from interior of West Africa also
called Guinea Doctor.

Bora: Cold, dry wind blowing outward from Hungary to the north of Italy
(near Adriatic Sea)

Mistral: Very cold wind, which blows down from the Alps, over France.

Zonda: Cold, dry wind blow in Argentina

Blizzard: Very cold wind in Tundra region

Brickfielder: Hot wind in Australia

Purga: Cold wind in Russian Tundra

Lavanter: Cold wind in Spain

Norwester: Hot wind in New Zealand

Santa Ana: Hot wind in South California in USA