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OxfordMusicOnline

GroveMusicOnline
Brazil
articleurl:http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com:80/subscriber/article/grove/music/03894
Brazil
(Port.RepblicaFederativadoBrasil).
CountryinSouthAmerica.ItisborderedbyallotherSouthAmericancountriesexceptChileandEcuador,andbytheAtlantic
Oceantotheeast.ItwascolonizedbyPortugalafter1500,butthecultureoftheindigenouspeoplessurvived.SoPaulo,the
largestcentreofproductioninLatinAmerica,isitsfinancialcapital,andRiodeJaneiroitsculturalcapital.Theofficiallanguage
isPortuguese.

I.Artmusic

1.Colonialperiod(to1822).
RelativelylittleisknownaboutartmusicactivitiesandcompositionduringthefirsttwocenturiesofBrazilianhistory.The
substantialdocumentationattestingtoimportantmusicalactivitiesinPernambuco(Olinda,Recife)andSalvador,Bahia,wasnot
compiledandstudieduntilthemid20thcentury.Throughoutthecolonialperiodmostmusicmakingrelateddirectlytochurch
services,andsurvivingcolonialmusicisthereforemainlysacred.Theregularclergywasresponsibleforfirstorganizing
ChristianreligiouslifeinBrazil.TheFranciscansstartedusingmusicintheconversionoftheAmerindians,butitwastheJesuits
whohadthestrongestinfluenceonthemusicallifeofthecolony,andasearlyas1550theJesuitNbregahadinitiatedmusical
instructionatBahia.Instrumentmakingdidnotflourish,however,untilthe18thcentury.Organsandotherinstrumentswerebuilt
inPernambucoandMinasGerais.

Thefirstextantcolonialcomposition,arecitativeandariainthevernacularforsoprano,firstandsecondviolinsandcontinuo,
waswrittenatBahiain1759,buttheattributionoftheauthorshiptoCaetanodeMelloJesus,mestredecapelaatBahia
Cathedral,appearsunfounded.AnotherearlyworkisaTeDeum(c1760)formixedchorusandcontinuobyLuizlvaresPinto,a
mulattocomposerwhowasmestredecapelaatSPedrodosClrigos,Recife,andfounderinthatcityoftheimportant
IrmandadedeSCecliadosMsicos,amusiciansguild.Inaddition,hewroteatheoreticaltreatise,Artedesolfejar,whose
manuscriptisintheBibliotecaNacional,Lisbon.

Anexceptionalmusicallifedevelopedduringthelatterpartofthe18thcenturyinMinasGeraisprovince,inresponsetothe
socioeconomicboomthere.AccordingtothemusicologistF.C.Lange,whofirstuncoveredtheprimarysourcesofthatrepertory,
therewereabout1000musiciansactiveinMinasGeraisbetweenabout1760and1800,particularlyinthecitiesofVilaRica
(nowOuroPreto),Sabar,Mariana,ArraialdoTejuco(nowDiamantina)andSoJoodelRei.Mostofthemweremulattoand
associatedwithvariouslocalbrotherhoods(irmandades),musicalguildsthatwererelativelyindependentoftheclergy.
ComposerswhoseworksareknownincludeLobodeMesquita,CoelhoNeto,GomesdaRochaandParreirasNeves.Theyall
cultivatedaprevailinglyhomophonicstyleinsacredworksformixedchoruswithorchestralaccompanimentincludingviolins,
viola,horns,occasionallyoboesandflutesandcontinuo.Mostofthecompositionsthathavebeendiscoveredareliturgical
(masses,motets,antiphons,novenasetc.).TheonlyworkwithavernaculartextisParreirasNevessOratoriaaoMeninoDeos
paraaNoitedeNatal(1789),discoveredinMarianain1967onlyitssopranoandinstrumentalbasspartshavesurvived.Itis
remarkablethatthistraditionofcolonialchurchmusichassurvivedcontinuouslyinthecityofSoJoodelRei,withthe
OrquestraRibeiroBastosandtheLiraSanjoanese,thankstotheeffortsinthelate20thcenturyofmusicologistconductorJos
MariaNevesandothers.Theseorganizationsinvolvelocalamateurmusiciansasvocalistsandinstrumentalists.

TheBahianDamioBarbosadeArajo(17781856)wasanactivecomposerofsacredmusicandleftabout23works.Ofthe
variousmestresdecapelaatSoPauloCathedral,AndrdaSilvaGomeswasparticularlynotable,notonlyasaprolific
composerofsacredmusicbutalsoasaninfluentialteacher.IntheinteriorofthestateofSoPaulo,thetownofMogidas
Cruzeswasalsoacentreofsacredmusicthemanuscriptsof11compositions,almostcertainlydatingfromthelate17thand
early18thcenturies,werediscoveredin1984.

Intheearly18thcenturythemusicalcomediesofAntonioJosdaSilva(170539),nicknamedOJudeu,enjoyedgreat
successinthecolonyaswellasinLisbon.MusicallifeatRiodeJaneirowasgreatlystimulatedbythetransfertothatcityofthe
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Portugueseroyalcourtin1808.InthesameyearKingJooVIcreatedtheroyalchapeltowhichheappointedasmusical
directorandmestredecapelathemulattocomposerNunesGarca,whoisrightlyconsideredoneofBrazilsfinestmusicians.
237ofhisworksareextant,amongthemamultitudeofmasses,motets,andpiecesforHolyWeekandotherfeastdays.His
earliersacredpieceshaveadevotionalcharacterwhilehislaterones,likethoseofcontemporaryEurope,showtheinfluenceof
operainbothchoralsectionsandarias.HisRequiem(1816),writtenonthedeathofQueenMariaI,andMissadeSantaCeclia
(1826)aregenerallyconsideredhismasterpieces.

ProfessionalEuropeancomposersbegantomigratetoBrazilduringJooVIsresidencyinRiodeJaneiro.Mostnotably,the
PortugueseoperacomposerMarcosPortugalsettledtherein1811,addinggreatprestigetothemusicallifeofthecity.The
AustrianSigismundNeukommwasemployedbythecourtfrom1816to1821toteachtheyoungPrincePedrohewrotethe
MissaparaodiadaAclamaodeJooVIandearliestknownBrazilianpianopiece(1819),usingatunefromaBrazilian
popularsong.

2.Afterindependence.
The19thcenturymusicalscenewasdominatedbyoperaandsalonmusic.AfterindependencetheformerRoyalTheatre
becametheImperialTheatre.ThereignofPedroIIwascharacterizedbythecultivationandofficialprotectionofItalianopera
BellinisNormainparticularwasoftenperformed.InthegovernmentsubsidizedtheatresinRio(e.g.SPedrodeAlcntara,and
laterProvisrio)theprincipaloperasofRossini,Verdiandtheircontemporarieswereproduced.ManueldaSilva,remembered
todayasthecomposeroftheBraziliannationalanthem,attemptedtostimulatetheuseofthevernacularintheoperatic
repertory.In1847,undertheauspicesoftheemperor,aninstitutionwascreatedwiththataim,theImperialAcademyofMusic
andNationalOpera.AfterthatdatethefirstnativeoperaswerepresentedtheircomposersincludedlvaresLbo,Alvesde
Mesquitaand,aboveall,CarlosGomeswhohadthemostbrilliantcareerofanycomposerofthesouthernhemisphereinthe
19thcentury.HestudiedatMilanConservatory,andwiththepremireofIlGuaranyatLaScalain1870reachedtheclimaxof
hiscareer.

RegularconcertlifedevelopedparticularlyinRiodeJaneiro,butonlyduringthelastthreedecadesofthe19thcentury.Concert
societiesandclubswerefoundedwhichpromotedtheappearanceinBrazilofsomeofthemostcelebratedperformersofthe
time(Thalberg,Napoleo,Gottschalk).Concurrentlyseveralcomposers,suchasMiguzandOswald,cultivatedtheprevailing
Europeanstyles,particularlythoseofWagnerandtheearlyImpressionists.FranciscoBraga,aninfluentialteacherof
composition,fosteredalocaladaptationofWagnerianRomanticism.

Thefirstnationalistcompositionwaspublishedin1869byItiberdaCunha,anamateurmusicianandanaccomplished
pianist.HispianopieceASertanejaattemptstorecreateinvariouswaystheatmosphereofurbanpopularmusic,andquotesa
characteristicpopulartune.AlexandreLevywrotehismosttypicallynationalcompositionsin1890,amongthemtheTango
brasileiroforpiano,andtheSuitebrsiliennefororchestra,thefirstofmanysuchpiecesproducedbylaternationalist
composers.Thelastmovement,Samba,canbeconsideredthefirstdecisivesteptowardsmusicalnationalismitdrawson
urbanpopulardancerhythms,suchasthoseofthemaxixeandtheBraziliantango,ratherthanonthecharacteristicsofthefolk
samba.

Bythebeginningofthe20thcenturyartmusicinBrazilbegantodisplaydefiniteindividuality.ThecomposerAlberto
Nepomucenoplayedaprimaryroleinthecreationofgenuinenationalmusic:manyofhiscompositionspresentfolkorpopular
materialorsimplydrawdirectlyonpopularmusic.Thelastmovement(Batuque)ofhisSriebrasileira(1892)fororchestrais
symptomaticofthediscoveryoftherhythmicbasisofpopularmusic,andanticipatessimilaraccomplishmentsin20thcentury
compositions.

Afterabout1920themostimportantfigureofBrazilianartmusicwasVillaLobos.Hewroteabout1000works(including
arrangements)inawidevarietyofgenresandmedia.TheWeekofModernArtinSoPaulo,in1922,ledbyMariodeAndrade
andothers,wasagreatstimulustoVillaLobossexplorationofmusicalnationalism.Amonghismostimportantworksofthe
1920sthenonetImpressorpidadetodooBrasil,theseriesofChoros,inspiredbyurbanpopularmusicoftheearlyyearsof
thecentury,andpianoworks,suchasRudepoema,Proledobebnos.2and3andCirandas,revealthevariousfacetsofhis
creativity.Hisfinalproductiveperiod(193057)includesthenineBachianasbrasileiras,13stringquartetsoutofatotalof17,
sevensymphoniesoutofatotalof12,numeroussolosongsetc.TheBachianaswereintendedashomagetoJ.S.Bach,and
werewrittenasdancesuitesbeginninggenerallywithapreludeandendingwithafugalortoccatalikemovement.Actual
BaroquecompositionaltechniquesareseldomusedtheuseofthefugueasaformalprincipleisaneoBaroquedevice,
resultinginclearhorizontalmovementandsystematicimitation.Otherneoclassicaldevicesostinatofiguresandlongpedal
notesarealsoused.

OfVillaLobosscontemporariesOscarLorenzoFernndez,LucianoGalletandFranciscoMignoneweretypicalofthe
orientationtowardsnativestyles.Mignone,apianist,flautistandconductor,cultivatedanationalstylerelyingheavilyonurban
popularandfolkidioms,asinhisfourFantasiasbrasileirasforpianoandorchestraandintheseriesofpianopiecesLendas
sertanejas,ValsasdeEsquinaandValsaschoros.

ThemostimportantcomposersofthenextgenerationincludedCamargoGuarnieri,LuizCosme,RadamsGnatalliandJos
Siqueira.Guarnieri,aprolificcomposer,achievedaninternationalreputation.CosmesworksincludetheballetSalamancado

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Jaru(1933),andNovenaSenhoradaGraa(1950),writteninafree12notetechnique.Gnatallicultivatedbothpopularand
artmusic,withaninclinationinhislaterworkstowardsneoclassicalidioms.

Theyoungercomposersfirstactiveinthe1940s(e.g.ClaudioSantoroandCsarGuerraPeixe)alternatedbetweenmusical
nationalismandprevalentEuropeantechniques,particularlySchoenbergsdodecaphonictheories,firstintroducedinBrazilby
theGermancomposerHansJoachimKoellreutter.EdinoKrieger,afterincursionsintostrictatonality,foundsomeinteresting
compromiseswithinamodernneoclassicalstyle(e.g.inhisFirstStringQuartet,1956).Serialandexperimentaltechniques
havebeenusedbyyoungercomposerswhobecameknownduringthe1960s,whenSoPaulobecamethecentreofthe
BrazilianavantgardetheMsicaNovagroupthereincludedGilbertoMendes,DamianoCozzella,WillyCorradeOliveiraand
RogrioDuprat.Thesubsequentfocusofnewmusic,theBahiaGroupofcomposers,foundedin1966,includedErnstWidmer,
JamaryOliveira,LindembergueCardoso,FernandoCerqueira,WalterSmetakandMiltonGomes,allwhollycommittedtothe
contemporaryartisticworld.UndertheleadershipofWidmer,theBahiaGroupremainedquitedistinctiveintheeclecticismofits
members,whostressedindividualityratherthanfashionabletrends.InspiteofthelimitedmeansoftheBrazilianmusicalscene,
bythe1970smostcomposersadvocatedtheuseofnewmusicalresourcesandtechniques,thusbreakingcompletelywiththe
predominanttrendofmusicalnationalism.Forexample,MendessNascemorreisasettingforvoices(usingmicrotones),
percussionandtapeofatextbytheconcretepoetHaroldodeCampos.Themajorfigureswhoemergedinthe1970sand80s
includedMarlosNobre,JorgeAntunes,AlmeidaPrado,AyltonEscobar,RicardoTacuchian,JocydeOliveira,RauldoValle,
RonaldoMirandaandVasconcellosCorra.Duringtheperiod197597,theBienaldeMsicaBrasileiraContempornea,
organizedinRiomainlybyEdinoKrieger,representedamuchneededencouragementforBraziliancomposers,whilethe
SociedadeBrasileiradeMsicaContempornea,especiallyduringthetenureofthepianistBelkissCarneirodeMendona,
wasinfluentialincreatingasenseofcommunity.Bythe1980sstudiosforelectroacousticcompositionhadbeenestablishedin
majoruniversitiesinSoPaulo,RiodeJaneiro,BeloHorizonte,BrasliaandBahia.Inthe1990sthemostpromisingBrazilian
composersincludedPauloCostaLima,AgnaldoRibeiro,LuisCarlosCsek,MarisaRezende,TimRescala,FloMenezes,
CirleideHollanda,RodolfoCoelhodeSouza,JosAugustoMannis,VniaDantasLeite,RodrigoCicchelliVellosoand
RobertoVictorio.

SeealsoMINASGERAISPERNAMBUCORIODEJANEIROSALVADORSOPAULO.

Bibliography
G.deMelo:AmsicanoBrasildesdeostemposcoloniaisatoprimeirodecniodaRepblica(Bahlia,1908,2/1947)

R.Almeida:Histriadamsicabrasileira(RiodeJaneiro,1926,enlarged1942)

V.Cernicchiaro:StoriadellamsicanelBrasile,daitempicolonialesinoainostrigiorni(15491925)(Milan,1926)

M.deAndrade:Ensaiosbreamsicabrasileira(SoPaulo,1928)

M.deAndrade:Pequenahistriadamsica(SoPaulo,1929,8/1977)

M.deAndrade:Msica,docemsica(SoPaulo,1934)

L.H.CorradeAzevedo:Relaodasperasdeautoresbrasileiros(RiodeJaneiro,1938)

M.deAndrade:MsicadoBrasil(Curitiba,1941)

N.Slonimsky:MusicofLatinAmerica(NewYork,1945,3/1949/R1972withnewforewordandaddenda)

R.Almeida:Compndiodehistriadamsicabrasileira(RiodeJaneiro,1948,2/1958)

V.Mariz:Dicionriobiobibliogrficomusical(brasileiroeinternacional)(RiodeJaneiro,1948,enlarged2/1985asDicionriobiogrfico
musical:compositores,intrpretesemusiclogos,3/1991)

V.Mariz:Figurasdamsicabrasileiracontempornea(Oporto,1948,enlarged2/1970)

L.H.CorradeAzevedo:MsicaemsicosdoBrasil(RiodeJaneiro,1950)

M.deSampayoRibeiro:AmsicanoBrasil(Lisbon,1950)

L.H.CorradeAzevedo,C.PersondeMatosandM.deMouraReis:Bibliografiamusicalbrasileira(18201950)(RiodeJaneiro,1952)

L.H.CorradeAzevedo:150anosdemsicanoBrasil(18001950)(RiodeJaneiro,1956)

F.C.Lange:Aorganizaomusicalduranteoperodocolonialbrasileiro(Coimbra,1966)

R.Stevenson:SomePortugueseSourcesforEarlyBrazilianMusicHistory,YIAMR,iv(1968),143

G.Bhague:TheBeginningsofMusicalNationalisminBrazil(Detroit,1971)

B.Kiefer:HistriadamsicanoBrasil(PortoAlegre,1976)

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M.Marcondes,ed.:Enciclopdiadamsicabrasileira,erudita:folclrica,popular(SoPaulo,1977,2/1998)

G.Bhague:MusicinLatinAmerica:anIntroduction(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ,1979)

V.Mariz:HistriadamsicanoBrasil(RiodeJaneiro,1981,4/1994)

J.M.Neves:Msicabrasileiracontempornea(SoPaulo,1981)

II.Traditionalmusic

1.Introduction.

(i)History.
ThefolkandtraditionalmusicofBrazilhasbeenstudiedfromvariousanglessincethebeginningofthe20thcenturyhowever,
althoughthecollectingofsubstantialfolkandpopularmusicrepertorieshasimprovedduringthelastfourdecadesofthe20th
century,itremainslimited.Thesamplescollectedarerelativelyrecentandhavenotundergoneadequateanalytical
examination.Historicalstudiesoffolkorpopularmusicalgenresdonot,forthemostpart,relyonsounddocumentaryevidence.
Withfewexceptions,historicalarchivesinbothBrazilandPortugalhavenotbeensufficientlyscrutinizedtoenableusto
reconstructthehistoryoffolkmusicinBrazil.Sucharchivaldocumentsinclude,mostimportantly,travellers'chronicles
describingsongsanddances,andvaluableethnographicdata.SeveralBrazilianwritershavepointedoutthealmosttotal
absenceofnotatedexamplesinBrazilorPortugaloffolkandpopularmusicduringthecolonialperiod(16thcenturytoearly
19th).Ourknowledgeofthismusicisthereforenecessarilylimitedtocertainsonganddancegenresandthevarioussocio
culturalcontextsinwhichtheyfunction.Collectedexamplesofsuchgenresdateonlyfromthelate19thcentury.Substantialfield
collectionsoffolkmusicwerefirstmadeinthe1930s.ThestudyofcontinuityandchangeinBrazilianfolkandpopulartraditions
canthereforebecontemplatedonlyforafairlyrecentpastinwelldeterminedareas.

AswithmostLatinAmericancountries,itisdifficulttomakeacleardistinctionbetweenBrazilianpopularmusicandfolkmusic.
Untilthe1930s,withafewexceptions,cleardistinctionsbetweenruralandurbanareascouldhardlybemadeinBrazil,since
thecultureofmostcitiesandtownswasstronglyruralorientated.Thecontinuousgrowthofurbancentressincethe1940s,
however,makesthedistinctioneasierasalargeurbanmarketforpopularmusicalgenreshasdeveloped.Concurrentlythe
migratorymovementfromtheruralareashasactivatedasubstantialamountoffolkmusicmakingandconsumptioninthecities.
Massmediaandthegreatermobilityoftheruralpopulationhavehadinevitableconsequencesoncertainrepertoriesandfolk
musicgenres,especiallychoreographicgenresusedinasocialsecularcontext.Suchimportantchangeshave,however,
hithertoreceivedminimalattention.

Brazilianfolkmusicreflectsitsvariedculturalorigins.SincethecountrywascolonizedbythePortuguese,LusoHispanicfolk
musicconstitutesthebasisofBrazilianfolkmusic.Portuguesematerialhas,inmostcases,undergoneessentialmodifications
throughoutBrazilianhistorybutcertainstylisticcharacteristics,suchasIberianfolkpolyphony,havebeenretained.Portuguese
melodies,especiallyinchildren'ssongs,canstillbefound.MelodiesbuiltontheolderEuropeanmodes,gappedscalesand
alteredmodescaneasilyberelatedtoPortugal.Theharmonicsystemprevailinginmostfolkandpopulargenresislikewisea
Europeanheritage.TherichvarietyofLusoHispanicinstruments,particularlystringinstruments,hasalsopenetratedthe
country.

TheslavetradewithAfricalastedforalmostfourcenturies.WhileatfirstmostoftheAfricansoriginatedfromAngolaandthe
Congoarea,YorubaandFonDahomeanspredominatedduringapproximatelythelast150yearsoftheslavetrade.Yetmost
AfroBraziliansongsanddancesshowaclearBantuorigin,withtheexceptionofcertaincyclesofsongsfunctioninginsome
AfroBrazilianreligions.SpecificscalesfrequentinBrazilianfolkmusichavebeenattributedtoanAfricanorigin:pentatonic
scales,majordiatonicwithaflattenedseventhandmajorhexatonicwithouttheseventhdegree.Africanrhythmictraits,suchas
thehemiolarhythm,formthebasisofmanyrhythmicintricaciesofBrazilianfolkmusic.WhilenotassophisticatedasitsAfrican
counterpart,drummusicamongAfroBraziliansexhibitssimilarcomplexity.Specificinstrumentshavebeeninheritedfromthe
Africans,aswellascertainperformancefeatures,suchasresponsorialsingingandvocalstyle.

ThethirdmajorethnicgroupthatcontributedtotheearlyformationofBrazilianfolkmusicistheAmerindiangroup.Tropical
IndianculturesinBrazilarebynomeanshomogeneous,andknowledgeoftribalmusicisrestrictedtoafewscatteredenclaves.
VestigesofthismusicinthemainfolktraditionsofBrazilcanatbestberevealedthroughtheretentionofcertaintypesof
instruments,mainlyrattlesofthemaracatype,certainchoreographicgenresandperformancecharacteristics.

Itisclear,however,thatthemostsubstantialcontributiontotheoriginanddevelopmentofBrazilianmusiccomesfromPortugal.
ThepredominanceofwhitepeopleandtheirinfluenceonAmerindiansandAfroBraziliansandthereverseacculturative
processhavecreatedanessentiallymestizoculture,thecomponentsofwhicharetheresultofthatamalgamation.Thus
genuineBrazilianfolkmusicaltraditionsaremestizotraditions.

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(ii)Culturalandmusicalareas.
AlthoughBrazilianfolkmusiccannotbeconsideredhomogeneousbecauseofitsvaryingsocio
culturalpatterns,thereisalargeenoughcorpusofmusicinthevariousgeographicalareasforthe
generalcharacteristicstobedescribed.Therehavebeenseveralattemptstodefineculturalareas
inBrazil,butthecriteriaofclassificationhaveneglectedmusicaltraits.MaynarddeArajo(1964),
forexample,hasproposedthefollowingdivision:Amazonarea,cattleherdingarea,miningarea,
agriculturalarea,fishingarea,withsubdivisions,allaccordingtotechniquesofsubsistence.
JoaquimRibeirowasthefirsttopropose,in1944,asetoffourmusicalareas,basedonmusical
genres:embolada(northeast)moda(south)jongo(severalzonesofBantuinfluence)aboios
(cattleherdingzoneofthehinterlandorserto).Azevedo(Grove'sDictionary,1954)basedhis
ownmorecomprehensiveclassificationonthedistributionofmusicalgenresandinstruments.He
MapofBrazilshowingmusical distinguishedninemusicalareasandonesongcycle:Amazonareacantoriaarea(northeast)
areasbasedonAzevedos
classification ccoarea(northeasterncoastalarea)areaoftheautos(throughoutthecountry,withspecific
nucleiinSergipeandAlagoas)sambaarea(fromthestatesofBahiatoSoPaulo)modadeviolaarea(fromGois,Mato
GrossotonorthernParan)fandangoarea(southerncoastalarea)gachoarea(cattlezoneofRioGrandedoSul)modinha
area(includingmostlytheoldesturbanareas)andthecycleofchildren'ssongsfoundinallareas(fig.1).Thisclassificationis
usefulasamainworkingtool,butomitsBrazilianindigenousmusicasaresultoftheextremelylimitedattentionthatthishas
received.Inaddition,ithashadtodisregardthenumerousoverlappingsofdistributionoffolkgenres.

(iii)Generalmusicalcharacteristics.
Culturalsyncretismofvariouskinds(AmerindianwithPortuguese,AmerindianwithSpanish,AmerindianwithAfrican,
PortuguesewithAfrican,SpanishwithAfrican,andthefusionofsyncretismamongallofthesewithnativeblackBrazilian)has
createdasubstantialdiversityoffolksongsanddances.Withinthatdiversity,certainstylisticelementsunifythevarious
repertories.

MelodicorganizationtendstofollowpatternsassociatedwithEurope,suchasarchedmelodies,conjunctmotionandmelodic
gravity.AntecedentandconsequentstrainsoccurfrequentlyinBrazilianfolksongs.Shortandsymmetricalphrasingisalso
generallyobserved.Melodictensioncreatedbyintervallicleapstendstooccuratthebeginningofasong,followedbya
typicallyconjunctdescendingmotion,orastaticphrasemadeupofrepeatednotes.Thismarkedlydescendingtendencyhas
beenattributedtowesternEuropeanandWestAfricaninfluencesinBrazilianmusic.Butasimilarcharacteristichasbeen
showntoexistalsointhemusicoftheNambicuaraIndiansofMatoGrosso,amongotherAmerindiangroups.Veryfrequently
thedescendingmotionfollowsanundulatingdesign.Melodicsequenceabounds.SongsmorecloselyassociatedwithIberian
folktraditionsexhibitapredominantlytriplemetre(3/4)orcompoundmetres(6/8,9/8).Duplemetreprevailsingenresofa
clearerAfroBrazilianfolkorigin,thoughquiteoftenthereisadupletriplecompositeinactualperformance,creatingthehemiola
rhythmiceffect.

Alargeproportionofcadencesendonthedominantorthemediantandmasculineendingspredominate,astheresultof
Portugueseprosody.Inaddition,thereisagreatdealofrecitativelikesinging,withlittleornometricstructure,andwithsome
ornamentation.PlainsonghasbeenconsideredanimportantinfluenceonBrazilianfolkmelodiccharacteristics.Fromthe16th
centuryonwardsmissionaryworkcarriedthewellestablishedIberiantraditionofsingingGregorianmelodies.Furthermore
someaspectsofPortuguesefolkmusicimplantedinBrazilalreadyhadGregorianchantcharacteristicsinmelody,modesand
rhythms.MriodeAndradewasthefirsttocallattentiontorhythmictraitsandmelodiccadencesrelatedtochant.Later,Oneyda
Alvarenga(1950),TavaresdeLima(1954)andFatherJosGeraldodeSouza(196063)providedexamplesfromvarious
areas.Ex.1,alundumelodycollectedinCear,illustratesGregoriancharacteristics,suchasbeginningonthedominantand
endingonthetoniccadentialdiatonicismandtheseventhorGmode.Examplesoftruerecitativesandtypesofcantillation
occurfrequently.Theamensuralnatureofex.2istypical.Besidesthisrhythmicfreedominmelodicphrasing,melodiesand
cadencesarefrequentlybasedonthechurchmodes,suchastheAmodeshowninex.3,areisadofromRioGrandedoNorte
theDmodeinex.4,alullabyfromPartheFmodeinex.5,amendicantblindman'scryfromthenortheastandtheEmodein
ex.6inapagelanasongfromPar.

Ex.1LundufromCear

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Ex.2Martelo(desafio),fromthenortheast

Ex.3ReisadofromRioGrandedoNorte

Ex.4LullabyfromPar

Ex.5Mendicantblindmanscry

Ex.6PagelanafromPar

Despitetheseinstancesofmodes,melodiestendtobemainlydiatonicandtonal(ormajor/minor).Anhemitonicpentatonic
scalesprevailincertainrepertories.TherangeinBrazilianfolkmusicvariesagreatdeal:generally,songshaveanarrower
rangethanstrictlyinstrumentalpieceswhilemanysongsexceedtheoctaveintheirrange,mostdonot.

Themelodicmaterialisorganizedinseveralforms,predominantlystanzarefrainalternationandstrophicformwithslight
variations.Throughcomposedsongsoccurtoamuchlesserextent.LiteraryformsinheritedfromSpainandPortugal,suchas
quatrainsanddcimas(tenlineverse),commonintheromances,orballads,havenaturallydeterminedtheirmusicalforms.In
songsanddancesofamorespecificallyAfroBrazilianstock,thestanzarefrainpatternoftenshowstextualandmusical
improvisationinthestanza(performedbyasoloist)withasetchoralrefrain.

Ofallthemusicalelementsrhythmiscertainlythemostdifficulttogeneralizeabout.Intheory,theIberianheritagehasprovided
Brazilianfolkmusicwithtripleandcompoundmetricstructures(3/4,6/8,9/8),andtheclearstressingofdownbeats.Simple
isometricfiguresabound.Dottedfigures(ex.7a)orcompoundtripletime(ex.7f)arequitecommon.Thepeculiarrhythmic
characteristicofBrazilianmusic,however,issyncopation,eitherbyirregularaccentuationoranticipation.Syncopationsare
generallycontrastedwithasteadyrhythmicpulsation(oftenrepresentedassemiquaverunits).Exx.7afgivesomeindicationof
thefrequentrhythmicpatternsoccurringinmestizofolkmusic.Numerousvariantpossibilities,however,arepresentin
performance.TherhythmicpracticesmostcommonlyassociatedwithAfroBrazilianfolkmusicrevealasubtledupletriple
ambivalence,asillustratedinexx.7iand7j,whichshowtwodifferentrenderingsofrhythmicpatterns.Thecharacteristically
Africanhemiolarhythmisoftenfound.Irregularrhythmicstructuresandamensuralorfreerhythmmelodiesoccurincertainsong
types,suchasthetypicalaboios(cattleherdingsongs)ofthenortheasternstates.

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Ex.7FrequentrhythmicpatternsinBrazilianfolkmusic

Polyphonicparallelismprevails.ThemostcommontypeoffolkpolyphonyinheritedfromtheIberianpeninsulainvolvessinging
inparallel3rdsand6ths,eitherbytwoormoresoloistsormorecommonlyinresponsorialsinging.Thistypeofpolyphonic
practiceisalsopresentininstrumentalmusic.Parallel4thsand5ths,althoughrare,arefoundmorereadilyinsongsofa
soloisticnature.Singingandplayingattheoctavearerelativelycommon.Imitativetypesofpolyphonyarerareandarenot
systematized.Songtypessuchasthedesafioandembolada,whichinvolvealternatesinging,arenotpolyphonic.Overlapping
commonlyoccurswithresponsorialsinging.Contrapuntaltexturesaboundincertaininstrumentaltypesofurbanpopularmusic,
suchasthechoro.

(iv)Organology.
Indigenous,AfricanandEuropeaninstrumentsareplayedinBrazil,althoughitisnotalwayspossibletodeterminetheoriginof
eachwithaccuracy.

ItisgenerallyacceptedthatAmerindiansdidnothavechordophonesatthetimeoftheconquest.InBraziltherareexamples
describedintheliteraturearepostcolonialoreven20thcentury.Themusicalbow,calledurucungointhesouthandberimbau
(orberimbaudebarriga)inthenorthandnortheast,withorwithoutresonator,ismuchinuseinsuchdancegamesasthe
Bahiancapoeira.OfAfricanprovenance,theberimbauisstillplayedinanAfricanmanner:thestringisstruckwithawooden
stickandametalcoinservesasabridge.Timbremaybechangedbymanipulatingtheresonatoragainstorawayfromthebody
oftheperformer.Generallyasmallbasketrattle,calledcaxixiinBahia,accompaniesthestrokesofthestick,asshowninfig.2
[notavailableonline].

ThemajorityofstringinstrumentscamefromEurope,particularlyfromtheIberianpeninsula.Mostimportantinthevariousfolk
musicalexpressionsofBrazilistheviola,atypeofguitarwithfivedoublecoursesmadeofwireorsteel.Therearevarioussizes,
thestandardonebeingsomewhatsmallerthantheSpanishclassicalguitar.Thereareatleastfivetypesofvioladistributed
throughoutthecountry:theviolapaulista,cuiabana,angrense,goianaandnordestina.Thedifferencesaremostlyinsize,in
numberandmaterialofstrings,andintunings.Thevarietyoftuningsisconsiderable.InSoPauloalonesome25tuningsare
known,suchtuningsbeingusedaccordingtotheparticularfunctionoftheinstrument.Toaccompanythesonggenreknownas
moda,forexample,thetuningADGBE,knownasquatropontos,isconsideredmostsuitable.Violaplayersgiveeach
tuningaspecialname.Thus,inSoPauloandsouthernBrazilingeneral,DGBDGistermedcebolo,EBEG#B
cebolinhasimples,DGBEAcanaverdeorcururu,DGCFA#oitavadoorpontiadodoParan.Theinstrumentmaybe
usedtoaccompanybothsinginganddancing,butitisalsoplayedsoloandfrequentlyinduets.Mythsandlegendsinvolvingthe
violaattesttoitsparamountimportanceamongtheBrazilianpeople.Thepersonalizationoftheinstrumenthascreatedcertain
magicsecularritualsdesignedtopreventdiseasesaffectingtheviola.Aspecialtypeofviolaisthevioladecocho,knownas
theBrazilianlute,withfivesinglestrings,ashortneckandnosoundhole.ItisusedinMatoGrossointhecururufestivities.

Inconjunctionwiththeviola,thePortugueserabeca,orfiddle,tunedADDG,isstillusedinpopularreligiousfeasts,dramatic
andseculardances.Inthe1920sitbegantodeclineinpopularity,onlytoregainsomeofitsformerimportanceinthe1980s.
TheSpanishguitarisalsowidelyplayedinBrazil,particularlyintheurbanareas.ThecavaquinhoisofPortugueseoriginand
hasgainedawidepopularityinthecitiessincethelate19thcentury.Ithasfourmetallicstringstuneddgbd.Themachete
issimilartothecavaquinhoandpossiblycomesfromMadeiraIsland.OtherchordophonesinBrazilianfolkmusicarethe
mandolin(Port.bandolim)andthebanjo,thelatterintroducedinthe1930s.

ThemajorityofthemanytypesofidiophoneareofAmerindianandAfricanderivation.Themaracaandthevarioustypesof
chocalhosarethemostwidespreadoftheshakenrattles.ThepreColumbianAmerindianmaraca(mbarac)ismadeofa
calabashfilledwithdryseeds.Chocalhohasbecomethegenerictermforshakenandstruckrattlesmadeofdifferentmaterials
andvaryinginshapeandsize.Theyareoftenknownbytheironomatopoeicnames,suchasxaquexaque,xequexeque,
xequer,xexeretc.Theganz(orcanz)oftenappearsasatwoheadedchocalho,usuallymadeofmetal.Thoughgenerally
consideredtobeofAfricanorigin,becausetheAmerindianshadnometalidiophoneswhenthefirstAfricanslaveswerebrought
toBrazil,itisstrikinglysimilartothemaracaand,aswithotherrattles,thereisnotenoughevidenceforonetobecertainofits
origin.Theafox(orafux),calledxequerinBahiaandmoregenerallypianodecuia,isanotherwidespreadtypeofrattle.
Insteadofthecalabashbeingfilledwithseeds,itiscoveredwiththreadedbeadsorcowrieshells,asinWestAfrica.The
instrumentisplayedbyrotatingthecalabashfromthehandlewiththerighthandwhilethebeadsareheldfirmlywiththeleft
hand.BasketrattlesareknownamongbothAmerindiansandAfroBrazilians.Thecaxixi,mentionedaboveinconnectionwith
capoeira,hasitscounterpartintheangiaofthejongoandbatuquedances.Themostwidespreadstruckidiophoneisthe

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agog,acowbellofAfricanprovenance.Usuallyadoublebell,itisstruckwithametalrodandusedondifferentoccasions.The
singlebellinstrumentcalledganispreferredamongthemoretraditionalAfroBrazilianreligiousgroups.Inthesamegroupsthe
adj,similartotheagog,fulfilsamorespecificallyliturgicalfunction.TheAfricanmarimba(xylophone)haslostitsformer
importanceasasoloinstrumentoranaccompanyinginstrumentforsinging.Inmoderntimesitisusedonlytoaccompanysuch
dramaticdancesasthecongada.Thetwotypesofmarimbastillinuseareportableandhavesixand11keysrespectively,
whicharestruckwithwoodensticks.TheAfricanlamellophoneispracticallyextinctinBrazil.

Apopulartypeofscrapedidiophoneistherecoreco(alsoknownasraspador,casacaorcatac)itisusedintraditionalrural
dancessuchasthecongada,cururu,canaverdeandfolksamba,aswellasinmodernurbandancessuchasCarnivalsambas
andmarches.NumeroustypesofmembranophoneofEuropeanandAfricanoriginareusedinBrazilianfolkandpopularmusic.
Theconicalsingleheadeddrum,similartotheAfroCubancongadrum,isknownthroughoutthecountryunderthegeneric
termsatabaqueandtambor.OfAfricanderivationarethevariousdrumsaccompanyingAfroBrazilianreligiousceremonies.
Theretheatabaquesaregenerallyplayedinthrees,eachofdifferentsize,andareknowninBahia,fromthelargesttothe
smallest,asrum,rumpandl.Thesedrumsareplayedwithsticks,withhandandstickorwiththehandsalone,dependingon
theparticularreligiousgrouporparticularsongrepertory.Inthenortheasternprovinces,especiallyPernambucoandCear,
cylindricalsingleheadeddrumsareknownbytheYorubanameofilu,althoughthesametermwasformerlyusedfordouble
headedbarrelshapeddrums.Tambudesignatesasimilarcylindricalsingleheadeddrum,especiallyinthesoutherncentral
andsouthernregionswhereitplaysanimportantroleinthejongoandthebatuquedances.Thecandongueiroorcandongueira
isasmalltambuusedinthejongoandusuallyplayedwiththefingersonly.Astillsmallerandhigherpitcheddruminthejongo
isthecadete.AnotherAfricandrumstillusedinthebatuqueisthemulembaorquinjenguewhichhasafunnellikeshape,giving
itahigherpitch.Theskinofallthesedrumsistraditionallyattachedtothebodyeitherbypegsorbywedges,butmodernmass
producedcongatypedrumsusescrewdevices.ThetalkingdrumsofWestAfricawiththeirtypicallyvaryingpitchareunknown
inmodernBrazil.

Acharacteristicdrumknownthroughoutthecountryisthecucaorputa,africtiondrumwithremarkablepitchrange.Itsoriginis
difficulttodetermine.IntroducedinBrazilprobablybyBantuslaves,ithasalsobeenknowninSpainforcenturiesanditis
believedtohavebeenbroughttoAfricabyMuslims.Itisusedinnumerousfolkandurbanpopulardances.Thetambourineis
knowninBrazilwithandwithoutjingles.Theoldesttypeistheadufe,asquaretambourine,usuallywithoutjingles,ofArab
origin,butbroughttoBrazilbythePortugueseandstillmuchinuseinPortugal.Thestandardtambourineisknownaspandeiro
andsincetheearly20thcenturyhasbecomeoneofthemostwidelyaccepteddrumsinpopularmusic.Theinstrumentknownin
Portugueseastamborimisasmall(30cmlongand15to18cmindiameter)cylindricaldrumpercussedwithastick,usedin
dramaticdancessuchasthecongadaandmoambiqueandinthepercussionensemblesofCarnivalbands.

DoubleheadeddrumsofEuropeanoriginincludesnaredrums(knownascaixa)ofvarioussizes(thesmallerisoftenreferredto
astarol,thelargerascaixasurdaorsurdo).Thezabumba,variouslycalledbombo,bumbaandtamborgrande,isabassdrum
playedwithabeater,popularinthenortheasternstateswhereitleadsensemblesconsistingoftwoorthreefifes,asintheBeira
provinceofPortugal.Thezabumbaaccompaniesruralsambas,congadasandotherdances.Doubleheadeddrumsarethe
mostcommontypesamongBrazilianIndians.

Amerindiantribeshaveawidevarietyofflutes,trumpetsandwhistles.Theflutesincludetransverseflutesmadeofreed,slit
tubes,noseflutes,andreedpanpipessuchastheaviraroftheAwetiKamaiuroftheHighXinguarea.Aerophonesin
BrazilianfolkandpopularmusicaremostlymodernEuropeaninstruments,fromsimplefifestovalvetrumpets,trombonesand
saxophones.Themodernfluteandthepiccolohavebeencultivatedinurbanpopularmusicsincetheadventoftheurban
sambaintheseconddecadeofthecentury.Bothbuttonandpianokeyboardaccordions(sanfona)arewidelyusedinfolkand
popularmusicthroughoutthecountry.Infolkmusicwindinstrumentsgenerallyplayalesserrolethanpercussionandstring
instruments.

2.Amerindianmusic.
BrazilianIndiansbelongtothetropicalforesttypeofindigenousculture.Thishasbeenclassified
accordingtotherelativedegreeofintegrationwiththemainnational(i.e.LusoBrazilianand
mestizo)socioculturalgroups.MostIndians,however,havehadsporadicornocontactwithwhite
andmestizoBrazilians.Insuchcasestheymaintainculturalautonomy.Thosewhohavehad
permanentcontactshavebeen,orareintheprocessofbeing,integratedintothemainstreamof
Braziliansociety.Fourmainindigenouslinguisticfamilieshavetraditionallybeendistinguished:
Tupi,Arawak(Aruak),CaribandG,withseveralsubdivisions.11indigenouscultureareashave
beenproposedbyDarcyRibeiroandothers(fig.3).ThemusicoftheTaulipangIndiansfromthe
northernAmazonarea(betweenRioNegroandthecoast)wascollectedbyTheodorKoch
Grnbergfrom1911to1913andsubsequentlystudiedbyHornbostel,whooutlinedthefollowing
MapofBrazilshowingindigenous
culturalareasasproposedby traits:existenceofsoloandchoralsingingmelodiesofmediumrange,generallylessthanan
octave(ex.8hasarangeofaminor7th)conjunctanddescendingmelodicmotionpredominantlyternarydivisionsoffixed
rhythmicpatterns.Dancemusicseemstoprevailinthecollectedrepertory,butcuringsongsandothersongsforritual
ceremonies,suchashuntingmagic,arealsocommonamongtheTaulipang.Hornbostelobservedthatthemotivicorganization
ofmostTaulipangsongsissimpleandthatthemotifsarefrequentlyinterrelated.Ex.8providesagoodillustrationofthestrophe

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arrangement.AccordingtoHornbosteltheyfallintotwohalvesofthreemotiveseachabd/efc:the4/2groupsofthefirstpart
becomethe3/2inthesecond,andthefinaltactusthroughomissionofthepauseisfurthershortenedto5/4.Themotivegf e
isexpandedto4/2cadence,andisrepeatedinbas2/2andindas1/4.(Suchprogressiveabridgementsaregenerally
characteristicoftheformoftheIndianstyle.)MusicfromtheJeruPurusarea,southwestoftheAmazonRiver,hasnotyet
beencollectedandstudied.

Ex.8TaulipangIndiansong

ThemusicoftheNambicuaraIndiansoftheGuaporareawasfirstcollectedandstudiedbyRoquettePinto.Heobserved
amongthemwarandfestivedances,andtwotypesofflute:thenoseflutewiththreeholes(studiedbyIzikowitzandHalmos)
andthedoubleflute.Ex.9,collectedbyRoquettePintoin1912,showsacleartonalcentre(e),conjunctmotion,andthenarrow
rangeofaminor3rd.Isometricrhythmicstructureisalsoevident.MaterialcollectedbyLajosBoglrin1959andstudiedby
HalmosshowsthattheneighbouringParessIndianssingmelodiessimilartothoseofNambicuara.Halmoswasableto
characterizeNambicuaramelodyashavingasmallrangeandfrequentlyrepeatedmotifs.Butmelodicstructuresdonotalways
appeartobesimple.Theyconsistingeneralofstanzas,thetotalityofwhichformthemelody.Thenumberofstanzasinsung
melodiesisconstantwhilethereisnoregularityinthelengthofthemelodiesperformedoninstruments.The28melodies
analysedrevealadescendingmotion,amediumaveragerange(outofthe28onlyfourextendtoa7th),andthepresenceofa
basicfinalonwhichthestanzasalwaysend.

Ex.9NambicuaraIndiansongcoll.R.Pinto

FromtheTapajsMadeiraarea,lyingapproximatelybetweenthetworivers,westernParandeasternAmazonas,littleofthe
musicoftheMuraPirahIndiansisknown.Theoldestexample,collectedandtranscribedbySpixandMartiusintheearly19th
century,revealsthesamegeneralcharacteristicsofBrazilianindigenousmusic:sixnotescalewithatonalcentremelodic
rangeofaminor6thprevailingconjunctmotionmotifsrelatedinanABCDorganizationandisometricrhythm(ex.10).

Ex.10MuraPirahIndiansongcoll.SpixandMartius

IntheHighXinguareainthestateofMatoGrosso,betweentheriversParanatinga,RonuroandCuluene,theParqueIndgena
doXingu,alargereservation,hasbroughttogethernumeroustribes.Traditionally,theprincipalgroupsofthisareaarethe
Kamaiur(Tupi),theMehinakuandYawalapiti(Arawak)andtheTrumai.KamaiurmusichasbeenstudiedbyMenezesBastos.
KamaiurIndianshavegiantflutes(upto25metresintubelength)knownasuru,withritualfunctions.Theavirar(fouror
fivetubepanpipes,upto50cmintubelength)areusedasanintroductiontothemasteringoftheuru,butwhiletheycanbe
playedbyonepersononly,theururequirestwoplayers.Ex.11illustratesKamaiurvocaldancemusic.Acharacteristicfeature
isthemicrotonalslidingofthevoicefollowedbyawiderangedescendingglissando.Theisometricrhythmicfiguresemphasize
thebeginningofeachphrase,stressingthelongnotevalues.Thenoticeableexhalingandharshaspirationcorrespondingto
thisbeginningofphraseswaspointedoutbyHornbostelasatypicalfeatureofAmerindianvocalstyle.Inaddition,thereisa
directrelationshipbetweentensionandpitch,d beingthetensionpoint.AsindicatedinthestudiesofMenezesBastos(1978,
1986,1988),Kamaiurmusicfunctionsasaformofknowledgeandcommunicationinveryspecificways.Anelaboratesystem
oftaxonomyrevealsthepresenceofanethnotheorythatexplainsthecognitiveprocessesdifferentiatingandintegratingmusic,
speechandlanguage,andthevariouslevelsofmusicmakinginwhichmusicalinstrumentsandhumanvoicestakeon
particularmeanings.Suchatheory,elucidatedprimarilythroughlinguisticanalyses,alsoclarifiesthecloseconnections
betweensuchconceptsasmusicalsubstanceandelaborationandtheculture'spolitical,economicandbasicsocialstructures.

Ex.11Kamaiurvocaldancemusic,coll.andtranscr.M.Bastos

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ThemusicoftheSuyIndiancommunity,alsofromtheHighXingu,hasbeenthesubjectofextensivestudybyAnthonySeeger
(1987).Herealsoonefindsspecificnativecategoriesofformsofsoundproduction.ForexampletheSuytermngrerefersto
song(andbyextensionmusic,sincetheyonlyknowsongs),sangretoinvocation(curingsongs),sarntoinstructionortelling
andkaprnitospeech.Therearesignificantrelationshipsbetweenthesevocalforms:musicandspeecharenotseparated,
rathertheyoperateinacontinuumdeterminedbycontexts.Whatseemstodistinguishsongfromtheotherformsisfirstthe
priorityofmelodyovertext,thefixedmodeofitspresentation,theextensiveuseoftextualrepetition,thefixedlengthofits
phrases,thefixedrelationsamongpitches,andtheauthorityofitsfixedtexts(Seeger,1987).Thereare,however,different
genresofsong.Theakia(shoutsongorcall)designatesindividualsongsperformedbyadultmenorboysuntiltheyhave
severalgrandchildren,whilengre(unisonsong),distinctfromakia,designatessongusuallyperformedinunisonandina
lowerregisterbymen,women,boysorgirls.Thefunctionsofthesesongsarenumerousbuttheirmostsignificantaspectsare
associatedwithsocialrelationsandidentity.Thusakiareaffirmssocialtiestosistersandmothersandexpressesemotions.
Ngreisusedtoreaffirmtheidentityofthecollectivityandtheinvocationwouldservetoinstillaparticularanimaltraitintothe
bodyofthepatientsothatadesirablephysicalchangecouldtakeplace.TheintegrationofsongperformancewithinSuy
cosmologyrevealsthedegreetowhichsongsrepresenttheverycentralityofSuyexistentialessence.

TheTocantinsXinguarea,betweenthetworivers,insoutheasternParandnorthernGois,isinhabitedbyKayapIndians,of
whomtheGorotireareasubgroupbelongingtotheGlinguisticfamily.Theyapparentlyknowonlythreetypesofinstrument:
gourdrattle,stampingtubesandasmalltrumpetthelastisthoughttobetheresultofoutsideinfluence.Muchofthecollected
musicrevealsthepredominanceofchoralmonophonicpieceswithpentatonicmelodies.

ThePindarGurupiarea,betweenthetworivers,extendstotheGuamandCapimriversinthewestandtoportionsofthe
GrajaandMearimriversintheeast.ThemusicoftheUrubuKaaporIndians(oftheTupifamily)fromthisareahasbeen
studiedbyHelsaCameu.Althoughthismusicrevealstritonictopentatonicscales,simplepolyphonicsingingoccurs,perhaps
theresultofintermittentcontactwithmestizoculture.

IntheParaguayarea,tothesouthoftheswampregionofMatoGrosso,theKadiweuIndiansareanintegratedgroup.The
Kadiweusongshowninex.12,collectedinthelate1940s,isaccompaniedbythemaraca.Itscharacteristicsare:tetratonic
scale(dega),predominantarchedmelodicmotionandisometricrhythm.

Ex.12KadiweuIndiansong

TheParanarea,ontheborderbetweenParaguayandBrazil,isinhabitedbyGuaranIndians.TheKaiwa,forexample,belong
tothisgroupandarenowfoundinvariousareasofthestatesofParanandSoPaulo.Theirchoralmusicexhibitsparallel
polyphonyex.13illustratesparallel4ths.(ForfurtherdiscussionofGuaranmusicseePARAGUAY.)

Ex.13Kaiwachoralmusic

IntheTietUruguayarea,betweenthetworivers,comprisingmuchofthehinterlandofthestatesofParan,SantaCatarina,
andportionsofRioGrandedoSul,theCaingangorCoroadosoftheGfamilyareexamplesofintegratedAmerindiangroups.
Theirculture,therefore,doesnotatpresenthavemanyAmerindiancharacteristics,thoughanexampleoftheirmusiccollected
intheearly19thcenturybySpixandMartiusrevealsthesamegeneraltraitsofAmerindianmusic:tetratonicscale,
predominantlydescendingmelodicmotionbyconjunctdegreesandisometricrhythm.

ThenortheastareaincludesvariousgroupsscatteredthroughthestatesofParaba,Pernambuco,Alagoas,BahiaandMinas
Gerais.TheKaririfromMirandela(Bahia),whoformoneofthesegroups,representanintegratedindigenousculture,reflected
intheirmusic.Styleandgenresarethoseofthecaboclo(mestizo)folktraditionofthearea.

3.LusoBrazilianfolkmusictraditions.

(i)Socialcontexts.

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Cyclesoffolkfestivitiesofasecularorreligiouscharactertakeplacethroughouttheyearinthevariousregionsofthecountry.
Thesefestivitiesincluderitualsofthanksgivingtonatureandprotectiveritesforfutureharvests,andprovideanopportunityfor
socialsolidarity.Musicisanintegralpartofsuchoccasions,whetherinwelldeterminedfunctionsorinlessstructuredones.
Besidesfixedsongrepertoriesaccompanyinggivenaspectsofthefestivities(asdescribedbelow),danceisundoubtedlythe
mostimportantelementofsocialrecreationandinteraction.Brazilpossessesaverylargenumberoffolkdancetypesandfolk
dramaticdancesofdifferentkindsandfunction.Themaincyclesoffolkandpopularfeastsrecognizedbymostfolkloristsinclude
theFestadoDivino(FeastoftheDivineBeing),andfeastsofthewinterandsummersolstices.Theserituals,whichmaybe
religiousincharacter,aredirectlyassociatedwiththeRomanCatholicfeastsandthecommemorationofsaintsdays,which
constitutecyclesofsyncreticfeasts,amongwhichCarnivalisthemostwidespread.Again,mostofthesearealsomusical
occasionsonwhichsocialcohesionandcooperationareinduced.

Ofthesouthernwintersolsticefeasts,thatofStJohnisthemostpopular.Thereareconsiderableregionaldifferences,
especiallyinthetypeoffoodconsumedandthesongsanddances.Christmasis,ofcourse,themostimportantfeastofthe
summersolsticecycle.Thefolias(orfoliasdereis)representthefestiveactivitiesofthistime(from24Decemberto6Januaryor
2February,whichisPurificationday).TheyareprimarilypopularrepresentationsoftheNativityandthejourneyoftheThree
Kings.InMinasGerais,numerouscommunitieshaveorganizedfoliasgroupswhosememberssinginsidethechurch,infrontof
theNativityscene,intypicalparallelpolyphony,accompaniedbyaccordion,guitarsandpercussion.Whilesuchfeastsretain
theirreligiouscharacterinsouthernBrazil,thoseofthenorthandnortheastaremoresecular.Thebailepastoril,afolkplay
depictingthevisitofshepherdstotheBethlehemstable,accompaniedbysongsanddances,isalsoanimportantfestivityon
Christmasnight.Suchplaystakeplaceeitheronapublicplatformorinhouses,infrontoftheNativityscene.Dancesaresetin
sequences.Mostareinawaltzlikerhythm.Ex.14,thefirstsongaccompanyingthefirstdanceofabailepastorilfromBahia,
showstraits(triplemetre,fourbarphrase,heptasyllabicline)thatrelateittofolksongofPortugalfromwhichthepastoril
originated.

Ex.14Bailepastoril,dancefromBahia

OtherimportantmusicaloccasionsaretheEastercycle,andespeciallytheperiodofHolyWeek.Besidescertainreligious
ceremoniessuchasprocessions,pilgrimagesandfolkrepresentationsofthePassion,thecycleincludesthetraditionalbeating
andburningofJudas.ForthispurposesongsassociatedwithurbanCarnivalmerrymakingareusedinthelargecitiessuchas
SoPaulo,sincespecificsongsfortheceremonyhavebecomerare.AnotherancientEuropeancustomobservedinLuso
BrazilianfolkloreistherecommendationofsoulsduringtheLentperiod.Membersofreligiousgroupsshroudtheirheadswith
whiteclothsandgoatnightfromhousetohousetosingandprayforwanderingsoulsbelievedtobesufferinginpurgatoryor
hell.InthehinterlandofSoPaulosuchgroupsareknownasternosandincludechildren,menandwomen.Theyaccompany
themselveswithamatraca(rattle)andaberraboi(noisemaker)tocommandattentionandtoaccentthesinging.Mosttypically
thereareseveralsoloistsansweredbyachorus,bothgroupssinginginconstantparallel3rdsor6ths.

Inadditiontothefixedfolkfestivities,musicmakingarisesinmanyothersocialcontexts.Thelargerepertoryofchildren'splay
songsismostlyofPortuguese,SpanishandFrenchorigin.Dancesandsongsaccompanyallsortsofgamesandotherformsof
adultrecreation.Similarly,thelifecycleceremoniesforbirth,marriageanddeatharemarkedbyritualswithmusic,mostof
whichisofPortuguesederivation.Finally,manysongrepertoriesariseoutoflabouractivities,suchascattleherdingand
fishing,cotton,coffeeandtobaccopickingsongs.

(ii)Dances.
AnyclassificationofthemanyLusoBrazilianfolkdancesisnecessarilyarbitrary.Thissectiondoesnotincludedramaticdances,
orbailadosastheyareknowninPortuguese,whicharediscussedin(iii)below.Thetraditionalclassificationdistinguishes
betweenreligious,secularandwarorfightingdances,althoughexceptionsmustbemadeinthecaseofdancessuchasthe
cateret,whichcouldbeinterpretedassemireligiousorsemisecular,withoutbeingafightingdance.Moreover,certaindances
cannotbesaidtobelongexclusivelytowhiteormestizoBraziliansratherthantoblacks,andviceversa.Thedeterminationof
theoriginoffolkdancesisvirtuallyimpossibleinmostcasesowingtolackofwrittendocumentationandasaresultoftheclose
interactionofsocialandethnicgroups.Thus,theloosenessofethnicboundariesshouldagainbeborneinmindindiscussing
folkdances.

AmongreligiousdancesthemostwidespreadarethedanadeSoGonalo,danadeSantaCruz(oftheHolyCross)and
cururu.Theseculardances,whicharemorenumerous,includethefandango,quadrilha,lundu,jongo,batuque,cco,baian,
carimb,cortajacaandtheruralsamba.Sincemanyofthesearemoreusuallyassociatedwithblackstheyarediscussedin4
below.ThefightingdancesconsistprimarilyoftheAfroBraziliancapoeiraandmaculel.Othersinthiscategoryarepartof
dramaticdances,suchasthecongada,moambiqueorcayap.

ThedanadeSoGonaloappearstobeoneofthemostrepresentativeofallBrazilianfolkdances.StGonalo(doAmarante)
isapopularsaintintheruralareas.AlthoughPortugueseinorigin,hehasacquireddifferentattributesinBrazil,whereheisthe

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patronofviolaplayersand,asaplayerhimself,isalwaysrepresentedwithaguitarinhishands.Hismiraculousfunctionisto
promotemarriage.Theactiveparticipantsinthedancearegenerallythosewhohavemadeapromisetothesaint.The
performancerequiresanaltaronwhichisplacedaclaystatueofStGonalo,flankedbytwolightedcandles.Generallytwomen
singtheprayersandaccompanythemselvesontheviola.Themestre(master),asaruletheoldestman,singsthemainmelodic
line,accompaniedinparallelmotionbythecontramestreatintervalsincludingtheunison,3rd,4thand5th.Severalcouples
participateinthedance,formingtwolines,mentotheleft,womentotheright,facingthealtar.Themestrestandsinfrontofthe
men'slineandthecontramestreinfrontofthewomen's.InSoPaulostatethedanceisdividedintofiveparts.Foreachpart,
fiveorsixquatrains(usuallyinheptasyllabiclines)aresung.Eachquatrainisaccompaniedbycorrespondingchoreographic
figures,includingshoetapping.Theprayers(SalvereginaandanAveMaria)aresunginalternationbetweenthemestreonthe
onehandandthecontramestreanddancersontheother.Thelastpartofeachprayer,includingtheAmen,issungbyall.The
firstsong(ex.15)istypicallyinAABBform,AcorrespondingtothefirsttwolinesoftextandBtothelasttwo.Themostprominent
characteristicsofthissong(alsoapplicabletoLusoBraziliansingingingeneral)include:predominanceofparallel3rds,
transpositiontotheupper4thfortheBsection,anacrusisandisometricphrasestructure,andmediummelodicrange.TheSalve
reginamelodyissungmonophonicallyinaresponsorialfashion(ex.16).TheAveMariacollectedinSoPaulo(ex.17)istypical
initsconjunctmotionanditsrhythmicfigures,butatypicalinitsasymmetricalphrasestructure.InmostoftheSoGonalo
dances(whetherfromPiauandMaranhoorMinasGeraisandSoPaulo)percussioninstrumentsarerarelyusedtheyare
consideredunsuitablebecausetheSoGonalodanceisadanceofrespect.Thereisnosetdatefortheperformanceofthe
dance.Generally,itresultsfromathanksgivingtoasaintinahouseorchurch.InGoisstate,theaccompanyingensemble
featuresviolin(rabeca),violas,guitarsandberimbaus.

Ex.15DanadeSoGonalo,SoPaulostate(MaynardArajo,1964,2/1967)
CompanhiaMelhoramentos,SaoPaolo,Brazil/fromA.MaynardAruajo,Folclorenacional(1964,2/1967)

Ex.16SalvereginafromdanadeSoGonalo(MaynardArajo,1964,2/1967)
CompanhiaMelhoramentos,SaoPaolo,Brazil/fromA.MaynardAruajo,Folclorenacional(1964,2/1967)

Ex.17AveMariafromdanadeSoGonalo(MaynardArajo,1964,2/1967)
CompanhiaMelhoramentos,SaoPaolo,Brazil/fromA.MaynardAruajo,Folclorenacional(1964,2/1967)

DancesandprocessionsfortheHolyCrossoriginateintheIberiantradition.Thewholefestivity,whichtakesplaceinMay,
includessecularandreligiousevents,thelatterincludingprayersandthedanceknownasthedanadeSantaCruz.Crosses
aredisplayedneartheentrancedoorofeachhouseofavillageortownandthedanceisperformedinfrontofthesecrosses.
Whilemestreandcontramestrewiththeirviolasleadthesinging,theyareaccompaniedbytwoadufe(tambourine)players,and
sometimesevenbyanadditionalcucaandgiros.Allthepercussionistsalsosing.Thedanceisacircledancearrangedintwo
rings,eachheadedbyaviolaplayer.Menandwomentaketheirpositionineachringwithoutanypredeterminedorder.InSo
Paulostate,wherethedanceismostwidespread,themusicalsequenceisinthreeparts:thegreeting,therounddanceitself,
andtheclosingfarewell.Ex.18illustratesagreetingsong.Aparticularlycharacteristicfeatureofcaipira(fromtheinteriorof
SoPaulostate)singingisthefinalinterjection(showninthelasttwobars)inwhichbothdancersandaudienceparticipate.
Mostofthesongsusedinthedanceandfarewellportionsofthefestivityaresimilarinmelodiccontourandrhythm.The
rhythmicaccompanimentoftheviolasandadufesvariesslightlyfromonesectiontoanother,asshowninex.19.

Ex.18GreetingsongfromdanadeSantaCruz(MaynardArajo,1964,2/1967)
CompanhiaMelhoramentos,SaoPaolo,Brazil/fromA.MaynardAruajo,Folclorenacional(1964,2/1967)

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Ex.19AccompanimenttothedifferentsectionsofthedanadeSantaCruz

BoththedanadeSantaCruzandthedanadeSoGonalofrequentlyendwiththeperformanceofthecururu,areligious
dance,whichisgenerallyperformedatnight,andaccompaniedbydesafios,songswithimprovisedtexts(see(iv)below).
Althoughimprovised,thesesongsfollowagivenmodelreferredtoascarreiraorlinha.Heretheviolaisagaintheessential
instrument.Thedesafiosarenotexclusivetothecururu,butthereligiouscontentofthesongtextsseemstobepeculiartothat
dance.Thereisageneralview,advancedbyMriodeAndrade,thatthecururuwasoriginallyanindigenousdanceadoptedby
theJesuitsinthelate16thcenturyintheirmissionaryworkamongtheIndians.CururuisbelievedtobeaTupiGuaraniword
meaningtoad,perhapsalludingtocertainjumpingfiguresofthedance.Thedancetakesplaceinaroomadornedwithan
altaritisarounddance,inwhichtheparticipantsfollowthemusicians(viola,tambourineandrecorecoplayers)inthecircle.In
themiddleofthecirclestandsthepedreste,whosefunctionistoinitiatethesinging,thefirstpartofwhichconsistsoftoadasde
licena(songsofpermission,orentrancesongs),followedbysongsofpraisetothesaintsonthealtarandtotheownerofthe
house.Thepedreste,however,doesnotparticipateinthealternatesingingbetweenthecururueiros.Thesecondpartinvolves
thesingingofcarreirasorwordsservingasmodelsforrhymes,frequentlysuggestedbythepedreste.Theimprovisedlinesmay
haveasecularorreligiouscharacter.ThemostfrequentlyusedcarreirasincludeDivino,SenhorAmadoorSagrado,Jesus
Amado,CruzPesada,NossoSenhorandSoJoo.Itisuptothepedrestetoindicatetothetwoormoreimproviserswhena
subjectseemstohavebeenexhausted.Sincethesingers'attentionisconcentratedonimprovisingthetext,themelodiesofthe
cururusongstendtobesimple,strictlytonal,avoidingchromaticism,andrhythmicallyregularinbinary(2/4)time.Themelodic
rangeissmallandmelodiccontourfairlyhomogeneous,consistingprimarilyofconjunctdegreeswithmanyrepeatednotes.
Thesingingisalwaysinduetbetweenthecanturio(themainsinger)andhissegunda(orassistant)whoechoesalmost
simultaneouslytheimprovisedwordsofthecanturio.Thusparallelsingingin3rds(ex.20)isaconstantfeatureofthecururu.
Theinstrumentalaccompaniment,whichincludestheviola,playedrasgueado(strumming),rabecasandrecorecos,stresses
dottedrhythmsandsyncopations.

Ex.20Cururu

Thecateretorcatira,adanceofprobableIndianoriginusedforconversionpurposesbytheJesuits,isanotherpopular
religiousdance.ItisfoundinthestatesofRiodeJaneiro,MinasGerais,SoPaulo,MatoGrosso,Goisandseveralnorth
easternstates.Twoviolaplayersandanevennumberofexclusivelymaledancersparticipate.Incertaincommunitiesonly
femaledancersarepresent.Thedancetakesplacegenerallyatnightandindoors.Oncemorethemestreandcontramestre
singinduet.Typicallythesingingisaccompaniedbyregularhandclappingandshoetapping.Thechoreographycomprises
fourmainsections:twofacingrowsheadedbyeachviolaplayeranorderlycirclingaroundofallparticipantsacrossoverfrom
onerowtotheotherandfinallythehandclappingandshoetappingfigures.Thesongsareknownasmodadeviola,thatis,
theyarenarrativeandhistoricalincharacter,alwaysinparallel3rdsandmostofthetimeina2/4metre,withfrequent
syncopatedfiguresortriplets(ex.21).

Ex.21Cateret,dancesong(MaynardArajo,1964,2/1967)
CompanhiaMelhoramentos,SaoPaolo,Brazil/fromA.MaynardAruajo,Folclorenacional(1964,2/1967)

Thefandango,althoughawellknownSpanishdance,hasbeencultivatedinPortugalsincethe18thcenturyorearlier.Inthe
Braziliansouthernstates(especiallyintheUbculturalarea)thetermfandangoisusedgenericallytodesignatepopular
revelrywithdances.ThusinRioGrandedoSuldancesassociatedwiththefandangoincludetheanu,balaio,chimarrita,chula,
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pericom,rancheiradecarreira,tatuandtirana.Theyareallrounddanceswithhandclapping,shoetappingandfinger
snapping.Oftencastanetsareusedbyfemaledancers.Thesongsofmostofthesedancespresentthesamebasic
characteristicsobservedinotherdancesofLusoBrazilianfolklore,inparticularsinginginparallel3rds,asillustratedinex.22,
aswellasconjunct,sequentialandcontinuousdescendingmelodicmotion,theisometricrhythmicformulawithsyncopations
andfemininecadencesandthealternationofstanzasandrefrain.Theviolaisthemainaccompanyinginstrument,withan
adufeandpandeirostressingtherhythm.InRioGrandedoSul,theaccordion,locallycalledgaita,tendstobethemainmelodic
instrument.

Ex.22Fandango,SoPaulostate

Inthenorthernandnortheasternprovincesthetermfandangodesignatesadramaticdance,otherwiseknownasnau
catarinetaormarujada.

ThemostwidespreaddanceofthefandangointheSoPaulohinterlandisthecanaverde,alsoknowninMinasGeraisand
RiodeJaneiro.ItoriginatedinthePortuguesecaninhaverde,althoughitisquitedifferentincharacter.Generallythedancing
andsingingareaccompaniedbyviolas,recorecoandtambourine.Thesongtextsinquatrainsofheptasyllabiclinesandthe
melodiesoftenstartingonananacrusisareclearlyPortuguesetraits.Duplemetreandeightbarphrasespredominateinthe
canaverdesongs.Therhythmicstructuretendstobeveryregular,withoccasionalsyncopations.

(iii)Bailadosordramaticdances.
DramaticdancesisatermusedbyMriodeAndrade(1959,2/1982)foralldancesthatdevelopadramaticactionandfor
collective(group)dancesthatconformtotheformalprincipleofthesuite,thatis,themusicalworkformedbyaseriesofseveral
choreographicparts.Inthelate1940s,Brazilianfolkloristsalsointroducedthetermsfolguedoandautotodesignatethese
dances.MostsuchdancesorbailadoswereprobablyintroducedordevelopedbytheJesuitsduringtheirmissionarywork.Thus
thesubjectmatterofmostdramaticdancesisconversionandresurrection.Conversionisthemainthemeofsuchdancesas
congada,marujadaandmoambiquewhilequilombo,cayap,guerreiros,cabocolinhosandlambesujoareconcernedwith
resurrection.Boththemes,however,arefoundinsomecongadasandmarujadas.Althoughreligiousinsubjectmatter,these
dancesincludenonreligiousdramatispersonaeandsecularaction.Themostgeneralnativecategoriesofsuchdancespermit
adivisionintothreegroups:thebailepastoril,alreadymentionedaspartoftheChristmascycleoffolkfeaststhecheganas,
usedtocelebrateIberiantraditionsoffightsbetweenChristiansandMoorsandeventsfromPortugueseseafaringhistoryand
thereisados,ofvaryingregionalmeaning,associatedmostlywiththeChristmasandtheEpiphanyperiod.Bumbameuboi,the
lastdramaticdanceofthereisadoscycle,istheonlyonetrulyaliveinmodernBrazil.

Somedramaticdancesareknownthroughoutthecountrywhileothersarespecifictocertainregions.Inaddition,theycutacross
ethnicboundaries,becauseasaformofpopulartheatredevelopedbymissionariesforinstructionalpurposestheyaffected
Amerindians,blackslavesandmestizosthroughoutthecolonialperiod.IndeedtheirmaincharacteristicscombineIberianand
AfricantraditionswithAmerindianrecollections.Withtheexceptionofthebailepastoril,womendonotparticipateinmost
dramaticdances.

Mostbailadoscomprisetwomajorparts:adancedparadeandadramaticrepresentationreferredtoinsomedancesas
embaixada(embassy).Bothpartsincludesinginganddancing.Themaracatuandthetaieirasofthenortheasterncoastal
area,however,omittheembaixada.

Inspiteofblackparticipationinthecongadadance(alsoknownascongos)andthepresenceofremnantsofcustomsfromthe
slaveryperiod,suchasthecoronationofblackkings,thecongadaisnotconsideredtobeofAfricanoriginbutsimplyan
adaptationbythecatechistoftheChansondeRoland.ThroughoutLatinAmericamedievalepicpoemscametobetransformed
intofolkdramasintheoldIberiantraditionofpopulartheatre.Thecongadaisthusbasedonthetraditionalbattlesbetween
ChristiansandMoors.AsobservedinthestateofSoPaulo,congadasoftentakeplaceatthecelebrationoffestivitiessuchas
thefeastoftheDivineHolySpirit(inthelastfewdaysofJune).TheyincludegreetingsongsoftheCongogroups,paradeofthe
battalionsofthecongadaandtherepresentationproper.Thedramatispersonaearenumerous.Thecentralcharactersarethe
KingofCongoorCharlemagne,theGeneraloftheMoors,thefirstandsecondsecretaries,theMoorFerrabrs,theChristian
Duque,Roldo,theprinceandtheambassador.Therepresentationisdevelopedinmemorizedspokenpartsaswellassolo,
duetandchoralnumbers.Drumsaccompanythevarioussongsanddancesoftheceremony,providingthegeneralrhythm
showninex.23a.InsomecongadasfromSoPauloasmallportablemarimbaisusedinconjunctionwithanatabaqueanda
tamborim.Violasandrabeca(fiddle)completetheaccompanyingensemble.Responsorialsingingpredominates.Thechorus
oftenincludesyoungboys'voices(anoctavehigherthanthemen's).Falsettosingingisquitefrequent.Thereisparallel
polyphonyin3rdsinmanysongs.Exx.23bandcillustratetwosongsofembaixada,thefirstoneusedafterthedefeatofthe
Moors,thesecondtocelebratepeaceontheoccasionoftheconversionoftheMoors.Itiscommonalsotohearsongsofpraise
toStBenedictandStRaphael,theformerbeingthetraditionalpatronsaintofAfroBrazilians.

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Ex.23Congada
CompanhiaMelhoramentos,SaoPaolo,Brazil/fromA.MaynardAruajo,Folclorenacional(1964,2/1967)

Themarujada(ornaucatarineta),abailado,isknownthroughoutthecountrybyavarietyofnames,includingtheeruditeterms
cheganaorcheganademarujos,rarelyusedbythepeoplethemselves.Themarujadadramatizesthestrugglesofthe
Portugueseintheirconquestofthesea,andoriginatesfromtheperiodofmaritimeexploration(late15thandearly16th
centuries).ThistraditionwastransferredtoBrazilwhereanassociatedsongrepertorydeveloped,andthedanceisstill
performedinalimitednumberofruralcommunitiesinthenorthernorsouthcentralregions.Thesequencesofsongsandtheir
melodictraitsarefairlyhomogeneous.InSoPaulothedancewasobservedduringthe1950sand60sintwocoastaltowns
only.Thelargenumberofcharactersincludesageneraloradmiral,anEnglishcaptain,apriest,aMoorishking,aprince,a
pilot,commandingofficersetc.Allwearuniformsforthedance.Christians(alsocalledPortugueseorsailors)andMoors(the
infidels)arealsorepresented,showingthesyncretismofvariousIberiantraditions.Theaccompanyinginstrumentsare
percussion(snaredrumandalargerdoubleheadeddrum)andfiddles.Thesingingalternatesbetweensoloists(main
characters)andchorus(sailorsandinfidels).Thevariousjourneysofthedramatizationincludedifferenttypesofsongand
spokendialogue.Thefirstjourneyisaparadeofalltheparticipantshaulingalargeship,mountedonwheelsfortheoccasion.
Sailorsongs(someofPortugueseorigin)praisingtheircourage,orwarningagainstpiratesandMoors,formtherepertoryofthat
firstjourney.Loasandromances(respectively,praisesandballads)areeitherrecitedorsungintheremainingjourneys.One
ofthejourneysofthemarujadadepictsasceneofhungeronboard.Thesailorsdeplorethesituationandsingacelebrated
songTristevidadosmarujos(ex.24),sowellknownthatitevenappearedinprintaroundthemiddleofthe19thcentury.The
melodyistypicalofPortuguesefolksonginits6/8metre,isometricrhythm,minormode,rangeandcontour.

Ex.24Tristevidadosmarujos,frommarujada

AsobservedinthestateofBahia,themarujada,performedentirelybyAfroBrazilians,stressesresponsorialperformancestyle,
withharmonizedchoralresponses(atypicalLusoBraziliantradition)fromsingersaccompanyingthemselveswithsmallhand
drums.Despiteitsname,themusicaccompanyingthemoambiquedancehasnoAfricantraitsanditsoriginisobscure,
althoughsomescholarsbelieveitisofAfroBrazilianprovenance.InnorthernPortugaltherewereformerlyfestivitieshonouring
OurLadyofRosario,duringwhichblacksdancedinfrontofthechurchandinthestreets,withdecoratedsticksintheirhands,
likethepresentdayBrazilianmoambiqueiros.ThesearepredominantlyblackgroupsdedicatedtothecultofStBenedict(they
calledthemselvescompaniesofMoambique),performingtheirdanceduringthefeastsofOurLadyofRosarioandtheDivine
HolySpirit.Inthe1930s,MriodeAndrade(1959)observedthatthemoambiquehadnodramaticaction,andinthisrespect
waslikethemaracatusfromPernambuco.Subsequentfieldstudiesinthe1940sand50s,however,haverevealedembaixada
amongseveralcompaniesofMoambique,mostlikelyastheresultoffusionwithelementsofotherdramaticdances.
Choreographicallyitresemblesthebattledancesofthecongadas.InSoPaulothedancersinopposinglinesincludestick
fightdancingamongthesoloistsandamongallthoseintheopposinglines.Thereisresponsorialsingingbetweentheleaderof
thedanceandtheremainingdancers.Percussiondominatestheaccompanyingensemble.Theinstrumentsincludesnare
drum,recoreco,xiquexique(rattles)andcuca,inMinasGeraisinSoPaulothelargestensemblesofmoambiquegroups
includeviolas,guitars,cavaquinhosandfiddles,inadditiontotambourinesandseveralrattlesofthechocalhotypes.The
dancersoftenwearjingles(knownaspaiorpernamguma)ontheirfeetorlegs.Thefightingsticksmayalsohavearhythmic
function.Somecompaniesseemtofollowacertainorderinthepresentationoftheirsongs,calledlinhas,orpontos.

Thebumbameuboi(orboibumb)isthemostcharacteristiccaboclo(mestizo)dramaticdance.Becauseitscentralfigureisa
bull(boi),somehaveinterpreteditasatotemisticretentionofAmerindianorAfricancultures.Othershaveattributeditsoriginto
theoldEuropeanfolktraditionofthebullanddonkeyintheNativityscene.Knownmostlyinthenortheast(whereitisthemost
populardramaticdance)andintheAmazonregions,itisperformedduringtheChristmasseasonandtheStJohncycle,
respectively.Themaincharactersincludethebull,whoseheadismadeofcardboardandwornbyadancertwoorthreecattle
herders(oneofwhom,Mateus,isalwaysblack)thecaptainandablackwoman,Catarina.Otheranimalsandfantastic
creaturestakepartintherepresentation.Onlycharactersrepresentinghumanssing.Smallensemblescompriseviola,guitar,
cavaquinho,accordion,piccolo,fife,clarinet,fiddleandpercussionsuchaszabumba,tambourine,ganzandmaraca.Afemale
chorusintroducesanddismissesthecharacters.Unlikethoseinmostbailados,thevocalpartsaregenerallytakenbywomen.
Beforethedramabeginsconventionalsongsofpraisearepresented.AccordingtoMriodeAndrade(1959),thedance

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includesbothfixedelementsconsistingoftheentrancesanddancesofthemaincharacters,includingthebull,andvariable
elements,beingthoseofthesecondarycharacters.Specificsongs,oftensimilartocowboys'chantingwhileherdingcattle,are
sungtocallthebull.Mostofthebumbameuboisongsexhibitsomeofthemorecharacteristicelementsofmestizofolkmusic,
asinex.25,whichaccompaniesthedanceofthebull:fourbarphrases,descendingmotionendingonthedominant,isometric
rhythmandsyncopations.Thebumbameuboiisperhapsoneofthemostnationallywidespreadoftheextantdramaticdances.
Fromitsfigures,costumes,songtextsandmusicalstyletoitshistoricalevocationsandconnections,itisthemostaesthetically
andsociallysignificantfolkdramaticexpressionofBrazil.Severalreisados(pastorinha,zdovale,cavalomarinho,burrinha
andothers)havebeenincorporatedintothebumbameuboi.

Ex.25Bumbameuboi
LivrariaMartinEditores,SaoPaolo,Brazil

Otherdramaticdancesofindigenousorigin,butnowrarelyperformed,includethecaiap,cabocolinhosandsomewithclearly
Africanfeaturessuchasthetaieira(stillknowninSergipe),thequilomboandthelambesujo,allmorespecificallyfromthenorth
easternstates.

(iv)Songgenres.
ThereisalargerepertoryofmonodicsongswithavarietyoffunctionsinLusoBrazilianfolkmusic,suchasworksongs,street
vendors'chants,ballads,lovesongs,lullabies,children'ssongsandlamentsforthedead.Onlyafewwillbedescribed.

Thewordromance,ofIberianorigin,designatesnarrativepoetryorsingingingeneral.BrazilinheritedarichIberian
romanceiro,orballadrepertory,themajoritydatingfromthe16thand17thcenturies.Theseballadsseemtohaveoriginated
mainlyintheMinhoregionofPortugal.Theyareoftenusedaslullabies,children'sgamesongs,andmodinhas.Thesesong
genresthereforesharemanymusicaltraitswiththeIberianromances,suchaspredominatingtriplemetreandminormode,
literaryorigin,traditionalsongtextssetinquatrainsandheptasyllabiclineswithconsonantrhymes.Ex.26,collectedin1949in
SoPaulostate,illustratestheBelainfantathemecommonintheIberianballad.Notablefeaturesaretheanacrusisandthe
symmetricalphraselengthcorrespondingtoeachlineofthequatrain.Balladswhichdealwithanimalsorcelebratedoutlaws
arequitecommon,especiallyinthenortheasternregions.Intheromancesconcerningthecangaceiros(northeasternbandits)
thestrengthandcourageofthecharactersarealwaysparticularsubjectsofpraise.Thenarrativeinsuchballadsistoldinthe
thirdperson.Intheanimalcycle,however,theanimalispersonifiedandbecomesthestoryteller.Intheromanceofthebull
Surubim(ex.27)therhythm,withitssyncopations,tripletsanddottedfigures,ismoreclearlyBrazilian,thoughitretainssome
Iberianmelodicfeatures.

Ex.26Romance,SoPaulostate
IrmaosVitaleEditores,SaoPaolo,Brazil

Ex.27Romance
IrmaosVitaleEditores,SaoPaolo,Brazil

Manyotherformsofnarrativesinging,suchasthemodas,modasdeviola,abecs,dcimasorxcaras,arecloselyrelatedto
theIberianballad.Themodaandmodadeviolaaresungasduetsinparallel3rdswithviolaaccompaniment.Thesingers
(modistas)arealsoviolaplayers.Oneofthemaindifferencesbetweenthesouthernandnorthernmodistasisthatthelatter,as
partofthecantoria(singingcontest)tradition,relymoreonimprovisation.Inaddition,thesouthernerstendtousefalsettomore
frequently.

Thegenresknownasdesafioandembolada,althoughoftenappearingaspartofdances,aremoreproperlysongtypes.
Desafio(literallychallenge)isasonggenre(alsocommoninsouthernEurope),inwhichtwoormoresingerscompetetoshow
theirskillinimprovisation.Thecontestlastsuntiloneofthesingerscannolongerrespondorgivesup.Textimprovisationis
consideredtheprimarypointofinterestofthedesafio,whilethemelodyissubordinate.Thetextualformisgenerallythe
quatrain,thelastlineofwhichoftenbecomesthefirstoftherespondent'squatrain.Themelodicstructureofdesafiostendstobe

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simple,withmelodicsequencesandisometricrhythm,toallowproperattentiontotextimprovisationanddelivery.Desafiosare
particularlypopularinthenortheasternhinterland,theareaofcantoria(singingcontest)parexcellence.

Embolada,amusicalpoeticformoftenassociatedwithnortherndancessuchasthecocos,alternatesafixedrefrainwith
stanzas(sometimesimprovised).Itconsistsofarecitativelikemelodywithsmallintervals,repeatednotesandsmallnote
values.Thetext,oftencomicandsatirical,stressesonomatopoeiaandalliterationwhich,withafasttempo,enhancetherhythm
ofthesong.Theemboladaisalsofrequentlyassociatedwithothercontextsinvolvingsingingbutnotdance,suchasthe
desafio.Alargerepertoryofchildren'sgamesongsisfoundthroughoutthecountry.ManyhaveretainedPortuguese,Spanish
andFrenchmelodies.Oneofthemosttraditionalroundgamesisthecirandaorcirandinha,similartotheRingaRingof
Rosesgame,accompaniedbythemelodyshowninex.28,knownwithslightvariantsinbothBrazilandPortugal.Othersongs
forroundgamesexhibitmoretypicallyBraziliantraitssuchassystematicsyncopatedrhythm.

Ex.28Childrensroundgamesong
CompanhiaMelhoramentos,SaoPaolo,Brazil/fromA.MaynardAruajo,Folclorenacional(1964,2/1967)

Althoughthemodernageofmachineryhaspartiallymodifiedthecustomofsingingatwork,radiomusicoftentakingitsplace,
someworksongscontinuetobesung.Theaboios(cattleherdingsongs)arequitewidespread,asarethesongsofriverboat
workers,fishermenandthosewhoworkonrice,coffeeandcottonplantations.

Therearetwotypesofaboio:theaboioderoaandtheaboiodegado.Theformerisalwayssunginduet,toatextintheformof
statementandanswer,whenoneormorecowboysleadtheherdandtheothersfollowbehindit.Thelatterisasolosong,sung
toasinglesyllable,toquietenthecattleinthecorral.Thenortheasternaboiosarecharacterizedbyornamentalmelodiclines,
widerangeandfrequentuseoffalsetto.

Ofthevariousdeathrites,thevelrioorwakeisthemostimportant.Inthenorthernstateswakesongsorlamentsareknownas
incelnciasorexcelncias,andareofPortugueseorigin.Theyaresungaroundthedeadbodyandarebelieved,insome
areas,tohelpthedepartedenterheaven.Upto12linesaresung,unaccompaniedandgenerallyinunison.Wakeprayers,
however,suchasthoseforcleaninganddressingthecorpse,areinparallel3rds.Otherwakesongsfunctionasafarewellto
thedead.

4.AfroBrazilianfolkmusictraditions.
ThemaingeographicalzonesofAfroBraziliancultureincludethestatesofPernambuco,Alagoas,Sergipe,Bahia,Esprito
Santo,MinasGerais,southernGois,RiodeJaneiroandnorthernSoPaulo.Itispracticallyimpossibletopointoutspecific
AfricanculturaloriginsofmostAfroBrazilianmusicalgenres,sinceseveralAfricancultureswereinclosecontactfromtheoutset
oftheslavetrade.Itisgenerallyrecognized,however,thatmostAfroBraziliansecularmusicisofBantuorigin,whileYoruba
andFoninfluencesareparticularlynoticeableinreligiousbeliefsandmusic.Justasblacksparticipateinmostofthedramatic
dancesalreadydescribed,therearelikewisespecificallyblackfestivitiesinwhichmestizosandwhitesalsotakepart.While
blackmusicinBrazilhasstylisticfeatureswhichcanbetracedtoWestAfrica,theactualrepertorieswere,inallprobability,
createdlocally.Africancounterpartshavebeenfoundforonlyafewreligiousmelodies,thoughitispossiblethatBrazilmay
haveretainedAfricansongswhichhavesincedisappearedinAfricaitself.

Inspiteofitsheterogeneousculturalorigins,blackfolkmusicinBrazilbecamehomogeneousduringitsfourcenturiesofhistory.
Whatdevelopedduringtheslaveryperiodintoanewblackcultureresultedfromtheconditionsofplantationslavequarters.The
newformofblackandantiwhitesolidaritywhichemergedoutoftheseconditionshelpedtopreserveculturaltraitsthatstill
survive.ThusreligiousbeliefsandpracticesinBrazilarestillthemosttrulyAfricantobefoundintheWesternhemisphere.

(i)Dancesanddramaticdances.
TheblackcontributiontoandinfluenceonBrazilianfolkdancesisparamount.Thisisreflectednotonlyinthelargenumberof
AfroBraziliandances,bothruralandurban,butalsointheassimilationandresultingtransformationofEuropeandances.
Choreographicelementsofsuchdancesincluderoundformation,usuallywithsoloists,andaparticulartraitknownas
umbigada(fromPortugueseumbigo:navel).Thisisaninvitationtothedancesymbolizedbythetouchingofthecouples'
navels.Itmaybetakenasanindicationoftheoriginofthedances.

Becausemusicanddanceareofteninseparablethenameofadanceisalsoappliedtothemusicitaccompanies,thus
becomingagenericterm,ofwhichbatuqueandsambarepresentthemostobviousexamples.Bothhavecometodesignate
genresofseculardanceandmusicofBrazilianblacks.Thecaxambu,jongo,cco,baiano(baio)andformerlythelunduand
sarambeque,withnumerousregionalnames,areamongthemostimportantotherdancegenres.Generallyconsidereda
rounddanceofAngoleseorCongoleseorigin,thebatuqueisnolongerperformedandthetermhasacquiredthemoregeneral

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connotationofAfroBraziliandanceaccompaniedbyheavypercussion.InSoPaulostateitisadanceofAfroBrazilian
fetishisticcults,withoutanyapparentliturgicalfunction.Theaccompanyinginstrumentsincludedrums(tambu,quinjengue)and
rattles(matraca,guiai).Thedanceitselfisnotarounddance,butconsistsofumbigadasbetweentwofacinglinesofdancers,
malesononeside,femalesontheother.Individualcouplesdancebetweentherows.Responsorialsingingaccompaniesthe
dance.Thesingersarecalledmodistaorcarreiristaaccordingtothetypeofsongtheyimprovise.Themodistasingsquatrains
referringtocommunityeventsorgossip,whilethecarreirista'ssongs,calledporfias,arehostileandchallenging.Improvisation
andresponsorialsingingarenotnecessarilyopposedpractices,sincethechorustendstorepeatliterallyorwithslightvariants
theimprovisedtwolinesofthequatrain.Beforethedancebegins,thesongisrehearsedcollectivelyfor10to20minutes.In
addition,themodistaorcarreiristaandthechorusallconsulttogetherregardingthegeneraloutlineofsongtextandmethodof
performance.

Therearemanyvarietiesofsamba.Asafolkdanceithaslostitsformerimportanceinmostpartsofthecountry,havingbeen
replacedbytheurbansamba.Thefolksambainthesoutherncentralregionsisknownassambaleno,sambaderodaand
sambacampineiro.Thesambalenoinvolvesdancerswithakerchiefintheirhandthechoreographicarrangementissimilarto
thatofthebatuque.Atthebeginningofthedancetwosingers,accompaniedonsnaredrumsandtambourines,singinparallel
3rds.Thesongsareusuallyeightbarslong,induplemetre,withananacrusis,arangeofuptoanoctave,descendingmotion
withrepeatednotesandisometricrhythm(ex.29).Syncopationsoftenassociatedwithblackmusicprevailhereinthe
accompanimentalone.Songtextsareintheformofquatrains.

Ex.29Samba

ThesambacampineirowasstudiedbyMriodeAndrade(1937),whopreferredthesimpledesignationPaulistaruralsamba.
AndradeobservedthatinSoPaulothesambaisdefinedbyitschoreographyratherthanbyitsmusicalstructure.Thisdance
doesnotincludetheumbigadaandisthusessentiallycollectiveincharacter.Apartfromtheinstrumentalists(whoalsodance)
theparticipantsarewomen.Themaininstrumentisthebombo(largedrum),oftenaccompaniedbytambourine,snaredrum,
tamborim,cuca,recorecoandguiai.Structurallythissambashowsthefollowingtraits:archedmelodyin2/4metre
characteristicrhythmicfiguration(ex.30)strophicformandvariabletextformrepetitionofwordsorlinestoconformtothe
melodiclengthandrelativeimportanceofimprovisation.

Ex.30

ThesambaderodainSoPaulohaslostitsformerimportance,butinthenortheasternregion(especiallythestateofBahia)it
isstillthemostpopulartypeoffolkdance.Asthenameindicates,itisarounddanceinvolvingsoloistsitsfunctionispurely
recreational.Theinstrumentalensembleincludesatabaquesplayedwiththehands,tambourines,cowbellandoccasionally
guitars.Traditionallysingingprecedesthedanceitself,butthesonghasnowbecomeanintegralpartofthedance.Themost
typicalsambaderodasongsdisplayanunmistakablyBrazilianflavour,characterizedbyfouroreightbarphrases,repeated
notes,isometricrhythmicfiguresandabundantsyncopationsintheaccompaniment.Thetunesfrequentlyendonthemediantor
dominant.Twodifferenttypesofsambaderodaareshowninex.31.

AnothergenreofsambaparticulartotheBahianregion(specificallytherecncavo,theareaaroundtheBayofTodosos
Santos),isthesambadeviola,studiedbyR.C.WaddeyandT.deOliveiraPinto.Asthenameindicates,theviolaisthemain
instrument.ThepresenceofthisinstrumentinamosttypicalAfroBahiangenre,performedbyAfroBahians,showsthatthe
instrumentofPortugueseoriginhasbecomeequallyAfroBrazilian.TheBahianviolaishandmadeintwosizes:threequarter
(90cmlong)andthemachete(76cmlong),bothwithfivedoublecoursesofmetalstrings.Asarule,thepercussionofthe
ensembleincludestwootthreetambourines,asmalldrumandsometimesthepratoefaca,acommonplate(preferably
enamelware),heldinonehandandscrapedwithatableknife.Instrumentalists(allmale)alsoparticipateinthesinging.The
songs(bothmelodiesandsongtextsarereferredtoaschulas)areperformedinparallel3rdsandinaveryhightessitura.The
dancerstendtobeexclusivelywomen.

Ex.31Sambaderoda

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Jongo,adanceofAfricanorigin(fromAngolaaccordingtosomeauthors),survivesinafewplacesinthesoutherncentral
states,wheretherewasformerlyalargeblackslavepopulation.Itissocialandrecreational.Menandwomenparticipateinboth
solodancingandrounddancing(alwaysanticlockwise).Thesingingandthetextsarereferredtoaspontos,asinseveralAfro
Brazilianreligiousgroups.Thedanceisusuallyaccompaniedbythesameinstrumentsusedforthebatuqueandtherural
samba.InSoPaulostatethesingingisperformedbyacantador,sometimeshelpedbyasecondvoice(inparallel3rds),and
answeredbythechorusconsistingofthedancersthemselves.Mostofthepontosseemtobeimprovisedtheseincludethe
pontosdedesafio(challengingsongs)withenigmatictextsandthepontosdevisariaorsongstoaccompanythedance.Pontos
mayhaveoneortwovoltas(twolineverses).Themostcommontraitsofjongosongsincludetwobarrepeatedisometric
phrases,prevailingconjunctmotion,parallelsingingandsyncopatedpercussionaccompaniment(ex.32).

Ex.32Jongodancesong

TheccoisadanceofthepoorerpeopleinnorthernandnortheasternBrazil,andissocalledbecauseitiscommonly
accompaniedbyhandclappingwithhandscuppedtocreatealowersound,likethatoftwohalvesofacoconutshellsounded
againsteachother.Occasionallyadrumorarattlemaybeused,inwhichcasethedanceisnamedaftertheinstrument:cco
decanz,ccodemugonguetc.Inthenorthernstatesdifferentnamesrefertothetypeofsongassociatedwiththecco,such
asccodedcima,ccodeembolada,ccodesafio.Thechoreographydictatesthealternationofstanzaandrefraininthe
song,asasolodancerinthemiddleofthecircleimprovisesastanzaandisansweredbytheotherdancers.Acommontraitof
ccosongmelodiesisthepeculiarrhythmofshortnotevalues(generallysemiquaversin2/4time)repeatedcontinually,
resultinginasortofmotoperpetuo.

ThemaracatudanceprocessionisspecificallyassociatedwithCarnivalinthecityofRecifeinPernambuco.Itsoriginseemsto
berelatedtothefestivitiesforthecoronationofblackkings,firstmentionedin1711.Formerlymaracatuwaspurelyreligiousand
wascloselyrelatedtotheAfroBraziliancultofXang,butthisfunctionseemstohavebeenlost,foritnowconsistsofan
organizedgroupofCarnivalstreetdancingmerrymakers.Themaincharactersincludetheking,queen,princes,ambassador,
damadopao(courtlady)andthebaianas,orfemaledancers.Thecourtladyisthecentralfigureoftheroyalparade,asshe
carriesthecalunga,asmalldolldressedinwhite,whichrepresentsarelicoffetishisticcultandasymbolofauthorityorpriestly
power.Thevarioustoadas(songs)ofthedanceandprocessionfrequentlyalludetoAfricandeities.Songsanddancesare
relatedtothecalungaonwhichtheattentionofallparticipantsisfocussed.Theaccompanyingensembleconsistsofpercussion
instruments,varioustypesofdrum(tarol,caixas,zabumbas)andthegonguoragog(cowbell)thedifferenttimbresenhance
thepolyrhythmictextureoftheensemble.Therhythmofthesongsalsodisplayssystematicsyncopation,asillustratedinex.33.
ProbablyofsimilarorigintothemaracatuistheafoxfromBahiawhich,however,retainsmoreclearlyAfricanelements,such
assinginginYorubalanguage(Nag),andtypicallyAfroBrazilianritualpracticesinthepreparationofthedanceparade.

Ex.33Maracatu

Althoughconsideredprimarilyasanathleticgameandamartialartbysomeauthors,thecapoeiraangolaamockfight
involvingseveraldancefiguresalsohasritualovertones.Mostcapoeiristas(fighters)arecultmenandobservetheir
prescribedritualbehaviourinthepracticeofcapoeira.Thevariousdancefiguresorstrokesareaccompaniedbysongsin
responsorialfashionandbyaninstrumentalensembleconsistingoftwoormoreberimbaus(musicalbows),caxixi(basket
rattle),recorecoorganz,tambourinesandcongadrum.Specificrhythmicpatterns,withnamessuchasSoBentogrande,
SoBentopequeno,Benguela,Cavalaria,SantaMaria,Angolaetc.,correspondtospecificstrokesofthedance.About139
songsofthecapoeiragamehavebeencollectedinBahia,butnotallbelongtothetraditionalrepertoryofthedance,many
havingbeenborrowedfromchildren'sroundgamesongsorsambaderodasongrepertories.Inthesesongsitisnot
uncommontofindthesametypeofsyncopationappliedtobothvocallineandinstrumentalaccompaniment.Inthelatter,the
harmonicsupportofthemusicalbowsisnotablesinceeachinstrumentiscapableofproducingtwoadjacentnotes,threebows
canprovideparallelharmoniesrepeatedatwill(ex.34).Inthe1960scapoeiraperformanceswerelimitedtoaboutadozen
songs,astheperformancevenuesbecamerestrictedtorestaurantsandothertouristattractions.AnotherAfroBrazilianfighting
danceisthemaculel,stronglyreminiscentofblackAfricanstickfightingdances.Thesticksareusedasmockweaponsandas
apercussioninstrument.

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Ex.34Capoeiraangola

(ii)Songgenres.
ItisdifficulttoisolatespecificsonggenrespeculiartotheAfroBrazilianculturalheritage.Mostofthesongsdescribedin3(iv)
arealsosungbyblacksandmestizos.Inaddition,thereareafewsonggenresthatareautonomous,thatis,existingoutside
theirfunctioninagivendanceordramaticdance.Amongthesesongtypesareworksongs,lullabiesand,aboveall,songs
relatedtoAfroBrazilianreligions.Fishermen'ssongsinthefishingareaofthenortheasterncoastrevealsomestylistictraits
whichcouldbeattributedtoanAfricanorigin.Theseincludepentatonicscales,Emodes,descendingorundulatingmelodic
movementandfrequentsyncopations.Thesongsofthepuxadadardeorxaru(thepullingofthefishnet),ontheotherhand,
havethesamegeneralcharacteristicsobservedinBrazilianmestizomusic.Ex.35showsthesameanacrusis,repeatednotes,
isometricrhythmandtonalfeelingofsomanyothersongtypesmentionedabove.

Ex.35Fishermenssong

(iii)Religiousmusic.
TheextremelyrichandvariedrepertoryofreligiousmusicisprimarilyofAfroBrazilianorigin.Althoughitisinasacredcontext
thatAfricanmusicalelementsaremoststronglypreserved,syncretismhasaffectednotonlyreligiousbeliefsandpracticesbut
alsothemusicassociatedwiththem.AmongthemostAfricancultsaretheKetu(orNag)andJesha(Yoruba),theGge(Fonof
Benin)andtheCongoAngola,foundinthenorthernandnortheasternstates.TheleastAfricangroupsaretheCaboclos
(derivedfromsomeAmerindianbeliefscombinedwiththoseofothercultgroups),Pajelana,andtheUmbandaand
Quimbanda,foundmainlyinthecentralandsouthernregions,thoughUmbandahasnowpenetratedpracticallyeverywhere.

CandomblisthetermusedspecificallyinBahiatodesignatevariousreligiousgroupsofAfricanorigin.Asaresultofthe
contactofseveralprevailingAfricanculturesinBahia,candomblbecameasortofculturalsynthesisoftheWestAfrican
mythologicalworld.MostcandomblhousesinBahiaworshipthemajorYorubaandFondeities(orixsandvoduns)as
opposedtotheWestAfricanpracticeinwhichareligiouscentre(andsometimesanentirevillage)isdedicatedtotheworshipof
oneparticularorixorvodun.TheearliestestablishmentoftheYorubaslaves'religiousorganizationinBahiaisdifficultto
determineaccurately.Accordingtolocaloralsourcesitwasaround1830thatthefirstcultcentrewasfoundedinSalvadorby
threeAfricanpriestesses.Thiscentre,ofKetuaffiliation,wasknownasIlIyNass,andfromitoriginatedthelargestandbest
knownhousesofworshipduringthe20thcentury,especiallytheEngenhoVelho(alsoknownasCasaBranca),theGantois,Il
AxOpAfonjandtheAlaketo.

Themostobviousstylistictraitcommontothemusicofallthesegroupsismonophonicsingingandthepredominantuseofcall
andresponsepatterns.Inaddition,thesingingisaccompaniedbyanensembleusuallyconsistingofthreedrums(atabaquesof
varyingsizes)andanagog(cowbell)orashakenrattle.Leaderandchorusoftensingthesametune,sometimesrelatedtunes.
Quiteoftensoloistandchorusoverlap.Melodiesareoftenanhemitonicpentatonicinthemosttraditionalrepertories,and
diatonic(heptatonic)inthemostacculturatedones.Therangesofthemelodiesarenotuniform.TheGgeandKetucultsof
Bahia,forexample,havemanysongswithawiderangeofmorethananoctave,whilethoseoftheAngolaandJeshacultsin
thesameareaaveragelessthananoctave.Melodiccontourstendtobedescendinginallrepertories,withundulating
movementsalsocharacteristicoftheKetuandGgerepertories.Almostallthesongsinallthegroupsarestrophic.

Cyclesofsongsareperformedinaritualorder,dictatedbytheirfunction.Therearefoodofferingsongs,sacrificialsongs,plant
songs,initiationsongs,deathsongsetc.AmultitudeofsongsaddressedtothemanydeitiesofWestAfricanmythologyformthe
bulkoftherepertories.Songtextsappearinmanylanguages,fromYoruba(Nag),FonandvariousCongodialectsto
Portuguese,andacombinationofallofthese.

DrummingconstitutesoneofthemostimportantmusicalelementsofAfroBrazilianreligiousmusic.Drumsareconsidered
sacredinstrumentsandundergobaptismbymeansofanimalsacrificesandfoodoffering.Sincetheyarebelievedtohavethe
powertocommunicatewiththedeities,thedrum'sax(orspiritualforce)isrituallyrenewedatleastonceayear.Thereisa
greatdealofdrummusicfordrumsalone.Besidesprovidingthebasisforthemanyritualdances,drummusiccallsthegods
andbringsonspiritpossession.IntheKetucultspecificrhythmicpatternsareassociatedwithcertaindeities,suchasthealuj

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ofXang,theopanijofOmol,theaguerofIansandOxossi,andtheigbimofOxal.Crossrhythmsandpolyrhythms
predominate.Themetresaremostcommonlyduplebutoftenalsotriple,withfrequenthemiolasasubtledupletriple
ambivalenceisalsocharacteristic.Themasterdrummerplayingthelargestdrum(rum)ofthetrioimprovisesuponthe
characteristicrhythmsandatthesametimecontrolsthechoreographicdevelopmentoftheritualdances.Exx.36and37
illustratesomeofthecharacteristicsofAfroBraziliancultsongs.FewofthesesongsareknowninWestAfrica,althoughtheir
styleisunmistakablyAfrican.Amongthemostacculturatedgroups(Caboclo,Umbanda)therepertoriesseemtobeconstantly
changingandtendtobeheavilyinfluencedbyurbanpopularmusic.

Ex.36AfroBraziliancultsong
PrenticeHallInc.,EnglewoodCliffs,NewJersey:fromB.Nettl,FolkTraditionalMusicoftheWesternContinents(2/1973),transcribedbyG.Behagueand
R.E.Witmer

Ex.37Someschematicbasicpatternsincandombldrumming

III.Popularmusic
Sincethelatterpartofthe19thcenturyBrazilhasdevelopedoneoftherichestandmostvariedanduniquetraditionsofpopular
musicinLatinAmerica.Severaltrendsandgenressincethe1960shavebecomeanintegralpartoftheinternationalworld
musicmarketandhaveinfluencedtheUSA,PortugalandotherEuropeancountries,aswellassomeAfricancountries.Thereis
nosingleBrazilianpopularmusicbutvariousexpressionsassociatedwithspecificsocialclasses,regionsandhistorical
periods.ThemainsourcesofsuchmusicsarepredominantlyEuropean,AfroBrazilianandmestizo.InfluencesfromAmerican
TinPanAlleysongs,dancemusic,jazz,rockandmorespecificblackAmericangenres,aswellasCaribbeanpopularmusic
(especiallyfromCuba,DominicanRepublicandJamaica)havebeenfeltinBrazil

1.Earlystyles.
ThebellepoqueofBrazilianpopularmusictookplaceinandaroundthecitiesofRiodeJaneiroandSalvador,Bahia,from
about1870toabout1920,whenthe1888abolitionofslaveryledtowholesalemigrationfromtheruralareastothetowns.
Duringthis50yearperiod,anincreasingdiversificationofmusicalforms,rhythmsandsocialcontextsforpopularmusic
consumptionresultedintheemergenceofthemostimportantvocal,instrumentalanddancegenresdevelopedduringthefirst
halfofthe20thcentury.

Salonmusicofthe19thcenturywasrepresentedbythesentimentalsongknownasMODINHA,thestylizationofthelundu,an
earlierdanceofAfroBrazilianorigin,aslunducano(lundusong)andtheadaptationofanumberofEuropeanfashionable
dances,especiallythepolka,waltz,schottishandquadrille.ModinhismowasthetermusedbyMriodeAndradetoencompass
therepertoryofromantic,sentimentalsongsofEuropeanderivationwhichremainedvisibleinmanysubsequentgenresof
popularsongs.InadditiontoDomingoCaldasBarbosa,composeroffamousmodinhasandlundus,someofthemost
celebrated19thcenturypopularcomposersincludedDomingosdaRochaMussurunga,JosdeSouzaArago(Cazuzinha),
XistodePaulaBahia,FranciscoMagalhesCardoso,JoaquimManoel,JosPereiraRebouasandespeciallyCndidoIncio
daSilva.Theirworkswerefrequentlyperformedinthearistocraticsalonsandinpopulartheatres(teatroderevista)ofthe
period,whichrepresentedoneofthemajorvenuesforthedisseminationofpopularmusicamongtheurbanmiddleclass.

Fromabout1850theEuropeanwaltzandpolkabecamebrazilianized,theformerundertheinfluenceofthemodinhaandthe
lattercombiningwithcertainrhythmictraitsofthelundutoformthehybridpolcalundu,thesourceofthetangobrasileiroandthe
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MAXIXE.Waltzes,polkasandquadrilleswrittenforthepianowerefrequentlyadaptedforplaysandcomedies,notablybythe
pianistcomposerAntonioF.CardosodeMenezeseSousa.Likewise,thegenericcanoandcanoneta(whichrepresented
thelyric,romanticsong)washybridizedwithtangohabanerarhythmicaccompanimentastangocanoneta.Popularsingersof
theearly20thcentury,especiallyMrioPinheiro(c18801923),Baiano(ManuelPedrodosSantos,18701944),Cadete
(EvniodaCostaMoreira,18741960)andEduardodasNeves(18741919),beganrecordingmanyofthesevocalgenres,
someasearlyas1902.Latersingeridolsofvarioussongs,operettasandfashionableurbansambaswereVicenteCelestino
(18871968)andFranciscoAlves(18981952).

Themostsuccessfulandprolificcomposeroftheatrepieces(operetta,burlesque,vaudevilleandmusicalcomedy),polkas,
waltzes,songs,modinhas,tangosandchoroswasCHIQUINHAGONZAGA(18471935),whoovercametheprejudicesagainst
femalemusiciansandcomposersbothofherfamilyandmoregenerallytheperiod.TogetherwithJOAQUIMANTNIODASILVA
CALADOandERNESTONAZARETH,shecontributedsubstantiallytothenationalizationofEuropeandances.HerpolkaAtraente
(1877),forexample,effectivelyimitatedthetypeofpicturesqueimprovisationassociatedwithpopularstrollingmusiciansknown
aschores(weepers)andtheirinstrumentalensembles(CHORO).Thisimprovisatorystylewasmadeupoftypicalrunning
figuresincludingbrokenchordpatternswithrepeatednotes,descendingchromaticnotesintheaccompanimentandisometric
figures.Shealsosystemizedtheuseofthehabanerarhythmicpattern,withsubtlevariationsandsyncopatedpatterns(suchas
thesemiquaverquaversemiquaverpatternina2/4metre),characteristicoflaterdancemusicgenres.ChiquinhaGonzaga
wrotethefirstcarnivaldanceofnationalinterestin1899fortheblackCarnivalsocietyRosadeOuro.ThiswasthemarchOabre
alas!whichforseveraldecadessymbolizedRiodeJaneiro'scarnival.

Itwas,however,withtheworksofthepianistcomposerErnestoNazareththatadeepertransformationofEuropeandancesinto
genuinelyBrazilianpopulargenreswasachieved.

2.Urbansambasandrelatedgenres.
AlthoughthefirstacknowledgedsuccessfulcommercialrecordinginBrazilofanurbanSAMBAisgenerallysaidtohavebeen
PeloTelefone(1917)bythecomposerDonga(ErnestoJoaquimMariadosSantos,18911974),theantecedentsofthemost
typicalurbandancesongofBrazildatefromtheturnofthe20thcentury.Atthattime,however,samba,aslabelledbyleaders
ofsmalltownbrassbands,didnotdiffermarkedlyfromthetangoorthemaxixe,excepttoimplyamoresystematically
syncopatedaccompanimentalrhythm.Pelotelefone,ahitofthe1917Carnivalcelebration,whileregisteredassamba,stillhad
theshufflingrhythmicfeelassociatedwiththemaxixe.Itisquitelikelythatthefolksamba,arounddanceinvolvingdancing
couplesperformingtheumbigadaintypicalroundchoreographicfigures(especiallyassociatedwithRiodeJaneiroandBahia),
wasthemodeldevelopedintheurbanareas.Thecallandresponseperformingstyleandcorrespondingstanzaandrefrain
alternationcultivatedinthesambademorro(fromthepoorhillareasofthecity,knownasfavelas)andthepartidoalto(brought
toRiofromBahiaatthebeginningofthecentury)subsequentlyinfluencednumerousurbansambastylesdevelopedinthe
1920s.Asagenerictypeofurbanmusic,thesambaisessentiallyavocaldancegenre,withafewexclusivelyinstrumental
subgenressuchasthesambachoroandsambadegafieira.TheurbansambabecameestablishedinRioduringthe1920s,
especiallythroughthecompositionsofSinh(JosBarbosadaSilva,18881930),thekingofsamba,Caninha(OscarJos
LuizdeMorais,18831961),IsmaelSilva(190578)andPixinguinha(AlfredodaRochaViannaFilho,18981973).All
representedaprofessionalizedgroupoflowermiddleclassblackcomposerperformerswhowerewellacquaintedwiththe
musicaltraditionsofthepoorersectionsofthecity.Sinhcomposedthegreatestcarnivalhitsofthelate1910sandthe1920s,
suchasthesambasQuemSoEles(1918),Confessa,meubem(1919),Fala,meulouro(1920),Amorsemdinheiro(1926),
Ora,vejams!(1927)andAmaraumasmulher(1928),inadditiontocarnivalmarches.Caninha'ssambasMeleve,meleve,
seuRafaelandEstangaquermedarwereamongthehitsofthe1920and1921carnivalseasons,respectively.Asa
composer,flautist,saxophonist,bandleaderandarranger,Pixinguinhahadanenormousinfluence.HisbandsOsOitoBatutas
(firstorganizedin1919),OrquestraTpicaPixinguinhaDonga(1928)andGuardaVelha(1931)broughttogethersomeofthe
bestpopularmusiciansoftheperiodandcontributedtouniqueperformancestylesthatbecameclassic.GuardaVelhaputmore
emphasisonbrassandachievedaperfectbalancebetweenvirtuososoloperformancesanddeeperconcernforensemble
playing.

Duringthe1930sanumberofwhitemiddleclassprofessionalcomposerscontributedtothedevelopmentoftheurbansamba.
ParticularlysignificantandcreativewereAriBarroso(190364),NoelRosa(191037),LamartineBabo(190463)andJoode
Barro(AlbertoFerreiraBraga,19072006,alsoknownasBraguinha).Notonlydidtheyallcomposesambasandmarchesfor
carnivalthatenjoyedlastingpopularitybuttheyalsocreatedsomeofthemostfamoustunesassociatedwiththesophisticated
sambachoro,sambacano(sambasongofsentimentalcharacter)andballroomornightclubsambas.Thiswastheperiod
duringwhichthesambabecamemorediversifiedasaresultofitsacceptancebythevariouslocalstrata.NoelRosaespecially
excelledinreflectingsomeofthetypicalattributesandfeelingsofurbanpopularfigures,asinFeitiodavila,Palpiteinfelizand
Fitaamarela.Amongothergenres,heespeciallycultivatedanddevelopedthesambadebreque(sambabrecado),asubgenre
oftheurbansambainvolvingeverydaycolloquiallyricswithacharacteristicbreak(breque)andacorrespondinginterruptionof
themelodicline,thatappearstobeextemporizedonahumorousorjokingnote.NotableexamplesincludeDebabado,
ConversadebotequimandTrsapitos.The1930srepresentedthegoldenperiodoftheclassicurbansamba,followedbythe
creationofothersubgenresbeginninginthe1940s,suchasthestrictlyinstrumental,highlysyncopatedsambadegafieira,
createdbydanceorchestrasingafieiras(populardancehalls)andcabarets.Whilelargejazzlikeorchestrasperforming
arrangementsofclassicsambatunesfordanceoccasionsdevelopedinthe1940sand50s,theinfluenceofmodernjazzsmall
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comboswasparticularlyfeltinthesocalledsambajazzofthe1950s.Thebestknownperformersoftheclassiccommercial
sambafromthe1930stothe1950swereCarmenMiranda(190955),FranciscoAlves,MrioReis(190781),SlvioCaldas
(190898),andElizethCardoso(192090).

Thecoexistenceofvarioussambasubgenres,fromthesambademorroandsambaenredo,associatedwithCarnivalandthe
sambaschool,tothe[sambadepartidoalto],sambacano,samboleroandsambalada,amongothers,clearlymanifestedthe
socialacceptanceofthesamba,initsvariedexpressions,asthenationaldancemusic.Italsoreflectedthestrongsocial
stratificationprevailinginthelargecitiesofthepostWorldWarIIera.InRiodeJaneiroespecially,urbangeographycreateda
pronouncedsocialseparation,withthepoorlivinginthenorthernareasandhillyghettosandtherichalongthesouthernbeach
districtsfromLemetoLeblon,wherethefamousbossanovamovementwasborninthelate1950s.

3.Bossanova.
ItisimportanttorememberthatBOSSANOVAdoesnotconstituteaspecialgenreofBrazilianpopularmusic,butrathera
characteristicperformancestyleofestablishedgenres.Theveryfirstrecording(1952)inRiobyJooGilberto(b1931),oneof
theearlyandmostinfluentialbossanovafigures,originallyfromtheinteriorofthestateofBahia,comprisedtwopiecesinthe
sambacanogenre,composedbymusiciansoftheyoungergeneration.Inthelate1950sandearly60s,mostofthe
bossanovistaswereintheirlateteensandearlytwentiesandbelongedtothemiddleanduppermiddleclasses.Theirmusical
tastesgavepreferencetoacombinationofsambacanoasperformedbythegreatfemalevocalistsDoloresDuran,Maysa
andSylvinhaTelles(thecreatorsofthesocalledBrazilianblues)themusicofvariousjazzfigures,especiallythevoicesof
SarahVaughanandEllaFitzgerald,thecoolstyleofMilesDavisandthesophisticatedandsubtleharmoniesofJoeMooney
andsomeoftheclassicsambasofthe1930s.Thebossanovistaslookedtoinnovatoryexpressionsthatwouldrenovateand
modernizeBrazilianpopularmusic.YoungjazzenthusiastsinRioandSoPaulowereinvolvedatthattimeinthecreationofa
sambajazztradition,inajazzcomboformat,whichrepresentedanaturalingredientofthebossanovamovement.Thiswas
not,however,asimpleimitationofAmericanjazzor,asJosRamosTinhorohasreiteratedsince1966,thecapitulationof
Brazilianmusiciansfacedwithinternationalmarketpressureforfashionableandcommerciallyviablegenresandstyles.To
interpretbossanovaasarepudiationoftheheritageofthepopularsambaandtheresultofsocioculturalalienationsuggestsa
shortsightedperspectiveonthemotivationformusicalchange.Ineffect,bossanovarepresentedarevolutionaryinnovation
onlyinitsnewrhythmicrenditionofthesambabeat,thenatureandqualityofitslyricsanditsgeneralperformancepractice.

Intheopinionofsomecritics,thepoeticsophisticationofbossanovasongtextsalienatedthecultivatorsofthenewstylefrom
popularculturalroots.Thematically,however,thesubjectmatterofearlybossanovasongsdifferedlittlefromprevioussongs,
coveringamatorytopics(e.g.Jobim'sOnossoamor,writtenwiththegreatpoetViniciusdeMoraisforthe1958filmOrfeuda
Conceio[BlackOrpheus]),devotiontonaturemixedwithromanticintrospection(Jobim'sCorcovado),philosophical
commentaries(Jobim'sChegadeSaudade,Desafinado,DiscussoandSambadeumanotas)andnarrativesdescribing
typicallocalfiguresordancesinthecontextofurbanlife(Jobim'sGarotadeIpanemaandSambadoavio).Traditional
romanticlovethemescontinuedtorepresentbyfarthemajorityofbossanovasongs,whichinheritedsuchthemesfrom
previouspopulargenres,especiallythesambacano.

Butifthethematiccategoriesdidnotchangeradically,thepoeticsubstanceandtreatmentinvolveddrasticinnovations.
Beginninginthe1950swithpoetsofthecalibreofViniciusdeMorais,bossanovamusicofthe1960sand70scountedonthe
unprecedentedpoeticrefinementandcreativeoriginalityofsuchcomposerpoetsasNewtonMendona,ChicoBuarque,
Capinam,TorquatoNeto,GilbertoGilandCaetanoVeloso.Thedeliberatelyintimatecharacterofbossanovaexpressioncalled
notonlyforsimplicityoflanguage(reinforcedbycolloquialism),butalsoforthespecificsoundeffectsofthewords,showing
someaffinitywithBrazilianconcretepoetryofthe1960s.Thisremarkablepreoccupationwiththelanguage'ssoundswasalso
reflectedinthecloserelationshipoftextandmelodyinmanysongs,wherethelyricsdonotseemtohavebeenconceived
separatelyfromthemusicitself.Ofallbossanovacomposers,AntnioCarlosJobim(192794)wasthemostcreativeand
internationallysuccessful.

Until1964,theyearofthemilitarytakeoverinBrazil,bossanovaaestheticidealsremainedunchanged.Afterthattime,
however,anewsocialawarenessdevelopedamongbossanovamusicians.Thebestexampleofamusicianpoetwith
enormouslycreativepowersandavividsocialconsciousnessisCHICOBUARQUE(b1944),thesonofoneofBrazil'smostnoted
historians.In1965hisfirstsongsPedroPedreiro,andSonhodeumcarnavalbroughthimpublicrecognition.Sonhodeum
carnaval,morethananysongofthebossanovarepertoryatthattime,establishedaclearandcleverlinkwiththetraditional
sambaofthe1930sand40sandcarnivalmusicingeneral.PedroPedreiro,ontheotherhand,initiatedamongbossanova
musiciansthetrendtowardssocialparticipationandprotest.Othersongsofthesameyear(e.g.JoodoVale'sCarcarwhich
launchedthesingingcareerofMariaBethania)alsobelongedtothisgeneralcategoryofsocialprotestsongs,butmost
frequentlytheprotesttooktheformofexposingsomeofthesocialproblemsofunderdevelopment,hungerandinjusticeinthe
distanthinterlandofthenortheast.WithPedroPedreiroChicoBuarquetookissuewiththeurbanconditionsofnortheastern
migrantworkersinlargesoutherncities,revealinganunderstandingoftheconditionsoftheurbanworkingclass.The
concentratedpoeticlanguagefullofemotionalimpactexhibitedinthissongbecamehighlysophisticatedinlatersongs,
particularlyConstruoof1971.

ChicoBuarque'spositioninthemodernmovementofBrazilianpopularmusic(referredtoasMMPBforModernaMsica
PopularBrasileira)hasbeenvariouslyinterpreted,mostcriticsarguingthathisabilitywithlyricsratherthanhisactualmusicis
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thesourceofhispopularity.Heis,however,uniqueasacomposerofthesecondbossanovagenerationinthathesucceeded
inassimilatingandmaintainingtheessentialmelodicandrhythmicaspectsoftheclassicsambasofNoelRosa,andthus
establishedthecontinuityofthetradition,incontrasttothefirstgenerationofbossanovamusicians.Inmanyofhislatersongs
headvocatedinlyricalandpoeticwaysasubtleactionofsubversionandanarchyastheonlyresponsetoBrazil'scontemporary
problems,whichledtothecensorshipofsomanyofhissongsbythemilitaryregimesofthelate1960sandearly1970s.

4.Tropiclia.
Aroundthemid1960sagroupofmusicianpoetperformersknownasTropiclia,mostlyfromBahia,emergedontheBrazilian
scene.IncludingsuchdifferentpersonalitiesasCaetanoVeloso,GilbertoGil,GalCosta,JosCarlosCapinam,TorquatoNeto,
TomZ,thebossanovasingerNaraLeoandthecomposerarrangerRogrioDuprat,thegroup'sessentialcommon
denominatorcamefromtheadherenceofitsmemberstothebasicconceptsofmodernismosetforthinthe1920sbysuch
literaryphilosophicalfiguresasOswalddeAndradeandMriodeAndrade.InthewordsofCaetanoVeloso,thetheoretical
spokesmanandleaderofthegroup,Tropicliaortropicalismowasneoculturalcannibalismoranthropophagism.Influencedby
theFrenchDadaistswhosemanifestowaswrittentenyearsearlierandconsistedofaviolentattackonWesternthought,Oswald
deAndrade'sownmanifesto(Manifestoantropofgico,1928)appearedasatropicaladaptationofDadaistdissension,
questioningtheimpositionoftheEuropeanelementinBraziliancultureandtheensuingdestructionofnativeculturalvalues.
Thequestionwaswhetherornotoneshouldreturntonativeculturesstillfoundinastateofpurity,orwhetheroneshould
acquirethetoolsandskillsofothercultures.WhileAndradeattemptsnoclearcutanswer,hepointsouttheapparent
contradictionsandcontrastsoftheBrazilianreality.

FortheTropicliamusicians,thiswasajustificationoftheabsorptionofforeignmusicalexperienceadaptedtotheneedsofthe
momentandarecognitionoftheinternationaldimensionofBrazilianpopularcultureoftheperiod.Sucharecognition,however,
neitherimpliedasimpleimitationofforeignmodelsnorresultedfromtheinfluenceofinternationalmassculture,asseveral
criticsbelievedatthetime(Tinhoro,1974,p.234).FortheTropicliagroup,modernismnotonlysignifiedrevitalizationthrough
innovationsofMPB(MsicaPopularBrasileira),butalsothedefiniteinvolvementofitsmembersinprevailingsociopolitical
conditions.SettingouttoshockdeliberatelyandtoconcertedlydenouncethecontradictionsinWesternthought,theiraimwasto
awakentheconsciousnessofthemiddleclasstotheBraziliantragedyofpoverty,exploitationandoppressionandtopointout
thetruenatureofmodernBrazil.

Musically,themovementbroughtaboutthewideningoftheBrazilianmusicalhorizonthroughadherencetoandadaptationof
musicaltrendsofthe1960s:therockandBeatlesphenomenaandtheexperimentalnewmusicsoftheelectronicage.Rock
musicpenetratedtheBraziliansceneduringtheperiod19646andhad,inRobertoCarlos,thelocaltranslatorofthatyouth
movement.Thei,i,istyle,asitwasknowninBrazil(fromthefamousrefrainoftheBeatles'songShelovesyou),revealed
theprevailingstrongprejudicesagainstinternationalpopmusic,anditspopularityamongtheBrazilianJovemguarda(Young
Guard)wasseenasathreattothetraditionalvaluesofpopularmusic.Thisinitselfstimulatedtheearlyrecognitionbythe
tropicalistasofthevalidityoftheYoungGuardasanintegralpartofmodernBrazilianpopularculture.RobertoCarloshimself
haspointedtotheinfluenceofthei,i,istyleonCaetanoVeloso'smusicofthe1960s,particularlyinhisincorporationof
electricandbassguitarsaswellashisimitationofsomerhythmicandarrangementmodels.Tropiclia,withitsmusicaland
textualsophistication,however,hadnocounterpartinBrazilianrockmusic.

AsoneofthemusicalgoalsofTropicliawastoliberateBrazilianmusicfromarestrictivesystemofprejudicebycreatingthe
appropriateconditionsforfreedomandexperimentation,allmusicsourcesrelevanttocontemporaryBrazilweredrawn
together:LusoBrazilian,AfroBrazilianfolkmusicexpressions,bossanovasambaoftheearlyphase,i,i,iandelementsof
jazzandexperimentalmusics.Simultaneouslyoccurringmusicalquotations,collagesofsoundassociationsandsound
montages,alltechniquespreviouslydeemedtobeirreconcilableandmeaningless,essentiallyconstitutedtheempirical
approachoftheTropicliamusicianstomusiccomposition.Thelanguageofthesongtextsisfrequentlytelegraphic,
fragmentaryandbasedonquotations,associationsordeliberatedistortionsoffamousexamplesofBrazilianbelleslettres.
RepresentativeearlyexamplesareVeloso'sAlegria,alegria,Tropiclia,BabyandGilbertoGil'sDomingonoparqueandGelia
geral,thelatterwithtextbyTorquatoNeto.Mostofthesesongswerefirstreleasedonthe1968Tropicliamanifestoalbum
entitledTropicliaouPanisetCircencis.Byabout1972theTropicliagroupnolongerexistedbutmostofitsmembers
continuedtobeactive.

5.Miltonnascimento.
AhighlydistinctiveandindividualfigureamongpopularmusiciansofhisgenerationisMILTONNASCIMENTO(b1942),whose
powerfulandremarkablyversatilevirtuosovoiceandtheuniquenessofhiscompositionswonhiminternationalacclaiminthe
1970sand80s.Hismusiccombinesmanydifferentelements:fromthefolkmusictraditionsofMinasGerais(wherehewas
broughtup)andotherregionsofBrazilandLatinAmerica,toclassicandbossanovasambas,colonialchurchmusic,classical
musiccompositionalprocesses,Gregorianchantandsoftrock,allwithkaleidoscopicrhythmsandpolychromaticorchestration.
InadditiontothepoeticandspiritualevocationofthehistoryandcultureofMinasGerais,hissongsfrequentlyaddresssocial
relationships,issuesofrepressionandlibertyatthetimeofthemilitaryregime(althoughhisisneveranovertprotestmusic),

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questionsofjusticeandselfdeterminationinsistercountriesinLatinAmerica(especiallyChileandCuba),international
brotherhoodandtheoppression,persecutionandliberationofAfroBrazilians(asinhisfamousMissadosQuilombos).

6.Dancemusicofthenorthandnortheast.
Beginninginthelate1940s,severalnortheasterndancemusicgenres,especiallyfromthestatesofPernambuco,Cearand
Bahia,becamepartofthenationalpopularmusicscenethankstoextraordinaryfiguressuchasLuizGonzaga(191289),
DorivalCaymmi(19142008),JacksondoPandeiro(JosGomesFilho,191982),JoodoVale(193496),AlceuValena(b
1946)andGeraldoAzevedo(b1945),amongothers.Gonzagapopularizedthebaiodancesonginthelate1940sandthe
1950s,withitstypicalinstrumentationofkeyboardaccordion,triangleandzabumba(bassdrum),akintothefolkensemble
knownasternodezambumbaorbandadepfano,withoutthefluteorfife.Outofthebaiodevelopedtheforr(originallya
variationofthebaio)whichbecamethegenericnortheasternstyleofdancemusic,asortoflivelyandfasterbaio.Gonzaga
alsocultivatedthexaxado(amaledancestylewithshufflingrhythm)attributedtothelegendaryoutlawLampio(18981934).
Gonzaga'ssongsBaio(1946),Paraba(1950)andespeciallythetoada(tune,song)Asabranca(1947)haveremainedsome
ofthemostmemorabletunesinBrazilianpopularmusic.Likewise,themanysongsofDorivalCaymmi,whethermodinhas,
sambas,fishermen'ssongsorcandomblinspiredsongs,representthefountainheadof20thcenturyBahianpopularmusic.

Dancemusichastakendifferentformsofexpressionsincethe1970s.Particularlysignificanthasbeenanewandspecialtype
ofCarnavalmusicinSalvador,comingoutoftheafoxtradition:theblocoafroofthe1980s,associatedwithaculturaland
politicalmovementofblackconsciousnessamongyoungBahians.Liketheafoxs,theblocosafrowerecarnivalorganizations
thatstressedtheirAfroBrazilianrootsandtheirrelationshipstoAfrica.IlAiy,thefirsttobeestablishedin1974,wasfollowed
intheearly1980sbyOlodum,Badau,Muzenza,Araketuandothers.Theirsongsevokedtheafrocentricityoftheirorigins,
stressedtheissuesofracismandsocioeconomicinjustice,and,ingeneral,describedthehistoryandproblemsoftheblack
world.Theirstyleinvolvedanimitationandtransformation(ofteninventedorimagined)ofAfricanandAfroCaribbeanmodelsof
music,especiallyJamaicanreggae.Instrumentationwaslimitedtodrumsandotherpercussion,accompaniedbyaresponsorial
vocalstructure.Olodum,inparticular,developednewdrummingpatternslabelledsambareggaebythemid1980s.The
successofthelatterwassuchthatcommercialbands,suchasBandaMelandReflexu's,begantospecializeinsynthesized
renditionsofthestyle.Bahianmassmediatedpopularmusicendedupestablishingatrenddubbedaxmusic,combining
variousAfroBahianstyles,blocoafrosamba,sambareggae,ijexafoxandoccasionallyevenlambada,bestrepresentedin
therecordingsofMargarethMenezesandDanielaMercury.Intheearly1990sanotherdevelopmentcomingoutofthebloco
afrowasthesocalledtimbalada(featuringthetimbreofthetimbau),whichthemusicianCarlinhosBrownturnedintoanational
styleofmusic.

Inthelate1980smanyblackBrazilianmusiciansadaptedNorthAmericanpopmusictrends,suchasfunk,rapandhiphop.In
themid1990s,thekingsofrapinRiodeJaneirowereWillianSantosandDuda(CarlosEduardoCardosoSilva),whoseraps
dealtwiththelifeandconditionsofthecity'sfavelas,includingdrugdealing.Themoreradicaltypesoffunkandrap,however,
haveservedmostlyforsociopoliticalmessagesoflocal,regionalornationalissues,aswiththerapgroupsCmbioNegro
(opposedtohiphop)andChicoScience,developingwhattheycalledrapconscincia(consciousnessrap).

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GerardBhague

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