Air Compressors

Graph of Pressure against volume in a

reciprocating compressor
Volumetric efficiency Vh = Actual suction volume Vx/
Theoretical suction
volume Vs

For greater efficiency air compression should be isothermal as this

requires the minimum work input. In practice Isothermal compression is not
possible, an ideal Isothermal cycle requires sufficient time to allow all the
required heat to be transferred out of the cylinder, practicality dictates that the
piston must have a relatively high speed to give a reasonable output,

Cylinder cooling on a single stage compressor gives better

efficiency but there is a limitation in the surface area to cylinder volume that
can be used for cooling effect, but multistage compressors with an efficient
extended surface interstage cooler gives cycle improved compression efficiency
better approaching that of the isothermal. In theory the greater the number of
stages the closer the curve will approach the ideal isothermal compression
curve, however there is an increase in cost, complexity, and the law of
diminishing returns limit the number.

Compression in stages has the following advantages;

 1. The compression ratio at each stage is lower and so the final temperature is lower.
This reduces problems with lubrication
2. . The machine is smaller and better balanced
3. water can be drained off at each stage
4. Compression better approaches the ideal isothermal

It is important that the compressor clearance volume is kept small

as possible in order to improve overall volumetric efficiency as the air trapped
in this space must expand to below suction pressure before new air can enter,
this is an effective loss of stroke.

A clearance is required in order to prevent the piston striking the

cylinder cover when starting or stopping off load. The clearance volume is
sometimes referred to as the 'Bump Clearance'.

Crankcase lubrication
Lubrication of the crankcase in a compressor does not pose any specific
problems and normally consist of splash lubrication with pressurised oil being
fed to shell bearings. Where drip cylinder lubrication is used, this should be
kept to a minimum conducive with liner wear. A standard mineral oil similar to
that used in the main engine may be used, although due to carbon deposits,
higher quality oils are generally used with the most effective being specifically
designed synthetics which have allow a considerable reduction in maintenance
but are costly.

Mineral oils contain a blend of lighter elements such as paraffin's,

and heavier elements such as asphaltenes. During compression the lighter
elements are vaporised leaving the heavy ends, these coat the piston rings and
discharge valves in combination with oxidised oil deposits. These deposits also
coat passage ways and coolers resulting in higher interstage air temperatures.
Deposits on discharge valves cause them to become sticky and leak resulting in
hot air being drawn back into the cylinder for recompression. This increases the
temperature and hence causes greater oxidation and deposits, and so the
condition deteriorates with increasing rapidity.

Temperature can become very high, this may result in oily deposits
at the discharge valves carbonising. Eventually this carbon could glow red and
cause detonation. It is more likely, however, that oily deposits will be carried
over to the air receiver and air start manifold to be ignited by blowpast at the
cylinder air start valve.

Deposits at piston rings cause leakage allowing oil to enter the

cylinder from the crankcase thus increasing the danger it is essential that
crankcase lubrication be kept to a minimum compatible with an acceptable
wear rate. Regular maintenance will minimise oily deposits build up and hence
the risk of explosion

Materials and design of a reciprocating

compressor
The compressor casing, cylinder covers and piston rings are generally of cast
iron. Pistons may be of cast iron, steel of aluminium. Aluminium being the
preferred material for use on the LP piston due to its larger diameter. Valves
are usually made so that parts can be interchanged between the suction and
discharge valves. Seats are of mild steel with small diameter air passages to
prevent the fragments of broken valve plate from entering the cylinder. Valve
plates are of vanadium steel heat treated and ground to provided the required
hardness and surface finish. Springs should be arranged such that they lift and
seat squarely. Uneven spring force or deposits on the seat cause valves to
bend resulting in fatigue cracking.

For compressors designed for starting air requirements a water

jacket relief valve is fitted.
Rotary Compressor
 The rotary compressor may be of the impeller type similar to that
used in the turbocharger , scroll, twin rotating lobes or of the sliding vane type
similar to the one shown above. In practice there would be several more vanes
than shown.

Rotary compressors are capable of handling large quantities of low

pressure air much more efficiently than a reciprocating compressor. In order to
produce increased pressures it is possible to stage rotary compressors but
leakage problems increase at higher pressures as well as stress on the vanes.

The sliding vane compressor consists of a slotted rotor with its axis
offset from that of the cylindrical casing. Vanes fit in the slots and have contact
with the casing

On the suction side the space contained between the casing, the
rotor and an adjacent pair of vanes is gradually increasing allowing air to be
drawn in.

On the compression side this same space is gradually reduced

causing the pressure increase. When the leading vane uncovers the discharge
port air will flow to outlet. Larger compressors of this type are water-cooled,
smaller compressors tend to be air cooled.

The main problems related with sliding vane compressors concern

wear at the vane tips and sealing of the ends

Rotary/reciprocating Compressor
Rotary compressors in general do not require internal lubrication but they are
not suitable alone for providing air at a pressure for starting duties. They can,
however, be linked to reciprocating stages to produce a hybrid compressor.
 The compressor is lighter, more compact and better balanced than
an equivalent all reciprocating unit. In basic terms the rotary first stage
supplies air to the reciprocating second and subsequent stages. All stages
being driven by the same shaft

Safety Valve

Materials
Cast iron-Casing, Liners, Pistons( the LP piston is sometimes made from an
aluminium alloy, Cylinder covers Steel- Crankshaft, Conrods, Pistons, Valve
seats Vanadium Steel- Valve plates

Starting air compressor circuit

Starting and stopping sequence is adjustable, the magnetic valves are open
when the compressor is stopped so any residual pressure is blown off. On
starting the magnetic valve are sometimes delayed to close so as to allow the
compressor motor to reach full speed before the compressor is loaded up.

The non-return valves prevent HP air leaking back from the

receiver on which the filling is also of the non return type.

Calculation of required cylinder compression for a

multistage reciprocating compressor
r = stage pressure ratio
R = compression pressure ratio
for a two stage
r = R1/2

for a three stage

r = R1/3

for example, a 3 stage compressor requiring a final pressure of

64bar would have the following interstage pressures 1st stage 1bar
compressed to 4bar
2nd stage 4bar compressed to 16bar
3rd stage 16bar compressed to 64bar

It would appear that most of the work is being carried out in the
final stage, this is untrue as with the increase in pressure is a complimentary
reduction in volume, if the temperature conditions remain the same then work
will be equally divided between the stages.

By reducing the suction pressure, the cylinder is required to do

more work on the air before the discharge valve opens. This means that the air
will be delivered at a higher pressure. The higher temperature can lead to
problems with the cylinder lubrication as well as a drop in efficiency as well as
carbonising of the oil and increased deposits on the valves and piston rings and
interstage passages. In the extreme it can lead to seizure and possible diesel
detonation of the oil laden air.
 The reduction in pressure at the suction can be due to a partially
blocked suction filter or partially choked suction valve. The lower pressure
conditions in the cylinder at the start of compression can cause oil laden air to
be drawn from the crankcase up the liner. This oil can lead to increased
deposits in the compressor as well as further downstream in the distribution
system

(P1.V1)/ T1 = (P2. V2)/T2

and

(P1/P2).(T2/T1) = (V2/V1)

P1.V1g = P2.V2g

and

P1/P2 = V2g/V1g From these we get;

T2 = T1. (P2/P1) (g -1)/g

g = 1.4
and if we take for and example
P1 = 0.4 bar
P2 = 1 bar
Pf = 5 bar
Tinitial = 300 K we end with final temperatures for the two compression's of
T1= 617 K and T2 = 475 K
from the graph it can be clearly seen that losses due to the bump clearance
has increased and the period of constant pressure delivery has been reduced.

Coolers
Plain Tube-
-easy to clean
-very effective due to large surface area of large number small
diameter tubes
-plugging of failed tube allos cooler to continue in service with little
loss in efficiency
-must allow for thermal expansion by having one tube plate floating
'U' tube-
-suitable for higher pressures than plain tube
-self compensating for thermal expansion
-efficent due to large nomber small diameter tubes
-failed tubes may be plugged
-more expensive than plain tube and diificult to clean
Coil tube
-self compensating for expansion
-suitable for high pressures
-difficult to clean
-inefficicent due to large tube diameter
- not easy to plug
 -expensive