A type certificate is issued to signify the airworthiness of an aircraft

manufacturing design. The certificate is issued by a regulating body, and once

issued, the design cannot be changed. The certificate reflects a determination made
by the regulating body that the aircraft is manufactured according to an approved
design, and that the design ensures compliance with airworthiness requirements.
The regulating body compares design documents and processes to determine if the
design meets requirements established for the type of equipment. Requirements
established by a regulating body typically refer to Minimum Operating Performance
Standards (MOPS) and related documents (such as DO-178 series, DO-160 series
and DO-254 series), which are developed jointly by RTCA, Inc. and EUROCAE. Once
issued, the aircraft "type" meets appropriate requirements. The determination
process includes a step called "First Article Inspection", for it and for each of its
subassemblies. This is a quality control assessment whereas those prior to it are
part of quality assurance.
With respect to "cannot be changed": When an airframer wants to change
something it has two options. One is to request a Supplemental Type Certificate
(STC), the other is to create an entirely different design. The choice is determined
by considering whether or not the change constitutes a new design (i.e. introduces
risk not considered in the first design). If the manufacturer believes the change
doesn't introduce new risk the manufacturer typically requests an STC. This is less
expensive. If the regulatory authority agrees with the rationale for choosing STC, the
STC is granted.
The type certificate (TC) implies that aircraft manufactured according to the
approved design can be issued an Airworthiness Certificate. Examples of
regulatory authorities are the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) and the (European Aviation Safety Agency
(EASA). To meet those requirements the aircraft and each sub-assembly must
also be approved. For example, in the U.S. these sub-assemblies must meet
requirements in the applicable Technical Standard Order (TSO). To meet those
requirements the design documents are examined for compliance with the
applicable Minimum Operating Performance Standards (MOPS) applicable to
that sub-assembly. MOPS are published by RTCA, Inc. When aircraft are
produced to meet a given TC, each one need not be tested as rigorously but
the confidence demonstrated by the TC is conferred, when the aircraft has
been assigned an Airworthiness Certificate.
An "Airworthiness Certificate" is issued for each aircraft that is properly
registered if it conforms to its type design. The airworthiness certificate is
valid and the aircraft may be operated as long as it is maintained in
accordance with the rules issued by the regulatory authority.
A supplemental type certificate (STC) is issued following a modification. The STC
defines the product design change, states how the modification affects the existing
type design, and lists serial numbers effectivity. It also identifies the certification
basis listing specific regulatory compliance for the design change. Information
contained in the certification basis is helpful for those applicants proposing
subsequent product modifications and evaluating certification basis compatibility
with other STC modifications.
Prototype
Initially, the applicant firm submits documents to their local aviation regulating
body, detailing how the proposed design, i.e., the 'Type', would fulfill the
airworthiness requirements. After investigations by the regulator, the final approval
of such documents (after the required comments and amendments in order to fulfill
the laws), becomes the basis of the certification. The firm follows it and draws a
proposed timetable of actions required for certification tests. With the application,
the regulations to be applied will usually be frozen for this application for a given
amount of time in order to avoid a situation where the applicant would have to
change the design as a result of changed regulation.
An initial design sample known as a prototype is built. This refers to either the
aircraft, the engines or the propeller, depending on the basis of the certification. For
the purpose of illustration, the discussion shall be limited to the aircraft. Normally a
few prototypes are built, each subject to different tests. The prototypes are first
used for ground and system tests. One of the prototypes (known as the "static
airframe") is subject to destructive testing, i.e., the prototype is subject to stress
beyond normal and abnormal operations until destruction. The test-results are
compared with initial submitted calculations to establish the ultimate structural
strength.
Other prototypes will undergo other systems tests until the satisfaction of the
regulators. With all ground tests completed, prototypes are made ready for flight
tests. The flight tests are flown by specially approved flight test pilots who will fly
the prototypes to establish the ultimate flight limits which should be within the
airworthiness rules. If a long range airliner is tested, the flight tests may cover the
whole world.
In parallel with aircraft testing, the applicant firm also draws up maintenance
program to support continuous airworthiness after approval of the design. The
program is drawn with inputs from tests results and also from initial customers'
engineering departments. The proposed maintenance program is submitted to the
regulators for comment and approval.
After successful completion of ground and flight tests, along with an approved
maintenance program, the prototype is approved, and the firm is granted the type
certificate for the prototype (as understood that it should include all furnished
equipment for its intended role). The legal term for the firm is now the "type
certificate holder". Subsequently the prototype now serves as a template for aircraft
production. Hence the aircraft rolling out of the factory should be identical to the
prototype, and each given a serial number (a "series aircraft").
Continuing airworthiness
As the aircraft enters into service, it is subject to operational wear and tear which
may cause performance degradations. The approved maintenance program serves
to maintain the aircraft airworthiness. Users have to comply in order to maintain
their aircraft's airworthiness certificate. The maintenance may be light or heavy
(such as overhauls) as dictated by the schedules and tasks in the aircraft's
maintenance program.
Airworthiness directives (ADs)
Sometimes during service, the aircraft may encounter problems that may
compromise the aircraft's safety, which are not anticipated or detected in prototype
testing stages. The aircraft design is thus compromised. The regulators will now
issue an airworthiness directive to the type certificate holder and to all owners
globally. The directives normally consists of additional maintenance or design
actions that are necessary to restore the type's airworthiness. Compliance is
mandatory and thus if an operator does not comply with an AD, then the datum
aircraft is not considered airworthy. ADs may also be raised with changes of the
local or global aviation rules and requirements, e.g. requirement to fit armored
cockpit doors for all airliners past 9-11.
The certifying authority issues an AD when an unsafe condition is found to exist in a
product (aircraft, aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance) of a particular type design.
AD's are used by the certifying authority to notify aircraft owners and operators of
unsafe conditions and to require their correction. ADs prescribe the conditions and
limitations, including inspection, repair, or alteration under which the product may
continue to be operated.
Service bulletins (SBs)
With increasing in-service experience, the type certificate holder may find ways to
improve the original design resulting in either lower maintenance costs or increased
performance. These improvements (normally involving some alterations) are
suggested through service bulletins to their customers as optional (and may be
extra cost) items. The customers may exercise their discretion whether or not to
incorporate the bulletins. Sometimes SBs can become mandated by relevant ADs.
Changes to type certificate
Often the basic design is enhanced further by the type certificate holder. Major
changes beyond the authority of the service bulletins require amendments to the
type certificate. For example, increasing (or decreasing) an aircraft's flight
performance, range and load carrying capacity by altering its systems, fuselage,
wings or engines resulting in a new variant may require re-certification. Again the
basic process of type certifications is repeated (including maintenance programs).
However, unaltered items from the basic design need not be retested. Normally,
one or two of the original prototype fleet are remanufactured to the new proposed
design. As long as the new design does not deviate too much from the original,
static airframes do not need to be built. The resultant new prototypes are again
subjected to flight tests.
Upon successful completion of the certification program, the original type certificate
is amended to include the new variant (normally denoted by a new model number
additional to the original type designation). Typical examples are; the Boeing 737NG
(737-600, 737-700, 737-800 and 737-900) which replaced the 737 Original family
(737-100 and 737-200) and the 737 Classic family (737-300, 737-400 and 737-500)
and the Airbus A340-500 and the A340-600 which is based on the Airbus A340-200
and the A340-300.
Supplementary/supplemental type certificate (STC)
Any additions, omissions or alterations to the aircraft's certified layout, built-in
equipment, airframe and engines, initiated by any party other than the type
certificate holder, need an approved supplementary ("supplemental" in FAA
terminology) type certificate, or STC. The scope of an STC can be extremely narrow
or broad. It could include minor modifications to passenger cabin items or installed
instruments. More substantial modifications may involve engine replacement, as in
the Blackhawk modifications to Cessna Conquest and Beechcraft King Air
turboprops, or a complete role change for the aircraft, such as converting a B-17 or
Stearman into an agricultural aircraft. STCs are applied due to either the type
certificate holder's refusal (frequently due to economics) or its inability to meet
some owners' requirements. STCs are frequently raised for out-of-production aircraft
types conversions to fit new roles. Before STCs are issued, procedures similar to
type certificate changes for new variants are followed, likely including thorough
flight tests. STCs belong to the STC holder and are generally more restrictive than
type certificate changes.
Validity
The type certificate holder keeps the type certificate valid by continuously following
airworthiness directives (ADs), issuing service bulletins (SBs) and as well as
providing spares and technical support to keep the aircraft current with the
prevailing rules, even after the production of the type has stopped. This is what is
meant by supporting the type and in this manner many out-of-production aircraft
continue useful lives. STCs are also bound by the same rules. When the holder
decides to stop supporting the aircraft type, the type certificate is returned to the
regulators and the remaining aircraft fleet permanently grounded. In this manner
the whole Concorde fleet was finally grounded when Airbus SAS surrendered its type
certificate.
Advisory Circular (AC) refers to a type of publication offered by the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) to provide guidance for compliance with
airworthiness regulations. They define acceptable means, but not the only means,
of accomplishing or showing compliance with airworthiness regulations.

A Technical Standard Order (TSO) is a minimum performance standard issued by

the United States Federal Aviation Administration for specified materials, parts,
processes, and appliances used on civil aircraft. Articles with TSO design approval
are eligible for use on the United States type certified products. The TSO
authorization or a letter of TSO Design Approval does not necessarily convey
approval for installation. See 14 CFR Part 21 Subpart O.
Other definition of TSO - An FAA Technical Standard Order (TSO) means the part
is qualified to a Minimum Operational Performance Standard (MOPS) for specified
materials, parts and appliances utilized on civil aircraft. A TSO authorized part
qualifies as an airworthy component.
Examples:
TSO-C-129a - Airborne Supplemental Navigation Equipment Using the Global
Positioning System (GPS)
TSO-C-145 - AIRBORNE NAVIGATION SENSORS USING THE GLOBAL POSITIONING
SYSTEM (GPS) AUGMENTED BY THE WIDE AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (WAAS)
TSO-C-173 - This particular TSO is for manufacturers of permanently installed
rechargeable lead acid aircraft batteries and nickel-cadmium aircraft batteries.

Flight information region

In aviation, a flight information region (FIR) is a specified region of airspace in
which a flight information service and an alerting service (ALRS) are provided. It is
the largest regular division of airspace in use in the world today. FIRs have existed
since 1947 at least.
Every portion of the atmosphere belongs to a specific FIR. Smaller countries'
airspace is encompassed by a single FIR; larger countries' airspace is subdivided
into a number of regional FIRs.
Some FIRs encompass the territorial airspace of several countries. Oceanic airspace
is divided into Oceanic Information Regions and delegated to a controlling
authority bordering that region. The division among authorities is done by
international agreement through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
There is no standard size for FIRs it is a matter for administrative convenience of
the country concerned. In some cases there is a vertical division of the FIR, in which
case the lower portion remains named as such, whereas the airspace above is
named Upper Information Region (UIR).
An information service and alerting service are the basic levels of air traffic
service, providing information pertinent to the safe and efficient conduct of flights
and alerting the relevant authorities should an aircraft be in distress. These are
available to all aircraft through a FIR. Higher levels of Air Traffic Advisory and Control
services may be available within certain portions of airspace within a FIR, according
to the ICAO class of that portion of airspace (with regard to national regulations),
and the existence of a suitably equipped authority to provide the services.

Control zone
A control zone (CTR or controlled traffic region) in aviation is a volume of
controlled airspace, normally around an airport, which extends from the surface to a
specified upper limit, established to protect air traffic operating to and from that
airport. Because CTRs are, by definition, controlled airspace, aircraft can only fly in
it after receiving a specific clearance from air traffic control. This means that air
traffic control at the airport know exactly which aircraft are in that airspace, and can
take steps to ensure aircraft are aware of each other, either using separation or by
passing traffic information.
In the USA the term control zone is no longer used and has been replaced by
airspace class D. Typically it extends 5 miles in diameter with a height of 2500 ft
AGL (above ground level) around small commercial airports. Aircraft are required to
establish radio contact with the control tower before entering and to maintain in
contact while in class D airspace. This implies that an aircraft must be equipped
with at least a portable radio to fly in Class D airspace.
In the UK, control zones are normally class D airspace and usually extend from the
surface to 2000 ft AGL. They can be observed to be usually rectangular, extending
along the axis of the main runway, although irregular shapes may be used where
more complex airspace dictates this (see Liverpool and East Midlands). A control
area (CTA) is often placed between a CTR and nearby airways to give
uninterrupted controlled airspace to airways arrivals and departures.
In Germany, control zones are a special type of class D airspace, called D (CTR). The
main difference to the regular German class D airspace is, that within a CTR there
are no minimum-distances for VFR-traffic to keep from clouds (though clouds may
not be touched).
Control area
A control area (CTA) is an aviation term that describes a volume of controlled
airspace that exists in the vicinity of an airport. It has a specified lower level and a
specified upper level. It usually is situated on top of a control zone and provides
protection to aircraft climbing out from the airport by joining the low-level control
zone to the nearest airways. In the UK they are generally class A, D or E.
Control areas are particularly useful where there are busy airports located close
together. In this case a single CTA will sit over all of the individual airports' CTRs. In
larger-scale cases, this is known as a Terminal Manoeuvring Area (TMA).