Developments in Petroleum Science, 26

hydraulic proppant fracturing

and gravel packing
DEVELOPMENTS I N PETROLEUM SCIENCE
Advisory Editor: G.V. Chilingarian

Volumes 1 , 3 , 4 , 7 and 13 are out of print.

2. W.H.FERTL
ABNORMAL FORMATION PRESSURES
5. T.F. YEN and G.V. CHILINGARIAN (Editors)
OIL SHALE
6. D.W. PEACEMAN
FUNDAMENTALS OF NUMERICAL RESERVOIR SIMULATION
8. L.P.DAKE
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
9. K.MAGARA
COMPACTION AND FLUID MIGRATION
10. M.T. SILVIA and E.A. ROBINSON
DECONVOLUTION OF GEOPHYSICAL TIME SERIES IN T H E EXPLORATION FOR
OIL AND NATURAL GAS
11. G.V. CHILINGARIAN and P. VORABUTR
DRILLING AND DRILLING FLUIDS
12. T.D. VAN GOLF-RACHT
FUNDAMENTALS OF FRACTURED RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
14. G. MOZES (Editor)
PARAFFIN PRODUCTS
15A O.SERRA
FUNDAMENTALS OF WELL-LOG INTERPRETATION
1. T H E ACQUISITION OF LOGGING DATA

15B O.SERRA
FUNDAMENTALS OF WELL-LOG INTERPRETATION
2. T H E INTERPRETATION OF LOGGING DATA
16. R.E. CHAPMAN
PETROLEUMGEOLOGY
17A E.C. DONALDSON, G.V. CHILINGARIAN and T.F. YEN
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY, I
FUNDAMENTALS A N D ANALYSES
18A A.P. SZILAS
PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT OF OIL AND GAS
A. FLOW MECHANICS A N D PRODUCTION
second completely revised edition
18B A.P. SZILAS
PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT OF OIL AND GAS
B. GATHERING A N D TRANSPORTATION
second completely revised edition
19A G.V. CHILINGARIAN, J.O. ROBERTSON Jr. and S. KUMAR
SURFACE OPERATIONS IN PETROLEUM PRODUCTION, I
19B G.V. CHILINGARIAN, J.O. ROBERTSON Jr. and S. KUMAR
SURFACE OPERATIONS IN PETROLEUM PRODUCTION, I1
20. A.J. DIKKERS
GEOLOGY IN PETROLEUM PRODUCTION
21. W.F. RAMIREZ
APPLICATION OF OPTIMAL CONTROL THEORY TO ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY
22. E.C. DONALDSON, G.V. CHILINGARIAN and T.F. YEN (Editors)
MICROBIAL ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY
23. J. HAGOORT
FUNDAMENTALS OF GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
24. W. LITTMANN
POLYMER FLOODING
25. N.K. BAIBAKOV and A.R. GARUSHEV
THERMAL METHODS OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTION
Developments in Petroleum Science, 26

hydraulic proppant
fracturing and
gravel packing
DETLEF MADER

Paul-Hindemith-Ring4B
0 - 6 0 5 4 Rodgau 1 (Jiigesheim),F . R . G .

ELSEVIER -Amsterdam - Oxford - New York - Tokyo 1989

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V.
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0Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1989

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 V

P r e f a c e
H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s a r e l a t i v e l y young t e c h n i q u e o f hydrocarbon
pay s t i m u l a t i o n which has been i n v e n t e d o n l y a b t . 40 y e a r s ago (CLARK 1948,
K H R I S T I A N O V I C H & ZHELTOV 1955) and which e n t e r e d t h e f o c u s o f a t t e n t i o n by r e -
s e r v o i r and t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s s i n c e
t h e i n v e n t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h ceramic proppants
t h a t can w i t h s t a n d t h e h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s e s p e c i a l l y i n deep t i g h t gas-bear-
i n g sandstone pay f o r m a t i o n s (COOKE 1976, 1977). The p o s s i b i l i t y o f now t r e a t -
i n g a l s o h i g h - p r e s s u r e hydrocarbon-bearing i n t e r v a l s where n a t u r a l sand crushes
as a consequence o f e l e v a t e d c l o s u r e s t r e s s t r i g g e r e d c o n s i d e r a b l e expansion o f
h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n which c u l m i n a t e d i n v a r i o u s MHF cam-
p a i g n s p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n USA and Europe where up t o 1 M i o . g a l o f f l u i d s and
more than 6 Mio. l b s (3,000 t ) o f proppants have been pumped i n t o l a r g e - s c a l e
f r a c t u r e s w i t h i n a s i n g u l a r jumbo t r e a t m e n t and p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s o f 200 -
500 t p e r j o b a r e q u i t e common i n l a r g e - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n .

The f i r s t f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e ( w h i c h was t h e e a r l i e s t a r -
t i f i c i a l high-qua1 i t y p r o p p a n t ) i n Western Europe o n l y d a t e s back almost e x a c t -
l y t e n y e a r s (ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL 1978 a ) . Since t h a t time, n o t o n l y t h e cumu-
l a t i v e q u a n t i t y o f proppants pumped a n n u a l l y downhole was p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a -
s i n g , b u t a l s o t h e amount o f t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e on h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u -
r i n g was e x p o n e n t i a l l y growing. Much hope f o r f u t u r e booming o f hydrocarbon ap-
p r a i s a l and development was based on h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f low-per-
m e a b i l i t y gas and o i l r e s e r v o i r s p r e d o m i n a n t l y d u r i n g t h e l a s t f i v e y e a r s , and
whole e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g s t r a t e g y concepts i n p e t r o p h y s i c a l l y
p o o r e r f a c i e s b e l t s o f sedimentary b a s i n s were founded on t h e c e r t a i n t y o f i n -
e v i t a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n b e f o r e w e l l c o m p l e t i o n i n t h e golden y e a r s o f t h e h y d r o c a r -
bon i n d u s t r y i n t h e l a t e 1970's and e a r l y 1980's due t o back-up by a h i g h o i l
p r i c e and a s t r o n g US $. The y e a r o f p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s book c e l e b r a t e s t h e
2 5 t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f hydrocarbon e x p l o r a t i o n and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a -
t i o n i n t h e N o r t h Sea w h i c h i s t h e o i l and gas b a s i n w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t p o t e n -
t i a l i n Western Europe, t h e 4 0 t h j u b i l e e o f commercial e x e c u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c
proppant f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n t h e o i l and gas w o r l d , and f o r m y s e l f 10
y e a r s p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e as r e s e r v o i r g e o l o g i s t i n hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y .

Hydraulic proppant fracturing and 1986 oilllgas industry crisis

The f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e , s e n s i t i v i t y and f a t e o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
f o r t h e whole p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y c o m p r i s i n g p r o d u c t i o n , s e r v i c e and s u p p l y com-
panies, as w e l l as t h e dependency o f e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n f r o m t h e p o l i -
t i c a l scenery and i t s s t a b i l i t y , however, was most markedly i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e
1986 c r i s i s when t h e o i l p r i c e n e a r l y suddenly c o l l a p s e d ( a n d e f f e c t i v e f o r Eu-
rope i n a d d i t i o n t h e US $ exchange r a t e almost a t t h e same t i m e c a t a s t r o p h i c a l -
l y dropped), and t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f e s p e c i a l l y h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
t o d e t e r i o r a t i o n s o f t h e g e n e r a l economical framework was v i o l e n t l y u n d e r l i n e d
by t h e f a c t t h a t i n c o n t r a s t t o d r i l l i n g and c o n v e n t i o n a l c o m p l e t i o n which a l -
ways remain a t a c e r t a i n minimum l e v e l , s t i m u l a t i o n can a t l e a s t i n some areas
be t o t a l l y suspended i f no l o n g e r p r o f i t a b l e .

The c r i s i s came f a s t e r than expected and h i t t h e i n d u s t r y worse t h a n anyone

had p r e d i c t e d and t h u s was a pronounced shock t o awake dreaming r e s e r v o i r e n g i -
neers, e u p h o r i c hydrocarbon m a r k e t i n g people and a l s o p a r t i a l l y r e a l i t y - d e c o u p -
l e d s e r v i c e and s u p p l y companies by a b r u p t l y v i s u a l i z i n g t h a t c r i t i c a l l y chan-
g i n g i n t e r a c t i o n s between s e v e r a l p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d ' s p o l i t i c a l network and f i -
n a n c i a l f a b r i c and t h e r e s u l t i n g consequences f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t economical sys-
tems can n o t o n l y f o r c e t o s e r i o u s l y m o d i f y s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l models and
p l a y s as w e l l as t o suspend complete s t r a t e g i c a l concepts o f energy supply, b u t
can a l s o t u r n commercial businesses almost o v e r n i g h t f r o m p r o f i t i n t o l o s s and
t h u s a l s o t h r e a t t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f whole i n d u s t r y branches.
 VI

MY involvement in the stimulation market

I happened t o e n t e r t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n s c e n e r y a s Market-
ing Manager Proppants Europe j u s t when t h e 1986 o i l i n d u s t r y c r i s i s was a l m o s t
a t i t s peak which c o n v e r t e d the a n t i c i p a t e d p r o g r e s s i v e sound and reasoned ap-
proach t o my new p r o f e s s i o n a l d u t y i n t o a sudden j u m p i n t o the c o l d w a t e r of a
c o l l a p s e d d r i l l i n g and t r e a t i n g m a r k e t . The n e c e s s i t y of q u i c k l y s t a b i l i z i n g
and r e v i v i n g t h e Western European h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l packing mar-
k e t f o r proppant a p p l i c a t i o n and the urgency of performing market e x t e n s i o n e s -
p e c i a l l y towards E a s t e r n Europe, Southern Europe and Northern A f r i c a ( p a r t s o f
which were h i t h e r t o a l m o s t w h i t e p a t c h e s on t h e s t i m u l a t i o n map) c o n f r o n t e d me
w i t h t h e need of r a p i d c o l l e c t i o n of l a r g e amounts of i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g con-
s u l t i n g d i s c u s s i o n s , e v a l u a t i o n s of f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l and demand, and recom-
mendations of a p p l i c a t i o n of proppant t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s depending on t h e r e -
q u i r e m e n t s of t h e r e s e r v o i r t y p e s and t h e i r g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s when v i s i t i n g
hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n and s e r v i c e companies, a s well a s reviewing t h e e x t e n -
s i v e l i t e r a t u r e , and f a s t p r o c e s s i n g of the a s s e s s e d m a t e r i a l i n t o r e v i s e d mar-
k e t i n g s t r a t e g y c o n c e p t s based on g e o l o g i c a l , r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g , t e c h n i c a l
and commercial a s p e c t s w i t h the u l t i m a t e goal of q u i c k l y i n c r e a s i n g the a r e a l
proppant s a l e s l e v e l .

The i n t e r n a t i o n a l marketing a c t i v i t y and the n e c e s s a r y a c c e l e r a t i o n of d i -

r e c t approach a l s o r e q u i r e d me t o l e a r n a c o u p l e of a d d i t i o n a l languages i n o r -
d e r t o have more working i n s t r u m e n t s f o r independent a c t i o n d u r i n g my p r o f e s s i o -
nal r e o r g a n i z a t i o n and t o e n a b l e a d d i t i o n a l t r a n s p a r e n c y with r e s p e c t t o compe-
t i t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y when r e a l i z i n g the f a v o u r a b l e c o n s t e l l a t i o n f o r expansion of
t h e s t i m u l a t i o n market i n E a s t e r n Europe a t the time of p o l i t i c a l and economi-
c a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g ( p e r e s t r o i k a ; GORBATCHEV 1 9 8 7 ) .

In t h i s c r i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n , f o r t u n a t e l y the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f g e o l o g i c a l mo-
d e l s and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g p r i n c i p l e s a s well a s e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n
problems of the main g a s - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s with t h e g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l of hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and thus l a r g e s t proppant consumption in Western Europe be-
ing t e r r e s t r i a l s a n d s t o n e s of R o t l i e g e n d , C a r b o n i f e r o u s and B u n t s a n d s t e i n was
enhanced by t h e e x p e r i e n c e which I g o t from my own independent s e d i m e n t o l o g i -
c a l , p e t r o g r a p h i c a l and p a l a e o e c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h on c o n t i n e n t a l r e d bed forma-
t i o n s (MADER 1 9 8 5 ) . Valuable improvement of t h e s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l know-
ledge was a l s o achieved by i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e background from my e a r l i e r p r a c t i -
c a l p r o f e s s i o n a l work a s Area P r o d u c t i o n G e o l o g i s t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r an o i l - and
g a s - f i e l d r e g i o n in Germany FRG. Without a l l t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , the n e c e s s a r y
speedy a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e r e q u i r e d knowledge l e v e l would c e r t a i n l y n o t have
been p o s s i b l e .

Planning o f the present proceedings volume

The more o r l e s s e v i d e n t slow r e v i v a l of the s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y i n Western
Europe i n 1987 with d e f i n i t e p l a n s f o r e x t e n s i v e h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g
campaigns p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e North Sea mainly in 1988 - 1990 and beyond, a pro-
found r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the European marketing s t r a t e g y of t h e USA-based major
proppant s u p p l i e r s a t the same time, and my independent work a s an i n t e r n a t i o -
nal c o n s u l t a n t f o r petroleum geology and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g t r i g g e r e d t h e
i d e a t o compile a r e p o r t i n c l u d i n g review, s t a t u s and f o r e c a s t of h y d r a u l i c
proppant f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l packing p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Europe and a d j o i n i n g i n -
ternational markets. This elaboration o r i g i n a l l y intended t o not only sketch
the v a r i o u s consequences of t h e c r i s i s , b u t a l s o t o i n d i c a t e a s u i t e of p o s s i b i -
l i t i e s of improvement of the s t i m u l a t i o n b u s i n e s s i n the next y e a r s i n an o u t -
look f o c u s s i n g on marketing and economical a s p e c t s t h a t a l t h o u g h being of sub-
j e c t i v e n a t u r e a c c o r d i n g t o my view and a s s e s s m e n t , r e l a t e s n e v e r t h e l e s s t o t h e
demand of t h e customers w i t h which I have been c o n f r o n t e d d u r i n g my i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n s o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g and p a r t i c u l a r l y the proppant market.
 V II

C o m p i l i n g t h e r e p o r t , however, soon r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e m a r k e t i n g and economi-

c a l q u e s t i o n s a r e i n t i m a t e l y i n t e r w o v e n w i t h v a r i o u s t e c h n i c a l p o i n t s , and
t h e r e f o r e I decided a l s o t o g i v e a t e c h n i c a l overview o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g as w e l l as s t i m u l a t i o n m o n i t o r i n g by predominant-
l y w e l l l o g g i n g . T h i s expansion a l s o r e q u i r e d t o renounce f r o m t h e a r e a l l i m i t a -
t i o n t o Europe and t o process i n f o r m a t i o n and l i t e r a t u r e on t h e o r i e s and a p p l i -
c a t i o n s a l l o v e r t h e globe, w i t h t h e emphasis on t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e v i e w and summa-
r y h a v i n g been p u t on t h e USA which i s p r o b a b l y t h e most mature s t i m u l a t i o n mar-
k e t o f t h e w o r l d . A t t h e t i m e o f b e g i n n i n g t o w r i t e down my e x p e r i e n c e and
s t a r t i n g t o e v a l u a t e t h e l i t e r a t u r e , however, I c o u l d never imagine t h a t t h i s
p r o j e c t c o u l d e v e r end up i n such a voluminous c o m p i l a t i o n as p r e s e n t e d now t o
the readership.

Design o f my fracbook
Several monographs and t e x t b o o k s on h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g and r e l a -
t e d r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n have a l r e a d y appeared s i n c e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e
t r e a t m e n t t e c h n o l o g y t o t h e e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r y . W h i l e t h e c l a s -
s i c a l monograph by HOWARD & FAST (1970 a ) has been t h e s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e f o r
more than t h r e e decades s i n c e i t s f i r s t e d i t i o n , i n t h e l a s t y e a r s o t h e r compi-
l a t i o n s have been p r e s e n t e d w h i c h a r e m a i n l y proceedings volumes and r e v i e w c o l -
l e c t i o n s (USATCHOV 1986, ECONOMIOES & NOLTE 1987, GIDLEY 1988). Summaries o f
t e c h n o l o g i c a l advances o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g have n o t o n l y been p u b l i s h e d as
books, b u t a l s o as l o n g e r j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s (VEATCH 1983, VEATCH & M O S C H O V I D I S
1986) and congress l e c t u r e s (FUHRBERG 1983). Most o f these c o m p i l a t i o n s , how-
e v e r , have been w r i t t e n by r e s e r v o i r o r t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r s and c o n c e n t r a t e on
aspects of f r a c t u r i n g mechanics, f l u i d rheology, p r e s s u r e e v o l u t i o n , f r a c t u r e
geometry, t r e a t m e n t m o d e l l i n g and s i m u l a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , m a r k e t i n g approaches
h i t h e r t o h a v i n g been c a r r i e d o u t by s u p p l y and s e r v i c e companies were c h i e f l y
performed by commercial r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w i t h f r e q u e n t l y i n s u f f i c i e n t t e c h n i c a l
and s c i e n t i f i c background and above a l l n o t enough u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p a r t i c u -
l a r pay i n t e r v a l s and t h e i r g e o l o g i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

T h i s i s t h e reason why I became convinced t h a t i t would be more than d e s i -

r a b l e t o f i l l t h e gap and d i s c u s s t h e s u b j e c t s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f a r e s e r v o i r g e o l o g i s t w i t h emphasis b e i n g
p u t on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between proppants and hydrocarbon-bearing f o r m a t i o n s ,
t h e r e b y u n d e r l i n i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r o p p a n t t y p e and g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l and p e t r o g r a p h i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e pay zone t o
be t r e a t e d . Many p a r t s o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h u s focus on proppant c h o i c e as a
f u n c t i o n o f granulometry, t h i c k n e s s , v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l c o n t i n u i t y , consol i d a -
t i o n , cementation and g e o m e t r i c a l f a b r i c o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r forma-
t i o n s t h a t a r e t h e t a r g e t s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g . Proppant
aspects a r e t h e main t o p i c o f t h e p r e s e n t book which has t h e c o n c e p t i o n of a
proceedings volume i n s t e a d o f t h e l a y o u t o f a t e x t b o o k , and a r e i l l u s t r a t e d n o t
o n l y from s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l view, b u t a l s o f r o m m a r k e t i n g and economical
s i d e . Throughout t h e t e c h n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n , emphasis i s p u t on s k e t c h i n g t h e
s u i t e o f r e s e r v o i r types t r e a t e d by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , c o m p r i s i n g low- and
h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandstone, carbonate, c h a l k , d i a t o m i t e , c o a l , s h a l e and c r y s -
t a l l i n e r o c k s ( g r a n i t e ) which a l l r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e geometry as w e l l
as proppant q u a n t i t i e s , types and g r a i n s i z e s f o r t e c h n i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l and
economically p r o f i t a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n .

Selection o f aspects discussed in the text

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r o p p a n t a p p l i c a t i o n i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l
p a c k i n g a r e v e r y widespread and q u i t e complex. D i s c u s s i n g t h e t o p i c f r o m a l l
t h e i m p o r t a n t v i e w p o i n t s p r o v i d e s an endless s u i t e o f i n t e r e s t i n g aspects. I n
o r d e r t o r e s t r i c t t h e p r e s e n t e l a b o r a t i o n t o a more o r l e s s p r a c t i c a l , w e l l - o r -
 VIII

ganized summary w i t h o u t l o o s i n g t h e r e d l i n e , no d e t a i l e d r e v i e w o f t h e e x t e n -
s i v e s c i e n t i f i c and a p p l i e d l i t e r a t u r e i n f u l l coverage was i n t e n d e d , b u t t h e
compiled o v e r v i e w was i n i t i a l l y scheduled m a i n l y as an enhanced and upgraded ex-
p e r i e n c e r e p o r t d e r i v i n g b a s i c a l l y f r o m my p r o f e s s i o n a l d u t y as M a r k e t i n g Mana-
g e r Proppants r e s p o n s i b l e f o r Western and E a s t e r n Europe and r e s u l t i n g f r o m my
own assessment ' J f t h e demand and s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n o f t h i s m a r k e t . D u r i n g course
o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e research, however, numerous s i g n i f i c a n t a r t i c l e s on v a r i o u s
aspects o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g have been encounte-
r e d and e v a l u a t e d which I decided t o p r e s e n t and summarize i n an as much as pos-
s i b l e condensed f o r m and above a l l reworked w i t h my own ideas wherever my know-
ledge p e r m i t t e d , and t o b r i n g t h i s i n t e r w o v e n synopsis t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e
r e a d e r s h i p . T h a t i s why t h e s i z e o f t h e volume s t a r t e d t o expand p r o g r e s s i v e l y ,
w i t h f i n a l l y o n l y t h e d e a d l i n e f o r p u b l i c a t i o n having been a b l e t o s t o p t h e
growth.

C e r t a i n l y t h e task o f l i m i t i n g t h e t o t a l volume o f t h e book t o an economical-

l y s t i l l a c c e p t a b l e s i z e meant i n e v i t a b l y c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n o f t h e t o p i c s t o be
discussed, w i t h t h e r e f o r e t h e s u i t e o f i t e m s h a v i n g been r e s t r i c t e d t o more o r
l e s s p r o p p a n t - r e l a t e d s u b j e c t s , and t h u s f o r example aspects o f s t i m u l a t i o n
f l u i d s , f r a c t u r i n g models, m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g , r e s e r v o i r and
f r a c t u r e s i m u l a t i o n , f r a c t u r e geometry and mechanics, p r e s s u r e e v a l u a t i o n , w e l l
t e s t i n g , f l o w regimes and p r o d u c t i o n p l a n n i n g i n f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n s , and
o t h e r s c o u l d o n l y be t r e a t e d v e r y b r i e f l y i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h p r o p p a n t q u e s t i o n s
and were n o t examined i n more d e t a i l , because these t o p i c s have been a l r e a d y
discussed i n more e x t e n s i o n i n v a r i o u s o t h e r c o m p i l a t i o n s p u b l i s h e d s o f a r t o
which r e f e r e n c e i s made. I p u t t h e emphasis on such t e c h n i c a l and economical as-
p e c t s o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g where t y p e and s i z e
o f proppants p l a y t h e key r o l e i n d e s i g n and a p p l i c a t i o n and w h i c h a c c o r d i n g t o
my f e e l i n g have h i t h e r t o n o t been condensed i n t o a c t u a l r e v i e w s and summaries.

The most i n t e r e s t i n g theme f o r me as a g e o l o g i s t o f e d u c a t i o n was t o docu-

ment s i g n i f i c a n c e and n e c e s s i t y o f d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e d e s i g n f o r v a r i o u s pay
f o r m a t i o n t y p e s t h a t a r e p r o s p e c t i v e f o r gas, o i l o r w a t e r and which demand hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n f o r achievement o f e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e produc-
t i o n r a t e s , w i t h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n spectrum o f h y d r a u l i c t r e a t i n g i n c l u d i n g low-
and h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandstone, carbonate, c h a l k , d i a t o m i t e , c o a l , s h a l e and
c r y s t a l l i n e ( g r a n i t e ) r e s e r v o i r s . The mentioned r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e t h e reason
why I have t o beg t h e r e a d e r f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g i f some s p e c i a l t o p i c s c o u l d n o t
have been r e s p e c t e d i n t h i s proceedings volume which a c c o r d i n g t o i t s t i t l e
o n l y p r e s e n t s a c h o i c e o f aspects, b u t does n o t want t o c l a i m t o be r e g a r d e d as
a t e x t b o o k and a l s o was n o t w r i t t e n w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t co-
verage t o be a b l e t o r e a c h t h e s t a t u s o f a t e x t b o o k .

Hierarchical s t r u c t u r e o f the t e x t
The o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e t e x t i n a complex s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e d s u b d i v i s i o n o f
t h e main c h a p t e r s i n t o v a r i o u s h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r s o f subchapters, s e c t i o n s and
s u b s e c t i o n s . A s a consequence o f c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l amounts o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s
and t a b l e s b r e a k i n g t h e v a s t d e s e r t o f t h e voluminous t e x t , I have p u t s p e c i a l
emphasis on d e t a i l e d s p l i t t i n g o f t h e t e x t i n t o numerous paragraphs i n a h i e r a r -
c h i c a l manner f o r t h e purpose t o g u i d e t h e r e a d e r e a s i l y t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s
c h a p t e r s and t h e whole book. S i x main t e x t c h a p t e r s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d compri-
s i n g proppant s e l e c t i o n , m a r k e t i n g and economics, R o t l i e g e n d s t i m u l a t i o n i n Eu-
rope, h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , g r a v e l p a c k i n g and sand c o n t r o l , and p r o p -
ped f r a c t u r e and g r a v e l pack m o n i t o r i n g . The b e g i n n i n g o f each o r d e r o f s u b d i v i -
s i o n c o n t a i n s a l s o a s h o r t g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e v a r i o u s t o p i c s which
are discussed i n the sections o f the h i e r a r c h i c a l l y next i n f e r i o r l e v e l i n o r -
d e r t o connect t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s o f d i f f e r e n t h i e r a r c h i c a l stage and t o l a y
a r e d l i n e t h r o u g h t h e whole t e x t .

The main t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s p r e s e n t s o n l y the general organization of the

 IX

book i n c l u d i n g t h e f i r s t t h r e e h i e r a r c h i c a l o r d e r s o f s u b d i v i s i o n , whereas t h e
a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e s o f c o n t e n t s assigned t o each c h a p t e r f o l l o w i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t o -
r y summary p r o v i d e t h e f u l l s p l i t t i n g i n t o s e c t i o n s , and w h i l e s e r v i n g as a de-
t a i l e d l i s t o f t o p i c s , t h e y f u l f i l l a t t h e same t i m e t h e t a s k o f b e i n g a sequen-
t i a l s u b j e c t index by a l l o w i n g t o search f o r a l o t o f key words i n t h e sequence
o f headers and subheaders. F u r t h e r a s s i s t a n c e f o r r a p i d access t o i n f o r m a t i o n
on s p e c i a l t o p i c s i s p r o v i d e d by t h e a l p h a b e t i c a l s u b j e c t i n d e x a t t h e end o f
t h e book.

Compilation of 1 i terature references

The c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e abundant r e f e r e n c e s c o n f r o n t e d me w i t h a n o t h e r p r o -
blem. I n c o n t r a s t t o many g e o l o g i c a l ( p a r t i c u l a r l y s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l ) j o u r n a l s
which c o n t a i n m a i n l y l o n g e r a r t i c l e s t h a t t r e a t p r e d o m i n a n t l y b r o a d e r s u b j e c t s
i n g r e a t e r d e p t h and p r e s e n t a d e t a i l e d b i b l i o g r a p h y a t t h e end w h i c h can o f t e n
be quoted as a whole, most o f t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g and r e l a t e d e n g i n e e r i n g and t e c h n i c a l aspects a r e s h o r t SPE ( S o c i e -
t y o f Petroleum E n g i n e e r s ) papers t h a t a r e s p l i t up i n t o v e r y d e t a i l e d t o p i c s
and comprise b r i e f e x p e r i e n c e r e p o r t s o f l a t e s t s c i e n t i f i c , t e c h n i c a l and econo-
m i c a l knowledge c o m p i l e d v e r y a c t u a l l y f o r s p e c i a l s u b j e c t symposia and s p e c i a -
l i s t s meetings and workshops, and t h e r e f o r e i n c l u d e i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f cases
o n l y a few r e f e r e n c e s t o some v e r y c l o s e l y r e l a t e d a r t i c l e s . Looking a t t h e
f l o o d o f papers s u r g i n g a n n u a l l y f r o m t h e s u i t e o f SPE meetings and v i s u a l i z i n g
t h e s h o r t t i m e between i n d i v i d u a l conferences and sharp d e a d l i n e s f o r paper sub-
m i s s i o n and acceptance, i t i s easy t o understand t h a t t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s c o u l d
o n l y be p r a c t i c a l s t a t u s r e p o r t s and w i t h a v e r y s u b o r d i n a t e amount o f excep-
t i o n s , i t c o u l d n o t be t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r s t o p l u n g e a b i t deeper i n t o
t h e t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , b u t l i m i t a t i o n had t o be made t o a few p r a c t i c a l r e f e -
rences c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a c t u a l w o r k i n g environment.

The p r e s s u r e on t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e s e a r c h e r s t o produce r e s u l t s almost w i t h o u t

i n t e r r u p t i o n t h a t i s e x e r t e d by i m p a t i e n t s u p e r v i s o r s and managers, c o m p e t i t i o n
between a m b i t i o u s s p e c i a l i s t s f o r j o b promotion, p r e s t i g i o u s behaviour, and
above a l l t h e b a r e r o c k b o t t o m demand t o p r o v e e f f e c t i v i t y and i n d i s p e n s i b i l i t y
as a base f o r s a l a r y u p g r a d i n g and j o b s e c u r i t y p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e t i m e o f ca-
t a s t r o p h i c a l s t a f f l a y o f f campaigns i n a s h r i n k i n g and r e s t r u c t u r i n g h y d r o c a r -
bon i n d u s t r y f o r c e s t h e p e o p l e t o m a i n t a i n c o n t i n u o u s o u t p u t o f news i n f o r m o f
numerous i n t e r n a l r e p o r t s and a reasonable amount o f c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o meetings
and workshops which i n terms o f c o n t e n t s a r e o f t h e l a t e s t knowledge l e v e l s ,
b u t t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r i l y i n f a c t do n o t r e p r e s e n t more t h a n b r i e f s t a t u s r e -
p o r t s . Thus t h e i n f o r m a t i o n on h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g
i s e x t r e m e l y s c a t t e r e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e by t h e d i v i s i o n i n t o a v a s t amount o f
i n d i v i d u a l papers w i t h l i m i t e d c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g , and a more o r l e s s comprehen-
s i v e c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h i s broad s u i t e o f q u o t a t i o n s r e s u l t s i n an enormous r e f e -
rence l i s t .

Organization of the bib1 iography

The b i b l i o g r a p h y , however, i s o f t e n t h e most v a l u a b l e source o f i n f o r m a t i o n
f o r many r e a d e r s which a r e l o o k i n g f o r s p e c i a l i t e m s t h a t c o u l d n o t have been
t r e a t e d i n s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l i n t h e main t e x t . I n o r d e r t o serve as a source o f
m a t e r i a l f o r f u r t h e r p l u n g i n g i n t o s p e c i a l i z e d s u b j e c t s , a good o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
t h e r e f e r e n c e c o l l e c t i o n was i n e v i t a b l e , and a l s o t h e l i t e r a t u r e c o m p i l a t i o n
was c o n s i d e r e d t o be a m a j o r s e c t i o n o f t h e book. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r -
l y v a l i d i n view o f t h e p r e s e n t volume b e i n g an e s p e c i a l l y pronounced example
o f my a l r e a d y r e p e a t e d e x p e r i e n c e t h a t a f t e r thorough w o r k i n g t h r o u g h t h e l i t e -
r a t u r e , t h e r e f e r e n c e l i s t o f t h e f i n a l paper i s o f t e n l o n g e r than t h e f i r s t
o r i g i n a l d r a f t o f t h e whole t e x t . No one, however, i n c l u d i n g m y s e l f c o u l d e v e r
f o r e s e e t h a t t h e voluminous l i t e r a t u r e c o m p i l a t i o n c o u l d grow so much as t o a l -
most r e a c h t h e s i z e o f a l i t t l e book i t s e l f .
 X

Therefore I decided t o n o t o n l y present t h e l i t e r a t u r e l i s t i n a l p h a b e t i c a l

o r d e r o f r e f e r e n c e s and t o i n c l u d e t h e r e i n as much q u o t a t i o n s as I f e l t necessa-
ry f o r proper quoting o f the state-of-the-art o f the individual topics, but
a l s o t o p r o c e s s t h e assemblage f o r s p e c i f i c e v a l u a t i o n f o l l o w i n g d e t a i l e d g o a l s
o f a c q u i s i t i o n . Thus t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y a t t h e end o f t h e book i n c l u d e s a l s o a
s u b j e c t key c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t o a l l o w i t s easy consultance independent f r o m t h e
t e x t , w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f accessing t h e t o p i c - r e l a t e d a r t i c l e s by key words
a n d / o r a u t h o r s names. The o v e r w h e l m i n g amount o f t h e p a p e r s w h i c h a r e c o n t a i n e d
i n t h e s u b j e c t k e y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ( t h a t i n f a c t r e p r e s e n t s some t y p e o f i n d e x
t o t h e r e f e r e n c e l i s t ) i s a l s o d i r e c t l y r e f e r r i n g t o t h e t r e a t e d s u b j e c t s and
a r e t h e r e f o r e a l s o i m p l e m e n t e d and c i t e d i n t h e t e x t . I t i s my s i n c e r e hope
t h a t t h e r e a d e r w i l l n o t b e shocked b y t h e tremendous r e f e r e n c e l i s t w h i c h e x -
ceeds b y f a r w h a t i s n o r m a l f o r such a t y p e o f p r o c e e d i n g s volumes, b u t t h a t
acknowledge i s made t o a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s o u r c e o f l i t e r a t u r e q u o t a t i o n s p r o v i -
d i n g a b r o a d s u i t e o f s p e c i a l i s t s w i t h f u r t h e r m a t e r i a l f o r more d e t a i l e d e v a -
1u a t i o n .

Choice and presentation o f illustrations

A n o t h e r a i m o f t h e enormous r e f e r e n c e l i s t and t h e accompanying s u b j e c t k e y
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s t o p r o v i d e a p o s s i b i l i t y t o g e t access t o numerous i l l u s t r a -
t i o n s and g r a p h i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s . W h i l e a t l e a s t
p a r t s o f t h e t e x t c o u l d be w r i t t e n i n t h e f o r m o f a d r a s t i c a l summary o r ab-
s t r a c t t o i n c l u d e as many i n d i v i d u a l p a p e r s as p o s s i b l e i n a h i g h l y p r o c e s s e d
and condensed f o r m , f i g u r e s needed a n o t h e r a p p r o a c h . I n v i e w o f t h e o b v i o u s li-
m i t a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t book t o a s t i l l handy volume ( a n d t h e s i z e t h a t has t u r -
n e d o u t a t t h e e n d i s c e r t a i n l y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e a b s o l u t e maximum), no r e a s o n
was seen why v a l u a b l e p r i n t i n g space s h o u l d be w a s t e d b y r e p e a t i n g i l l u s t r a -
t i o n s w h i c h a r e c o n t a i n e d i n numerous e a r l i e r p u b l i c a t i o n s and have p a r t i a l l y
a l r e a d y been once o r s e v e r a l t i m e s c o p i e d i n o t h e r summaries, o v e r v i e w s and
textbooks.

Emphasis was t h e r e f o r e p u t on p r o p e r r e f e r e n c i n g o f t h e t e x t i n o r d e r t o
e n a b l e t h e r e a d e r t o l o o k f o r f i g u r e s and f u r t h e r g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e
o r i g i n a l l i t e r a t u r e . Advantage c o u l d be made i n t h i s r e s p e c t o f t h e e x c e l l e n t
s t o r a g e and access s y s t e m o f t h e numerated SPE p a p e r s w h i c h a l l o w s t h e i n t e r e s -
t e d i n d i v i d u a l f a s t and u n c o m p l i c a t e d g r a s p i n g o f t h e a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n b y
h a v i n g an e x t e n s i v e l i b r a r y on s t a n d - b y and c a l l a t h i s d i s p o s i t i o n f o r f a s t
s e r v i c e b y j u s t q u o t i n g SPE p a p e r number and c r e d i t c a r d number. R e a s o n a b l e com-
p i l a t i o n s o f numerous i l l u s t r a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o m o s t o f t h e d i s c u s s e d t o p i c s
a r e a l s o c o n t a i n e d i n t h e above m e n t i o n e d t e x t b o o k s and monographs as w e l l as
o v e r v i e w j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s . Thus t h e f i g u r e s , t a b l e s and p l a t e s i n t h e p r e s e n t
p r o c e e d i n g s volume were l i m i t e d t o such i l l u s t r a t i o n s w h i c h d e r i v e d f r o m my own
c o n c e p t i o n and p r e s e n t m a t e r i a l and i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t p r e v i o u s l y has n o t been
p u b l i s h e d i n r e l a t e d form, and w h i c h i s n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r l i n e and t o f u r t h e r
comment t h e a s p e c t s t h a t a r e d i s c u s s e d c h i e f l y f r o m my e x p e r i e n c e and k n o w l e d g e
based o n own i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and r e s e a r c h .

Processing o f the material

As much o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h I have r e c e i v e d o r a l l y d u r i n g my i n t e r n a t i o -
n a l a t t e n t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t b y c o n s u l t i n g and i n t e r v i e w i n g numerous
s p e c i a l i s t s i n v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s i s c o n f i d e n t i a l and c a n n o t be p u b l i s h e d i n
w r i t t e n o r d r a f t e d f o r m , many f a c t s c o u l d o n l y be s k e t c h e d i n t h e p o s s i b l e gene-
r a l way. W h i l e d e s c r i p t i o n i n t h e t e x t c a n s t i l l make r e a s o n a b l e a d v a n t a g e o f
i n d i r e c t e x p r e s s i o n , o n l y v e r y l i m i t e d o b l i t e r a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e sake
o f p r o t e c t i n g c o n f i d e n t i a l m a t e r i a l i s p o s s i b l e i n i l l u s t r a t i o n s , and t h e r e f o r e
i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e a s o n s d i s c u s s e d i n e a r l i e r s e c t i o n s , f i g u r e s and t a b l e s i n
t h e p r e s e n t p r o c e e d i n g s volume had t o be r e s t r i c t e d t o a v e r y s m a l l q u a n t i t y .
 XI

I n o r d e r t o address t h e i n s i d e r p r o p e r l y and s t i l l m a i n t a i n t h e c o n f i d e n c e b a r -
r i e r t o t h e o u t s i d e r , many aspects have been f o r m u l a t e d i n such a way i n t h e
t e x t t h a t t h e i n s i d e r understands what i s expressed, and a l s o t h e o u t s i d e r g e t s
h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , a l t h o u g h access t o c o n f i d e n t i a l m a t e r i a l i s i n h i b i t e d . Respect-
i n g t h e c o n f i d e n c e l e v e l when p r e p a r i n g t h i s summary, however, I w i s h t o ex-
press t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e performed a n a l y s i s w i l l n e v e r t h e l e s s be o f c o n s i -
d e r a b l e importance f o r a l l o w i n g t h e r e a d e r t o g e t a r e a s o n a b l y q u i c k overview
on what i s happening where and when i n t h e s t i m u l a t i o n scenery, and h o p e f u l l y
t h e r e p o r t w i l l a l s o c o n t r i b u t e a l i t t l e b i t t o promote h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c -
t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Europe and o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l mar-
k e t s d u r i n g t h e n e x t few y e a r s .

According t o t h e r e l a t i v e u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f any t y p e
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e tremendous amount o f t e x t , I c o n s i d e r e d i t t o be i n d i s p e n -
s i b l e t o break t h e t e x t i n t o as much chapters, subchapters, paragraphs and
items ( i n t o t a l a h i e r a r c h i c a l system o f seven h e a d l i n e o r d e r s has been em-
p l o y e d ) as p o s s i b l e , i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e n o t o n l y a b e t t e r overview on t h e l i s t
o f t o p i c s and t o c o n v e r t almost a l r e a d y t h e t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s i n t o a s e q u e n t i a l
s u b j e c t index o f t h e book ( t h a t i s a s s i s t e d by t h e a l p h a b e t i c a l s u b j e c t index
a t t h e end o f t h e volume), b u t a l s o t o f a c i l i t a t e r e a d i n g o f t h e pages by p r o v i -
d i n g i n t e r r u p t i o n s o f t h e o t h e r w i s e endless c o n t i n u i n g t e x t d e s e r t . F o r t h e p u r -
pose o f keeping t h e r e d l i n e , each c h a p t e r c o n t a i n s a b r i e f o u t l i n e o f t h e con-
t e n t s o f i t s subchapters, and c r o s s r e f e r e n c e s t o o t h e r s e c t i o n s i n t h e book
d i s c u s s i n g r e l a t e d items o r o t h e r aspects o f p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t s have been f m -
plemented as o f t e n as p o s s i b l e .

Acknowledgements o f sources of practical information

I t i s my s i n c e r e i n t e n t i o n t o thank a l l t h e persons w i t h whom I s a t down
f a c e t o face d i s c u s s i n g v a r i o u s problems o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and
g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n t h e hydrocarbon e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n areas which t h e y
r e p r e s e n t and a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n t h e i r companies, f o r t h e i r h o s p i t a l i t y and
e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e i r g e n e r a l l y open mind, c o n f i d e n c e and w i l l i n g c o o p e r a t i o n t o
g i v e me g e n e r o u s l y t h e necessary d i r e c t p r a c t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n f o r n o t o n l y ma-
k i n g them s p e c i f i c t e c h n i c a l and m a r k e t i n g recommendations and s a l e s p r o p o s a l s
f o r s o l u t i o n o f t h e i r problems and s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e i r demand, b u t a l s o f o r
e n a b l i n g me t o g e t a r a p i d o v e r v i e w o f t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y European s t i m u l a t i o n
market by p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l p i e c e s o f d a t a and s p l i n t e r e d mean-
i n g s t o a mosaic which forms t h e base f o r t h e i n t e g r a t e d c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h i s r e -
view.

I n a d d i t i o n t o my p r o f e s s i o n a l d u t i e s , I would l i k e t o t a k e a l s o t h i s oppor-
t u n i t y t o acknowledge t h e h e l p which I r e c e i v e d f r o m numerous i n d i v i d u a l s by
welcoming me f o r some t a l k i n g and p r o v i d i n g me w i t h m a t e r i a l , and t o express my
g r a t e f u l n e s s f o r t h e good c o o p e r a t i o n f o r mutual b e n e f i t by r e t u r n i n g my genera-
l i z e d e v a l u a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h r e s u l t s f r o m my own i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n s and r e s e a r c h i n t h e form o f t h e p r e s e n t proceedings volume w i t h my v e r y
b e s t compliments, thanks and g r e e t i n g s . I do hope t h a t through t h i s t e c h n i c a l
and m a r k e t i n g r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t , I can o f f e r some c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e
s o l u t i o n o f v a r i o u s s t i l l open q u e s t i o n s i n o r d e r t o h e l p t o achieve d more
widespread d i s t r i b u t i o n and e s p e c i a l l y c o n s i d e r a b l e expansion o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n Western and E a s t e r n Europe i n t h e near f u -
t u r e (when h o p e f u l l y t h e general economical framework i s a g a i n more p r o m i s i n g ;
u n f o r t u n a t e l y I am a f r a i d t h a t e x c e p t o f a few key p o l i t i c a l people nobody has
any p o s s i b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e t h e main c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r s ) t o t h e s c i e n t i f i c
and commercial b e n e f i t o f a l l o f us t o g e t h e r .
 XI I

Acknowledgements o f pub1 icat ion

Looking f o r a p u b l i s h e r w i t h t h e aims on f a s t d e c i s i o n on acceptance and
speedy p r i n t i n g i n o r d e r t o r e s p e c t t h e v e r y a c t u a l n a t u r e o f m a r k e t i n g s t a t u s
r e p o r t and p r e d i c t i o n as w e l l as t e c h n i c a l summary and r e v i e w which t h e r e f o r e
need r a p i d d i s t r i b u t i o n among t h e t e c h n i c a l and economical s p e c i a l i s t s i n o r d e r
t o be s t i l l r e a s o n a b l y u p - t o - d a t e upon appearance o f t h e book ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
view o f t h e permanent p o s s i b i l i t y o f r a p i d l y changing economical framework con-
d i t i o n s w i t h o u t e x p e c t a t i o n o r p r i o r n o t i c e , and i n l i g h t o f t h e almost u n i n t e r -
r u p t e d surge o f t e c h n i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s t h a t b r i n g s p r o g r e s s and i n n o v a t i o n n e a r -
l y e v e r y q u a r t e r o f t h e y e a r ) , I found i n v a l u a b l e s u p p o r t by O r . M a r t i n Tanke
(Department o f E a r t h Sciences, E l s e v i e r Science P u b l i s h e r s ] who v e r y q u i c k l y
guaranteed me p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e volume i n t h e s e r i e s " Developments i n P e t r o -
leum Sciences " i n camera-ready f o r m which enabled me t o b r i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t
on t h e l a t e s t l e v e l s t i l l v e r y s h o r t l y b e f o r e p r i n t i n g . I am v e r y g r a t e f u l t o
M a r t i n f o r h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f my r e q u i r e m e n t s e s p e c i a l l y i n terms o f q u a n t i t y
o f pages and f o r h a v i n g g i v e n me a l l t h e necessary c o n f i d e n c e and freedom t o
f i n i s h t h e volume a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f my i n t e n t i o n .

My s a t i s f a c t i o n and happyness cannot be overempahsized i n view o f t h e f a c t

t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e f i n a l s i z e o f t h e book c e r t a i n l y has c o n s i d e r a b l y shocked
M a r t i n because i t was more than t w i c e as much as he expected and as was c o n f i r -
med by c o n t r a c t , he d i d n o t h e s i t a t e t o a c c e p t t h e volume f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i n
t h e s u b m i t t e d f o r m and w i t h o u t d e l a y made a l l t h e necessary i n t e r n a l p r e p a r a -
t i o n s f o r speedy p r o c e s s i n g . P a r t i c u l a r acknowledgement deserves t h e c o o r d i n a -
t i n g engagement o f M a r t i n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e good c o o p e r a t i o n f o r r e a l i z i n g
my dream t o c a t c h t h e most s u i t a b l e p u b l i c a t i o n d a t e by f i l l i n g i n t h e gap b e t -
ween t h e annual SPE meeting i n October 1988 when f o r t h e l a s t t i m e a g r e a t e r
amount o f brand-new t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n was r e c e i v e d f o r i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o
t h e t e x t , and March 1989 when a f t e r t h e w i n t e r break t h e p r i n t e d book c o u l d be
p r e s e n t e d a t t h e f i r s t SPE s p e c i a l i z e d meetings on l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas r e s e r -
v o i r s and h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g .

Acknowledgements o f manuscript preparation

D u r i n g t h e s t r e s s y p e r i o d o f f i n a l e d i t i n g o f t h e t e x t and p r e p a r a t i o n o f
t h e camera-ready m a n u s c r i p t i n t h e above mentioned s l o t minus t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d
by t h e p u b l i s h e r f o r p r o d u c t i o n , I r e c e i v e d i n v a l u a b l e s u p p o r t and unrenoun-
c a b l e a s s i s t a n c e f r o m my dear f r i e n d s E l z b i e t a Zawadzka ( M a r i n e I n s t i t u t e ,
Gdahsk/Poland) and M a l g o r z a t a T r u s z e l ( G e o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e , Sosnowiec/Poland)
who devoted t h e i r whole p h y s i c a l and mental w o r k i n g c a p a c i t y t o me i n o r d e r t o
f i n i s h t h e p r o j e c t i n t h e r e q u e s t e d t i m e and i n a good shape. W i t h o u t t h e s a c r i -
f i c i n g and h e a r t y h e l p o f E l a and p a r t i c u l a r l y M a l g o s i a w i t h t h e time-consuming
work o f t e x t p r o c e s s i n g and camera-ready p r i n t i n g d u r i n g c o u n t l e s s hours which
t h e y spent p a t i e n t l y and i n s p i t e o f heavy work w i t h e x c e l l e n t humour a t t h e
computer i n my o f f i c e , i t would a b s o l u t e l y n o t have been p o s s i b l e t o meet t h e
t e c h n i c a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y most d e s i r a b l e d e a d l i n e f o r d e l i v e r y o f t h e f i n a l
m a n u s c r i p t as agreed w i t h t h e p u b l i s h e r .

As f am a l o n e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e p r e s e n t p r o c e e d i n g s vo-
lume and because I need t o keep u p - t o - d a t e f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a r e v i s i o n
f o r an e v e n t u a l second e d i t i o n , I would a p p r e c i a t e t o r e c e i v e t h e comments o f
t h e r e a d e r s h i p s t h r o u g h c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n and complimentary i n f o r m a t i o n . I
would a l s o l i k e t o express my s i n c e r e hope t h a t t h e p r e s e n t book forms a va-
l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e p r o g r e s s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g and r e a l i z a t i o n o f hydrau-
l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d and a
wide spectrum o f hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r s .

Rodgau 1 (Jugesheim) , January 1989 D e t l e f Mader

 XI11

T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s
Preface ................................................................... V
Table o f contents ........................................................ XI11
A b s t r a c t ................................................................ XXI

1. P r o p p a n t S e 1 e c t i o n ..................................... 1

1.0. Summary and associated t a b l e o f contents ........................... 1

1.1. Introduction ....................................................... 8

1.1.1. T i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s and MHF s t i m u l a t i o n ................... 8
1.1.2. E v o l u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g technology and o i l p r i c e
h i s t o r y ................................................... 11
1.1.3. S i g n i f i c a n c e of proppant s e l e c t i o n ........................ 11
1.1.4. Special aspects o f the European s t i m u l a t i o n market ........ 12
1.1.5. O r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e review and s t a t u s r e p o r t .............. 13

1.2. H i s t o r i c a l development o f hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.2.1. General aspects ........................................... 16
1.2.2. L i m i t a t i o n s o f n a t u r a l sand ............................... 18
1.2.3. R e s t r i c t i o n s o f a l t e r n a t i v e propping m a t e r i a l s b e f o r e the
i n v e n t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c ceramic proppants .................. 20
1.2.4. Impact o f e a r l y s y n t h e t i c ceramic proppants ............... 22
1.2.5. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f advanced s y n t h e t i c ceramic proppants . . . . . . 23
1.2.6. Impact o f resin-coated proppants .......................... 23
1.2.7. P o s s i b l e f u t u r e i n n o v a t i o n ................................ 26
1.2.8. V e r t i c a l vs . h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n .............. 28

1.3. Proppant types and grain sizes .................................... 32

1.3.1. Provenance o f sand and proppants .......................... 32
1.3.2. M i n e r a l o g i c a l composition and c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y .. 33
1.3.3. Chemical composition and a c i d s o l u b i l i t y .................. 34
1.3.4. Grain s i z e s and c o n d u c t i v i t y per U S $ ..................... 36
1.3.5. G r a i n shapes .............................................. 38

1.4. Proppant selection f o r hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g and gravel packing .... 40

1.4.0. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f proppant t e s t i n g f o r q u a l i t y improvement .. 40
1.4.1. Surface morphology and i n t e r n a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.4.2. Crushing behaviour and c r y s t a l l i n e s t r u c t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.4.3. F r i c t i o n angle and g r a i n shape ............................ 43
1.4.4. F l u i d s a l i n i t y and mechanochemical s t a b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.5. F l u i d temperature and h o t b r i n e a g g r e s s i v i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.4.6. Equipment abrasion and g r a i n hardness ..................... 47
1.4.7. S p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and f l u i d suspension p r o p e r t i e s . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.4.8. G r a i n s i z e and embedment .................................. 52
1.4.9. Manufacturing process and p e l l e t composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.4.10. C o n d u c t i v i t y d i s c o u n t ..................................... 55
1.4.11. Proppant m i x i n g ........................................... 72
1.4.12. Computer programs f o r proppant s e l e c t i o n .................. 81
1.4.13. Proppant s e l e c t i o n g u i d e l i n e s ............................. 87

1.5. Proppant applications ............................................. 90

1.5.1. O i l - and g a s - f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s ........................... 90
1.5.2. N o n - o i l - and g a s - f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s ....................... 93

1.6. Conclusion and o u t l o o k ............................................ 96

 XlV

2. H a r k e t i n g a n d E c o n o m i c s ........................... 97

2.0. Summary and a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s .......................... 97

2.1. Introduction ..................................................... 106

2.2. Economical i n f l u e n c e s on h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g

2.2.1. I n f l u e n c e s o f h y d r o c a r b o n p r i c e changes . . . . . . .
2.2.2. I n f l u e n c e s o f p r o p p a n t p r i c e changes . . .

2.3. S t i m u l a t i o n market d i f f e r e n c e s between USA and Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

2.3.;. Genera: a s p e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2.3.2. F r e q u e n c y o f d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3. S u c c e s s / f a i l u r e r a t i o and c o n s o r t i a 1 s t r u c t u r e . . . . . . .
2.3.4. O p e r a t i n g m e n t a l i t y and t r e a t m e n t c o s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
2.3.5. U S S exchange r a t e d e c l i n e . . . . . . . . . . ........... 169
2.3.6. P r o p p a n t m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y .............................. 170

2.4. Areal marketing assessment o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . 173

2.4.0. General aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.4.1. W e s t e r n Europe 1977 - 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2.4.2. W e s t e r n Europe 1986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
2.4.3. E a s t e r n Europe u n t i l 1986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
2.4.4. S t a t u s i n E a s t e r n Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.4.5. W e s t e r n Europe 1987 - 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
2.4.6. E a s t e r n Europe 1987 - 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

2.5. C o n c l u d i n g assessment o f p r o p p a n t m a r k e t i n q p o t e n t i a l ............ 228

3 . R o t l i e g e n d S t i m u l a t i o n i n E u r o p e ... . 229

3.0. Summary and a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s ......................... 229

3.1. Introduction ..................................................... 236

3.1.1. General aspects 236
3.1.2. Economical aspec ........... .......... 237
3.1.3. Factors influen
gas r e s e r v o i r s 240

3.2. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f main f i e l d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

3.2.1. Vertical distribution ................ 241
3.2.2. Horizontal d i s t r i b u t i o ................ 248
3.2.3. Other aspects . . . . . . . . . . ........................ 249

3.3. H i s t o r i c a l development o f prod r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

3.3.1. B r i t i s h N o r t h Sea . . . . ....................... 250
3.3.2. Germany FRG . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . . . . . 251
3.3.3. D u t c h N o r t h Sea .............. ........... . . . . . . . . . 252
3 . 3 . 4 . O t h e r a r e z s .................. ........................ 252

3.4. P e r m e a b i l i t y p r e d i c t i o n and e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y ............... 253

3.4.1. T i g h t r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y range . . . . . . . ... 253
3.4.2. P e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n and p r e d i c t i o n . . . 257
3.4.3. Temporary damage and r e s t o r a t i o n o f permea . . . 259
3.5. P e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n and c l a y mineral d i s t r i b u t i o n ......... 259
3.5.1. C l a y m i n e r a l o g y and m o r p h o l o g y . . . . . . 260
3.5.2. Permeability deterioration ....... ... 262
 XV
3.6. Minimum pre-fracturing gas production r a t e and poroperm properties 266
3.6.1. P r e - f r a c t u r i n g economical f e a s i b i l i t y e s t i m a t i o n . . . . . . . . . 266
3.6.2. D i f f e r e n c e s between e x p l o r a t i o n and development w e l l s . . . . 267
3.7. Stimulation cost and f r a c t u r i n g p o l i c y ........................... 267
3.7.1. F r a c t u r i n g p o l i c y ........................................ 268
3.7.2. P r i c i n g s c e n a r i o ......................................... 269
3.7.3. F r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t sequence s t r a t e g y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

3.8. Philosophy o f offshore and onshore exploration well f r a c t u r i n g ... 270

3.8.1. P h i l o s o p h y o f o f f s h o r e e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . 270
3.8.2. P h i l o s o p h y o f onshore e x p l o r a t i o n well f r a c t u r i n g ........ 272
3.9. Implications o f f r a c t u r i n g philosophy on proppant selection ...... 273
3.9.1. E x p l o r a t i o n s t r a t e g y and s t i m u l a t i o n t e s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
3.9.2. F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e and development concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
3.9.3. A p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g s t r a t e g y concepts and e x p e r i e n c e . . . . . . 275
3.10. Horizontal and v e r t i c a l differences o f f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l . . . . . . 276
3.10.1. P e r m e a b i l i t y ............................................. 276
3.10.2. Gas c o m p o s i t i o n ....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
3.11. Water s e n s i t i v i t y ............................ ................... 281
3.11.1. General aspects ...................... ................... 281
3.11.2. F o a m - f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n .......... ................... 283
3.11.3. C r o s s l i n k e d a c i d systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... 289
3.11.4. Methanol systems ..................... ................... 289
3.11.5. L i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
3.12. Other asoects ................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
3.12.1. i a t e r s a t u r a t i o n ......................................... 292
3.12.2. Gas demand ............................................... 293
3.12.3. R e s e r v o i r performance .................................... 293
3.13. Sedimentary structures o f f l u v i a l . aeolian and l a c u s t r i n e deposits
i n Rotliegend and Buntsandstein i l l u s t r a t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f reser I-

v o i r heterogeneities and natural fractures ....................... 294

3.13.0. I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................. 294
3.13.1. Angular u n c o n f o r m i t i e s and basement f o l d i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
3.13.2. C r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n a e o l i a n dune sands and f l u v i a l
channel b a r d e p o s i t s ..................................... 299
3.13.3. Gravel a g g l o m e r a t i o n s and mud drapes i n a l l u v i a l - f a n b r e c -
c i a s and f l u v i a l channel sandstones ...................... 302
3.13.4. N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and sedimentary h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s i n f l u -
v i a l channel and f l o o d p l a i n sandstones and mudstones . . . . . 305
3.13.5. G r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n changes and e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e s i n
b r a i d e d - r i v e r channel sandstones and conglomerates ....... 308
3.13.6. Synsedimentary d e s i c c a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g i n l a c u s t r i n e and
f l u v i a l f l o o d p l a i n mudstones and n a t u r a l p r o p p i n g o f c r a c k 310
3.13.7. L a c u s t r i n e and f l o o d p l a i n mud drapes i n f l u v i a l channel
and a l l u v i a l p l a y a sandstones ............................ 314
3.13.8. N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and sedimentary h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s i n
c r o s s - s t r a t i f i e d a e o l i a n dune and sheet sands as w e l l as
f l u v i a l channel sands .................................... 318
3.13.9. Sedimentary and d e f o r m a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s o f l a c u s t r i n e mud
drapes i n f l u v i a l channel, overbank and a l l u v i a l p l a y a
sandstones ............................................... 321
3.13.10.Root tubes and carbonate c o n c r e t i o n s i n c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l 324
3.13.11.Natural f r a c t u r e o r i g i n and d i s t r i b u t i o n i n v a r i o u s r e s e r -
v o i r r o c k s ............................................... 328
 XVI

4 . H y d r a u l i c P r o p p a n t F r a

4.0. Summary and a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s .

4.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n .........................
4.1.1. P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f expanding the h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u -
r i n g m a r k e t i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e ......................
4.1.2. O u t l i n e o f t h e t e c h n i c a l r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t . . . . . . . . 356

4.2. Containment o f f r a c t u r e propagation i n t h i n sandstones . . . . . . . . . . . 357

4.2.1. A r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
4.2.2. Technical aspects o f f r a c t u a t i o n ................ 358
4.2.3. F r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n ...... ............. . . . . . 388
4.2.4. R e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and py . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
4.2.5. C o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g _ . .410
4.2.6. E c o n o m i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .................................. 411

4.3. Proppant s a t u r a t i o n and conductivity improvement

4.3.1. General aspects . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2. Selection o f proppant type . ................. 413
4.3.3. P r o p p a n t embedment and f r a c t ................. 414
4.3.4. P r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and f r a c t u r e damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
4.3.5. U l t r a - h i g h f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
4.3.6. Uniform vs. changing f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y ............... 462

4.4. Targets o f unconventional gas stimulation ........................ 463

4.4.1. T i g h t g a s s a n d s t o n e s ......_...
4.4.2. Geopressured r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . 466
4.4.3. Coal seams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.4. S h a l e s .....................
4.4.5. High-temperature r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
4.4.6. Gas c o n d e n s a t e r e s e r v o i r s ................................ 491

4.5. Hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f carbonate rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492

4.5.1. E x t e n s i o n o f d r a i n a g e p a t h and c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t . . . . . 492
4.5.2. C o m b i n a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s ...
4.5.3. P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n i n Europe . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.4. C h a l k s t i m u l a t i o n ........................................ 509
4.5.5. Sandstone a c i d i z i n g _ _ . _ _ . . _ . . . . . . . . . . .

4.6. High-permeability r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g ........................... 533

4.6.1. Fracture-formation conductivity contrast ..........
4.6.2. P r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.3. P r o p p a n t / f l u i d s l u r r y m i x i n g t y p e s ....................... 534
4.6.4. F r a c t u r e d e s i g n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .......................... 536

4.7. Geothermal f r a c t u r i n g . . . ... . .. . 537

4.7.1. Geological aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
4.7.2. Geothermal r e s e r v o i r d i s t r i b u t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n . . . . . . . 538
4.7.3. E x p l o s i v e and n o n - p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . ......... 539
4.7.4. Proppant f r a c t u r i n g .........__.._.....
4.7.5. Communication f r a c t u r i n g ................................. 547
4.7.6. F r a c t u r e s y s t e m e n l a r g e m e n t b y h e a t e x t r a c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . 548
4.7.7. Shear s t i m u l a t i o n v s . t e n s i l e f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

4.8. M i n i f r a c t u r i n g and other small-scale f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552

4.8.1. M i n i f r a c t u r e , m i c r o f r a c t u r e and MHF d e f i n i t i o n and p r i n -
c i p l e s ... ....................................
4.8.2. P r e - f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e breakdown t e s t and f r a c t u r e parame-
t e r determination ........................................ 555
4.8.3. F o r m a t i o n damage a r o u n d t h e w e l l b o r e ..................... 568
4.8.4. F i e l d e x p e r i m e n t s and mHF v s . MHF ........................ 571
 XVII

4.8.5. P i l o t s t i m u l a t i o n o f marginal r e s e r v o i r s ................. 573

4.8.6. H o r i z o n t a l w e l l o r d r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g and f r a c t u r i n g ..... 575
4.8.7. Uptake c a p a c i t y enhancement o f i n j e c t i o n w e l l s ........... 592
4.8.8. Combination o f n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . 597
4.8.9. Late-stage r e f r a c t u r i n g o f o l d w e l l s ..................... 619
4.8.10. Combination o f a c i d and proppant f r a c t u r i n g ..... ......... 628
4.8.11. F r a c t u r e l e n g t h and h e i g h t o p t i m i z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . ........ 631

4.9. Oil-reservoir f r a c t u r i n g ................................ ........ 640

4.9.1. General aspects ................................. ........ 640
4.9.2. C o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t ........................... ........ 641
4.9.3. Economical f e a s i b i l i t y .......................... ........ 642
4.9.4. Steam-drive e f f e c t s on f r a c t u r e propagation ..... ........ 643
4.9.5. Cold water i n j e c t i o n e f f e c t s on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r ng ..... 657

4.10. C m u n cation f r a c t u r i n g ......................................... 659

4.10.1 Conventional storey-wise f r a c t u r i n g ...................... 660
4.10.2 A p p l i c a t i o n i n p r o d u c t i o n d r i l l i n g ....................... 662
4.10.3 I n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n arrangement ..................... 664
4.10.4 A p p l i c a t i o n i n a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g ........................ 665
4.10.5 F r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e .................................... 666

4.11. Fracturing o f deviated wells ...................... .............. 668

4.11.1. F r a c t u r e propagation and o r i e n t a t i o n ...... .............. 668
4.11.2. Proppant s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and f l u i d l a y e r i n g .............. 671
4.11.3. Hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n and f l o w regimes ... .............. 671
4.11.4. Improvements o f f r a c t u r e e f f e c t i v i t y i n dev ated w e l l s ... 673

4.12. Fracture damage ................................... .............. 673

4.12.1. General aspects ........................... .............. 673
4.12.2. Proppant s e t t l i n g ......................... .............. 675
4.12.3. Proppant
.. flowback ......................... .............. 683
4.12.4. Proppant c r u s h i n g ........................................ 691
4.12.5. F l u i d aspects ............................................ 696

4.13. Aggressive f r a c t u r i n g design ..................................... 696

4.13.1. Progress i n s t e a d o f r o u t i n e .............................. 697
4.13.2. R i s k y approach o f marginal r e s e r v o i r s .................... 697

4.14. Conclusion ....................................................... 698

5. G r a v e 1 P a c k in g a n d S a n d C o n t r o 1 .......... 699

5.0. Summary and associated t a b l e o f contents ......................... 699

5.1. Introduction ............................................... ...... 710

5.1.1. R e s e r v o i r compaction spectrum r e q u i r i n g gravel pack ng . . . 710
5.1.2. Sand s t a b i l i z a t i o n and p r o d u c t i v i t y maintenance ... ...... 711
5.1.3. Organization o f the review and s t a t u s r e p o r t ...... ...... 711

5.2. Gravel types and g r a i n sizes .................................... 711

5.2.1. Sand p r o d u c t i o n and i t s c o n t r o l .......................... 712
5.2.2. Gravel type .............................................. 718
5.2.3. Gravel g r a i n s i z e ........................................ 721
5.2.4. Gravel g r a i n surface and shape ........................... 734

5.3. Gravel packing canpletion f l u i d s and gravel saturation . . . . . . . . . . . 734

5.3.1. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n ................. 735
5.3.2. Transport and packing c a p a c i t y o f the s l u r r i e s . . . . . . . . . . . 741
5.3.3. Gravel s e t t l i n g d i m i n u t i o n i n the c a r r i e r f l u i d .......... 746
5.3.4. Gel surface f i l t r a t i o n from polymer s o l u t i o n s ............ 748
 XVIII
5.3.5. C o m b i n a t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g and h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c -
t u r i n g ................................................... 749

5.4. Reservoir stability and fluid dynamics ........................... 751

5.4.1. F o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e and f l u i d c o m D o s i t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
5.4.2. F l u i d dynamics ...................... .................... 753
5.4.3. Rock mechanics ...................... .................... 754
5.4.4. P e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l m o r p h o l o g y . . . . . . . .................... 756
5.4.5. Water c u t i n t h e h y d r o c a r b o n s . . . . . . . .................... 756
5.4.6. D i f f e r e n c e s between h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r ng and g r a v e l p a c k -
i n g ................................. .................... 757

5.5. Areal distribution of potential reservoirs ........... 757

5.5.1. General aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
5.5.2. Centres o f gravel packing . . .
5.5.3. Gravel packing p o t e n t i a l i n E
5.5.4. I m p a c t o f r e s i n - c o a t e d sand and p r o p p a n t s

5.6. Particle transport through perforatio

5.6.1. P e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g and p a r t i
5.6.2. Impact o f f l u i d v i s c o s i t y . . .
5.6.3. Achievement o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u
5.6.4. Influence o f perforation tech
5.6.5. I n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n geom
5.6.6. Influence o f reservoir sectio
5.6.7. Gravel prepacking o f p e r f o r a t
5.6.8. O t h e r a s p e c t s ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776

5.7. Steam-drive enhanced oil recovery ... . . 776

5.7.1. Sintered Bauxite ......................................... 776
5.7.2. N i c k e l - c o a t e d sand ....................................... 777
5.7.3. A p p l i c a t i o n p o t e n t i a l i n Europe . . . ... ...... 778
5.7.4. Gravel d e n s i t y ........................................... 778
5.7.5. A l c a l i n i t y r e d u c t i o n o f t h e aqueous i n j e c t e d phase . . . . . . . 779

5.8. Special gravel pack applications ...................... ........... 781

5.8.1. C o n s o l i d a t e d p a c k i n s t a l l a t i o n ............... ........... 781
5.8.2. Resin-coated g r a v e l placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
5.8.3. Gravel packing o f deviated w e l l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 789
5.8.4. Gravel packing w i t h l i n e r v i b r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
5.8.5. C o n c e n t r a t e d g r a v e l s l u r r y pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
5.8.6. D e n s i t y s l u r r y and foam g r a v e l p a c k i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
5.8.7. V i s c o u s p o l y m e r g r a v e l p a c k i n g and d e p o s i t b u i dup . . . . . . . 804
5.8.8. P r e v e n t i o n o f p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k by f r a c t u r e t a 1 - i n . . . . . . 806
5.8.9. P u d d l e p a c k i n g ................................ ........... 807

5.9. Other sand control methods ....................................... 807

5.9.1. Resin consolidation ...................................... 807
5.9.2. H y d r o x y - a l u m i n u m and e l e c t r o l e s s n i c k e l c o n s o l i d a t i o n . . . . 819
5.9.3. S i l i c a cementation ....................................... 820
5.9.4. Warm a i r c o k i n g c o n s o l i d a t i o n ............................ 820
5.9.5. S t a b l e sand a r c h f o r m a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
5.9.6. Pre-pack l i n e r s and m u l t i w i r e - w r a p p e d s c r e e n s . . . . . . . . . . . . 824

5.10. Influence o f completion type on gravel packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826

5.10.1. I n s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
5 . 1 0 . 2 . Open h o l e g r a v e l p a c k i n g ................................. 829
5 . 1 0 . 3 . F a c t o r s i m p r o v i n g g r a v e l pack e f f i c i e n c y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
5.10.4. L i n e r placement .......................................... 831
5 . 1 0 . 5 . W e l l b o r e damage i n g r a v e l p a c k e d h o l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
 XIX

5.11. Formation damage during gravel packing ........................... 832

5.11.1. P e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g g i n g .............................. 832
5.11.2. O r i l l i n g mud l o s s ........................................ 834
5.11.3. Completion f l u i d l o s s .................................... 834
5.11.4. F o r m a t i o n damage removal by a c i d i z i n g .................... 837

6.Propped F r a c t u r e a n d
G r a v e 1 P a c k M o n i t o r i n g ............................ 843

6.0. Summary and a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s ......................... 843

6.1. Introduction ..................................................... 852

6.2. Fracture detection and determination ............................. 853

6.2.0. General aspects o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
6.2.1. Well l o g g i n g methods ..................................... 854
6.2.2. S e i s m i c a l and g r a v i m e t r i c a l methods ...................... 909
6.2.3. Magnetometrical methods .................................. 926
6.2.4. S t i m u l a t i o n d a t a a n a l y s i s ................................ 926
6.2.5. F r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n a n a l y s i s .............................. 939
6.2.6. I n f l a t a b l e i m p r e s s i o n packers ............................ 941
6.2.7. Photography and imagery .................................. 942

6.3. Gravel pack checking and evaluation .............................. 943

6.3.1. Photon l o g g i n g ........................................... 943
6.3.2. Gamma-ray l o g g i n g ........................................ 947
6.3.3. Neutron l o g g i n g .......................................... 949
6.3.4. O t h e r g r a v e l pack l o g g i n g techniques ..................... 951
6.3.5. T e l l - t a l e screen ......................................... 952
6.3.6. Mechanical p r o p e r t i e s l o g ................................ 953
6.3.7. C a l i p e r l o g g i n g .......................................... 958

7 . B i b 1 i o g r a p h y ................................................ 959

7 . 0 . Summary and a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s .......................... 959

7.1. Introduction ...................................................... 963

7.2. Subject key classification ........................................ 964

7.2.1. Overview o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and economical framework . 965
7.2.2. F r a c t u r e d e s i g n and e v a l u a t i o n ............................ 976
7.2.3. F r a c t u r e f e a t u r e s ......................................... 990
7.2.4. Proppant f e a t u r e s ........................................ 1007
7.2.5. T e c h n i c a l , f l u i d and temperature f e a t u r e s ................ 1013
7.2.6. F i e l d case s t u d i e s ....................................... 1032
7.2.7. S p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039
7.2.8. Gravel p a c k i n g and sand c o n t r o l .......................... 1052
7.2.9. P e t r o p h y s i c a l e v a l u a t i o n f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a -
v e l pack d e s i g n .......................................... 1061

7.3. Reference list ................................................... 1063

Index .................................................................... 1205

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 xx I
A b s t r a c t
H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e common s t i m u l a t i o n and
s t a b i l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s d u r i n g completion, t e s t i n g and e x p l o i t a t i o n o f hydro-
carbon r e s e r v o i r s i n o i l and gas e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r y . The p u r -
pose o f n a t u r a l sand o r s y n t h e t i c proppants o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e and g r a i n s i z e i s
i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t o s u p p o r t t h e c r a c k in o r d e r t o keep i t open a g a i n s t
t h e c l o s u r e s t r e s s a c t i n g i n pay zone d e p t h and t o m a i n t a i n a h i g h l y - c o n d u c t i v e
d r a i n a g e p a t h through t h e t i g h t r e s e r v o i r r o c k m a t r i x f o r o i l and gas f l o w i n g
t o t h e borehole, and i n g r a v e l p a c k i n g t o p l u g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and t o
b u i l d a gravel mantle along the borehole w a l l i n order t o f i l t e r the hydrocar-
bons f l o w i n g i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e and p r e v e n t pay zone sand f r o m moving. H y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g l e a d t o enhanced o i l and gas r e c o v e r y
f r o m l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y and weakly-cemented t o l o o s e f r i a b l e sandstones, w i t h t h e
t r e a t m e n t s i m p r o v i n g hydrocarbon f l o w r a t e s and m i n i m i z i n g i n f l u x o f d i s t u r b i n g
sand i n t o t h e borehole, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The p r e s e n t proceedings volume i s o r g a n i -
zed i n t o seven c h a p t e r s c o m p r i s i n g p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n , m a r k e t i n g and economics,
R o t I i e g e n d s t i m u l a t i o n i n Europe, h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g , g r a v e l p a c k i n g
and sand c o n t r o l , propped f r a c t u r e and g r a v e l pack m o n i t o r i n g , and b i b l i o -
graphy.

P r o p p a n t S e l e c t i o n
Proppant t y p e and g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n i s t h e key element o f b o t h h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g design, because n a t u r a l sand o r s y n t h e t i c p r o p -
p a n t s a r e t h e o n l y m a t e r i a l l e f t i n p l a c e downhole a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e ope-
r a t i o n and a r e t h e c r i t i c a l agents whose performance decides on success o r f a i -
l u r e o f the job.

Proppant types and properties

The f i v e s t a n d a r d p r o p p a n t t y p e s which a r e a v a i l a b l e a t t h e moment i n t h e
hydrocarbon s t i m u l a t i o n market f o r d i f f e r e n t p r i c e s a r e n a t u r a l q u a r t z sand,
synthetic intermediate-strength low-density alumina silicate (ceramic)
proppant, i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina oxide and silicate
proppant, h i g h - s t r e n g t h b a u x i t e p r o p p a n t and h i g h - s t r e n g t h z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e
p r o p p a n t . The spectrum o f c u r r e n t l y c o m m e r c i a l l y marketed m a t e r i a l s f o r f r a c -
t u r e s u p p o r t i s completed by sand and proppants c o a t e d by s i n g l e o r double r e -
s i n p e l l i c l e s o f p r e c u r e d o r c u r a b l e n a t u r e . The d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y p e s and
g r a i n sizes are discussed along the l i n e s o f t h e i r mineralogical composition
and c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y , chemical c o m p o s i t i o n and a c i d s o l u b i l i t y , g r a i n
s i z e s and c o n d u c t i v i t y p e r U S $, and g r a i n shapes. C a r e f u l c h o i c e o f p r o p p a n t
t y p e and g r a i n s i z e a c c o r d i n g t o c l o s u r e s t r e s s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , b o t t o m h o l e
temperature, c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s and p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t b e t -
ween pay zone and i n f i l l e d f r a c t u r e a r e e c o n o m i c a l l y e s s e n t i a l due t o t h e f a c t
t h a t i n deep t i g h t gas w e l l s , t h e proppant c o s t can r e a c h up t o two t h i r d s o f
t h e t o t a l massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (MHF) expenses.

Aspects r e q u i r i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n a r e s u r f a c e morpholo-
gy and i n t e r n a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y , c r u s h i n g behaviour and c r y s t a l l i n e s t r u c t u r e ,
f r i c t i o n a n g l e and g r a i n shape, f l u i d s a l i n i t y and mechanochemical s t a b i l i t y ,
f l u i d temperature and h o t b r i n e a g g r e s s i v i t y , equipment a b r a s i o n and g r a i n hard-
ness, s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and f l u i d suspension p r o p e r t i e s , g r a i n s i z e and embed-
ment, m a n u f a c t u r i n g process and p e l l e t composition, c o n d u c t i v i t y d i s c o u n t and
proppant m i x i n g . Computer programs which model investment and revenue f o r va-
r i o u s p r o p p a n t t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s and g i v e a f o r e c a s t o f t h e expected produc-
t i o n i n c r e a s e and i t s n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e and d i s c o u n t e d cash f l o w a i d i n s t i m u l a -
t i o n p l a n n i n g by p r o v i d i n g c r i t e r i a f o r p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n f r o m b o t h t e c h n i c a l
and economical aspects.
 XXII

Proppant applications
W h i l e t r a d i t i o n a l l y i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e and
o x i d e p r o p p a n t s as we1 1 as h i g h - s t r e n g t h b a u x i t e p r o p p a n t s have been u t i 1 i z e d
in t h e c u m u l a t i v e l a r g e s t amounts f o r m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f deep
t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s , t h e m a r k e t i s more and more s h i f t i n g t o w a r d s a p p l i c a t i o n
o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s w h i c h have t h e
a d v a n t a g e s o f a p p r o a c h i n g t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f n a t u r a l sand and b e i n g c o n s i -
d e r a b l y c h e a p e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t t y p e s . As m o s t o f t h e p r e s e n t -
l y s t i m u l a t e d r e s e r v o i r s a r e i n such d e p t h r a n g e s where t h e c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e -
s i s t i v i t y o f alumina s i l i c a t e proppants would be s t i l l s u f f i c i e n t even i n l i g h t
o f maximum p r e s s u r e drawdown d u r i n g l o n g - t e r m f i e l d p r o d u c t i o n , c o n s u m p t i o n o f
t h e l i g h t e s t t y p e of s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s i s e x p e c t e d t o p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s e
during the next years. High-strength z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants represent a
t e c h n i c a l l y f a v o u r a b l e p r o d u c t i f s t a y i n g r e a s o n a b l y b e l o w i t s s t a b i l i t y bounda-
ry a t which i t instantaneously f a i l s t o dust i n c o n t r a s t t o bauxite-based prop-
p a n t s w h i c h b r e a k i n t o h a l v e s and q u a r t e r s t h a t r e t a i n o f t e n s u f f i c i e n t r e s i -
dual c o n d u c t i v i t y , b u t the elevated p r i c e prevents z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants
from a c h i e v i n g a l a r g e r market share. S y n t h e t i c proppants a r e a l s o used o u t s i d e
o f h y d r o c a r b o n e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y as h e a t - e x c h a n g e p e l l e t s
in c u p o l a f u r n a c e s i n t h e s t e e l f o u n d r y , a l u m i n a and g l a s s i n d u s t r y , as d u s t - a b -
s o r p t i o n o r - f i l t e r i n g p e l l e t s i n t h e gas p u r i f i c a t i o n i n d u s t r y , and f o r f l u i d
and gas f i l t r a t i o n , s h o t - b l a s t i n g and g r i n d i n g , and c o n s t i t u e n t s o f h i g h - s t a b i -
l i t y cements.

M a r k e t i n g a n d E c o n o m i c s
I n t e r m s o f m a r k e t i n g and e c o n o m i c a l a s p e c t s , s i n c e t h e i n v e n t i o n and f i r s t
s u c c e s s f u l f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c s i n t e r e d a l u m i n a o x i d e ( c e r a m i c ) and
f u s e d z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s a b t . 10 y e a r s ago, t h e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n
m a r k e t as w e l l as t h e g r a v e l p a c k i n g scene has been r e p e a t e d l y i n f l u e n c e d i n
b o t h p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e manner b y changes o f h y d r o c a r b o n p r i c e s , U S $ e x -
change r a t e ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o DM and L ) and p r o p p a n t p r i c e s . V a r i o u s e c o n o m i c a l
i n f l u e n c e s on h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g a r e o u t l i n e d b y comparing o i l p r i c e
e v o l u t i o n w i t h U S $ exchange r a t e h i s t o r y and p r o p p a n t p r i c e development, w i t h
s p e c i a l comments o f f e r e d o n p r e s e n t and f u t u r e consequences o f t h e 1986 o i l
p r i c e c o l l a p s e f o r t h e f r a c t u r i n g m a r k e t . An o u t l i n e i s a l s o g i v e n on t h e
i m p a c t o f t h e oil p r i c e h i s t o r y on t h e gas m a r k e t and i t s e v o l u t i o n . The m a j o r
c r i s i s o f o i l and gas i n d u s t r y i n e a r l y 1986 h i t t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g mar-
k e t segment i n Europe much s t r o n g e r t h a n t h a t i n USA, w i t h t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t d i f f e r e n c e s b e i n g based o n f r e q u e n c y o f d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a -
tion, s u c c e s s / f a i l u r e r a t i o and c o n s o r t i a 1 s t r u c t u r e , o p e r a t i n g m e n t a l i t y and
t r e a t m e n t c o s t , i n c r e a s e d c a n c e l l a t i o n r a t e s o f j o b s , U S $ exchange r a t e de-
c l i n e , and p r o p p a n t m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y .

Impact o f the oil price collapse and the US $ exchange rate drop
The oil p r i c e c o l l a p s e and t h e US $ exchange r a t e d r o p a r e e x p e c t e d t o l e a d
i n f u t u r e t o d e c l i n i n g r e s e r v e s due t o s u s p e n s i o n o f e x p l o r a t i o n and d e v e l o p -
ment ( i n c l u d i n g s t i m u l a t i o n ) , r e g a i n i n g power o f t h e OPEC, and p e r s i s t i n g mar-
k e t u n c e r t a i n t y due t o o f oil p r i c e i n s t a b i l i t y and v o l a t i l i t y . The m o s t s i g n i -
f i c a n t p r e s e n t consequences o f t h e o i l p r i c e c r a s h and t h e U S $ b r e a k a r e chan-
ges i n f r a c t u r i n g s t r a t e g y , r e d u c t i o n o f c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e , stimulation boat
and d r i l l i n g r i g unemployment, and r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f o p e r a t i n g and s e r v i c e compa-
n i e s a l o n g w i t h b u d g e t c u t t i n g and s t a f f l a y o f f . The i m p a c t o f t h e o i l p r i c e
d r o p on t h e gas m a r k e t i s a t l e a s t i n p a r t s o f Europe c o n s i d e r a b l y weakened o r
compensated b y f i r m p l a n n i n g o f gas d e l i v e r y w h i c h i s s e c u r e d b y c o n t r a c t s and
t h u s t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y i n t h e S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea g a s -
f i e l d b e l t i n g o i n g t o become t h e a b s o l u t e h i g h l i g h t o f s t i m u l a t i o n s i n c e t h e
 XXIII
b e g i n n i n g o f t r e a t m e n t campaigns i n Europe d e s p i t e t h e u n f a v o u r a b l e economical
framework c o n d i t i o n s , and w i l l a l s o r e p r e s e n t t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f proppant con-
sumption so f a r i n t h i s area.

I n comparison t o t h e USA and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e world, t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

t h e a r e a l market i s i n Europe p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p l i c a t e d due t o d i f f e r e n t economi-
c a l systems and r e s u l t i n g d i f f e r e n t commercial c a p a c i t i e s due t o t h e q u e s t i o n
o f c u r r e n c y c o n v e r t i b i l i t y and n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f companies i n r e l a t i o n -
s h i p t o t r a d e o f f i c e s and m i n i s t r i e s , as w e l l as due t o v a r i o u s m e n t a l i t i e s and
languages. The p r e s e n t s t i m u l a t i o n market i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n
b o t h Western and E a s t e r n Europe. W h i l e i n Western Europe some m a j o r t i g h t gas
development campaigns a r e based on t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y t o s t i m u l a t e most o f t h e
w e l l s by massive h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t h e r e b y f o l l o w i n g a concept
which has a l r e a d y been f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d i n many l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas patches
i n t h e USA, i m p r o v i n g economical p o s s i b i l i t i e s and more a d m i n i s t r a t i v e indepen-
dence i n E a s t e r n Europe a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f a m a j o r r e s t r u c t u r i z a t i o n as w e l l as
t h e s h i f t i n g emphasis f r o m d r i l l i n g and f a s t c o m p l e t i o n t o i n c r e a s i n g e x p l o i t a -
t i o n o f r e s e r v e s i n e x i s t i n g w e l l s a l l o w s l o w l y p r o g r e s s i n g m a t u r i n g o f hydrau-
l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a l s o i n t h i s area.

Aspects o f areal hydraulic proppant fracturing potential

The account o f p a s t , p r e s e n t and f u t u r e a r e a l h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
p o t e n t i a l i n t h e European market w i t h comparisons t o USA and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e
w o r l d focusses on massive s t i m u l a t i o n o f t i g h t gas sandstones i n R o t l i e g e n d and
C a r b o n i f e r o u s i n B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea and Germany FRG which a r e c h a r a c t e -
r i z e d by t h e overwhelming share o f p r o p p a n t consumption. F u r t h e r h i g h l i g h t s a r e
massive t r e a t m e n t s on T e r t i a r y sediments i n Yugoslavia where t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e
mentioned f o r m a t i o n s i n Germany FRG t h e h i t h e r t o l a r g e s t j o b s have been c a r r i e d
o u t i n terms o f p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y and f l u i d volume. The impact o f t h e o i l p r i c e
c r a s h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f unemployment o f d r i l l i n g
r i g s and s t i m u l a t i o n boats, i n c r e a s e d c a n c e l l a t i o n r a t e s o f j o b s , s t a f f l a y o f f
and company merging, and business l o s s f o r proppant s u p p l i e r s . T a i l - i n p r o p p a n t
s t a g i n g r e p r e s e n t s a m a j o r t o o l o f c o s t containment i n s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s i n t h e
B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea where t h e g r e a t e s t amount o f f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y i s
t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e coming y e a r s . The h i g h e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r p r o m o t i o n o f hy-
d r a u l i c r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n i n E a s t e r n Europe i s t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( p e r e -
s t r o i k a ) i n t h e USSR which t o g e t h e r w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f i n a n c i a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n
t h e s a t e l l i t e c o u n t r i e s such as w o r l d bank c r e d i t s and e x p o r t revenues enable
t o r e a l i z e numerous p r o j e c t s i n t h e near f u t u r e .

R o t l i e g e n d S t i m u l a t i o n i n E u r o p e
R o t l i e g e n d ( a n d t o s u b o r d i n a t e amounts a l s o C a r b o n i f e r o u s and B u n t s a n d s t e i n )
gas r e s e r v o i r s a r e h i g h - p o t e n t i a l examples o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y ( t i g h t ) gas
sands which have c o n s i d e r a b l e economical s i g n i f i c a n c e as gas r e s o u r c e s i n p r e -
s e n t and f u t u r e , and because t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e c e n t r e o f massive h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g (MHF) a c t i v i t y i n Europe and have seen some o r t h e l a r g e s t s t i m u l a -
t i o n o p e r a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t w i t h alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants w o r l d -
wide, t h e y a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a case h i s t o r y i n more d e t a i l . R o t l i e g e n d t i g h t
gas development by massive t r e a t m e n t s i n t h e f a c i e s b e l t between t h e m a r g i n a l
a e o l i a n dune and f l u v i a l b r a i d e d - r i v e r t o s h e e t - f l o o d sandstones and t h e cen-
t r a l p l a y a and l a c u s t r i n e mudstones i n s e v e r a l p a r t s o f t h e N o r t h Sea w i l l be
t h e h i g h l i g h t o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g d u r i n g t h e n e x t f i v e y e a r s i n
Europe and t h u s a l s o t h e c e n t r e o f proppant consumption i n t h i s area.

R o t l i e g e n d (and a l s o C a r b o n i f e r o u s ) gas r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g i s sketched

along aspects o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f main f i e l d s i n h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l d i r e c -
t i o n , h i s t o r i c a l development o f p r o d u c t i o n and f r a c t u r i n g , p r o p p a n t consump-
t i o n , sedimentary-petrophysical and geochemical z o n a t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g poten-
 XXIV

t i a l , p e r m e a b i l i t y p r e d i c t i o n and e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o -
r a t i o n and c l a y m i n e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , minimum p r e - f r a c t u r i n g gas p r o d u c t i o n
r a t e and poroperm p r o p e r t i e s , d i f f e r e n c e s between e x p l o r a t i o n and development
w e l l s , s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t and f r a c t u r i n g p o l i c y , p h i l o s o p h y o f o f f - and onshore
e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l f r a c t u r i n g , i m p l i c a t i o n s o f f r a c t u r i n g p h i l o s o p h y on p r o p p a n t
s e l e c t i o n , a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g s t r a t e g y concepts and experience, h o r i z o n t a l and
v e r t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s o f f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i n terms o f p e r m e a b i l i t y and gas
composition, w a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y , w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n , gas demand and r e s e r v o i r p e r -
formance.

The i l l u s t r a t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g performance i n c l u d e s a l s o comments on s t i m u l a -

t i o n b o a t a v a i l a b i l i t y and c a p a c i t y , s p o t vs. b a t c h f r a c t u r i n g , e x p l o r a t i o n / a p -
p r a i s a l vs. development w e l l s i n terms o f p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n and c a n c e l l a t i o n
r i s k , and impact o f p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c a l systems on s t i m u l a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t . An
o u t l i n e o f s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l and p e t r o p h y s i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f v a r i o u s t i g h t gas
sandstones i s a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n , and foam f r a c t u r i n g as a
s p e c i a l t e c h n i q u e f o r w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s i s p r e s e n t e d more g e n e r a l l y .
V a r i o u s sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s o f f l u v i a l , a e o l i a n and l a c u s t r i n e d e p o s i t s i n
R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n i l l u s t r a t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i -
t i e s and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s as w e l l as b e i n g o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r
f l o w p a t t e r n s o f pay f l u i d s and p r o p a g a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s
a r e p r e s e n t e d i n p h o t o g r a p h i c a l p l a t e s and accompanied by d e t a i l e d c a p t i o n s
t h a t can even be e v a l u a t e d independent f r o m t h e main t e x t .

H y d r a u l i c P r o p p a n t F r a c t u r i n g
The account o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g f o c u s s i n g on t e c h n o l o g i c a l p e r -
s p e c t i v e s o f p o t e n t i a l e x t e n s i o n o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n market i n t h e near f u t u r e
i n c l u d e s i l l u s t r a t i o n o f v a r i o u s aspects o f containment o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n
i n t h i n sandstones, proppant s a t u r a t i o n and c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement w i t h pump-
i n g o f up t o u l t r a - h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , t a r g e t s o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas s t i m u l a -
t i o n , h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f carbonate rocks, h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r -
v o i r f r a c t u r i n g , geothermal f r a c t u r i n g , m i n i f r a c t u r i n g (mHF) and o t h e r s m a l l -
s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g , o i l - r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g , communication f r a c t u r i n g and f r a c -
t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e . f r a c t u r i n s o f d e v i a t e d w e l l s . f r a c u r e damage, and aggres-
s i v e f r a c t u r i n g design.

Fracture containment and propagation

Containment o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s g n i f i c a n t f o r a v o i d i n g
t h e o r i q i n o f communication t h r o u q h t h e c r a c k t o under- and/or o v e r l y i n q w a t e r -
o r o t h e r - t y p e o f hydrocarbon-bearing h o r i z o n s , o v e r p r e s s u r e d o r o t h e r t r o u b l e -
making beds, and t h e ground w a t e r s t o r e y i n case o f v e r y s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r
depth. Another d e c i s i v e impact i s w a s t i n g o f s t i m u l a t i o n m a t e r i a l and energy
f o r opening and p l u g g i n g o f a d j o i n i n g b a r r e n i n t e r v a l s a t t h e expense o f propa-
g a t i o n and i n f i l l i n g o f t h e c r a c k i n t h e p r o s p e c t i v e h o r i z o n a c c o r d i n g t o de-
s i g n t o achieve t h e necessary l e n g t h and c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r p r o f i t a b l e r e s e r v o i r
d r a i n a g e . The most i m p o r t a n t aspects o f containment o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n
t h i n sheet sandstones a r e s i n g l e vs. m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g and d i v e r t i n g t e c h n i -
ques, t r e a t m e n t parameter adjustment, h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s and f r a c -
t u r e geometry, c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s c o n t r a s t , m u l t i p l e - z o n e f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n , se-
l e c t i v e proppant placement, v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e growth blockage by buoyant o r
s e t t l i n g d i v e r t e r s , r e s e r v o i r e l a s t i c i t y vs. p l a s t i c i t y ; r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i -
t y f r o m s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l , p e t r o p h y s i c a l and r o c k mechanical p o i n t o f view; in-
f l u e n c e o f g e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s on f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n and morphology, and
c o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g .
 xxv
Proppant saturation and conductivity inprovement
Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s one o f t h e m a j o r t o o l s f o r c o n d u c t i v i t y improve-
ment, w i t h m u l t i l a y e r f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g w i t h h i g h s a t u r a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l b e i n g
t h e o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y o f s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n o f f l o w c a p a c i t y damage by prop-
p a n t c r u s h i n g and embedment i n many h a r d and s o f t r e s e r v o i r r o c k s , r e s p e c t i v e -
l y . M u l t i l a y e r high-concentration propping also helps t o maintain s u f f i c i e n t
f r a c t u r e w i d t h and t h e r e b y t o a v o i d t h e occurrence o f non-Darcy f l o w . U l t r a -
h i g h f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y can be achieved a p a r t f r o m o p t i m i z a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t
s a t u r a t i o n b y s e l e c t i n g a h i g h e r - q u a l i t y proppant t y p e and by a p p l i c a t i o n o f
l a r g e r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s il-
l u s t r a t e d by d i s c u s s i n g p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e f r a c t u r e , proppant t r a n s -
p o r t and f r a c t u r e damage, g e l f i l t e r cakes d e p o s i t i o n on f r a c t u r e w a l l s , f l u i d
v i s c o s i t y and c a r r i e r c a p a c i t y , p r o p p a n t d e n s i t y l f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and/or d e n s i t y
r e l a t i o n s h i p , o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d s t i m u l a t i o n design, impact o f delayed
crosslinking, f l u i d h e a t c a p a c i t y and r e s e r v o i r temperature, f l u i d l e a k o f f con-
tainment, f r a c t u r e w i d t h vs. p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g , m i x i n g o f round and a n g u l a r
p r o p p a n t g r a i n s , and u n i f o r m vs. changing f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y .

Targets o f unconventional gas stimulation

The main t a r g e t s o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas s t i m u l a t i o n a r e t i g h t gas sandstones,
geopressured r e s e r v o i r s , c o a l seams, shales, h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e pay zones, and
gas condensate-bearing i n t e r v a l s . V a r i o u s f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n t y p e s a r e o u t -
l i n e d f o r the d i f f e r e n t r e s e r v o i r rock types. While c r e a t i o n o f long f r a c t u r e s
d e e p l y p e n e t r a t i n g i n t o t h e pay and supported by i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h - s t r e n g t h
proppants t h a t a r e r e s i s t i n g t o h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s a r e t h e b e s t approach t o
t i g h t gas sandstones and c l a s s i c a l massive h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t i s t h e most f e a -
s i b l e means o f a c q u i s i t i o n o f gas r e s e r v e s , e x p l o s i v e and non-proppant n i t r o g e n
gas f r a c t u r i n g have proven t o be a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y successive i n s h a l e s t i m u l a -
t i o n , a l t h o u g h i n many cases h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i s a l s o t h e most su-
p e r i o r t e c h n i q u e i n t h e l a t t e r t y p e o f pay f o r m a t i o n s . Coal seams a r e c h a r a c t e -
r i z e d by s p e c i a l mechanical p r o p e r t i e s which l e a d t o e l e v a t e d t r e a t i n g pressu-
r e s and f r e q u e n t l y r e s t r i c t t h e volume o f f l u i d and proppants t h a t can be i n s e r -
t e d i n t o s h o r t and wide c r a c k s . F r a c t u r i n g s t r a t e g i e s a r e m a i n l y designed ac-
c o r d i n g t o t h i c k n e s s and i n t e r v a l spacing o f c o a l seams i n t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l
column. High-temperature r e s e r v o i r s p r o v i d e p a r t i c u l a r c h a l l e n g e s t o thermal
f l u i d and p r o p p a n t s t a b i l i t y . Aspects o f o t h e r sources o f deep and u n c o n v e n t i o -
n a l gas such as a b i o g e n i c gas, subducted gas, gas condensate and gas h y d r a t e
a r e a l s o b r i e f l y mentioned.

Carbonate and high-permeability sandstone proppant fracturing

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f b o t h sandstone and carbonate r o c k s i s con-
s i d e r e d t o be t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t s t i m u l a t i o n technique i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e -
s e r v o i r s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n . W h i l e t i g h t sandstone pay zones a r e
a l r e a d y s i n c e l o n g t i m e t r e a t e d by massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a l l around t h e
world, l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y carbonate r e s e r v o i r s have n o t y e t been f u l l y understood
as p r o f i t a b l e t a r g e t s f o r h y d r a u l i c proppant s t i m u l a t i o n . The main reason f o r
t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n hydrocarbon-bearing i n t e r v a l s o f any
t y p e i s t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between r e s e r v o i r r o c k m a t r i x and p r o p p a n t
package i n t h e f r a c t u r e . While h i t h e r t o m a i n l y a c i d i z i n g and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g
have been c a r r i e d o u t i n carbonate r e s e r v o i r s i n Europe, s p r e a d i n g a p p l i c a t i o n
o f proppant f r a c t u r i n g p a r t i a l T y i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i s c o n s i d e -
r e d t o be t h e o n l y reasonable p o s s i b i l i t y t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e t h e o u t p u t
f r o m t h i s t y p e o f hydrocarbon-bearing s e c t i o n s i n t h e n e x t y e a r s . Aspects o f hy-
d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f carbonate r o c k s a r e summarized a l o n g t h e l i n e s
o f e x t e n s i o n o f d r a i n a g e p a t h and c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t , open vs. propped f r a c -
t u r e s , c o m b i n a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s , and c o m b i n a t i o n o f hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g . The comparative d i s c u s s i o n o f a c i d i z i n g
 XXVI

s t i m u l a t i o n and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a l s o i n c l u d e s comments on a d v a n t a g e s and

drawbacks o f f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g , c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement b y a c i d o p t i m i z a t i o n ,
enhancement o f a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e , a c i d r e t a r d a t i o n , and a c i d f l u i d - l o s s
control.

I n a s i m i l a r way as c a r b o n a t e s , a l s o m o d e r a t e - and h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sand-

s t o n e r e s e r v o i r s c a n be s u c c e s s f u l l y s t i m u l a t e d b y h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g by c r e a t i n g a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between p a y zone m a t r i x and
p r o p p a n t wedge i n t h e f r a c t u r e , w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e s f o r i n c r e a s i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y
c o n t r a s t b e i n g type, g r a i n s i z e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e p r o p p a n t s u s e d f o r
plugging o f the crack.

Chalk fracturing
One m a j o r t a r g e t o f c a r b o n a t e p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s t h e C r e t a c e o u s c h a l k
o i l r e s e r v o i r i n t h e N o r t h Sea w h i c h i s i l l u s t r a t e d as a c a s e s t u d y i n more de-
t a i l . The c h a l k r e q u i r e s f r e q u e n t l y c o m b i n a t i o n s o f e i t h e r a c i d and p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g , o r f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g f o r t e c h n i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l and e c o -
n o m i c a l l y p r o f i t a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n . W h i l e some c h a l k t y p e s a r e s t a b l e and e x t e n -
s i v e l y n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d , o t h e r c h a l k s a r e s o f t and f l o w i n g as a consequence
o f o v e r p r e s s u r i n g and u n d e r c o m p a c t i o n and b e l o n g t o t h e m o s t c o m p l i c a t e d r e s e r -
v o i r s i n t e r m s o f t e c h n i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l and e c o n o m i c a l l y p r o f i t a b l e s t i m u l a -
t i o n . S p e c i a l c h a l k f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e s i n c l u d e t i p s c r e e n o u t , i n t e r f a c e , den-
d r i t i c and w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g .

The c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s f u r t h e r s k e t c h e d a l o n g
t h e l i n e s o f v i s c o u s f i n g e r i n g a c i d i z i n g and wormhole g r o w t h , w h i s p e r f r a c t u -
ring, f o r m a t i o n breakdown and c l o s e d f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g . The b e s t s o l u t i o n a r e
f r e q u e n t l y s h o r t w i d e p r e c i s e f r a c t u r e s i n f i l l e d by h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s p l a c e d i n m u l t i l a y e r s . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on r e s e r v o i r c o m p a c t i o n
and f i e l d s u b s i d e n c e w h i c h i s a m a j o r p r o b l e m accompanying s t i m u l a t i o n and e x -
p l o i t a t i o n o f c h a l k f i e l d s and w h i c h has i n t h e l a s t y e a r s a t t r a c t e d c o n s i d e -
r a b l e a t t e n t i o n t h r o u g h s p e c t a c u l a r p l a t f o r m j a c k u p o p e r a t i o n s . An o u t l i n e o f
s a n d s t o n e a c i d i z i n g i s a l s o p r o v i d e d f o c u s s i n g on r e a c t i o n t y p e s and p e n e t r a -
t i o n d i s t a n c e o f a c i d . S p e c i a l methods f o r e f f e c t i v i t y enhancement a r e d e l a y e d
a c i d r e a c t i o n and i n - s i t u a c i d g e n e r a t i o n .

Geothermal fracturing
Geothermal f r a c t u r i n g i s c h i e f l y c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f f l u i d s t a b i -
l i t y i n t h e h o t r e s e r v o i r s . W h i l e h i t h e r t o i n many c a s e s b o t h c o n v e n t i o n a l and
s t e m - i n d u c e d e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g w i t h o u t i n s e r t i o n of p r o p p a n t s have been ap-
p l i e d as s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s o f g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r s , improvement o f f l u i d
r e s i s t i v i t y , t e m p o r a r y f o r m a t i o n c o o l i n g b y pumping of l a r g e p r e - p a d and p a d vo-
lumes, a p p l i c a t i o n o f w a t e r as f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and enhanced p r o p p a n t p l a c e m e n t
t e c h n i q u e s have a l l o w e d t o c o n s i d e r p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a l s o as a c o m p e t i t i v e
s t i m u l a t i o n technique i n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s . G i a n t - s c a l e w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g en-
compasses t h e h i t h e r t o b y f a r l a r g e s t amounts o f f l u i d pumped d u r i n g c o u r s e o f
an i n d i v i d u a l s t i m u l a t i o n j o b . Communication f r a c t u r i n g c o n n e c t i n g i n j e c t i o n
and p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s i s o f p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n g e o t h e r m a l p a y s i n c o n -
t r a s t t o t h e i r u n d e s i r e d n a t u r e i n o i l - and g a s - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s . Enhancement
o f d r a i n a g e i s a c h i e v e d b y f r a c t u r e s y s t e m e n l a r g e m e n t b y h e a t e x t r a c t i o n as a
consequence o f c o l d w a t e r i n j e c t i o n i n t o h o t d r y r o c k s . N u c l e a r f r a c t u r i n g i s a
p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s p e c i a l l y l a r g e - s c a l e e x p l o s i v e r e s e r v o i r r u b b l i z a t i o n and i s
a b l e t o overcome t h e drawbacks o f more s t a n d a r d e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e s
c o m p r i s i n g s h o r t f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n and i n t e n s i v e m a t r i x p u l v e r i z a t i o n . An o u t -
l i n e i s a l s o g i v e n on s h e a r s t i m u l a t i o n v s . t e n s i l e f r a c t u r i n g .
 XXVII

Mini f ract ur ins and other small -scale fracturing

M i n i f r a c t u r i n g (mHF) o r comparable s m a l l e r - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t s a r e v e r y s i g n i f i -
c a n t f o r t h e i n i t i a l approach o f many m a r g i n a l and p a r t i a l l y s t i l l uncommercial
r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e near f u t u r e and a r e assessed as b e i n g one o f t h e m a j o r me-
thods t o m a i n t a i n o r even a c c e l e r a t e t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g d e s p i t e t h e p r e s e n t l y u n f a v o u r a b l e economical c o n s t e l l a t i o n . F o l l o w -
i n g d e f i n i t i o n of m i n i - , m i c r o - and massive f r a c t u r e s , m i n i f r a c t u r i n g and i t s
importance i s d i s c u s s e d along t h e l i n e s o f p r e - f r a c t u r e breakdown t e s t and f r a c -
t u r e parameter d e t e r m i n a t i o n , f o r m a t i o n damage around t h e w e l l b o r e , f i e l d expe-
r i m e n t s and mHF v s . MHF, p i l o t s t i m u l a t i o n o f m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s , a p p l i c a t i o n
o f r e s i n - c o a t e d proppants i n u n s t a b l e pay zones, h o r i z o n t a l o r d r a i n h o l e d r i l -
l i n g and f r a c t u r i n g , uptake c a p a c i t y o f o i l - f i e l d w a t e r i n j e c t i o n and w a s t e - l i -
q u i d d i s p o s a l w e l l s , c o m b i n a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s , l a t e -
stage r e f r a c t u r i n g o f o l d w e l l s , c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ,
and f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and h e i g h t o p t i m i z a t i o n .

The main s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n experiments comprises de-

t e r m i n a t i o n o f c l o s u r e s t r e s s and f l u i d - l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t which a r e i m p o r t a n t pa-
rameters f o r r e d u c t i o n o f s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e r a t e s . V a r i o u s m i n i f r a c t u r e t e s t s
and m i c r o f r a c t u r e breakdown procedures as w e l l as proppant vs. non-proppant m i -
n i f r a c t u r i n g a r e discussed. S h o r t p r e c i s e propped m i n i f r a c t u r e s a r e s u i t a b l e
f o r b r e a k t h r o u g h o f f o r m a t i o n damage haloes around t h e w e l l b o r e , c o s t c o n t a i n -
ment o f s t i m u l a t i o n o f v a r i o u s r e s e r v o i r types, and p i l o t approach o f m a r g i n a l
pays. S p e c i a l techniques a r e t i p screenout f r a c t u r i n g and t a i l - i n o f r e s i n - c o a -
t e d proppants f o r p r e v e n t i o n o f embedment and flowback. M o d i f i e d m i c r o - and m i -
n i f r a c t u r i n g analysis f o r overpressure c a l i b r a t e d s t i m u l a t i o n design are also
ou t l ined.

Horizontal borehole and water-injection well fracturing

H o r i z o n t a l w e l l f r a c t u r i n g i s most p r o f i t a b l e i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h r a t h e r
than as a l t e r n a t i v e t o h o r i z o n t a l h o l e d r i l l i n g , and p a r t i c u l a r l y thorough ac-
cess t o t h e r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x can be achieved by m u l t i p l e p a r a l l e l v e r t i c a l f r a c -
turing o f horizontal wellbore trajectories creating a suite o f s l i c e s intersect-
i n g t h e pay w h i c h i s most s u c c e s s f u l i f t h e h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e i s d r i l l e d i n
accordance w i t h t h e g e o s t r e s s f i e l d . O i l - f i e l d w a t e r - f l o o d and w a s t e - l i q u i d d i s -
posal w e l l s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by almost permanent o p e r a t i o n above f r a c t u r e p r e s -
s u r e which r e s u l t s n o t o n l y i n r e s e r v o i r p a r t i n g , b u t a l s o i n keeping t h e c r e a -
t e d c r a c k s open as l o n g as i n j e c t i o n a t e l e v a t e d p r e s s u r e s i s g o i n g on, w i t h
t h e r e f o r e i n most cases p r o p p i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e s n o t b e i n g r e q u i r e d . D i s t i n c -
t i o n has t o be made between c o n t r o l l e d f r a c t u r i n g f o l l o w i n g g o a l s o f improve-
ment o f w e l l i n j e c t i v i t y , and a c c i d e n t a l f r a c t u r i n g which can provoke submature
f l u i d b r e a k t h r o u g h and t h u s d e t e r i o r a t e sweep e f f i c i e n c y . D i s p o s a l f r a c t u r i n g
i s i n some areas t h e o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y t o c r e a t e s u f f i c i e n t uptake c a p a c i t y f o r
safe underground removal o f waste l i q u i d s f r o m d r i l l i n g , c o m p l e t i o n and hydro-
carbon p r o c e s s i n g .

Naturally- jointed reservoir st irnulat ion

H y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f n a t u r a l l y j o i i i t e d r e s e r v o i r s focusses on
i n t e r a c t i o n between n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c c r a c k s . P e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t i n u i t y and
s t r e s s s e n s i t i v i t y a r e i m p o r t a n t parameters c o n t r o l l i n g i n t e r f r a c t u r e communi-
c a t i o n . Other aspects which a r e d i s c u s s e d i n c l u d e f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e and su-
p e r i m p o s i t i o n , f r a c t u r e divergence, temporal n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e damage, dual
f l u i d l e a k o f f ( c o m p r i s i n g s t a n d a r d l o s s t o m a t r i x and a c c e l e r a t e d l o s s t o h a i r -
l i n e f i s s u r e s w h i c h open up i n an advanced stage o f t h e j o b ) , and proppant p l u g -
ging o f natural f r a c t u r e s . A special s t i m u l a t i o n technique f o r n a t u r a l l y
cracked r e s e r v o i r s i s d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g which comprises e n t e r i n g and b a l l o o n -
i n g of t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g j o i n t s by t h e h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t f l u i d s and c o n n e c t i n g
 XXVIII
t h e whole system t o t h e w e l l b o r e . Propping o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s o n l y l e a d s t o acce-
l e r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n , b u t does n o t e n a b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r -
ves, as no a d d i t i o n a l d r a i n a g e area is c r e a t e d . Aspects o f t a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d -
i n g and shear s l i p p a g e vs. t e n s i l e f a i l u r e a r e a l s o discussed.

Refracturing
R e f r a c t u r i n g o f a l r e a d y e a r l i e r s t i m u l a t e d b o r e h o l e s and o r i g i n a l f r a c t u r i n g
o f i n f i l l w e l l s i n l a t e stage o f r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e d e p l e t i o n and hydrocarbon
e x p l o i t a t i o n is a s u i t a b l e means o f cheap m o b i l i z a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l o i l and
gas q u a n t i t i e s , because o l d b o r e h o l e s a r e a l r e a d y c o m p l e t e l y a m o r t i z e d o r w r i t -
t e n - o f f and t h e o r i g i n a l f r a c t u r e r e p r e s e n t s a weakness p l a n e which a l l o w s ea-
s i e r r e o p e n i n g a t l o w e r i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s . Removal o f t h e o l d p r o p p a n t pack-
age has s o f a r n o t t u r n e d o u t t o be a m a j o r problem. R e f r a c t u r i n g c a n d i d a t e
w e l l c h o i c e has t o f o l l o w t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e o r i g i n a l s t i m u l a t i o n j o b , and
p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g p a r t i a l l y a l s o depends on t h e aims o f acce-
l e r a t i o n vs. i n c r e a s i n g r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s . The approach o f r e f r a c t u r i n g can-
d i d a t e c h o i c e i s p a r t i a l l y comparable t o t h a t o f m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t
e v a l u a t i o n . The main advantage o f renewed f r a c t u r i n g f o l l o w i n g an o r i g i n a l
t r e a t m e n t independent f r o m t h e t i m e t h a t has passed i n between b e n e f i t s f r o m r e -
c o v e r y enhancement independent f r o m r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n stage. S p e c i a l methods
a r e combinations between e i t h e r h y d r a u l i c and e x p l o s i v e o r a c i d and p r o p p a n t
fracturing.

Concerning f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and h e i g h t o p t i m i z a t i o n , t h e most i m p o r t a n t p a r a -

meters i n f l u e n c i n g d e s i g n a r e r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y , w e l l spacing, f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y and proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n . G e n e r a l l y l o n g and s h o r t f r a c t u r e s a r e
r e q u i r e d i n low- and h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . N e t p r e s e n t va-
l u e o p t i m i z a t i o n r e v e a l s t h a t e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e l e n g t h does n o t r e s u l t i n a d d i -
t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t r e t u r n , b u t i s r a t h e r a waste o f c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e , because
beyond an optimum f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n r a t e and volume r e -
mains a t a p l a t e a u and t h e r e f o r e t h e payout is d e t e r i o r a t i n g .

Oil-reservoir fracturing
O i l - r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g i s i n c o n t r a s t t o many cases o f gas-pay zone s t i m u -
l a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y r o c k t r e a t i n g w h i c h p u t s emphasis
on achievement o f a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between r e s e r v o i r r o c k ma-
t r i x and proppant package i n t h e f r a c t u r e . The h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y o f many o i l s
f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e s t o s e l e c t coarse t o v e r y coarse proppants i n o r d e r t o
achieve t h e necessary c o n d u c t i v i t y and f l o w c a p a c i t y . Most o i l r e s e r v o i r s de-
mand s t i m u l a t i o n by s h o r t wide f r a c t u r e s t h a t a r e i n f i l l e d w i t h p r o p p a n t m u l t i -
l a y e r s and which i n some cases r e p r e s e n t n o t v e r y much more t h a n an enhanced
g r a v e l pack. A s p e c i a l e f f e c t i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o m b i n a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l
and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r i n g due t o changing g e o s t r e s s regime by thermal r e s e r v o i r
expansion i n s t e a m - d r i v e enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y o p e r a t i o n s . O t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s
o f changing f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n f r o m v e r t i c a l t o h o r i z o n t a l o r a l t e r i n g f r a c -
t u r e azimuth d i r e c t i o n t o c r e a t e networks o f p e r p e n d i c u l a r c r a c k elements a r e
d i s t u r b i n g impact o f a nearby h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e which provokes a s t r e s s h a l o
o r b e l t , and thermal r e s e r v o i r c o n t r a c t i o n by i n j e c t i o n o f c o l d w a t e r d u r i n g se-
condary w a t e r - f l o o d r e c o v e r y . W h i l e f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n changes f r o m v e r t i c a l
t o h o r i z o n t a l a r e common d u r i n g s t a n d a r d steam-drive o p e r a t i o n , f r a c t u r e a z i -
muth changes can be achieved by staggered steam i n j e c t i o n i n t o o f f - t r e n d w e l l
pairs.

Comnunication fracturing
Communication f r a c t u r i n g w i t h c o n n e c t i o n o f e i t h e r two superimposed r e s e r -
v o i r s t o r e y s separated by a t i g h t b a r r i e r o r two n e i g h b o u r i n g w e l l s is an impor-
 XXIX

t a n t a l t e r n a t i v e t o s i d e t r a c k d r i l l i n g i n f i e l d a p p r a i s a l and t o c o n v e n t i o n a l
i n t e r v a l - w i s e f r a c t u r i n g w i t h subsequent commingling o f s e p a r a t e l a y e r s . Connec-
t i o n o f i s o l a t e d sand b o d i e s i n l e n t i c u l a r r e s e r v o i r s by communication f r a c t u -
r i n g l i n k s much more d i s c r e t e sand u n i t s t o t h e b o r e h o l e than c o u l d be achieved
by d r i l l i n g . F r a c t u r e system and w e l l p a t t e r n p l a n n i n g has t o be made a c c o r d i n g
t o c r a c k azimuth as p r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n s t e l l a t i o n , and sand
l e n s a x i s o r i e n t a t i o n . D u r i n g c o n n e c t i o n o f separated r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y s and
f i e l d d r a i n a g e o p t i m i z a t i o n s t i m u l a t i o n , c a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d t h a t unwan-
t e d f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e i s n o t s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g t h e planned d r a i n a g e areas
and t h u s d e t e r i o r a t i n g t h e e f f e c t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l f r a c t u r e s f o r c h a n n e l l i n g
and d e l i v e r y o f hydrocarbons t o t h e w e l l b o r e s . I n c o n t r a s t t o o i l and gas r e s e r -
v o i r s , f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e and b o r e h o l e c o n n e c t i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y enhancing
a c c e s s i b l e pay volume and f l u i d c y c l i n g e f f e c t i v i t y i n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s .

Deviated-well fracturing
F r a c t u r i n g o f d e v i a t e d w e l l s s u f f e r s f r o m t h e drawback o f l i m i t e d communica-
t i o n i n t e r v a l between a h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d o r h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e and a v e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t i n g i t . The most f a v o u r a b l e c o n s t e l l a t i o n comprises a w e l l -
bore t r a j e c t o r y being o r i e n t e d p a r a l l e l t o the p r i n c i p a l i n - s i t u stress d i r e c -
t i o n which a l l o w s g e n e r a t i o n o f an e x t e n s i v e s i n g u l a r v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e t h a t
most e f f e c t i v e l y d r a i n s t h e r e s e r v o i r a l o n g t h e h i g h - a n g l e t o h o r i z o n t a l bore-
h o l e p a t h . The o t h e r extreme i s an o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e w e l l b o r e t r a j e c t o r y p e r -
p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e p r i n c i p a l i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n which p e r m i t s c r e a t i o n
o f m u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s c u t t i n g orthogonal through the highly-deviated
w e l l b o r e l i k e a s e t o f p a r a l l e l s l i c e s . A l l t h e s o l u t i o n s between these two end
members o f a c o n t i n u o u s spectrum s u f f e r f r o m p r o d u c t i v i t y l o s s due t o l i m i t e d
borehole/fracture contact length.

O t h e r f e a t u r e s i n h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d b o r e h o l e s a r e proppant s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and
f l u i d l a y e r i n g , and a l s o an i n c r e a s e d p r o b a b i l i t y o f non-Darcy f l o w . The draw-
back o f l i m i t e d communication i n t e r v a l between w e l l b o r e and f r a c t u r e a p p l i e s
e q u a l l y f o r h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d t o h o r i z o n t a l deep b o r e h o l e s c r o s s i n g g e n t l y - i n c l i -
ned r e s e r v o i r s and s u b v e r t i c a l s h a l l o w w e l l s t r a v e r s i n g s t e e p l y - d i p p i n g pay f o r -
m a t i o n s . The b e s t improvement o f t h e i n d i s p e n s i b l y s i t u a t i o n o f extended-reach
d r i l l i n g f r o m o f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m s i n a s t a r - l i k e p a t t e r n would be achievement o f
a S-shaped b o r e h o l e t r a j e c t o r y w i t h a g a i n decreasing t h e i n c l i n a t i o n p r i o r t o
i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r . An o u t l i n e o f hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n and f l o w r e g i -
mes i s a l s o g i v e n .

Fracture damage
F r a c t u r e damage i s t h e w o r s t d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f a s t i m u l a t i o n j o b , and f a c t o r s
l e a d i n g u l t i m a t e l y t o t r e a t m e n t f a i l u r e a r e o u t l i n e d by commenting on p r o p p a n t
s e t t l i n g , p r o p p a n t flowback, p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g and f l u i d aspects. Proppant s e t t -
l i n g i s i n f l u e n c e d by c l u s t e r e d p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and thus h i n d e r e d segrega-
t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e s i n t h e s l u r r y . Proppant t r a p p i n g i n t h e c r a c k can be acce-
l e r a t e d by f o r c e d f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e . The d e c i s i v e n e s s o f p r o p p a n t banking de-
pends on g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n and f l u i d s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e r e s e r v o i r ,
w i t h d i s t i n c t i o n h a v i n g t o be made between coarsening- and f i n i n g - u p w a r d s c y c l o -
t h e m as w e l l as homogeneous pays and f o r m a t i o n s d i v i d e d by an o i l - w a t e r - c o n -
t a c t i n t o l o w e r and upper p o r t i o n s . Proppant flowback d u r i n g w e l l cleanup can
be avoided above a l l by s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e package by a t a i l o f r e s i n - c o a t e d
proppants which p r o v i d e s an aggregated wedge b l o c k i n g t h e f r a c t u r e mouth. O t h e r
p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r o p p a n t flowback c o n t r o l a r e p r e s s u r e d e p l e t i o n a s s i s t a n c e by
c a r e f u l f l u i d p r o d u c t i o n , l i m i t a t i o n o f e x p l o i t a t i o n r a t e s and choke s i z e , and
avoidance o f e x c e s s i v e p r e s s u r e drawdown.

Proppant c r u s h i n g by shock l o a d i n g and s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n c r a c k i n g a r e m a i n l y

consequences o f u n s u i t a b l e c o m p l e t i o n and o f f t a k e p r a c t i c e s and can be reaso-
 xxx
n a b l y p r e v e n t e d b y o p e r a t i o n w i t h l o w p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s and l o w f l o w i n g p r e s -
s u r e . The b e s t i n s u r a n c e a g a i n s t p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g , however, i s s e l e c t i o n o f a
proppant type t h a t i s able t o s u f f i c i e n t l y withstand a l l the possible r e s e r v o i r
p r e s s u r e drawdowns d u r i n g f i e l d l i f e e s p e c i a l l y in t h e i m m e d i a t e s u r r o u n d i n g s
o f t h e w e l l b o r e where f l u i d v e l o c i t y and p r e s s u r e d e p l e t i o n c u l m i n a t e . The i n -
v e s t m e n t f o r a b e t t e r p r o p p a n t t y p e and t h u s t h e i n s u r a n c e a g a i n s t f a i l u r e o f
t h e a g e n t s u p p o r t i n g t h e f r a c t u r e p a y s o f f many t i m e s d u r i n g c o u r s e o f l o n g -
term f i e l d e x p l o i t a t i o n . Production c y c l i n g by repeated w e l l s h u t - i n leads t o
irrecoverable f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y diminution unless a proppant w i t h high
enough c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y a l s o f o r peak l o a d i n g has been chosen and
s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be a v o i d e d .

Aggressive fracturing design

F o r t h e s a k e of t h e n e c e s s a r y p r o g r e s s i n u n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a -
t i o n w i t h i n n o v a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s , an a g g r e s s i v e f r a c t u r i n g d e s i g n i s recommended
which, however, has n e c e s s a r i l y t o c o n s i d e r t h e r i s k o f some drawback by f a i l u -
r e s i n p i l o t t r e a t m e n t s o f m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s . The d a n g e r o f p r e m a t u r e s c r e e n -
o u t t e r m i n a t i o n o f c h a l l e n g i n g j o b s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h when w o r k i n g w i t h e x -
c e s s i v e p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y l a r g e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s
which, however, a r e t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e ways o f f u r t h e r i n c r e a s i n g t h e c o n d u c t i -
v i t y c o n t r a s t between r e s e r v o i r r o c k and p r o p p a n t wedge i n f i l l i n g t h e f r a c t u r e .
C o n c l u s i o n i s made t h a t g i v e n an a g a i n more s t a b l e o i l p r i c e a t a r e a s o n a b l e
l e v e l and p a r t i a l l y a l s o an a g a i n s t r o n g e r US $, t h e r e a r e many g r o w i n g s t i m u l a -
t i o n and s t a b i l i z a t i o n m a r k e t s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g demand o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d .

G r a v e l P a c k i n g a n d S a n d C o n t r o l
The s p e c t r u m o f sand c o n t r o l methods encompasses m e c h a n i c a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g ,
c h e m i c a l r e s e r v o i r c o n s o l i d a t i o n and m e c h a n i c a l s t a b l e sand a r c h f o r m a t i o n . Gra-
v e l p a c k i n g i s t h e m o s t commonly a p p l i e d and m o s t r e l i a b l e method o f sand c o n -
t r o l i n w e l l s where w e a k l y - c e m e n t e d o r e v e n l o o s e f r i a b l e sands a r e n o t s u f f i -
c i e n t l y s t a b l e enough t o r e s i s t t o f l u i d f o r c e s d u r i n g h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n .
D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between r e s e r v o i r s p r o d u c i n g sand f r o m t h e v e r y be-
g i n n i n g o f h y d r o c a r b o n o f f t a k e , and p a y s where sand s t a r t s t o f l o w i n t o t h e
w e l l b o r e when r i s i n g w a t e r c u t changes f l u i d v i s c o s i t y o r p r o g r e s s i v e e x p l o i t a -
t i o n l e a d s t o d e c l i n i n g p r e s s u r e w h i c h b o t h l o w e r i n t e g r i t y and s u p p o r t o f t h e
g r a i n f a b r i c o f t h e r o c k m a t r i x . Some o v e r p r e s s u r e d and u n d e r c o m p a c t e d c h a l k
o i l r e s e r v o i r s a l s o r e q u i r e g r a v e l packing p a r t i a l l y i n combination w i t h hydrau-
l i c fracturing.

Standard gravel packing

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n o f t y p e and g r a i n s i z e o f t h e g r a v e l -
pack m a t e r i a l f o r m e c h a n i c a l c o n t r o l o f pay sands i s o u t l i n e d b y d i s c u s s i n q a s -
p e c t s o f h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i v i t y v s . sand c o n t r o l , r e s e r v o i r d e p t h and L l u s u r e
s t r e s s in p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s , g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e c h o i c e v s . f o r m a t i o n g r a i n
size, a b s o l u t e s t o p p a g e o f m o v i n g and f l o w i n g r e s e r v o i r sand, i m p a c t o f g r a v e l
pack hardware, f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , c h e m i c a l f o r m a t i o n c o n -
s o l i d a t i o n v s . m e c h a n i c a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g , and c o m b i n a t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g and
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on g r a v e l - l e s s h a r d w a r e i n s t a l -
l a t i o n w i t h b u i l d i n g o f a n a t u r a l g r a v e l pack a r o u n d s c r e e n o r l i n e r b y i n t r u -
d i n g f o r m a t i o n sand, t r i p l e - w r a p p e d s c r e e n u t i l i z a t i o n where t h e d i f f e r e n t
w i r e - w r a p l a y e r s a r e s c h e d u l e d t o s t o p p r o g r e s s i v e l y f i n e r g r a i n s i z e s , and li-
n e r l e s s g r a v e l p l a c e m e n t . G r a v e l p a c k i n g c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s and g r a v e l s a t u r a -
t i o n a r e i l l u s t r a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n , t r a n s p o r t and p a c k i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e s l u r r i e s , and g r a v e l s e t t l i n g d i m i -
nution in the c a r r i e r f l u i d .
 XXXI

The e f f e c t of a t a i l - i n t e r m i n a l stage i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g which p l a c e s

c o a r s e r proppants near t h e c r a c k mouth t h a t keep i n p l a c e t h e f i n e r g r a i n s o f
t h e main l o t i s comparable t o t h a t o f a g r a v e l pack, and a row o f n a r r o w l y - s p a -
ced g r a v e l - f i l l e d p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s approaches t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a propped
m i n i f r a c t u r e . R e s e r v o i r s t a b i l i t y and f l u i d dynamics, and p a r t i c l e t r a n s p o r t
through p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o p i c s f o r f u r t h e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f
t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f g r a v e l packing, w i t h emphasis b e i n g on f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e
and f l u i d composition, p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g and p a r t i c l e b r i d g i n g , achievement
o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g g i n g , and i n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e and geo-
m e t r y . Steam-drive enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e g r a -
vel-pack m a t e r i a l i n o r d e r t o r e s i s t t o t h e h o t a l c a l i n e a g g r e s s i v e m i l i e u ,
w i t h s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand having t u r n e d o u t t o be s u f f i c i e n t -
l y s t a b l e , whereas n a t u r a l q u a r t z sand i s c o n s i d e r a b l y d i s s o l v e d .

Special gravel packing

S p e c i a l g r a v e l pack a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e c o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n , r e s i n -
c o a t e d g r a v e l placement, g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f d e v i a t e d w e l l s w i t h t h e e f f e c t o f
g r a v e l duning, g r a v e l p a c k i n g w i t h l i n e r v i b r a t i o n , c o n c e n t r a t e d g r a v e l s l u r r y
pumping, d e n s i t y s l u r r y and foam g r a v e l packing, and v i s c o u s polymer g r a v e l
packing. C o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n and r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l placement have
t h e advantage o f a g g r e g a t i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l i n f i l l i n g s t o s t a b l e g r a v e l
wedges and t h e r e f o r e a g r a v e l m a n t l e seaming t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l and h o l d i n g t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e p l u g s i n p l a c e i s n o t r e q u i r e d , w i t h t h i s s p e c i a l t y p e o f ap-
p l i c a t i o n t h u s r e s t r i c t i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n t o o u t s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g which l e a v e s
t h e w e l l b o r e f r e e o f hardware and a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l y reduces t h e r e q u i r e d g r a v e l
q u a n t i t y . C o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n and r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l placement a r e
e s p e c i a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r o l d p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s and steam-drive i n j e c t i o n boreho-
les.

Gravel compaction and overcoming o f t h e phenomenon o f g r a v e l duning i n d e v i a -

t e d w e l l s can be a t t a i n e d by f l o w r e s i s t a n c e c r e a t e d by f l e x i b l e b a f f l e s and
rubber disks, l a r g e - d i a m e t e r washpipes, p e r f o r a t i o n p r e p a c k i n g , s t r i n g r o t a -
t i o n , l i n e r v i b r a t i o n , low p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y l c a r r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y r a t i o , i n v e r -
t e d s l u r r y c i r c u l a t i o n , g r a v e l - l e s s s l o t t e d l i n e r s and prepacked screens. L i n e r
v i b r a t i o n compensates i n i t i a l undercompaction o f t h e g r a v e l by t r i g g e r i n g s e t t -
l i n g i n t o a hexagonal package which a l l o w s t o u t i l i z e c o a r s e r g r a v e l g r a i n s i -
zes, and t h e absence o f a f t e r - p a c k s e t t l i n g does n o t n e c e s s i t a t e a r e s e r v e
b l a n k s e c t i o n above screen and p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l . Concentrated g r a v e l s l u r r y
pumping p r o f i t s f r o m t h e t a c k i f y i n g a c t i o n o f t h e i n t e r m i x e d m i n o r amounts o f
r e s i n . Viscous polymer g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b u i l d u p o f n o d u l a r g r a -
v e l d e p o s i t s a t t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and a n n u l a r sediments on t h e screen. Comments
a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on puddle p a c k i n g which i s a method f o r i n f i l l i n g o f b o r e h o l e
w a l l i r r e g u l a r i t i e s generated by e a r l i e r sand p r o d u c t i o n o r e x p l o s i v e s h o o t i n g
i n o l d e r w e l l s and t h u s i s a s i g n i f i c a n t r e p a i r t e c h n i q u e i n open b o r e h o l e sec-
tions.

Other sand control methods

O t h e r sand c o n t r o l methods comprise r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n , hydroxy-aluminum
stabilization, e l e c t r o l e s s n i c k e l p l a t i n g , s i l i c a cementation by s i l i c a l o c k and
S o l d e r g l a s s methods, warm a i r coking, s t a b l e sand a r c h f o r m a t i o n , and pre-pack
l i n e r s and m u l t i w i r e - w r a p p e d screens. The s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s o f chemical r e s i n
c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e f o r m a t i o n sand a r e i l l u s t r a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f a c t i v a -
t i o n , c a t a l y z a t i o n and c u r i n g o f t h e r e s i n . Performance o f r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n
can be achieved by prepacking, p r e h e a t i n g and p r e f l u s h i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r .
S t a b l e sand a r c h f o r m a t i o n can t a k e p l a c e a l r e a d y n a t u r a l l y i n f o r m a t i o n s w i t h
s u f f i c i e n t g r a i n f r i c t i o n due t o rough p a r t i c l e s u r f a c e s o r i n r e s e r v o i r s i n
g r e a t e r d e p t h w i t h h i g h e r overburden s t r e s s , b u t can a l s o be s e m i a r t i f i c i a l l y
 XXXII
i n t r o d u c e d o r enhanced b y p a c k e r i n f l a t i o n . P r e - p a c k l i n e r s t h a t a r e p r e p a r e d
w i t h a s s i s t a n c e o f v i b r a t i o n and m u l t i w i r e - w r a p p e d s c r e e n s c a n b e u s e d f o r g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g and pump p r o t e c t i o n .

The i n f l u e n c e o f c o m p l e t i o n t y p e on g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s o u t l i n e d by s k e t c h i n g
f e a t u r e s o f i n s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g such as s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l
p l u g g i n g , and open h o l e g r a v e l p a c k i n g such as b o r e h o l e u n d e r r e a m i n g , p o r t c o l -
l a r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and pack w a s h i n g . F o r m a t i o n damage d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s
i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e m a n t l e i t s e l f as w e l l a s b y t r a p p i n g o f
f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between g r a v e l and r e s e r v o i r w h e r e t h e y
a r e k e p t i n p l a c e b y t h e p a c k . Removal o r f o r m a t i o n damage b y a c i d i z i n g p r i o r
t o g r a v e l p a c k i n g w i t h p a r t i a l u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l i t s e l f as d i v e r t i n g
a g e n t i s u s u a l l y l e a d i n g t o s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s , whereas a c i d i z i n g a f t e r ha-
v i n g i n s t a l l e d t h e g r a v e l pack r e s u l t s i n s e l e c t i v e a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n t h r o u g h
t h e p e r m e a b l e g r a v e l i n f i l l i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s as w e l l as t o g r a v e l un-
c o n s o l i d a t i o n and d i s s o l u t i o n and s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be a v o i d e d whenever p o s -
sible.

P r o p p e d F r a c t u r e a n d
G r a v e l P a c k M o n i t o r i n g
P r o p p e d f r a c t u r e and g r a v e l pack m o n i t o r i n g b y w e l l l o g g i n g , s e i s m i c a l and
o t h e r methods i s n o t o n l y a means o f c h e c k i n g q u a l i t y o f p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e
s t i m u l a t i o n and s t a b i l i z a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e j o b , b u t i s
a l s o a t e c h n i q u e o f l o n g - t e r m b e h a v i o u r c o n t r o l b y r e p e t i t i o n r u n s and g i v e s
even i m p o r t a n t i m p a c t on f u t u r e p l a n n i n g and d e s i g n o f f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s
and g r a v e l pack p l a c e m e n t s b y d e l i v e r i n g d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e s u p e r v i -
s i o n o f e x i s t i n g p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e s and i n s t a l l e d g r a v e l packs, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Propped f r a c t u r e height monitoring

F r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n and d e t e r m i n a t i o n by w e l l l o g g i n g a i m i n g c h i e f l y o n
h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g c a n be c a r r i e d o u t b y t e m p e r a t u r e , c o n v e n t i o n a l and s p e c t r a l
gamma-ray, t h e r m a l decay t i m e , a c o u s t i c and n o i s e l o g g i n g . M u l t i p l e - t r a c e r d i s -
c r i m i n a t i o n b y gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y a l l o w s t o d i s t i n g u i s h s e v e r a l t r e a t m e n t
s t a g e s and e n a b l e s d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p r o v e n a n c e of r a d i a t i o n f r o m f r a c t u r e d f o r -
m a t i o n , cement s h e a t h o r b o r e h o l e f l u i d . T e m p e r a t u r e l o g g i n g i s t h e c h e a p e s t
and s i m p l e s t f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g t e c h n i q u e , b u t i s sometimes d i s t u r b e d
b y t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y a n o m a l i e s of t h e r e s e r v o i r w h i c h l e a d t o warm n o s e s i n
t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r e c o r d . The a n o m a l i e s c a n b e v e r i f i e d and c o r r e c t f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a n be made b y c o m b i n a t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e w i t h n o i s e o r
gamma-ray l o g g i n g .

R a d i o a c t i v i t y d e t e c t i o n b y c o n v e n t i o n a l s i n g l e - o r d o u b l e - m a r k e r gamma-ray
l o g g i n g o r advanced m u l t i p l e - t r a c e r gamma-tay s p e c t r o s c o p y c a n be p e r f o r m e d
using three d i f f e r e n t types o f sources comprising n a t u r a l l y r a d i o a c t i v e prop-
p a n t s , a r t i f i c i a l l y t a g g e d p r o p p a n t s ( i n c l u d i n g c o a t i n g s and f u l l g r a i n s ) and
s y n t h e t i c m a r k e r s i n t e r m i x e d i n t o f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d o r s l u r r y . Gamma-ray s p e c t r o -
s c o p y i s a b l e t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between s e v e r a l i n s e r t e d t r a c e r s and t h u s p e r -
m i t s t o d i s t i n g u i s h v a r i o u s f l u i d and p r o p p a n t s t a g e s a s w e l l as s e p e r a t e
layers i n m u l t i p l e - i n t e r v a l treatments i f s e l e c t i v e tagging o f the i n d i v i d u a l
l o t s i s c a r r i e d o u t , and i s t h u s t h e m o s t m a t u r e t e c h n i q u e o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t
m o n i t o r i n g . C o m b i n a t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e and c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g i s
t h e m o s t p r o f i t a b l e s o l u t i o n f o r c o s t c o n t a i n m e n t i n m u l t i w e l l f i e l d campaigns
b y p r o v i d i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m u t u a l c a l i b r a t i o n i n some k e y w e l l s and l a t e r
r u n n i n g o n l y one o f t h e r e g i s t r a t i o n s . Thermal decay t i m e l o g g i n g a l l o w s a l s o
m o n i t o r i n g o f a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n due t o t h e a c i d e f f e c t o n p u l s e d n e u t r o n c a p t u -
r i n g . D i s t i n c t i o n c a n b e made between p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t as r e f l e c t e d b y
gamma-ray l o g g i n g o f p r o p p a n t r a d i o a c t i v i t y , c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t as documen-
t e d b y t e m p e r a t u r e l o g g i n g and gamma-ray m o n i t o r i n g o f f l u i d r a d i o a c t i v i t y , and
 X X X I II

permeable or e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t as i n d i c a t e d by thermal decay t i m e l o g -

ging.

Propped fracture azimuth mapping

P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f r a c t u r e azimuth mapping a r e c a l i p e r and a c o u s t i c l o g g i n g ,
b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r , f o r m a t i o n microscanner, and s e i s m i c a l and g r a v i m e t r i c a l me-
thods, w i t h some o f t h e means a l s o r e v e a l i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on f r a c t u r e w i d t h .
A c o u s t i c l o g g i n g employs m a i n l y r e a d i n g and p r o c e s s i n g o f t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y
t r a v e l l i n g R a y l e i g h and S t o n e l e y waves, w i t h v a r i o u s techniques o f waveform mo-
d e l l i n g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e x i s t i n g . C a l i p e r l o g g i n g r e c o r d s b o r e h o l e e l l i p t i c i -
t y o r o v a l i z a t i o n as a response t o t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n , w i t h t h e ma-
j o r e c c e n t r i c i t i e s i n d i c a t i n g the d i r e c t i o n o f p r i n c i p a l h o r i z o n t a l stresses
and t h u s r e f l e c t i n g f r a c t u r e azimuth. Borehole t e l e v i e w e r and f o r m a t i o n m i c r o -
scanner p e r m i t d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e s by v i s u a l i z a t i o n i n c o n t r a s t t o
i n d i r e c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of o t h e r measurement methods. D i s t i n c t i o n can be made
between r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system i n t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k and
e v a l u a t i o n of h y d r a u l i c a l l y generated f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g b o t h pay zone ma-
t r i x and p r e - e x i s t i n g j o i n t assemblages. The most s u i t a b l e techniques f o r d e t e c -
t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a r e b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r , f o r m a t i o n microscanner, d i p -
meter, dual l a t e r o l o g , and s o n i c l o g g i n g w i t h f u l l waveform a n a l y s i s . The s u i t e
o f d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e i n d i c a t o r s which a r e a l l s u b j e c t t o v a r i o u s d i s t u r b i n g i n -
f l u e n c e s i s b e s t e v a l u a t e d by i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o a m u l t i p l e - s o u r c e f r a c t u r e proba-
b i l i t y program. Mechanical p r o p e r t i e s l o g g i n g and f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n a n a l y s i s
a r e i m p o r t a n t p r e d i c t i v e t o o l s o f f r a c t u r e m o d e l l i n g and design.

S e i s m i c a l , g r a v i m e t r i c a l and g e o e l e c t r i c a l methods m a i n l y aim on f r a c t u r e

azimuth mapping, a l t h o u g h some techniques such as v e r t i c a l s e i s m i c p r o f i l i n g
can a l s o be a p p l i e d f o r f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g . M i c r o s e i s m i c f r a c t u r e r e g i s -
t r a t i o n can be performed by a c t i v e o r p a s s i v e r e c o r d i n g , w i t h most o f t h e m i c r o -
earthquake e v e n t s b e i n g c r e a t e d by t h e c l o s i n g f r a c t u r e . Enhanced i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n can be achieved by combining microearthquake and p r e s s u r e p u l s e documenta-
t i o n . A n e l a s t i c a l s t r a i n r e c o v e r y a n a l y s i s o f c o r e s i s a s u i t a b l e method f o r
p r e d i c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e azimuth. D i s t i n c t i o n o f v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r e s can be performed by t i l t m e t e r a n a l y s i s o f s u r f a c e d e f o r m a t i o n s ,
whereas f o r n a t u r a l c r a c k s t h e s e p a r a t i o n mode o f s h a l l o w and deep dual l a t e r o -
l o g r e c o r d s i s t h e most i n d i c a t i v e i n s t r u m e n t . O t h e r g e o p h y s i c a l t e c h n i q u e s f o r
c h i e f l y f r a c t u r e azimuth mapping a r e a c o u s t i c emission, h y d r a u l i c impedance,
h y d r a u l i c resonance and magnetometry. F u r t h e r f r a c t u r e m o n i t o r i n g can be p e r f o r -
med by s t i m u l a t i o n d a t a a n a l y s i s , i n f l a t a b l e impression packers, and p h o t o g r a -
phy and imagery. F r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n does n o t o n l y a l l o w t o c a l c u -
l a t e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t and l e n g t h , b u t i s a l s o an i n s t r u m e n t o f premature screen-
o u t t e r m i n a t i o n f o r e c a s t and t h u s d e t a i l e d o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e p r e s s u r e e v o l u -
t i o n d u r i n g course o f t h e t r e a t m e n t enables screenout p r e v e n t i o n by p e r m i t t i n g
remedy a c t i o n s i n t i m e .

Gravel pack evaluation

Gravel pack checking and e v a l u a t i o n can be performed by photon, gamma-ray
and n e u t r o n l o g g i n g and can be f u r t h e r checked by u t i l i z i n g d a t a from t h e t e l l -
t a l e screen. Photon and n e u t r o n l o g g i n g employ t h e d e n s i t y change generated by
g r a v e l i n s e r t i o n i n t o t h e borehole, whereas gamma-ray l o g g i n g has t o r e c o r d na-
t u r a l g r a v e l o r a r t i f i c i a l g r a v e l and/or f l u i d r a d i o a c t i v i t y . C a l i b r a t i o n w i t h
t h e end members o f 0 % g r a v e l i n t h e b l a n k s e c t i o n above t h e screen and 100 %
g r a v e l i n t h e i n t e r v a l o f h i g h e s t i n s t r u m e n t c o u n t enable t o p e r f o r m q u a n t i t a -
t i v e g r a v e l pack e v a l u a t i o n by n e u t r o n and gamma-ray l o g g i n g w i t h e x p r e s s i o n o f
percentages o f g r a v e l d e n s i t y i n t h e surveyed w e l l b o r e s e c t i o n . S p e c i a l r e q u i r e -
ments f o r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g stages o r l e v e l s can be s o l v e d by
gamma-ray spectroscopy o f m u l t i p l e t r a c e r s . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n f i d e n c e can be en-
hanced by c o m b i n a t i o n o f n e u t r o n and gamma-ray l o g g i n g , and p r o g r e s s i v e s e t t -
 XXXIV

l i n g o f gravel a f t e r i n s t a l l a t
ging. Repair o f detected voids
b i n a t i o n which allows synthet
shaking, w i t h repeated l o g g i n g
pack have d i s a p p e a r e d .
on c a n be m o n i t o r e d b y t i m e - l a p s e r e p e t i t i o n l o g -
c a n be c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e p h o t o n - v i b r a p a c k com-
c improvement o f g r a v e l s e t t l i n g b y v i b r a t i o n and
and e x c i t i n g b e i n g done u n t i l t h e v o i d s i n t h e

The t e l l - t a l e s c r e e n r e c o g n i z e s c o m p l e t i o n o f g r a v e l i n s e r t i o n once i t beco-

mes c o v e r e d w i t h g r a v e l and t h u s s e r v e s as a r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t o r when t o s t o p
pumping. M e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s l o g g i n g a l l o w s d e t e c t i o n o f s t r o n g and weak
sands and h e l p s i n c a n d i d a t e s c r e e n i n g f o r t h e n e c e s s i t y o f sand c o n t r o l t r e a t -
m e n t s . W h i l e i n s i n g l e - w e l l o p e r a t i o n s t h e c o s t f o r an i n t e g r a t e d sand p r o d u c -
t i o n f o r e c a s t a n a l y s i s c o u l d be h i g h e r t h a n t h e expenses f o r sand c o n t r o l j o b s ,
c o n s i d e r a b l e c o m p l e t i o n c o s t c o u l d be saved i n m u l t i w e l l f i e l d campaigns when
m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s l o g g i n g and e v a l u a t i o n a l l o w s t o d i s t i n g u i s h between
s t a b l e sands w h i c h do n o t l e a d t o sand i n f l u x and u n s t a b l e sands t h a t w o u l d r e -
s u l t i n sand i n t r u s i o n i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e u n l e s s c o n t r o l l e d b y m e c h a n i c a l g r a v e l
packing o r chemical formation c o n s o l i d a t i o n .

B i b l i o g r a p h y
The e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e c o m p i l a t i o n i s p r o c e s s e d i n a b i b l i o g r a p h y w h i c h
c o n s i s t s o f t w o p a r t s . The f i r s t s e c t i o n g i v e s a s u b j e c t k e y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f
t h e r e f e r e n c e s i n t o v a r i o u s s p e c i a l t o p i c s o f m a i n l y t e c h n i c a l and r e s e r v o i r en-
g i n e e r i n g n a t u r e , and t h e second d i v i s i o n c o n t a i n s t h e r e f e r e n c e l i s t w h i c h i n -
c l u d e s a l l t h e q u o t a t i o n s i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r o f t h e a u t h o r s names. The m a i n
t o p i c headers i n t h e s u b j e c t key c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a r e overview o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g and e c o n o m i c a l framework o f h y d r o c a r b o n d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n , f r a c -
t u r e d e s i g n and e v a l u a t i o n , f r a c t u r e f e a t u r e s , p r o p p a n t f e a t u r e s ; technical,
f l u i d and t e m p e r a t u r e f e a t u r e s ; f i e l d c a s e s t u d i e s , s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , g r a v e l p a c k i n g and sand c o n t r o l , and p e t r o p h y s i c a l e v a l u a -
t i o n f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g d e s i g n . The r e f e r e n c e l i s t con-
t a i n s more t h a n 3,500 q u o t a t i o n s o f p a p e r s on t e c h n i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l a s p e c t s
of h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g as w e l l as a s s o c i a t e d com-
p l e t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s .

List of figures
Fig. 1 : F r a c t u r e s u p p o r t b y s p h e r i c a l s t r e s s - r e s i s t a n t p r o p p a n t s . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 2 : C e n t r e s of a c t i v i t y i n p a s t and f u t u r e o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c -
t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n E u r o p e . . _ . _ _ . 175
Fig. 3 : Schematical g e o l o g i c a l cross-section o f t h r
c o l u m n w i t h h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e .... 179
Fig. 4 : C e n t r e s o f m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g (MHF) in R o t l i e -
gend and C a r b o n i f e r o u s i n Germany FRG ........................... 181
Fig. 5 : D i s t r i b u t i o n o f o i l and gas f i e l d s w i t h h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c -
t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g p o t e n t i a l i n Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. 6 : C e n t r e s o f m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g (MHF) i n R o t l i e -
gend and B u n t s a n d s t e i n i n t h e N o r t h Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Fig. 7 : Proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n types w i t h i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s 185
Fig. 8 : C e n t r e s o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l pac
t h e N o r t h Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Fig. 9 : R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n N o r t h w e s t e r n Europe ...................... 239
Fig. 10 : C e n t r e s o f m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n R o t l i e g e n d ,
C a r b o n i f e r o u s and B u n t s a n d s t e i n i n N o r t h Sea and o n s h o r e M i d d l e
Europe .................... ... 239
Fig. 11 : S c h e m a t i c a l g e o l o g i c a l c r o s ari
column w i t h h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i n W e s t e r n 243
Fig. 12 : P r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n t y p e s w i t h i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . 242
 xxxv

List o f tables
Tab. 1 : Proppant types and grain sizes and their application in petroleum
reservoir stimulation and other energy industry processes . . . . . . . . 21
Tab. 2 : Mineralogical and chemical composition o f proppants for hydraulic
fracturing and gravel packing .................................... 31
Tab. 3 : Mechanical properties and p r o d u c t i o n / m a n u f a c t u r i n g of proppants
for hydraulic fracturing and gravel packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Tab. 4 : Significance o f proppants in petroleum reser r stimulation and
other energy industry processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tab. 5 : Centres of past and future activity of hydraulic
ring in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Tab. 6 - 9 : Hydraulic proppant fracturing and gravel packing in Europe.
Past and future stimulation potential in important hydrocarbon
fields in selected European countries
Tab. 6 : ................................... 187
Tab. 7 : ................................................. 191
Tab. 8 : Part 3 .............................. ........ 200
Tab. 9 : Part 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Tab. 10 : Lithostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental evolution of Permian
(Rotliegend) and Triassic (Buntsandstein) in South Oevon/England 332
Tab. 11 : Centres o f past and future activity of gravel packing in Europe . 759

List o f plates
P1. 1 : Angular unconformities and basement folding ..................... 297
P1. 2 : Cross-stratification in aeolian dune sands and fluvial channel
bar deposits .................................................... 301
P1. 3 : Gravel agglomerations and mud drapes in alluvial-fan breccias and
fluvial channel sandstones ...................................... 303
P1. 4 : Natural fractures and sedimentary heterogeneities in fluvial
channel and floodplain sandstones and mudstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
P1. 5 : Grain-size distribution changes and erosional surfaces in brai-
ded-river channel sandstones and conglomerates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
P1. 6 : Synsedimentary desiccation fracturing in lacustrine and fluvial
floodplain mudstones and natural propping of cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
P1. 7 : Lacustrine and floodplain mud drapes in fluvial channel and allu-
vial playa sandstones ........................................... 315
P1. 8 : Natural fractures and sedimentary heterogeneities in cross-stra-
tified aeolian dune and sheet sands as well as fluvial channel
sands ........................................................... 319
P1. 9 : Sedimentary and deformational features of lacustrine mud drapes
in fluvial channel, overbank and alluvial playa sandstones . . . . . . 323
P1. 10 : Root tubes and carbonate concretions in calcrete palaeosols . . . . . 327
P1. 11 : Natural fracture origin and distribution in various reservoir
rocks ........................................................... 329
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 1

1 . P r o p p a n t Selection

1.0.Summary a n d a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g a c t i v i t y i n Europe i s o f d i f f e -
r e n t s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e western and e a s t e r n p a r t s o f t h e area, and has a g a i n
o t h e r emphasis i n t h e USA, due t o g e o l o g i c a l ( m a i n l y sedimentological-petrophy-
s i c a l ) , r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g , t e c h n o l o g i c a l , m a r k e t i n g and economical reasons.
The f i v e b a s i c proppant t y p e s which a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e a t t h e moment i n
t h e hydrocarbon s t i m u l a t i o n market f o r d i f f e r e n t p r i c e s a r e n a t u r a l q u a r t z
sand, s y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y alumina s i l i c a t e ( c e r a m i c )
proppant, i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p -
pant, h i g h - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y b a u x i t e proppant, and h i g h - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i -
t y z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppant ( t h e d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s a r e l i s t e d i n a sequence
o f i n c r e a s i n g s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y and p r i c e ) . C a r e f u l
s e l e c t i o n o f t y p e , g r a i n s i z e and t o m i n o r amounts a l s o g r a i n shape o f t h e prop-
p a n t a c c o r d i n g t o c l o s u r e s t r e s s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , b o t t o m h o l e temperature, com-
p o s i t i o n o f t h e f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s and p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t between pay zone and
i n f i l l e d f r a c t u r e a r e e c o n o m i c a l l y e s s e n t i a l due t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n deep gas
w e l l s , proppant c o s t can r e a c h up t o two t h i r d s o f t h e t o t a l massive h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g (MHF) expenses. In deep l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u -
r i n g , proppant q u a n t i t i e s o f 100 - 500 t a r e f r e q u e n t l y needed and some jumbo
j o b s even r e q u i r e more m a t e r i a l i n t h e range o f 500 - 1,500 t, w i t h some super-
g i a n t t r e a t m e n t s needing even r e c o r d l o t s up t o 3,000 t, and p r o p p a n t c h o i c e i s
t h u s t h e most c r i t i c a l p a r t o f d e s i g n i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s . Since t h e
f i r s t h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g j o b s i n 1947, t h e t e c h n i q u e has e v o l v e d du-
r i n g course o f f o u r decades f r o m small o p e r a t i o n s on s i n g l e - z o n e c o m p l e t i o n s t o
massive t r e a t m e n t s on m u l t i p l e - i n t e r v a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s , w i t h t h e main stages o f
s t i m u l a t i o n f o c u s h a v i n g been f o r m a t i o n damage b r e a k t h r o u g h and s m a l l - s c a l e
sand f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e l a t e 1940's t h r o u g h e a r l y 1970's, t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r
MHF t r e a t m e n t w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g amounts o f s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s i n
t h e l a t e 1970's t h r o u g h e a r l y 1980's, and h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay zone s t i m u l a -
t i o n f r o m t h e e a r l y 1980's onwards. The e v o l u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t e c h -
nology i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g proppant q u a n t i t i e s and
c r a c k wing l e n g t h f o r l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n as w e l l
as s u c c e s s i v e l y r i s i n g proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n and f r a c t u r e w i d t h i n moderate-
t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l and gas pay t r e a t m e n t . Since t h e i n n o v a t i o n and inaugu-
r a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e end o f t h e Second
World War, t o d a t e almost one m i l l i o n j o b s have been c a r r i e d o u t w o r l d w i d e . The
major t e c h n o l o g i c a l b r e a k t h r o u g h has been achieved by i n v e n t i o n and market i n -
t r o d u c t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants i n 1976 which
a l l o w e d h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o f deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e r e s e r v o i r s t h a t were p r i o r
t o a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c l o s u r e - s t r e s s - r e s i s t a n t proppants u n a c c e s s i b l e t o f r a c t u r e
t r e a t m e n t s . W h i l e n a t u r a l q u a r t z sand f a i l s by c r u s h i n g o f t h e g r a i n s a l r e a d y
between 3,000 and 5,000 p s i c l o s u r e s t r e s s which r e s t r i c t s i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o
r e l a t i v e l y shallow reservoirs, synthetic intermediate-strength low-density alu-
mina s i l i c a t e proppants have almost t h e same s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y as sand, b u t r e -
s i s t t o c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s up t o 8,000 p s i . I n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y
alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s ( s t a b i l i t y up t o 10,000 p s i ) and h i g h -
s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e o r l o w - d e n s i t y z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants
( r e s i s t a n t up t o 15,000 p s i ) a r e t h e s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l s f o r i n f i l l i n g o f f r a c t u -
r e s i n deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e r e s e r v o i r s and have i n Europe d u r i n g t h e l a s t t e n
y e a r s been f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d i n MHF o p e r a t i o n s i n t i g h t g a s - b e a r i n g R o t l i e -
gend, C a r b o n i f e r o u s and B u n t s a n d s t e i n sandstones i n Germany FRG and N e t h e r l a n d s
onshore as w e l l as B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea o f f s h o r e , and i n T e r t i a -
r y sandstones and conglomerates i n Yugoslavia, and have i n t h e USA been used i n
many t i g h t gas sand r e s e r v o i r s i n v a r i o u s h y d r o c a r b o n - p r o s p e c t i v e b a s i n s . Re-
s i n - c o a t i n g o f s y n t h e t i c proppants o r n a t u r a l sand r e s u l t s i n a g g r e g a t i o n o f
t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s t o a s t a b l e package i n u n c o n s o l i d a t e d r e s e r v o i r s and i s a
s u i t a b l e method f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f u n s t a b l e s o f t
o i l - b e a r i n g c h a l k s and sands i n t h e Cretaceous and J u r a s s i c o f t h e Norwegian
 2

and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea as w e l l as i n C r e t a c e o u s
and T e r t i a r y i n v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s o n t h e European c o n t i n e n t . D o u b l e r e s i n c o a -
t i n g o f p r o p p a n t g r a i n s w i t h an o u t e r c u r a b l e p e l l i c l e b o n d i n g p a r t i c l e s t o -
g e t h e r and an i n n e r p r e c u r e d f i l m p r o v i d i n g a d d i t i o n a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e m a t e r i a l
combines t h e b e n e f i t s o f a s e l f - c o n s o l i d a t i n g p r o p p a n t w i t h t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f a
h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t by p r o v i d i n g h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y , permanent
b o n d i n g a b i l i t y and l o w d e n s i t y t o g e t h e r a t r e a s o n a b l e c o s t . T a i l - i n o f r e s i n -
c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s s t a b i l i z e s t h e g r a i n assemblage i n t h e p r o x i m a l p a r t o f t h e
c r a c k and i n h i b i t s f r a c t u r e damage b y e v a c u a t i o n a t i t s m o u t h . T a i l - i n d e s i g n
w i t h a s m a l l e r l o t o f c o a r s e r ( m a i n l y 16/20 o r 12/20) and f r e q u e n t l y h i g h e r - q u a -
l i t y p r o p p a n t s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e t e r m i n a l s t a g e o f a f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t and f o l -
l o w i n g a l a r g e r m a i n q u a n t i t y o f f i n e r ( i n most c a s e s 20/40) and o f t e n l o w e r -
q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t s has t h e a d v a n t a g e o f a s c e r t a i n i n g maximum f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i -
t y i n t h e i m m e d i a t e b o r e h o l e v i c i n i t y where r e s e r v o i r drawdown i s g r e a t e s t b y
h i g h e r p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y and c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t a n c e a t l o w e r o v e r a l l
c o s t , as w e l l as o f f o r m i n g a p s e u d o - g r a v e l pack i n h i b i t i n g p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k
f r o m f r a c t u r e mouth t o w e l l b o r e and t h u s p r e v e n t i n g s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t damage
b y f r a c t u r e e v a c u a t i o n . E x p e r i m e n t a l approaches f o r p o s s i b l e f u t u r e i n n o v a t i o n
o f p r o p p a n t t y p e s o f a g a i n enhanced t e c h n i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e and i m p r o v e d economi-
c a l f e a s i b i l i t y i n o r d e r t o a d j u s t t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y d i v e r s i f i e d spectrum o f
a p p l i c a t i o n f o c u s on p r o t o t y p e m a t e r i a l s based on s e v e r a l c e r a m i c o x i d e s , c o r -
d i e r i t e and s i l i c o n c a r b i d e , and l o o k m a i n l y i n t o s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y l o w e r i n g b y
fabrication o f p a r t i a l l y hollow o r p a r t i c l e s with high internal microporosity.
C o n c e r n i n g t h e c u r r e n t l y c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e and f i e l d - e x p e r i e n c e d p r o p p a n t
t y p e s , c r y s t a l l i n e a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s t h a t a r e p r o d u c e d b y
s i n t e r i n g have r o u g h s u r f a c e and more i n t e r n a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y i n c o m p a r i s o n t o
the b r i t t l e glassy z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants which are manufactured by f u s i n g
and have smooth s u r f a c e and l e s s i n t e r n a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e
b r i t t l e glassy z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants tend t o f a i l almost suddenly i n a ca-
t a s t r o p h i c manner by b r e a k a g e i n t o t i n y s p l i n t e r s when t h e b o u n d a r y o f c l o s u r e
s t r e s s r e s i s t a n c e i s reached, whereas t h e l e s s b r i t t l e and p a r t i a l l y e v e n d u c -
t i l e c r y s t a l l i n e a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s a r e s p l i t i n t o h a l v e s and
q u a r t e r s i n a more c o n t i n u o u s manner when a p p r o a c h i n g t h e b o u n d a r y o f m e c h a n i -
c a l s t a b i l i t y . V a r i o u s consequences o f t h e d i f f e r e n t m e c h a n i c a l and c h e m i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e p r o p p a n t t y p e s o f d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and c r y -
s t a l l o g r a p h i c a l s t r u c t u r e are discussed along the l i n e s o f r e s i s t i v i t y against
c l o s u r e s t r e s s , t e m p e r a t u r e , and c o m p o s i t i o n o f b r i n e s . The numerous a s p e c t s i n -
f l u e n c i n g p r o p p a n t c h o i c e a r e i l l u s t r a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f f r i c t i o n a n g l e and
g r a i n shape, f l u i d s a l i n i t y and m e c h a n i c a l s t a b i l i t y , f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e and h o t
b r i n e a g g r e s s i v i t y , e q u i p m e n t a b r a s i o n and g r a i n h a r d n e s s , s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and
f l u i d s u s p e n s i o n p r o p e r t i e s , g r a i n s i z e and embedment, and m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o -
c e s s and p e l l e t c o m p o s i t i o n . P r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y as measured d u r i n g l a b o r a t o -
r y t e s t i n g has t o be c o n s i d e r a b l y d i s c o u n t e d i n f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s as a c o n s e -
quence o f embedment o f b r i t t l e p r o p p a n t s i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n , p l u g g i n g o f p o r e s
by f r a c t u r i n g g e l r e s i d u e s and f l u i d - l o s s f i l t e r cakes, d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n
c r a c k g e o m e t r y , and s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n o f p r o p p a n t s by l e a c h i n g and c r u s h i n g . Em-
bedment i n t o g e l f i l t e r c a k e s on f r a c t u r e w a l l s and p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f g e l r e s i -
dues i n t h e p o r e space a r e t h e m o s t s e r i o u s t y p e s o f p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e -
r i o r a t i o n a p a r t f r o m g r a i n c r u s h i n g . M i x i n g o f p r o p p a n t t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s
has i n m o s t c a s e s c o n s i d e r a b l e d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s on p r o p p a n t package c o n d u c t i -
v i t y , w h i l e m i x i n g o f d i f f e r e n t g r a i n shapes c a n be b e n e f i c i a l f o r i n c r e a s i n g
the f r i c t i o n angle o f t h e m a t e r i a l . S e l e c t i o n o f propp( t y p e and g r a i n s i z e
has t o be made o n t h e base o f c a l c u l a t i o n o f c o n d u c t i v i t y p e r US $ v s . c o s t o f
t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n and p a y - o u t by i n c r e a s e d h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c -
t i o n d u r i n g a c e r t a i n t i m e , w i t h c o m p u t e r programs f o r t h e e c o n o m i c a l a s s e s s -
ment o f p r o p p a n t c h o i c e , p e r f o r m a n c e p r e d i c t i o n and f e a s i b i l i t y m o d e l l i n g b e i n g
a v a i l a b l e i n t h e m a r k e t . Economical p r o f i t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g has t o be based o n n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e c a l c u l a t i o n , w i t h t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s i n f l u e n c i n g i n v e s t m e n t r e t u r n b e i n g p r e - and p o s t - f r a c t u r e
h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s as w e l l as p r o p p a n t t y p e and q u a n t i t y . The m o s t
important t e c h n i c a l aspects o f proppant s e l e c t i o n are c l o s u r e stress, surface
morphology, c r u s h i n g behaviour, f r i c t i o n angle, f l u i d s a l i n i t y , f l u i d tempera-
 3

t u r e , e q u i p m e n t a b r a s i o n and s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , whereas i n t h e e c o n o m i c a l f e a s i -
b i l i t y e v a l u a t i o n , p r o p p a n t p r i c e has t h e d o m i n a n t r o l e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n l i g h t
o f the currently quite d i f f e r e n t p r i c i n g o f the various materials. I n addition
t o o i l - and g a s - f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s o f p r o p p a n t s f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and
g r a v e l p a c k i n g , c e r a m i c p r o p p a n t s a r e u s e d i n o t h e r m a r k e t segments as h e a t - e x -
change p e l l e t s i n c u p o l a f u r n a c e s i n s t e e l f o u n d r y , a l u m i n a and g l a s s i n d u s t r y ,
as d u s t a b s o r p t i o n o r f i l t e r i n g p e l l e t s i n t h e gas p u r i f i c a t i o n b r a n c h , f o r
f l u i d and gas f i l t r a t i o n , f o r s h o t b l a s t i n g w i t h h a r d e n i n g o f s t a i n l e s s s t e e l
b y p e e n i n g r a t h e r t h a n c u t t i n g , f o r g r i n d i n g , as c o n s t i t u e n t s o f h i g h - s t a b i l i t y
cements and f o r v a r i o u s o t h e r p u r p o s e s . H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s i n b o t h USA and
Europe a l s o i n t h e f u t u r e r e m a i n i n g t o be t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f
t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s o f t h e p r e s e n t l y c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e
p r o p p a n t s , and e x p e r i m e n t a l approaches c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e l a s t y e a r s e v e n sug-
g e s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e v e l o p m e n t o f new p r o p p a n t t y p e s o f enhanced t e c h n i c a l
p e r f o r m a n c e and b e t t e r e c o n o m i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y i n c a s e o f a d e q u a t e demand b y t h e
market.

1.1. Introduction ............. .................

tion ............
1.1.1.1. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t i g h t r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g f o r f u t u r e
gas s u p p l y . . ..............
1.1.1.2. Hydrocarbon a
1.1.1.3. Economic i n c e n t i v e s o f t i g h t g a s r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g 10
1.1.1.4. P r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s a p p l i e d i n MHF s t i m u l a t i o n
1.1.2. E v o l u t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n o l o g y and o i l p r i c e h i s t o r y
1.1.3. Significance o f proppant s e l e c t i o n ........................... 11
1.1.3.1. I m p o r t a n c e o f f r a c t u r i n g f o r f e a s i b i l i t y assessment
o f hydrocarbon f i e l d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.3.2. C e n t r a l r o l e o f p r o p p a n t placemen
treatment .................................
1.1.4. S p e c i a l a s p e c t s o f t h e European s t i m u l a t i o n
1.1.5. O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.5.1. E x p e r i e n c e e v o l u t i o n and d e r i v a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n 13
1.1.5.2. S u b d i v i s i o n o f t h e book i n t o seven c h a p t e r s . . . . . . . . 13

1.2. H i s t o r i c a l development o f hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.2.1. General aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.1.1. B a s i c aims and p r o c e d u r e s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
jobs ............................................... 16
1.2.1.1.1. Fracture propping ...................... 16
1.2.1.1.2. Stimulation goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.1.2. E v o l u t i o n o f main f r a c t u r i n g design concepts . . . . . . . 17
1.2.1.2.1. F o r m a t i o n damage b r e a k t h r o u g h and s m a l l -
s c a l e sand f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.1.2.2. T i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r MHF s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h
s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s .................... 17
1.2.1.2.3. H i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y p a y zone f r a c t u r i n g . . 18
1.2.1.2.4. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f f r a c t u r e parameter reso-
l u t i o n ................................. 18
1.2.2. L i m i t a t i o n s o f n a t u r a l sand ... .......... 18
1.2.2.1. Closure stress r e s i s t i v i t y i n t e r v a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.2.2. C l o s u r e s t r e s s v s . m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y and o f f t a k e
........................................ 19
1.2.3. Restrictio a t i v e propping materials before the in-
v e n t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c ceramic proppants .......... 20
1 . 2 . 3 . 1 . G l a s s beads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.3.2. M e t a l s h o t s and w a l n u t h u l l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.4. Impact o f e a r l y s y n t h e t i c ceramic proppants 22
1.2.4.1. Sintered bauxite invention trigger
boom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.4.2. Importance o f proppant t e s t i n g f o r q u a l i t y improve-
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
 4

1.2.5. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f advanced s y n t h e t i c c e r a m i c p r o p p a n t s . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2.6. Impact o f resin-coated proppants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1 . 2 . 6 . 1 . R e s i n t y p e s and f u n c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.2.6.1.1. R e d u c t i o n o f p o i n t l o a d i n g a t g r a i n con-
tacts .................................. 24
1.2.6.1.2. S p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and p r o p p a n t p r i c e l o -
wering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.2.6.2. R e a c t i o n s o f r e s i n c o a t i n g s t o c l o s u r e s t r e s s and
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.2.6.2.1. Closure stress ......................... 25
1.2.6.2.2. Temperature . . . ........... . 25
1.2.6.3. D o u b l e r e s i n c o a t i n g combin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.2.6.3.1. F u n c t i o n s o f i n n e r p r e c u r e d and o u t e r
curable f i l m s .......................... 26
1.2.6.3.2. P r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c t i o n o f r e -
s i n p e l l i c l e s .......................... 26
1.2.7. Possible future innovation . . _ . . . . . . 26
1 . 2 . 7 . 1 . P r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e c o m p o s i t i o n t y p e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.2.7.2. Specific gravity lowering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.2.7.3. S t r e n g t h r e t a i n m e n t o f h o l l o w s p h e r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.7.4. P r o p p a n t f a b r i c a t i o n methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.8. V e r t i c a l vs. horizontal f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1 . 2 . 8 . 1 . F r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n and r e s e r v o i r d e p t h . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1 . 2 . 8 . 2 . F r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n and g e o t e c t o n i c a l s e t t i n g . . . . . 2 9
1.2.8.2.1. E x t e n s i o n a l v s . c o m p r e s s i o n a l t e c t o n i c s 29
1.2.8.2.2. Comparative s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h o r i z o n t a l
and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9
u r e i n t e r s e c t i o n and r e s e r v o i r d r a i -
..... ........................... 30
1 . 2 . 8 . 4 . C o e x i s t e n c e and t r a n s i t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i -
cal fractures ...................................... 30

1.3. Proppant types and grain sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

1 . 3 . 1 . Provenance o f sand and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1 . 3 . 1 . 1 . N a t u r a l sand .... . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.3.1.2. Synthetic pro ....
1.3.2. M i n e r a l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s
1.3.2.1. A l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s . . .
1.3.2.2. Z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3. Chemical c o m p o s i t i o n and a c i d s o l u b i l ........... 34
1.3.3.1. Chemical c o m p o s i t i o n _ _ . _ _ _ ........... 36
1.3.3.2. Acid s o l u b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4. G r a i n s i z e s and c o n d u c t i v i t y p e r US $ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1 . 3 . 4 . 1 . C o n d u c t i v i t y improvement by g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n v s .
i n c r e a s i n g screenout r i s k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1 . 3 . 4 . 2 . Commercially a v a i l a b l e proppa in si ...... 38
1.3.5. G r a i n shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... _ _ _ _ .38
_

1.4. Proppant selection for hydraulic fracturing and gravel packing . . . . . . . 40

1.4.0. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r o p p a n t t e s t i n g f o r q u a l i t y improvement . . . . . 40
1.4.1. S u r f a c e m o r p h o l o g y and i n t e r n a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1 . 4 . 1 . 1 . L a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s and r e s u l t s ........ 41
1 . 4 . 1 . 2 . F i e l d t e s t i n g and e x p e r i e n c e . . . . . .
1.4.2. C r u s h i n g b e h a v i o u r and c r y s t a l l i n e s t r u c t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.4.2.1. F a i l u r e o f m i c r o c r y s t a l l i n e and g l a s s y p r o p p a n t t y p e 42
1.4.2.2. I n t e r n a l proppant s t r u c t u r e ........................ 42
1.4.3. F r i c t i o n a n g l e and g r a i n shape . . . . ............. 43
1.4.3.1. Proppant backflow o u t o f
1 . 4 . 3 . 2 . S t a b i l i t y enhancement o f t h e p r o p p a n t package . . . . . . 44
1.4.3.2.1. Proppant backflow p r e v e n t i o n i n hydrau-
l i c fracturing ................... . 44
1.4.3.2.2. Proppant evacuation i n f r a c t u r i n g vs.
 5

gravel packing . . . .... ... 44

1.4.4. F l u i d s a l i n i t y and mechanochemical s t a b i ................. 45
1 . 4 . 4 . 1 . B r i n e c o m p o s i t i o n and proppant d i s s o l u t i o n . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.4.1.1. Low and h i g h f l u i d s a l i n i t i e s . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.4.1.2. Proppant s u r f a c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . 46
1.4.4.2. Formation water s a l i n i t y . . . . . . . .
1.4.4.3. Formation water aggressivity vs.
1.4.5. F l u i d temperature and h o t b r i n e a g g r e s s i v i t .......... 47
1.4.5.1. Steam-drive enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y .
1.4.5.2. Deep t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . .
1 . 4 . 6 . Equipment a b r a s i o n and g r a i n hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.4.6.1. E r o s i o n a l b e h a v i o u r o f d i f f e r e n t proppant t y p e s
1.4.6.1.1. Sintered bauxite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.6.1.2. Z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppant . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.4.6.2. Equipment e r o s i o n by proppants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.4.6.2.1. Diameter changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.4.6.2.2. Threaded c o n n e c t i o n s
1.4.6.2.3. P r e v e n t i o n o f proppan
1.4.6.2.3.1. Replace
i n t e g r a l connections
1.4.6.2.3.2. J o i n t s and t u b u l a r s o
h i g h e r w e i g h t and grade . . 50
1.4.6.3. Proppant damage by equipment . . . . . . . . . .
1 . 4 . 7 . S p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and f l u i d suspension p r o p e r t i e s
1 . 4 . 7 . 1 . F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and proppant s e t t l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.4.7.2. S p e c i f i c g r a v i t y vs. tap density .... 51
1 . 4 . 8 . G r a i n s i z e and embedment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1 . 4 . 8 . 1 . R e s e r v o i r c o m p o s i t i o n and p r o p p a n t r e q u i r e m e n t . . . . . 52
1.4.8.2. F a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g proppant embedment . . . . . . . .
1 . 4 . 9 . M a n u f a c t u r i n g process and p e l l e t c o m p o s i t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1 . 4 . 9 . 1 . Alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.4.9.1.1. Grinded powder p a r t i c l e s i z e vs. p e l l e t
integrity .............................. 53
1.4.9.1.2. S i n t e r i n g temperature and k i l n e n v i r o n -
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.4.9.1.3. A r t i f i c i a l p e l l e t formation vs. natural
p i s o l i t e p r o c e s s i n g .................... 54
1.4.9.2. Z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.4.9.3. N a t u r a l sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.4.10. Conductivity discount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.4.10.1. Laboratory vs. f i e l d c o n d u c t i v i t y discrepancy . . . . . . 56
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 1 . 1 . Proppant b e h a v i o r and r e a c t i o n t o s t r e s s 56
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 1 . 2 . Proppant g r a i n s i z e e f f e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 2 . Impact o f e x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n
1.4.10.2.1. General aspects
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 2 . 2 . Proppant g r a i n s
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 2 . 3 . Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.4.10.3. I m p l i c a t i o n s o f longterm laboratory proppant t e s t i n g 58
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 1 . Gel r e s i d u e damage and a c i d d i s s o l u t i o n 59
1.4.10.3.2. S t r e s s c o r r o s i o n c r a c k i n g . 60
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 2 . 1 . Proppant sen
aqueous s o l u t i o n s . . . . . . . . 60
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 2 . 2 . G r a i n weakening by s t r e s s -
i n t e n s i f i e d erosion . . . . . . 60
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 3 . E f f e c t s o f h i g h temperature, h i g h b r i n e
s a t u r a t i o n and h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s . . . . . 61
1.4.10.3.3.1. S i l i c a s a t u r a t i o n . . . . . . . . 61
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 3 . 2 . Oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n . . . . . 61
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 3 . 3 . R e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n spec-
trum approach . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.4.10.3.4. E f f e c t s o f pay r o c k s l a b s and p r o p p a n t
concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
 6

1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 4 . 1 . W a l l s l i p and m e t a l p i s t o n
v s . f i l t e r c a k e and c o r e
slab ..................... 62
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 4 . 2 . F r a c t u r e p o r o s i m e t r y . . . . _ 63
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 5 . Gel f i l t e r c a k e o n f r a c t u r e w a l l . . . . . . . 63
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 5 . 1 . P r o p p a n t embedment . . . . . . _ 63
1.4.10.3.5.2. Reduction o f e f f e c t i v e
f r a c t u r e w i d t h . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 5 . 3 . P r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y da-
mage by f i l t e r - c a k e b u i l d -
up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 5 . 4 . P r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and
f l u i d t y p e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 5 . 5 . Gel f i l t e r c a k e s i n f r a c -
t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g 65
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 5 . 6 . Removal o f g e l f i l t e r c a k e
b y combined f l u i d - l o s s ad-
d i t i v e and g e l b r e a k e r . . . 65
1.4.10.3.6. G e l l i n g agent concentration
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 6 . 1 . G e n e r a l a s p e c t s . . . . . . . . . . 66
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 6 . 2 . Cleanup f l o w r a t e and c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 6 . 3 . P r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e and
b r e a k e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n . . . _ 67
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 6 . 4 . Hydrocarbon-based cleanup
f l u i d s f o r proppant pack-
age permeabi 1 it y i m p r o v e -
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . Recommended c o n d u c t i v i t y c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s _ . . . . . . . 67
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . 1 . I n f l u e n c e o f t e s t i n g e q u i p m e n t _ _ . _ . _ _68 _ _
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . 2 . I m p a c t o f b r i n e c o m p o s i t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . 2 . 1 . C l a y s t a b i l i z a t i o n b y KCl
water i n f i e l d stimulation
a p p l i c a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . 2 . 2 . KC1 s o l u t i o n s as l a b o r a t o -
r y t e s t i n g f l u i d s . . . . . . . . 69
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . 3 . C o n d u c t i v i t y improvement _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . _ 69
1.4.10.4.3.1. Stimulation treatment
o v e r d e s i g n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ 70
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . 3 . 2 . Demand f o r h i g h e r p r o p p a n t
q u a l i t y and s a t u r a t i o n . . . 70
1.4.10.4.4. P r a c t i c ctivity
data . . .......... . . . . . . . . , 71
1.4.10. l e n t f l o w 71
1.4.10.4.4.2. Conductivity necessity f o r
cleanup vs. production . . . 71
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 5 . Performance experience i n longterm f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n 71
1.4.10.5.1. R o t l i e g e n d a s i n Germany 72
1.4.10.5.2. N o r t h China . . . . . . . . . . . . , 72
1.4.11. Proppant mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.4.11.1. Mixing o f proppant types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1 . 4 . 1 1 . 1 . 1 . M i x i n g o f n a t u r a l sand and s y n t h e t i c
proppants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.4.11.1.1.1. Mixing o f s i n t e r e d bauxite
o r g l a s s beads w i t h sand . 73
1.4.11.1.1.2. Conductivity d e t e r i o r a t i o n
b y p r o p p a n t m i x i n g . . . . . . . 73
1 . 4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 . M i x i n g o f d i f f e r e n t sand t y p e s . . . . . . . . . 74
1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . M i x i n g o f p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _74
1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . M i x i n g o f c o a r s e p r o p p a n t s and f i n e 100
mesh sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.4.11.2.1.1. A p p l i c a t i o n spectrum o f
 7

100 mesh sand . . _ _ _ _ _ . . 75 ...

1.4.11.2.1.2. Preventing permeability
d e t e r i o r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 100 mesh sand as e x c l u s i v e
o r p a r t i c i p a n t p r o p p a n t . . 77
1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . 4 . P r o v o k i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y de-
s t r u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . .78
1.4.11.2.2. M i x i n g o f various coarse proppant g r a i n
sizes . . ................................ 79
1.4.11.3. M i x i n g o f p r o p p a n t g r a i n shapes .................... 79
1 . 4 . 1 1 . 3 . 1 . Enhanced c o n d u c t i v i t y o f r o u n d - a n g u l a r
sand b l e n d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1 . 4 . 1 1 . 3 . 1 . 1 . C o n d u c t i v i t y improvement
and packaqe s t a b i l i t y . . . . 8 0
1 . 4 . 1 1 . 3 . 1 . 2 . C r u s h i n g b e h a v i o u r .-. _ . . . 8 0
1 . 4 . 1 1 . 3 . 2 . B e n e f i t f o r t h e h y d r o c a r b o n s t i m u l a ion
i n d u s t r y .......................... . . . . 81
1 . 4 . 1 2 . Computer programs f o r p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n . _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1
1.4.12.1. General e c o n o m i c a l c r i t e r i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1 . 4 . 1 2 . 1 . 1 . I n v e s t m e n t r e t u r n and p r o f i t a b i l i t y _ . . . 82
1 . 4 . 1 2 . 1 . 2 . D e s i g n o p t i m i z a t i o n and success d e f n i -
t i o n ............................... _ . . . a3
1.4.12.2. N e t o r e s e n t v a l u e c a l c u l a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . . . 83
1.4.12.3. S i m u i a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s and i n p u t d a t a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.4.12.3.1. Cost e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f v a r i o u s proppant
t y p e s , s i z e s and q u a n t i t i e s . . . . . . . _ . . . . 84
1.4.12.3.2. Evolution o f p o s t - f r a c t u r e w e l l p e r f o r -
mance f o r e c a s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.4.12.4. S i g n i f i c a n c e f o r economical l i t y m o d e l l i n g . . 85
1 . 4 . 1 2 . 4 . 1 . P r o p p a n t q u a l i t y and d r a i n a g e e f f i c i e n c y
differences ..... . . . . . . . . _ _ . _ . . . .85 .
1 . 4 . 1 2 . 4 . 2 . E a r l y and l a t e p r o d u c t i o n h i s
1.4.12.5. P r o p p a n t volume v s . w e i g h t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1.4.12.6. Other aspects . . . . . . . ......
1 . 4 . 1 2 . 6 . 1 . P r o p p a n t volume m i n i m i z a t i o n
and d e s i g n o p t i m i z a t i o n . . . . 87
1.4.12.6.2. Proppant s e l e c t i o n vs. pay-
o u t m a x i m i z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.4.13. Proppant selection guidelines . ..... . . . . a7
1.4.13.1. N a t u r a l sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.4.13.2. Intermediate-strength low-density alumina s i l i c a t e
proppants .........................
1.4.13.3. Intermediate-strength high-density
s i l i c a t e proppants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.4.13.4. High-strength high-density alumina oxide proppants . 89
1.4.13.5. High-strength l o s i t y z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e prop-
pants . . . . . . . . . . ............................... 89

1.5. Proppant applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

1 . 5 . 1 . O i l - and g a s - f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
1.5.1.1. H i g h - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s . . 9 1
1.5.1.1.1. S t a n d a r d g r a i n s i z e s _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . .9. 1
1.5.1.1.2. Coarser g r a i n s i z e s .................... 91
1.5.1.2. L o w - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.5.1.3. Z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.5.2. N o n - o i l - and g a s - f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.5.2.1. F o u n d r y h e a t exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.5.2.1.1. P e l l e t t y p e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.5.2.1.2. Pellet grain size .... . . I . . . . 94
. . . . . . . . . .

1.5.2.1.3. A l u m i n a and g l a s s i n d u t r y h e a t exchange 95

1.5.2.2. M e c h a n i c a l gas p u r i f i c a t i o n . . _ . . . . . . . . 95
. . . . . . . . . I . .

1.5.2.2.1. O p e r a t i o n a l s t a g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
 8
1.5.2.2.2. Cleaning stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
1.6. C o n c l u s i o n and o u t l o o k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

1.1. Introduction
H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l and gas
r e s e r v o i r s has become a w i d e l y a p p l i e d t e c h n o l o g y o f h y d r o c a r b o n p a y s t i m u l a -
t i o n i n order t o increase recoverable reserves, t o accelerate production by i n -
c r e a s i n g r a t e s o r t o even p e r m i t o f f t a k e a t a l l . The p r o m o t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t o an o u t s t a n d i n g t e c h n i q u e o f w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n w h i c h a l -
l o w s a c q u i s i t i o n o f enormous gas r e s e r v e s i n h i t h e r t o e c o n o m i c a l l y u n e x p l o i -
t a b l e deep t i g h t gas s a n d s t o n e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 1 . ) , shale ( c f . section 4 . 4 . 4 . )
and c o a l ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 3 . ) p a y zones t o o k p a r t i c u l a r l y p l a c e d u r i n g t h e p a s t
dozen o f y e a r s s i n c e s y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s had
been i n v e n t e d and i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y i n l a t e 1 9 7 6 (COOKE
1 9 7 6 ; COOKE, GIDLEY & MUTT1 1 9 7 7 ; ATTEBERRY, TUCKER & R I T Z 1 9 7 9 ; COOKE & GIDLEY
1 9 7 9 ) . The s i g n i f i c a n t and d e c i s i v e i m p a c t o f h i g h - q u a l i t y man-made p r o p p a n t s
on t h e booming o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s t h a t t h e y c o u l d w i t h s t a n d h i g h e r c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s e s and t h e r e f o r e a l l o w e d t o p r o c e e d t o h i g h e r - p r e s s u r e d r e s e r v o i r s
i n g r e a t e r d e p t h s t h a n was p r e v i o u s l y p o s s i b l e when o n l y n a t u r a l sand as a p r o p -
p i n g a g e n t was a v a i l a b l e t h a t s t a r t s t o c r u s h a l r e a d y i n m o d e r a t e f o r m a t i o n
d e p t h and t h u s i s u n s u i t a b l e t o s u p p o r t f r a c t u r e s i n deep p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l s
o f t h e g e o l o g i c a l column.

The f o l l o w i n g i n t r o d u c t o r y r e m a r k s b e g i n w i t h a s h o r t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f
t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s and m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g (MHF) s t i m u l a -
t i o n w h i c h has t u r n e d o u t d u r i n g t h e l a s t 10 y e a r s t o be t h e m o t o r o f h y d r o c a r -
bon w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y and t h e r e f o r e i s t h e k e y t o t h e w h o l e d i s c u s s i o n
o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g b y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e t e c h n i c a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l -
l y m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f w e l l t r e a t m e n t . MHF s t i m u l a t i o n i s a l s o t h e
p r o c e d u r e where t h e v a r i o u s p r o p e r t i e s o f d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y p e s have t h e
h i g h e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t e r m s o f t e c h n i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e and e c o n o m i c a l f e a s i b i l i -
t y o f t h e operation. A f t e r a succeeding o u t l i n e o f e v o l u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g t e c h n o l o g y and o i l p r i c e h i s t o r y as w e l l as i m p o r t a n c e o f p r o p p a n t s e l e c -
t i o n and f o l l o w i n g some comments on s p e c i a l a s p e c t s o f t h e European s t i m u l a t i o n
m a r k e t , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t i s b r i e f l y s k e t c h e d .

1.1.1. Tight gas reservoirs and MHF stimulation

H y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g enables t o complete hydrocarbon e x p l o r a t i o n
and p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s w i t h an o r i g i n a l e f f e c t i v e r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e
m i c r o d a r c y r a n g e and has t h u s p e r m i t t e d t o s a t i s f y i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r n a t u -
r a l gas b y f o c u s s i n g a t t e n t i o n o n u n c o n v e n t i o n a l t i g h t gas h o r i z o n s t h a t were
h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be u n c o m m e r c i a l , b u t w h i c h a r e now r e p r e s e n t i n g i m -
p o r t a n t resources t h a t a r e already d e l i v e r i n g appreciable shares o f t h e t o t a l
gas p r o d u c t i o n and w h i c h w i l l become p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e f u t u r e
when gas s u p p l y f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l r e s e r v o i r s d e c l i n e s more and more (RANDOLPH
1 9 7 4 ; FAST, HOLMAN & COVLIN 1 9 7 7 ; KUUSKRAA, BRASHEAP, OOSCHER & E L K I N S 1 9 7 8 ;
AGARWAL, CARTER & POLLOCK 1 9 7 9 ; KUUSKRAA, BRASHEAR, EL:'":C & MORRA 1 9 7 9 ; KUUS-
KRAA 1980, BAKER 1981, WALLS 1981; AHMED, SCHATZ, ABOU-SAYED & JONES 1 9 8 2 ; BRA-
SHEAR, E L K I N S & HAAS 1 9 8 2 ; MORRA, BRASHEAR & HAAS 1 9 8 2 ; O'SHEA & MURPHY 1 9 8 2 ;
O'SHEA, ROSENBERG & BRASHEAR 1 9 8 2 ; KAZEMI 1983; ROSENBERG, O'SHEA, MERCER, MOR-
RA & BRASHEAR 1 9 8 3 ; VEATCH & BAKER 1 9 8 3 ; BRASHEAR, ROSENBERG & MERCER 1984; DOE
1 9 8 4 ; HAAS, BRASHEAR & MORRA 1 9 8 5 ; VEATCH 1986, CLARK 1987, DUDA & HANCOCK
1 9 8 7 , KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988, NORTHROP 1988; a s p e c t s o f t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s a r e
a l s o e v a l u a t e d i n s e c t i o n s 3 . 4 . 1 . and 4 . 4 . 1 . ) . The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s c o n c e n -
t r a t e s on s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g f o r f u t u r e gas s u p p l y ,
h y d r o c a r b o n a c q u i s i t i o n expenses and s t i m u l a t i o n s h a r e , e c o n o m i c a l i n c e n t i v e s
o f t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g , and p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s a p p l i e d i n MHF s t i m u -
lation.
 9

1.1.1.1. Significance of tight reservoir

fracturing for future gas supply
Massive h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g (MHF; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 . 2 . ) i s u s u a l l y
t h e most e f f e c t i v e r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y h y d r o c a r -
bon-bearing i n t e r v a l s (ECONOMIDES 1987 b ) , i s i n f a c t t h e o n l y proven economi-
c a l development method f o r t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s t o d a t e (VEATCH 1983) and i s e x -
p e c t e d t o be a b l e t o p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l gas r e s e r v e s o f 4 - 8 T c f ( T r i l l . f t 3 )
i n t h e USA i f p r u d e n t l y a p p l i e d (PAI, G A R B I S & HALL 1983). Massive h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g c o m p r i s i n g l a r g e t r e a t m e n t s i z e s i n terms o f proppant q u a n t i t y ,
f l u i d volume and c r a c k l e n g t h has been f i r s t a p p l i e d t o deep gas r e s e r v o i r s i n
1975 (RANDOLPH 1974, WORLD OIL 1975 a, SLUSSER & RIECKMANN 1976; c f . s e c t i o n s
1 . 2 . 4 . and 2 . 4 . 1 . ) and s i n c e t h a t t i m e has r a p i d l y become t h e p r o b a b l y most w i -
d e l y u t i l i z e d t e c h n i q u e i n hydrocarbon s t i m u l a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y i n USA and Wes-
t e r n Europe. The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l t i g h t gas sandstone e x p l o i t a -
t i o n by MHF s t i m u l a t i o n i s u n d e r l i n e d by t h e p r o g r e s s i v e l y r i s i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n
o f t i g h t r e s e r v o i r gas t o t h e t o t a l gas p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e USA f r o m a b t . 5 -
10 % i n t h e 1980's t o a b t . 30 % and 50 % f o r e c a s t e d f o r t h e y e a r s 2000 and
2020, r e s p e c t i v e l y (BAKER 1981; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 4 . ) .

Independent from, b u t c e r t a i n l y c o n s i d e r a b l y promoted by t h e c h a l l e n g i n g ac-

q u i s i t i o n o f gas i n t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s o f sandstone, s h a l e and c o a l type, t h e use
o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g f o r s t i m u l a t i o n o f w e l l s i n sandstone and c a r -
bonate pays i n o i l and gas i n d u s t r y and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o i n geothermal h e a t
e x p l o i t a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 7 . ) has r i s e n s i g n i f i c a n t l y d u r i n g t h e l a s t y e a r s
and t h i s t r e n d i s expected t o c o n t i n u e and t o even a c c e l e r a t e , because i t w i l l
become i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t t o maximize t h e amount o f o i l and gas t h a t can be
produced f r o m a g i v e n w e l l and pay i n t h e near and f a r f u t u r e when many o f t h e
h i g h - c a p a c i t y c o n v e n t i o n a l r e s e r v o i r s become p r o g r e s s i v e l y exhausted and d e p l e -
t e d (McDANIEL & WILLINGHAM 1978).

1.1.1.2. Hydrocarbon acquisition expenses and stimulation share

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g f o r i n c r e a s i n g a c c e s s i b l e hy-
drocarbon r e s e r v e s and o p t i m i z a t i o n o f p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f o i l and gas f i e l d ex-
p l o i t a t i o n i s u n d e r l i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t d u r i n g t h e l a s t decade, p e t r o l e u m i n -
d u s t r y i n f r e e w o r l d spent a n n u a l l y more t h a n 100 B i l l . US $ f o r o i l and gas
e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n (OEHME 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 2 . and 2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 2 . ) .
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e t h e share o f s t i m u l a t i o n , b u t i t i s o n l y l o g i c a l t o
p o s t u l a t e t h a t i n view o f such h i g h expenses e v e r y e f f o r t s h o u l d be undertaken
t o maximize hydrocarbon o f f t a k e by a p p l i c a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
as a more o r l e s s common p r a c t i c e o f w e l l c o m p l e t i o n i n f i e l d s where t h e o u t p u t
can be i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h t h i s t e c h n i q u e . I n t h e USA which p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t
t h e most mature o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n market, h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s have t o be c a r r i e d o u t i n 35 - 40 % o f a l l t h e w e l l s t h a t
a r e d r i l l e d and completed (VEATCH 1983, OIL GAS JOURNAL 1984; c f . s e c t i o n
2.3.).

I n t h e B r i t i s h s e c t o r o f t h e N o r t h Sea which i n c l u d e s t h e Southern R o t l i e -

gend B a s i n t h a t i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t t i g h t gas p r o v i n c e i n Europe and which i s
a t t h e moment i n t h e stage o f advancing t o t h e c e n t r e o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g i n Europe and t o r e p r e s e n t t h e h i g h l i g h t o f t h e whole w e l l s t i m u l a -
t i o n h i s t o r y i n t h i s area ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . ) , a b t . 50 B i l l . t! have been
i n v e s t e d i n t o e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n d u r i n g 25 y e a r s s i n c e t h e d i s c o v e r y o f
t h e f i r s t commercial gas f i e l d i n 1965 (OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1986 d ) , w i t h t h i s
c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e c o n t a i n i n g a l r e a d y reasonable shares o f s t i m u l a t i o n due t o
v a r i o u s b i g campaigns h a v i n g a l r e a d y t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d t i g h t gas
be1 t .
 10

1 . 1 . 1 . 3 . Economical incentives o f tight gas reservoir fracturing

As a consequence o f w o r l d - w i d e i n c r e a s e d demand f o r n a t u r a l gas and t h e c r e a -
t i o n o f t i g h t gas i n c e n t i v e p r i c e and t a x i n t h e USA (HAAS, BRASHEAR & MORRA
1985) i n 1978 ( t h u s a l m o s t c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g o f c o m m e r c i a l a v a i l a b i -
l i t y o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s ; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) , low-
p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s have been r e c o g n i z e d as t h e n e x t m a j o r s o u r c e o f f u t u r e
gas s u p p l y p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e USA and a l s o i n s e v e r a l p a r t s o f Europe (BAKER
1981; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 4 . ) and have been r e g a r d e d as h a v i n g t h e p r o s p e c t o f
o f f s e t t i n g t h e p r e d i c t a b l e d e c l i n e i n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e s e r v e s (HAAS, BRASHEAR &
MORRA 1 9 8 5 ) . The n a t u r e o f t h e two e c o n o m i c a l i n c e n t i v e s , p r o v i d i n g e i t h e r
h i g h e r p r i c e s when gas i s i n s h o r t s u p p l y o r t a x c r e d i t s when i t i s n o t , c r e a -
t e s a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h i s b e n e f i c i a l f o r t i g h t gas e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n .

Because t i g h t gas f o r m a t i o n s p r o d u c e p r i m a r i l y o n l y w i t h l o w u n e c o n o m i c a l r a -
t e s , t h e n e c e s s a r y i n c r e a s e o f p r o d u c t i v i t y has t o be s e c o n d a r i l y a c h i e v e d b y
h y d r a u l i c proppant and/or a c i d f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . ) o r h o r i z o n t a l bo-
r e h o l e d r i l l i n g (SUNG & ERTEKIN 1987; c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 8 . 6 . 2 . 1 . and 4 . 8 . 6 . 2 . 2 . )
o r a combination o f both. Hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g i s generally considered
t o be t h e most v i a b l e method o f i m p r o v i n g r e c o v e r y i n t i g h t f o r m a t i o n s (ECONOMI-
DES 1987 b ) , and m a x i m i z a t i o n o f t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n e f f e c t i v i t y c a n be a c h i e v e d
by i n s t a l a t i o n o f m u l t i f r a c t u r e systems i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d t o h o r i z o n t a l d r a i -
nage we1 s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 6 . 2 . 4 . ) e s p e c i a l l y i n t h i n r e s e r v o i r s , whereas f o r
t h i c k pay zones, d e e p l y p e n e t r a t i n g n o r m a l f r a c t u r e s e m a n a t i n g f r o m v e r t i c a l
w e l l s a r e s t i l l t h e optimum s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e .

1.1.1.4. Proppant quantities applied in MHF stimulation

Enhancement of t h e a b i l i t y t o a c c u r a t e l y p r e d i c t and c o n t r o l t h e g e o m e t r y of
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i n c r e a s e s t h e chances o f a c h i e v i n g optimum p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e
l e n g t h s and h e i g h t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) and t h u s l e a d s t o an a m e l i o r a t e d e c o -
n o m i c a l i n c e n t i v e f o r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s (HOLDITCH, ROBINSON,
WHITEHEAD & ELY 1 9 8 7 ) . T h i c k t i g h t r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n s ( w i t h p e r m e a b i l i t i e s
b e i n g l e s s t h a n 0 . 1 md; PAI, GARBIS & HALL 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 . 2 . ) contain-
i n g enormous amounts o f gas r e s e r v e s i n USA and Europe t h a t o n l y have t o be li-
berated from t h e low-permeability m a t r i x r e q u i r e f r e q u e n t l y massive h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s (MHF; RANDOLPH 1974; MALONE, STAHL & COULTER 1977; MURPHY
& CARNEY 1977; PARKER 1980, 1981; WHITE & DANIEL 1980, 1981; HOLCOMB 1982, PA1
& G A R B I S 1983 a; P A I , G A R B I S & HALL 1983) where p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s o f f r e q u e n t -
l y u p t o more t h a n 400 - 600 t o r e v e n a b t . 1,000 t a r e pui '.:d w i t h i n a s i n g l e
j o b c o m p r i s i n g f l u i d volumes up t o more t h a n 1 M i o . g a l , w i t h some o f t h e jumbo
s t i m u l a t i o n s c h a l l e n g i n g t h e p r e s e n t t e c h n o l o g i c a l and o p e r a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s .

The w o r l d r e c o r d t o d a t e c o m p r i s e s a MHF gas w e l l t r e a t m e n t i n t h e USA w i t h

3,150 t o r 6 . 3 M i a . l b s o f 20/40 n a t u r a l sand as p r o p p a n t s pumped i n a t o t a l
f l u i d volume o f a b t . 1 . 5 4 M i o . g a l i n t o a t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r o f a b t . 300 f t
(100 m) p a y t h i c k n e s s i n a b t . 9,300 f t ( 3 , 1 0 0 m) f o r m a t i o n d e p t h i n t h e W i l c o x
Sand i n t h e B e n a v i d e s f i e l d ( Z a p a t a c o u n t y , S o u t h T e x a s ) i n 1987 (CONSTIEN,
BRANNON & B A N N I S T E R 1988; PITTS 1 9 8 8 ) . I n o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t t h e jumbo j o b , 1 8
h i g h - p r e s s u r e t r u c k s pumped f o r a l m o s t 11 h o u r s and i n t o t a l a b t . 100 p i e c e s o f
e q u i p m e n t had t o b e i n s t a l l e d a t t h e w e l l s i t e . The maximum q u a n t i t y o f s y n t h e -
t i c p r o p p a n t s o f b a u x i t e base h a v i n g been i n j e c t e d so f a r i n t o a l a r g e - s c a l e
f r a c t u r e i s a b t . 1.5 M i o . l b s , w i t h t h e main reason f o r t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i s c r e -
pancy i n w o r l d r e c o r d q u a n t i t y between n a t u r a l sand and s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s n o t
b e i n g s u s p e n s i o n and t r a n s p o r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h i n t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d b u t
b e i n g expense o f t h e o p e r a t i o n due t o t h e p r i c e d i f f e r e n c e between n a t u r a l sand
and a r t i f i c i a l h i g h - q u a l i t y man-made p r o p p a n t s .
 11

1.1.2. Evolution of fracturing technology and oil price history

The e v o l u t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s main types and b a s i c concepts o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g t e c h n o l o g y (VEATCH 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 1.2.1.2.) and d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a t i o n s
o f a r t i f i c i a l proppants o f v a r i o u s s t r e n g t h and o f m a i n l y corundum, m u l l i t e and
z i r c o n i a c o m p o s i t i o n (DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1985, WESTERN PETROLEUM 1985; c f . sec-
t i o n 1.3. and t a b s . 1 - 3) took p l a c e p a r a l l e l t o s e v e r a l d r a s t i c a l o i l p r i c e
changes e a r l i e r i n upwards and l a t e r i n downwards d i r e c t i o n (GRIFFITHS 1986,
RUNGE 1986) t h a t were i n Europe p a r t i a l l y even accentuated by v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e
US $ exchange r a t e ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o DM and t; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) .

P l a n n i n g and e x e c u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g j o b s has t h u s been

n o t o n l y i n f l u e n c e d by r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g , geological-petrophysical and t e c h -
n i c a l m o d e l l i n g o f optimum hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n i n terms o f r a t e and dura-
t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n as a base f o r commitment o f gas s u p p l y c o n t r a c t s ( c f . sec-
t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 2 . ) and t h u s d i s c o u n t e d cash f l o w and p a y - o u t o f investment, b u t
p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g t h e l a s t t h r e e y e a r s s i n c e t h e m a j o r o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e (MEN-
GES 1986, OEHME 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) a l s o by economical e v a l u a t i o n o f
t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f c a r r y i n g - o u t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s i n l i g h t o f t h e c u r r e n t hydro-
carbon p r i c e s c e n a r i o ( t h a t was i n Europe d u r i n g t h e l a s t c o u p l e o f y e a r s nega-
t i v e l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e US $ exchange r a t e drop; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) . Prop-
p a n t p r i c e changes a l s o have s i g n i f i c a n t impacts on f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n budge-
t i n g and design, because proppant c o s t comprises t h e h i g h e s t share o f t h e t o t a l
expenses o f t h e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n j o b ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 2 . ) .

1.1.3. Significance of proppant selection

As a consequence o f d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , changing o p e r a t i o n a l p e r -
formance and d i f f e r e n t p r i c e s o f t h e v a r i o u s proppant types, c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n
a c c o r d i n g t o p r o p p a n t b e h a v i o u r under r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s ( c l o s u r e s t r e s s , tem-
p e r a t u r e and b r i n e c o m p o s i t i o n ) and economical frame i s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g n i f i -
cance f o r f e a s i b i l i t y m o d e l l i n g o f t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n , because i n
deep t i g h t gas w e l l s , p r o p p a n t c o s t can r e a c h up t o two t h i r d s o f t h e t o t a l s t i -
m u l a t i o n expenses ( f o r example t h e c u m u l a t i v e c o s t f o r a MHF t r e a t m e n t i n a R o t -
l i e g e n d w e l l i n t h e Sohlingen gas field/Germany FRG i n l a t e 1982 where a b t . 550
t o f proppants had been i n j e c t e d amounted up t o 6 Mio. DM o r 2.5 Mio. US 8 , b u t
t h e jumbo j o b o p e r a t i o n p a i d o f f by p r o v i n g a b t . 500 Mio. m 3 gas r e s e r v e s ; JOHN
1983, KLOSE & KRUMER 1983, BLEAKLEY 1984; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 3 . ) . Some comments a r e
o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on importance o f f r a c t u r i n g f o r f e a s i b i l i t y assessment o f hy-
drocarbon f i e l d s , and c e n t r a l r o l e o f p r o p p a n t placement i n t h e s t i m u l a t i o n
treatment.

1.1.3.1. Importance of fracturing for

feasibility assessment of hydrocarbon fields
H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s do n o t o n l y o f t e n r e p r e s e n t a l a r g e f r a c t i o n
o f i n i t i a l w e l l c o s t s , b u t a l s o determine t h e economical v i a b i l i t y o f a p a r t i c u -
l a r b o r e h o l e o r f i e l d (NEWBERRY, NELSON & AHMED 1985). A s t i m u l a t i o n j o b b e i n g
t o o l a r g e can be an unnecessary waste o f c o m p l e t i o n funds, whereas a f r a c t u r e
t r e a t m e n t b e i n g t o o small may r e s u l t i n such i n e f f i c i e n t r e s e r v o i r d r a i n a g e t o
make a w e l l u n p r o f i t a b l e , and because o f t h i s economical double-edged sword, hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g j o b s have t o be designed i n such a way as t o o p t i m a l l y de-
p l e t e t h e pay f o r m a t i o n , w i t h c h o i c e o f p r o p p a n t t y p e and g r a i n s i z e p l a y i n g a
key r o l e i n t h i s m o d e l l i n g .

A f t e r t h e f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t has been c a r r i e d o u t and t h e f l u i d has been p r o -

duced back, t h e o n l y t h i n g which i s l e f t i n p l a c e i n t h e r e s e r v o i r i s t h e p r o p -
p a n t package s u p p o r t i n g t h e c r a c k , keeping t h e pathway open t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g a
h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y channel t o enable enhanced f l o w o f o i l o r gas t o t h e b o r e h o l e
and t h u s c o n t r o l l i n g l o n g - t e r m p r o d u c t i v i t y (HOLDITCH 1984, ANDERSON & PHILLIPS
 12

1986, HALL & LARKIN 1986; c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 4 . 1 2 . and 4 . 1 3 . ) . This relationship

h i g h l i g h t s t h e o u t s t a n d i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e and c r i t i c a l r o l e o f t h e p r o p p a n t i n
t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n and t h u s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f i t s p r o p e r s e l e c -
tion.

1.1.3.2. Central role o f proppant placement

in the fracturing treatment
SIEVERT, WAHL, CLARK & HARKIN ( 1 9 8 1 ) summarize t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p r o p p a n t se-
l e c t i o n b y u n d e r l i n i n g t h a t a l l t h e t i m e and money s p e n t d e v e l o p i n g and p e r f e c t -
ing fracturing fluids, t e c h n i q u e s and e q u i p m e n t a r e p e r i p h e r a l t o t h e c e n t r a l
o b j e c t i v e o f p l a c i n g p r o p p a n t i n t h e f r a c t u r e i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a h i g h l y con-
d u c t i v e f l o w c h a n n e l . Economical a s p e c t s o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a r e
a l s o e v a l u a t e d b y VEATCH ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

T h i s h i g h r a n k o f p r o p p a n t c h o i c e as t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l p o i n t o f h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n (HOLDITCH 1984) f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s i n
o i l , gas and w a t e r r e s e r v o i r management i s t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e n e c e s s i t y o f c a r -
r y i n g o u t a sophisticated m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y proppant marketing w i t h i n c l u s i o n
o f g e o l o g i c a l ( m a i n l y sedimentological-petrophysical) and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g
c o n c e p t s i n t o t h e t e c h n i c a l and c o m m e r c i a l m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y . P r o p p a n t s e l e c -
t i o n r e q u i r e s t e c h n i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g recommendations i n v i e w o f
t h e c o m m e r c i a l l y b e s t n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e p e r i n v e s t e d US $ (BRIM 1986, ANDERSON
& PHILLIPS 1987) w h i c h c a n a l s o b e e x p r e s s e d as t h e n e e d o f l o o k i n g f o r a p r o p -
p a n t t o g i v e maximum c o n d u c t i v i t y p e r US $ (NORTON-ALCOA PROPPANTS 1986, STAN-
DARD O I L PROPPANTS 1986; c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 3 . 4 . and 1 . 4 . 1 2 . ) . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
p r o p p a n t c h o i c e i s h i g h l i g h t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r l y i n deep w e l l a p p l i -
c a t i o n , t h e t y p e o f p r o p p a n t u s e d c a n make a d i f f e r e n c e between an e c o n o m i c a l
success o r a f a i l u r e o f t h e w h o l e t r e a t m e n t (McDANIEL & WILLINGHAM 1 9 7 8 ) .

1 . 1 . 4 . Special aspects of the European stimulation market

W h i l e t h e g e o l o g i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s and c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s o f o i l and gas pay zones r e q u i r i n g t r e a t m e n t b y h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r -
i n g a r e b a s i c a l l y more o r l e s s c o m p a r a b l e i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , f u n -
damental d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t i n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c a l and c o m m e r c i a l s e t t i n g b e t -
ween t h e s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t s i n Europe and USA. In c o n t r a s t t o t h e USA w h i c h
c a n b e r e g a r d e d as a l a r g e more o r l e s s homogeneous u n i t , E u r o p e i s not o n l y p o -
l i t i c a l l y a complex and h e t e r o g e n e o u s a g g r e g a t e o f c o u n t r i e s s p e a k i n g a s u i t e
o f d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s and h a v i n g a s p e c t r u m o f v a r i o u s m e n t a l i t i e s , w i t h t h e
m a j o r d i s t i n c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g e c o n o m i c a l s i t u a t i o n , s t a t u s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l deve-
l o p m e n t , c o m m e r c i a l c a p a c i t y and f o r e i g n t r a d e a c t i v i t y h a v i n g t o be made b e t -
ween Western and E a s t e r n Europe, b u t a l s o i n c l u d e s a w i d e r a n g e o f o i l and gas
r e s e r v o i r types i n terms o f s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l , palaeogeographical, sedimentologi-
c a l and p e t r o p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e an assessment o f t h e European
a r e a l h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l f r o m b o t h t e c h n i c a l and m a r k e t i n g
p o i n t o f v i e w ( w h i c h i s p r e s e n t e d as a r e g i o n a l c a s e s t u d y i n c h a p t e r s 2 and 3
i n t h i s c o m p i l a t i o n ) has t o summarize t h e g e n e r a l g e o l o g i c a l and c o m m e r c i a l
scene b y c o m p a r i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t c a s e s and i n t e g r a t i n g n o t o n l y s c i e n t i f i c , e n -
g i n e e r i n g and t e c h n o l o g i c a l , b u t a l s o e c o n o m i c a l and e v e n i d e o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s .

Due t o my t e c h n i c a l and m a r k e t i n g e x p e r i e n c e , p r e f e r e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e i s made

w i t h i n t h i s c o m p i l a t i o n t o examples d e r i v i n g f r o m W e s t e r n and E a s t e r n Europe,
a l t h o u g h t h e a n a l y s i s and r e v i e w ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e a r e a l m a r k e t s t u d y
p r e s e n t e d i n c h a p t e r 2 and t h e t e c h n i c a l - e c o n o m i c a l example s k e t c h o f a t i g h t
gas r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n i n c h a p t e r 3 ) a p p l i e s f o r o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d as
w e l l , w i t h m o s t o f t h e c a s e h i s t o r i e s and s p e c i a l c o n c l u s i o n s b e i n g based o n e x -
p e r i e n c e f r o m t h e USA w h i c h i s p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t f o r h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n t h e w o r l d b o t h i n p a s t and f u t u r e .
 13

1.1.5. Organization of the review and status report

The o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c -
t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n t h e p r e s e n t proceedings volume i s sketched a l o n g
t h e l i n e s o f e v o l u t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e and d e r i v a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n as w e l l as
s u b d i v i s i o n o f t h e book i n t o seven c h a p t e r s .

1.1.5.1. Experience evolution and derivation o f information

The p r e s e n t o u t l i n e g i v e s a r e v i e w and d i s c u s s e s s t a t u s and p e r s p e c t i v e s o f
h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ( a c i d f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h o u t proppants i s
excluded f r o m t h i s account) and g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s p a r t i -
c u l a r l y i n Western and E a s t e r n Europe based t o c o n s i d e r a b l e amounts on t h e i n -
f o r m a t i o n which I have c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g my r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as M a r k e t i n g Manager
Europe f o r proppants (MADER 1987). V a r i o u s comparisons o f USA and Europe a r e
used i n t h e c h a p t e r s c o n c e n t r a t i n g on m a r k e t i n g and economical aspects f o r g i -
v i n g more g e n e r a l overviews and l e a d t o t h e m a i n l y t e c h n i c a l s e c t i o n s t h a t r e -
p r e s e n t common analyses w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o s p e c i f i c example areas and a r e va-
l i d f o r most p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . Concerning t h e d i v i s i o n s f o c u s s i n g on Europe,
many b o t h g e n e r a l and s p e c i f i c comments d e r i v e from t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f d e v e l o -
p i n g a m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y f o r p r o p p a n t s t h a t i n c l u d e s g e o l o g i c a l and r e s e r v o i r
e n g i n e e r i n g concepts i n v a r i o u s European c o u n t r i e s . Abundant t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a -
t i o n has been achieved t h r o u g h e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e s t u d i e s as w e l l as a t t e n -
t i o n o f t o p i c a l symposia and congresses.

I n a d d i t i o n , numerous o t h e r s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l , p e t r o p h y s i c a l , e n g i n e e r i n g and
t e c h n i c a l f a c t o r s as w e l l as p o i n t s o f f i n a n c e , m e n t a l i t y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l co-
o p e r a t i o n which I have compiled d u r i n g my f o r m e r p r o f e s s i o n a l t a s k as Area O i l
and Gas P r o d u c t i o n G e o l o g i s t as w e l l as d u r i n g my own independent s c i e n t i f i c r e -
search on d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o d e l l i n g , p a l a e o g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n s t e l l a -
t i o n , e c o l o g i c a l m i l i e u e v o l u t i o n and d i a g e n e t i c a l h i s t o r y o f Lower Permian
( R o t l i e g e n d ) and Lower T r i a s s i c ( B u n t s a n d s t e i n ) f l u v i a l , a e o l i a n and l a c u s t r i n e
r e d bed sediments ( p a r t o f which f o r m some o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t n a t u r a l gas r e -
s e r v o i r s onshore M i d d l e Europe and o f f s h o r e i n t h e K o r t h Sea; MADER 1985 a ) and
v i o l e t c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l s (MADER 1985 b ) a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h i s summary r e -
p o r t . The main work f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s c o m p i l a t i o n was c a r r i e d o u t s i n c e I
am an independent c o n s u l t a n t f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e t r o l e u m geology and r e s e r v o i r
engineering.

1.1.5.2. Subdivision of the book into seven chapters

The r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l
p a c k i n g aspects i n m a i n l y USA and Europe i n t h e p r e s e n t p r o c e e d i n g s volume i s
d i v i d e d i n t o seven c h a p t e r s . The f i r s t c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n
( c f . tabs. 1 - 4), t h e second s e c t i o n p r e s e n t s m a r k e t i n g and economical as-
p e c t s , and t h e t h i r d d i v i s i o n r e p o r t s t e c h n i c a l and m a r k e t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f
R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s s t i m u l a t i o n i n Europe, t h e r e b y f o r m i n g a t r a n s i -
t i o n from t h e e c o n o m i c a l l y o r i e n t e d p a r t s t o t h e t e c h n i c a l l y dominated chap-
t e r s . The f o u r t h c h a p t e r g i v e s an account o f t e c h n i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g aspects
o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , and t h e f i f t h s e c t i o n focusses on g r a v e l pack-
i n g . The s i x t h u n i t summarizes f r a c t u r e and g r a v e l pack m o n i t o r i n g . W h i l e t h e
second d i v i s i o n i n c l u d e s a m a r k e t i n g a n a l y s i s o f Western and E a s t e r n Europe
w i t h some comparative assessment o f t h e USA and t h e t h i r d u n i t r e p r e s e n t s an
a r e a l i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y case s t u d y o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d b a s i n b e i n g t h e most impor-
t a n t t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r p r o v i n c e i n Europe, t h e f i r s t and f o u r t h t o s i x t h sec-
t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l t e c h n i c a l c o m p i l a t i o n s n o t o n l y b e i n g v a l i d f o r Europe and
USA, b u t a l s o f o r many o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , a l t h o u g h many o f t h e s e l e c t e d
examples a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by e x p e r i e n c e and p r o g r e s s achieved i n Europe and USA.
 14
The evaluation of proppant types and grain sizes is introduced by a brief ac-
count of historical development of hydraulic proppant fracturing. The summary
of proppant choice offers general comments as well as particular references on
the European oil- and gas-bearing formations requiring stimulation. The seventh
chapter of the present book contains the bibliography which is divided into sub-
ject key classification and general reference list. A preliminary outline of
some marketing and economical aspects of hydraulic proppant fracturing has been
given by MADER (1987), MADER (1988 a) briefly illustrates a selection of the
most important technical and reservoir engineering aspects, and a short inter-
disciplinary characteristic of the Rotliegend as the most significant tight gas
pay horizon in Europe and thus the centre of hydraulic proppant fracturing acti-
vity in this area both offshore and onshore is provided by MADER (1988 b).

1.2. Historical development o f hydraulic proppant fracturing

Hydraulic proppant fracturing is an established stimulation technique since
abt. 40 years from the late 1940's onwards. Hydraulic fracturing was introduced
to the petroleum industry in 1947 - 1949 (CLARK 1948, FARREY 1953, WILSEY &
BEARDEN 1954, KHRISTIANOVICH & ZHELTOV 1955, ZHELTOV & KHRISTIANOVICH 1955) and
since the first commercial treatments in 1947 (well Klepper 1 in Hugoton gas
field in Grant countylwestern Kansas/USA; CLARK 1948, HOWARD & FAST 1970 a)
through early 1949 (WATERS 1980) already more than one hundred thousand opera-
tions have been performed until 1955, more than half a million treatments have
been executed during the first 20 years until 1968, and almost one million jobs
have been carried out world-wide to date since innovation and inauguration of
the method shortly after the end of the Second World War (HUBBERT & WILLIS
1957, WATERS 1980; HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981; VEATCH 1983; VEATCH & MO-
SCHOVIDIS 1986). Hydraulic proppant fracturing has evolved during course of
four decades from small treatments on single-zone completions to massive opera-
tions on multiple-interval installations (GRIFFITH & MADISON 1988). During the
peak year of 1955, hydraulic stimulation jobs in the USA have been performed at
a rate of 4,500 every month, whereas after 17 years of commercial use i n 1965,
the rate levelled off to abt. 2,000 actions per month (HOWARD & FAST 1970 a)
and later even temporarily declined to abt. 1,500 operations per month.
Hydraulic proppant fracturing is a younger reservoir treatment method than
acid fracturing which is common since more than 50 years (HOWARD & FAST 1970 a,
WATERS 1980, ECONOMIDES 1986). Before the advent of hydraulic proppant fractur-
ing, well stimulation in sandstone reservoirs was frequently done by detonating
different types of explosives in the open hole which resulted in rubblization
of the formation and radial propagation of fractures for a short distance from
the wellbore, thus effectively increasing borehole diameter (WATERS 1980; cf.
section 4.7.3.), and to minor amounts also by acidizing or acid fracturing (cf.
section 4.5.1. and 4.5.5.), with all these pre-proppant fracturing methods, how-
ever, having had only limited success which at the bottom of the line was in
many cases far from satisfying. Since its commercial introduction in 1947/1948,
hydraulic fracturing has affected every facet of oil and gas industry by alte-
ring pipeline construction, changing production practices, killing the nitrogly-
cerin oil well-shooting business, upsetting drilling companies, revolutioning
well service spectrum, and giving rise to re-evaluation of many pay sections
that had been previously bypassed and/or neglected (HOWARD & FAST 1970 a).
Hydraulic proppant fracturing is performed in various reservoir depth ran-
ging from very shallow levels from abt. 500 ft (150 m) in case of muddy fine-
grained sandstones, shales and chalks bearing oil and/or gas, to very deep sto-
reys in excess of 20,000 ft (6,500 m) in case of tight sandstone, shale and
coal seam gas pay horizons. After review of some general points, the following
outline mainly focusses on discussion of aspects of limitations o f natural
sand, restriction of alternative propping materials before the invention of syn-
thetic ceramic proppants, impact of early synthetic ceramic proppants, signifi-
cance of advanced ceramic proppants, impact of resin-coated proppants, possible
 15

Fig. 1
S c h e m a t i c a l i l l u s t r a t i o n o f s u p p o r t i n g open h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s i n
sandstone r e s e r v o i r s by i n f i l l i n g t h e c r a c k s w i t h s p h e r i c a l s t r e s s - r e s i s t a n t
p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l s which keep t h e f r a c t u r e s open and p r e v e n t them f r o m c l o s i n g
once h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d d u r i n g t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b subsequently d e c l i -
nes and c l o s u r e s t r e s s o f t h e f o r m a t i o n becomes e f f e c t i v e . T y p i c a l f r a c t u r e sup-
p o r t by p r o p p a n t m u l t i l a y e r s w i t h a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r e f e r e n t i a l l y r o u n d g r a i n s of
c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r g r a i n size t h a n t h a t o f t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e s
h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y d r a i n a g e p a t h s or superhighways t h r o u g h t h e t i g h t pay zone
a l o n g which t h e hydrocarbons can f l o w l i n e a r l y from t h e outward p o i n t s o f t h e
r e s e r v o i r t o t h e b o r e h o l e i n s t e a d o f r a d i a l l y as i n u n d i s t u r b e d pays. Proppant
c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y has t o be such t h a t c r u s h i n g o f s p h e r i c a l p a r t i c l e s
i n t h e f r a c t u r e upon i n c r e a s i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e r e s e r v o i r d e p l e -
t i o n i s avoided, w i t h t h i s g o a l b e i n g p r e d o m i n a n t l y achieved by a p p l i c a t i o n o f
i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants i n s t e a d of n a t u r a l q u a r t z
sand which has o n l y l i m i t e d p r e s s u r e r e s i s t i v i t y . Another i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a -
t i o n is r e s i s t i v i t y a g a i n s t r e s e r v o i r t e m p e r a t u r e and a g g r e s s i v i t y o f f o r m a t i o n
w a t e r which i n some cases may be s a t u r a t e d b r i n e s . S e l e c t i o n o f t y p e and g r a i n
s i z e o f t h e p r o p p a n t s t o be pumped i n t o t h e c r a c k has t h e r e f o r e a key r o l e i n
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g d e s i g n , because i n some l a r g e - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t s , p r o p p a n t
c o s t can r e a c h up t o two t h i r d s o f t h e t o t a l s t i m u l a t i o n j o b expenses.
 16

f u t u r e i n n o v a t i o n , and v e r t i c a l v s . h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n .

1.2.1. General aspects

Proper understanding o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s proppant ty-
pes and t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n i s f a c i l i t a t e d b y b r i e f l y i n t r o -
d u c i n g b a s i c aims and p r o c e d u r e s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s as w e l l as
s k e t c h i n g t h e e v o l u t i o n o f m a i n f r a c t u r i n g d e s i g n c o n c e p t s as f o l l o w s .

1.2.1.1. Basic aims and procedures of hydraulic fracturing jobs

Hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g p l a y s a major r o l e i n enhancing petroleum r e -
s e r v e s and p r o d u c t i o n (VEATCH 1983). The h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a -
t i o n c o m p r i s e s pumping o f a s l u r r y c o n s i s t i n g o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d ( g e l ,
e m u l s i o n o r foam) and p r o p p a n t g r a i n s a t h i g h r a t e s , v a r i o u s r e l a t i v e c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s , and h i g h p r e s s u r e s i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n where due t o p r o g r e s s i v e l y b u i l d -
i n g u p o f w e l l b o r e p r e s s u r e f i n a l l y c o m p r e s s i v e e a r t h s t r e s s e s and r o c k t e n s i l e
s t r e s s e s a r e exceeded and as a consequence o f r e s e r v o i r f a i l u r e a f r a c t u r e i s
h y d r a u l i c a l l y created t h a t propagates p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l e a s t p r i n c i p l e
e a r t h s t r e s s ( t h u s t h e f r a c t u r e i s u s u a l l y v e r t i c a l i n w e l l s e x c e e d i n g 3,000 f t
o r 1,000 m d e p t h ; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 8 . ) . F o l l o w i n g a s k e t c h o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e
o f f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g , some s t i m u l a t i o n g o a l s i n v i e w o f r e s e r v o i r p r o d u c t i v i t y
enhancement a r e i l l u s t r a t e d .

1.2.1.1.1. Fracture propping

The f r a c t u r e opened a t h i g h h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e i s k e p t open b y s u p p o r t o f
h a r d p r e s s u r e - r e s i s t a n t p r o p p a n t s w h i c h a r e i n f i l l e d i n t o t h e c r a c k and i n h i b i t
i t s closure ( c f . f i g . l ) , w i t h thus a high-conductivity a r t i f i c i a l drainage
avenue o r s u p e r h i g h w a y o r i g i n a t i n g t h r o u g h w h i c h l a r g e volumes o f h y d r o c a r b o n s
c a n e a s i l y and r a p i d l y f l o w f r o m t h e f o r m a t i o n e x t r e m i t i e s t o t h e w e l l b o r e i n a
l i n e a r c o n c e n t r a t e d and f u n n e l l e d manner r a t h e r t h a n p r e v i o u s l y i n a r a d i a l d i s -
p e r s e d and d i v i d e d manner (HOWARD & FAST 1970 a, VEATCH 1983). W i t h o u t s u p p o r t
by proppants, h y d r a u l i c a l l y formed f r a c t u r e s tend t o heal o r r e t u r n t o t h e i r
i n i t i a l s t a t e a f t e r t h e p a r t i n g p r e s s u r e i s r e l e a s e d (CARROLL & BAKER 1979).

H y d r a u l i c c r a c k s have two w i n g s e x t e n d i n g i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s f r o m t h e
w e l l . F r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s u s u a l l y c o n s i s t o f s u c c e s s i v e pumping o f f o u r d i f -
f e r e n t f l u i d stages w i t h d i f f e r e n t r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s comprising pre-pad,
pad, p r o p p a n t - l a d e n c a r r i e r and d i s p l a c e m e n t (LEE & OANESHY 1985). The w h o l e
s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t c a n be d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r phases c o m p r i s i n g f r a c t u r i n g ,
shut-in, c l e a n - u p and p r o d u c t i o n (AHMED, SCHATZ, HOLLAND, JONES & GREENFIELD
1982). Marked advancements have been made i n m a t e r i a l s , e q u i p m e n t and t r e a t i n g
t e c h n i q u e s d u r i n g t h e f o u r decades s i n c e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g was i n -
t r o d u c e d and f i r s t a p p l i e d (WATERS 1980; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) .

1.2.1.1.2. Stimulation goals

H y d r o c a r b o n and w a t e r w e l l s a r e f r a c t u r e d i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e o f
f l u i d o f f t a k e a n d / o r r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s and t o d e c r e a s e t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p
a r o u n d t h e w e l l b o r e (SINCLAIR 1980). P r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e f o r e c a s t a c h i e v e d b y
h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t r e q u i r e s knowledge o f t h e p h y s i c a l c h a -
r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p r o p p e d c r a c k , f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n , and t h e b e h a v i o u r o f
t h e i n s e r t e d p r o p p a n t s u n d e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s and t e m p e r a t u r e . W e l l s t i m u l a t i o n
b y f r a c t u r i n g c a n b e p e r f o r m e d e i t h e r b y p r o v i d i n g a f l o w p a t h t h r o u g h a damage
zone a r o u n d t h e b o r e h o l e o r b y a l t e r i n g t h e c u r r e n t p a t t e r n i n t h e r e s e r v o i r .
S m a l l - v o l u m e f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n s overcome w e l l b o r e damage ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 3 . )
and r e s t o r e p r o d u c t i v i t y t o t h e b o r e h o l e b y r e m o v i n g t h e zone o f l o w - p e r m e a b i -
 17

l i t y o r h i g h p r e s s u r e d r o p f r o m t h e f l o w p a t t e r n . Large s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s
p r o v i d e a much g r e a t e r s u r f a c e f o r f l u i d o f f t a k e ( o r i n o t h e r cases a l s o i n j e c -
t i o n ; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 7 . ) , t h e r e b y i n t e n s i f y i n g a w e l l by a l t e r i n g t h e r e s e r -
v o i r f l o w p a t t e r n f r o m r a d i a l t o l i n e a r ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . 3 . ) which i s t h e key
r e s u l t o f a f r a c t u r e j o b . H y d r a u l i c proppant s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y r e q u i r e -
ments a r e m u l t i f a c e t t e d and a r e becoming more complex as t h e r e s e r v o i r forma-
t i o n s g e t deeper, h o t t e r and t i g h t e r (VEATCH 1983).

1.2.1.2.Evolution of main fracturing design concepts

The h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f main f r a c t u r i n g design concepts i s c l o s e l y l i n -
ked w i t h t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s o f t r e a t m e n t f l u i d s and p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o p -
p a n t s and comprises t h e successive p e r i o d s o f f o r m a t i o n damage b r e a k t h r o u g h and
s m a l l - s c a l e sand f r a c t u r i n g , t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r MHF s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h s y n t h e t i c
proppants, and h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay zone f r a c t u r i n g . Some comments on s i g n i f i -
cance o f f r a c t u r e parameter r e s o l u t i o n a r e a l s o o f f e r e d ( t h e a p p l i c a t i o n spec-
t r u m o f proppants i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s summarized i n t a b . 1 ) .

1.2.1.2.1.Formation damage breakthrough

and small-scale sand fracturing
The f i r s t commercial h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n t h e l a t e 1940's were
s m a l l - s c a l e o p e r a t i o n s w i t h l e s s than 1,000 g a l o f t o t a l f l u i d q u a n t i t y and
w i t h l i t t l e amounts o f sand up t o a b t . 5,000 l b s o r even no p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l
a t a l l (DERBY & SMITH 1979). I n t h e 1950's, most h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g
j o b s were c a r r i e d o u t i n o r d e r t o break t h r o u g h t h e f o r m a t i o n damage h a l o
around t h e w e l l b o r e and d i d n o t aim on t r u e pay s t i m u l a t i o n f a r t h e r p e n e t r a t i n g
i n t o t h e v i r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r (SMITH 1987). Predominantly s h o r t f r a c t u r e s were
c r e a t e d w i t h f l u i d volumes o f l e s s t h a n 20,000 g a l and propped w i t h small
amounts o f n a t u r a l sand n o t exceeding a b t . 10,000 l b s (ELY 1988). A f t e r an i n i -
t i a l h i g h phase d u r i n g t h e f i r s t decade o f technology a v a i l a b i l i t y when hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g r e c e i v e d much p r o m o t i o n by t h e e f f e c t o f b e i n g a brand-new
f a s h i o n , t h e a c t i v i t y d e c l i n e d s l o w l y in t h e 1960.s, p a r t i a l l y as a consequence
o f t h e low o i l p r i c e a t a t i m e when o c c a s i o n a l l y h i g h - q u a l i t y w a t e r was more e x -
pensive than o i l . From t h e e a r l y 1970's onwards, n a t u r a l gas began t o r e p l a c e
o i l and o t h e r f u e l s i n t h e energy s u p p l y spectrum ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 4 . ) and
t i g h t gas f r a c t u r i n g s t a r t e d due t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e processes and
as a consequence o f a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l s and methods, and a l s o
p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s q u i c k l y i n c r e a s e d .

I n a s i m i l a r way as i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g ,
even today many o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n successes w i t h remarkable p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a -
ses a r e due t o removal o f s i g n i f i c a n t n e a r - w e l l b o r e damage h a v i n g been p r e s e n t
p r i o r t o t h e t r e a t m e n t (ELY 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 3 . ) .

1.2.1.2.2.Tight gas reservoir MHF

stimulation with synthetic proppants
The most s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s t r i g g e r i n g t h e boost o f h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n
have been t h e f i r s t o i l p r i c e jumps ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.) and t h e i n v e n t i o n o f
h i g h - s t r e n g t h ceramic proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) . T i g h t gas f r a c t u r i n g
comprising c r e a t i o n o f long cracks i n t e r s e c t i n g the low-permeability r e s e r v o i r
and p l u g g i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e s w i t h h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y proppants soon became more
and more p o p u l a r and q u i t e q u i c k l y reached i t s golden y e a r s a l r e a d y i n t h e l a t e
1 9 7 0 ' s / e a r l y 1980's when p a r t i c u l a r l y MHF o p e r a t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t abundant-
l y e s p e c i a l l y i n USA and p a r t s o f Europe. Since t h i s peak t h e w o r l d w i d e s i g n i f i -
cance o f t i g h t r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g d e c l i n e d t o v a r i o u s degrees due t o changes
o f t h e economical framework c o m p r i s i n g o i l p r i c e and US $ exchange r a t e , conso-
 18
lidation of the market after the initial burst and attractivity of the brand-
new fashion, and partial saturation of the market when many treatments had been
successfully carried out that had to wait so far until intermediate- and high-
strength proppants were available, but is certainly keeping an important role
in reservoir development especially with increasing shares of gas in the energy
supply spectrum in near and far future.

1.2.1.2.3.High-permeability pay zone fracturing

From the early 1980's onwards, moderate-permeability pay formation fractur-
ing (cf. section 4.6.)was becoming more common and in the last years, hydrau-
lic stimulation of high-permeability reservoirs with creation of sufficient con-
ductivity contrast between crack and formation by high proppant saturations and
wide fractures (cf. sections 4.3.3. and 4.5.1.1.2.)is progressively spreading
out. I n contrast to microdarcy wells where a 10 - 20 times productivity increa-
se is achieved in optimum cases, millidarcy wells only reach a 2 - 5 times pro-
ductivity increase which, however, is sufficient for feasible exploitation.
While in hydraulic proppant fracturing history the main aim was on creation of
long cracks in massive stimulation of tight gas pays, the trend in the future
is more and more towards greater width and higher conductivity o f shorter frac-
tures particularly in moderate- to high-permeability reservoirs.
There are basically four hydraulic fracturing modes comprising confined ver-
tical height and unrestricted horizontal crack extension (slope 1/4 - 1/3),
stable height or fluid loss fracture with uncontrolled leakoff signaling hair-
line fissure opening, flow restriction leading to slurry dehydration o r screen-
out by proppant bridging (wellbore storage mode) and unstable height crack
( P A I , GARBIS & H A L L 1983; S M I T H 1987).

1.2.1.2.4.Significance of fracture parameter resolution

The sensitivity of the predicted and actual results of hydraulic proppant
fracturing treatments to the quality of the design depends on both relative ope-
ration cost and nature of experience in an individual formation ( V E A T C H 1983).
I n some areas, it may be the best and at the bottom of the line also cheapest
approach to try a number of alternative fluids, proppants, job sizes and injec-
tion procedures in several wells of one group of reservoir exposures in order
to arrive at a set o f standard treatment parameters that provide acceptable re-
sults. This approach i s particularly suitable to obtain relatively quick and ef-
fective results in regions where fracturing operations constitute a relatively
small portion of the total drilling and completion expenses, especially apply-
ing for high-permeability reservoirs where short cracks are adequate.
I n low-permeability formations where deeply penetrating fractures are re-
quired, however, resolution of the necessary hydraulic stimulation parameters
is very important. I n areas where MHF treatments can account for abt. half of
the total well costs, the importance of fracturing is equal or greater than
that of development drilling for increasing recoverable reserves (cf. section
2.3.), and here a high degree of crack parameter resolution is essential. A s -
pects of regional evolution of hydraulic proppant fracturing technology and sti-
mulation concepts are also discussed by ROBERTS (1981).

1.2.2.Limitations of natural sand

i n the early days of hydraulic reservoir stimulation, only natural quartz
sand from different ancient and recent sources was available for propping of
the fractures. I n the first hydraulic fracturing jobs in the late 1940's, no
propping agents were used at all, while in the early 1950's, river sand was
simply added to the fracturing fluids (FRACFAX 1988 9 ) . I n the 1950's and
 19

1960's, d i f f e r e n t sand s o u r c e s were e x p l o i t e d and r e s c r e e n i n g o f n a t u r a l sand

p r o v i d e d h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t i e s , w i t h O t t a w a and Texas sands h a v i n g become t h e
a c c e p t e d i n d u s t r y s t a n d a r d f r a c t u r i n g sands s i n c e t h e 1960's ( c f . s e c t i o n
1 . 3 . 1 . 1 . ) . F o l l o w i n g an o u t l i n e o f t h e c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y i n t e r v a l o f
n a t u r a l sand, some a s p e c t s o f c l o s u r e s t r e s s v s . m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y and p r o d u c -
t i o n r a t e are discussed.

1.2.2.1. Closure stress resistivity interval

20/40 mesh g r a i n s i z e sand i s p r e f e r e n t i a l l y u s e d due t o i t s cheap a c q u i s i -
t i o n as a b y - p r o d u c t o f g l a s s and f o u n d r y i n d u s t r y sands (WATERS 1 9 8 0 ) . O t h e r
more o r l e s s common g r a i n s i z e s d e p e n d i n g o n r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s c o m p r i s e t h e
c o a r s e r 16/20, 1 2 / 2 0 and o c c a s i o n a l l y a l s o 8 / 1 2 and 6/10, as w e l l as t h e f i n e r
30/50, 4 0 / 7 0 and sometimes f o r s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s a l s o 7 0 / 1 4 0 and 100 mesh
( c f . t a b s . 1 and 4 as w e l l as s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . ) . The l o w c o s t , r e l a t i v e abundance,
good s p h e r i c i t y and l o w s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f h i g h - q u a l i t y , specially selected
sands have made i t a good p r o p p a n t f o r many h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s
(CUTLER, JONES, SWANSON & CARROLL 1 9 8 1 ) .

C r u s h i n g o f t h e sand (HUITT, McGLOTHLIN & McDONALD 1959, TUNN 1971) a t c l o -

s u r e s t r e s s e s between 3,000 and 5,000 p s i ( d e p e n d i n g on sand q u a l i t y ) s e r i o u s l y
l i m i t e d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n g r e a t e r d e p t h s ( m o s t common-
l y i n e x c e s s o f 3,000 m (10,000 f t ; CUTLER, JONES, SWANSON & CARROLL 1981) du-
r i n g t h e f i r s t years o f i n d u s t r i a l operation. Closure s t r e s s o r compressive
e a r t h s t r e s s i s t h e n u m e r i c a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e b o t t o m h o l e t r e a t i n g o r
f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e and t h e r e s e r v o i r p o r e p r e s s u r e o r b o t t o m h o l e f l o w i n g p r e s -
s u r e , w i t h t h e l a t t e r b e i n g t h e p r o d u c t o f f r a c t u r i n g g r a d i e n t t i m e s d e p t h . Ac-
c o r d i n g t o f a l l i n g r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e upon drawdown d u r i n g c o u r s e o f p r o d u c t i o n
h i s t o r y , t h e c l o s u r e s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s p a r t i c u l a r l y a r o u n d t h e w e l l b o r e (ATTEBER-
RY, TUCKER & RITZ 1979; TUCKER 1979, SARDA 1981, CLARK 1983; c f . s e c t i o n
4.12.4.2.). C l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y t e s t i n g o f sand i s c a r r i e d o u t b y TUNN
( 1 9 7 1 ) and SLUSSER & RIECKMANN ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

1.2.2.2. Closure stress vs. matrix permeability and offtake rate

The o b v i o u s c o r r e l a t i o n between c l o s u r e s t r e s s and l o s s i n f r a c t u r e f l o w c a -
p a c i t y i n many e a r l i e r t r e a t m e n t s c a r r i e d o u t w i t h n a t u r a l sand as a p r o p p i n g
a g e n t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e has p a r t i a l l y o r c o m p l e t e l y c l o s e d
due t o e i t h e r embedment o r c r u s h i n g o f t h e p r o p p a n t s (TUNN 1971, TUCKER 1979;
c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . ) . The r a t e o f c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d t o o r i -
g i n a l m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y and o f f t a k e r a t e . R e s e r v o i r s o f s u p e r i o r m a t r i x p e r -
m e a b i l i t y a r e b e t t e r a b l e t o produce a t commercial r a t e s w i t h o u t severe near-
w e l l b o r e p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e , whereas b o r e h o l e s w h i c h e x h i b i t v e r y l o w f l o w c a p a c i -
t i e s o r where h y d r o c a r b o n w i t h d r a w a l i s p e r f o r m e d a t e x c e s s i v e r a t e s e x p e r i e n c e
r a p i d bottom hole pressure d e c l i n e near t h e wellbore allowing f r a c t u r e closure
due t o p r o p p a n t c o l l a p s e . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between c l o s u r e s t r e s s and p r o p p a n t
c r u s h i n g i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d b y p r e s s u r e t r a n s i e n t t e s t i n g r e s u l t s . T h e r e f o r e now-
adays t h e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e i s t o a v o i d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f n a t u r a l
sand when c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s i n e x c e s s o f 4,000 - 6,000 p s i have t o b e e x p e c t e d
a t any t i m e o f w e l l l i f e (CUTLER, JONES, SWANSON & CARROLL 1981; PAI, GARBIS &
HALL 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . ) .

P r i o r t o i n v e n t i o n and m a r k e t i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h -
s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s , deep gas r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h n a t u r a l
sand has been i m p r o v e d b y pumping h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i t h t h e h e l p o f h i g h i n -
j e c t i o n r a t e s and h i g h f l u i d v i s c o s i t i e s (HOLDITCH & ELY 1973; CALLANAN, CIPOL-
LA & LEWIS 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . The pump r a t e s and f l u i d v i s c o s i t i e s n e -
c e s s a r y t o pump h i g h sand s a t u r a t i o n s , however, have sometimes been d e t r i m e n t a l
b y c a u s i n g a l a r g e p r e s s u r e d r o p a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e and p r o m o t i n g e x c e s s i v e
h e i g h t g r o w t h i n t o u n p r o d u c t i v e zones (NOLTE 1 9 8 2 ) .
 20

1.2.3. Restrict ions o f alternative propping materials

before the invention of synthetic ceramic proppants
With progressive technological e v o l u t i o n o f hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g stimula-
t i o n , more and more n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l s o t h e r t h a n q u a r t z sand as w e l l as a r t i f i -
c i a l p r o d u c t s such as g l a s s beads ( s t a b i l i t y b o u n d a r y a b t . 6,000 p s i ) , i r o n and
s t e e l shots, broken w a l n u t s h e l l s , rounded w a l n u t h u l l s , alumina p e l l e t s , mined
g a r n e t and c o r d i e r i t e , and p l a s t i c beads o r p o l y m e r s p h e r e s were t r i e d w i t h
c h a n g i n g s u c c e s s and e a c h o f t h e s e n o v e l p r o p p a n t s had i t s a d v a n t a g e s and draw-
b a c k s , w i t h o n l y t h e h i g h - s t r e n g t h a n n e a l e d g l a s s beads s u r v i v i n g u n t i l t h e e a r -
l y 1970's (WATERS 1980; HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENOEN 1981; WESTERN PETROLEUM
1 9 8 5 ) . Some f e a t u r e s o f g l a s s beads, m e t a l s h o t s and w a l n u t h u l l s w h i c h were
t h e m o s t w i d e s p r e a d a l t e r n a t i v e p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l s b e f o r e t h e i n v e n t i o n o f syn-
t h e t i c ceramic proppants a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

1.2.3.1. Glass beads

G l a s s beads have been c o m m e r c i a l l y u s e d f o r many y e a r s (DAVIS 1 9 7 5 ) , b u t t h e
s t r e n g t h o f t h e g l a s s d e c r e a s e s g r e a t l y i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f b r i n e (McGLOTHLIN,
HUITT & McKAY 1963; HOWARD & FAST 1970 a, COOKE 1973; HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTEN-
DEN 1 9 8 1 ) . The b r i t t l e g l a s s beads a l s o f a i l i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y i n t o f i n e pow-
d e r - s i z e s p l i n t e r s ( s u c h as a l s o c o l l a p s e o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s t a k e s
p l a c e ; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 2 . 2 . ) and n o t i n t o l a r g e r f r a g m e n t s o f h a l f - , q u a r t e r -
o r s m a l l e r s i z e as does q u a r t z sand when e x c e e d i n g t h e c r u s h r e s i s t i v i t y bounda-
r y o f a b t . 5,000 p s i and c r y s t a l l i n e a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s once
t h e i r s t a b i l i t y border i s crossed ( c f . section 1.4.2.1.).

Severe c r u s h i n g o f g l a s s beads a l s o o c c u r s i n h o t w a t e r e n v i r o n m e n t as w e l l
as i n m u l t i l a y e r g r a i n packages (FRACFAX 1988 9 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , g l a s s beads c a n
l o s e much o f t h e i r c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h i f b e i n g n i c k e d w h i l e m o v i n g t h r o u g h
t h e pumps, and g l a s s beads w h i c h a r e s c r a t c h e d c a n be e a s i e r c r u s h e d t h a n sand
(HOLDITCH 1 9 8 4 ) . M e t a l l i z e d c o a t i n g s c o n s i s t i n g o f b r a s s o r a l u m i n u m o n g l a s s
beads a l s o d i d n o t i m p r o v e t h e s i t u a t i o n . As a consequence o f t h e i r c a t a s t r o p h i -
c a l c o m p l e t e b r i t t l e f a i l u r e i n w a t e r and b r i n e a t e l e v a t e d c l o s u r e s t r e s s and
t e m p e r a t u r e as w e l l as o f t h e i r premium p r i c e , g l a s s beads were l a t e r c o m p l e t e -
l y w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e m a r k e t i n 1975 (SINCLAIR 1 9 8 0 ) .

1.2.3.2. Metal shots and walnut hulls

M a l l e a b l e m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e and as t h e y c o r r o d e
when c o n t a c t i n g h i g h - s a l i n i t y s a l t w a t e r , t h e i r u s e has been v e r y l i m i t e d (COO-
KE 1973, HOLDITCH 1 9 8 4 ) . A p a r t f r o m c o r r o s i o n , m e t a l and s t e e l s h o t s a r e a l s o
t o o dense t o be a p p l i e d as a p r o p p a n t i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (FRACFAX 1988 9 ) .
w i t h t r a n s p o r t and s u s p e n s i o n p r o p e r t i e s i n m o s t o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s b e i n g
unacceptable, and e x c e s s i v e s e g r e g a t i o n and b a n k i n g i n t h e f r a c t u r e p r e v e n t i n g
a d e q u a t e p r o p p i n g o f t h e c r a c k . N u t s h e l l s d e f o r m w i t h o u t c r u s h i n g , b u t have
a l s o n o t t u r n e d o u t t o be a s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l , because w a l n u t h u l l s a r e o n l y
d e f o r m a b l e u n d e r l o w t e m p e r a t u r e s and l o a d . N u t s h e l l s a r e a l s o t o o l i g h t t o be
a b l e t o be p a c k e d w i t h s u f f i c i e n t d e n s i t y w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h o u t e l e v a t e d
f l u i d loss w h i c h i s d e s i r a b l e i n g r a v e l p a c k i n g w i t h l i g h t w e i g h t m a t e r i a l s ( c f .
s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 3 . ) , b u t i s u n t o l e r a b l e i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g due t o p r o g r e s s i v e -
l y i n c r e a s i n g s c r e e n o u t r i s k . W a l n u t h u l l s a r e t o d a y u s e d as f l u i d - l o s s additi-
ves r a t h e r t h a n a s p r o p p a n t s (SINCLAIR 1980), i n a s i m i l a r way as a p p l i e s f o r
100 mesh sand ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . ) . G a r n e t g r a i n s a r e t o o b r i t t l e , p l a s t i c
p e l l e t s d e f o r m t o o r a p i d l y , and f l u i d i z e d c o k e i s t o o weak (FRACFAX 1988 9 ) .

Thus a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e none o f t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d e a r l y - s t a g e s y n t h e -
t i c p r o p p i n g a g e n t s p e r f o r m e d s a t i s f a c t o r i l y f o r usage i n deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e r e -
s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s (COOKE & GIDLEY 1979) and a l l o f them had more
 21

-
1 Y P E I G R A I N S I Z E HAPI

PROPPANT TYPES AND GRAIN

SIZES AND THEIR APPLICATION

IN PETROLEUM RESERVOIR

STIMULATION AND OTHER

ENERGY INDUSTRY PROCESSES

A P P L I C A T I O N I

I Oil
011 production
production I
Water production and injection I
HYDRAULIC
Shallow g a s production I
FRACTURING Moderately deep a a s production 8

Deep g a s production
production 8

Oil production 8

Water production a n d i n j e c t i o n 8
'ACKING
Steam-drive enhanced o i l recovery
F r a c t u r e fluid-loss a d d i t i v e I
Geothermal w e l l stimulation I
)THEA
Coal seam degasification I
Foundry cupola furnace h e a t transfer
1 Mechanical ggas
a s purification

Tab. 1
 22

d i s a d v a n t a g e s such as h i g h p r i c e , h i g h d e n s i t y and l a c k o f s t a b i l i t y w h i c h o v e r -
compensated t h e b e n e f i t s , w i t h t h u s f o r many y e a r s n a t u r a l q u a r t z sand r e m a i n -
i n g t o be t h e o n l y r e a l l y a p p l i c a b l e m a t e r i a l f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s u p p o r t
(HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENLfEN 1 9 8 1 ) .

1.2.4.Impact o f early synthetic ceramic proppants

The d e c i s i v e b r e a k t h r o u g h i n t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g was a c h i e v e d i n t h e l a t e 1970's w i t h t h e i n v e n t i o n of s y n t h e t i c
i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e ( c e r a m i c ; COOKE
1976; COOKE, GIDLEY & MUTT1 1977; COOKE & GIDLEY 1979; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 2 . 1 . )
and f u s e d z i r c o n i a (SEPR 1983) c o m p o s i t i o n w h i c h - i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e l o w -
s t r e n g t h sand - c o u l d r e s i s t t o c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s u p t o more t h a n 10,000 -
15,000 p s i ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . ) and t h u s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f h i g h - c a -
p a c i t y modern f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s opened v a s t p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f s t i m u l a t i o n o f
deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e r e s e r v o i r s . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s o n s i n t e r e d
b a u x i t e i n v e n t i o n t r i g g e r i n g f r a c t u r i n g boom and i m p o r t a n c e o f p r o p p a n t t e s t i n g
f o r q u a l i t y improvement.

1.2.4.1.Sintered bauxite invent ion trigger ins fracturing boom

S i n t e r e d b a u x i t e was f i r s t a p p l i e d as p r o p p i n g a g e n t f o r h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t
i n t h e f i e l d i n t h e USA i n 1976 and as a consequence o f s p e c t a c u l a r s t i m u l a t i o n
r e s u l t s t r i g g e r e d a boom o f deep w e l l f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s
(HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981), because i t has e n a b l e d t o a c h i e v e s t i m u l a -
t i o n i n many deep f o r m a t i o n s where i n h i g h - p r e s s u r e r e g i m e s h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r -
i n g had been i m p o s s i b l e b e f o r e , and b e t t e r r e s u l t s o f t r e a t m e n t s i n o t h e r s h a l -
l o w e r h o r i z o n s (WATERS 1 9 8 0 ) . The m a i n a d v a n t a g e s of s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e o v e r t r a -
d i t i o n a l propping m a t e r i a l s are f i n e p a r t i c l e size, low porosity, high s p h e r i c i -
t y , good c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n c e , and a b i l i t y t o d e f o r m s l i g h t l y u n d e r h i g h l o a d s
( C O O K E 1977; ATTEBERRY, TUCKER & RITZ 1 9 7 9 ) . S i n t e r e d b a u x i t e has e x c e l l e n t c o n -
d u c t i v i t y up t o 20,000 p s i ( 1 3 9 MPa) c l o s u r e s t r e s s (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES &
SWANSON 1 9 8 5 ) .

While a t t h e beginning o f a r t i f i c i a l h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppant a p p l i c a t i o n main-

l y a n g u l a r s y n t h e t i c b a u x i t e - b a s e d p r o p p a n t s were made as b y - p r o d u c t s o f a b r a -
s i v e m a n u f a c t u r i n g (HARBEN 1978, LARSEN & SMITH 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 5 . and
1.4.11.3.2.), l a t e r a l m o s t p e r f e c t l y r o u n d c o r u n d u m / m u l l i t e p r o p p a n t s were p r e -
s e n t e d w h i c h were p r o d u c e d i n s p e c i a l p l a n t s , w i t h r o u n d n e s s and s p h e r i c i t y ,
s u r f a c e morphology, c r y s t a l l i t e size, c r u s h r e s i s t i v i t y and s i z e s c r e e n i n g
h a v i n g been p r o g r e s s i v e l y i m p r o v e d d u r i n g t h e y e a r s b y o p t i m i z a t i o n o f g r i n d i n g
o f r a w m a t e r i a l s , i n t e r m i x i n g o f f l u x media, s i n t e r i n g and f u s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s
and c o n t r o l s i e v i n g . These a m e l i o r a t i o n s were t h e consequence o f s t r o n g l y i n -
c r e a s i n g q u a l i t y demand b y t h e c u s t o m e r s ( o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n companies
t h r o u g h f i e l d s e r v i c e companies) and a g g r e s s i v e c o m p e t i t i o n between t h e d i f f e -
r e n t p r o p p a n t p r o d u c t i o n companies.

1.2.4.2.Importance of proppant testing f o r quality improvement

The improvement o f p r o p p a n t p r o p e r t i e s and t h e i r m a t c h i n g w i t h s t a n d a r d p a r a -
m e t e r s was r e i n f o r c e d b y q u a l i t y and p e r f o r m a n c e t e s t i n g campaigns w h i c h were
c a r r i e d o u t b y p r o p p a n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s (HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981; NORMAN,
CIPOLLA & WEBB 1983; BROWN & MUCH 1986, COBB & FARRELL 1986, COMALCO 1986, STAN-
DARD OIL PROPPANTS 1986, MUCH 1987, MUCH & PENNY 1987), i n d e p e n d e n t c o n s u l t i n g
and r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r i e s (AHMED, ABOU-SAYED & JONES 1979; SINCLAIR 1980; CUT-
LER, ENNISS, JONES & CARROLL 1983; DGMK 1983, 1986; CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES &
SWANSON 1985; STIM-LAB 1986, PENNY 1987; PURSELL, HOLDITCH & BLAKELEY 1988),
h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n companies (BECQ, ROQUE & SARDA 1984; CHEUNG 1985; ROOD-
HART, KUIPER & D A V I E S 1986) and s e r v i c e companies (McDANIEL & WILLINGHAM 1978;
 23

WENDORFF 1982, K I M & LOSACANO 1985; MCDANIEL 1986, 1987, 1988; PARKER & McDA-
NIEL 1987, McDANIEL & PARKER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . ) . Fused z i r c o n i a - b a s e d p r o p -
pants s u f f e r e d i n t h e e a r l y years from appendix-like subsize t o m i n i - s i z e round
g r a i n s g r o w i n g l i k e noses and h o r n s o u t o f s t a n d a r d - s i z e p a r t i c l e s ( t h e r e b y a l -
r e a d y a p r i o r i i n c l u d i n g q u i t e some f i n e s ) , b u t p r o g r e s s i v e q u a l i t y a m e l i o r a -
t i o n b y o p t i m i z i n g f u s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s , r e a c t i o n t i m e and r a w - m a t e r i a l p r o c e s s -
i n g has overcome t h i s drawback.

1.2.5. Significance of advanced synthetic ceramic proppants

I n t h e l a t e 1970's and e a r l y 1980's, even two s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n a r t i f i c i a l
p r o p p a n t t y p e s (CUTLER, JONES, SWANSON & CARROLL 1981; JONES, CUTLER & SWANSON
1981; CUTLER & JONES 1982; CALLAHAN, CIPOLLA & LEWIS 1983; CUTLER, ENNISS, JO-
NES & CARROLL 1983; SPARLIN & HAGEN 1983, FITZGIBBON 1984; CUTLER, ENNISS, JO-
NES & SWANSON 1985) have been i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e h y d r o c a r b o n s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t
w h i c h b a s i c a l l y c o n s i s t more o r l e s s o f m u l l i t e and m u l l i t e - c o r u n d u m m i x t u r e s ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . ) , and a r e l o w - d e n s i t y and h i g h - d e n s i t y i n t e r m e -
d i a t e - s t r e n g t h m a t e r i a l s r e s i s t i n g t o c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s u p t o 8,000 p s i and
10,000 p s i , r e s p e c t i v e l y . These t w o i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t t y p e s a r e
f i l l i n g t h e gap between l o w - s t r e n g t h n a t u r a l sand on t h e one hand and h i g h -
s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c b a u x i t e o r z i r c o n i a on t h e o t h e r hand i n t e r m s o f s p e c i f i c
g r a v i t y , c o n d u c t i v i t y , c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y and p r i c e ( c f . t a b s . 1 - 4 ) .

Both types o f intermediate-strength proppants are l i g h t e r than h i g h - s t r e n g t h

s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and t h u s a l l o w b e t t e r s u s p e n s i o n i n and t r a n s p o r t b y t h e f r a c -
t u r i n g f l u i d s and p l a c e m e n t i n t h e c r a c k b y t h e c a r r i e r medium w i t h l e s s s e t t -
l i n g . The t w o advanced s y n t h e t i c c e r a m i c p r o p p a n t s a r e t h e r e f o r e p e r m i t t i n g t o
a c h i e v e a b e t t e r p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a t l o w e r c o s t and t h u s c o n s i d e r a b -
l y b r o a d e n i n g t h e s p e c t r u m o f t e c h n i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n b y p r o v i d i n g
a w i d e r and more d i f f e r e n t i a t e d scope o f j o b - s p e c i f i c p r o p p a n t c h o i c e .

1.2.6. Impact of resin-coated proppants

W i t h t i m e , a l s o t h e t e c h n i q u e o f r e s i n - c o a t i n g (SANTROL 1975, SINCLAIR & GRA-
HAM 1977; UNDERDOWN, DAS & SPARLIN 1980; GRAHAM, SINCLAIR & BRANDT 1982; UNDER-
DOWN & DAS 1982; SINCLAIR, GRAHAM & SINCLAIR 1983) o f b o t h n a t u r a l sand and syn-
t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s was d e v e l o p e d i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e p a r t i c u l a r e f f e c t s i n spe-
c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s such as f o r m a t i o n o f c o n s o l i d a t e d p r o p p a n t packages i n t h e
f r a c t u r e by cementation o f t h e g r a i n s by adhesion o f t h e p l a s t i c a l l y f l o w i n g
r e s i n c o a t i n g s a t t h e i r c o n t a c t s t o p r o v i d e s t a b i l i t y and t o m i n i m i z e embed-
ment, and r e l i e v i n g h i g h s t r e s s e s caused b y g r a i n - t o - g r a i n c o n t a c t s , t h e r e b y i m -
p r o v i n g t h e l o a d - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t pack (SINCLAIR & GRAHAM
1978, KANAT 1980; HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981; POPE, WILES & P I E R C E 1 9 8 7 ) .

The f i r s t f i e l d o p e r a t i o n s w i t h r e s i n - c o a t e d sand arid p r o p p a n t s were c a r r i e d

o u t i n 1976 and 1977, r e s p e c t i v e l y (FRACFAX 1988 c , 1988 i ) . W h i l e f o r many
y e a r s p r e f e r e n c e i n deep w e l l a p p l i c a t i o n was g i v e n t o i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h -
s t r e n g t h ceramic proppants, t h e beginning hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y recession i n t h e
e a r l y 1980's draw more a t t e n t i o n t o p r o p p a n t c o s t and t h e l e s s e x p e n s i v e r e s i n -
c o a t e d sand w h i c h had been i n v e n t e d and p a t e n t e d a l m o s t a t t h e same t i m e as s i n -
t e r e d b a u x i t e and f u s e d z i r c o n i a have been d i s c o v e r e d and i n t r o d u c e d began t o
be u s e d i n much l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s . R e p l a c i n g s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e b y r e s i n - c o a t e d
sand can r e s u l t i n a b t . 50 % t o t a l p r o p p a n t c o s t s a v i n g s due t o b o t h c h e a p e r
pound p r i c e and h i g h e r pound volume o f t h e l a t t e r p r o d u c t (SINCLAIR, GRAHAM &
SINCLAIR 1983; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 2 . 4 . 2 . ) . The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e i l l u s t r a t e s
some p o i n t s o f r e s i n t y p e s and f u n c t i o n s , r e a c t i o n s o f r e s i n c o a t i n g s t o c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s and t e m p e r a t u r e , and d o u b l e r e s i n c o a t i n g c o m b i n a t i o n .
 24

1.2.6.1. Resin types and functions

R e s i n - c o a t e d sand and p r o p p a n t s have d e f o r m a b l e r e s i n p e l l i c l e s t h a t polyme-
r i z e a t e l e v a t e d temperatures under c l o s u r e s t r e s s t o form a cohesive h i g h -
s t r e n g t h l a y e r o f p e r m e a b l e s a n d s t o n e (SINCLAIR 1 9 8 0 ) . C u r a b l e m a t e r i a l r e q u i -
r e s t i m e a t downhole t e m p e r a t u r e s t o c u r e t h e t h e r m o s e t t i n g r e s i n , whereas p r e -
c u r e d p r o p p a n t s do n o t have t o r e l y on downhole c o n d i t i o n s t o s e t t h e r e s i n
(CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & CARROLL 1 9 8 3 ) . A s p e c t s o f r e d u c t i o n o f p o i n t l o a d i n g
a t g r a i n c o n t a c t s , and s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and p r o p p a n t p r i c e l o w e r i n g a r e o u t l i -
ned as f o l l o w s .

1 . 2 . 6 . 1 . 1 . Reduction of point loading at grain contacts

The r e s i n p e l l i c l e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p r o p p a n t s i n c r e a s e t h e c o n t a c t a r e a b e t -
ween i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s w h i c h c a n t h u s w i t h s t a n d h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s b e f o r e
c r u s h i n g . W h i l e u n c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s have p o i n t - l i k e c o n t a c t s c o m p r i s i n g l e s s
t h a n 10 % o f g r a i n d i a m e t e r , r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s e x h i b i t b r o a d e r c o n t a c t r a n -
g e s r e a c h i n g up t o 25 - 40 % o f g r a i n d i a m e t e r (SINCLAIR, GRAHAM & SINCLAIR
1 9 8 3 ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o r e d u c t i o n o f p o i n t - t o - p o i n t l o a d i n g caused b y t h e p l a s t i c
f l o w o f t h e r e s i n f i l m s , t h e r e s i n p e l l i c l e s b i n d and c o n t a i n c r u s h e d f r a g m e n t s
o f t h e sand g r a i n s and t h e r e b y d e c r e a s e t h e amount o f m o b i l e f i n e s w h i c h i m p r o -
ves c o n d u c t i v i t y , whereas o n t h e o t h e r hand, d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e r e s i n p e l l i c l e s
u n d e r l o a d d e c r e a s e s c o n d u c t i v i t y (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON 1985). I n
c o m p a r i s o n t o p r e c u r e d m a t e r i a l , c u r a b l e p r o p p a n t s have much b r o a d e r c o n t a c t zo-
n e s b y b e t t e r f l o w i n g o f t h e r e s i n , l o w e r i n i t i a l c o n d u c t i v i t y due t o d e f o r m e d
r e s i n c o a t i n g s , l o w e r f i n e s g e n e r a t i o n and h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y a t h i g h c l o s u r e
stress.

1 . 2 . 6 . 1 . 2 . Specific gravity and proppant price lowering

The t y p e o f r e s i n w h i c h i s p r e c u r e d a r o u n d t h e sand g r a i n s i s c r i t i c a l t o
t h e f i n a l p r o p p a n t p r o p e r t i e s , a5 a r e amount o f r e s i n and e x t e n t o f c u r e (UNDER-
DOEIN & DAS 1 9 8 2 ) . The g r e a t e s t a d v a n t a g e o f r e s i n - c o a t e d sand i s t h a t i t s b u l k
d e n s i t y i s much l e s s t h a n t h a t o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s ,
and t h a t i t s p r i c e i s c o n s i d e r a b l y c o m p e t i t i v e t o t h e c o s t o f t h e l a t t e r p r o -
d u c t s . The much l o w e r b u l k d e n s i t y o f r e s i n - c o a t e d sands a l l o w s s i g n i f i c a n t l y
b e t t e r s u s p e n s i o n i n many d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s t h a n p o s s i b l e f o r h e a v i e r
i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s , and t h e much c h e a p e r m a t e r i a l r e n -
d e r s many o p e r a t i o n s e c o n o m i c a l l y more f e a s i b l e and as a consequence o f t h e e l e -
v a t e d c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y , r e s i n - c o a t e d sand i s an a c c e p t a b l e s o l u t i o n
f o r many m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s where e x p e n s i v e s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s a r e d i f f i c u l t
t o j u s t i f y a t l e a s t i n p i l o t p r o j e c t s . The o n l y a r t i f i c i a l p r o p p a n t t y p e w h i c h
c a n compete w i t h r e s i n - c o a t e d sand i n t e r m s o f b o t h t e c h n i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e and
economical f e a s i b i l i t y i s i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y alumina s i l i c a t e
proppant.

1 . 2 . 6 . 2 . Reactions of resin coatings

to closure stress and temperature
The d e f o r m a b l e r e s i n c o a t i n g on t h e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s u r f a c e s p r e a d s c r u s h i n g
and embedment l o a d s o v e r a g r e a t e r a r e a , t h e r e b y p r e v e n t i n g c r u s h i n g and r e s i s t -
i n g embedment (SINCLAIR, GRAHAM & SINCLAIR 1 9 8 3 ) . The t o u g h r e s i n f i l m i s c h e m i -
c a l l y i n e r t i n c r u d e o i l s , b r i n e s and m o s t a c i d s . The t h i n and t e n a c i o u s r e s i n
p e l l i c l e c o m p r i s e s l e s s t h a n 5 % o f t h e t o t a l p r o p p a n t w e i g h t and has o n l y a
t h i c k n e s s o f a b t . 0 . 0 0 1 i n . Resin-coated proppants c o n s o l i d a t e under f o r m a t i o n
s t r e s s e s and t e m p e r a t u r e s b o t h w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r and w i t h i n l a b o r a t o r y t e s t
c e l l s . V a r i o u s e f f e c t s o f c l o s u r e s t r e s s and t e m p e r a t u r e and t h e r e a c t i o n s o f
r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .
 25

1.2.6.2.1. Closure stress

A t high r a t e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f closure stress, resin-coated proppants tend
t o be s h o c k - l o a d e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 4 . 1 . ) , because t h e r e i s n o t i m e f o r t h e
d e f o r m a b l e p e l l i c l e t o a d j u s t and p r o t e c t t h e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s . I n f i e l d a p p l i c a -
t i o n , however, c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e t u r n s o v e r a p e r i o d o f h o u r s a f t e r t h e t e r m i n a -
t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . ) , w i t h t h i s g i v i n g t h e de-
f o r m a b l e r e s i n f i l m ample t i m e t o a d j u s t and p r o t e c t t h e g r a i n s (SINCLAIR, GRA-
HAM & SINCLAIR 1 9 8 3 ) .

A t e x t r e m e l y h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s when a t s o r e s i n - c o a t e d m a t e r i a l s a r e f i -
n a l l y cracked o r broken, most fragments a r e s t i l l a t t a c h e d t o t h e tenacious r e -
s i n e n v e l o p e , and m i g r a t i o n o f any f i n e s i s m i n i m i z e d s i n c e t h e r e s i n i s s e c u r e -
l y bonded t o m o s t o f t h e f r a g m e n t s o f t h e s p l i t p a r t i c l e s ( t h i s e f f e c t i s much
l i k e t h a t o f t h e s h a t t e r p r o o f s a f e t y g l a s s used i n c a r w i n d s h i e l d s ; SINCLAIR,
GRAHAM & SINCLAIR 1 9 8 3 ) . W h i l e r e s i n c u r i n g a t h i g h r e s e r v o i r t e m p e r a t u r e s and
p r e s s u r e s i n deep w e l l s does n o t r e q u i r e e x t e r n a l c a t a l y z a t i o n , r e s i n - c o a t e d
proppants are a l s o a p p l i c a b l e i n shallow w e l l s w i t h low formation temperatures
and c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s once c u r i n g i s i n i t i a t e d b y an a c t i v a t o r . D i s t i n c t i o n c a n
t h u s be made between c h e m i c a l r e s i n b o n d i n g a t l o w t e m p e r a t u r e s and t h e r m a l r e -
s i n b o n d i n g a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s above a b t . 150 OF.

1.2.6.2.2. Temperature
H i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e w e l l t o l e r a t e d b y t h e r e s i n c o a t i n g , as i t i s t i g h t l y
a t t a c h e d t o t h e p r o p p a n t s u r f a c e b y a b o n d i n g a g e n t and does n o t come o f f ( S I N -
CLAIR, GRAHAM & SINCLAIR 1 9 8 3 ) . W h i l e h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e w a t e r o r b r i n e w i l l a t -
t a c k f r e s h s i l i c e o u s s u r f a c e s , t h e r e s i n p e l l i c l e i s n o n - r e a c t i v e t o any r e s e r -
v o i r f l u i d system. T h i c k e r r e s i n f i l m s s u r r o u n d i n g p r o p p a n t g r a i n s l o w e r s p e c i -
f i c g r a v i t y and i n c r e a s e t r a n s p o r t c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t s , w i t h p a r t i a l l y
t o t a l s p e c i f i c g r a v i t i e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l i g h t e r t h a n t h a t o f n a t u r a l sand b e i n g
a c h i e v e d when e n v e l o p i n g sand g r a i n s w i t h r e s i n f i l m s . V a r i a t i o n s i n p r o p p a n t
g r a i n s i z e as w e l l as r e s i n p e l l i c l e t h i c k n e s s c a n be made i n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e
r e s u l t s o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f t r e a t m e n t s and c a n be t a i l o r e d f o r optimum down-
h o l e performance. T a i l i n g - i n o f resin-coated proppants i n t h e near-wellbore r e -
g i o n i n h i b i t s f r a c t u r e e v a c u a t i o n and c o u p l e s b o r e h o l e and p r o d u c t i v e f o r m a t i o n
( c f . section 4.12.3.3.). P r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k p r e v e n t i o n by r e s i n - c o a t e d t a i l - i n
i s made r e g a r d l e s s o f t y p e o r amount o f m a i n p r o p p a n t u s e d i n t h e f r a c t u r e .

R e s i n - c o a t e d s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s have l o w e r c o n d u c t i v i t i e s t h a n u n c o a t e d
ones when s i m i l a r s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e t e s t e d (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWAN-
SON 1 9 8 5 ) . A l t h o u g h c o n t a i n m e n t o f f i n e s w i t h i n t h e r e s i n p e l l i c l e s i m p r o v e s
c o n d u c t i v i t y , r e s i n envelope deformation under l o a d decreases c o n d u c t i v i t y .
F l o w o f r e s i n f i l m s , p a r t i c l e r e a r r a n g e m e n t , e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n , and p a r t i c l e
c r u s h i n g a l l t e n d t o n a r r o w f r a c t u r e w i d t h as c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s i n c r e a s e d . Re-
s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s a r e i n l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g b e s t e v a l u a t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f
t e m p e r a t u r e because o f t h e p o s s i b l e c r e e p o f t h e p o l y m e r i c p e l l i c l e s .

1 . 2 . 6 . 3 . Double resin coating combination

The l a t e s t d e v e l o p m e n t i s d o u b l e r e s i n - c o a t i n g o f p r o p p a n t s w i t h an i n n e r
p r e c u r e d p e l l i c l e and an o u t e r c u r a b l e e n v e l o p e (SANTROL 1 9 8 6 ) . F u n c t i o n s o f i n -
n e r p r e c u r e d and o u t e r c u r a b l e r e s i n f i l m s as w e l l as p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e
r e a c t i o n o f r e s i n p e l l i c l e s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .
 26

1.2.6.3.1. Functions o f inner precured and outer curable films

The inner precured resin film provides additional strength of the material
and the outer curable resin coating bonds the particles together, thus giving a
combination of the benefits of a high-strength proppant with the advantages of
a self-consolidating proppant and providing high strength, low density, and per-
manent bonding ability together at reasonable cost (SANTROL 1986). The inner re-
sin pellicle has undergone tempering representing advanced polymerization pro-
c e s s and imparts great strength to the grain for crush resistance. The outer en-
velope is a rather thin layer of curable resin that uses downhole temperature
and fracture closure stress to form a multilayer proppant package which stays
in place.
The curable resin coating also encapsulates and traps any broken grains or
fines. The resin pellicle is so thin that it bonds together only upon contact
stress in the fracture, in contrast to earlier submature thicker films which so-
metimes also bonded together in the wellbore. Maximum conductivity and strength
of the proppant is achieved by 3 - 4 % coating of the material. Proppants with
curable envelopes are the only ones which do not embed into the reservoir forma-
tion. In low-temperature pays (below 130 OF), an activator is required to ini-
tiate and speed-up bonding of the resin pellicles. Dual resin-coated sand and
proppants were introduced to the hydrocarbon stimulation market in 1984 (FRAC-
FAX 1988 i).

1.2.6.3.2. Pressure and temperature reactions of resin pellicles

Comparative closure stress resistivity testing reveals that uncoated ceramic
proppants crush up to 6 % and more at 10,000 psi and 300 OF, whereas dual re-
sin-coated proppants of any type at the same conditions do not suffer any crush-
ing and fines generation (FRACFAX 1988 d). Closure stress resistivity testing
at 275 OF and 8,000 psi illustrates that double resin-coated proppants of any
type are much more stable in monolayers and at proppant loadings of 0.5 - 3 . 0
lbs/ft2 which correspond to frequent actual industry designs in contrast to the
API recommendation of 4 lbslft2 for proppant testing (FRACFAX 1988 1). While
high-temperature weakens all high- and intermediate-strength ceramic proppants,
higher temperatures increase closure stress resistivity of resin-coated prop-
pants.
Double resin-coated material is stronger than almost all uncoated proppant
types, and the strength contrast becomes more pronounced a s temperature rises
(SANTROL 1986). Double resin-coated proppants can be successfully applied up to
25,000 ft reservoir depth and 600 OF bottomhole temperature and bonds together
by means of both formation temperature and closure stress. While resin-coated
sand can particularly in case of double pellicles successfully replace ceramic
proppants up to 12,000 psi closure stress, dual resin-coated ceramic proppants
outperform sintered bauxite and all other synthetic types in crush resistance
up to closure stresses reached in the hitherto deepest oil and gas wells of the
world with highest bottomhole pressures and temperatures.

1.2.7. Possible future innovation

In the last years, continuing quality demand and the need of cost contain-
ment triggered experimental approaches of developing even once again new prop-
pant types of enhanced technical performance and better economical feasibility
in order to adjust to the increasingly diversified application spectrum (CUT-
LER, JONES, ENNISS & SWARTZ 1983; CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON 1985; DGMK
1986), with some lines o f possible proppant performance improvement including
prototype materials based on cordierite, silicon carbide, and several ceramic
oxides.
 27

E x p e r i m e n t a l approaches even l o o k e d i n t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g
h o l l o w o r p o r o u s p r o p p a n t s i n an a t t e m p t t o r e d u c e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f h i g h - q u a -
l i t y m a t e r i a l b e l o w t h a t o f sand (CUTLER, JONES, SWANSON & CARROLL 1981; CUTLER
& JONES 1982; CUTLER, JONES, E N N I S S & SWARTZ 1 9 8 3 ) , b u t r e v i e w i n g t h e s u i t e of
m a t e r i a l s and p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h have a l r e a d y been t e s t e d , i t has t o
be d o u b t e d a t t h e moment t h a t i t w o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o d e v e l o p an u l t r a l i g h t syn-
t h e t i c p r o p p a n t w i t h f l u i d s u s p e n s i o n p r o p e r t i e s and c e r t a i n l y s u f f i c i e n t c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y even b e t t e r t h a n sand o r l o w - d e n s i t y i n t e r m e d i a t e -
s t r e n g t h a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s a t an a c c e p t a b l e c o s t ( t h e same a p p l i e s f o r
s i m i l a r a p p r o a c h e s of g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l ; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 3 . 2 . ) . The f o l l o -
wing discussion o u t l i n e s proppant p a r t i c l e composition types, specific gravity
lowering, s t r e n g t h r e t a i n m e n t o f h o l l o w spheres, and p r o p p a n t f a b r i c a t i o n me-
thods.

1.2.7.1.Proppant particle composition types

CUTLER, JONES, SWANSON & CARROLL (1981) and CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON
( 1 9 8 5 ) g i v e an o v e r v i e w o f e x p e r i m e n t a l m o d e l l i n g o f l i g h t w e i g h t i n n o v a t i v e
p r o p p a n t t y p e s . A n i d e a l p r o p p a n t f o r m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g w o u l d have a
s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f l e s s t h a n 2.0, be a b l e t o w i t h s t a n d a c l o s u r e s t r e s s o f
20,000 p s i ( 1 3 9 MPa), be c h e m i c a l l y i n e r t i n b r i n e a t t e m p e r a t u r e s u p t o 200 OC
( 3 9 0 O F ) , have p e r f e c t s p h e r i c i t y , and have a n a r r o w g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n a t
an a c c e p t a b l e p r i c e . T e s t i n g o f v a r i o u s m e t a l s , c e r a m i c s , p l a s t i c s and combina-
t i o n s o f these t h r e e m a t e r i a l groups has r e v e a l e d t h a t ceramics w i t h o r w i t h o u t
p o l y m e r c o a t i n g s r e p r e s e n t t h e o n l y sound a p p r o a c h t o o b t a i n i n g a l o w - c o s t , c o r -
r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t , l o w - s p e c i f i c - g r a v i t y and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t .

I n o r d e r t o meet t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r l o w g r a v i t y , p r o p p a n t s may be f a b r i c a -
t e d as s o l i d s p h e r e s ( f u l l y d e n s e ) , h o l l o w g l o b u l e s ( f u l l y dense e x c e p t f o r h o l -
l o w c o r e ) , p o r o u s s p h e r e s ( u n i f o r m f i n e l y d i s p e r s e d and i n t e r c o n n e c t e d m i c r o p o -
r o s i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e b e a d ) , and c o m p o s i t e s o f c e r a m i c and p o l y m e r i c m a t e r i a l s .
F o r f u l l y dense s o l i d s p h e r e s and h o l l o w g l o b u l e s w i t h a s m a l l c e n t e r v o i d , t h e
c o n t a c t zone s t r e s s e s a r e assumed t o be c o n t r o l l i n g , and t h u s t h e c e n t r a l empty
space d e c r e a s e s s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e . Once a
c r i t i c a l v o i d s i z e i s exceeded, t h e l i m i t i n g s t r e s s becomes t h a t a t t h e i n s i d e
s u r f a c e , and f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s i n empty space cliameter t h u s d e c r e a s e f r a c t u r e
pressure.

1.2.7.2.Specific gravity lowering

S p e c i f i c p r o p p a n t g r a v i t y may be l o w e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b y f a b r i c a t i n g a h o l -
l o w bead w i t h o u t any l o s s i n s t r e n g t h (CUTLER, JONES, SWANSON & CARROLL 1981;
CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON 1985). H o l l o w s p h e r e s , however, a r e n o t a l w a y s
s u p e r i o r t o p o r o u s g l o b u l e s , w h i c h i s e c o n o m i c a l l y v e r y i m p o r t a n t , because i t
i s much e a s i e r t o f a b r i c a t e p r o p p a n t s w i t h u n i f o r m p o r o s i t y t h a n t o make h o l l o w
s p h e r e s . The e x c e s s i v e c o s t of r a w m a t e r i a l s may i n many c a s e s e x c l u d e t h e u s e
o f h i g h - p u r i t y materials, although i t i s obvious t h a t high-strength high-quali-
t y c e r a m i c s may be t h e answer t o m e e t i n g t h e d e s i g n g o a l o f 2 . 0 g/cm3 s p e c i f i c
g r a v i t y and 20,000 p s i c l o s u r e s t r e s s .

S e v e r a l c a n d i d a t e p r o p p a n t m a t e r i a l s have been i d e n t i f i e d w h i c h show p r o m i s e

as l i g h t w e i g h t p r o p p a n t s i n h o l l o w , p o r o u s o r s o l i d f o r m c o m p r i s i n g h i g h - p u r i t y
a l u m i n a , m u l l i t e , c o r d i e r i t e and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p o r c e l a i n s , w i t h d e n s i t i e s r a n g -
i n g f r o m 1 . 8 t o 2 . 5 g/cm3. F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y r e s u l t s f o r s p r a y - d r i e d a l u -
m i n a a r e v e r y e n c o u r a g i n g s i n c e i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s p r a y - d r i e d - f l u i d i z e d bed
c o n c e p t p r o d u c e s an e a s i l y s i n t e r e d m a t e r i a l w h i c h w i l l have a c o n d u c t i v i t y com-
p a r a b l e t o s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e i f p r o p p a n t s o f s i m i l a r p a r t i c l e s i z e and shape a r e
t e s t e d . Spray d r y i n g a l s o p e r m i t s t h e economical f a b r i c a t i o n o f h o l l o w prop-
p a n t s t h r o u g h an a g g l o m e r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e and c o a t i n g p r o c e s s i n t h e f l u i d i z e d
bed.
 28

1.2.7.3. Strength retainment o f hollow spheres

The m o s t e c o n o m i c a l a p p r o a c h t o s t r e n g t h r e t a i n m e n t o f h o l l o w s p h e r e s ap-
p e a r s t o be s p r a y d r y i n g o f t h i n - w a l l e d s m a l l h o l l o w g l o b u l e s i n t o a f l u i d i z e d
bed, a g g l o m e r a t i n g s e v e r a l o f t h e s e s p h e r e s t o g e t h e r i n t o a l a r g e r bead and
then c o a t i n g the agglomerate c l u s t e r w i t h a s o l i d envelope. S i n t e r e d b a u x i t e
p r o d u c e d i n t h i s manner w o u l d have a s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y n e a r t h a t o f sand, b u t r e -
t a i n i t s h i g h strength, although t h e process i s s t i l l i n experimental stage.
B o t h dense and h o l l o w a l u m i n a s p h e r e s have been f a b r i c a t e d b y s p r a y f l u i d i z a -
t i o n and c o u n t e r c u r r e n t s p r a y d r y i n g (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON 1 9 8 5 ) .

S p r a y d r y i n g i n t o a f l u i d i z e d bed i s a l s o a v i a b l e method f o r p r o d u c i n g p o -
rous proppants c h a r a c t e r i z e d by disseminated m i c r o p o r o s i t y throughout t h e
g r a i n . L i g h t w e i g h t e x p e r i m e n t a l h o l l o w a l u m i n a p r o p p a n t s have l o w e r c r u s h r e s i s -
t a n c e t h a n b a u x i t e b u t a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y s t r o n g e r t h a n sand a l t h o u g h l o w e r i n
d e n s i t y , w i t h n o n - c o n c e n t r i c and m u l t i p l e v o i d s w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l p r o p p a n t s
b e i n g t h e main reasons f o r t h e h i t h e r t o inadequate s t r e n g t h . S e l e c t i o n o f p r o -
p e r s p r a y - d r y i n g p a r a m e t e r s such as d r y e r d e s i g n , n o z z l e t y p e , a d d i t i v e s , tempe-
r a t u r e and f l o w r a t e s a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r o p t i m i z a t i o n o f h o l l o w p r o p p a n t f a b r i c a -
t i o n by spray d r y i n g .

1.2.7.4. Proppant fabrication met hods

A w i d e v a r i e t y o f f a b r i c a t i o n methods c a n be u s e d t o make p r o p p a n t s i n c l u -
ding mix-pelletization, s p r a y d r y i n g , d r o p l e t g e n e r a t i o n and c o a t i n g (CUTLER,
E N N I S S , JONES & SWANSON 1 9 8 5 ) . W h i l e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o p p a n t s a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y
m a n u f a c t u r e d b y m i x - p e l l e t i z a t i o n and o c c a s i o n a l l y a l s o b y d r o p l e t g e n e r a t i o n ,
t h e m o s t p r o m i s i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p r o a c h c o m p r i s e s c o a t i n g o f cheap c e r a m i c rna-
t e r i a l s and c l u s t e r i n g o f s e v e r a l s m a l l e r s p h e r e s t o l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s . I n t e r m e -
d i a t e - s t a g e low-density proppants are m u l l i t e proppants f a b r i c a t e d by m i x - p e l l e -
t i z a t i o n and c a r b o n - c o a t e d a l u m i n a m i c r o s p h e r e s p r o d u c e d by d r o p l e t g e n e r a t i o n .
On l a b o r a t o r y s c a l e , h o l l o w p r o p p a n t s have been f a b r i c a t e d w i t h c r u s h r e s i s t a n -
c e v a l u e s between sand and i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s . M a n u f a c t u r i n g o f e i -
t h e r h o l l o w beads o r g l o b u l e s w i t h f i n e l y d i s p e r s e d i n t e r c o n n e c t e d p o r o s i t y ap-
p e a r s t o have t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r c o m b i n i n g adequate s t r e n g t h w i t h l o w d e n s i t y .
I t i s t h e r e f o r e b e l i e v e d t h a t h o l l o w proppants a r e t h e key t o o b t a i n i n g lower
s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y proppants a t c o m p e t i t i v e c o s t s .

1.2.8. Vertical vs. horizontal fracture orientation

As a consequence o f t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t t y p e s o f d i f f e r e n t
m e c h a n i c a l and c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , m i n e r a l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and p o s s i b i l i t i e s
o f i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n t h a t a r e r e f l e c t e d i n d i f f e r e n t p r i c e s , numerous h y -
d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n s have been c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g t h e l a s t t e n
y e a r s , w i t h m a j o r i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s on d e s i g n and e x e c u t i o n b e i n g n o t o n l y
proppant performance w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r r e s i s t i v i t y against c l o s u r e s t r e s s
and a g g r e s s i v e f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s and t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y o f a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e geo-
l o g i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g framework, b u t a l s o e c o n o m i c a l a s p e c t s o f h y -
d r o c a r b o n p r i c e ( c f . s e c t i o n Z . Z . I . ) , p r o p p a n t c o s t ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.2.),US $
exchange r a t e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) and c o m m e r c i a l gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s , as
w e l l as f o r e i g n t r a d e and f i n a n c i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y i n E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s
(MADER 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . ) .

O t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s w h i c h have t o be c o n s i d e r e d a r e minimum r e s e r v o i r p r o -
p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d f o r e c o n o m i c a l l y p r o f i t a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n s (DIETZEL & ERNST
1987; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 6 . 1 . 2 . ) . A t t e n t i o n has a l s o t o be p a i d t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f
v e r t i c a l v s . h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n . The b r i e f o u t l i n e as
f o l l o w s s k e t c h e s some a s p e c t s o f f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n and r e s e r v o i r d e p t h as
 29

w e l l as g e o t e c t o n i c a l s e t t i n g , b o r e h o l e / f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t i o n and r e s e r v o i r
drainage, and c o e x i s t e n c e and t r a n s i t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s .

1.2.8.1. Fracture orientation and reservoir depth

As a consequence o f i n c r e a s i n g overburden s t r e s s w i t h depth and t h e r e f o r e
s h i f t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p between h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s , t h e r e
i s a c o r r e l a t i o n between f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n and r e s e r v o i r d e p t h .
The c r a c k s c r e a t e d by h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s a r e o r i e n t e d v e r t i c a l l y
t o l e a s t p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s ( w h i c h i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal t o t h e f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e
p r e s s u r e ) i n t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t (HUBBERT & WILLIS 1957, DUNLAP 1963, HAIMSON &
FAIRHURST 1969, HOWARD & FAST 1970, VEATCH 1983). As a consequence o f t h e geo-
s t r e s s f i e l d , above a b t . 3,000 f t (1,000 m) t h e c r a c k s a r e g e n e r a l l y h o r i z o n -
t a l , whereas below t h a t boundary d e p t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s e x i s t
(SMITH 1965, McGARR & GAY 1978, AGUILERA 1983; ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD
1986; o t h e r a u t h o r s assume t h e b o r d e r l i n e between h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e o r i g i n
and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e growth a t l e a s t i n some areas t o be a l r e a d y i n a d e p t h o f
a b t . 1,000 - 2,000 f t o r 300 - 700 m; VEATCH 1983).

1.2.8.2. Fracture orientation and geotectonical setting

Concerning g e o t e c t o n i c a l s e t t i n g , t h e l e a s t p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s i s m a i n l y h o r i -
z o n t a l i n t e c t o n i c a l l y r e l a x e d areas which a r e o n l y s u b j e c t e d t o subsidence and
e x t e n s i o n a l ( n o r m a l ) f a u l t i n g , and f r a c t u r i n g t h e r e f o r e occurs along v e r t i c a l
planes, whereas i n t e c t o n i c a l s t r e s s f i e l d s where a l s o compressional ( i n v e r s e
o r t h r u s t ) f a u l t i n g , s h e a r i n g and f o l d i n g t a k e s p l a c e , t h e ( e x t e r n a l l y genera-
t e d ) h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s may be g r e a t e r than t h e overburden s t r e s s and due t o
t h e l e a s t p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s b e i n g v e r t i c a l , h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s have t o be e x -
p e c t e d ( s t r e s s e f f e c t s on crack o r i e n t a t i o n and p r e s s u r e s r e q u i r e d t o produce
v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o discussed by HUBBERT & WILLIS 1957).
Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on e x t e n s i o n a l v s . compressional t e c t o n i c s
as w e l l as on comparative s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s .

1.2.8.2.1. Extens iona 1 vs . compressional tectonics

N a t u r a l j o i n t o r i g i n i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i a s t r o p h i s m d u r i n g f o l d i n g and f a u l -
t i n g where c r a c k s a r e generated a l o n g t h e l i n e o f t h e f a u l t which i n t u r n p r o -
duce a zone o f d i l a t a n c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 . 3 . 1 . ) ; deep e r o s i o n o f t h e o v e r b u r -
den p e r m i t t i n g t h e upper p a r t s t o expand, u p l i f t and f r a c t u r e t h r o u g h planes o f
weakness; and volume s h r i n k a g e as i n case o f c o o l i n g o f igneous r o c k s ( c f .
p l a t e V1/8 and IX/5-6) and d e s i c c a t i o n of sediments ( c f . p l a t e V1/1-7 and sec-
t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . ) . T h r u s t f a u l t i n g i s a p o s s i b i l i t y o f c r e a t i n g h o r i z o n t a l and
low-angle i n c l i n e d c r a c k s ( c f . p l a t e X1/3) a l s o i n s h a l l o w d e p t h (AGUILERA
1983). H o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s , however, o f t e n t e n d t o c l o s e owing t o t h e e f f e c t
o f overburden. F o r m a t i o n h e a t i n g by steam i n j e c . i r i n i s a s i g n i f i c a n t means o f
f u n d a m e n t a l l y changing t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s s t a t e i n s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r s f r o m a r e -
gime f a v o u r i n g o r i g i n o f v e r t i c a l c r a c k s i n c o l d environment t o a framework sup-
p o r t i n g p r o p a g a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s i n h o t m i l i e u (HOLZHAUSEN, CARD,
RAISBECK & DOBECKI 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 4 ) .

1.2.8.2.2. Comparative significance

o f horizontal and vertical fractures
As most o f t h e h y d r o c a r b o n - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s which a r e s t i m u l a t e d a r e i n
depths exceeding t h e boundary o f a b t . 3,000 f t (1,000 m) and a r e i n b a s i n s w i t h
o n l y moderate t e c t o n i c a l s t r e s s undergoing s t i l l s l i g h t subsidence and h a v i n g
been s u b j e c t e d t o normal f a u l t i n g w i t h o n l y m i n o r t i l t i n g , s h e a r i n g and compres-
s i o n , t h e d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a t e s on v e r t i c a l c r a c k s i n t e r s e c t i n g
 30

t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k s . A s p e c t s o f h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s a r e emphasized b y CRAWFORD
& LANDRUM ( 1 9 5 6 ) , WAHL (1956, 1 9 6 5 ) , LANDRUM & CRAWFORD ( 1 9 5 7 ) , MORRISSON & HEN-
DERSON ( 1 9 6 0 ) , HARTSOCK & WARREN ( 1 9 6 1 ) , WAHL & CAMPBELL ( 1 9 6 3 ) , LOWE & HUITT
( 1 9 6 6 ) , SUN ( 1 9 6 9 ) , GRINGARTEN & RAMEY ( 1 9 7 4 ) , ERDLE ( 1 9 8 1 ) and SUNG & ERTEKIN
( 1 9 8 7 ) . EVANS ( 1 9 8 3 ) and EVANS & HOLZHAUSEN ( 1 9 8 3 ) a l s o comment on d e v e l o p m e n t
o f shallow h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s . I d e a l l y , h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s i s independent from
a z i m u t h i n i s o t r o p i c r o c k s w h i c h , however, a r e h a r d l y d e v e l o p e d i n n a t u r e . In
a n i s o t r o p i c r o c k s w h i c h a r e t h e r e a l cases, c r a c k o r i e n t a t i o n r u n s p e r p e n d i c u -
l a r l y t o t h e l e a s t h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s (LEICHT 1 9 8 5 ) . I n d u s t r i a l p r a c t i c e h a s
shown t h a t h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s c o n s t i t u t e a r e l a t i v e l y l o w p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e
s i t u a t i o n s e x p e r i e n c e d t o d a t e (VEATCH 1983) and a r e r a t h e r s p e c i a l c a s e s t h a n
b e i n g more common.

1.2.8.3. Borehole/fracture intersection and reservoir drainage

I n terms o f r e s e r v o i r drainage, t h e e f f e c t o f h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s i n v e r t i -
c a l w e l l s c a n be compared w i t h t h a t o f v e r t i c a l c r a c k s c r o s s i n g h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d
o r h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s ( c f . c h a p t e r 4 . 1 1 . ) . The r e s t r i c t e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f
t h e f r a c t u r e p l a n e b e i n g i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e w e l l b o r e t r a j e c t o r y t h a t per-
f o r a t e s t h e h o r i z o n t a l c r a c k l i k e a s l i c e i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e c o n t i n u o u s and
f u l l f r a c t u r e h e i g h t exposure i n case o f i d e a l v e r t i c a l cracks r e s u l t s i n o n l y
l i m i t e d d r a i n a g e t h r o u g h t h e f r a c t u r e and v e r y r e s t r i c t e d e n l a r g e m e n t o f e f f e c -
t i v e wellbore diameter. Therefore except o f special applications, preference i s
always g i v e n t o v e r t i c a l cracks f o r t h e reason o f b e t t e r r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n
due t o l o n g e r b o r e h o l e / f r a c t u r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n d i s t a n c e i f any i n f l u e n c e c a n be
e x e r t e d on c r a c k o r i e n t a t i o n . Some e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e s u i t a b i l i t y
o f horizontal fractures, p a r t i a l l y i n combination w i t h v e r t i c a l cracks, are
outlined i n section 4.9.4.2.

1 . 2 . 8 . 4 . Coexistence and transition

of horizontal and vertical fractures
H o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s s t a r t i n many c a s e s t o p r o p a g a t e as v e r t i c a l c r a c k s and
t h e n r e o r i e n t t h e m s e l v e s t o become h o r i z o n t a l and t o r u n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e
l e a s t p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s (DANESHY 1973 b ) , w i t h i n i t i a l v e r t i c a l c r a c k f o r m a t i o n
b e i n g s u b s t i t u t e d b y f o l l o w i n g h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e o r i g i n w h i c h t h e n becomes
d o m i n a n t and t h e r e b y s e v e r e l y l i m i t s f u r t h e r g r o w t h o f t h e v e r t i c a l c r a c k
(WOOD, PARKIN, YOTAM, HANSON, S M I T H , ABBOTT, COX & O'SHEA 1 9 8 3 ) . I n some c a s e s ,
a h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e and a v e r t i c a l c r a c k may e v e n k e e p open and p r o p a g a t e s i -
multaneously, w i t h t h e r a t e o f growth o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e being g r e a t e r
t h a n t h a t o f t h e v e r t i c a l c r a c k . Mushroom-type f r a c t u r e s c o n s i s t i n g o f a p r i m a -
r y v e r t i c a l c r a c k t o p p e d b y a s e c o n d a r y h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e l i k e a c a p (EVANS,
HOLZHAUSEN & WOOD 1982; FITZ-PATRICK, KARR & O'SHEA 1985; SMITH, REN, SORRELS &
TEUFEL 1985) a l s o o c c u r o c c a s i o n a l l y i n d e p t h r a n g e s t h a t a r e t r a n s i t i o n a l f o r
b o t h b a s i c c r a c k t y p e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 3 . 4 . ) as w e l l as due t o c h a n g i n g c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s b y s t e a m - d r i v e enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y o p e r a t i o n s ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 9 . 4 . 2 . ) . N e t w o r k s o f o r t h o g o n a l f r a c t u r e s c o n s i s t i n g o f two i n t e r l o c k i n g
systems b e i n g o r i e n t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o e a c h o t h e r c a n be c r e a t e d b y a l t e r e d
stress f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . section 4.9.4.1.3.1.). Horizontal f r a c t u r e s i n shallow
d e p t h a r e r e c o g n i z e d by p a r t i n g g r a d i e n t s g r e a t e r t h a n 1.

P r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n (STEANSON, ELBEL & WENDORFF 1979; CLARK 1983, DOWELL

SCHLUMBERGER 1985, MONTGOMERY & STEANSON 1985, NORMAN & FAST 1985, NORTON-ALCOA
PROPPANTS 1985, PHILLIPS & ANDERSON 1985, WESTERN PETROLEUM 1985, STANDARD O I L
PROPPANTS 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . ) f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s i s i n f l u e n -
c e d by a l l t h e m e n t i o n e d f e a t u r e s . I t s k e y s i g n i f i c a n c e i n o p e r a t i o n d e s i g n as
a consequence o f t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e s h a r e w h i c h p r o p p a n t c o s t has i n t h e t o t a l
MHF expenses r e q u i r e s d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o p p a n t p r o p e r t i e s
and p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r o p p a n t a p p l i c a t i o n as f o l l o w s .
 MINERALOGICAL A N D I P R O P P A N T C O M P O S I T I O N

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
I C H E M I S T R Y

rI
P R 0 P P A NTS I N E AMORPHOUS^
-
FOR HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
A N D GRAVEL PACKING 0
D

:,
x
0

P R O P P A N T T Y P E I E

3
2
2 3 m
O
0 3 L
0 "
0

ROVENANCE STRENGTH T Y P E S 5 -
L

v r 0 N

l ow -
latura' quartz sand 98 - l o [
s trengt h
l o w - d e n s i t v a lu m in a
30 -7C 22

strength h ig h - d e n s it y a lu m in a
0 - 7 0 30 - 7 0
o x id e and s i l i c a t e proppants
ynthetic
high- a lu m in a o x id e p r o p p a n t s

strength
zirconia-silicate proppants

Tab. 2
 32

1.3. Proppant types and g r a i n sizes

Presently basically five different proppant types for hydraulic fracturing
and gravel packing are available in the hydrocarbon stimulation market in va-
rious grain sizes and for different prices from several manufacturers : natural
quartz sand, synthetic intermediate-strength low-density alumina silicate (cera-
mic) proppant, intermediate-strength high-density alumina oxide and silicate
proppant, high-strength high-density bauxite proppant and high-strength low-den-
sity zirconia-silicate proppant (arranged in an order of progressively increa-
sing specific gravity, closure stress resistivity and proppant cost; the main
characteristics are compiled in COMALCO 1983, KIM 1983, SEPR 1983, HOLDITCH
1984, DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1985, NORMAN & FAST 1985, NORTON-ALCOA PROPPANTS
1985, WESTERN PETROLEUM 1985, BROWN & MUCH 1986, HALLIBURTON 1986, MESSINA
1986, STANDARD O I L PROPPANTS 1986; cf. tabs. 2 - 4). The current proppant pri-
ces are increasing in the mentioned sequence from cheap natural quartz sand via
moderately expensive synthetic alumina oxide and silicate proppants to expensi-
ve artificial zirconia-silicate proppants.
Following an overview of the provenance of natural sand and synthetic prop-
pants and the discussion of the various mechanical and chemical proppant proper-
ties, aspects of proppant selection for application unde a spectrum of diffe-
rent reservoir conditions are evaluated. The section below includes the outline
of mineralogical composition and closure stress resistiv ty, chemical composi-
tion and acid solubility, grain sizes and conductivity per US $, and grain sha-
pes of the presently commercially available proppant types

1.3.1. Provenance o f sand and proppants

Natural sand and synthetic proppants are exploited and produced, respective-
ly, in various places in the world. While traditionally both types of materials
chiefly derived from the USA, in the last decade increasing contributions are
also coming from other countries and continents.

1.3.1.1. Natural sand

High-quality sands (known as Ottawa Sand and other sands with regional na-
mes; WESTERN PETROLEUM 1985) are mined traditionally in the USA, with the main
provenances being Jordan Formation in Minnesota, Hickey Formation in Central Te-
xas, St. Peters Formation in Ottawa/Northern Illinois, and Galesville and Iron-
ton Formations in Wisconsin, and smaller quantities also deriving from Eastern
Arizona, Central Colorado, Ohio and Northern Carolina (WATERS 1980). Many of
the high-quality sands represent ancient aeolian dune sands where effective
windblown transport, sorting and deposition has given rise to high quartz con-
tent, negligible amount of fines, high grain roundness and sphericity, and very
good sorting with narrow range of grain size distribution. Minor and negligible
or larger and significant differences exist between excellent quality sands and
inferior-quality sands depending on provenance and composition, with the latter
group being restricted in application to shallower reservoirs with lower clo-
sure stress regimes, whereas the former including first of all Ottawa Sand had
in earlier years prior to invention of intermediate- and high-strength ceramic
proppants also been applied in deep well fracturing.
Brady Sand or Hickory Sand coming from Texas is the most frequently applied
proppant in oil and gas industry, with millions of tons having been pumped du-
ring the last decades, because in contrast to recent years, the distribution of
the top-quality Ottawa Sand formerly suffered from limited supply (SINCLAIR
1980) and shortages in meeting the enormous demand of the boosting oil and gas
industry after the first oil price jump in the early 1970's required the deli-
very of every sand available almost regardless of quality in the hottest pe-
 33

r i o d s o f hydrocarbon w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e golden o i l and gas y e a r s .

Other n a t u r a l sands o f d i f f e r i n g q u a l i t y come f r o m v a r i o u s European c o u n t r i e s
and a r e d e r i v i n g i n t h e M i d d l e and F a r East a l s o f r e q u e n t l y f r o m l o c a l sources.

While t h e f i r s t sand used as f r a c t u r e proppant i n t h e f i r s t t r e a t m e n t s i n

1947 and f o l l o w i n g y e a r s was j u s t t a k e n o u t o f Arkansas r i v e r and pumped down-
hole, l a t e r i n c r e a s i n g q u a l i t y demand r e q u i r e d more and more s o p h i s t i c a t e d me-
c h a n i c a l p r o c e s s i n g o f t h e n a t u r a l sands f o r t h e purposes o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e
p r o p p a n t and e s p e c i a l l y sand c o n t r o l p a c k i n g g r a v e l where q u a l i t y standards de-
mand p r i m a r i l y f o r narrow g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n , h i g h c o n t e n t o f p r e f e r a b l y
m o n o c r y s t a l l i n e q u a r t z , and e x c e l l e n t roundness and s p h e r i c i t y .

1.3.1.2. Synthetic proppants

I n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e ( c e r a m i c ) proppants a r e
m a i n l y manufactured i n t h e USA, w i t h minor amounts d e r i v i n g f r o m B r a z i l and
o n l y v e r y l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s o f h i g h - d e n s i t y m a t e r i a l h a v i n g s o f a r been produ-
ced i n Hungary t h a t have n o t y e t reached t h e stage o f economical a p p l i c a t i o n
beyond l o c a l f i e l d t e s t s o f t a i l - i n n a t u r e . H i g h - s t r e n g t h s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e p r o p -
p a n t s a r e n o t o n l y made i n t h e USA, b u t s l o w l y i n c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t i e s a r e coming
f r o m A u s t r a l i a and B r a z i l , and t r i a l r u n s on more o r l e s s l a b o r a t o r y s c a l e w i t h -
o u t y e t r e a c h i n g f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n have been c a r r i e d o u t i n China ( c f . s e c t i o n
2 . 4 . 6 . 4 . and t a b . 3 ) .

While h i g h - s t r e n g t h b a u x i t e proppants i n USA, B r a z i l and China a r e e x c l u s i v e -

l y made by m i x - p e l l e t i z a t i o n and s i n t e r i n g o f t h e a r t i f i c i a l l y formed p e l l e t s ,
t h e A u s t r a l i a n b a u x i t e proppants d e r i v e f r o m s c r e e n i n g and c o n d i t i o n i n g o f n a t u -
r a l spheres coming f r o m a p i s o l i t h i c b a u x i t e d e p o s i t which f o l l o w i n g s i e v i n g
and chemical p r o c e s s i n g a r e s i n t e r e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 9 . 1 . 3 . ) . H i g h - s t r e n g t h f u -
sed z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s f i n a l l y a r e manufactured i n France. Several
o t h e r s u p p l i e r s have s o f a r o n l y s u b m i t t e d l a b o r a t o r y - s c a l e samples f o r p r o p -
p a n t t e s t i n g . As a r e s u l t o f t h e wide v a r i e t y o f p r o p p a n t t y p e s t h a t a r e a v a i -
l a b l e today i n t h e market f r o m v a r i o u s producers, t h e American P e t r o l e u m I n s t i -
t u t e ( A P I ) has e s t a b l i s h e d recommended t e s t procedures f o r s e v e r a l p r o p p a n t p r o -
p e r t i e s t o d i s t i n g u i s h q u a l i t y and u s e f u l n e s s o f each p r o p p a n t (AMERICAN PETRO-
LEUM I N S T I T U T E 1985).

1.3.2. Mineralogical composition and closure stress resistivity

Concerning m i n e r a l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y o f p r o p -
p a n t s , d i s t i n c t i o n can m a i n l y be made between alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p -
p a n t s and z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants ( c f . t a b . 2 ) .

1.3.2.1. Alumina oxide and silicate proppants

I n terms o f m i n e r a l o g i c a l composition, n a t u r a l sand c o n s i s t s o f m a c r o c r y s t a l -
l i n e q u a r t z which has no c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c a l cleavage, b u t a s h e l l y breakage
i n t o b o t h l a r g e r fragments and s m a l l e r s p l i n t e r s a t h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s e x -
ceeding 3,000 - 5,000 p s i . Resin-coated sand may be s t a b l e up t o 7,000 - 8,000
p s i closure stress ( c f . section 1.2.6.). Intermediate-strength low-density alu-
mina s i l i c a t e ( c e r a m i c ) proppants a r e m a i n l y b u i l t up o f m i c r o - t o c r y p t o c r y s -
t a l l i n e m u l l i t e and c r y s t o b a l i t e d e r i v i n g f r o m c l a y as raw m a t e r i a l . I n t e r m e d i a -
t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants a r e composed o f
m i c r o - t o c r y p t o c r y s t a l l i n e corundum and m u l l i t e coming f r o m a raw m a t e r i a l m i x -
t u r e o f b a u x i t e and c l a y .

H i g h - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y b a u x i t e proppants a r e almost e x c l u s i v e l y c o n s i s t -
i n g o f corundum w i t h l i t t l e q u a n t i t i e s o f m u l l i t e d e r i v i n g f r o m s i n t e r i n g o f
n e a r l y p u r e b a u x i t e ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 9 . 1 . ) . A s a consequence o f c o m p o s i t i o n o f
 34

i n t e r l o c k i n g t i n y c r y s t a l s w h i c h g i v e much b e t t e r t o u g h n e s s t h a n a g l a s s y mate-
r i a l and p r o v i d e some d e f o r m a b i l i t y u n d e r l o a d p r i o r t o f a i l u r e and c r u s h i n g ,
the t h r e e l a t t e r proppant types are predominantly breaking i n t o halves, quar-
t e r s and s u c c e s s i v e l y f i n e r f r a g m e n t s when b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s
beyond 8,000 p s i ( 3 % c r u s h o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a s i l i -
cate proppants); 10,000 p s i ( 4 % c r u s h o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y
a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s ) ; and 15,000 p s i ( 5 % c r u s h o f h i g h -
s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y b a u x i t e p r o p p a n t s ) , w i t h r e a s o n a b l e amounts o f f i n e r
s p l i n t e r s o n l y o r i g i n a t i n g d u r i n g advanced f a i l u r e as a consequence o f e x p o s i -
t i o n t o excessive closure stresses ( c f . section 1 . 4 . 2 . ) . Intermediate-strength
p r o p p a n t s c a n be u s e d u p t o c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s o f 12,000 - 13,000 p s i and s i n c e
higher pressures are n o t occurring t h a t frequently, t h i s proppant type s u i t e
w i l l be i n f o c u s f o r a p p l i c a t i o n d u r i n g t h e coming y e a r s . S i n t e r e d b a u x i t e has
e x c e l l e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y up t o 20,000 p s i ( 1 3 9 MPa) c l o s u r e s t r e s s (CUTLER, EN-
N I S S , JONES & SWANSON 1 9 8 5 ) .

N a t u r a l sand becomes a l r e a d y u n s t a b l e a t 3,000 - 5,000 p s i c l o s u r e s t r e s s d e -

p e n d i n g on q u a l i t y and g r a i n s i z e , b u t i t s r e s i s t i v i t y c a n be e x t e n d e d u p t o
more t h a n 10,000 p s i b y r e s i n e n v e l o p i n g , and s i m i l a r l y , r e s i n - c o a t e d s i n t e r e d
b a u x i t e can t o l e r a t e c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s up t o 30,000 p s i (SINCLAIR, GRAHAM & S I N -
CLAIR 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 6 . ) .

1.3.2.2. Zirconia-silicate proppants

H i g h - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants f i n a l l y a r e b u i l t up
o f m i c r o - t o c r y p t o c r y s t a l l i n e m o n o c l i n i c and c u b i c z i r c o n i a t h a t i s embedded
i n a m o d i f i e d a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e amorphous o r g l a s s y phase o r i g i n a t i n g b y f u s i n g
o f z i r c o n and q u a r t z . The l a t t e r b r i t t l e f u s e d p r o d u c t ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 9 . 2 . )
behaves l i k e a g l a s s when s u b j e c t e d t o h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s and t h u s a l m o s t a t once
c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y f a i l s by breakage i n t o e x c l u s i v e l y t i n y s p l i n t e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n
1 . 4 . 2 . ) a t c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s beyond a b t . 15,000 p s i ( 2 . 5 % c r u s h ; a l l c r u s h v a -
l u e s r e f e r t o p r o p p a n t s o f 2 0 / 4 0 mesh g r a i n s i z e ; t h e d a t a i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e
c o m p i l e d f r o m BJ-HUGHES 1982, COMALCO 1983, K I M 1983, SEPR 1983, NORTON-ALCOA
PROPPANTS 1985, BROWN & MUCH 1986; MESSINA 1986, 1987; STANDARD O I L PROPPANTS
1 9 8 6 ) . Thus c o l l a p s e o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s i s p h y s i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o
t h a t o f g l a s s beads w h i c h a l s o c r u s h a t once i n t o f i n e powder ( c f . s e c t i o n
1 . 2 . 3 . 1 . ) a l t h o u g h t a k i n g p l a c e a t a much more e l e v a t e d c l o s u r e s t r e s s n i v e a u
i n c a s e o f z i r c o n i a s p h e r e s . Up t o 14,000 p s i ( 9 7 MPa), t h e r e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y
no c o n d u c t i v i t y d i f f e r e n c e s between z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s and s i n t e r e d
b a u x i t e p r o p p a n t s (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON 1 9 8 5 ) .

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d b o u n d a r y c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s , ROBINSON, HOL-
D I T C H & WHITEHEAD ( 1 9 8 6 ) c o n c l u d e t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e damage and i t s
p r e v e n t i o n w i t h recommendation o f maximum a l l o w a b l e c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s o f 4,000
p s i f o r sand, 7,000 p s i f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s and 10,000 p s i f o r
h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s . In c o m p a r i s o n w i t h m o s t r e s u l t s o f p r o p p a n t t e s t i n g ,
however, t h e v a l u e s f o r t h e l a t t e r two p r o p p a n t t y p e s a r e a s s e s s e d as b e i n g c o n -
s i d e r a b l y t o o p e s s i m i s t i c , b u t c e r t a i n l y when d e s i g n i n g a s u i t a b l e p r o p p a n t
t y p e f o r l o n g p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y u p t o 20 - 30 y e a r s , i t s h o u l d be p r e f e r r e d t o
go a b s o l u t e l y on t h e s a f e s i d e and t o b e t t e r s e l e c t a more e x p e n s i v e p r o p p a n t
type t h a t i s r e s i s t i n g t o higher closure stresses r a t h e r than t o r i s k f r a c t u r e
damage due t o p r o p p a n t f a i l u r e u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f e x c e s s i v e drawdown i n t h e
l a t e stage o f r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n .

1.3.3. Chemical composition and acid solubility

C o n c e r n i n g c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and a c i d s o l u b i l i t y , d i s t i n c t i o n has t o be
made between n a t u r a l sand and o t h e r p r o p p a n t s c o n t a i n i n g f r e e s i l i c a i n l a r g e r
amounts, and p r o p p a n t t y p e s i n c l u d i n g o n l y m i n o r s h a r e s o f f r e e s i l i c a o r ha-
v i n g a l m o s t t o t a l l y n o n - s i l i c a c o n s t i t u e n t s ( c f . t a b s . 2 and 3 ) .
 MECHANICAL PROPERTfES AND 4 E C H A N I C A L I
' R O P E R T I E --tS
PROOUCTION/MANUFACTURlNG I

-r
PR 0DUCT I0N/ M A NUFACT UR I NG 4 T Y P
-
E A R E

OF PROPPANTS
FOR HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
A N D GRAVEL PACKING
l P R O P P A N T T Y P E
m
c
._

'ii
a a

2
3 u)

--
LL 3

1 I I LO 8

*
q u a r t z sand
L
Z Y i n aw t h
low-density alumina
-
59 0
43
5,000

~ n t e r m e d l a t e - si I I cat e p roppan t s 275 I 1024 95

strength high-density alumina 315 1 1 1 2 5 35

I synthetic I
I
oxide and silicate proppants
-
61 12.000

I
15
high- alumina oxide proppants 15,000

1
-
50
12D 0 03
15,000
16

Tab. 3
 36

1 . 3 . 3 . 1 . Chemica 1 composition
N a t u r a l q u a r t z sand i s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y c o n s i s t i n g o f SiO2 and t h u s has a
s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f 2.62 - 2 . 6 5 g/cm3. S y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n -
s i t y a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s a r e b u i l t u p o f 4 6 . 0 - 5 0 . 0 % SiO2, 4 6 . 0 - 5 1 . 0
% A1203, 0 . 7 - 1.1 % Fe203 and 1 . 5 - 2 . 5 % T i 0 2 , w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y be-
i n g 2 . 7 0 - 2.75 g/cm3 w h i c h i s o n l y s l i g h t l y more t h a n t h a t o f s a n d . I n t e r m e d i a -
t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s a r e composed o f
1 2 . 0 - 1 7 . 0 % SiO2, 7 3 . 0 - 7 8 . 0 % A1203, 4 . 5 - 7 . 0 % Fe203 and 2 . 5 - 4 . 0 %
T i 0 2 , and have a s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f 3 . 1 5 - 3 . 2 7 g/cm3 w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r a b l y
h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f sand and i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e
p r o p p a n t s and i s p a r t i a l l y s i m i l a r o r even more e l e v a t e d t h a n t h a t o f h i g h -
s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s , b u t s t i l l much l o w e r t h a n
t h a t o f almost pure bauxite-based high-strength high-density proppants. I n t e r -
m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s a r e t h u s r e -
presenting a t r a n s i t i o n a l proppant type l i n k i n g several classes o f products
b o t h i n t e r m s o f p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h i s u n d e r -
l i n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s proppant t y p e i s t h e h i t h e r t o most f r e q u e n t l y u t i l i -
zed s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t f o r o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n .

H i g h - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a o x i d e p r o p p a n t s a r e t y p i c a l l y made up o f
3.0 - 6 . 0 % S i 0 2 , 8 5 . 0 - 9 0 . 0 % A1203, 4 . 0 - 7 . 0 % Fe203 and 3 . 0 - 4 . 0 % Ti02,
w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f 3 . 6 - 3 . 8 g/cm3 b e i n g t h e h i g h e s t o f a l l s y n t h e t i c
proppants. High-strength low-density z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants c o n s i s t t y p i -
c a l l y o f 4 4 . 0 % SiO2, 7 . 5 % A1203, 0 . 3 % Fe203, 6 . 5 % T i 0 2 and 4 1 . 5 % Z r 0 2 ,
w i t h i t s s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f 3 . 1 5 - 3 . 1 7 b e i n g even l o w e r t h a n t h a t o f some i n -
t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s ( t h e d a t a
a r e c o m p i l e d f r o m BJ-HUGHES 1982, COMALCO 1983, K I M 1983, SEPR 1983, NORTON-AL-
COA PROPPANTS 1985, BROWN & MUCH 1986, COBB & FARRELL 1986; MESSINA 1986, 1987;
STANDARD OIL PROPPANTS 1 9 8 6 ) .

1.3.3.2. Acid solubility

In c o n t r a s t t o q u a r t z sand and g l a s s beads w h i c h a r e q u i t e s o l u b l e i n h o t
formation b r i n e s , t h e s y n t h e t i c alumina- o r zirconia-based proppants are c o n s i -
d e r a b l y more r e s i s t a n t . The s o l u b i l i t y i n 1 2 / 3 HCl/HF a c i d ( 3 0 m i n a t 150 O F )
i s f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h low-density alumina s i l i c a t e proppants 1.5 - 2.0 %
w e i g h t l o s s , i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p -
p a n t s 3 . 3 - 4 . 1 %, h i g h - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a o x i d e p r o p p a n t s 2 . 0 - 3 . 0
and h i g h - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s 2 . 5 - 3 . 9 %, i n con-
t r a s t t o n a t u r a l sand where t h e s o l u b i l i t y r a n g e i s 0 . 5 - 7 . 0 % d e p e n d i n g on m i -
n e r a l o g i c a l and c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and s t r u c t u r e o f t h e q u a r t z
g r a i n s , and b e i n g h i g h e r i n a l c a l i n e e n v i r o n m e n t ( t h e d a t a a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e
a f o r e m e n t i o n e d s o u r c e s . CHEUNG ( 1 9 8 5 ) , however, comes t o t h e o p p o s i t e c o n c l u -
s i o n t h a t e s p e c i a l l y a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s and a l s o s i n t e r e d bau-
x i t e a r e s e r i o u s l y d i s s o l v e d and m e c h a n i c a l l y weakened i n a c i d e n v i r o n m e n t ,
whereas n a t u r a l q u a r t z sand i s t h e most r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i ? : I t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
c h e m i c a l m i l i e u , t h e r e b y h a v i n g s t r o n g i m p a c t on p l a n n i n g L : a c i d i z a t i o n o f
f r a c t u r e s o r even j o i n t o p e r a t i o n o f a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . a l s o s e c -
t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . . 4 . 5 . 5 . and 4 . 8 . 9 . ) .

1 . 3 . 4 . Grain sizes and conductivity per US B

The v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t t y p e s a r e a p p l i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r d i f f e r e n t r e s i s t i -
v i t y a g a i n s t c r u s h i n g i n d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s and t h e i r a b i l i t y t o w i t h s t a n d a g g r e s -
s i v e formation brines o f d i f f e r e n t s a l i n i t y , w i t h proppant s e l e c t i o n n o t o n l y
b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d b y a s p e c t s o f c o n d u c t i v i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y as w e l l as l o n g -
t e r m s t a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t package ( w h i c h i n b i g f r a c t u r e j o b s i s t h e m a j o r
s h a r e o f t h e w h o l e c o s t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n ) , b u t a l s o by t h e p r i c e w h i c h r a i s e s
 37

w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t . C a r e f u l economical
e v a l u a t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e necessary i n e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l case by an assessment o f
c o n d u c t i v i t y p e r US $ ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 2 . 2 . ) t h a t i s o b t a i n e d when choosing a
more expensive proppant t y p e o f h i g h e r s t a b i l i t y and t h u s b e t t e r l o n g - t e r m p e r -
formance i n view o f p e r m e a b i l i t y . C o n d u c t i v i t y i s p o t e n t i a l l y accentuated by se-
l e c t i n g a c o a r s e r g r a i n s i z e , compared w i t h i n c r e a s i n g pumping c o s t w i t h r i s i n g
s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and g r a i n s i z e o f t h e proppant, i n c r e a s i n g s c r e e n o u t r i s k when
u s i n g h e a v i e r and c o a r s e r proppants, and i n c r e a s i n g equipment a b r a s i o n by h a r -
d e r proppants (STEANSON, ELBEL & WENDORFF 1979; HOLDITCH 1984, DOWELL SCHLUMBER-
GER 1985, MONTGOMERY & STEANSON 1985, WESTERN PETROLEUM 1985, HALLIBURTON
1986). Some aspects o f c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement by g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n v s . i n -
c r e a s i n g s c r e e n o u t r i s k and c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s a r e
b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

1 . 3 . 4 . 1 . Conductivity improvement by grain

size selection vs. increasing screenout risk
G r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n o f proppants a l s o has c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r i m -
p r o v i n g t h e r e s u l t i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r . The l a r g e r t h e
g r a i n s i z e and t h e h i g h e r t h e s p e c i f i c p r o p p a n t g r a v i t y , t h e g r e a t e r i s t h e
r i s k o f m a t e r i a l screenout b e i n g an o n l y reduced uptake o f t h e f o r m a t i o n w i t h
r e s p e c t t o design, w i t h a screenout b e i n g a b l e t o be assessed e i t h e r n e g a t i v e l y
as i n d i c a t i n g p a r t i a l f a i l u r e o r p o s i t i v e l y as t e s t i f y i n g t o achievement o f ma-
ximum proppant s a t u r a t i o n and uptake p o t e n t i a l o f t h e f o r m a t i o n . Screenouts may
be b e n e f i c i a l by i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e i s f u l l y packed f r o m t h e t i p s
backwards i n d i r e c t i o n t o t h e w e l l b o r e and should have a h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y ,
whereas on t h e o t h e r hand, low q u a n t i t i e s o f i n j e c t e d p r o p p a n t s may r e f l e c t un-
even proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e c r a c k and d i s c o n t i n u o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e
s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e w e l l , t h e r e b y n o t matching t h e attempted f r a c t u r e l e n g t h
(KOHLHAAS 1982). Aspects o f s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n s
4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 .

Some more advanced techniques such as t i p screenout f r a c t u r i n g (SMITH, MIL-

LER & HAGA 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 4 . 1 . ) even aim a p r i o r i on l i m i t e d and con-
t r o l l e d screenout. Together w i t h s o p h i s t i c a t e d s e l e c t i o n o f adequate p r o p p a n t
t y p e and g r a i n s i z e , however, a l s o s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n has t o be p a i d t o p r o p e r
c h o i c e o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d , because i f h i g h - q u a l i t y proppants a r e used t o g e t h e r
w i t h u n s u i t a b l e f l u i d s , t h i s can r u i n c o n s i d e r a b l e amounts o f r e s e r v o i r permea-
b i l i t y and f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y s t i m u l a -
t i o n f l u i d s f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l t r e a t m e n t o f high-temperature, low-permeability
r e s e r v o i r s i s d i s c u s s e d by BAUMGARTNER, PARKER, WILLIAMS & WOODROOF (1983);
HARMS, GOSS & PAYNE (1984) and WALSER ( 1 9 8 5 ) . I n f l u e n c e s o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d
p r o p e r t i e s on proppant t r a n s p o r t and c r a c k h e i g h t behaviour a r e d i s c u s s e d by
MORALES & ABOU-SAYED (1985) and ACHARYA (1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . ) . L a r g e r p r o p -
p a n t g r a i n s i z e s and/or h i g h e r - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t t y p e s p r o v i d e g r e a t e r f r a c t u r e
f l o w c a p a c i t y t h a t i s n o t as a f f e c t e d by r e l e a s e d f o r m a t i o n f i n e s as s m a l l e r l o -
w e r - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t s t h a t a r e c r u s h i n g due t o i n c r e a s i n g c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e
(CROSS & SHELDON 1977).

C o n d u c t i v i t y p e r US $ ( o r n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e p e r US $; B R I M 1986, ANDERSON &

PHILLIPS 1987) t h a t i s o b t a i n e d when s e l e c t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r proppant t y p e and
g r a i n s i z e has t o be c a l c u l a t e d a g a i n s t t o t a l expenses o f t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g t r e a t m e n t and p a y - o u t by i n c r e a s e d c u m u l a t i v e hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n w i t h -
i n a reasonable t i m e a f t e r s t i m u l a t i o n ( t h i s economical m o d e l l i n g i s f a c i l i t a -
t e d by v a r i o u s computer programs f o r proppant c h o i c e and p r e d i c t i o n o f f r a c t u -
r i n g o p e r a t i o n r e s u l t s ; AGARWAL, CARTER & POLLOCK 1979; CHENG 1984; COB8 1985,
1986). F o l l o w i n g t h e g u i d e l i n e o f proppant c o s t p e r u n i t c o n d u c t i v i t y i s i n
f a c t t h e most s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d way o f p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n (ANDERSON & PHILLIPS
1986; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 2 . ) .
 38

1 . 3 . 4 . 2 . Comnercially a v a i l a b l e proppant g r a i n sizes

The d i f f e r e n t n a t u r a l and s y n t h e t i c p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l s a r e a v a i l a b l e i n
t h r e e s t a n d a r d mesh s i z e s f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g : 2 0 / 4 0 ( t h e m o s t a b u n d a n t l y
u s e d g r a i n s i z e ) , 1 6 / 2 0 and 1 2 / 2 0 . F o r g r a v e l pack a p p l i c a t i o n , sometimes a l s o
30/50, 4 0 / 6 0 o r 40/70, 100 and even 70/140 a r e o f f e r e d (WESTERN PETROLEUM
1 9 8 5 ) , and f o r s p e c i a l t a i l - i n j o b s o r h i g h - v i s c o s i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r t r e a t m e n t s
a l s o 16/30, 1 0 / 1 6 o r e v e n 8 / 1 2 and 6 / 1 0 c o u l d be o b t a i n e d (some a s p e c t s o f t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o a r s e r g r a i n s i z e s a r e d i s c u s s e d b y SCHWARTZ 1969; GRUESBECK,
SALATHIEL & ECHOLS 1979; BARBER & THEMIG 1985, ROBINSON 1985; PARKER, ADAMS &
LIANKUI 1986; BARBY & BARBEE 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 5 . 1 . 1 . 2 . and t a b . 1 ) . Sand
g r a i n s i z e s o t h e r t h a n 2 0 / 4 0 o n l y r e p r e s e n t a b t . 15 % o f t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f
p r o p p a n t sand u s e d (WATERS 1 9 8 0 ) .

M o s t o f t h e r a r e r g r a i n s i z e s have o n l y been o f f e r e d f r o m sand s u p p l i e r s

w h i c h have t h e e a s y way o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g b y s i e v i n g w i t h o u t f u r t h e r t r e a t m e n t ,
whereas m o s t o f t h e p r o p p a n t p l a n t s need h i g h e r q u a n t i t i e s t o make e c o n o m i c a l l y
f e a s i b l e p r o d u c t i o n r u n s . T h i s i s t h e e x p l a n a t i o n why so f a r 100 mesh i n t e r m e -
d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t has n o t been p r o d u c e d a l t h o u g h i t w o u l d have
been needed a l r e a d y a t l e a s t i n a c o u p l e o f c a s e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . 5 . ) .
The common g r a i n s i z e s o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t m a n u f a c t u r i n g
a r e 12/20, 16/20, 20/40 and 40/60, w i t h a l l t h e o t h e r f i n e r o r c o a r s e r g r a d e s
b e i n g e x c e p t i o n s t h a t a r e p a r t i a l l y o n l y a v a i l a b l e as s p e c i a l o r d e r and a t a
h i g h e r p r i c e . E x c e p t i o n s o f t h e l a t t e r c o n s t e l l a t i o n a r e o n l y p r o p p a n t compa-
n i e s t h a t use a n a t u r a l p i s o l i t h i c i n s t e a d o f an e a r t h y b a u x i t e raw m a t e r i a l
(COMALCO 1983, 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 9 . 1 . 3 . ) o r where a l a r g e r a n g e o f g r a i n
s i z e s o r i g i n a t e s d u r i n g t h e e l e c t r i c a l f u s i n g process i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e s i n t e r -
i n g method (SARDA 1981, SEPR 1983, M E S S I N A 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 9 . 2 . ) , w i t h i n
b o t h cases o n l y s i e v i n g b e i n g t h e a d d i t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n s t e p f o r e x o t i c g r a i n
sizes.

1 . 3 . 5 . Grain shapes
I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t a p p l i c a t i o n i n deep gas r e s e r -
v o i r f r a c t u r i n g , m a i n l y a n g u l a r p r o p p a n t s were o f f e r e d a t t h e m a r k e t w h i c h were
s i m p l e b y - p r o d u c t s o f a b r a s i v e m a n u f a c t u r i n g (HARBEN 1978; c f . t a b s . 1 and 4 as
w e l l as s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 4 . ) . I n c r e a s i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y demand b y t h e c u s t o m e r s l a t e r
l e d t o i n t r o d u c t i o n o f p r o g r e s s i v e l y b e t t e r rounded p a r t i c l e s o f b o t h n a t u r a l
q u a r t z sand and s y n t h e t i c a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s . The b e s t r o u n d -
n e s s and s p h e r i c i t y i s p r o v i d e d b y z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s w h i c h t o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e i r smooth s u r f a c e a l m o s t r e p r e s e n t i d e a l g l o b u l e s . P r o p p a n t s t r e n g t h i s
g e n e r a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f s p h e r i c i t y f o r a g i v e n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e same
g r a d e o f m a t e r i a l (STEANSON, ELBEL & WENDORFF 1 9 7 9 ) .

W h i l e d u r i n g t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s l a r g e amounts o f w e l l - r o u n d e d m a t e r i a l have
been consumed f o r h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n and g r a v e l p a c k i n g , LARSEN & SMITH
( 1 9 8 5 ) p r e s e n t a r e n a i s s a n c e s t u d y o f a n g u l a r f r a c t u r i n g sand by e m p h a s i z i n g
new c o n d u c t i v i t y f o u n d i n b l e n d s o f a n g u l a r and r o u n d g r a i n s ( c f . s e c t i o n
1.4.11.3.). I n t e r m i x i n g o f a n g u l a r g r a i n s may a l s o be a s u i t a b l e means f o r i n -
c r e a s i n g t h e f r i c t i o n a n g l e o f t h e p r o p p a n t pack t o a v o i d i t s f l o w o u t o f t h e
f r a c t u r e a t t h e mouth o f t h e c r a c k n e a r t h e w e l l b o r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 3 . ) as
w e l l as t o i n c r e a s e s t a b i l i t y o f g r a v e l p l u g g i n g p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s ( c f . sec-
tion 5.2.4.). A t lower closure stresses i n shallower reservoirs, angular prop-
p a n t s even t e n d t o have h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t i e s t h a n r o u n d ones (WESTERN PETRO-
LEUM 1 9 8 4 ) .

C o n c e r n i n g n a t u r a l sand, a n g u l a r sand has much h i g h e r a b s o l u t e p e r m e a b i l i t y

t h a n r o u n d sand a t l o w c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s u p t o 2,000 p s i , whereas a t h i g h e r c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s e s above 2,000 p s i , r o u n d sand i s much s t r o n g e r t h a n a n g u l a r s a n d .
In t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f a l t e r n a t e p r o p p a n t m a n u f a c t u r i n g and e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , v a -
I SIGNIFICANCE OF I PROPPANT A P P L I C A T I O N 10R PH OLOGY

H Y D R A U L I C ) R A V E L O T H E R
PROPPANTS IN F R A C T U R I N G ' A C K I N E ' R E A T M E N T S
-
PETROLEUM RESERVOIR
c
17
2
STIMULATION AND OTHER
L
U
%
5
D
C

ENERGY INDUSTRY PROCESS

0

z
C

c
U
D

1; -
3

T Y P E 0
n
I P R O P P A N T 0
L
L

s
a 01
L

PROVENANCE STRENGTH T Y P E 6
-
I I
I
:yinath
I
I
quartz sand
.I
I
low-density alumina
Intermediate- silicate proppants

synthetic
strength
L
high-density alumina
oxide and silicate proppants

alumina oxide proppants

0
.I./. I
high-

strength zirconia-silicate proppants

Tab. 4
 40

r i o u s shapes i n c l u d i n g o b l o n g , d o n u t - and p e l l e t - s i z e p a r t i c l e s a p a r t f r o m
r o u n d and a n g u l a r g r a i n s have been t e s t e d , b u t e x c e p t o f r o u n d and a n g u l a r
g r a i n s , no o t h e r p a r t i c l e shape has t u r n e d o u t t o have any b e n e f i t i n t h e h y -
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g p r o p p a n t a p p l i c a t i o n (FRACFAX 1988 9 ) .

1.4. Proppant choice for hydraulic fracturing and gravel packing

As a consequence o f t h e e v e r i n c r e a s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l
and gas r e s e r v o i r s , h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g has a t l e a s t i n t h e USA a l r e a -
d y become one o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f w e l l c o m p l e t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n
2 . 3 . ) . Because t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t c a n a c c o u n t f o r 10 - 50 % o f t h e t o t a l
w e l l c o s t , s i g n i f i c a n t emphasis s h o u l d be p l a c e d on o p t i m i z i n g t h e d e s i g n o f
t h e operation, e s p e c i a l l y proppant s e l e c t i o n . Proppant choice i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
i m p o r t a n t i n view o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o n l y t a n g i b l e element o f t h e a c t u a l hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g j o b which w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y increase i s
t h e p r o p p a n t t h a t was pumped i n t o t h e g e n e r a t e d c r a c k , w i t h t h u s p l a c i n g c o r -
r e c t t y p e , g r a i n s i z e and amount o f p r o p p a n t i n t h e f r a c t u r e f o r a g i v e n s e t o f
r e s e r v o i r and p r o d u c i n g c o n d i t i o n s b e i n g e x t r e m e l y c r i t i c a l (HOLDITCH 1984,
PHILLIPS & ANDERSON 1985; ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986) and even r e p r e -
senting t h e key element i n h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n p l a n n i n g .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t y p e o f f a i l u r e between c r y s t a l l i n e a l u m i n a
o x i d e p r o p p a n t s and g l a s s y z i r c o n i a p r o p p a n t s , s e v e r a l o t h e r c o n c l u s i o n s con-
c e r n i n g p r o p p a n t c h o i c e have emerged w h i c h c o m p r i s e a s p e c t s and consequences o f
s u r f a c e m o r p h o l o g y and i n t e r n a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y , c r u s h i n g b e h a v i o u r and c r y s t a l -
l i n e s t r u c t u r e , f r i c t i o n a n g l e and g r a i n shape, f l u i d s a l i n i t y and mechanoche-
m i c a 1 s t a b i l i t y , f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e and h o t b r i n e a g g r e s s i v i t y , e q u i p m e n t a b r a -
s i o n and g r a i n h a r d n e s s , s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and f l u i d s u s p e n s i o n p r o p e r t i e s , and
g r a i n s i z e and embedment. A p a r t f r o m t e c h n i c a l p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n , p r o p p a n t
p r i c e i s a l s o a v e r y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c a l e v a l u a t i o n . The
b r i e f a c c o u n t as f o l l o w s a l s o i n c l u d e s comments on m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s and
p e l l e t c o m p o s i t i o n , as w e l l as c o n d u c t i v i t y d i s c o u n t and p r o p p a n t m i x i n g . F i n a l -
l y , t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c o m p u t e r programs f o r p r o p p a n t c h o i c e i s o u t l i n e d , and
t h e numerous r e s u l t s a r e summarized i n some g e n e r a l g u i d e l i n e s f o r p r o p p a n t se-
l e c t i o n . V a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f p r o p p a n t c h o i c e a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y RIXE, HOWARD
& FAST ( 1 9 6 3 ) and PHILLIPS & ANDERSON ( 1 9 8 5 ) . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r o p p a n t t e s -
t i n g f o r assessment and improvement o f p r o p p a n t q u a l i t y and f o r r e l i a b l e p r o p -
pant s e l e c t i o n according t o r e s e r v o i r conditions i s b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d i n the i n -
t r o d u c t o r y comments.

1.4.0. Significance of proppant testing for quality improvement

I n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e f r a c t u r e d e s i g n b y s e l e c t i o n o f s u i t a b l e p r o p p a n t s and
t o reinforce material quality, laboratory research w i t h experimental t e s t i n g
s t a r t e d i n t h e e a r l y days o f s u c c e s s f u l h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e ( S I N -
CLAIR 1 9 8 0 ) . W h i l e i n t h e 1950's and 1960's n o t v e r y many a l t e r n a t i v e m a t e r i a l s
t o n a t u r a l sand e x i s t e d , t h e s i t u a t i o n changed i n t h e 1970's when f i n a l l y h i g h -
s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e r e -
s e r v o i r s were i n v e n t e d , and t h i s d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r o p p a n t s u i t e a l s o
t r i g g e r e d progressive s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f t e s t i n g procedures along w i t h successi-
v e l y r i s i n g q u a l i t y demand.

D u r i n g c o u r s e o f q u a l i t y assessment and improvement, numerous l a b o r a t o r y

t e s t s ( a i m i n g on p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n i n l o n g - t e r m s t u d i e s and o n q u a l i t y c o n t r o l
i n s h o r t - t e r m checks, w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t a c c e p t a b i -
l i t y u n d e r v a r i o u s r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s and p a r t i c u l a r l y c l o s u r e s t r e s s ranges;
CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON 1985) have been c a r r i e d o u t w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n t
p r o p p a n t t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s u n d e r v a r i o u s e n v i r o n m e n t a l ( p r e s s u r e , tempera-
t u r e , f l u i d c o m p o s i t i o n ) c o n d i t i o n s b y i n d e p e n d e n t c o n s u l t a n t and r e s e a r c h de-
p a r t m e n t s (AHMED, ABOU-SAYED & JONES 1979; SINCLAIR 1980; CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES
 41

& CARROLL 1983; DGMK 1983, 1986; CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON 1985; STIM-LAB
1986, PENNY 1987; PURSELL, HOLDITCH & BLAKELEY 1988) as a consequence o f o r d e r s
o f f r a c t u r i n g customers, as w e l l as by p r o p p a n t manufacturers (HICKEY, BROWN &
CRITTENDEN 1981; NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB 1983; BROWN & MUCH 1986, COBB & FARRELL
1986, COMALCO 1986, STANDARD OIL PROPPANTS 1986, MUCH 1987, MUCH & PENNY 1987),
o i l / g a s p r o d u c t i o n companies (BECQ, ROQUE & SARDA 1984; CHEUNG 1985; ROODHART,
K U I P E R & D A V I E S 1986) and s e r v i c e companies (McDANIEL & WILLINGHAM 1978, WEN-
DORFF 1982, K I M & LOSACANO 1985; McDANIEL 1986, 1987, 1988; PARKER & McDANIEL
1987, McDANIEL & PARKER 1988). C l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y t e s t i n g o f n a t u r a l
sand p r i o r t o i n v e n t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c proppants has been c a r r i e d o u t by TUNN
(1971) and SLUSSER & RIECKMANN (1976).

1.4.1. Surface morphology and internal microporosity

As a consequence o f t h e v a r i o u s p r o d u c t i o n processes b e i n g s i n t e r i n g and f u -
s i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 9 . ) and o f t h e d i f f e r e n t i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e b e i n g c r y s t a l -
l i n e and g l a s s y ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 2 . ) , alumina o x i d e p r o p p a n t s have a rough
s t r a w b e r r y - l i k e s u r f a c e and a h i g h e r i n t e r n a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y (open p o r o s i t y ;
BECQ, ROQUE & SARDA 1984) than z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s w h i c h have a smooth
s u r f a c e and almost no i n t e r n a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y (SEPR 1983, MESSINA 1986; c l o s e d
p o r o s i t y ; BECQ, ROQUE & SARDA 1984; c f . t a b . 4 ) . Comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l -
lows on l a b o r a t o r y experiments and r e s u l t s as w e l l as f i e l d t e s t i n g and ex-
perience.

1.4.1.1. Laboratory experiments and results

C l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y i s no m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e between b o t h h i g h - s t r e n g t h
c o m p o s i t i o n a l t y p e s o f proppants which a r e b o t h a b l e t o m e c h a n i c a l l y w i t h s t a n d
t o more t h a n 10,000 p s i o r 700 b a r b e f o r e s t a r t i n g t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y crushed
(BROWN & MUCH 1986, COBB & FARRELL 1986, STANDARD OIL PROPPANTS 1986), and appa-
r e n t e n i g m a t i c a l l y h i g h d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r m e a b i l i t y and c o n d u c t i v i t y l o s s o r
preservation during long-term flow t e s t s w i t h exposition t o brines o f various
c o m p o s i t i o n (DGMK 1983, 1986) a r e i n most cases n o t supported by s u f f i c i e n t r e -
p r o d u c t i o n r u n s o f t h e t e s t s o r a r e p u t i n t o doubt by t h e use o f n o t p r o p e r l y
s t a i n l e s s t e f l o n and h a s t a l l o y equipment and debatable methods o f f l u i d passage
t h r o u g h t h e package. Much c o n f l i c t i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y d a t a has been p r e s e n t e d i n
t h e l a s t years, w i t h f r e q u e n t l y t h e c h o i c e o f t e s t i n g parameters o r t h e d e s i g n
o f t h e t e s t c e l l h a v i n g been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s (McDANIEL 1986).

The amount o f i n t e r n a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e t a p d e n s i t y of t h e
material ( c f . section 1.4.7.2.). Interconnected microporosity reaching t o g r a i n
s u r f a c e i s g e n e r a l l y u n d e s i r a b l e because i t p r o v i d e s an i n c r e a s e i n c u m u l a t i v e
p a r t i c l e s u r f a c e area and t h u s b e t t e r p o s s i b i l i t y f o r a t t a c k by a c i d s and ag-
g r e s s i v e f o r m a t i o n b r i n e s (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & CARROLL 1983).

1.4.1.2. Field testing and experience

Some o f t h e r e p o r t e d e x t r e m e l y h i g h d e s t r u c t i o n s o f c o n d u c t i v i t y and f l u i d
t h r o u g h p u t a r e even c o m p l e t e l y c o n t r a d i c t e d by t h e l o n g - t e r m performance o f va-
r i o u s R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s gas w e l l s where one o r s e v e r a l p a r t s o f t h e
p r o s p e c t i v e r e s e r v o i r complex have been f r a c t u r e d up t o 10 y e a r s ago (BRINK-
MANN, FUHRBERG & SCHUBER 1980; BRINKMANN, KRUMER & R E I N I C K E 1980; BRINKMANN
1982, SCHWARZ & SCHUBER 1982, JOHN 1983, LEICHT 1985; R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN,
SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.1.1. and 3.3.2.) and a r e t h u s pronounced
f i e l d experiments h i g h l i g h t i n g t h a t proppants o f e i t h e r t y p e do w e l l p e r f o r m
and no s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n o f gas f l o w has been proven d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of
i n some cases a f u l l decade, w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n i n case o f t h e r e a l i s t i c na-
t u r e o f t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y d i m i n u t i o n observed i n some o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s
(DGMK 1983, 1986) r e q u i r i n g t h a t none o f t h e gas w e l l s which were f r a c t u r e d
 42
many years ago would be allowed to produce at acceptable rates still today.
Subordinate quantities of alumina silicate and oxide proppants which entered
the borehole by partial fracture evacuation and were bailed out of some Carboni-
ferous and Rotliegend wells several years after hydraulic stimulation execution
exhibit only negligible mechanical and chemical surface alterations with re-
spect to fresh proppant grains, thus confirming the physical consistency of the
proppant wedge in the crack which is also reflected by the satisfactory gas pro-
duction rates (cf. section 1 . 4 . 1 0 . 5 . ) .

1.4.2. Crushing behaviour and crystalline structure

Comparability of the results of the long-term flow tests carried out by the
various institutions is hampered by differences in size and composition of the
test cell, way and period of pressure increase, rate of fluid flux through the
proppant package, singular throughput or repeated circulation of the solutions,
and temperature and salinity of the fluids. The discussion as follows focusses
on failure of microcrystalline and glassy proppant types as well as internal
proppant structure.

1.4.2.1. Failure o f microcrystalline and glassy proppant types

The difference in crushing behaviour including slow continuous breakage into
larger pieces of tougher and partially even ductile crystalline alumina oxide
proppants vs. rapid catastrophical failure into tiny splinters of brittle glas-
sy zirconia-silicate proppants seems to favour the latter material at lower clo-
sure stresses where preferentially low percentages of the former product start
to break into fragments, while zirconia-silicate proppants are still completely
stable. The crystalline bauxite proppants, however, are in a much superior si-
tuation once the package of glassy zirconia-silicate proppants totally fails
into almost dust at the critical closure stress level where the crystalline bau-
xite proppant package assemblage still has a reasonable conductivity by being
crushed predominantly into halves and quarters of grains instead of tiny splin-
ters
The fine zirconia-silicate proppant dust can be transported and redistribu-
ted by fluids, whereas the coarser fragments of bauxite proppants remain in
place and form residual packages that still have quite some conductivity which
is sufficient to economically drain many tight gas reservoirs by still provi-
ding a reasonable conductivity contrast to the low-permeability rock matrix
(cf. sections 4.6. and 4.12.4.). Crystalline bauxite proppants thus exhibit a
broad breakage curve in contrast to a fairly well-defined and narrow breakage
peak of zirconia-silicate proppants ( M E S S I N A 1987).

1.4.2.2. Internal proppant structure

The superior strength characteristics of sintered bauxite are related to its
microcrystalline structure which contains many small grain boundaries within
each particle separated by an amorphous phase which has subordinate share in to-
tal grain composition, with the latter responding to stress by flexing and dis-
tributing the load on larger groups of particles, thereby inducing exceptional
crush strength and resistance to proppant fragmentation (HICKEY, BROWN & CRIT-
TENDEN 1981). The same applies for other alumina silicate and oxide proppants.
The glassy zirconia-silicate proppants, however, consist of monoclinic and cu-
bic zirconia crystallites which are floating in the alumina silicate glassy ma-
trix and therefore due to the rarity to even lack o f crystallite contacts, the
material has an overall amorphous structure and thus breaks homogeneously into
tiny splinters upon failure. Natural quartz sand which has no cleavage is cha-
racterized by shattering and irregular breaking, while polycrystalline synthe-
 43

t i c s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e i s c r a c k i n g and s p l i t t i n g i n t o l a r g e r p a r t s o f the grains

( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) i n s t e a d o f f a i l i n g i n t o powder.

Reviews o f p r o p p a n t performance i n f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s w i t h s p e c i a l emphasis

b e i n g p u t on assessment o f b e h a v i o u r o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e v s . sand p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n terms o f c r u s h i n g degree and c o n c e r n i n g n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e p e r i n v e s t e d US $
a r e performed by ATTEBERRY, TUCKER & R I T Z (1979); CARROLL & BAKER (1979), KOHL-
HAAS (1982), CLARK (1983) and B R I M ( 1 9 8 6 ) . D e t a i l e d comparative e f f e c t i v e n e s s
e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p r o p p a n t t y p e and g r a i n s i z e on w e l l p r o d u c t i -
v i t y a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y c a r r i e d o u t by McDANIEL & WILLINGHAM (1978); H I C K E Y ,
BROWN & CRITTENDEN (1981) and NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

1 . 4 . 3 , F r i c t i o n angle and g r a i n shape

The rough s u r f a c e o f c r y s t a l l i n e b a u x i t e proppants g i v e s a much b e t t e r f l u i d
f l o w through t h e p r o p p a n t package than t h e smooth s u r f a c e o f t h e g l a s s y z i r c o -
n i a proppants ( c f . a l s o ACHENBACH 1974). The d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e morphology a l s o
r e s u l t s i n d i f f e r e n t f r i c t i o n angles o f t h e proppant package. While a l o w e r
f r i c t i o n a n g l e o f t h e g l a s s y z i r c o n i a proppants may f a v o u r b e t t e r emptying o f
t h e s i l o s d u r i n g b l e n d i n g o f proppants w i t h t h e f l u i d when c a r r y i n g o u t t h e
f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n j o b , w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e h i g h e r f r i c t i o n angle o f t h e
c r y s t a l l i n e b a u x i t e proppant, and assuming t h a t even d e s p i t e d i s p e r s i o n i n t h e
f l u i d t h e r e i s s t i l l an advantage o f t h e l o w e r f r i c t i o n a n g l e o f t h e g l a s s y z i r -
c o n i a proppant f o r e a s i e r r u s h i n g i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e and f o r a l e s s tendency o f
b r i d g i n g i n t h e crack, t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e proppant package w i t h i n t h e f r a c -
t u r e d u r i n g subsequent p r o d u c t i o n i s a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n . Some aspects o f p r o p p a n t
b a c k f l o w o u t o f t h e f r a c t u r e mouth and s t a b i l i t y enhancement o f t h e p r o p p a n t
package a r e b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

1.4.3.1. Proppant backflow out o f the f r a c t u r e mouth

As p r o d u c t i o n o f small amounts o f proppants w i t h t h e gas t e s t i f i e s t o p r o p -
p a n t l o s s a t t h e f r a c t u r e mouth where t h e f l o w r a t e i s h i g h e s t and c r e a t e s a
c h o k e - l i k e e f f e c t due t o p r e s s u r e drawdown and c u r r e n t a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h e lower
f r i c t i o n a n g l e r e s u l t s i n d i m i n u i s h e d s t a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t package and
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e b e t t e r r u s h i n g - i n t r i g g e r s a l s o an enhanced r u s h i n g - o u t o f
t h e smooth-surface m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r o u g h - s u r f a c e
m a t e r i a l (problems o f n e a r - w e l l b o r e p r o p p a n t flowback a r e d i s c u s s e d by S M I T H
1973; ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . ) . Some aspects
o f proppant t r a n s p o r t a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d by CLARK & QUADIR (1981); SIEVERT,
WAHL, CLARK & HARKIN (1981); AHMED (1984); CLARK, HALVACI, GHAELI & PARKS
(1985) and ACHARYA (1986, 1987). SHAH & LEE (1986) comment on f r i c t i o n p r e s -
sures o f p r o p p a n t - l a d e n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s .

Proppant l o s s near t h e crack mouth by b a c k f l o w induces f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e o v e r

a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e which o b v i o u s l y has a c o n s i d e r a b l y d e t e r i o r a t i n g e f f e c t on
proppant package c o n d u c t i v i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 1 . ) . F r a c t u r e e v a c u a t i o n by
proppant escape i n t h e immediate w e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y where p r e s s u r e drawdown and
f l o w r a t e s a r e h i g h e s t i s one o f t h e most d e l e t e r i o u s t y p e s o f f r a c t u r e conduc-
t i v i t y damage. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e f l o w - o u t o f proppants ( p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n t e r e d
b a u x i t e ) f r o m t h e c r a c k t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s i n t o t h e hardware-equipped bo-
r e h o l e a l s o erodes t u b i n g s , v a l v e s , chokes and even t h e w e l l h e a d ( s i m i l a r e f -
f e c t s a r e provoked by i n f l u x o f u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n sand i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e
t h r o u g h i n s u f f i c i e n t g r a v e l pack f i l t e r s o r i n case o f absence o f mechanical
sand c o n t r o l ; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) . The g e n e r a l r u l e i s t h a t proppant packages
w i t h l o w e r f r i c t i o n a n g l e a r e l e s s s t a b l e b u t a l s o c r e a t e l e s s e r o s i o n , whereas
such w i t h h i g h e r f r i c t i o n a n g l e a r e more s t a b l e b u t cause a l s o more e r o s i o n
( q u e s t i o n s o f p a r t i c l e t r a n s p o r t through p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e reviewed by GRUESBECK
& COLLINS 1978; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5 . 6 . ) . Proppant b a c k f l o w i s b e s t e l i m i n a t e d by
r e s i n p e l l i c l e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s and c r e a t i n g a s t a b l e aggrega-
 44

t e d package (CUTLER, E N N I S S , JONES & CARROLL 1983) w h i c h p r e v e n t s f r a c t u r e e v a -

c u a t i o n b y k e e p i n g t h e c o u p l i n g o f w e l l b o r e and p r o d u c t i v e f o r m a t i o n (SINCLAIR,
GRAHAM & SINCLAIR 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . ) .

b l i t h i n a p a c k e d bed o f p r o p p d n t s p h e r e s f i l l i n g t h e w i d t h o f t h e f r a c t u r e ,
c o m p r e s s i v e f o r c e s t e n d t o a r r a n g e t h e beads i n a c l o s e l y p a c k e d s t r u c t r e (CUT-
LER, JONES, SWANSON & CARROLL 1 9 5 1 ) . The m o s t t y p i c a l i d e a l i z e d p a c k i n g a r r a n g e -
m c n t i s t h e rhombohedra1 one where each q l o b u l a r p a r t i c l e c o n t d c t s t w e l e n e i g h -
b o u r s i n s i x p a i r s o f d i a m e t r i c a l c o n t a c t l o a d i n g s (KNUDSEN 1 9 5 9 ) . Wh l e t h i s
r e g u l a r i t y i s l i k e l y n o t t o be p r e s e r v e d o v e r l o n g d i s t a n c e s , i t i s be1 i e v e d
t h a t t h e l o a d i n g p a t t e r n i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e f o r c e s t r a n s m i t t e d t o each
srlhere.

1 . 4 . 3 . 2 . Stabi 1 i t y enhancement o f the proppant package

I n t e r m s o f s t a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t package i n t h e f r a c t u r e , b a u x i t e p r o p -
p d n t s w i t h r o u g h s u r f a c e and h i g h e r f r i c t i o n a n g l e s a r e t h u s s u p e r i o r t o z i r c o -
n i a p r o p p a n t s w i t h smooth s u r f a c e and l o w e r f r i c t i o n a n g l e s . An e v e n b e t t e r s t a -
b i l i t y b y a h i g h e r f r i c t i o n a n g l e c o u l d be a c h i e v e d b y i n t e r m i x i n g o f a n g u l a r
g r a i n s i n t o a p o p u l a t i o n o f w e l l - r o u n d e d p a r t i c l e s , w i t h t h i s t e c h n i q u e , how-
e v e r , r e q u i r i n g a compromise s o l u t i o n o f c o n d u c t i v i t y r e d u c t i o n v s . s t a b i l i t y
enhancement ( a s p e c t s o f c o n d u c t i v i t y o f a n g u l a r b l e n d s o f f r a c t u r i n g sand a r e
a l s o d i s c u s s e d by LARSEN & SMITH 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 5 . ) . Flowback i s a l s o r e -
t a r d e d b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d n a t u r a l sand o r s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s
(POPE, WILES & P I E R C E 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . ) . Coarse t a i l - i n t e r m i n a l
l o t s a l s o f u n c t i o n l i k e a g r a v e l pack and h o l d t h e f i n e r m a i n p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y
i n p l a c e b y b r i d g i n g o f t h e s m a l l e r g r a i n s a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between b o t h p o p u l a -
t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 8 . ) . Some comments on s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r o p p a n t b a c k f l o w
p r e v e n t i o n i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g as w e l l as p r e v e n t i o n o f
p r o p p a n t e v a c u a t i o n a r e o f f e r e c i as f o l l o w s . Tne c o m p a r a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f p r o p -
p d n t e v a c u a t i o n i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s a l s o a s s e s s e d .

1.4.3.2.1. Proppant backflow prevention i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g

F r a c t u r e e v a c u a t i o n n e a r t h e w e l l b o r e b y p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k i s one o f t h e
m o s t s e r i o u s t y p e s o f c r a c k damdge ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . ) and t h u s n o t o n l y o p t i -
mum t y p e , g r a i n s i z e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e p r o p p a n t have t o be s e l e c t e d , but
a l s o cleanup, f l o w b a c k and i n i t i a l h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e w e l l have t o
be c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d i n o r d e r t o a v o i d e x t r e m e drawdown w h i c h w o u l d s u b j e c t
t h e p r o p p a n t s s u d d e n l y t o v e r y h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s t h a t m i g h t cause s i g n i f i -
c d n t p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g p a r t i a l l y by e x c e s s i v e c l o s u r e s t r e s s , but partially
a l s o by shock l o a d i n g (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1 9 8 6 ) .

;r c c r t r a s : t 3 h y d r a u : i c f r d c t u r i r g where p r c p p a r t f l c w b a c k c a n be a s e r i o b s
p r o b l e m and t h u s z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s w i t h l o w e r f r i c t i o n a n g l e have a
t r c h n i c a l l y c o m p e t i t i v e d i s a d v d n t a g e w i t h r e s p e c t t o a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e
proppants w i t h h i g h e r f r i c t i o n angle, proppant flowback i s o n l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t
t o n e g l i g i b l e i n gravel packing.

1.4.3.2.2. Proppant evacuation i n f r a c t u r i n g vs. gravel packing

The m a i n r e a s o n f o r t h e a t l e a s t p a r t i a l independence o f p a c k i n g g r a v e l f r o m
i n t e r g r a i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n i s the f a c t t h a t the p e r f o r a t i o n tunnel plugs are hold
i n p l a c e b y t h e i n t e r n a l g r a v e l pack m a n t l e a l o n g t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l w h i c h i n
t u r n i s k e p t i n p o s i t i o n by t h e gravel-pack hardware comprising s l o t t e d l i n e r
o r w i r e - w r a p p e d s c r e e n ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 3 . 5 . ) . As t h e a n g l e o f r e p o s e o f g r a v e l
p d c k i n g m a t e r i a l s s h o u l d be as l o w as p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o a l l o w r e a d y i n f i l -
l i n g 3f a l l d e v i c e s 2nd p o c k e t s in t b e f o r - a t i o n i n c p e n - h o l e c o m D l e t i o n s (CO-
BERLY & WAGNER 1 9 3 8 ) , z i r c o n i a - 5 i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s w h i c h have t h e l o w e s t a n g l e
 45

o f repose o f a l l p r e s e n t l y c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l s s h o u l d be
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r low s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y t h e i d e a l g r a v e l type, b u t u n f o r t u n a t e -
l y t h e y a r e t o o expensive f o r most o f t h e s a n d - c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.2.2.3.3.).

On t h e o t h e r hand, however, t h e smooth s u r f a c e o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p -

pants and g l a s s beads does n o t a l l o w easy b r i d g i n g due t o l a c k i n g f r i c t i o n
which i s d e s i r a b l e i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n o r d e r t o a v o i d premature screen-
o u t f a i l u r e , whereas t h e rough s u r f a c e o f n a t u r a l sand as w e l l as alumina o x i d e
and s i l i c a t e proppants has s u f f i c i e n t f r i c t i o n t o p e r m i t ready b r i d g i n g which
i s s u p p o r t i n g p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l i n f i l l i n g and s t a b i l i z a t i o n i n g r a v e l packing,
b u t i s u n s u i t a b l e i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g as a consequence o f i n c r e a s i n g screen-
out r i s k .

1.4.4. Fluid salinity and mechanochemical stability

Smoother s u r f a c e and lower i n t e r n a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y g i v e t h e g l a s s y z i r c o n i a
proppants a p r i n c i p a l l y b e t t e r r e s i s t i v i t y a g a i n s t chemical s o l u t i o n t h a n t h e
c r y s t a l l i n e alumina o x i d e proppants, as w e l l as a l o w e r a b r a s i v e e f f e c t t o
pumps and equipment t h a n p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e h i g h - s t r e n g t h b a u x i t e proppants w h i c h
cause c o n s i d e r a b l e wear and t e a r o f t h e machinery. Some aspects o f b r i n e compo-
s i t i o n and proppant d i s s o l u t i o n , f o r m a t i o n w a t e r s a l i n i t y , and f o r m a t i o n w a t e r
a g g r e s s i v i t y v s . proppant s t a b i l i t y a r e s h o r t l y sketched as f o l l o w s .

1.4.4.1. Brine composition and proppant dissolution

An i n v e r s e performance o f t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y p e s w i t h s a l i n i t y l e v e l
and pH-value, however, has been recorded, w i t h i n l o w - s a l i n i t y environment and
i n a l c a l i n e m i l i e u t h e g l a s s y z i r c o n i a proppant b e i n g i n f e r i o r t o t h e c r y s t a l -
l i n e b a u x i t e proppant, whereas t h e former w i t h s t a n d s b e t t e r i n h i g h - s a l i n i t y en-
vironment and i n a c i d m i l i e u t h a n t h e l a t t e r . Some aspects o f low and h i g h
f l u i d s a l i n i t i e s as w e l l as p r o p p a n t s u r f a c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l -
1 ows.

1.4.4.1.1. Low and high fluid salinities

Proppant t e s t i n g under d i f f e r e n t f l u i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s r e v e a l e d c o n s i d e r a b l e
p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n s o f t h e p r o p p a n t package ( i n extreme cases up t o 10 %
r e s i d u a l v a l u e ) i f exposed t o h i g h - s a l i n i t y s o l u t i o n s , whereas o n l y n e g l i g i b l e
p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n occurs a t low f l u i d s a l i n i t i e s , w i t h t h e reason b e i n g
m a i n l y proppant c o r r o s i o n . The a g g r e s s i v e f l u i d s l e a d t o d i s s o l u t i o n o f p a r t s
o f t h e g l o b u l e s , w i t h t h e e f f e c t b e i n g p a r t i a l f l u i d s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n which f i -
n a l l y r e s u l t s i n r e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f material i n other p a r t s o f the proppant
package t h e r e b y f o r m i n g overgrowths and cements, combined w i t h t h e e f f e c t o f
c o l l a p s e o f t h e framework o f t h e r e s i d u a l g l o b u l e fragments, w i t h t h e f a i l u r e
o f t h e package b e i n g a f e a t u r e p r i n c i p a l l y comparable t o compaction o f s e d i -
ments by a l s o r e d u c i n g pore space and t h u s u l t i m a t e l y a l s o p e r m e a b i l i t y ( c f .
also section 4.5.4.1.6.).

Low s a l i n i t i e s do n o t a l l o w s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n t o o c c u r and t h u s t h e r e i s no r e -
p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a r t i a l l y o b s t r u c t i n g o r even c o m p l e t e l y p l u g g i n g t h e p o r e s . Per-
m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n i n h i g h - s a l i n i t y environment i s t r i g g e r e d by b o t h chemical
c o r r o s i o n and mechanical compaction due t o pore space d i m i n u t i o n by changing
t h e p u n c t u a l c o n t a c t s o f t h e i n i t i a l g l o b u l e s i n t o more a r e a l c o n t a c t s o f t h e
s o l u t i o n remnants. F i n a l l y , p r e s s u r e s o l u t i o n a t t h e p u n c t u a l c o n t a c t s a l s o has
i t s influence.
 46

1 . 4 . 4 . 1 . 2 . Proppant surface stabilization

In a d d i t i o n , i f h o t w a t e r i s pumped a t once t h r o u g h t h e p r o p p a n t l a y e r , a
g e l f o r m s w h i c h p l u g s t h e p o r e s and r e d u c e s t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y . I f t h e w a t e r
f i r s t s t a n d s w i t h i n t h e p r o p p a n t package and i s t h e n f l u s h e d t h r o u g h , however,
r e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e and g e l f o r m a t i o n i s p r e v e n t e d b y i n a c t i v a t i o n o r
p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e p r o p p a n t s u r f a c e (ALBERTSEN 1 9 8 5 ) . T h e r e f o r e i n p r a c t i c e n o
d a n g e r i s seen t h a t such a g e l c o u l d p l u g t h e p o r e s o f t h e p r o p p a n t package i n -
f i l l i n g t h e f r a c t u r e , as t h e common p o l i c y i s t o s h u t i n t h e w e l l a f t e r t h e
t r e a t m e n t t o a l l o w t h e h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f r a c t u r i n g g e l t o b r e a k i n t o s i m p l e r com-
p o n e n t s w h i c h f o r m a l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d and a f t e r a few days s t a r t c l e a n - u p
and p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h t h e s h u t - i n p e r i o d b e i n g e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e s t a n d i n g t i m e
i n t h e t e s t and t h u s s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e d u r i n g t h a t t i m e p r e v e n t s g e l
f o r m a t i o n . A s p e c t o f d i s s o l u t i o n and c o n d e n s a t i o n o f s i l i c a i n v a r i o u s f l u i d s
a r e d i s c u s s e d b y THORNTON & RADKE ( 1 9 8 5 ) and UDELL & LOFY ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

1 . 4 . 4 . 2 . Formation water salinity

W h i l e i n t h e USA f o r m a t i o n w a t e r s have i n most c a s e s o n l y s l i g h t t o m o d e r a t e
s a l i n i t y , considerably aggressive brines w i t h almost saturated s a l i n i t y occur
i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s deep t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s o f Germany FRG
(KLOSE & KROMER 1983, ALBERTSEN 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . ) and s u r r o u n d i n g
c e n t r a l European c o u n t r i e s and a r e a s w h i c h r e q u i r e s e l e c t i o n o f a p r o p p a n t t y p e
t h a t i s s t a b l e i n t h i s high-concentration f l u i d environment. High s a l i n i t i e s o f
f o r m a t i o n w a t e r s a r e a l s o p r e s e n t i n T e r t i a r y s a n d s t o n e s i n Y u g o s l a v i a (ECONOMI-
DES, CIKES, PFORTER, UDICK & URODA 1 9 8 6 ) where MHF t r e a t m e n t s c o m p a r a b l e i n
s i z e t o t h o s e i n Germany FRG ( a n d p a r t i a l l y e v e n l a r g e r t h a n t h e b i g g e s t j o b s
in t h e l a t t e r a r e a ) a r e c a r r i e d o u t ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) .

Many p r o p p a n t l a b o r a t o r y s t a b i l i t y t e s t s c a n n o t be a c c u r a t e l y compared w i t h
f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s due t o p r e d o m i n a n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f 2 % KC1 s o l u t i o n as e x p e r i -
m e n t a l f l u i d w h i c h matches t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f p r e p a d and d i s p l a c e m e n t d u r i n g
t h e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t ( w h e r e i t i s u s e d as a s t a n d a r d s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n f o r
m i n i m i z a t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n damage and p r o t e c t i o n o f w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s
b y c l a y s t a b i l i z a t i o n ; WATERS 1980, SYDANSK 1984; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . 2 . ) , but
n o t due t o c o m p o s i t i o n o f a g g r e s s i v e f o r m a t i o n w a t e r s w h i c h become e f f e c t i v e
l a t e r when t h e i n v a s i o n b y t h e i n j e c t e d f l u i d s i s compensated and r e p l a c e d , and
a l s o t h e f r a c t u r e i s f l u s h e d w i t h h i g h - s a l i n i t y f o r m a t i o n b r i n e s . RENSVOLD
( 1 9 8 3 ) e v a l u a t e s t h e s t a b i l i t y o f sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n r e s i n s in h o t b r i n e s . GRA-
HAM, MONAGHAN & OSOBA ( 1 9 5 9 ) d i s c u s s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p r o p p i n g sand w e t t a b i l i t y
on p r o d u c t i v i t y o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d o i l w e l l s .

1 . 4 . 4 . 3 . Formation water aggressivity vs. proppant stability

F o r m a t i o n w a t e r a g g r e s s i v i t y i s c r i t i c a l t o p r o p p a n t s t a b i l i t y , because e v e n
i n gas r e s e r v o i r s w i t h v e r y l o w w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n , some amounts o f f o r m a t i o n wa-
t e r a r e p r o d u c e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e gas and t h u s f l o w a l s o t h r o u g h t h e p r o p p a n t
package. C o m p l e t e l y d r y gas p r o d u c t i o n w i t h o u t any t r a c e s o f w a t e r r e p r e s e n t s a
t h e o r e t i c a l l y i d e a l case, b u t i s i n p r a c t i c e a l m o s t n e v e r a c h i e v e d . As many
deep t i g h t gas w e l l s where f r a c t u r e s have been c r e a t e d t o d r a i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
r e s e r v o i r a r e s c h e d u l e d t o p r o d u c e f o r l o n g t i m e b e i n g u p t o s e v e r a l decades,
d u r i n g such a l o n g p e r i o d even n e g l i g i b l e t r a c e s o f w a t e r w i t h i n t h e gas add u p
t o s e r i o u s c h e m i c a l c o r r o s i o n i f b e i n g o f such a g g r e s s i v i t y t o be a b l e t o a t -
t a c k t h e p r o p p a n t s s u p p o r t i n g t h e f r a c t u r e . The s i t u a t i o n i s becoming more a c -
c e n t u a t e d when gas w i t h h i g h e r w a t e r c o n t e n t (ARENS & B'CHNEL 1977) i s p r o d u c e d .
T h e r e f o r e r e a l i s t i c p r o p p a n t t e s t i n g and s e l e c t i o n has t o be based on t h e
h i g h e s t s t r e s s e x p o s u r e i n c l u d i n g b o t h maximum r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e drawdown and
formation b r i n e composition.
 47

1.4.5. Fluid temperature and hot brine aggressivity

W h i l e m o s t o f t h e s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s and n a t u r a l q u a r t z sands have a more
o r l e s s c o m p a r a b l e p e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r s t a n d a r d r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s o f tempera-
t u r e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e g i o n a l g e o t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t and m o d e r a t e s a l i n i t y o f t h e
formation water ( i n t h i s context n o t respecting closure stress t h a t i s exerted
b y h y d r o s t a t i c r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e and l i t h o s t a t i c o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e ) , d i f f e -
rences i n r e a c t i o n a r e e x h i b i t e d a t higher temperatures o f t h e r e s e r v o i r rocks
beyond t h e n o r m a l g e o t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t and a t i n c r e a s e d s a l i n i t i e s a n d / o r pH-va-
l u e s o f t h e b r i n e s beyond t h e s a t u r a t i o n o f t h e p a y f l u i d s common i n m o s t f o r m a -
t i o n s . Some a s p e c t s o f f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e and h o t b r i n e a g g r e s s i v i t y i n steam-
d r i v e enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y and deep t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s a r e summarized as f o l -
lows.

1.4.5.1. Steam-drive enhanced oi 1 recovery

I n terms o f temperatures, t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t aspect i s t h e behaviour o f
p r o p p a n t s u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f s t e a m - d r i v e enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y i n h e a v y - o i l
f i e l d s when g r a v e l p a c k i n g a n d / o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s r e q u i r e d i n t h e steam
i n j e c t i o n w e l l s i n such f o r m a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 7 . ) . P a r t i c u l a r l y i t 1 c a s e o f
an a l c a l i n e h o t e n v i r o n m e n t i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e steam i n j e c t o r s , n a t u r a l
q u a r t z sand as w e l l as a l l t h e s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t t y p e s c o n t a i n i n g f r e e q u a r t z
( o r e q u i v a l e n t c r y s t a l l i n e phases o r g l a s s y s i l i c a ) o r a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e s a r e u n -
s t a b l e due t o s i l i c a d i s s o l u t i o n , whereas s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e c o n s i s t i n g a l m o s t e x -
c l u s i v e l y o f i n e r t corundum has been p r o v e n t o be t h e s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l due t o
i t s s t a b i l i t y i n t h i s e x t r e m e t e m p e r a t u r e m i l i e u (REED 1980; UNDERDOWN & DAS
1985; c f . a l s o WATKINS, KALFAYAN, WATANABE & HOLM 1985; a s p e c t s o f s t e a m - f l o o d
s i l i c a d i s s o l u t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y THOMAS, YOST & CATHEY 1987; c f . sec-
t i o n 5 . 7 . 1 . ) . A n o t h e r r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l w h i c h may even p e r f o r m b e t t e r t h a n s i n -
t e r e d b a u x i t e u n d e r s t e a m - d r i v e c o n d i t i o n s i s n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand (SACUTA, NGU-
YEN & KISSEL 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 7 . 2 . ) .

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e USA, however, s t e a m - d r i v e enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y i s i n Eu-

r o p e n o t y e t w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d ( m a i n l y i n C r e t a c e o u s s a n d s t o n e s i n Germany FRG
and N e t h e r l a n d s ; L I L L I E & SPRINGER 1981; PROYER, CHAZITEODOROU, MUSS & ROSSKAMP
1983; L I L L I E & WIETHOFF 1985, REINICKE & WIETHOFF 1987; f o r f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s
on s t e a m - d r i v e p r o j e c t s i n Europe c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 7 . 3 . ) , and due t o d i f f e r e n t me-
t h o d s o f steam c o n d i t i o n i n g , t h e p r o b l e m o f s i l i c a d i s s o l u t i o n i n an a l c a l i n e
e n v i r o n m e n t i s i n Europe n o t so p r o n o u n c e d as i n t h e USA ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 7 . 5 . ) .

1.4.5.2. Deep tight gas reservoirs

C o n s i d e r a b l y e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s i n t h e r a n g e o f 120 - 240 OC a r e a l s o p r e -
s e n t i n deep R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s gas w e l l s i n Germany FRG ( P H I L I P P &
R E I N I C K E 1982, JOHN 1983, KLOSE & KRUMER 1983, BLEAKLEY 1984; c f . f i g . 3 and
s e c t i o n s 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . and 3 . 3 . ) and i n deep T e r t i a r y g a s and c o n d e n s a t e w e l l s i n Yu-
g o s l a v i a (ECONOMIDES, CIKES, PFURTER, UDICK & URODA 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 3 . 1 . )
which c r e a t e together w i t h t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y h i g h formation water s a l i n i t i e s
( p a r t i a l l y s a t u r a t e d b r i n e s ) and h i g h p r e s s u r e s a v e r y h o s t i l e e n v i r o n m e n t and
r e q u i r e stable m a t e r i a l s t o r e s i s t n o t o n l y t o the high closure stresses, b u t
a l s o t o t h e chemically aggressive m i l i e u ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.4.2.). Aspects o f
t h e r m a l s t a b i l i t y o f r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s i n h o t b r i n e s a r e d i s c u s s e d b y RENS-
VOLD ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

1.4.6. Equipment abrasion and grain hardness

The e c o n o m i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y m o d e l l i n g o f a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n h a s
i n terms o f proppant c h o i c e n o t o n l y t o i n c l u d e r e s e r v o i r - r e l a t i n g features,
 48

but also to respect handling and maintenance questions. The following outline
focusses on erosional behaviour of different proppant types, equipment erosion
by proppants, and proppant damage by equipment.

1.4.6.1. Erosional behaviour of different proppant types

The different mechanical properties of the various proppant types of diffe-
rent mineralogical composition result in different hardness and thus abrasive
effect which has its influence on tanks, pumps and tubes of the equipment du-
ring course of stimulation operation execution. While the more expensive zirco-
nia-silicate proppants (cf. section 1.3.2.2.) have a relatively gentle treating
behaviour to the equipment (as a consequence of their smooth surface and their
low specific gravity), the cheaper alumina oxide and silicate proppants (cf.
section 1.3.2.1.) are considerably abrasive particularly in case of high alumi-
na oxide concentration. Some aspects of sintered bauxite and zirconia-silicate
proppants are outlined as follows.

1.4.6.1.1. Sintered bauxite

The most severe destruction of the operating equipment is caused by sintered
bauxite (which was originally developed as a by-product of abrasive manufactu-
ring; cf. section 1.2.4.1.), because corundum is one of the mineralogically har-
dest phases. Careful evaluation has thus to be made in terms of calculation of
total treatment cost, with the performance of sintered bauxite in the fractured
reservoir having to be compared with the additional expenses by wear and tear
of the pumping machinery.
Flowback of sintered bauxite can be extremely hazardous, because it may re-
sult not only in cutting out of valves and Christmas trees, but also give rise
to blowouts and fires when large quantities of sintered bauxite are returned
with the well fluids (OSBORNE, McLEOD & SCHROEDER 1981; the same applies for
sand influx through insufficient gravel packs or in case of lacking sand con-
trol; ANAND & JONES 1977; cf. section 5.2.1.3.1.).Resin-coated sand which i s
in many applications a suitable replacement for intermediate- and high-strength
synthetic proppants (cf. section 1.2.6.) has an excellent operational behaviour
by almost not causing any hardware damage (SINCLAIR, GRAHAM & SINCLAIR 1983).

1.4.6.1.2. Zirconia-silicate proppants

Particularly in case of frequent stimulation jobs in deep high-pressure re-
servoirs, it may be desirable to use the more expensive zirconia-silicate prop-
pants which are (apart from resin-coated sand) the most protecting material for
the pumping equipment, rather than applying the cheaper alumina oxide and sili-
cate or sintered bauxite proppants and accept high cost for repair or even re-
placement of tanks, blenders, channels and strings after almost every indivi-
dual large-scale operation. Equipment abrasion by hard aggressive proppants has
thus significant impact on proppant selection. Low- and high-density alumina si-
licate and oxide intermediate-strength proppants perform much better and are
considerably less destructive to the equipment than high-density bauxite high-
strength proppants, but are definitely more affecting the fracturing hardware
than the extremely protecting zirconia-silicate proppants or also resin-coated
sand.

1.4.6.2. Equipment erosion by proppants

MHF jobs typically require high injection rates and high proppant concentra-
tions pumped at high pressures (PAI, GARBIS & HALL 1983). Larger proppant
amounts pumped for longer periods of time can cause serious erosion problems in
 49

t r e a t m e n t l i n e , t u b i n g , and i n and around t h e w e l l h e a d a r e a . I n terms o f p r o p -

p a n t types, s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e has t h e g r e a t e s t d e s t r u c t i v e impact and i s a b l e t o
c o m p l e t e l y r u i n equipment when pumped f o r l o n g e r t i m e s due t o i t s h i g h a b r a s i v e -
ness. H i g h - d e n s i t y alumina s i l i c a t e and o x i d e proppants a l s o o c c a s i o n a l l y e x h i -
b i t s e r i o u s a g g r e s s i v i t y , whereas a l l t h e o t h e r proppant t y p e s g i v e o n l y i n
some cases r i s e t o s u b o r d i n a t e damage and g e n e r a l l y l e a v e t h e m a t e r i a l s i n a l -
most o r i g i n a l c o n d i t i o n s . The most severe damages o c c u r a t diameter changes and
threaded c o n n e c t i o n s which a r e b r i e f l y i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s . Comments a r e
then g i v e n on p r e v e n t i o n o f proppant e r o s i o n by hardware adjustments, whereas
p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f i n h i b i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l d e s t r u c t i o n by proppant s e l e c t i o n have
a l r e a d y been examined i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n .

1.4.6.2.1. Diameter changes

E r o s i o n o f hardware by a b r a s i v e proppants occurs m o s t l y a t p l a c e s h a v i n g sud-
den d i a m e t e r changes o r a b r u p t a l t e r a t i o n s i n f l o w d i r e c t i o n such as elbows,
tees, chicksans, and threaded c o n n e c t i o n s where n i p p l e d edges r e s t r i c t f l u i d
f l o w (PARKER 1980; P A I , G A R B I S & HALL 1983). E r o s i o n problems become more se-
v e r e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n and r i s i n g f l u i d v e l o c i t y . A b o r e -
h o l e i s o l a t i o n t o o l separates t h e expensive w e l l h e a d equipment f r o m h i g h t r e a t -
ment p r e s s u r e s and t h u s p r o t e c t s i t f r o m e r o s i o n e f f e c t s o f t h e proppant s l u r -
r y , because i f e r o s i o n a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f t u b i n g and b o r e h o l e head would be-
come t o o pronounced, t h e t u b i n g c o u l d r u p t u r e t h e r e b y exposing t h e h i g h p r e s -
sure t o c a s i n g and w e l l h e a d equipment (GARBIS, BROWN & MAURITZ 1985) which i n
t h e w o r s t case would r e s u l t i n w e l l blowout (OSBORNE, McLEOD & SCHROEDER 1981).

1.4.6.2.2, Threaded connect ions

Proppant e r o s i o n i n t r e a t m e n t l i n e and w e l l h e a d area r e q u i r e s c l o s e w a t c h i n g
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p l a c e s where diameter changes occur and a t threaded c o n n e c t i o n s
where t h e edge o f t h e n i p p l e opposes t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f l u i d f l o w (PARKER 1980).
Abrupt d i a m e t e r changes between b o r e h o l e head i s o l a t i o n t o o l and t u b i n g cause
t u r b u l e n c e i n t h i s area which enhances t h e e r o s i v e e f f e c t o f f l u i d and p r o p -
p a n t s . Other p l a c e s on t h e w e l l h e a d i s o l a t i o n d e v i c e which a r e s u b j e c t t o e r o -
s i o n - r e l a t e d f a i l u r e a r e changeover swedge v a l v e s and o t h e r threaded connec-
t i o n s . Changeover swedges a r e r e q u i r e d because most f r a c t u r i n g l i n e s have l a r -
g e r d i a m e t e r s t h a n t h e b o r e h o l e head i s o l a t i o n device, w i t h damaging e r o s i o n
b e i n g c r e a t e d by t u r b u l e n c e a t d i a m e t e r changes and threaded c o n n e c t i o n s .

1.4.6.2.3. Prevention o f proppant erosion

Problems w i t h v a l v e s and threaded c o n n e c t i o n s can be improved by t a p e r i n g
t h e d i a m e t e r change w i t h a machined i n t e g r a l swedge, w i t h t h u s t h e a l t e r a t i o n
i n diameter b e i n g e f f e c t e d over a l o n g e r i n t e r v a l t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t u r b u l e n c e
(PAI, G A R B I S & HALL 1983). Some aspects o f replacement o f t h r e a d e d by i n t e g r a l
c o n n e c t i o n s as w e l l as j o i n t s and t u b u l a r s o f h i g h e r w e i g h t and grade a r e d i s -
cussed as f o l l o w s .

1.4.6.2.3.1. Replacement o f threaded by i n t e g r a l connections

I n o r d e r t o f u r t h e r d i m i n u i s h t h e danger o f proppant e r o s i o n , threaded con-
n e c t i o n s should be e l i m i n a t e d i n a l l swedges and v a l v e s and s h o u l d be r e p l a c e d
by i n t e g r a l ones. M o n i t o r i n g o f downhole t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s by p l a c i n g an open
ended t u b i n g i n t h e c a s i n g w i t h o u t a packer i s performed by b o t t o m h o l e opera-
t i o n p r e s s u r e r e c o r d i n g w h i l e pumping t h r o u g h m u l t i p l e e n t r i e s i n t o t h e c a s i n g -
t u b i n g annulus. As t h e p r o p p a n t - l a d e n f l u i d e n t e r s t h e annulus, t h e t u b i n g i s
s u b j e c t e d t o an e r o s i v e c u t t i n g a c t i o n which can e v e n t u a l l y s e p a r a t e i t , w i t h
b l a s t j o i n t s h a v i n g i n c r e a s e d w a l l t h i c k n e s s b e i n g a p o s s i b l e compensation o f
 50

e r o s i o n i n t h i s c r i t i c a l a r e a . Choke a b r a s i o n c a n be c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d b y
u s i n g remote-controlled a d j u s t a b l e tungsten c a r b i d e elements f o r w e l l cleanup
(OSBORNE, McLEOD & SCHROEDER 1 9 8 1 ) . Chokes a r e s e t on a s m a l l o p e n i n g u n t i l p r e -
sence o r absence o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e g r a i n s d e r i v i n g f r o m p r o p p a n t escape due
t o f r a c t u r e e v a c u a t i o n c a n be d e t e r m i n e d and choke s i z e c a n p o s s i b l y be i n c r e a -
sed. H i g h e a r l y drawdown p r e s s u r e s have t o be a v o i d e d and o n l y g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a -
s i n g choke o p e n i n g i s recommended a s t h e w e l l c l e a n s up and s t a b i l i z e s .

1.4.6.2.3.2. Joints and tubulars of higher weight and grade

I n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e o r e l i m i n a t e p r o p p a n t e r o s i o n , t h e t o p one o r t w o
j o i n t s o f t u b i n g s h o u l d be o f h i g h e r w e i g h t and g r a d e t o combat t h e e f f e c t s o f
t u r b u l e n c e - i n d u c e d e r o s i o n (PAI, GARBIS & HALL 1 9 8 3 ) . The t r e a t i n g l i n e diame-
t e r i s u s u a l l y much l a r g e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e w e l l h e a d i s o l a t i o n d e v i c e , t h u s r e -
q u i r i n g t h e u s e o f a changeover swedge. When t h e o p e r a t i o n i s p e r f o r m e d u s i n g
t h e t r i p l e - e n t r y t e c h n i q u e b y pumping v i a t u b i n g and t u b i n g - c a s i n g a n n u l u s
(NALL, CAMPBELL & BONEY 1983; P A I , GARBIS & HALL 1 9 8 3 ) , t h e h i g h - c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o p p a n t - l a d e n s l u r r y e n t e r i n g t h e a n n u l u s a t h i g h v e l o c i t y p r o d u c e s tremendous
e r o s i o n a l a c t i o n on t h e t u b i n g and may e v e n t u a l l y c u t i t .

Thus h i g h - s t r e n g t h and w e i g h t b l a s t j o i n t s w i t h g r e a t e r w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s
s h o u l d be u s e d i n t h i s c r i t i c a l a r e a t o w i t h s t a n d e r o s i o n caused b y i m p a c t w i t h
h i g h - v e l o c i t y p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e s . HOOVER & ADAMS ( 1 9 8 8 ) r e p o r t u t i l i z a t i o n o f a
s t a t i c t u b i n g s t r i n g w h i c h n o t o n l y r e d u c e s f r i c t i o n and v i b r a t i o n t o minimum
l e v e l s , b u t a l s o v i r t u a l l y e l i m i n a t e s e r o s i o n o f t u b u l a r and s t a n d a r d w e l l h e a d
e q u i p m e n t . S i m i l a r e r o s i o n a l and d e s t r u c t i o n a l e f f e c t s as p r o v o k e d b y a b r a s i v e
p r o p p a n t s a r e t r i g g e r e d b y r e s e r v o i r sand f l o w i n g i n t o t h e w e l l i n c a s e o f ab-
sence o r i n s u f f i c i e n c e o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) .

1.4.6.3. Proppant damage by equipment

I n an i n v e r s e a p p r o a c h t o t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d , e f f e c t s o f pumping e q u i p m e n t
on s a n d - l a d e n s l u r r i e s a r e d i s c u s s e d b y ROLL, HIMES, EWERT & DOERKSEN ( 1 9 8 6 ) .
A s p e c t s o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g sand q u a l i t y a r e s t u d i e d b y ZWOLLE & D A V I E S (1983;
c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 3 . 5 . 2 . ) , and WENOORFF, BURKE & G A R V I S ( 1 9 7 9 ) emphasize t h e i n -
f l u e n c e o f h a n d l i n g e q u i p m e n t on f r a c t u r i n g sand q u a l i t y . A n o n l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t
amount o f f i n e s i s g e n e r a t e d b y p r o p p a n t g r a i n damage when pumping p r o p p a n t - l a -
den f l u i d s w i t h c e n t r i f u g a l and p o s i t i v e d i s p l a c e m e n t pumps and t h r o u g h c r o s s -
o v e r t o o l s a t l o w pumping r a t e s such as t h o s e u s e d i n g r a v e l p a c k i n g , b u t s i g n i -
f i c a n t amounts o f f i n e s may o r i g i n a t e when p r o p p a n t - l a d e n s l u r r i e s p a s s t h r o u g h
s m a l l o r i f i c e s such as chokes a t h i g h pump r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s l i k e t h o s e u s e d
i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (ROLL, HIMES, EWERT & DOERKSEN 1 9 8 6 ) . A g e n e r a l r e d u c -
t i o n i n g r a i n s i z e c a n o c c u r i f p o o r - q u a l i t y sands a r e a p p l i e d , a l t h o u g h t h i s
does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d t o f i n e s g e n e r a t i o n . G r a i n b r e a k a g e c a n be d i r e c t l y
c o r r e l a t e d t o sand and p r o p p a n t q u a l i t y (ZWOLLE & DAVIES 1983) b y a f f e c t i n g
f i r s t c h i e f l y inhomogeneous p a r t i c l e s w h i c h have i n h e r e n t m i c r o f i s s u r e s and
o n l y secondly a t higher s t r e s s l e v e l s s w i t c h i n g t o r e a l crushing o f o r i g i n a l l y
top-quality grains.

1.4.7. Specific gravity and fluid suspension properties

Proppant s e l e c t i o n i s i n terms o f r i s k o f t r e a t m e n t f a i l u r e by screenout
a l s o e s p e c i a l l y i n f l u e n c e d by s p e c i f i c proppant g r a v i t y . While r e s i s t i v i t y t o
c l o s u r e s t r e s s h a s t o p p r i o r i t y and s t a b i l i t y a g a i n s t f o r m a t i o n b r i n e s i s a l s o
e s s e n t i a l , many c a s e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n l e a v e t h e c h o i c e between t w o p r o p p a n t t y -
pes o f d i f f e r e n t s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y i n t h e advanced s t a g e o f p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n .
I r r e s p e c t i v e o f f a c t o r s such as p r o p p a n t p r i c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 2 . ) and e q u i p -
ment wear and t e a r b y p r o p p a n t a b r a s i v e n e s s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 6 . ) , s p e c i f i c g r a -
v i t y o f t h e p r o p p i n g a g e n t s i s an i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
 51

and g r a v e l p a c k i n g . The h e a v i e r t h e proppant, t h e more v i s c o u s c a r r i e r f l u i d s

a r e r e q u i r e d f o r reasonable and s a f e t r a n s p o r t and placement o f t h e proppant i n
t h e crack, and a l s o t h e g r e a t e r t h e danger o f screenout by t o t a l p l u g g i n g o f
t h e f r a c t u r e by p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g and/or s l u r r y s t i c k i n g b e f o r e a c h i e v i n g t h e
goal o f performance matching d e s i g n o f t h e o p e r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 2 . ) .
Some aspects o f f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g as w e l l as s p e c i f i c g r a -
v i t y v s . t a p d e n s i t y a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

1 . 4 . 7 . 1 . Fluid viscosity and proppant settling

H e a v i e r proppants a r e much e a s i e r t e n d i n g t o s e t t l e i n t h e s t i m u l a t i o n
f l u i d s b e f o r e t h e f r a c t u r e c l o s e s t o t r a p them ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 2 . ) . The c o n s i -
d e r a b l y l o w e r s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y i s one o f t h e major advantages o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h
z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants i n deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e r e s e r v o i r s where t h i s p r o d u c t
can even t e c h n i c a l l y compete w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina
o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants because o f s t i l l b e i n g l i g h t e r ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 2 .
and t a b . 3 ) , w i t h t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e p r i c e d i f f e r e n c e between z i r c o n i a - and a l u m i -
na-based proppants, however, b e i n g t h e o t h e r p a r t o f t h e s t o r y and r e p r e s e n t i n g
t h e economical drawback ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) . I n terms o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s
o f alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants, p r e f e r e n c e should always be g i v e n t o
t h e l i g h t e s t p r o d u c t i f s u f f i c i e n t freedom o f c h o i c e i s p r o v i d e d by t h e r e q u i -
r e d c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y l e v e l . The reasons f o r t h i s a r e t h a t t h e lower
t h e s p e c i f i c proppant g r a v i t y , t h e lower t h e r i s k o f premature screenout f a i -
l u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) , t h e b e t t e r t h e v e r t i c a l h e i g h t
containment o f t h e crack by a p p l i c a t i o n o f l o w e r - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s o p e r a t i n g
w i t h l o w e r p r e s s u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) , and t h e cheaper t h e whole opera-
t i o n . P a r t i c l e t r a n s p o r t i n v i s c o u s and v i s c o e l a s t i c f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i s a l s o
e v a l u a t e d by ACHARYA (1986, 1987), and proppant s e t t l i n g c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e d i s -
cussed by SHAH ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

The g r e a t e s t advantage o f d e c r e a s i n g s p e c i f i c proppant g r a v i t y i s t h a t i d e n -

t i c a l proppant t r a n s p o r t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h a t o f h e a v i e r proppants i n h i g h e r -
v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s can t a k e p l a c e f o r l i g h t e r proppants i n l o w e r - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s
which a r e t h e r e f o r e pumpable a t l o w e r p r e s s u r e (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & CARROLL
1 9 8 3 ) . V e r t i c a l p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e can be l i m i t e d by r e d u c i n g f r a c t u -
r i n g f l u i d p r e s s u r e (SIMONSON, ABOU-SAYEO & CLIFTON 1978; NOLTE 1982; c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) . The v i s c o s i t y range o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s makes m i n i m i z i n g o f
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a much more e f f e c t i v e method o f c o n t r o l l i n g p r e s s u r e t h a n l o w e r -
i n g pumping r a t e , and a l t e r n a t i v e l y , h i g h e r proppant volumes can be i n j e c t e d i n
a g i v e n amount o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 2 . ) . L i g h -
t e r proppants can a l s o be i n s e r t e d i n h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e
t h a n h e a v i e r p r o p p a n t s w i t h t h e same t y p e o f c a r r i e r f l u i d , and placement o f
i d e n t i c a l s a t u r a t i o n s r e q u i r e s o n l y a l o w e r - v i s c o s i t y t r a n s p o r t medium f o r l i g h -
t e r proppants w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h a t needed f o r d e p o s i t i o n o f h e a v i e r p r o p p a n t s .

Another economical advantage o f l i g h t e r proppants i s t h e i r h i g h e r volume p e r

w e i g h t u n i t which r e s u l t s i n a t w o - f o l d s a v i n g o f s t i m u l a t i o n expenses, compris-
i n g f i r s t t h e cheaper base p r i c e o f l i g h t e r proppants and second t h e r e q u i r e -
ment o f l e s s w e i g h t u n i t s t o meet a designed v o l u m e t r i c q u a n t i t y o f m a t e r i a l
(SINCLAIR, GRAHAM & SINCLAIR 1983; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 1 . 2 . 6 . and 1 . 4 . 1 2 . 5 . ) .

1.4.7.2, Specific gravity vs. tap density

I n c o n t r a s t t o s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y which i n d i c a t e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
whole proppant g r a i n s , t a p d e n s i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l r e f l e c t s t h e amount o f i n t e r -
connected m i c r o p o r o s i t y w i t h i n t h e g r a i n s (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & CARROLL
1983). I n t e r c o n n e c t e d m i c r o p o r o s i t y does n o t o n l y p r o v i d e a h i g h e r s u r f a c e area
f o r t h e a t t a c k o f a c i d s and a g g r e s s i v e b r i n e s , b u t a l s o a f f e c t s proppant t r a n s -
p o r t b e h a v i o u r i f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d o r i t s f i l t r a t e can a l s o p e n e t r a t e t h e
m i c r o p o r o s i t y network, because t h e proppant w i l l t h e n a c t h e a v i e r t h a n i n d i c a -
t e d b y t a p d e n s i t y I n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s have s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r
t a p d e n s i t i e s t h a n s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and appear t o have a d e q u a t e s t r e n g t h f o r
t h e m a j o r i t y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s (CUTLER, E N N I S S , JONES & SWAN-
SON 1 9 8 5 ) .

1.4.8. Grain size and embedment

1.4.8.1. Reservoir composition and proppant requirement

S o f t formations r e q u i r e a large-diameter propping agent t h a t w i l l r e s i s t t o
embedment ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . ) . Medium- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s need a
l a r g e - s i z e proppant i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e adequate flow c a p a c i t y w i t h a s t r o n g
p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 1 . 1 . 2 . and 4 . 6 . 1 . ) , w i t h t h e o p t i -
mum b e i n g a w i d e and h i g h l y - c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e i n f i l l e d b y p r o p p a n t m u l t i -
l a y e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 . ) . Propping o f cracks i n hard rocks necessitates a
m a t e r i a l w i t h h i g h compressive s t r e n g t h t o r e s i s t t o t h e h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s
e x e r t e d , and s i n c e embedment i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n h a r d r o c k s w i t h c o n t i n u o u s r e -
servoir distribution, s m a l l - s i z e p r o p p a n t can be u t i l i z e d w h i c h a l l o w s an i n -
c r e a s e d pack c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n an o l i g o - t o m u l t i l a y e r f a b r i c c o u n t e r a c t i n g t h e
high stress.

H i g h l y - l i t h i f i e d h a r d r o c k s a r e u s u a l l y more o r l e s s t i g h t and do n o t r e -
q u i r e l a r g e f l o w c a p a c i t i e s w i t h extreme p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t s , w i t h t h e b e s t
treatment design being long, n a r r o w , h i g h l y - p a c k e d f r a c t u r e s (CLARK 1 9 8 3 ) ,
whereas s o f t t o m o d e r a t e l y - c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s a r e b e t t e r s t i m u l a t e d w i t h
s h o r t e r and w i d e r f r a c t u r e s packed b y p r o p p a n t m u l t i l a y e r s . I f composed o f d i s -
c r e t e l e n t i c u l a r sand b o d i e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 . 1 . 1 . ) t h a t a r e s e p a r a t e d b y mud-
stones, h a r d s a n d s t o n e r e s e r v o i r complexes a l s o s u f f e r f r o m p r o p p a n t embedment
w h i c h o c c u r s i n t h e i n t e r v e n i n g mudstone u n i t s .

P r o p p a n t embedment i s i n f l u e n c e d b y p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n , p r o p p a n t s i z e ,
p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n , r o c k t y p e and embedment s u r f a c e , and v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t i n g
f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e a r e c l o s u r e pressure, proppant size, proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
proppant saturation, f o r m a t i o n h a r d n e s s and s u r f a c e t o u g h n e s s (VOLK, RAIHLE,
CARROLL & SPEARS 1981; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . ) . The r a t e o f f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e de-
pends on t h e p r o p p a n t amount p e r u n i t a r e a o r t h e p e r c e n t p r o p p a n t m o n o l a y e r .
P r i n c i p a l l y f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e w i t h a 100 % m o n o l a y e r i s t h e same f o r a 50 % mono-
l a y e r a t h a l f t h e c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e and f o r a 25 % m o n o l a y e r a t one q u a r t e r t h e
c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y . P r o p p a n t embedment i n t o mudstone i s more r d p i d
i n i t i a l l y b u t q u i c k l y becomes l i n e a r l y dependent on c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e , w i t h t h e
t r a n s i t i c n o c c u r r i n s f a s t e r t q a n t h a t f o r s a n d s t c n e e n b e d i e r , t as a consequence
o f t h e f i n e r g r a i n s i t e o f s h a l e s w h i c h o f f e r s s u p p o r t f o r t h e p r o p p a n t soon
a f t e r embedment commences. T h e r e f o r e embedment w i t h a c o m p l e t e m o n o l a y e r i s a c -
t u a l l y l e s s f o r shale, w i t h t h e r a t e o f c l o s u r e o f sandstones dropping a t i n -
creasing pressure u n t i l i t i s less than shale.

A t h i g h c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e s a f t e r s i g n i f i c a n t embedment has o c c u r r e d , t h e r u b b -
l i z e d s a n d s t o n e b e i n g pushed ahead o f t h e embedding p r o p p a n t b e g i n s t o f i l l t h e
p o r e spaces i n t h e r o c k and t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e l o a d more u n i f o r m l y , w i t h t h e
s t r o n g e r s a n d s t o n e m a t r i x u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t i n g i n a l o w e r p r o p p a n t embedment
r a t e t h a n i s p o s s i b l e w i t h s h a l e . The r a t e o f f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e f o r s a n d s t o n e s
i n c r e a s e s as p r o p p a n t c o v e r a g e d e c r e a s e s , whereas t h a t f o r s h a l e s i s d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o p r o p p a n t c o n t a c t a r e a o r number o f p r o p p a n t p e r u n i t a r e a . S h a l e s
 53
propped by a p a r t i a l p r o p p a n t monolayer o f 50 % o r g r e a t e r r e s i s t t o f r a c t u r e
c l o s u r e about as w e l l as r e s e r v o i r sandstones, b u t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h f r a c t u -
r i n g f l u i d s could s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r the r a t e o f f r a c t u r e closure i n shales.
As proppant coverage drops below 50 % o f a monolayer, t h e r a t e o f f r a c t u r e c l o -
sure i s much more r a p i d than f o r sandstones. A t h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s , f r a c -
t u r e w i d t h i s almost independent o f s u r f a c e roughness. Embedment aspects o f
h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants i n t o l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r r o c k s a r e a l s o d i s c u s -
sed by MUCH (1987) and MUCH & PENNY (1987), and proppant embedment v s . c r u s h i n g
i s discussed a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d s i n
s e c t i o n 4.3.

1.4.9. Manufacturing process and pellet composition

Raw m a t e r i a l c o m p o s i t i o n and m a n u f a c t u r i n g process have an i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n -
ce on p r o p p a n t p e l l e t m i c r o s t r u c t u r e and i n t e g r i t y and t h u s s t r e n g t h and p e r f o r -
mance o f t h e p r o p p a n t s . G e n e r a l l y a v a r i e t y o f f a b r i c a t i o n methods can be used
t o make proppants i n c l u d i n g m i x - p e l l e t i z a t i o n , spray d r y i n g , d r o p l e t g e n e r a t i o n
and c o a t i n g (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 7 . ) , w i t h f i -
n a l proppant h a r d e n i n g o f raw agglomerations by s i n t e r i n g o r f u s i n g . D i s t i n c -
t i o n has t o be made between alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants and z i r c o n i a -
s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s . Some comments a r e a l s o g i v e n on n a t u r a l sand.

1.4.9.1. Alumina oxide and silicate proppants

Alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants a r e manufactured by m i l l i n g o r g r i n d i n g
t h e raw m a t e r i a l t o a f i n e powder p a r t i c l e s i z e , f o r m i n g s p h e r i c a l p e l l e t s
u s i n g a d i s k p e l l e t i z e r , and f i n a l d e n s i f i c a t i o n ( s i n t e r i n g ) o f t h e p e l l e t s
(COBB & FARRELL 1986) by f l u i d i z e d bed a g g l o m e r a t i o n (LUNGHOFER 1984) o r h i g h -
speed r o t a r y m i x i n g (FITZGIBBON 1984). C r y s t a l phase f o r m a t i o n and d e n s i f i c a -
t i o n o f the p e l l e t s are t y p i c a l l y c a r r i e d o u t i n a r o t a r y k i l n a t a s i n t e r i n g
temperature up t o a b t . 1,500 OC (CUTLER, JONES, SWANSON & CARROLL 1 9 8 1 ) . Some
aspects o f g r i n d e d powder p a r t i c l e s i z e v s . p e l l e t i n t e g r i t y , s i n t e r i n g tempera-
t u r e and k i l n environment, and a r t i f i c i a l p e l l e t f o r m a t i o n v s . n a t u r a l p i s o l i t e
p r o c e s s i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

1.4.9.1.1. Grinded powder particle size vs. pellet integrity

Changes i n ground powder p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n and mean a f f e c t o t h e r
process v a r i a b l e s and f i n a l p e l l e t i n t e g r i t y . The c o r r e c t powder p a r t i c l e s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l f o r o p t i m a l p a c k i n g i n t h e p e l l e t i z a t i o n process and
f o r more complete d e n s i f i c a t i o n i n t h e s i n t e r i n g process. F i n e r g r i n d i n g o f t h e
raw m a t e r i a l n o r m a l l y r e s u l t s i n a more compact, s t r o n g e r p e l l e t , w i t h t h i s be-
i n g b e n e f i c i a l i n case o f u t i l i z a t i o n o f lower-grade o r e s where f i n e r g r i n d i n g
i s e s s e n t i a l t o produce s t r e n g t h s s i m i l a r t o those o b t a i n e d f r o m h i g h e r - g r a d e
o r e s w i t h c o a r s e r g r i n d i n g (COBB & FARRECL 1986). F i n e r p a r t i c l e s i z e s o f t h e
p r o p p a n t s always r e s u l t f r o m l o n g e r g r i n d i n g b e f o r e p e l l e t i z a t i o n and n o t f r o m
the d i f f e r e n c e i n p e l l e t i r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e (CUTLER, JONES, SWANSON & CARROLL
1981).

1.4.9.1.2, Sintering temperature and kiln environment

I n a d d i t i o n t o raw m a t e r i a l g r i n d i n g , s i n t e r i n g i s a l s o c r i t i c a l . The f i n a l
c r y s t a l s i z e s depend a l s o on t i m e - t e m p e r a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s as w e l l as atmosphe-
r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e k i l n where t h e p e l l e t s a r e f i r e d f o r t h e purpose o f m i -
n e r a l o g i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f b a u x i t e and c l a y i n t o corundum and m u l l i t e . K i l n
c o n d i t i o n s a r e a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e occurrence o f d i f f u s i o n , r e c r y s t a l l i z a -
t i o n and g r a i n growth. Raw m a t e r i a l c h e m i s t r y t h u s i n t e r r e l a t e s w i t h manufactu-
r i n g v a r i a b l e s t o d e f i n e proppant m i c r o s t r u c t u r e and t h u s performance o f t h e
 54

p r o d u c t (COBB & FARRELL 1 9 8 6 ) . Sphere d i a m e t e r i n c r e a s e s as s i n t e r i n g t e m p e r a -

t u r e d e c r e a s e s s i n c e t h e beads do n o t s h r i n k as much a t l o w e r t e m p e r a t u r e s (CUT-
LER, JONES, SWANSON & CARROLL 1 9 8 1 ) .

1.4.9.1.3.Art if icial pellet formation

vs. natural pisolite processing
E x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t g r i n d i n g o f r a w m a t e r i a l , f o r m a t i o n o f p e l l e t s ,
and s i n t e r i n g o f t h e p e l l e t s b y f i r i n g i n t h e k i l n p r o d u c e s much h i g h e r c r y s t a l -
l i t e i n t e r l o c k i n g and t h u s p r o p p a n t s t r e n g t h t h a n p r o c e s s i n g o f n a t u r a l l y o c c u r -
r i n g b a u x i t e p e l l e t s i n p i s o l i t h i c d e p o s i t s (COMALCO 1983, 1 9 8 6 ) b y c l e a n i n g
and s i e v i n g and subsequent s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d s i n t e r i n g b y f i r i n g i n t h e k i l n . The
reason f o r the i n f e r i o r q u a l i t y o f t h e f i r e d n a t u r a l p i s o l i t e s are i n t e r n a l in-
homogeneities which provoke a g r e a t e r percentage o f breaking o f g r a i n s d u r i n g
f i r i n g , and e v e n i n t h o s e g r a i n s w h i c h p a s s t h e q u a l i t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n a f t e r p r o -
d u c t i o n r e m a i n as weakness f i s s u r e s t h a t r e s u l t i n e a r l i e r c r u s h i n g o f t h e p r o -
c e s s e d n a t u r a l p e l l e t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o m p l e t e l y s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s . An-
other f a c t o r i s o f t e n the onion-type l a y e r s t r u c t u r e o f the p i s o l i t e s which i s
comparable t o t h a t o f carbonate ooids, w i t h t h e s u i t e o f c o n c e n t r i c a l p e l l i c l e s
a l s o i n c l u d i n g p o t e n t i a l i n s t a b i l i t y c e n t r e s and b r e a k i n g e a s i e r away a t e l e v a -
ted closure stresses ( c f . section 1.3.1.2.). A r t i f i c i a l l y formed p e l l e t s a r e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y an a l m o s t i s o t r o p i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f powder p a r t i c l e s w h i c h
upon f i r i n g i n t h e k i l n r e s u l t s i n n e a r l y i s o t r o p i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f corundum
and m u l l i t e c r y s t a l l i t e s and t h u s p r o v i d e s t h e g r a i n w i t h v e r y h i g h s t r e n g t h
due t o c r y s t a l l i t e i n t e r l o c k i n g i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s .

1.4.9.2.Zi rconia-s i 1 icate proppant s

Z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s a r e p r o d u c e d b y m e l t i n g c e r a m i c m a t e r i a l s and
p r e p a r i n g p r o p p a n t s b y u s i n g a d r o p l e t g e n e r a t o r (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & CAR-
ROLL 1983; CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON 1 9 8 5 ) . I n an e f f o r t t o m i n i m i z e s u r -
f a c e a r e a , t h e m o l t e n d r o p l e t s f o r m i n t o f u s e d s p h e r e s upon c o o l i n g and s o l i d i -
f i c a t i o n . This procedure almost e l i m i n a t e s generation o f i n t e r n a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y
i n t h e amorphous o r g l a s s y groundmass i n c o n t r a s t t o v a r i o u s amounts o f i n t e r -
s t i t i a l s between i n t e r l o c k i n g c r y s t a l l i t e s i n a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e and o x i d e p r o p -
p a n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 . ) . I n a d d i t i o n , v a r i o u s g r a i n s i z e s a r e p r o d u c e d much
e a s i e r t h a n b y s i n t e r i n g o f a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s due t o t h e
absence o f f o r m a t i o n o f r a w - m a t e r i a l p e l l e t s o f p r e d e t e r m i n e d s i z e and d i f f i c u l -
t y o f e x a c t adjustment o f a narrow g r a i n s i z e i n t e r v a l by d r o p l e t generation,
and t h e r e f o r e a l s o e x t r e m e g r a i n s i z e s c a n b e p r o d u c e d w i t h l e s s h a n d l i n g p r o -
blems b y s i m p l e s i e v i n g o f t h e t o t a l m a t e r i a l assemblage a f t e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g .
On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e f u s i n g p r o c e d u r e i n c l u d e s much more r e j e c t s as a conse-
quence o f i n t e r n a l i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s , e x t e r n a l a p p e n d i c e s and b r o k e n g r a i n s ,
w h i c h makes t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e more e x p e n s i v e
and i s a l s o t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e h i g h e r p r i c e o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s i n
c o m p a r i s o n t o a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s .

I n t h e c o n t e x t o f p r o d u c t i o n , p a c k a g i n g , h a n d l i n g and d e l i v e r i n g o f p r o p -
p a n t s , an i m p o r t a n t means t o keep s t a n d a r d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , t o enhance q u a l i t y
m a i n t e n a n c e and t o r e i n f o r c e t h e d e s i g n e d and e x p e c t e d p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l i s on-
s i t e q u a l i t y c o n t r o l o f f l u i d s and p r o p p a n t s p r i o r t o t h e f r a c t u r i n g j o b (WEN-
DORFF, BURKE & G A R V I S 1979; ROBINSON 1985; SHAH, LEE & JENSEN 1985; HALL & LAR-
K I N 1986).

1.4.9.3. Natural sand

N a t u r a l sand p r o d u c e d f r o m t h e same g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n c o u l d b e p r i n c i p a l -
l y e x p e c t e d t o e x h i b i t more o r l e s s homogeneous q u a l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n and t o
show o n l y d i f f e r e n c e s i n g r a i n s i z e a c c o r d i n g t o d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t and
 55

f a c i e s t y p e . I n r e a l i t y , however, f i r s t o r i g i n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n c l u d e a l s o g r a i n
c o m p o s i t i o n and s t a b i l i t y as a consequence o f d i f f e r e n t palaeogeographical p r o -
venance and second a r t i f i c i a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s a r e i n t r o d u c e d by d i f f e r e n t produc-
t i o n , p r e p a r a t i o n and h a n d l i n g techniques o f t h e v a r i o u s companies. P r i m a r y va-
r i a t i o n s o f g r a i n c o m p o s i t i o n and s t a b i l i t y comprise t h e number o f i n d i v i d u a l
c r y s t a l s b u i l d i n g up q u a r t z sand g r a i n s , w i t h d i s t i n c t i o n h a v i n g t o be made b e t -
ween mono-, o l i g o - and p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e aggregates. As l a r g e r g r a i n boundaries
a r e always p o s s i b l e weakness planes, m o n o c r y s t a l l i n e p a r t i c l e s c o n s i s t i n g o f
t h e rounded and worn fragment o f a s i n g l e q u a r t z c r y s t a l have t h e h i g h e s t s t a b i -
l i t y , whereas o l i g o c r y s t a l l i n e beads b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d by a few i n t e r l o c k i n g
q u a r t z c r y s t a l s may be s u b j e c t e d t o breakage i n t o h a l v e s o r q u a r t e r s by s l i d i n g
and p a r t i n g a l o n g t h e c o n t a c t p l a n e s u n l e s s t h e g r a i n boundaries a r e s u t u r e d o r
s t y l o l i t h i c i n s t e a d o f concave-convex. P o l y c r y s t a l l i n e q u a r t z aggregates b e i n g
b u i l t up o f numerous t i n y i n t e r l o c k i n g c r y s t a l l i t e s e x h i b i t v e r y h i g h s t a b i l i t y
due t o s i m i l a r p r e s s u r e l o a d r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and p a r t i a l i n t e r n a l e q u a l i z a t i o n
as r e f l e c t e d by m i c r o c r y s t a l l i n e alumina s i l i c a t e and o x i d e p r o p p a n t s . I n c l u -
s i o n s such as bubble b e l t s , mica t r a i n s and r u t i l e needle g i r d l e s i n q u a r t z
g r a i n s may be a d d i t i o n a l sources o f weakness and breakage by s l i d i n g and p a r -
ting.

Sandstone m a t u r i t y as expressed by percentage o f w e l l - r o u n d e d ( t e x t u r a l matu-

r i t y ) and/or m o n o c r y s t a l l i n e ( m i n e r a l o g i c a l m a t u r i t y ) q u a r t z g r a i n s t h e r e f o r e
has an i m p o r t a n t impact on c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g
m a t e r i a l , and as sandstone m a t u r i t y i s determined by t h e p a l a e o g e o g r a p h i c a l and
p a l a e o t e c t o n i c a l e v o l u t i o n and t o minor amounts a l s o by t h e p a l a e o c l i m a t o l o g i -
c a l h i s t o r y o f t h e sandstone sequence, s u i t a b i l i t y as f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g mate-
r i a l i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o d e p o s i t i o n a l environmental c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e s e d i -
mentary b a s i n . Secondary e f f e c t s i n c l u d e p r o c e s s i n g parameters i n t h e sandstone
q u a r r y o r sand p i t such as m a t e r i a l access by d i g g i n g o r b l a s t i n g , m a t e r i a l d i s -
i n t e g r a t i o n by l o a d i n g , shaking o r m i l l i n g , m a t e r i a l s e p a r a t i o n by f l o a t i n g ,
and m a t e r i a l s c r e e n i n g by s i e v i n g . As a consequence o f p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n t i m -
p a c t o f a l l t h e mentioned f a c t o r s , WENOORFF (1982) recommends t o t e s t samples
p r o v i d e d by a l l t h e d i f f e r e n t companies even when coming f r o m t h e i d e n t i c a l geo-
l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n , because s e p a r a t i o n , c l e a n - u p and s i e v i n g procedures g i v e
somewhat d i f f e r e n t p a r t i c l e - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n . I n a s i m i l a r way, s y n t h e t i c p r o p -
p a n t s manufactured by d i f f e r e n t companies may a l s o have d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e areas
and p e r m e a b i l i t i e s .

1.4.10. Conductivity discount

The most i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y f o r p o s t - o p e r a t i o n a l performance and t h u s e f f e c -
t i v i t y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n i s proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y (COBB & FAR-
RELL 1986). Crack c o n d u c t i v i t y i s a f u n c t i o n o f p r o p p a n t p r o p e r t i e s ( s t r e n g t h ,
s i z e , composition, roundness, s p h e r i c i t y , d i s t r i b u t i o n , concentration, content
o f f i n e s ) , c l o s u r e s t r e s s l o a d on t h e p r o p p a n t package, p r e s s u r e drawdown and
f l u i d f l o w r a t e , f o r m a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s ( p r o p p a n t embedment o r c r u s h i n g c o n d i -
t i o n s ) , p o t e n t i a l p l u g g i n g f r o m f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e s i d u e o r g e l f i l t e r cake,
and r e s u l t a n t propped c r a c k w i d t h (MONTGOMERY & SJEANSON 1 9 8 5 ) . W i t h i n t h e l a s t
decade, s i g n i f i c a n t advances have been made i n a n a l y s i s o f p r e s s u r e t r a n s i e n t
d a t a f o r h y d r a u l i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d w e l l s (McDANIEL 1988). One o f t h e most meaning-
f u l developments has been methods a l l o w i n g an o p e r a t o r t o c a l c u l a t e p o s t - t r e a t -
ment e s t i m a t e s o f propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and crack c o n d u c t i v i t y . I n many i n -
stances, however, c a l c u l a t e d f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y values have been c o n s i d e r a b -
l y l o w e r than those p r e d i c t e d by l a b o r a t o r y proppant t e s t i n g , t h u s s t i m u l a t i n g
i n d u s t r y i n t e r e s t i n t h e use o f e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s more c l o s e l y approach-
i n g i n - s i t u parameters.

R e a l i s t i c proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y data are essential t o both hydraulic f r a c t u -

r i n g t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n and a c c u r a t e f o r e c a s t o f t h e r e s u l t a n t f r a c t u r e d w e l l p r o -
d u c t i o n when u s i n g a computerized r e s e r v o i r s i m u l a t o r t o model p o s t - s t i m u l a t i o n
w i t h d r a w a l c a p a b i l i t y (McDANIEL 1987, 1988). A f t e r d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l
 56

a s p e c t s i n c l u d i n g l a b o r a t o r y v s . f i e l d c o n d u c t i v i t y d i s c r e p a n c y and i m p a c t o f
experimental techniques, the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f long-term proppant s t a b i l i t y t e s t -
i n g a r e o u t l i n e d , and t h e r e s u l t s a r e t h e n summarized i n recommended c o n d u c t i v i -
t y c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s . F i n a l l y , some examples o f p r o p p a n t p e r f o r m a n c e i n l o n g -
term f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n a r e mentioned.

1.4.10.1. Laboratory vs. field conductivity discrepancy

Post-fracture pressure analysis frequently calculates proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y
and e f f e c t i v e c r a c k l e n g t h s t h a t f a l l s h o r t o f t h e d e s i g n e d v a l u e s (McDANIEL
1986, 1987, 1988; MUCH 1987, PARKER & McDANIEL 1987, McDANIEL & PARKER 1 9 8 8 ) .
T r e a t m e n t s c h e d u l e s t h e r e f o r e need t o be m o d i f i e d t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t a more
r e a l i s t i c v a l u e o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y u n d e r i n - s i t u c o n d i t i o n s . More a c c u -
r a t e l a b o r a t o r y m o d e l l i n g o f t h e p r o p p a n t bed e n v i r o n m e n t u n d e r s i m u l a t e d c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s and t e m p e r a t u r e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f g e l f i l t e r c a k e s ( c f .
section 1.4.10.3.5. and 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 . 4 . ) w h i c h were f o r m e d u n d e r dynamic c o n d i t i o n s
has p r o v i d e d a s u i t a b l e a p p r o a c h t o t h i s p r o b l e m . C o n c e r n i n g l a b o r a t o r y v s . i n -
s i t u data, SECCOMBE & ANDERSON ( 1 9 8 2 ) r e p o r t t h a t s t a n d a r d i z e d e x p e r i m e n t a l
d a t a have t o be d i s c o u n t e d u p t o 90 %, w i t h t h e r e m a i n i n g 1 0 % b e i n g t h e e f f e c -
t i v e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t package i n p l a c e i n t h e f r a c t u r e u n d e r r e s e r -
v o i r c o n d i t i o n s ( c f . a l s o DGMK 1983, 1 9 8 6 ) .

P o s t - f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n performance a n a l y s i s t y p i c a l l y c a l c u l a t e s a c o n d u c t i -
v i t y v a l u e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t h a n t h a t p r e d i c t e d b y l a b o r a t o r y measurements
(McDANIEL 1986, 1987, 1988; PARKER & McDANIEL 1 9 8 7 ) . HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN
( 1 9 8 1 ) a l s o comment t h a t p r o p p a n t p e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r downhole c o n d i t i o n s o f t e n
does n o t d u p l i c a t e t h e r e s u l t s o f l a b o r a t o r y e v a l u a t i o n s . D r a s t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s
o f c r a c k and p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y a r e a l r e a d y e v i d e n t when c o m p a r i n g t h e r e -
s u l t s o f l o n g - t e r m h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e and s h o r t - t e r m a m b i e n t - t e m p e r a t u r e labora-
t o r y t e s t i n g (COOKE 1973; McDANIEL 1986, 1 9 8 7 ) . A c c u r a t e d e s i g n o f f r a c t u r i n g
t r e a t m e n t s r e q u i r e s c o n d u c t i v i t y measurements a t s i m u l a t e d r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s
(McDANIEL & PARKER 1 9 8 8 ) . VEATCH ( 1 9 7 7 ) i n t r o d u c e s a c o m p u t e r i z e d method f o r de-
t e r m i n i n g i n - s i t u f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas-bearing forma-
t i o n s , and VLIS, HAAFKENS, SCHIPPER & V I S S E R ( 1 9 7 5 ) p r e s e n t c r i t e r i a f o r p r o p -
p a n t p l a c e m e n t and f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s
on p r o p p a n t b e h a v i o u r and r e a c t i o n t o s t r e s s as w e l l as on p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e
effects.

1.4.10.1.1. Proppant behaviour and reaction to s t r e s s

The r e a s o n s f o r t h e d i s c r e p a n c y i n f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y between l a b o r a t o r y
t e s t i n g and downhoTe p e r f o r m a n c e i n c l u d e embedment o f b r i t t l e p r o p p a n t s i n t o
t h e f o r m a t i o n , p l u g g i n g o f p o r e s b y f r a c t u r i n g g e l r e s i d u e s and f l u i d - l o s s f i l -
t e r cakes, d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n crack geometry, s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n o f proppants b y
l e a c h i n g and c r u s h i n g and o t h e r phenomena n o t t y p i c a l l y measured i n l a b o r a t o r y
e x p e r i m e n t s (COOKE 1973, ALMOND & BLAND 1984; McDANIEL 1986, 1987, 1988; PARKER
& McDANIEL 1987, McDANIEL & PARKER 1 9 8 8 ) . E n t r a i n m e n t and d e p o s i t i o n o f f i n e
p a r t i c l e s i n p o r o u s media a r e a l s o e v a l u a t e d b y GRUESBECK & COLLINS ( 1 9 8 2 ) . S i g -
n i f i c a n t proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y discounts ( w i t h p o s t - f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t e n
d i f f e r i n g b y a f a c t o r 0 . 1 t o 0 . 5 t i m e s t h e t e s t d a t a ) a r e a l s o p r o p o s e d b y SOLI-
MAN, VENDITTO & SLUSHER ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; BRITT ( 1 9 8 5 ) , MONTGOMERY & STEANSON ( 1 9 8 5 ) and
McDANIEL (1986, 1987, 1988) as a c o n c l u s i o n o f l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g and f i e l d p e r -
formance e v a l u a t i o n .

E x p e r i m e n t a l work showed t h a t when p r o p p a n t s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e d

b r i n e s , a v e r y r a p i d p e r m e a b i l i t y d e c r e a s e o c c u r s , and even 2 % KC1 s o l u t i o n s
r e s u l t i n a q u i c k r a t e o f p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y d e c l i n e (COBB & FARRELL 1986,
MUCH & PENNY 1987, McDANIEL 1 9 8 8 ) . I n t o t a l , numerous l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d expe-
r i m e n t s have shown t h a t i n - s i t u f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s o f t e n c o n s i d e r a b l y
l e s s t h a n l a b o r a t o r y - m e a s u r e d v a l u e s (COOKE 1973, 1975; SECCOMBE & ANDERSON
 57

1982; CALLANAN, CIPOLLA & LEWIS 1983; NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB 1983; SOLIMAN, VEN-
D I T T O & SLUSHER 1984; R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985; L I & ZHU 1986;
McDANIEL 1986, 1987, 1988; ROODHART, KUIPER & DAVIES 1986; PARKER & McDANIEL
1987, MUCH & PENNY 1987, POULSEN & SOLIMAN 1987, MCDANIEL & PARKER 1988).

1.4.10.1.2. Proppant grain size effects

Comparison o f proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y should be made on t h e base o f as i d e n t i -
c a l g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n as p o s s i b l e , because f o r example 20/40 mesh mate-
r i a l can e x h i b i t c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t c o n d u c t i v i t i e s i f g r a n u l o m e t r i c a l d i s -
t r i b u t i o n i n c l u d e s 75 % o r 25 % o f g r a i n s l a r g e r than 30 mesh (CUTLER, ENNISS,
JONES & CARROLL 1983). Even between s e v e r a l c a r e f u l l y screened samples o f t h e
same proppant type, an e r r o r band of performance d i f f e r e n c e o f a b t . 5 - 10 %
can occur, w i t h t h e m a j o r reason f o r sample-to-sample v a r i a t i o n b e i n g p r o p p a n t
packing i n the t e s t c e l l , although v a r i a t i o n s i n proppant s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n
s t i l l occur even when t h e p r o p p a n t assemblage i s screened s u b t l y (CUTLER, EN-
N I S S , JONES & SWANSON 1985). As p r o p p a n t t e s t i n g r e s u l t s can o n l y be s i g n i f i -
c a n t and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i f a l l t h e examined proppant l o t s have t h e same g r a i n
s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n o r d e r t o enable i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l - c a u s e d d i f f e r e n -
ces, r e s c r e e n i n g o f p r o d u c t i o n - d e r i v e d s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e f r e q u e n t l y neces-
s a r y b e f o r e s t a r t i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l work. F r a c t u r e w i d t h i n t h e t e s t i n g apparatus
a l s o has t o be c l o s e l y monitored, because f l o w o f r e s i n c o a t i n g s , p a r t i c l e r e a r -
rangement, e l a s t i c a l d e f o r m a t i o n s and p a r t i c l e c r u s h i n g a l l t e n d t o narrow
c r a c k d i a m e t e r as c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s i n c r e a s e d and t h u s v a r i o u s measurements o f
a t e s t s e r i e s may n o t be p r o p e r l y comparable due t o n o t i d e n t i c a l base parame-
t e r s and c o n d i t i o n s .

R e a l i s t i c i n - s i t u p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y assessment and p r e d i c t i o n , however,

i s e s s e n t i a l f o r c o s t and performance o p t i m i z a t i o n m o d e l l i n g o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r e t r e a t m e n t s w i t h r e a l i s t i c c r a c k performance v a l u e s a l l o w i n g e x p e n s e - e f f e c -
t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s and maximum r e t u r n on proppant i n v e s t m e n t (MUCH &
PENNY 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 2 . ) . Long-term proppant l a b o r a t o r y s t a b i l i t y t e s t -
i n g has t u r n e d o u t t o p r o v i d e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n f o r p r o p e r e v a l u a t i o n o f prop-
p a n t f i e l d performance, b u t e x p e r i m e n t a l procedures and r e s u l t s have t o be v e r y
c a r e f u l l y and c r i t i c a l l y assessed. A b s o l u t e g r a i n s i z e has s i g n i f i c a n t impact
on measured proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y , because c r u s h i n g o f c o a r s e r grades s t a r t s a t
lower c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s t h a n t h a t o f f i n e r f r a c t i o n s (DAVIES & KUIPER 1988) as a
consequence o f c o a r s e r g r a i n s h a v i n g fewer c o n t a c t p o i n t s w i t h t h e i r neighbours
and t h u s l e s s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 5 . 1 . ) .

1.4.10.2. Impact of experimental techniques

When r e v i e w i n g p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y d i s c o u n t as a r e s u l t o f l a b o r a t o r y
s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y experiments performed i n r a d i a l o r l i n e a r f l o w c e l l s , cau-
t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d , as many r e p o r t s o f c a t a s t r o p h i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e -
r i o r a t i o n i n t h e p a s t s u f f e r f r o m inadequate c h o i c e o f t e s t i n g parameters and
improper d e s i g n o f t h e e v a l u a t i o n c e l l (McDANIEL 1980, 1987, 1 9 8 8 ) . A f t e r d i s -
c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l aspects, i n f l u e n c e s o f proppant g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n
and p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e o u t l i n e d .

1.4.10.2.1. General aspects

Many erroneous procedures i n v o l v e d r e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t e s t f l u i d i n c o n t r a s t
t o s i n g l e f l o w as happening i n n a t u r e , plumbing o f t h e experiment c e l l , a p p l i c a -
t i o n o f t o o h i g h oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h e f l u i d , l a c k i n g p r e - t e s t s i l i c a sa-
t u r a t i o n o f t h e f l u i d t o match c o n d i t i o n s i n sandstone r e s e r v o i r s , usage o f
s t e e l p l a t e s i n s t e a d o f r e s e r v o i r r o c k c o r e s l a b s as boundary p l a n e s o f t h e e x -
p e r i m e n t c e l l , and performance o f t e s t s o n l y a t ambient temperatures, l o w f l u i d
s a l i n i t i e s ( i n most cases 2 % KC1 s o l u t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f
 58

t h e p r e - p a d and d i s p l a c e m e n t s t a g e s o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g j o b a r e used; c f . SYDANSK

1984; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . 2 . ) and s h o r t t i m e s o f c l o s u r e s t r e s s e x p o s i t i o n .
McDANIEL (1986, 1987, 1988) emphasizes t h a t a t l e a s t p a r t o f t h e h i t h e r t o p u b l i -
shed d r a s t i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y l o s s e s o f p r o p p a n t packages a r e t h e r e s u l t o f i n a d e -
q u a t e t e s t i n g methods t h a t do n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y a p p r o a c h r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s .

NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB ( 1 9 8 3 ) c a r r y o u t s p e c i a l damage t e s t s i n o r d e r t o mo-

d e l c o n d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e i n t h e f r a c t u r e a f t e r p r o p p a n t p l a c e m e n t and c o n c l u d e
t h a t t h e d o l l a r amount o f l o s t r e v e n u e due t o d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e f l o w c a -
p a c i t y by proppant f a i l u r e increases w i t h formation p e r m e a b i l i t y . While i n
t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between c r a c k and f o r m a t i o n i s n o t
s e r i o u s l y d i s t u r b e d unless c a t a s t r o p h i c proppant crushing occurs, f r a c t u r e f l o w
c a p a c i t y can i n moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r o c k s a l r e a d y s u f f e r f r o m lower
amounts o f p r o p p a n t f a i l u r e and c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l changes i n c o n d u c t i v i t y c a n
a l r e a d y cause s i g n i f i c a n t p r o d u c t i o n l o s s e s b y c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c i n g c o n d u c t i v i -
t y c o n t r a s t between f r a c t u r e and r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x . The e f f e c t o f p r o p p a n t p e r -
formance d e c l i n e , however, c a n be c o n t r o l l e d b y p r o p e r m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n , b e -
cause t h e p r o p p a n t s w i t h t h e h i g h e s t c o n d u c t i v i t y ( w h i c h o n t h e o t h e r hand a r e
t h e m o s t e x p e n s i v e o n e s ) show t h e l e a s t r e v e n u e loss due t o f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a -
c i t y damage.

1.4.10.2.2.Proppant grain size distribution

As t h e s t r e s s l e v e l a t w h i c h s i g n i f i c a n t c r u s h i n g o c c u r s v a r i e s w i t h b o t h
p r o p p a n t t y p e and g r a i n s i z e , some o b l i t e r a t i o n o f t r u e c o n d u c t i v i t y c o m p a r i s o n
can a l s o a r i s e from t h e v a r i a t i o n o f s i e v e d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t proppant
t y p e s (McDANIEL 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 0 . 1 . 2 . ) . F o r any g i v e n p r o p p a n t t y p e ,
t h e measured c o n d u c t i v i t y w i l l be h i g h e r when t h e a v e r a g e p a r t i c l e s i z e i s l a r -
g e r u n t i l p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g becomes s i g n i f i c a n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 5 . 1 . ) . When
f o r i n s t a n c e t w o samples o f 20/40 mesh p r o p p a n t have d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f
p a r t i c l e s i z e s w i t h i n t h e n o m i n a l s i e v e r a n g e , measured f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y
w i l l s h i f t accordingly. Short-time t e s t data u s u a l l y favour the proppant w i t h
t h e l a r g e r average p a r t i c l e size, b u t t h i s i s n o t always t h e case f o r l o n g - t e r m
c o n d u c t i v i t y measurements. Wide d i f f e r e n c e s i n f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y between
l o t s o f t h e same p r o p p a n t m a t e r i a l a r e g e n e r a l l y t h e r e s u l t o f v a r i a t i o n s i n
p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n and p r o c e s s i n g p a r a m e t e r s (CUTLER, ENNISS,
JONES & SWANSON 1 9 8 5 ) .

1.4.10.2.3. Proppant concentration

P r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n i s a l s o a p a r a m e t e r w h i c h needs a t t e n t i o n (McDANIEL
1987). For accurate d e f i n i t i o n o f the v a r i a t i o n o f permeability vs. proppant
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o r f r a c t u r e w i d t h , t e s t s have t o be done a t p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s
b o t h l o w e r and h i g h e r t h a n t h e p r e s e n t i n d u s t r y norm o f 2 l b s / f t 2 ( 1 0 k g / m 2 ) ,
because many f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s u s i n g v i s c o u s f l u i d s r e s u l t i n l a r g e p e r c e n -
tages o f t h e propped crack l e n g t h w i t h proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f 1 l b / f t 2 ( 5
kg/m2) o r l e s s , and t h e l o w e r p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s may be s u b j e c t t o more se-
v e r e c r u s h i n g a t t h e same s t r e s s l e v e l t h a n t h i c k e r p r o p p a n t b e d s . I n w ! . : o f
m u l t i l a y e r p a c k i n g , p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
up t o 3 - 4 l b s / f t 2 ( 1 5 - 20 kg/m2) c a n be p l a c e d w i t h o u t t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s i f
f l u i d s o f s u f f i c i e n t v i s c o s i t y a r e u s e d ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4 . 3 . 1 . and 4 . 3 . 4 . ) .

1.4.10.3. Implications o f long-term laboratory proppant testing

The e c o n o m i c a l success o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s depends o n o b t a i n -
i n g s u f f i c i e n t f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e p r o p p a n t bed (McDANIEL & PARKER
1 9 8 8 ) . P r o p p a n t p r o p e r t i e s e x p e r i m e n t a l m o d e l l i n g c a n be c a r r i e d o u t as s h o r t -
t e r m t e s t i n g , l o n g - t e r m t e s t i n g w i t h o u t g e l f i l t e r cake, and l o n g - t e r m t e s t i n g
w i t h gel f i l t e r cake. Long-term proppant s t a b i l i t y l a b o r a t o r y experiments r e -
 59

veal t h a t g e n e r a l l y t h e r e i s a r a p i d c o n d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e d u r i n g t h e f i r s t few
weeks o f measurement i n t e r v a l f o l l o w e d by l i t t l e o r no f u r t h e r d e c l i n e d u r i n g
t h e remainder o f t h e t e s t p e r i o d . The q u i c k decrease i n t h e f i r s t phase i s i n -
t e r p r e t e d as b e i n g t h e e f f e c t o f proppant c o n s o l i d a t i o n , compaction and r e o r i e n -
t a t i o n , whereas t h e slow f u r t h e r d i m i n u t i o n i n t h e second stage i s t h e conse-
quence o f s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n . COBB & FARRELL (1986) r e p o r t a magnitude o f prop-
p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e o f 20 % d u r i n g t h e f i r s t two weeks and l e s s t h a n 5 %
o f a l o n g - t e r m experiment r u n d u r i n g t h e r e m a i n i n g n i n e weeks, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t
s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n and p r e s s u r e d i s s o l u t i o n do n o t s t r o n g l y a f f e c t proppant p e r -
formance a f t e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e package was achieved.

MUCH & PENNY (1987) o u t l i n e t h a t t h e major c o n d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e o f sand du-

r i n g t h e f i r s t 20 h o u r s o f l o n g - t e r m t e s t i n g i s due t o c r u s h i n g and r e a r r a n g e -
ment o f g r a i n s which reduce package p o r o s i t y and r e l e a s e f i n e s t h a t p l u g t h e
pore t h r o a t s i n t h e p r o p p a n t assemblage. The remainder o f t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y de-
c l i n e f r o m 20 hours t e s t i n g t i m e onwards i s p r o b a b l y f i n e s m i g r a t i o n and r e d i s -
t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e proppant assemblage. Proppant pack impairment i s caused by
embedment i n t o t h e f i l t e r cake d e p o s i t e d on t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l and p l u g g i n g o f
t h e package w i t h f o r m a t i o n d e b r i s , proppant c r u s h fragments and s t i m u l a t i o n
f l u i d r e s i d u e s and p r e c i p i t a t e s (ROODHART, KUIPER & D A V I E S 1986; c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 3 . 3 . ) . PARKER & McDANIEL (1987), McDANIEL (1988) and McDANIEL & PARKER (1988)
document t h a t g e l f i l t e r cakes p r e c i p i t a t e d on f r a c t u r e w a l l s p r o b a b l y t r i g g e r
t h e h i g h e s t r e d u c t i o n i n proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y due t o p a r t i c l e embedment and i n -
t e r s t i t i a l p l u g g i n g i n t h e o u t e r l a y e r s o f t h e proppant package w i t h i n t h e
c r a c k ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 . 4 . ) . Some aspects o f g e l r e s i d u e damage, a c i d d i s s o -
l u t i o n , s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n c r a c k i n g ; e f f e c t s o f h i g h temperature, h i g h b r i n e s a t u -
r a t i o n and h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s ; and e f f e c t s o f r e s e r v o i r rock s l a b s and p r o p -
p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s . Emphasis i s a l s o p u t on t h e
impact o f g e l f i l t e r cakes on f r a c t u r e w a l l s .

1.4.10.3.1. Gel residue damage and acid dissolution

Proppant d e g r a d a t i o n as observed i n t h e f i e l d i s m a i n l y i n t e r p r e t e d t o be
t h e consequence o f g e l r e s i d u e damage ( w h i c h can decrease proppant p e r m e a b i l i t y
by 20 - 80 %; K I M & LOSACANO 1985) and s h o r t - t e r m package c o n s o l i d a t i o n which
accounts f o r a b t . 15 - 20 % d e c l i n e . Lower proppant performance l e v e l s than e x -
p e c t e d f r o m l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g can a l s o be t h e i n f l u e n c e o f incomplete s i n t e r -
i n g o f t h e p a r t i c l e s as evidenced by d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e s b e i n g t h e r e s u l t o f m i -
n o r i n t e r n a l a d d i t i o n a l p r o p p a n t p o r o s i t y t h a t cause t h e g r a i n s t o be more sus-
c e p t i b l e t o s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n and p r e s s u r e s o l u t i o n (COBB & FARRELL 1986). Long-
term proppant performance under s i m u l a t e d r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s i s a l s o r e p o r t e d
by MUCH & PENNY (1987) and PENNY ( 1 9 8 7 ) . C r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s l e a v e
much more r e s i d u e than polymer emulsion f l u i d s . While polymer emulsion f l u i d s
p r o v i d e a l o o s e p r o p p a n t package t h a t i s v i r t u a l l y r e s i d u e - f r e e ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . 4 . ) , u s i n g o f c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s produces a p r o p p a n t assemblage i n t h e
c r a c k c o n t a i n i n g a l o t o f f i b r o u s m a t e r i a l between t h e g r a i n s which a r e t h e n
g l u e d t o g e t h e r (DAVIES & KUIPER 1988).

D u r i n g h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandsto-
nes, s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d f i l t r a t e p e n e t r a t e s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n w h i l e a
f i l t e r cake i s d e p o s i t e d on t h e c r a c k f a c e . F l u i d f i l t r a t e i n v a s i o n i n t o pay
zone m a t r i x and m i c r o f i s s u r e s causes impairment o f p e r m e a b i l i t y and gas f l o w
due t o w a t e r b l o c k i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3 . 1 1 . 2 . 4 . 2 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 5 . ) , clay swell-
i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3 . 5 . 2 . and 3 . 1 1 . ) and d i s p e r s i o n o f f i n e s o l i d p a r t i c l e s en-
t r a i n e d i n the f i l t r a t e . Strength reduction o f the r e s e r v o i r rock m a t r i x f a b r i c
a d j a c e n t t o t h e crack f a c e may i n i t i a t e c o l l a p s e and/or p l u g g i n g o f t h e f r a c -
t u r e w a l l . F i l t e r cake a c c u m u l a t i o n g i v e s r i s e t o p r o p p a n t embedment i n t o t h e
draped b o r e h o l e w a l l , and d i s p e r s i o n o f f i n e g e l r e s i d u e causes p l u g g i n g o f t h e
pore space o f t h e proppant package i n t h e c r a c k . Proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y i m p a i r -
ment can be provoked by mechanical d e b r i s from t h e c o l l a p s e d f r a c t u r e w a l l ,
f i n e fragments f r o m crushed proppant g r a i n s , and p r e c i p i t a t e s f r o m t h e t r e a t -
 60

ment f l u i d (ROODHART, K U I P E R & DAVIES 1 9 8 6 ) . GALL & RAIBLE ( 1 9 8 5 ) r e p o r t on mo-

l e c u l a r s i z e s t u d i e s o f d e g r a d e d s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d p o l y m e r s , and GHAZALI & WILL-
HITE ( 1 9 8 5 ) comment on p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n i n p r o p p a n t packages u s i n g a l u m i -
num c i t r a t e l p o l y m e r o p e r a t i o n s .

V a r i o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f HCl/HF a c i d c a n d i s s o l v e s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f
t h e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s w h i c h a l s o s e r i o u s l y i m p a i r s c o n d u c t i v i t y (CHEUNG 1985; c f .
s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 1 . and 4 . 5 . 5 . ) . H i g h l y - s i l i c e o u s p r o p p a n t t y p e s a l s o s e v e r e l y de-
g r a d e i n b r i n e s a t e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s . Mechanism and t e m p e r a t u r e o f p o l y m e r
b r e a k i n g have a l s o an i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e on p r o p p a n t pack f l o w i m p a i r m e n t ,
w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s o f d e g r e e o f damage e x i s t i n g f o r v a r i o u s base f l u i d s (ALMOND &
BLAND 1 9 8 4 ) .

1.4.10.3.2. Stress corrosion cracking

A s i g n i f i c a n t aspect f o r explanation o f t h e environment-sensitive behaviour
o f p r o p p a n t s i s s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n c r a c k i n g w h i c h o c c u r s i n c a s e o f c o n t a c t o f wa-
t e r o r b r i n e w i t h c r y s t a l l i n e o r amorphous s o l i d s ( H I L L I G & CHARLES 1965, W I E -
DERHORN & BOLZ 1970, COOKE 1973; CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & CARROLL 1983; CUTLER,
ENNISS, JONES & SWANSDN 1 9 8 5 ) . Water p r o m o t e s s a n d s t o n e f r a c t u r i n g o n l y a t e l e -
vated temperatures, and t h e d r i e r t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e h i g h e r t h e m a t e r i a l
s t r e n g t h . The e a r l i e r c o n d u c t i v i t y d e c r e a s e i n w a t e r as compared t o n i t r o g e n i n
p r o p p a n t t e s t i n g r e f l e c t s t h a t p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e s o f s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n c r a c k s de-
pend on t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p , w i t h h i g h e r w a t e r v a p o u r c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s i n c r e a s i n g c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e . Some a s p e c t s o f p r o p p a n t s e n s i t i v i t y t o
aqueous s o l u t i o n s and g r a i n weakening b y s t r e s s - i n t e n s i f i e d c o r r o s i o n a r e o u t l i -
ned as f o l l o w s .

1.4.10.3.2.1.Proppant sensitivity to aqueous solutions

P r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y t e s t i n g s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be c a r r i e d o u t i n aqueous en-
v i r o n m e n t s i n c e t h i s r e p r e s e n t s a w o r s t p o s s i b l e c a s e s i t u a t i o n (CUTLER, EN-
NISS, JONES & CARROLL 1983; CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON 1 9 8 5 ) . W h i l e s i n t e -
r e d b a u x i t e c o n s i s t i n g a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y o f corundum i s i n s e n s i t i v e t o aqueous
s o l u t i o n s , m u l l i t e which i s t h e main c o n s t i t u e n t o f alumina s i l i c a t e proppants
and an i m p o r t a n t component o f a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e and o x i d e p r o p p a n t s ( c f . t a b . 2 )
i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n c r a c k i n g . Proppant placement w i t h i n t h e f r a c -
t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s h o u l d be p r e f e r e n t i a l l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h h i g h - q u a l i t y foamed
o r e n e r g i z e d f l u i d s i n o r d e r t o r e s t r i c t c o n t a c t o f p r o p p a n t s and aqueous phase
t o a minimum b y g u a r a n t e e i n g i m m e d i a t e i n v a s i o n o f t h e p r o p p a n t package by f o r -
m a t i o n gas f o l l o w i n g q u i c k w e l l c l e a n u p due t o t h e e x c e l l e n t f l o w b a c k p r o p e r -
t i e s o f foamed o r e n e r g i z e d f l u i d s as a consequence o f gas d r i v e ( c f . s e c t i o n
3.11.2.1.

1.4.10.3.2.2.Grain weakening by stress-intensified corrosion

When p r o p p a n t s a r e h e l d a t e l e v a t e d c l o s u r e s t r e s s and t e m p e r a t u r e f o r l o n -
g e r t i m e , t h e d e g r e e o f c r u s h i n g i s i n c r e a s e d by s t r e s s - i n t e n s i f i e d corrosion
w h i c h weakens t h e g r a i n s (McDANIEL 1 9 8 7 ) . As w i t h m o s t c o r r o s i o n mechanisms, i n -
creased temperature environments r e s u l t i n t h e most s t r e s s - i n t e n s i f i e d c o r r o -
s i o n e f f e c t . Chemical c o m p o s i t i o n , c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e and p r e s e n c e o f s u r f a c e
f l a w s a r e t h e p r i m a r y f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e degree o f a d d i t i o n a l c r u s h i n g r e -
s u l t i n g f r o m s t r e s s - i n t e n s i f i e d c o r r o s i o n a t a g i v e n c l o s u r e s t r e s s and t e m p e r a -
t u r e . E x p e r i m e n t a l work r e v e a l s d i f f e r e n t p e r m e a b i l i t i e s o f p r o p p a n t packages
i n d i f f e r e n t f l u i d s and a t d i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e r e f o r e p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i -
v i t y t e s t i n g c a n o n l y a p p r o a c h t h e r e a l i t y downhole i f c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r r e s e r -
v o i r t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e and f l u i d c o n d i t i o n s (COOKE 1 9 7 3 ) .
 61

1.4.10.3.3. Effects of high temperature,

high brine saturation and high closure stress
McDANIEL (1986) summarizes r e s e a r c h on i n f l u e n c e o f extended t i m e a t d i f f e -
r e n t t e s t c o n d i t i o n s , v a r i a t i o n between ambient and e l e v a t e d temperature, and
e f f e c t s o f b r i n e f l o w a t h i g h temperature and c l o s u r e s t r e s s on p r o p p a n t conduc-
t i v i t y d e c l i n e . While c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o p p a n t t e s t i n g showed t h a t c r u s h i n g , embed-
ment and p l u g g i n g by f i n e s o l i d p a r t i c l e s a r e c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i n - s i t u f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y l o s s , h i g h temperature coupled w i t h h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s and h i g h
b r i n e s a t u r a t i o n s has been p r o v e n t o have more damaging e f f e c t s on l o n g - t e r m
p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y t h a n a l l t h e combined f e a t u r e s p r e v i o u s l y mentioned toge-
ther. D r a s t i c a l proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y differences are obtained from long-term
h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e t e s t s and s h o r t - t e r m ambient-temperature experiments (COOKE
1973, McDANIEL 1987), w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower proppant c o n d u c t i v i t i e s h a v i n g
been measured under r e a l i s t i c r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s t h a n r e p o r t e d f o r e a r l i e r
s h o r t - t e r m t e s t i n g (OAVIES & KUIPER 1988). The f o l l o w i n g o v e r v i e w focusses on
s i l i c a s a t u r a t i o n and oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n as w e l l as on r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n
spectrum approach.

1.4.10.3.3 .l. Silica saturation

I m p o r t a n t parameters o f p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y t e s t i n g a r e a l s o oxygen con-
t e n t and p r e - t e s t s i l i c a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e f l u i d (McDANIEL 1986). A t a con-
stant closure stress level, conductivity i s i r r e v e r s i b l y declining w i t h r i s i n g
temperature and i s n o t r e c o v e r e d by subsequent c o o l i n g down. C l o s u r e s t r e s s i n -
creases t h e adverse e f f e c t s o f temperature and water-based f l u i d s i n many p r o p -
p a n t s . I n a c t u a l downhole f r a c t u r e c o n d i t i o n s i n a sandstone r e s e r v o i r , any
w a t e r p r e s e n t would be s a t u r a t e d w i t h s i l i c a due t o exposure t o t h e v a s t
amount o f s i l i c a t e s u r f a c e s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l e a c h i n g t o
the l i m i t o f uptake capacity o f the f l u i d .

I f a s i l i c a - s a t u r a t e d t e s t f l u i d i s used ( c f . a l s o MUCH & PENNY 1987), many

o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d c a t a s t r o p h i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y l o s s e s o f proppants and
sand cannot be reproduced. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e b r i n e used i n f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d s c o n t a i n s no s i l i c a o r alumina, w h i l e t h e b r i n e produced f r o m a sandstone
f o r m a t i o n w i l l be s i l i c a - and p r o b a b l y a l s o a l u m i n a - s a t u r a t e d . Recommendation
can t h e r e f o r e be made t h a t a r e a l i s t i c c o n d u c t i v i t y t e s t would i n c o r p o r a t e a s i -
l i c a / a l u m i n a - f r e e b r i n e i n t h e e a r l y stage which i s t h e n f o l l o w e d by a s i l i c a /
a l u m i n a - s a t u r a t e d b r i n e i n t h e l a t e r phases, because t h e o r i g i n a l f l o w i n g me-
dium i n t h e r e s e r v o i r i s s w i t c h i n g o v e r t o a silica/alumina-saturated b r i n e
a f t e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e (MUCH 1987).

1.4.10.3.3.2. Oxygen concentration

The oxygen l e v e l has t o be e x t r e m e l y lowered b e f o r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t e s t r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d , w i t h r e s i n - c o a t e d sand b e i n g no l o n g e r d i s c o l o u -
r e d o r blackened and t h e frequency o f plumbing leakage b e i n g d r a s t i c a l l y redu-
ced. I n c o n t r a s t t o h a s t e l l o y , s t a i n l e s s s t e e l t e s t c e l l s c o r r o d e when exposed
t o heated b r i n e t h a t c o n t a i n s oxygen, and t h e r e f o r e a b s o l u t e l y minimal amounts
o f oxygen a r e e s s e n t i a l (MUCH 1987), w i t h even t r a c e q u a n t i t i e s o f oxygen c r e a -
t i n g m i n u t e c o r r o s i o n o f t h e s t a i n l e s s s t e e l c e l l which can provoke d r a m a t i c a l
proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e by p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f c o r r o s i o n p r o d u c t s w i t h i n t h e
proppant package. F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s c a r r y i n g t h e proppants, however, a r e o f t e n
s u p e r s a t u r a t e d w i t h oxygen because o f t h e method o f b l e n d i n g and p r o p p a n t a d d i -
t i o n , w h i l e i t i s assumed t h a t hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r s c o n t a i n no oxygen.

Accurate m o d e l l i n g of a s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t i n a t e s t c e l l t h e r e f o r e r e q u i -
r e s heated b r i n e c o n t a i n i n g oxygen as t h e i n i t i a l f l o w i n g medium which e x c l u d e s
use o f s t a i n l e s s s t e e l c e l l s . L a t e r t h e f l o w medium s h o u l d be reduced t o z e r o
 62

oxygen brine after some finite amount of time which would model returned frac-
turing fluid and formation brine after the oxygen in the solution has reacted
with the fracturing gels (oxidizers are commonly added as gel breakers). Thus
both oxygen and silica/alumina saturation have to be changed throughout the ex-
periment, with oxygen and silica/alumina concentrations having to be reduced
and increased, respectively, during progression of the test and therefore have
an inverse correlation.
The oxygen-richloxygen-free brine is a very important consideration when eva-
luating resin-coated proppants which are susceptible to oxidation giving quite
different performance results in oxygen-free as opposed to oxygen-rich brines.
Hastelloy cells are the ultimate choice for testing proppants containing dissol-
ved oxygen, because hastelloy is almost inert in an oxygen-containing brine as
long as fluid pH is controlled. CALLANAN, CIPOLLA & LEWIS (1983) document that
exposure to hot brines can reduce proppant conductivity to 5 0 - 75 % . The expo-
sition to hot brine can cause a two- to three-fold permeability reduction in
sand and bauxite proppant packs (COOKE 1973). McDANIEL (1987) concludes that in-
creased temperature environments result in the most stress-intensified corro-
sion effect which weakens the proppant grains and increases the degree of crush-
ing.

1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 3 . 3 . Reservoir condition spectrum approach

McDANIEL (1988) performs proppant conductivity testing under the hitherto
broadest and most complete set of environmental conditions approaching in-situ
reservoir situation as closely as possible, including downhole temperature, ex-
tended test time, core slabs and wafers as cell limitations, gel residue in the
proppant pack, gel filter cakes from dynamic fluid loss tests on the simulated
crack walls, fracture fluid clean-up period, wet gas as flowing medium, varying
closure stresses, and non-Darcy flow effects. Considering the whole suite of pa-
rameters, the test results allow more accurately modelling of fracturing treat-
ments within a design simulator and better predicting of post-fracturing produc-
tion using a reservoir simulator.

1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 4 . Effects of pay rock slabs and proppant concentration

The traditional conductivity vs. stress evaluation can overestimate proppant
performance under downhole conditions (MUCH & PENNY 1987). Conductivity at
stress vs. time at temperature provides more meaiiingful data for estimating
well performance. Bulk density and porosity values of proppants assessed over
time at closure stress give more accurate information than those at no stress
and zero elapsed time. Some aspects of wall slip and metal piston vs. filter
cake and core slab as well as fracture porosimetry as evaluated as follows.

1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 4 . 1 . Wall slip and metal piston

vs. filter cake and core slab
Proppant assessment using hard metal pistons as test cell boundaries may in-
troduce a variable wall slip that can cause measured proppant assemblage conduc-
tivity to be greater than absolute proppant package conductivity, whereas if
performing experiments with medium-hard sandstone core slabs, proppant embed-
ment becomes a significant factor when exceeding 8,000 psi closure stress and
reduces the amount of wallslip (cf. sections 1.4.10.3.4.1. and 4.3.4.1.4.). Fil-
ter cakes deposited on the fracture walls when crosslinked polymer-gelled
fluids leak off into the reservoir formation can reduce proppant package conduc-
tivity at 2 lbs/ft2 (10 kg/m2) concentration by up to 50 %, with filter cake ac-
cumulation and subsequent proppant embedment decreasing effective width of the
supporting material package regardless of proppant type. The various tests have
shown that regardless of the environmental setting, ceramic intermediate-
 63

s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s can p r o v i d e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s which a r e o v e r 1000 % g r e a t e r

t h a n those o f sand a t equal p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s and c l o s u r e s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s .

The p r o p p a n t g r a i n s which a r e i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e experiment c e l l f a c e o r

p l a t e n a r e under g r e a t e s t s t r e s s d u r i n g t h e t e s t , because each bead has fewer
c o n t a c t p o i n t s w i t h o t h e r spheres t h a n those f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e p l a t e n s u r -
f a c e and toward t h e f r a c t u r e c e n t e r t h a t have more c o n t a c t p o i n t s amongst t h e i r
neighbours depending on t h e i r random manner o f p a c k i n g (MESSINA 1987). I n s t e e l
experiment c e l l s , embedment i n t o t h e p l a t e n i n o r d e r t o r e l e a s e s t r e s s i s n o t
p o s s i b l e and t h e r e f o r e s t r e s s e q u a l i z a t i o n f i n a l l y t a k e s p l a c e by g r a i n c r u s h -
i n g , whereas c o r e s l a b s as bounding f a c e s o f t h e t e s t c e l l a l l o w embedment o f
p r o p p a n t g r a i n s and t h u s reduce t h e amount o f p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g .

1.4.10.3.4.2. Fracture porosimetry

WENDORFF (1982) i n t r o d u c e s t h e f r a c t u r e p o r o s i m e t e r f o r f a s t and s i m p l i f i e d
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y a t downhole s t r e s s e s . P e r m e a b i l i t y , p o r o s i -
t y and w i d t h o f t h e f r a c t u r e depend on t y p e and amount o f p r o p p a n t s and magni-
tude o f a p p l i e d s t r e s s and a r e measured between samples o f r e s e r v o i r r o c k t o
p r o v i d e a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n on c r u s h i n g and embedment. As c l o s u r e s t r e s s r i -
ses, s u r f a c e area i n c r e a s e s , b u t n o t n e a r l y as much as p e r m e a b i l i t i e s d i m i -
n u i s h . F r a c t u r e p o r o s i t y decreases as l o a d i s a p p l i e d because p r o p p a n t g r a i n s
c r u s h and embed i n t h e r o c k m a t r i x . I n competent rock, p r o p p a n t p o r o s i t y i s
u s u a l l y reduced by c r u s h i n g , whereas i n s o f t f o r m a t i o n s , proppant embedment
coupled w i t h proppant c r u s h i n g r e s u l t s i n v e r y low f r a c t u r e p o r o s i t y . I n most
propped f r a c t u r e s , b o t h embedment and c r u s h i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 . ) o c c u r and
t h e r e s u l t i n g p o r o s i t y i s a measure o f t h e combined e f f e c t .

1.4.10.3.5. Gel f i l t e r cake on f r a c t u r e w a l l

PARKER & McDANIEL (1987), McDANIEL (1988) and McDANIEL & PARKER (1988) docu-
ment t h e e f f e c t o f t h e g e l f i l t e r cake b e i n g d e p o s i t e d on t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s as
t h e f l u i d l e a k s o f f i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n on c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t package
w i t h i n t h e c r a c k . The main impacts o f t h e g e l f i l t e r cake on t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l
a r e proppant embedment and r e d u c t i o n o f e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e w i d t h as w e l l as
p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y damage by f i l t e r - c a k e b u i l d u p . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d
on proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n and f l u i d t y p e as w e l l as on removal o f g e l f i l t e r
cake by combined f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e and g e l b r e a k e r . A b r i e f comparison o f g e l
f i l t e r cakes i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s a l s o p r o v i d e d .

1.4.10.3.5.1, Proppant embedment

Dynamic f l u i d l o s s t e s t s i n d i c a t e t h a t i n many cases, average f i l t e r cake
t h i c k n e s s e s can be v e r y c l o s e t o proppant g r a i n s i z e f o r 20/40 mesh p a r t i c l e s
(PARKER & McDANIEL 1987, McDANIEL 1988). Thus t h e r e i s a p o t e n t i a l t o f i l l t h e
proppant p o r o s i t y w i t h f i l t e r cake and l o o s e t h e f l o w along t h e w a l l o f b o t h
f r a c t u r e f a c e s and f o r a depth o f one o r more p r o p p a n t g r a i n s on each s i d e o f
t h e c r a c k . As proppants embed i n t o t h e f i l t e r cake when t h e f r a c t u r e i s c l o -
s i n g , t h e y may d i s p l a c e p a r t s o f t h e t h i c k g e l r e s i d u e towards t h e c e n t e r o f
t h e p r o p p a n t package w i t h i n t h e c r a c k . T h i s embedment, d e f o r m a t i o n and d i s p e r -
s i o n o f t h e g e l f i l t e r cake s e r i o u s l y d e t e r i o r a t e s proppant p e r m e a b i l i t y and
thus f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y .

Experimental work has shown t h a t c o n d u c t i v i t y d i m i n u t i o n i s l e a s t w i t h t h e

base g e l a l o n e . F u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n i s observed w i t h a d d i t i o n o f l i q u i d h y d r o c a r -
bon phase f o r f l u i d loss c o n t r o l , and t h e most severe d e c l i n e occurs when u s i n g
a s o l i d p a r t i c u l a t e f l u i d l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e . Wet g e l f i l t e r cakes provoke d r a s t i -
Cal r e d u c t i o n s i n p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y even a t low c l o s u r e s t r e s s l e v e l s . The
t e s t r e s u l t s f o r Ottawa Sand r e v e a l t h a t t h e range o f c l o s u r e s t r e s s f o r t h e ap-
 64

p l i c a t i o n o f n a t u r a l sand i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d f o r many
f r a c t u r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s , w i t h t h e use o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants b e i n g
a l r e a d y n e c e s s a r y f r o m c l o s u r e s t r e s s v a l u e s o f 4,000 p s i onwards (McDANIEL &
PARKER 1 9 8 8 ) .

1.4.10.3.5.2.Reduction of effective fracture width

MUCH & PENNY ( 1 9 8 7 ) document t h a t t h e m a i n mechanism o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i -
t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n i s r e d u c t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e w i d t h o f t h e p r o p p a n t package b y
f o r m a t i o n o f a f i l t e r c a k e c o v e r i n g t h e c r a c k w a l l s and embedment o f t h e o u t e r
l a y e r s o f t h e p r o p p a n t wedge i n t o t h e f i l t e r c a k e d r a p e . T e s t i n g w i t h r e s e r v o i r
c o r e s l a b s p r o v i d e s more r e a l i s t i c c o n d i t i o n s b y a l l o w i n g f l u i d l e a k o f f and c o n -
s e q u e n t l y o r i g i n o f a f i l t e r cake, whereas p r o p p a n t e v a l u a t i o n u s i n g h a r d m e t a l
p i s t o n s i n t r o d u c e a w a l l s l i p v a r i a b l e t h a t causes t h e measured p r o p p a n t conduc-
t , v i t y t o be g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e f o r t h e r e a s o n o f s u p p r e s s i o n o f
f i l t e r c a k e d e v e l o p m e n t (MUCH & PENNY 1 9 8 7 ) . W a l l s l i p e f f e c t s i n s t e a d y s h e a r
v i s c o s i t y measurements o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e a l s o d e s c r i b e d b y
GUILLOT & OUNANO ( 1 9 8 3 ) and KNOLL ( 1 9 8 5 ) . F i l t e r c a k e d e p o s i t i o n and p r o p p a n t
embedment r e d u c e t h e e f f e c t i v e w i d t h o f t h e p r o p p a n t package r e g a r d l e s s o f p r o p -
p a n t t y p e ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 1.4.10.3.4.1. and 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 . 4 . ) .

A d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t s a r e generated by d i s p e r s i o n o f f i n e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e -
s i d u e i n t h e p r o p p a n t package and non-Oarcy f l o w ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 3 . ) i n the
r e s t r i c t e d p o r e space, as w e l l as w a t e r b l o c k i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3 . 1 1 . 2 . 4 . 2 . and
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 5 . ) and c l a y s w e l l i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3 . 5 . 2 . and 3 . 1 1 . 1 . ) i n t h e r e s e r -
v o i r f o r m a t i o n a d j o i n i n g t o t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s (ROOOHART, K U I P E R & DAVIES
1 9 8 6 ) . I n t e r m s o f r e l a t i v e d e t e r i o r a t i o n e f f e c t , c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s show t h e
h i g h e s t i m p a i r m e n t because o f f o r m a t i o n o f v e r y t h i c k f i l t e r cakes, and b a t c h -
m i x e d g e l l e d o i l s e x h i b i t h i g h e r d e l e t e r i o u s i m p a c t t h a n compared w i t h o n - t h e -
f l y m i x e d s y s t e m s . The l e a s t damaging f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d a p p e a r s t o be t h e p o l y -
mer e m u l s i o n s y s t e m (ROODHART, KUIPER & OAVIES 1 9 8 6 ) . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f non-
Oarcy f l o w e f f e c t s o n t h e a c c u r a c y o f p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y m o d e l l i n g i s a l s o
emphasized b y COOKE ( 1 9 7 3 ) ; EVANS, HUDSON & GREENLEE ( 1 9 8 5 ) ; EVANS & EVANS
( 1 9 8 6 ) ; MALONEY, GALL & RAIBLE ( 1 9 8 7 ) and McDANIEL ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

1.4.10.3.5.3.Proppant permeability damage by filtercake buildup

The f i l t e r c a k e f o r m i n g on t h e c r a c k w a l l s upon l e a k o f f o f h i g h - p r e s s u r e
f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d c o n s i s t s m a i n l y o f p o l y m e r and f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s (DAVIES &
KUIPER 1 9 8 8 ) . F i l t e r - c a k e t h i c k n e s s i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e p a r t i c u l a r s t i m u l a t i o n
f l u i d used, f o r m a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f r a c t u r e - t o - r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n -
ce, and e r o s i o n a l e f f e c t s caused b y s l u r r y b e i n g pumped a l i l n g t h e c r a c k f a c e s .
D u r i n g f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e , p r o p p a n t s a r e embedded i n t o t h e f i l t e r cake, m a k i n g i t
d i f f i c u l t t o remove t h e c r a c k w a l l d r a p e d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n . W h i l e c r o s s l i n k e d
f l u i d s w i t h d i e s e l as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s g e n e r a t e t h i c k f i l t e r c a k e s w h i c h
can a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y b l o c k t h i n f r a c t u r e s , p o l y m e r e m u l s i o n f l u i d s do n o t g i v e
significant filter-cake buildup ( c f . section 4.3.4.6.).

As p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y damage b y c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s s u b s t a n t i a l l y depends
on f i l t e r - c a k e b u i l d u p , m i n i m i z a t i o n o f t h e phenomenon c a n be a c h i e v e d b y u s i n g
an e f f e c t i v e v i s c o s i t y b r e a k e r w h i c h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n e c e s s a r y i n l o w - t e m p e r a -
t u r e shallow formations. While inadequate breakers l e a d t o v i r t u a l l y complete
l o s s o f p r o p p a n t pack c o n d u c t i v i t y , a g g r e s s i v e b r e a k e r s c h e d u l e s on t h e o t h e r
hand c a n p r o v i d e h i g h r e t e n t i o n f a c t o r s i n e x c e s s o f 8 0 %, b u t c a n a l s o g i v e
r i s e t o excessive proppant s e t t l i n g i n the f r a c t u r e before closure, w i t h there-
f o r e a proper balance being required.
 65

1.4.10.3.5.4. Proppant concentration and fluid type

Proppant s a t u r a t i o n has a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on r e m a i n i n g f r a c t u r e conduc-
t i v i t y i n t h e presence o f a g e l f i l t e r cake (PARKER & McDANIEL 1987). Low p r o p -
p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s accentuate p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n caused by t h e g e l fil-
t e r cake, and t h e r e f o r e h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s a r e e s s e n t i a l t o achieve t h e
d e s i r e d f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . I n t h e presence o f g e l f i l t e r cakes, t h e permea-
b i l i t y o f a propped c r a c k i s n o t c o n s t a n t , and d e s i g n s i m u l a t i o n s s h o u l d be a l -
t e r e d t o a l l o w i n p u t o f c o n d u c t i v i t y d a t a as a f u n c t i o n o f p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n (McDANIEL & PARKER 1988) and t h u s v a r i a b l e c o n d u c t i v i t y f r o m a maximum a t
t h e f r a c t u r e mouth t o a minimum a t t h e c r a c k t i p . Gel f i l t e r cakes cause even
l o w e r c o n d u c t i v i t y t h a n t h a t measured i n l o n g - t e r m t e s t s w i t h o u t f i l t e r cakes
( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 . 4 . ) . D i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s f o r m f i l t e r ca-
kes t h a t r e s u l t i n v a r y i n g degrees o f damage t o proppant bed c o n d u c t i v i t y . H i g h
r e s e r v o i r temperatures may a c t u a l l y l e s s e n t h e s i n g u l a r e f f e c t o f g e l f i l t e r ca-
kes due t o more d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e g e l r e s i d u e .

Another v a r i a b l e i s t h e t y p e o f f i l t e r cake p r e s e n t i n t h e p r o p p a n t pack

w i t h f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s c r e a t i n g a t h i n n e r f i l t e r cake on t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l
as a consequence o f r e t a r d e d f l u i d l e a k o f f and t h u s d i m i n i s h e d s o l i d agent se-
g r e g a t i o n and d e p o s i t i o n . Less f l u i d l e a k o f f which means l e s s g e l l i n g agent i n
t h e f i l t e r cake w i l l n o r m a l l y g i v e r i s e t o l e s s p r o p p a n t bed damage. The degree
o f g e l d e g r a d a t i o n i n t h e f i l t e r cake i s a l s o o f c o n s i d e r a b l e importance. The
r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d i e s o f McDANIEL (1986, 1987, 1988), PARKER & McDANIEL (1987)
and McDANIEL & PARKER (1988) t h u s c l e a r l y show t h a t time, temperature, s t r e s s
and presence o f g e l f i l t e r cakes a r e a l l i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g c r a c k
c o n d u c t i v i t y . Another v a r i a b l e a f f e c t i n g proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y i s t h e number o f
phases p r e s e n t . While p r o p p a n t package c o n d u c t i v i t y i s n o r m a l l y measured w i t h
s i n g l e - p h a s e f l o w , a d d i t i o n o f a second o r t h i r d phase reduces e f f e c t i v e
p r o p p a n t assemblage p e r m e a b i l i t y t o t h e o r i g i n a l phase s i g n i f i c a n t l y (DAVIES &
KUIPER 1988).

1.4.10.3.5.5. Gel filter cakes in fracturing and gravel packing

A comparable phenomenon t o g e l f i l t e r cakes o r i g i n a t i n g on f o r m a t i o n s u r f a -
ces a t f r a c t u r e w a l l s a r e g e l c o v e r s c r e a t e d on t h e r e s e r v o i r f a c e d u r i n g g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g as a consequence o f f l u i d l e a k o f f and f i l t r a t i o n (TORREST & MARCANO
1986). These g e l covers can r a p i d l y b u i l d up a l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y drape t h a t domi-
n a t e s system b e h a v i o u r and i n h i b i t s f u r t h e r f l u i d l o s s o f t h e g r a v e l c a r r i e r
t h e r e b y d e t e r i o r a t i n g g r a v e l placement and p r e s s u r e response. The l a y e r b u i l d -
up f r o m c o n c e n t r a t e d s o l u t i o n s would a l s o t e n d t o g i v e f a l s e s i g n a l s o f j o b com-
p l e t i o n s as pumping p r e s s u r e s r i s e r a p i d l y . Reduced g r a v e l pack q u a l i t y and p e r -
formance c o u l d r e s u l t f r o m f a i l u r e t o account f o r t h e e f f e c t o f s u r f a c e g e l f i l -
t r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 . 4 . and 5 . 3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) .

1.4.10.3.5.6. Removal of gel filter cake by

combined f luid-loss additive and gel breaker
CANTU & BOYD (1988) p r e s e n t an o r g a n i c a c i d p o l y c o n d e n s a t i o n p r o d u c t b e i n g a
p o l y e s t e r which a c t s as combined f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e and g e l b r e a k e r and t h a t
has t h e advantage t o d i s i n t e g r a t e i n t o s o l u b l e monomers a t r e s e r v o i r tempera-
t u r e a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t , t h e r e b y s e c o n d a r i l y remo-
v i n g t h e f i l t e r cake which has been p r i m a r i l y d e p o s i t e d on t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s
and f i n a l l y l e a v i n g no s u b s t r a t e f o r p r o p p a n t embedment t h u s m a x i m i z i n g f r a c -
t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . Upon thermal d e g r a d a t i o n t o s o l u b l e monomers, t h e o r g a n i c
e s t e r exposes i n c r e a s i n g a c i d f u n c t i o n a l groups which break t h e c r o s s l i n k e d
and/or l i n e a r f r a c t u r i n g g e l used as s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d as a consequence o f de-
c r e a s i n g pH ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . 4 . ) .
 66
The e x c e l l e n t c l e a n u p o f t h e f i l t e r c a k e w i t h no r e m a i n i n g r e s i d u e i s s u p p o r -
t e d b y t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e p o l y e s t e r p a r t i c u l a t e s on t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l i n
c o n t r a s t t o conventional water-soluble breakers which leak o f f i n t o t h e reser-
v o i r f o r m a t i o n . The p a r t i c u l a t e p o l y e s t e r has a f l u i d - l o s s a g e n t p e r f o r m a n c e a t
l e a s t as good as t h a t o f s i l i c a f l o u r ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . 2 . ) i n crosslinked
and l i n e a r g e l s as w e l l as i n n i t r o g e n foam, and i t s d e c i s i v e a d v a n t a g e w i t h r e -
s p e c t t o c l a s s i c a l two- o r m u l t i c o m p o n e n t f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e / g e l b r e a k e r s y s -
tems i s t h a t t h e p o l y e s t e r i s o n l y one a g e n t w i t h a d o u b l e f u n c t i o n , w i t h t h e
two s u c c e s s i v e t a s k s b e i n g f u l f i l l e d w h i l e c h a n g i n g f r o m s o l i d p o l y e s t e r t o s o -
l u b l e m o n o e s t e r upon t h e r m a l a n d / o r c h e m i c a l d e g r a d a t i o n and t h u s l e a v i n g n o
p a r t i c u l a t e residues t h a t could impair proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y ( c f . a l s o sections
4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . 4 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . 5 . ) .

1.4.10.3.6. Gelling agent concentration

Proppant-pack p e r m e a b i l i t y i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y impaired by t h e f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d , w i t h damage d e g r e e i n c r e a s i n g w i t h r i s i n g g e l l i n g a g e n t s a t u r a t i o n (HAW-
KINS 1 9 8 8 ) . I n many h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s , t h e g e l l i n g a g e n t i s o f t e n
c o n c e n t r a t e d o v e r t e n - f o l d upon c r a c k c l o s u r e . L a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s i n v e s t i g a t i n g
g e l l i n g a g e n t s a t u r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e p r o p p a n t package, p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,
c l o s u r e s t r e s s , s h u t - i n t i m e , and d i s p l a c e m e n t f l u i d and i t s f l o w r a t e r e v e a l
t h a t even a t r e l a t i v e l y l o w g e l l i n g a g e n t s a t u r a t i o n s , s i g n i f i c a n t proppant
package p e r m e a b i l i t y i m p a i r m e n t o c c u r s . As h i g h d i s p l a c e m e n t r a t e s d u r i n g w e l l
f l o w b a c k o n l y m a r g i n a l l y remove t h e damage, h i g h b r e a k e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e n e -
cessary t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduce p e r m e a b i l i t y impairment. F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n
o f some g e n e r a l a s p e c t s , an o u t l i n e i s g i v e n on c l e a n u p f l o w r a t e and c l o s u r e
s t r e s s as w e l l as p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e and b r e a k e r s a t u r a t i o n . Comments a r e a l s o
o f f e r e d on h y d r o c a r b o n - b a s e d c l e a n u p f l u i d s f o r p r o p p a n t package p e r m e a b i l i t y
improvement.

1.4.10.3.6.1.General aspects
P a r a m e t e r s a f f e c t i n g p r o p p a n t package p e r m e a b i l i t y have t o be d i v i d e d i n t o
p a r a m e t e r s o p e r a t i v e u n d e r a l l c o n d i t i o n s and s u c h a p p l y i n g o n l y when g e l l i n g
a g e n t s a r e p r e s e n t (HAWKINS 1 9 8 8 ) . A d d i t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s t o t h e p r o p -
p a n t package g r e a t l y c o m p l i c a t e s b o t h e x p e r i m e n t s and a n a l y s i s o f r e s u l t s . F a c -
t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n a r e g d l i n g a g e n t t y p e and c o n -
c e n t r a t i o n , t y p e and s t a b i l i t y o f c r o s s l i n k e r , and b r e a k e r c o n t e n t . O t h e r i m p o r -
t a n t g e l l i n g a g e n t p r o p e r t i e s a r e m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t / s i z e and r e s i d u e volume
a f t e r a c t i o n o f a given f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d breaker o r thermal degradation.

F o r m a t i o n o f an i m m o b i l e r e s i d u e a r i s i n g f r o m i n c r e a s i n g g e l l i n g a g e n t s a t u -
r a t i o n due t o f l u i d l o s s and c r a c k c l o s u r e a n d / o r as t h e r e s u l t o f b r e a k i n g me-
chanisms i s a m a j o r s o u r c e o f p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n . As p o l y m e r i c g e l l i n g
a g e n t s w h i c h a r e n o t d e g r a d e d t o s m a l l m o l e c u l a r s i z e do n o t p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e
m a t r i x o f formations which are t y p i c a l l y candidates f o r f r a c t u r i n g treatments,
t h e g e l l i n g a g e n t i s c o n c e n t r a t e d due t o f l u i d l e a k o f f d u r i n g pumping and f r a c -
t u r e c l o s u r e and a c c u m u l a t e s w i t h i n t h e p r o p p a n t package w i t h a p p r e c i a b l e r i g i -
d i t y . F u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n s may a r i s e due t o f o r m a t i o n o f r e s i d u e s as t h e r e -
s u l t o f chemical o r thermal breaking processes.

1.4.10.3.6.2.Cleanup flow rate and closure stress

C o n c e r n i n g c l e a n u p f l o w r a t e , an i n c r e a s e e v e n o v e r a t w e l v e - f o l d span h a s
l i t t l e e f f e c t on f i n a l s t e a d y - s t a t e p e r m e a b i l i t y o r c l e a n u p r a p i d i t y (HAWKINS
1 9 8 8 ) . H i g h e r f l o w r a t e s e v e n t e n d t o r e s u l t i n somewhat l o w e r p e r m e a b i l i t y r e -
covery, w i t h thus e v i d e n t l y n o t d i s l o d g i n g r e s t r i c t i n g species. Over t h e range
o f 140 - 200 OF ( t h u s b e l o w o n s e t o f t h e r m a l f l u i d d e g r a d a t i o n ) , temperature
has o n l y a m i n o r e f f e c t on f i n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y o r p e r m e a b i l i t y r e c o v e r y o f p r o p -
 67

p a n t packages c o n t a i n i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s w i t h o u t b r e a k e r s , and
p e r m e a b i l i t y values a r e o n l y s l i g h t l y improved a f t e r h i g h cleanup f l o w r a t e s .
W i t h i n c r e a s i n g s h u t - i n t i m e a t temperature and under c l o s u r e s t r e s s , b o t h f i -
n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y r e c o v e r y o f t h e proppant package decrease d r a -
m a t i c a l l y . T h e r e f o r e a minimal s h u t - i n t i m e i s maximizing p r o p p a n t package p e r -
meabi 1 it y .

I n c r e a s i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s a l s o s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduces p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e
proppant assemblage c o n t a i n i n g f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d a l t h o u g h no unusual f l o w p a t -
t e r n i s p r e s e n t and h i g h f l o w r a t e s have o n l y a m a r g i n a l e f f e c t . I n c r e a s i n g g e l -
l i n g agent s a t u r a t i o n r a p i d l y reduces proppant package p e r m e a b i l i t y , w i t h use
o f h i g h e r p r o p p a n t l o a d i n g s i n c r e a s i n g r e t a i n e d proppant assemblage c o n d u c t i v i -
t y . F i l t e r cakes d e p o s i t e d on f r a c t u r e w a l l s have i n c r e a s i n g l y g r e a t e r i n -
f l u e n c e on p e r m e a b i l i t y , w i t h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n d e c r e a s i n g t o such an
amount t h a t f i l t e r cake t h i c k n e s s becomes a s i g n i f i c a n t f r a c t i o n o f t h e c r o s s -
sectional flow area.

1.4.10.3.6.3. Proppant grain size and breaker concentration

I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g proppant g r a i n s i z e and n a r r o w i n g
d i s t r i b u t i o n by changing f r o m 20/40 t o 2 0 / 2 5 mesh s i z e r e v e a l s t h a t p r o p p a n t
package p e r m e a b i l i t y can be s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r h i g h c l e a n -
up f l o w r a t e s , w i t h t h u s i n c r e a s i n g proppant g r a i n s i z e b e i n g one o f t h e most
s u i t a b l e ways o f i n c r e a s i n g p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y and f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y
under a l l p o s s i b l e l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 5 . ) . The
degree o f p e r m e a b i l i t y damage r e s u l t i n g f r o m s e l e c t e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s c o n t a i n -
i n g no b r e a k e r s a t 175 OF p a r a l l e l s t h e i r temperature s t a b i l i t i e s which depends
from chemical composition, and proppant packages c o n t a i n i n g f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s
w i t h h i g h g e l l i n g agent c o n c e n t r a t i o n s r e q u i r e h i g h b r e a k e r s a t u r a t i o n s f o r r e a -
sonable p e r m e a b i l i t y improvement (HAWKINS 1988). A t s a t u r a t i o n s where t h e b r e a -
k e r i s h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e i n r e d u c i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a t t h e i r o r i g i n a l polymer
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , i t i s much l e s s e f f e c t i v e than t h e h i g h l y - e n r i c h e d polymer w i t h -
i n t h e proppant package, and t h e r e f o r e a b r e a k e r system has t o be d e v i s e d which
w i l l m a i n t a i n f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s d u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t and improve f r a c t u r e permea-
b i l i t y . C a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d , however, because h i g h b r e a k e r s a t u r a t i o n s
could g i v e r i s e t o extensive f l u i d degradation during the f r a c t u r i n g treatment.

1.4.10.3.6.4. Hydrocarbon-based cleanup f l u i d s

for proppant package permeabi 1i t y improvement
Hydrocarbon-based cleanup f l u i d s cause an i n i t i a l decrease i n apparent p e r
m e a b i l i t y as a consequence o f i n t e r m i t t e n t m i n o r emulsion g e n e r a t i o n which r a
p i d l y d i s s i p a t e s f o l l o w e d by a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e . Hydrocarbon-based f r a c t u r
i n g f l u i d s have t h e e f f e c t o f v e r y h i g h p r o p p a n t package p e r m e a b i l i t y under a1
c o n d i t i o n s , w i t h hydrocarbon-based s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s c l e a r l y c a u s i n g much l e s s
p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n b o t h a b s o l u t e l y and as a percentage t h a n aqueous g e l l e d
f l u i d s (HAWKINS 1988). T h e r e f o r e hydrocarbon-based t r e a t m e n t f l u i d s should be
used whenever f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y needs t o be maximized. I n o r d e r t o maximize
proppant package p e r m e a b i l i t y when aqueous g e l l e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s have t o be
a p p l i e d , emphasis has t o be p u t on m i n i m i z a t i o n o f use o f c r o s s l i n k i n g , polymer
c o n c e n t r a t i o n and s h u t - i n time, and m a x i m i z a t i o n o f proppant s a t u r a t i o n / l o a d -
i n g , p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e , and b r e a k e r c o n t e n t o f t h e f l u i d .

1.4.10.4. Recmended conductivity correction factors

As a r e s u l t of t h e o u t l i n e d t e s t i n g campaign, McDANIEL (1986) concludes t h a t
l a b o r a t o r y measurements of p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y a t ambient temperatures and
s h o r t t i m e s o f experiment d u r a t i o n a t each c l o s u r e s t r e s s l e v e l a r e t y p i c a l l y
t o o o p t i m i s t i c as compared t o more r e a l i s t i c i n - s i t u w e l l c o n d i t i o n s . C o n d u c t i -
 68

v i t y c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s o f 0 . 5 - 0 . 6 f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p -
p a n t s a r e recommended t o compensate a l l t h e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s b y t h e m e n t i o -
ned t e s t c o n d i t i o n s when p l a n n i n g f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r an a c t u a l s t i m u l a -
t i o n t r e a t m e n t b y r e c a l c u l a t i n g l a b o r a t o r y d a t a t o i n - s i t u downhole c o n d i t i o n s
i n t h e f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r r o c k . MUCH ( 1 9 8 7 ) e v e n r e p o r t s examples where l a b o r a -
t o r y - d e r i v e d p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t i e s have t o be r e d u c e d b y 85 - 90 % i n o r d e r
t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h h i s t o r y m a t c h c o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e s f o r t h e r e a s o n s o f damage
b y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d g e l r e s i d u e , p r o p p a n t embedment, p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g , and
non-Darcy f l o w i n t h e p r o p p a n t package.

An i m p o r t a n t c r o s s - c h e c k b e f o r e t h e f i n a l o p e r a t i o n i s a m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i -
b r a t i o n t r e a t m e n t w h i c h c a n v e r i f y t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n s and d i s -
c o u n t i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 . ) . MONTGOMERY & STEANSON ( 1 9 8 5 ) p u t f o r w a r d t h a t i n
deep w e l l c o m p l e t i o n s , t h e f i n a l recommended c o n d u c t i v i t y needs t o b e t w o t o
t h r e e times h i g h e r than t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y designed c o n d u c t i v i t y , w i t h t h e r e f o r e
o v e r d e s i g n b e i n g n e c e s s a r y t o f i n a l l y a c c o u n t f o r downhole c o n d i t i o n s and r e -
s u l t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) . F u r t h e r comments o n r e a l i s t i c f r a c t u r e c o n -
d u c t i v i t y o f p r o p p a n t s p a r t i c u l a r l y as a f u n c t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r t e m p e r a t u r e a r e
g i v e n b y McDANIEL (1987, 1 9 8 8 ) , and PENNY ( 1 9 8 7 ) r e p o r t s o n t h e e f f e c t s o f e n v i -
r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s and s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s on l o n g - t e r m p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y .
Some a s p e c t s o f i n f l u e n c e o f t e s t i n g e q u i p m e n t , i m p a c t o f b r i n e c o m p o s i t i o n and
c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s . Comments a r e a l s o o f -
f e r e d on p r a c t i c a l u s e o f p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y d a t a .

1.4.10.4.1. Influence of testing equipment

ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD ( 1 9 8 6 ) p u t f o r w a r d t h a t because m o s t o f t h e
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y t e s t s a r e done w i t h s t e e l p l a t e s , embedment e f f e c t s a r e
n o t c o n s i d e r e d and t h e r e f o r e t h e measured d a t a a r e t o o o p t i m i s t i c . U n l e s s u s i n g
r e s e r v o i r c o r e s l a b s as b o u n d i n g f a c e s o f t h e s i m u l a t e d f r a c t u r e , t h e c o n d u c t i -
v i t y v a l u e s s h o u l d be r e d u c e d b y a f a c t o r 2 - 3 . P r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y i s f u r -
t h e r d i m i n i s h e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f g e l r e s i d u e , f o r m a t i o n f i n e s and o t h e r s o l i d
m a t e r i a l s i n t h e pore space. Although t h i s problem v a r i e s according t o forma-
t i o n and f l u i d t y p e and u s u a l l y i s n o t as s e r i o u s as c r u s h i n g and embedment, i t
has t o be c o n s i d e r e d t h a t s o l i d f i n e p a r t i c l e s can f u r t h e r d e c l i n e f r a c t u r e c o n -
d u c t i v i t y w h i c h s h o u l d be a c c o u n t e d f o r b y d e c r e a s i n g t h e v a l u e s b y a n o t h e r f a c -
t o r 2 - 3 i n order t o p r o p e r l y simulate actual r e s e r v o i r conditions. B e t t e r ex-
p e r i m e n t a l c o n d u c t i v i t i e s t h a n t h o s e a c h i e v e d downhole i n t h e p a y f o r m a t i o n a r e
a l s o t h e consequence o f w a l l s l i p . f e a t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 4 . 1 . ) . Non-Dar-
c y f l o w phenomena i n t h e p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e r e s u l t i n an e x t r a p r e s s u r e d r o p
w h i c h c a n r e d u c e e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y b y more t h a n a f a c t o r 3 (DA-
V I E S & KUIPER 1 9 8 8 ) .

1.4.10.4.2. Impact o f brine composition

S i m i l a r o r e v e n h i g h e r d i s c o u n t s w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y f o r l a b o r a t o r y d a t a ob-
t a i n e d f r o m t e s t s i n 2 % KC1 s o l u t i o n s w h i c h m a t c h t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r e -
pad and d i s p l a c e m e n t s t a g e s i n MHF o p e r a t i o n s and a r e t h e base f l u i d f o r many
c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s ( P A I , GARBIS & HALL 1983; BLEAKLEY 1 9 8 4 ) , b u t do n o t a g r e e
w i t h t h e p a r t i a l l y s a t u r a t e d a g g r e s s i v e b r i n e s i n R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s
r e s e r v o i r r o c k s i n Germany FRG w h i c h become e f f e c t i v e a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e
f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t when t h e i n v a s i o n o f t h e pay h o r i z o n caused b y t h e i n j e c -
t e d f l u i d s has been r e v e r s e d and a l s o t h e c r a c k i s f l u s h e d w i t h h i g h - s a l i n i t y
f o r m a t i o n w a t e r i n s e c t i o n s b e l o w t h e g a s - w a t e r - c o n t a c t , as w e l l as d u r i n g p r o -
g r e s s i v e d e p l e t i o n when t h e w a t e r c u t i n t h e gas i s s t e a d i l y r i s i n g i n r e s e r -
v o i r i n t e r v a l s above t h e g a s - w a t e r - b o u n d a r y . The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s d i s c u s s e s
c l a y s t a b i l i z a t i o n b y KC1 w a t e r i n f i e l d s t i m u l a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n and KC1 s o l u -
t i o n s as l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g f l u i d s .
 69

1.4.10.4.2.1. Clay stabilization by KC1 water

in field stimulation application
2 % KC1 s o l u t i o n s which are f r e q u e n t l y taken as proppant t e s t i n g f l u i d s are
the base composition f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s and are used i n t h e
prepad o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g treatments f o r the purpose o f c l a y s t a b i l i z a t i o n
and thus p r e v e n t i o n o f excessive f o r m a t i o n damage p a r t i c u l a r l y i n water-sensi-
t i v e r e s e r v o i r rocks as a standard s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n (BLACK & HOWER 1965;
BLACK, RIPLEY, BEECROFT & PAMPLIN 1979; WATERS 1980; NALL, CAMPBELL & BONEY
1983; SYDANSK 1984, MUCH 1987, MUCH & PENNY 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 3.5.2.2.).

2 % KC1 water i n combination w i t h c l a y s t a b i l i z e r s renders the s t i m u l a t i o n

f l u i d non-damaging by c o n t r o l l i n g p a r t i c l e sloughing and m i g r a t i o n , and an addi-
t i o n a l s u r f a c t a n t reduces boundary t e n s i o n a t t h e f o r m a t i o n and f r a c t u r e f l u i d
i n t e r f a c e t o f a c i l i t a t e treatment cleanup a f t e r s u f f i c i e n t v i s c o s i t y r e d u c t i o n
o f the gel by breaking (PA1 & GARBIS 1983 b ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o s t i m u l a t i o n
f l u i d s , KC1 can a l s o be a p p l i e d as i n h i b i t o r i n d r i l l i n g mud and cement s l u r -
r i e s (MESSINA 1986 b ) . While 2 % KC1 water prevents f o r m a t i o n damage by f i l t r a -
te, 5 % KC1 water i n h i b i t s shale sloughing and helps t o m a i n t a i n good h o l e con-
d i t i o n s , and 2 - 5 % KC1 polymer systems p r o v i d e v i s c o s i t y and water l o s s con-
trol.

1.4.10.4.2.2. KC1 solutions as laboratory testing fluids

2 % K C 1 s o l u t i o n s have f r e q u e n t l y been used as standard t e s t f l u i d s i n labo-
r a t o r y proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y experiments (McDANIEL 1986, 1987, 1988; MUCH & PEN-
NY 1987, PARKER & McDANIEL 1987, PENNY 1987, McDANIEL & PARKER 1988). Since a
l a r g e number o f gas w e l l s which are h y d r a u l i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d produce m o s t l y gas
a f t e r i n i t i a l cleanup, a b e t t e r approach t o i n - s i t u c o n d i t i o n s i s p r o v i d e d by
changing the f l o w medium from 2 % KC1 s o l u t i o n t o wet gas a f t e r some days i n o r -
der t o s i m u l a t e t h e sequence o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d backproduction f o l l o w e d by gas
withdrawal. Experimental work r e v e a l s b e t t e r p e r m e a b i l i t y p r e s e r v a t i o n when wet
gas i s used as t e s t i n g medium a f t e r a couple o f days than w i t h 2 % KC1 water
alone. The d i f f e r e n c e i n remaining proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y i s i n t e r p r e t e d t o be
p a r t i a l l y the r e s u l t o f g e l f i l t e r cake dehydration by the wet gas, w i t h t h i s
s h r i n k i n g e f f e c t e x e r t e d on the g e l f i l t e r cake i n c r e a s i n g proppant package po-
r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y (McDANIEL 1988). F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have t o c o n s i -
der l i q u i d hydrocarbons t o check accurate m o d e l l i n g o f o i l r e s e r v o i r s i n the ex-
periments. Wet gas as f l o w i n g medium i n t e s t s i n c l u d i n g g e l f i l t e r cakes has
a l s o been used by ROODHART, KUIPER & DAYIES (1986). Apart from K C l , c l a y s t a b i -
l i z a t i o n can a l s o be achieved w i t h KOH (SLOAT & LARSEN 1984, SYDANSK 1984,
SLOAT 1988).

Other aspects o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f b o t h dispersed and massive c l a y s and pre-

v e n t i o n o f t h e i r m i g r a t i o n d u r i n g f r a c t u r i n g operations and o t h e r r e s e r v o i r
treatments a r e presented by McLAUGHLIN, ELPHINGSTONE & HALL (1976) ; CLEMENTA
(1977) ; McLAUGHLIN, ELPHINGSTONE, REMINGTON & COATES (1977) ; PETERS & STOUT
(1977), THOMAS & CROWE (1978) ; COULTER, COPELANO & HARRISBERGER (1979); WIL-
LIAMS & UNDERDOWN (1980); CALLAWAY, ORTIZ & HOLCOMB (1982); HILL (1982), BOR-
CHARDT & BROWN (1984); BORCHARDT, ROLL & RAYNE (1984) and SLOAT & LARSEN
(1984).

1.4.10.4.3. Conductivity improvement

POULSEN & SOLIMAN (1987) emphasize t h a t a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r o f 0.5 i s b e s t
compensating the up t o t e n - f o l d decrease i n proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y from l a b o r a t o -
r y experiment t o f i e l d execution c o n d i t i o n s , and PHILLIPS & ANDERSON (1985) ac-
count f o r proppant performance damage by a f a c t o r o f 0.2 - 0.25. K I M & LOSACANO
(1985) a l s o propose a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r o f 0.4 - 0.6 t o compensate g e l r e s i d u e
 70

p l u g g i n g o f p r o p p a n t p o r e space. SECCOMBE & ANDERSON ( 1 9 8 2 ) s u g g e s t t o m u l t i p l y

s h o r t - t e r m proppant t e s t i n g d a t a by a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r o f 0 . 1 t o match p o s t -
f r a c t u r i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s , and SOLIMAN ( 1 9 8 3 ) d e t e r m i n e s p o s t - s t i m u l a t i o n c o n d u c -
t i v i t i e s o f 0.125 - 0.25 o f t h e values p r e d i c t e d f r o m l a b o r a t o r y experiments.
REINICKE, BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI ( 1 9 8 5 ) f i n d c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s b e i n g i n
some c a s e s as l o w as 0 . 0 5 . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d on s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t
o v e r d e s i g n as w e l l as demand o f h i g h e r p r o p p a n t q u a l i t y and s a t u r a t i o n .

1.4.10.4.3.1. Stimulation treatment overdesign

F a i l u r e t o consider t h e v a r i o u s types o f proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y impairment
and t o compensate them b y c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s may cause d r a m a t i c a l u n d e r d e s i g n
o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t , w i t h t h e r e f o r e t h e a c t u a l j o b h a v i n g t o be o v e r d e -
signed f o r t h e purpose o f a c h i e v i n g t h e d e s i r e d i n - s i t u c o n d u c t i v i t y a f t e r a l l
t h e p o s s i b l e f l o w c a p a c i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n s even i n t h e w o r s t c a s e o f combined a c -
t i o n o f a l l d e t r i m e n t a l f a c t o r s (ROODHART, KUIPER & DAVIES 1 9 8 6 ) . I n t e r m s o f
l a y o u t , a c o n d u c t i v i t y c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r o f 0 . 5 means t h a t f o r c o n s t a n t f r a c -
t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , b o t h r e q u i r e d p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t t h e w e l l b o r e and t o -
t a l p r o p p a n t amount have a p p r o x i m a t e l y t o be d o u b l e d (POULSEN & SOLIMAN 1 9 8 7 ) .
C o n d u c t i v i t y improvement when a p p l y i n g c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s i n t h e r a n g e o f 0 . 2 -
0 . 5 c a n be a c h i e v e d b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n o r
by u s i n g a higher c o n d u c t i v i t y proppant o f b e t t e r q u a l i t y and/or l a r g e r g r a i n
size.

As many l a b o r a t o r y p r o p p a n t t e s t s u n d e r d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s have s u g g e s t e d
t h a t t h e f i n a l i n - s i t u c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t package w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e
c a n be as l o w as a b t . 1 0 % o f t h e o r i g i n a l p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y ( L I & ZHU
1 9 8 6 ) , p r o p e r c o m p e n s a t i o n o f t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n s h o u l d be made b y o v e r d e s i g n i n g
c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y i n s u c h a manner t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y w h i c h i s u l -
t i m a t e l y l e f t downhole i s a t l e a s t e q u a l t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n and t o t h e n e c e s s a -
r y minimum t o e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l y d r a i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , i f l i o t h i g h e r (ROOD-
HART, KUIPER & O A V I E S 1 9 8 6 ) .

1.4.10.4.3.2.Demand o f higher proppant quality and saturation

Using r e a l i s t i c proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y data i n h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n design
r e v e a l s t h a t i n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d u c t i v i t y l o s s compensa-
t i o n , h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a n d / o r q u a l i t i e s may be r e q u i r e d t o
a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e r e s e r v o i r e n v i r o n m e n t (McDA-
NIEL 1 9 8 7 ) . F r a c t u r e o v e r d e s i g n s h o u l d a l s o be made i n t e r m s o f l e n g t h , as many
l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r t r e a t m e n t j o b s have t u r n e d o u t t o a c t u a l l y r e a c h
o n l y a b t . 70 % o f t h e d e s i g n e d p r o p p e d c r a c k l e n g t h (HOLDITCH & LEE 1 9 7 9 ) . An
u n i q u e and unambiguous h i s t o r y m a t c h can o n l y be o b t a i n e d i f t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s 10 o r g r e a t e r ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.11.1.).

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e a l i s t i c and c o r r e c t e d p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t i e s f o r f r a c -
t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n d e s i g n o f t e n r e s u l t s i n t h e n e c e s s i t y t o choose c o n s i d e r a b l y
h i g h e r - s t r e n g t h proppants and/or h i g h e r proppant s a t u r a t i o n s and/or a l s o l a r g e r
g r a i n s i z e s t h a n o r i g i n a l l y p l a n n e d and e x p e c t e d i n o r d e r t o a d e q u a t e l y d e s i g n
and a c c u r a t e l y model t h e f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n (McDANIEL 1 9 8 7 ) . A c c u r a t e d e s i g n o f
f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s r e q u i r e s c o n d u c t i v i t y measurements a t s i m u l a t e d r e s e r v o i r
c o n d i t i o n s (McDANIEL & PARKER 1 9 8 8 ) . The c o m p a r i s o n o f s h o r t - t e r m t e s t i n g ,
l o n g - t e r m t e s t i n g w i t h o u t g e l f i l t e r c a k e s and l o n g - t e r m t e s t i n g i n c l u d i n g g e l
f i l t e r c a k e s r e f l e c t s p r o g r e s s i v e c o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n as t h e e x p e r i m e n -
t a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e more and more a p p r o a c h i n g t h e a c t u a l downhole r e s e r v o i r e n v i -
r o n m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e r e l i a b l e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y m o d e l l i n g and d e -
s i g n has t o b e based on p r o p p a n t t e s t i n g c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e
as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e a p p r o a c h i n g t h o s e p r e s e n t i n t h e f i e l d .
 71

1.4.10.4.4. Practical use of proppant conductivity data

Proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y d a t a a r e p r a c t i c a l l y used i n two b a s i c a p p l i c a t i o n s i n
o i l and gas i n d u s t r y (McDANIEL 1988). The f i r s t one comprises o f f t a k e i n c r e a s e
c a l c u l a t i o n s where an average c o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e o f t h e r e s u l t a n t propped f r a c -
t u r e i s used t o f o r e c a s t m u l t i f o l d p r o d u c t i v i t y i n c r e a s e o f t h e w e l l (TINSLEY,
WILLIAMS, TINNER & MALONE 1969; SDLIMAN 1983), and t h e second one i n c l u d e s com-
p u t e r i z e d f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s i m u l a t o r s which can be m o d i f i e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e
t h e e f f e c t s o f non-Darcy f l o w . Some aspects o f l a m i n a r vs. t u r b u l e n t f l o w and
c o n d u c t i v i t y n e c e s s i t y f o r cleanup vs. p r o d u c t i o n a r e discussed as f o l l o w s .

1.4.10.4.4.1.Laminar vs. turbulent flow

H i t h e r t o t y p i c a l l y l a m i n a r - f l o w c o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e s have been used and no a l -
lowance i s made f o r t h e i n c r e a s e d f l o w r e s i s t a n c e caused by non-Darcy e f f e c t s
as a consequence o f t u r b u l e n c e s . F o r gas o r o i l w e l l s p r o d u c i n g a t v e r y h i g h r a -
t e s o r e x p l o i t i n g v e r y l o w - v i s c o s i t y o i l , r e s p e c t i v e l y , however, t h e use o f l a -
minar-flow c o n d u c t i v i t y data r e s u l t s i n overestimating the effectiveness o f the
planned s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t , and t h e r e f o r e non-Darcy f l o w phenomena i n c l u d i n g
t u r b u l e n c e s have t o be taken under c o n s i d e r a t i o n (McDANIEL 1988; c f . s e c t i o n
4.3.3.3.).

Concerning computerized f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s i m u l a t o r s which can be m o d i f i e d

t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e f e a t u r e s o f non-Darcy f l o w due t o c u r r e n t t u r b u l e n c e s , i t i s
e s s e n t i a l t h a t c o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e s used i n t h e s i m u l a t o r a r e measured under
t e s t c o n d i t i o n s which model r e a l i s t i c r e s e r v o i r parameters. A t t e n t i o n has t o be
p a i d n o t o n l y on p r o p p a n t t y p e and s i z e , b u t a l s o on l o n g - t e r m exposure t o
s t r e s s a t i n - s i t u temperature i n c l u d i n g any v a r i a t i o n s f r o m t h e o r e t i c a l beha-
v i o u r caused by such e f f e c t s as presence o f g e l f i l t e r cakes occupying p a r t s o f
t h e proppant bed p o r o s i t y .

1.4.10.4.4.2. Conductivity necessity for cleanup vs. production

I n terms o f proppant performance m o d e l l i n g , i t has t o be r e s p e c t e d t h a t t h e
optimum f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y necessary t o clean-up t h e f o r m a t i o n may be much
h i g h e r t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d t o produce gas f r o m t h e r e s e r v o i r (SOLIMAN & HUNT
1985). T h e r e f o r e c r a c k parameters s h o u l d be e s p e c i a l l y f o r t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s
designed such t h a t a f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t w i l l l e a v e enough p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i -
t y f o r e f f i c i e n t cleanup o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d . McDANIEL (1987, 1988) and PARKER
& McDANIEL (1987) a l s o recommend t o p l a c e h i g h e r proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t h a n
t h e o r e t i c a l l y necessary i n t h e c r a c k i n o r d e r t o overcome c l o s u r e e f f e c t s , t o
achieve s a t i s f a c t o r y i n - s i t u f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y and t h u s f u r t h e r improve s t i -
m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s . D A V I E S & KUIPER (1988) u n d e r l i n e t h a t r e c e n t l o n g - t e r m conduc-
t i v i t y measurements under r e a l i s t i c r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s have r e v e a l e d a t e c h n i -
c a l r e q u i r e m e n t f o r s t r o n g e r , more c o n d u c t i v e proppants n o t o n l y a t h i g h e r c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s e s i n deeper pay zones, b u t a l s o a t lower c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s i n s h a l l o -
wer p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l s i n o r d e r t o guarantee optimum i n - s i t u c o n d u c t i v i t y i n -
s t a l l a t i o n . The l a t t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p a l s o a p p l i e s i f c o a r s e r p r o p p a n t grades a r e
used i n an a t t e m p t t o i n c r e a s e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , because c r u s h i n g o f c o a r -
ser g r a i n sizes s t a r t s a t lower closure stress l e v e l s than t h a t o f f i n e r g r a i n
sizes.

1.4.10.5. Performance experience i n long-term field application

A l l t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l l y concluded r e d u c t i o n s o f proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y , how-
ever, a r e i n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e f i e l d a t l e a s t i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y
r e s e r v o i r s i n many cases o f low s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e , as t h e
r e s u l t i n g i n - s i t u p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y i s s t i l l much h i g h e r than f o r m a t i o n p e r -
m e a b i l i t y and t h u s g i v e s e s p e c i a l l y i n t i g h t sandstones s t i l l a marked c o n t r a s t
 72

between r e s e r v o i r r o c k s and p r o p p a n t - f i l l e d d r a i n a g e f r a c t u r e i n a s a t i s f a c t o r y
way t o be t h e guarantee f o r l o n g - t e r m gas p r o d u c t i o n a t e c o n o m i c a l l y s u f f i c i e n t
and a p p r e c i a b l e r a t e s ( a s evidenced by numerous C a r b o n i f e r o u s and R o t l i e g e n d
gas w e l l s i n Germany FRG which have been t r e a t e d up t o 10 y e a r s ago and a r e
s t i l l producing a t reasonably f e a s i b l e r a t e s t h a t are n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f -
f e r e n t f r o m those achieved s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e o p e r a t i o n o r a r e f o l l o w i n g t h e p r e -
d i c t e d n a t u r a l r a t e d e c l i n e w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e d e p l e t i o n ) . Some examples f r o m
N o r t h China a r e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d .

1.4.10.5.1. Rotliegend and Carboniferous in Germany FRG

M i n o r amounts o f back-produced proppants t h a t were r e c o v e r e d i n some deep
R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s gas w e l l s r e v e a l o n l y s u b o r d i n a t e mechanical and
chemical a l t e r a t i o n s o f t h e i n j e c t e d p r o p p a n t g r a i n s t h u s c o n f i r m i n g t h e p h y s i -
c a l s t a b i l i t y o f t h e proppant package i n t h e f r a c t u r e as evidenced by t h e p e r -
s i s t i n g s a t i s f a c t o r y gas w i t h d r a w a l r a t e s and a l s o t e s t i f y t o o n l y s u b o r d i n a t e
o r even n e g l i g i b l e f r a c t u r e e v a c u a t i o n by p r o p p a n t flowback ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
1 . 4 . 1 . ) . Examination o f g r a i n s u r f a c e s and shapes r e f l e c t s o n l y m i n o r d i s s o l u -
t i o n and c r u s h i n g o f some p a r t s o f t h e p a r t i c l e p o p u l a t i o n and t h u s c o n f i r m t h e
e x c e l l e n t p r o p p a n t b e h a v i o u r which i s i n d e p e n d e n t l y suggested by t h e p r o m i s i n g
hydrocarbon o f f t a k e s r a t e s . COBB & FARRELL (1986) conclude t h a t t h e A P I conduc-
t i v i t y d a t a have t o be d i s c o u n t e d by a b t . 20 % i f t h e w e l l c o n d i t i o n s a r e a t
l e a s t as severe as 10,000 p s i c l o s u r e s t r e s s , 93 OC (200 OF) r e s e r v o i r tempera-
t u r e and 2 % KC1 f l u i d s a t u r a t i o n ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e prepad f l u s h i n g ) .

R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI (1985) observe i n R o t l i e g e n d and Carbo-

n i f e r o u s gas w e l l s i n Germany FRG a f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y r e d u c t i o n by a f a c t o r
two t o f i v e which enables performance o f a good h i s t o r y match i n c l u d i n g p r e s -
s u r e drop, t h u s a g r e e i n g w i t h GUPPY, CINCO-LEY & RAMEY (1982) t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t
c o n d u c t i v i t y o b t a i n e d f r o m b u i l d u p s o l u t i o n s can be up t o 85 % l o w e r t h a n t h e
t r u e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s . Cross-flow d u r i n g s h u t - i n t i m e s can be expected t o become
s i g n i f i c a n t i f some h o r i z o n s o f t h e f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s e c t i o n a r e d e p l e t e d
p r e f e r e n t i a l l y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n , b u t no c r o s s - f l o w was observed i n
p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l surveys d u r i n g more than 5 y e a r s . Concerning f i e l d performan-
ce i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI (1985) r e c o r d a d i f f e -
rence o f a f a c t o r two t o f i v e o r even g r e a t e r when comparing computed f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t i e s w i t h s i m u l a t i o n - d e r i v e d o r i n t e g r a l - m e t h o d - d e r i v e d values, r e -
spectively.

1.4.10.5.2. North China

L I & ZHU (1986) document t h a t t h e propped f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y as c a l c u l a -
t e d f r o m t r a n s i e n t p r e s s u r e t e s t d a t a i n t h e range o f 2 - 5 months a f t e r t h e
s t i m u l a t i o n j o b i n moderate- t o h i g h - d e p t h o i l r e s e r v o i r s i n N o r t h China i s
o n l y 30 - 70 % o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t - d e r i v e d values, w i t h a minimum o f
a b t . 10 % a l s o b e i n g reached i n some cases. An a n a l y s i s o f t h e phenomena i n d i c a -
t e s t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o damage caused by scraped f i n e s f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l
by p r o p p a n t - c a r r y i n g f l u i d , m i g r a t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n f i n e s , embedding o r c r u s h i n g
o f proppants i n t h e c r a c k , and i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y of t r e a t m e n t f l u i d t o f o r m a t i o n
f l u i d , t h e damage generated by degraded f l u i d r e s i d u e has s i g n i f i c a n t impact.
F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage can be e f f e c t i v e l y reduced by i n c r e a s i n g p r o p p a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n . BAKHTAR, BARTON, RAKOP & JONES (1985) d i s c u s s m o d e l l i n g o f c r a c k
p e r m e a b i l i t y around a w e l l d u r i n g d e p l e t i o n . Long-term performance o f h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s i s a l s o r e p o r t e d by ZAHNER & CRAFTON ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

1.4.11. Proppant mixing

The c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f proppants i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g comprises
placement o f m a t e r i a l o f unimodal g r a i n s i z e and homogeneous type, b u t a l s o se-
 73

v e r a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s e x i s t f o r usage o f d i f f e r e n t proppant t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s

i n one o p e r a t i o n , c o m p r i s i n g t a i l - i n and m i x i n g o f proppants. T a i l - i n i s p e r f o r -
med by pumping o f separated l o t s o f proppants o f s u c c e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y o r c o n d u c t i v i t y and g r a i n s i z e i n o r d e r t o achieve maxi-
mum s u p p o r t i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e w e l l b o r e where t h e h i g h e s t c l o s u r e s t r e s s oc-
c u r s due t o maximum drawdown and h i g h e s t f l o w v e l o c i t i e s (HOWARD & FAST 1970 a;
HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 2.4.1.2.). While during
course o f e x e c u t i o n o f t a i l - i n f r a c t u r i n g j o b s m i x i n g o f d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y -
pes and g r a i n s i z e s i s n o t i n t e n d e d and can o n l y o c c u r a c c i d e n t a l l y t o m i n o r
amounts a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n s between d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t stages, m i x i n g o f prop-
p a n t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s was f r e q u e n t l y approached e x p e r i m e n t a l -
l y i n o r d e r t o check i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r p o s s i b l y i n c r e a s i n g o r d e c r e a s i n g
p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y and s t a b i l i t y above t h e l e v e l achieved by unimodal homoge-
neous p o p u l a t i o n s (McOANIEL & WILLINGHAM 1978). Comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s
on t h e e f f e c t s o f m i x i n g o f p r o p p a n t types, g r a i n s i z e s and g r a i n shapes.

1.4.11.1. Mixing o f proppant types

The r e s u l t s o f most p r o p p a n t m i x i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e v e a l t h a t t h e b e s t e f -
f e c t s i n terms o f c o n d u c t i v i t y a r e o b t a i n e d w i t h unimodal homogeneous d i s t r i b u -
t i o n s . M i x i n g o f p r o p p a n t t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s h a r d l y has an i m p r o v i n g impact,
i f any. Some aspects o f m i x i n g o f n a t u r a l sand and s y n t h e t i c proppants as w e l l
as o f d i f f e r e n t sand t y p e s a r e sketched as f o l l o w s .

1.4.11.1.1. Mixing o f natural sand and synthetic proppants

M i x i n g o f n a t u r a l sand w i t h s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e o r g l a s s beads has been tempora-
r i l y been common as a consequence o f expected p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r o p p a n t c o s t r e -
d u c t i o n e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e e a r l y 1970's when g l a s s beads p r i o r t o m a r k e t i n t r o -
d u c t i o n o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e were t h e o n l y r e l i a b l e h i g h - s t r e n g t h m a t e r i a l and
i n 1976 - 1978 when t h e newly i n v e n t e d s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e was o n l y a v a i l a b l e i n
l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s a t an e x c e s s i v e p r i c e which was up t o 15 t i m e s t h a t f o r n a t u -
r a l sand. F o l l o w i n g a g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f m i x i n g o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e o r
g l a s s beads w i t h sand, some aspects o f c o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n by p r o p p a n t
mixing are outlined.

1.4.11.1.1.1. Mixing o f sintered bauxite or glass bead with sand

Concerning m i x i n g o f p r o p p a n t t y p e s o f d i f f e r e n t provenance, McOANIEL & WIL-
LINGHAM (1978) t e s t e d m i x t u r e s o f sand and g l a s s beads o r s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and
found o u t t h a t e x c e p t o f 50 : 50 (and sometimes a l s o 75 : 25) r a t i o s , a l l t h e
o t h e r m i x t u r e s had n o t more c o n d u c t i v i t y t h a n sand a l o n e o r even l e s s i n c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s regimes up t o 8,000 p s i , w i t h t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t mix-
t u r e a l s o r a p i d l y d e c l i n i n g w i t h r i s i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s . I n t h e range o f 6,000 -
10,000 p s i , a m i x t u r e o f sand and s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e i n a 50 : 50 r a t i o r e v e a l s
an average p e r m e a b i l i t y d r o p of a b t . 65 % w i t h r e s p e c t t o p u r e s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e
p o p u l a t i o n s , and t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f o t h e r m i x t u r e r a t i o s i s even more approach-
i n g t h a t o f sand a l o n e o r below i n t h e most u n s u i t a b l e cases.

1.4.11.1.1.2. Conductivity deterioration by proppant mixing

M i x i n g o f n a t u r a l q u a r t z sand w i t h s y n t h e t i c high-performance proppants i s
t h u s n o t an e f f e c t i v e method f o r i n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y a t h i g h c l o -
sure s t r e s s e s , because t h e o r i g i n a l t a r g e t o f s a v i n g t r e a t m e n t c o s t by r e p l a -
c i n g p a r t s o f t h e expensive man-made p r o p p a n t l o t by cheap sand i s n o t reached,
b u t i n c o n t r a s t t o the expectation, the p r o p e r t i e s o f the a r t i f i c i a l high-quali-
t y proppants a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e t e r i o r a t e d by c o n t a m i n a t i o n w i t h much p o o r e r
p e r f o r m i n g sand. A p a r t f r o m a b s o l u t e l y tremendous drops o f c o n d u c t i v i t y l e v e l
 74

w i t h r e s p e c t t o p u r e p o p u l a t i o n s o f s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s , o n l y 50 : 50 ( a n d i n
some c a s e s a l s o 75 : 2 5 ) m i x t u r e s have r e l a t i v e l y s l i g h t l y h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i -
t i e s t h a n sand a l o n e , and a l l t h e o t h e r m i x t u r e s p e r f o r m o n l y e q u a l o r e v e n
worse t h a n homogeneous sand p o p u l a t i o n s (McDANIEL & WILLINGHAM 1978, CLARK
1983). I n mixtures w i t h i n f e r i o r material, the b e t t e r physical p r o p e r t i e s o f a
s u p e r i o r p r o p p a n t t y p e a r e t h u s n o t o f f s e t , and p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n t h e r e f o r e
has t o be based o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n d u c t i v i t y and c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y
o f u n i m o d a l homogeneous p r o p p a n t p o p u l a t i o n s .

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d r e s u l t s , DAVIS ( 1 9 7 5 ) r e p o r t s t a i l - i n and
m i x i n g o f g l a s s beads f o r a c h i e v e m e n t o f c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement, h i g h p r o p -
p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and p r o p p a n t c o s t r e d u c t i o n . F a v o u r a b l e m i x t u r e s r e s u l t i n g
from f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e a r e 7 5 % 20/40 sand and 25 % 1 2 / 2 0 g l a s s beads. M i x i n g
w i t h sand i s a c c o r d i n g t o DAVIS ( 1 9 7 5 ) s u i t a b l e f o r d i m i n i s h i n g g l a s s bead quan-
t i t y and t h u s d e c r e a s i n g p r o p p a n t expenses, and has a c c e p t a b l y good p e r f o r m a n c e
i n t h e f r a c t u r e i n r e s e r v o i r d e p t h ( t h i s c o n c l u s i o n , however, i s c o n t r a d i c t e d
b y t h e r e s u l t s o f McDANIEL & WILLINGHAM 1978 and CLARK 1 9 8 3 ) .

1.4.11.1.2. Mixing of different sand types

C o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n s even o c c u r when m i x i n g o f t w o d i f f e r e n t sand
t y p e s i s c a r r i e d o u t , because a l s o t h e o r i g i n a l sand p o p u l a t i o n s ( a s s c r e e n e d
b y s i e v i n g a f t e r m i n i n g i n t h e n a t u r a l o c c u r r e n c e s ) have d i f f e r e n t p e r m e a b i l i -
t i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB ( 1 9 8 3 ) , H i c k o r y F o r m a t i o n sand f r o m
C e n t r a l Texas i s more p e r m e a b l e w i t h i n f r a c t u r e packages t h a n S t . P e t e r Forma-
t i o n sand f r o m N o r t h e r n I l l i n o i s a t l o w e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s , whereas i n h i g h e r
p r e s s u r e r e g i m e s above a b t . 3,500 p s i , S t . P e t e r sand p e r f o r m s b e t t e r t h a n
H i c k o r y sand. The e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s phenomenon i s p r o b a b l y t h a t t h e S t . P e t e r
sand has a h i g h e r c o n t e n t o f more s t a b l e m o n o c r y s t a l l i n e q u a r t z t h a n t h e H i c k o -
r y sand and t h u s l e s s g r a i n s c r u s h a t h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s ( c f . s e c t i o n
1 . 4 . 9 . 3 . ) , and t h e H i c k o r y sand c o n t a i n s more f r e q u e n t l y o l i g o - t o p o l y c r y s t a l -
l i n e q u a r t z i n t e r g r o w t h s and a l s o some f e l d s p a r s and r o c k f r a g m e n t s a f t e r p r o -
c e s s i n g w h i c h a r e p a r t i a l l y b e t t e r and worse r o u n d e d due t o i m p r o v e d w e a r i n g
and i n h e r e n t c l e a v a g e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h a n t h e i r r e g u l a r l y b r e a k i n g q u a r t z
g r a i n s and t h u s p r o v i d e b e t t e r p r o p e r t i e s a t l o w e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s u n t i l o l i -
go- t o p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e q u a r t z , f e l d s p a r s and r o c k f r a g m e n t s s t a r t t o c r u s h a t
reasonable r a t e s .

1.4.11.2. Mixing of proppant grain sizes

S i m i l a r l y as m i x i n g o f p r o p p a n t t y p e s , c o m b i n a t i o n o f s e v e r a l p r o p p a n t g r a i n
s i z e s has d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s o n f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y u n l e s s t h e d i f f e r e n t
g r a i n s i z e s a r e n o t i n s e r t e d as an i n t e r s p e r s e d homogeneous d i s t r i b u t i o n , but
as t e m p o r a l l y d i s c r e t e l o t s t h a t w i l l r e c e i v e s p a t i a l l y s e p a r a t e p l a c e m e n t i n
t h e c r a c k . Although i t i s t h e aim o f q u a l i t y c o n t r o l d u r i n g f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ments t o a v o i d unwanted c o n t a m i n a t i o n , a c c i d e n t a l m i x i n g c a n o c c u r i f s o l i d
f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s a r e used o r i f m u l t i - s t a g e proppant scheduling w i t h c o a r -
s e r o r f i n e r t a i l s o r heads as compared t o t h e m a i n body a r e a p p l i e d , r e s p e c t i -
v e l y . The m o s t p r o n o u n c e d example o f a c c i d e n t a l o r a t t e m p t e d m i x i n g o f g r a i n s i -
zes i s 100 mesh sand w h i c h i s added t o f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s c a r r i e d o u t w i t h
20/40 a n d / o r 1 6 / 2 0 mesh p r o p p a n t s f o r v a r i o u s p u r p o s e s . The f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t
s k e t c h e s p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n b y o u t l i n i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f 100
mesh sand and c o a r s e r p r o p p a n t s and t h e drawbacks o f t h e m i x i n g o f t h e s e t w o
d i f f e r e n t s i z e c l a s s e s i n h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s . Consequences o f m i x i n g o f
v a r i o u s coarse proppant g r a i n s i z e s a r e a l s o analyzed.
 75

1.4.11.2.1. Mixing o f coarse Proppants and f i n e 100 mesh sand

During a f r a c t u r i n g operation, i t i s desirable t o minimize f l u i d l e a k o f f
f r o m t h e c r a c k i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r by adding f i n e l y d i v i d e d s o l i d s t o t h e l i q u i d
phase (COOKE 1975). The f u n c t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a t e f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s i s t o p l u g
t h e l a r g e p o r e spaces and/or n a t u r a l c r a c k s and f i s s u r e s o f t h e pay zone r o c k s
a t t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s . The drawback of s o l i d f l u i d - l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s o f i n s o l u b -
l e n a t u r e (such as 100 mesh sand i n c o n t r a s t t o c a l c i u m carbonate f l o u r and
fine-grained s a l t ; c f . sections 1.4.11.2.1.2.2. and 5 . 1 1 . 4 . ) , however, a r e
s i g n i f i c a n t d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s on p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e crack, t h e p r o -
blem o f displacement o f t h e p a r t i c l e s f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e a f t e r d e p o s i t i o n ,
and t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e i r m o b i l i t y and freedom t o move t h r o u g h t h e c r a c k when
t h e w e l l i s p u t on p r o d u c t i o n . S o l i d f i n e - g r a i n e d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s can i n -
deed cause v e r y s e r i o u s decreases i n proppant p e r m e a b i l i t y and t h u s f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y (PYE & SMITH 1973) p a r t i c u l a r l y i n case o f m i x i n g w i t h t h e c o a r s e r
p r o p p a n t s . F o l l o w i n g a s h o r t o u t l i n e o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n spectrum o f 100 mesh
sand, i t s p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n case o f i n t e r m i x i n g w i t h f r a c t u r i n g
proppants i s sketched, w i t h d i s t i n c t i o n b e i n g made between p r e v e n t i n g and p r o -
v o k i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y d e s t r u c t i o n . Some aspects o f 100 mesh sand as e x c l u s i v e o r
p a r t i c i p a n t proppant are also discussed.

1.4.11.2.1.1. Application spectrum o f 100 mesh sand

Concerning t h e e f f e c t o f m i x i n g o f d i f f e r e n t g r a i n s i z e p o p u l a t i o n s , t h e ap-
p l i c a t i o n o f 100 mesh sand as an a d d i t i v e t o reduce f l u i d l e a k o f f t h r o u g h n a t u -
r a l c r a c k s i n h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g (THOMPSON 1977, McDANIEL & WILLING-
HAM 1978; COOPER, NELSON & SCHOPPER 1983; SCHUMACHER & DICKERMAN 1986) and a c i d
f r a c t u r i n g (MILLER & WAREMBOURG 1975, BAILEY & WICKHAM 1984, DOWELL SCHLUMBER-
GER 1988 d ) , t o scour away n e a r - w e l l b o r e damage by p e r f o r a t i o n e r o s i o n (CRAMER
1987), t o f a c i l i t a t e s l u r r y i n s e r t i o n by a c t i n g as a l e a d - i n proppant a t t h e
head o f f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s f o r p l u g g i n g o f n a t u r a l and/or i i y d r a u l i c m i c r o -
j o i n t s and - f i s s u r e s t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y (SINCLAIR 1980, G R I
1988), o r t o l i m i t v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e h e i g h t p r o p a g a t i o n by p e r f o r m i n g as a b r i d -
g i n g agent t o c o n t r o l downward growth o f t h e crack (HODGES & PAOLI 1982) has t o
be c a r r i e d o u t v e r y c a r e f u l l y , and a l s o good s e p a r a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l stages du-
r i n g t a i l - i n operations i s e s s e n t i a l .

100 mesh sand has been w i d e l y used p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e USA und i s u s u a l l y

pumped ahead o f t h e sand o r p r o p p a n t l o t t h a t i s designed t o p l u g t h e h y d r a u l i -
c a l l y c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e f o r t h e purpose o f f r e q u e n t l y combined f l u i d l e a k o f f con-
t r o l and s u p p o r t i n g s o l i d s l e a d - i n as w e l l as m i c r o p r o p p a n t p l u g g i n g h a i r l i n e
f i s s u r e s . H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s u s i n g 100 mesh sand
as an a d d i t i v e f o r f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l and/or h a i r l i n e crack p r o p p i n g b e n e f i t
from achieving higher sustained production, reaching higher concentrations o f
f r a c t u r e - s u p p o r t i n g proppants, fewer screenout f a i l u r e s happening, more t r e a t -
ments s t a y i n g i n zone, and c o n v e n t i o n a l f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s n o t b e i n g r e q u i r e d
(MILLER & WAREMBOURG 1975). Examples o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f 100 mesh sand a r e r e p o r -
t e d by GWINN & McMANUS (1977); CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VETTER (1981); RO-
BERTS (1981), McMECHAN & CONWAY (1983), BEGNAUO & CLAIBORNE (1985), ZAHNER &
CRAFTON (1985), NIEMEYER & REINART (1986) and NOLTE (1988 b; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 2 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) .

The use o f 100 mesh, 40/60 mesh o r 70/140 mesh sand i n t h e f i r s t 25 % o f t h e

f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t r e p r e s e n t i n g a l e a d - i n schedule h e l p s i n f l u i d l e a k o f f con-
t r o l t h r o u g h h a i r l i n e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n (PAI,
G A R B I S & HALL 1983). The f i n e sand a c t s as a secondary proppant and i s a h i g h -
l y - c o n d u c t i v e means o f t i p p a c k i n g i n secondary h a i r l i n e f i s s u r e s and j o i n t l e t s
which do n o t accept l a r g e r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s , t h e r e b y i n h i b i t i n g e x c e s s i v e loss
o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s (LAMBERT, DOLAN & GALLUS 1983). Some aspects o f preven-
t i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g , a p p l i c a t i o n o f 100 mesh
sand as e x c l u s i v e o r p a r t i c i p a n t proppant, and p r o v o k i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y d e s t r u c -
 76

t i o n i n p l u g s e t t i n g f o r h e i g h t g r o w t h l i m i t a t i o n a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

1.4.11.2.1.2.Preventing permeability deterioration

I n t e r m i x i n g o f 100 mesh sand w i t h c o a r s e f r a c t u r i n g p r o p p a n t s o f m o s t common-
l y 2 0 / 4 0 a n d / o r 1 6 / 2 0 mesh g r a i n s i z e r e s u l t s i n d r a s t i c a l p r o p p a n t package c o n -
d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n . Measures f o r p r e v e n t i o n o f d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s a r e ad-
d i t i o n o f o n l y l i m i t e d amounts o f 100 mesh sand, p r o p e r s e p a r a t i o n o f 100 mesh
sand b y s p a c e r f l u i d c u s h i o n s f r o m t h e m a i n p r o p p a n t l o t , r e p l a c e m e n t o f 100
mesh sand b y f i n e s a l t w h i c h i s s o l u b l e , and u t i l i z a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d 100
mesh sand o r p r o p p a n t s w h i c h do n o t f l o w o u t o f t h e h a i r l i n e f i s s u r e s i n t o t h e
m a i n c r a c k once p l a c e d w i t h i n t h e j o i n t l e t s . The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s f o c u s s e s
on p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y d e s t r u c t i o n b y f i n e s , 100 mesh sand v s . f i n e s a l t , and
100 mesh m i c r o p r o p p a n t s f o r h a i r l i n e f i s s u r e s .

1.4.11.2.1.2.1. Proppant permeability destruction by fines

I f t h e f i n e f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l sand happens t o become i n t e r m i x e d w i t h t h e
l a r g e r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s , a l r e a d y a 5 % c o n t e n t o f 100 mesh sand w i t h i n t h e p r o p -
p a n t package c a n r e d u c e f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y u p t o 40 %, and a t c l o s u r e s t r e s -
ses above 4,000 p s i , c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r o p p a n t p o p u l a t i o n b y 20 % f i n e sand
c a n a l r e a d y have t h e r e s u l t t h a t p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h i s m i x t u r e a p p r o a c h e s t h e va-
l u e o f 100 mesh sand a l o n e w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n t h a t o f t h e p u r e
proppant population, w i t h thus t h e e f f e c t o f the f r a c t u r i n g treatment almost
h a v i n g gone away. A s l i g h t l y b e t t e r s o l u t i o n t o r e d u c e f l u i d l e a k o f f m i g h t be
a d d i t i o n o f s i l i c a f l o u r which i s s u f f i c i e n t l y fine-grained n o t t o i n t e r f e r e
any more w i t h t h e c o a r s e - g r a i n e d p r o p p a n t s i n v e r y l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , b u t a l s o
h e r e c a u t i o n has t o b e e x e r c i s e d , because 3 - 4 X o f f i n e s o f any t y p e c a n i n
t h e w o r s t c a s e a l r e a d y d e s t r o y 90 % o f p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y (McDANIEL & WIL-
LINGHAM 1978; SMITH 1 9 8 7 ) .

A s a f e t y p r o c e d u r e f o r e f f e c t i v e s e p a r a t i o n i s t h e pumping o f a l a r g e s p a c e r
pad o r c u s h i o n between t h e 100 mesh f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l sand and t h e f r a c t u r e
p r o p p a n t s (BLASIO, BAILEY & BERGTHOLD 1985; BARBY & BARBEE 1 9 8 7 ) . 100 mesh sand
has t u r n e d o u t t o be a p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e f l u i d - l e a k o f f s u p e r v i s i o n a d d i -
t i v e i n c a s e o f v e r y s h o r t c r a c k c l o s u r e t i m e s . 70/140 mesh sand has r e p e a t e d l y
p r o v e n t o be l e s s damaging t o f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y t h a n s i l i c a f l o u r (LAMBERT,
DOLAN & GALLUS 1 9 8 3 ) . I n c o n t r a s t t o f i n e p a r t i c l e s w h i c h p l u g t h e p r o p p a n t
package i n t e r s t i c e s , l a r g e r p i e c e s o f d e b r i s c a n p o s s i b l y o b s t r u c t t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n h o l e s (OSBORNE, McLEOO & SCHROEDER 1 9 8 1 ) .

Examples o f s t r o n g p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n b y e x c e s s i v e amounts o f f i n e p a r -
t i c l e s i n v a d i n g t h e p r o p p a n t pack a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d b y ROLL, HIMES, EWERT &
DOERKSEN ( 1 9 8 6 ) who a l s o c o n c l u d e t h a t i n s p i t e o f t h e b e s t e f f o r t s t o d e s i g n
and p e r f o r m h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g t r e a t m e n t s , e x c e s s i v e f i n e s
g e n e r a t i o n and/or i m m i g r a t i o n can d e f e a t t h e purpose o f t h e o p e r a t i o n ( t h e de-
t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t o f e x c e s s i v e f i n e s i s a l s o emphasized b y PENBERTHY & COPE
1979; SHRYOCK, DUNLOP & MILLHONE 1979 and KRUEGER 1 9 8 6 ) .

1.4.11.2.1.2.2. 100 mesh sand vs. fine salt

An a l t e r n a t i v e t o 100 mesh sand as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e f o r b r i d g i n g o f n a t u -
r a l h a i r l i n e c r a c k s i s f i n e s a l t o f 30/60 a n d / o r 8 0 / 1 2 0 mesh g r a i n s i z e w h i c h
p a c k s t o l o w e r p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e f r a c t u r e s u n d e r p r e s s u r e t h a n s i l i c a (SCHRIE-
TER & SHAW 1 9 7 8 ) , and t o some e x t e n t a l s o c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e f l o u r . S a l t has
a l s o t h e a d v a n t a g e w i t h r e s p e c t t o sand t h a t i t i s s u b s e q u e n t l y d i s s o l v e d a g a i n
t o p e r m i t u n r e s t r i c t e d f l o w from t h e h a i r l i n e cracks which t h u s can c o n t r i b u t e
t o h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n , and t h a t i t e l i m i n a t e s pump and e q u i p m e n t damage p r o -
blems p r o v o k e d b y a b r a s i v e sand. C a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e f l o u r and f i n e - g r a i n e d s a l t
 77

have t h e advantage t o be a b l e t o be l a t e r d i s s o l v e d by h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d and wa-

t e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n c o n t r a s t t o s i l i c a f l o u r and 100 mesh sand which c o u l d
o n l y be a t t a c k e d by h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d t h a t a l s o can have d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s on
t h e proppant package ( c a l c i u m carbonate f l o u r and f i n e - g r a i n e d s a l t a r e f r e -
q u e n t l y u t i l i z e d i n g r a v e l p a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s because o f t h e advantages m e n t i o -
ned; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 1 1 . 4 . ) .

1.4.11.2.1.2.3.100 mesh microproppants f o r hairline fissures

On t h e o t h e r hand, s u p p o r t o f h a i r l i n e j o i n t l e t s by 100 mesh m i c r o p r o p p a n t s
p r o v i d e s a d d i t i o n a l c o n d u c t i v i t y t o t h e whole f r a c t u r e system c o n t r i b u t i n g t o
p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h open m i c r o f i s s u r e s a f t e r p r e s s u r e r e t u r n a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y be-
i n g a b l e t o c l o s e again and t o d e t e r i o r a t e t h e e f f e c t o f t h e i n t e g r a t e d network
(WARPINSKI 1988 a ) . T h e r e f o r e i n many case5 i t may be d e s i r a b l e i n h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g t o u t i l i z e 100 mesh sand as a c o m b i n a t i o n o f f l u i d - l o s s agent and m i -
croproppant f o r e f f e c t i v e l y l i m i t i n g accelerated f l u i d l e a k o f f i n t o h a i r l i n e
j o i n t l e t s and t o adequately s u p p o r t t h e m i c r o c r a c k s t o keep them open f o r l a t e r
r e s e r v o i r e x p l o i t a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 2 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . As c o n t i -
nuous a d d i t i o n of 100 mesh sand guarantees p o s i t i v e f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l impact
t h r o u g h o u t t h e j o b , i n some l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y t i g h t gas sandstones i t can be f e a -
s i b l e t o accept m i n o r c o n d u c t i v i t y r e d u c t i o n o f h i g h - q u a l i t y proppants and t o
secure f l u i d l e a k o f f l i m i t a t i o n by permanent 100 mesh sand a d d i t i o n u n t i l t h e
end o f t h e o p e r a t i o n (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, CIPOLLA, LORENZ & THORNE
1988).

Such small amounts o f 100 mesh sand which do n o t s e r i o u s l y d e s t r o y p r o p p a n t

c o n d u c t i v i t y , however, have o n l y l i m i t e d e f f e c t i v i t y i n f l u i d - l o s s r e s t r i c t i o n
and can r e a s o n a b l y slow down a c c e l e r a t e d l e a k o f f , b u t cannot s t o p i t e n t i r e l y
and t h u s r e m a i n i n g f l u i d - l o s s r a t e s a r e s t i l l v e r y h i g h (WARPINSKI 1988 a ) . I n
deeper r e s e r v o i r s w i t h h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s , c o n s i d e r a b l e improvement o f dual
f l u i d l e a k o f f c o n t r o l c o u l d be achieved by 100 mesh i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h -
s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants as an e f f e c t i v e m i c r o p r o p p i n g agent i n h a i r l i n e
c r a c k s , b u t t h i s g r a i n s i z e o f a r t i f i c i a l h i g h - q u a l i t y proppants i s n o t y e t com-
m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e (NORTHCUTT, ROBERTSON & HANNAH 1988). R e s i n - c o a t e d 100 mesh
sand o r proppants have t h e advantage t h a t once p l a c e d w i t h i n t h e m i c r o f i s s u r e s ,
a g g l o m e r a t i o n o f t h e r e s i n p e l l i c l e s p r e v e n t s flowback o f t h e m i c r o p r o p p a n t s
t h u s s t a b i l i z i n g them as s u p p o r t i n g wedges i n t h e h a i r l i n e c r a c k s and i n h i b i t -
i n g m i x i n g o f 100 mesh p a r t i c l e s w i t h coarse proppants i n t h e main f r a c t u r e
branch ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 2 . 6 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) .

1.4.11.2.1.3. 100 mesh sand as exclusive or participant proppant

F l u i d l e a k o f f m i n i m i z a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l f o r success o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ment, because e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l o s s a u t o m a t i c a l l y l e a d s t o s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e
( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) , b u t a l s o proppant performance must
n o t be s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d , as d e t e r i o r a t i n g proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y a l s o r e s u l t s
i n t e c h n i c a l and economical f a i l u r e o f t h e t r e a t m e n t . EASON (1985) and WARPIN-
S K I (1988 a ) d e s c r i b e combined a c t i o n o f 100 mesh sand as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e
and as m i c r o p r o p p a n t i n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s where i t f i r s t c o n t r o l s
f l u i d l e a k o f f and l a t e r p r o v i d e s adequate p e r m e a b i l i t y and a c t s as a p r o p p a n t
i n t h e n a t u r a l and/or h y d r a u l i c m i c r o c r a c k s once f r a c t u r e b a l l o o n i n g s u b s i d e s .
When n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d r e s e r v o i r s a r e h y d r a u l i c a l l y t r e a t e d , a l a r g e f r a c t u r e
i s c r e a t e d b u t many small s i d e f i s s u r e s can open d u r i n g h i g h - r a t e i n j e c t i o n .
These m i c r o c r a c k s a r e p r e v e n t e d f r o m c l o s i n g by p l u g g i n g w i t h 100 mesh sand
which a l l o w s t h e propped h a i r l i n e j o i n t s t o c o n t r i b u t e t o h i g h e r w e l l p r o d u c t i -
v i t y due t o i n c r e a s e d s u r f a c e area and f r a c t u r e volume. Some comments on a p p l i -
c a t i o n o f 100 mesh sand f o r i n f i l l i n g o f h a i r l i n e f i s s u r e s i n a c i d and p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g as w e l l as an o u t l i n e o f t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f 100 mesh sand as e x c l u -
s i v e proppant a r e g i v e n as f o l l o w s .
 78

1.4.11.2.1.3.1.Application in acid and proppant fracturing

100 mesh sand a s a m i c r o p r o p p a n t i s t h e r e f o r e v e r y b e n e f i c i a l i n h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n o f n a t u r a l l y c r a c k e d f o r m a t i o n s as w e l l as i n a c i d f r a c t u -
r i n g (FRACFAX 1988 f ) . 100 mesh b o t h r e g u l a r and r e s i n - c o a t e d sand has a b t . 5 -
7 d a r c y p e r m e a b i l i t y a t a l m o s t any c l o s u r e s t r e s s w h i c h p r o v i d e s s t i l l a r e a s o -
nable c o n t r a s t t o the m i l l i - t o microdarcy t i g h t rock m a t r i x . I f microproppant
f l o w b a c k has t o be i n h i b i t e d , c u r a b l e r e s i n - c o a t e d 100 mesh sand i s k e p t i n
p l a c e b y r e s i n b o n d i n g . 100 mesh m i c r o p r o p p a n t s h e l p t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i o n b e -
c a u s e t h e y s u p p o r t v e r y f i n e n a t u r a l h a i r l i n e c r a c k s as w e l l as n a r r o w segments
o r s i d e b r a n c h e s o f t h e a c i d - o r g e l - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e . CRENSHAW & JOINES ( 1 9 7 7 )
a l s o emphasize t h e d u a l r o l e o f 100 mesh sand as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e and m i c r o -
proppant a l l o w i n g drainage from secondary j o i n t s .

In a c i d f r a c t u r i n g , m i c r o p r o p p a n t s a r e a l s o a b l e t o e x t e n d s t i m u l a t e d p r o d u c -
t i o n and i n c r e a s e u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y by p r e v e n t i n g o f p r e m a t u r e c l o s u r e o r p l u g -
g i n g o f t h e e t c h e d f r a c t u r e morphology, vug spaces, h a i r l i n e s i d e b r a n c h e s and
wormhole f e a t u r e s . I n o r d e r t o a c c e p t p r o p p i n g a g e n t , f r a c t u r e w i d t h m u s t be i n
the range o f 2 . 5 times t h e proppant diameter, w i t h t h e standard proppant g r a i n
s i z e s ( 1 6 / 2 0 and 20/40) f u l f i l l i n g t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t f o r m o s t o f t h e h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e s , w h i l e 100 mesh sand f i t s i n t o t h e h a i r l i n e m i c r o c r a c k s (THOMPSON
1 9 7 7 ) . 100 mesh m i c r o p r o p p a n t c a n be r e g a r d e d as p r e p a c k s t a g e ahead o f t h e
m a i n s t a g e s o f v a r i o u s t r e a t m e n t s c o m p r i s i n g b o t h p r o p p a n t and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g
(MILLER & WAREMBOURG 1 9 7 5 ) .

1.4.11.2.1.3.2.100 mesh sand as exclusive proppant

A p a r t f r o m i t s a p p l i c a t i o n as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e a n d / o r p a r t i a l p r o p p a n t ,
100 mesh sand c a n a l s o be e x c l u s i v e l y u s e d as p r o p p a n t f o r r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a -
t i o n (THOMPSON 1977; HARPER, HAGAN & MARTINS 1985) i f t h e p l a c e m e n t o f c o a r s e r
g r a i n s would b e a r h i g h screenout r i s k , i f o n l y moderate c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y i s
s u f f i c i e n t such as i n m i n i f r a c t u r i n g b r e a k i n g t h r o u g h n e a r - w e l l b o r e damage ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 3 . ) , o r i f s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t have t o be s e r i o u s l y c o n t a i n e d f o r v a -
r i o u s r e a s o n s . 100 mesh as w e l l as 40/60 mesh o r 70/140 mesh sand c a n a l s o be
u t i l i z e d as f i n e - g r a i n e d l e a d - i n s t a g e o f t h e p r o p p a n t assemblage i n o r d e r t o
not only plug h a i r l i n e cracks i n the reservoir matrix a t the fracture t i p , but
a l s o t o f a c i l i t a t e proppant placement a t t h e e x t r e m i t i e s o f e s p e c i a l l y v e r y
l o n g c r a c k s , w i t h t h e aims b e i n g a c h i e v i n g smooth p r o p p a n t s l u r r y f l o w - i n , good
p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and a v o i d i n g s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e . M i g r a t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n
f i n e s and 100 mesh sand p a r t i c l e s f r o m m i c r o f i s s u r e s i n t o t h e c o a r s e p r o p p a n t
package i n t h e m a i n f r a c t u r e c a n be p r e v e n t e d b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d
100 mesh sand w h i c h l o c k s t h e m i c r o p r o p p a n t s t o g e t h e r t o a s t a b l e package t h a t
maintains high fracture conductivity.

G e n e r a l l y t h e amount o f 100 mesh sand and o t h e r f i n e s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i -

ves s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d a b t . 1 0 %, because i n case o f h i g h e r s h a r e s o f f i n e s ,
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s i n g ( L I & ZHU 1 9 8 6 ) . F r a c t u r e c o n -
d u c t i v i t y damage c r e a t e d b y h i g h - s t r e n g t h b a u x i t e f i n e s i s l e s s t h a n t h a t gene-
r a t e d b y l o w - s t r e n g t h sand m a t e r i a l s , w i t h a f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f a b t . 70 %
and 30 % o f t h e v a l u e s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m f i e l d t r a n s i e n t p r e s s u r e t e s t s b e i n g r e a -
ched when u s i n g f i n e b a u x i t e and f i n e sand, r e s p e c t i v e l y , as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i -
ves.

1.4.11.2.1.4.Provoking permeability destruction

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e general aim o f p r e v e n t i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f
p r o p p a n t assemblages pumped downhole and i n s e r t e d i n t o h y d r a u l i c a l l y g e n e r a t e d
f r a c t u r e s , some s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h p a r t i a l l y a r e d e s i g n a t e d t o i m p r o v e
p r o p p a n t p l a c e m e n t and t h u s f r a c t u r e e f f i c i e n c y l o o k on p r o v o k i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y
 79

d e s t r u c t i o n o f some l o t s o f t h e s o l i d p a r t i c u l a t e s which a r e d r i v e n i n t o t h e
c r a c k by t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d s . Such a s p e c i a l case o f d e s i r e d p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e -
r i o r a t i o n i s f o r example t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f m i x t u r e s o f v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t g r a i n
s i z e s as buoyant o r s e t t l i n g d i v e r t e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 4 . ) f o r sealing the
upper o r l o w e r t i p o f a f r a c t u r e e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e r e s e r v o i r sandstone i n t o
t h e o v e r l y i n g mudstone b a r r i e r and t h e r e b y r e s t r i c t i n g v e r t i c a l upwards o r down-
wards h e i g h t growth o f t h e crack, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

NOLTE (1988 b ) r e p o r t s an example where s u c c e s s f u l b l o c k i n g o f t h e upper t i p

o f t h e f r a c t u r e has been achieved by a t i g h t f l o w b l o c k c o n s i s t i n g o f a m i x t u r e
o f s i l i c a f l o u r and 100 mesh, 20/40 mesh and 10/20 mesh sand which, i f p r o p e r l y
s e t i n p l a c e , has v i r t u a l l y no p e r m e a b i l i t y a t a l l . C a r e f u l s e l e c t i v e i n s e r t i o n
o f buoyant d i v e r t e r f o r f l o w b l o c k purposes and proppant f o r f r a c t u r e s u p p o r t
w i t h d i f f e r e n t f l u i d stages o f d i f f e r e n t v i s c o s i t y and w i t h a d j u s t e d pumping r a -
t e s i s necessary t o a v o i d i n t e r f e r e n c e o f b o t h s o l i d l o a d s and t o keep t h e p r o p -
p a n t s o f t h e l a t e r l o t which a r e d e s i g n a t e d f o r c o n d u c t i v i t y c r e a t i o n c l e a n and
s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e g r a i n s i z e m i x t u r e w h i c h i s planned f o r f r a c t u r e s e a l i n g by
permeability d e t e r i o r a t i o n ( c f . section 4.2.2.4.1.). Proper d e s i g n o f t h e f l u i d
spacer s e p a r a t i n g t h e two stages o f s o l i d m a t e r i a l i n t r o d u c t i o n t h e r e f o r e a c h i e -
ves key s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r s u c c e s s f u l i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e d e s i r e d p r o p p a n t d i s t r i -
b u t i o n and r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e attempted f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth c o n t r o l .

Another t y p e o f p e r m e a b i l i t y d e s t r u c t i o n i s p l u g g i n g o f f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i -
t y i n t h i e f zones by a c r y l i c epoxy r e s i n systems r e p r e s e n t i n g a s p e c i a l a p p l i c a -
t i o n o f i n - s i t u chemical r e s e r v o i r c o n s o l i d a t i o n (KNAPP & WELBOURN 1978; Z A I -
TOUN, KOHLER & GUERRINI 1989; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 9 . 1 . 7 . ) .

1.4.11.2.2. Mixing o f various coarse Proppant grain sizes

A c c i d e n t a l m i x i n g o f 20/40 and 16/20 o r 12/20 proppant g r a i n s a t t h e t r a n s i -
t i o n s between d i f f e r e n t stages o f t a i l - i n ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . ) o r l e a d - i n mul-
t i - p r o p p a n t h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s has t h e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t o f p l u g -
g i n g o f t h e i n t e r s t i t i a l s between t h e c o a r s e r g r a i n s by t h e f i n e r p a r t i c l e s o f
t h e bimodal d i s t r i b u t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e f o u r t i m e s f a s t e r s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y
o f a b t . t w i c e l a r g e r g r a i n s ( a c c o r d i n g t o Stokes' l a w ) may l e a d t o v e r t i c a l se-
p a r a t i o n o f g r a i n s i z e s b y f a l l i n g o f t h e c o a r s e r g r a i n s f a s t e r down t o t h e b o t -
tom o f t h e f r a c t u r e t h a n t h e f i n e r g r a i n s (LOCKETT & AL-HABBOOBY 1973, M I R Z A &
RICHARDSON 1979), r e s u l t i n g i n o r i g i n o f a v e r t i c a l p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e zona-
t i o n due t o e x i s t e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t l a y e r s composing t h e p r o p p a n t bank, which i s
i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e d e s i r e d e f f e c t o f l a t e r a l succession o f b e l t s w i t h proppants
o f d i f f e r e n t g r a i n s i z e a l o n g t h e c r a c k . Moreover, g r a v i t a t i o n a l s p l i t t i n g o f
t h e p o p u l a t i o n s may r e s u l t i n o r i g i n o f asymmetrical wedges o f c o a r s e r m a t e r i a l
t h a t i s n o t i n continuous contact w i t h the r e s e r v o i r along the f u l l height o f
t h e f r a c t u r e d i n t e r v a l and t h u s t h e a n t i c i p a t e d homogeneous m a n t l e - l i k e d i s t r i -
b u t i o n o f t h e t a i l around t h e w e l l b o r e i s n o t accomplished. Aspects o f s e t t l i n g
v e l o c i t i e s o f proppants a r e d i s c u s s e d by DUNANO & SOUCEMARIANADIN (1985), K I R K -
BY & ROCKEFELLER (1985) and ROODHART (1985), and ACHARYA (1986) e v a l u a t e s p a r -
t i c l e t r a n s p o r t i n v i s c o u s and v i s c o e l a s t i c f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s .

CLARK (1983) summarizes t h a t an i n t e r m i x i n g o f d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t q u a l i t y t y -

pes r e s u l t s i n much l e s s r e s i s t a n c e t o c r u s h i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e - i n f i l l i n g pack-
age w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h a t o f homogeneous m o n o q u a l i t y proppant s u i t e s , whereas an
i n t e r m i x i n g o f v a r i o u s proppant s i z e s o r sometimes a l s o shapes causes l e s s f r a c -
t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y due t o i n c r e a s e d p a c k i n g e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e p a r t i c l e s .

1.4.11.3. Mixing o f proppant grain shapes

While a c c i d e n t i a l o r planned m i x i n g o f proppant t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s i s
u s u a l l y d e t r i m e n t a l t o performance and g i v e s f r e q u e n t l y r i s e t o even worse p r o -
p e r t i e s o f t h e m i x t u r e t h a n those o f some o f t h e i n g r e d i e n t s alone, designed m i -
 80

Xing o f p r o p p a n t g r a i n shapes can e f f e c t i v e l y improve s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t p e r -

formance by p r o v i d i n g h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y and c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y t o t h e
c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l components
alone. An o u t l i n e o f m i x i n g o f round and a n g u l a r sand g r a i n s and i t s s i g n i f i -
cance f o r c o n d u c t i v i t y m a x i m i z a t i o n as w e l l as t h e r e s u l t i n g b e n e f i t f o r t h e hy-
drocarbon s t i m u l a t i o n i n d u s t r y i s g i v e n as f o l l o w s .

1.4.11.3.1. Enhanced conductivity o f round-angular sand blends

LARSEN & SMITH (1985) s t u d y t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a n g u l a r vs. round g r a i n s i n
20/40 n a t u r a l sand. O i l and gas i n d u s t r y g e n e r a l l y demands f r a c t u r i n g sand and
proppants t o meet h i g h roundness and s p h e r i c i t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o p r o -
v i d e t h e optimum g e o m e t r i c a l pack i n t h e f r a c t u r e . Some comments on c o n d u c t i v i -
t y improvement and package s t a b i l i t y as w e l l as c r u s h i n g b e h a v i o u r a r e o f f e r e d
as f o l l o w s .

1.4.11.3.1.1. Conductivity improvement and package stability

P e r f e c t roundness and s p h e r i c i t y o f t h e g r a i n s indeed decrease p o i n t p r e s -
s u r e and reduce c r u s h i n g and f i n e s generated i n t h e proppant assemblage, but
t h e optimum g e o m e t r i c a l pack f o r c r u s h r e s i s t a n c e does n o t always o f f e r maximum
c o n d u c t i v i t y (LARSEN & SMITH 1985). While a h i g h g r a i n s p h e r i c i t y has t o be
m a i n t a i n e d because t h i s e l i m i n a t e s p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e s w i t h e l o n g a t e d shapes and
p r o t r u s i o n s and p r e v e n t s t h e i r f i t t i n g i n t o n a t u r a l v o i d spaces t h e r e b y
r e s t r i c t i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y , i t i s n o t always advantageous f o r a l l t h e sand g r a i n s
t o be e i t h e r p e r f e c t l y round and smooth o r c o m p l e t e l y a n g u l a r . A l t h o u g h t o t a l l y
a n g u l a r g r a i n p o p u l a t i o n s have t h e h i g h e s t p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y i n a l o o s e
pack and a t v e r y low t o low c l o s u r e s t r e s s , t h e y possess s u r f a c e s t h a t w i l l
break o f f OF c r u s h e a s i l y w i t h any s i g n i f i c a n t c l o s u r e s t r e s s because of uneven
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e s u r f a c e p o i n t s t h a t t o u c h each o t h e r and t h u s a t
moderate and h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s , e n t i r e l y round p r o p p a n t g r a i n p o p u l a t i o n s
a r e s u p e r i o r t o w h o l l y a n g u l a r assemblages.

I f a c e r t a i n percentage o f a n g u l a r g r a i n s i s i n t e r s p e r s e d i n a v e r y round
and s p h e r i c a l sand, however, t h e b e n e f i t o f a h i g h l y porous ;.:gular sand can
c r e a t e a h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e m i x t u r e t h a n e i t h e r pure round o r homogene-
ous a n g u l a r g r a i n p o p u l a t i o n s a l o n e possess. The i n c r e a s e d v o i d space o f a com-
b i n a t i o n o f round and a n g u l a r sands overcomes c r u s h i n g s u s c e p t i b i l i t y and en-
hances o v e r a l l proppant performance.

1.4.11.3.1.2. Crushing behaviour

L a b o r a t o r y experiments have r e v e a l e d t h a t o f a l l m i x t u r e s t e s t e d , a 50 : 50
r o u n d - a n g u l a r b l e n d o f 20/40 mesh sand has on t h e average t h e h i g h e s t r e l a t i v e
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y t h r o u g h a l l t h e c l o s u r e s t r e s s l e v e l s up t o 6,000 p s i
(LARSEN & S M I T H 1985). Round-angular blends o f 20/40 sand have even more conduc-
t i v i t y a t c e r t a i n c l o s u r e s t r e s s l e v e l s than t h e e x c l u s i v e l y round p r o d u c t
which t h e o i l and gas i n d u s t r y has c o n v e n t i o n a l l y r e q u i r e d . The b e n e f i t o f t h e
angular grains f o r improving c o n d u c t i v i t y o f the mixtures r e s u l t s from the i n -
t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f round and a n g u l a r q u a r t z g r a i n s . Many a n g u l a r g r a i n s have
a u t h i g e n i c i d i o m o r p h i c q u a r t z overgrowths which break o f f f r o m t h e p a r e n t c r y -
s t a l a t low p r e s s u r e s and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e generated f i n e s may b l o c k e f f e c t i v e
pore space.

While t h i s may be d e t r i m e n t a l a t l o w e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s , t h e f i n e s may ac-

t u a l l y surround and s u p p o r t t h e d e t r i t a l c o r e a t h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s , and
by t h i s p r o t e c t i o n a l l o w t h e a n g u l a r g r a i n s t o p e r f o r m b e t t e r than t h e more
round g r a i n s as t h e y pass t h r o u g h t h e i r r e g u l a r c r u s h i n g sequence. Round g r a i n s
a r e f r e q u e n t l y m o n o c r y s t a l l i n e and r e s i s t t o h i g h c r u s h i n g p r e s s u r e s . When
 81

t h e i r f a i l u r e p o i n t i s reached, however, c r u s h i n g o f m o n o c r y s t a l l i n e round

g r a i n s i s more severe due t o t h e i r h i g h e r b r i t t l e n e s s t h a n t h a t o f o l i g o c r y s t a l -
l i n e g r a i n s where some d e f o r m a t i o n can o c c u r by s l i d i n g a l o n g c r y s t a l bounda-
r i e s . I n case o f a n g u l a r g r a i n s , a l a r g e amount o f f r a c t u r e s t r e s s may be r e l i e -
ved when t h e a u t h i g e n i c euhedral q u a r t z overgrowths break o f f , a l l o w i n g t h e pa-
r e n t g r a i n t o r e t a i n i t s i n t e r n a l strength longer.

I n a d d i t i o n , a n g u l a r sands t e n d t o pack t i g h t e r t h a n round ones because o f

t h e i n t e r l o c k i n g e f f e c t which t h e rough s u r f a c e s have on each o t h e r . I f t h e p r o -
p e r percentage o f a n g u l a r g r a i n s were i n t e r s p e r s e d i n a p o p u l a t i o n o f round
g r a i n s such t h a t each a n g u l a r g r a i n i s k e p t f r o m c o n t a c t i n g any o t h e r , b e n e f i t
can be t a k e n f r o m t h e a d d i t i o n a l v o i d space o f t h e a n g u l a r g r a i n s and t h e s i g n i -
f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n o f t h e i n t e r l o c k i n g e f f e c t w i t h i n t h e m i x t u r e , as w e l l as f r o m
t h e i n c r e a s i n g f r i c t i o n p r o v i d i n g h i g h e r s t a b i l i t y o f t h e g r a i n assemblage ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 1.3.5. and 1 . 4 . 3 . ) .

1.4.11.3.2. Benefit for the hydrocarbon stimulation industry

According t o t h e b e n e f i t o f m i x t u r e s o f round and a n g u l a r sand g r a i n popula-
t i o n s , a b e t t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n o f many sandstone q u a r r i e s and sand p i t s can be
performed and l o t s t h a t have been separated i n t h e p a s t as b e i n g below s t a n d a r d
and o u t o f s p e c i f i c a t i o n can be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e q u a n t i t i e s d e l i v e r e d t o
t h e w e l l s i t e s , t h e r e b y s e c u r i n g s u p p l y and h e l p i n g t o a v o i d a r e p e t i t i o n o f se-
r i o u s f r a c t u r i n g sand shortages ( a s e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e USA d u r i n g t h e 1970's
when o i l and gas w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n boosted a f t e r t h e f i r s t o i l p r i c e jump) i n
t h e f u t u r e when h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o f hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r s reaches a g a i n
such a frequency t h a t a l l t h e p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e sources o f n a t u r a l sand and
s y n t h e t i c proppants r e a c h t h e l i m i t s o f p r o d u c t i o n and d e l i v e r y p o t e n t i a l (LAR-
SEN & SMITH 1985).

As combinations o f round and a n g u l a r n a t u r a l sand have t u r n e d o u t t o have

h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y t h a n round p o p u l a t i o n s alone, t h e same can be assumed t o be
v a l i d f o r s y n t h e t i c proppants, t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t t o o l f o r f r a c -
t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y m a x i m i z a t i o n and enhancement o f t h e f o r m a t i o n - f r a c t u r e con-
d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t . T h i s may g i v e r i s e t o a renaissance o f a n g u l a r s i n t e r e d bau-
x i t e which was o f f e r e d d u r i n g e a r l y a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s y n t h e t i c h i g h - s t r e n g t h
proppants as a s i m p l e b y - p r o d u c t o f a b r a s i v e m a n u f a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.2.4.
and 1 . 3 . 5 . ) .

1.4.12. Computer programs for proppant select ion

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g d e s i g n s h o u l d i d e a l l y be a b l e n d o f computer
s i m u l a t i o n tempered w i t h f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e (PA1 & GARBIS 1983 b; GARBIS, BROWN &
MAURITZ 1985). The expenses f o r a h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t a r e com-
posed o f proppant, f l u i d , f i x e d s e t - u p and h y d r a u l i c horsepower c o s t s (ZAHNER &
CRAFTON 1985). Due t o t h e f a c t t h a t p r o p p a n t expenses can amount up t o two
t h i r d s o f t h e t o t a l s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n c o s t , proppant s e l e c t i o n i s n o t o n l y
t h e key element o f f r a c t u r e d e s i g n f r o m t e c h n i c a l s t a n d p o i n t i n terms o f c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y , b u t a l s o f r o m economical view c o n c e r n i n g j o b f e a s i b i l i -
t y and p r o f i t a b i l i t y . W h i l e p r o p p a n t c h o i c e and d e s i g n o p t i m i z a t i o n i n l a r g e r
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g campaigns i n whole f i e l d s have h i s t o r i c a l l y been f r e q u e n t -
l y done by t r i a l - a n d - e r r o r e v o l u t i o n , i n t h e l a s t few decades i n c r e a s i n g s o p h i s -
t i c a t i o n o f computerized m o d e l l i n g has c o n s i d e r a b l y improved t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s
o f a c c u r a t e p l a n n i n g w i t h economical assessment o f payout t i m e and c a s h - f l o w
r a t e . I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n h i g h l y c o n d u c t i v e and deeply p e n e t r a t i n g cracks, accu-
r a t e f r a c t u r e d e s i g n i s i m p e r a t i v e (CHARLES, HUDOCK, UDICK & HALL 1983).

Proppant s e l e c t i o n f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l a p p l i c a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o r e s e r v o i r
c o n d i t i o n s had been t r a d i t i o n a l l y made by t y p e c u r v e a n a l y s i s and e v a l u a t i o n o f
p r o p p a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n t h e l a s t years, s e v e r a l computer programs have ap-
 82

p e a r e d on t h e m a r k e t w h i c h a r e based on a t y p e - c u r v e - l i k e a l g o r i t h m (AGARWAL,
CARTER & POLLOCK 1979) and a l l o w f a s t c a l c u l a t i o n o f v a r i o u s c a s e s o f economi-
c a l f e a s i b i l i t y o f p r o p p a n t i n v e s t m e n t v s . p a y o u t b y enhanced a d d i t i o n a l p o s t -
f r a c t u r e h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n (COOKE & GIDLEY 1979, HOLDITCH & LANCASTER
1982, CHENG 1984; COBB 1985, 1986; HALLIBURTON 1985; ANDERSON & PHILLIPS 1986,
1 9 8 7 ) . The p r o g r a m s c a n be r u n i n s m a l l p o r t a b l e c o m p u t e r s f i t t i n g i n t o b r i e f -
c a s e s w h i c h a l l o w c o n v e n i e n t d i s p l a y a t any t i m e and p l a c e and t h u s p e r m i t a i r
t r a v e l l i n g t o c u s t o m e r o f f i c e s and t r e a t m e n t e x e c u t i o n s i t e s . M i c r o c o m p u t e r mo-
d e l s f o r t h e d e s i g n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o p r e s e n t e d b y CLEARY, KECK &
MEAR ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some a s p e c t s o f n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e c a l c u l a t i o n , s e v e -
r a l p o i n t s concerning s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e o u t p u t f o r economical f e a s i b i l i t y as-
sessment a r e o u t l i n e d . The e c o n o m i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n and f r a c -
t u r e design m o d e l l i n g a r e u n d e r l i n e d by an i n t r o d u c t o r y overview o f general eco-
n o m i c a l c r i t e r i a and t h e i r r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d o n
p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n based o n volume v s . w e i g h t .

1 . 4 . 1 2 . 1 . General economical criteria

The m o s t i m p o r t a n t g e n e r a l e c o n o m i c a l c r i t e r i o n i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g d e -
s i g n m o d e l l i n g where p r o p p a n t c h o i c e p l a y s a k e y r o l e i s n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e
which i s present value a f t e r treatment minus present value before t h e o p e r a t i o n
m i n u s p r e s e n t v a l u e o f a l l c o s t s o r i n v e s t m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e j o b (VEATCH
1986). Net p r e s e n t value i s t h e n e t cash f l o w r e s u l t i n g from t h e f r a c t u r i n g
treatment, assumes t h e c o s t o f c a p i t a l r a t e , and i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between p r e -
s e n t v a l u e o f a l l f u t u r e c a s h f l o w s and c o s t o f a s s e t (BARBA 1 9 8 8 ) . P r e s e n t v a -
l u e i s t h e c a s h f l o w coming f r o m w e l l p r o d u c t i o n and expense s t r e a m s , and i s
t h e a c t u a l v a l u e o f some amount i n t h e f u t u r e a t a s p e c i f i c d i s c o u n t r a t e
(VEATCH 1 9 8 6 ) . P a y o u t p e r i o d i s t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c u m u l a t i v e
c a s h p o s i t i o n t o r e a c h z e r o , and d i s c o u n t e d p a y o u t i n t e r v a l i s t h e p e r i o d o f
t i m e f o r t h e p r e s e n t v a l u e o f t h e c u m u l a t i v e c a s h p o s i t i o n t o a t t a i n z e r o . Re-
t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t i s t h e r a t i o o f c u m u l a t i v e n e t c a s h f l o w o v e r t h e p r o j e c t
l i f e t o t h e maximum c a s h o u t l a y . D i s c o u n t e d r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t i s t h e r a t i o
o f t h e p r e s e n t value o f cumulative n e t cash f l o w over p r o j e c t l i f e t o p r e s e n t
v a l u e o f t h e i n v e s t m e n t f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t . Some a s p e c t s o f i n v e s t m e n t r e t u r n
and p r o f i t a b i l i t y as w e l l as d e s i g n o p t i m i z a t i o n and success d e f i n i t i o n a r e
b r i e f l y i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

1.4.12.1.1. Investment return and profitability

R a t e o f r e t u r n o r p r o f i t a b i l i t y i n d e x i s t h e compound i n t e r e s t r a t e whose
d i s c o u n t f a c t o r s w i l l make t h e p r e s e n t v a l u e o f a p r o j e c t ' s n e t c a s h f l o w e q u a l
t o z e r o (VEATCH 1 9 8 6 ) . Synonyms f o r p r o f i t a b i l i t y i n d e x i n c l u d e m a r g i n a l e f f i -
c i e n c y o f c a p i t a l , i n t e r n a l r a t e o f r e t u r n (BAILEY & WICKHAM 1 9 8 4 ) , t r u e y i e l d ,
and d i s c o u n t e d c a s h f l o w method. O t h e r f a c t o r s a r e u n d i s c o u n t e d p r o f i t / i n v e s t -
ment r a t i o and b e n e f i t / c o s t r a t i o . The i n t e r n a l r a t e o f r e t u r n method b a l a n c e s
i n f l o w s and o u t f l o w s , and o u t p u t s t h e c o s t o f c a p i t a l r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n t h i s
b a l a n c e , t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g t h e o p e r a t o r t o compare t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e a s s e t s
and t h u s b e i n g a more u n i v e r s a l t e c h n i q u e (BARBA 1 9 8 8 ) . E v a l u a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g
e c o n o m i c a l a n a l y s i s a r e a l s o s e n s i t i v e t o o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s such as p r o d u c t
p r i c e , c o s t e s c a l a t i o n , o p e r a t i n g expenses and i n i t i a l i n v e s t m e n t (KOZIK, B A I -
LEY & HOLDITCH 1 9 7 9 ) .

The m e n t i o n e d t e r m s a r e u s e d t h r o u g h o u t i n d u s t r y f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e econo-
m i c a l v i a b i l i t y o f p r o j e c t s . W h i l e p r e s e n t v a l u e i s u s e d as t h e base c r i t e r i o n
f o r e c o n o m i c a l c o m p a r i s o n s , t h e r e i s no r e a s o n why any g i v e n i t e m o f a s e t o f
c r i t e r i a s h o u l d be more a p p r o p r i a t e t h a n any o t h e r , w i t h t h e c h o i c e o f p o i n t s
f o r m a k i n g e c o n o m i c a l d e c i s i o n s d e p e n d i n g h e a v i l y on t h e f i n a n c i a l g o a l s o f t h e
i n v e s t o r . P r e s e n t v a l u e c a l c u l a t i o n s c a n be based on d i s c r e t i z e d ( i n c r e m e n t a l )
 83
o r continuous discount f a c t o r s . I t i s important t o note the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f ear-
l y t i m e cash f l o w due t o a c c e l e r a t i o n on p r e s e n t values as w e l l as d i f f e r e n c e s
r e s u l t i n g f r o m d i f f e r e n t p r o d u c t i o n d e c l i n e performance. N e t p r e s e n t v a l u e i s
t h e u l t i m a t e t e r m used t o i n v e s t i g a t e p r e s e n t v a l u e economics coming f r o m hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g operations.

1.4.12.1.2. Design optimization and success definition

The e c o n o m i c a l l y optimum f r a c t u r e d e s i g n i s t h e one which p r o v i d e s t h e l a r -
g e s t n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e (WAREMBOURG, KLINGENSMITH, HODGES & ERDLE 1985). The eco-
n o m i c a l l y optimum d e s i g n i s m a i n l y a f f e c t e d by d u r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n f o r e c a s t
f r o m which n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e i s c a l c u l a t e d , n e t d i s c o u n t e d e x p l o i t a t i o n r e v e -
nue, and amount o f investment r e q u i r e d t o achieve t h e d e s i g n o p t i o n . The c r i t i -
c a l v a r i a b l e s i n t e r a c t and accuracy i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t f o r p r o d u c t i o n f o r e -
c a s t i n g , s t i m u l a t i o n d e s i g n and economical o p t i m i z a t i o n . The c o s t t o determine
more a c c u r a t e values f o r t h e c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s i s u s u a l l y a v e r y small percen-
tage o f t h e t o t a l w e l l c o s t . E a r l y o p t i m i z a t i o n p r e v e n t s r e p e t i t i v e e r r o r s f r o m
o c c u r r i n g i n t h e designs f o r f u t u r e w e l l s . The economical optimum can be asses-
sed p r i o r t o any e x p e n d i t u r e f o r a f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t . The success
o f a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n can be q u a n t i f i e d i n e x a c t terms r e g a r d l e s s
of t h e volumes o f f l u i d and p r o p p a n t a c t u a l l y pumped. U s i n g a l l t h e a v a i l a b l e
technology i n a l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g sequence decreases t h e r i s k a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
any s t i m u l a t i o n j o b and t h e p r o d u c t i o n r e s u l t s , and t h e e x p e r i e n c e f a c t o r i s ac-
c e l e r a t e d and enhanced.

Another i m p o r t a n t economical c r i t e r i o n i s t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f success o f a s t i -

m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t (GIDLEY 1985). F r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s a r e u s u a l l y d e s i g -
ned and j u s t i f i e d on t h e f o l d s o f i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n based on t h e steady
s t a t e o f f t a k e r a t e o f t h e w e l l b e f o r e f r a c t u r i n g (SLUSSER & RIECKMANN 1 9 7 6 ) .
L I h i l e i n many cases f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s a r e c l a s s i f i e d as successes when i n -
cremental hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n pays o u t e x e c u t i o n c o s t w i t h i n a c e r t a i n t i m e
p e r i o d and s a t i s f i e s a p r e d e t e r m i n e d p r o f i t a b i l i t y index, a b e t t e r approach i s
assessing a t r e a t m e n t as success i f i t r e s u l t e d i n a n e t p o s i t i v e p r o d u c t i o n
r a t e b u i l d u p . E v a l u a t i o n s o f s t i m u l a t i o n j o b success can be made on t h e b a s i s
o f i n i t i a l p o t e n t i a l of t h e w e l l , b u t a much b e t t e r approach i s u s i n g a c t u a l
and p r o j e c t e d u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y o f t h e b o r e h o l e (HOEL 1988).

1.4.12.2. Net present value calculation

The d e s i g n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s has t h r e e b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t s
i n c l u d i n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s and c u m u l a t i v e r e c o v e r y
volumes t h a t m i g h t be expected f r o m v a r i o u s crack l e n g t h s and c o n d u c t i v i t i e s
f o r a g i v e n r e s e r v o i r , l a y o u t o f t h e f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o achieve t h e
d e s i r e d c r a c k l e n g t h s and c o n d u c t i v i t i e s , and m a x i m i z a t i o n o f economical r e -
t u r n s (VEATCH 1983, 1986). Revenue e s t i m a t e s a r e developed f o r v a r i o u s f r a c t u r e
parameter c o n s t e l l a t i o n s f r o m p r e d i c t i o n r u n s w i t h a r e s e r v o i r performance simu-
l a t o r , whereas a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s i m u l a t o r computes t r e a t m e n t volumes, t y -
pes o f m a t e r i a l s , and pumping schedules which a r e necessary t o achieve t h e p l a n -
ned crack geometry. As f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t i g h t gas r e s e r -
v o i r s t o g e t h e r w i t h c r a c k l e n g t h t h e most i m p o r t a n t d e s i g n parameter, c a r e f u l
proppant s e l e c t i o n f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f a l l r e q u i r e m e n t s has a key p o s i t i o n i n
f r a c t u r e p l a n n i n g , and t h e r e f o r e s p e c i a l computer programs have been developed
f o r proppant c h o i c e on b o t h t e c h n i c a l and economical background.

The wide range o f c o s t and performance o f t h e v a r i o u s c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e

proppant t y p e s has r e s u l t e d i n p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f proppant s e l e c t i o n models du-
r i n g course o f t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (PHILLIPS &
ANDERSON 1985; ANDERSON & PHILLIPS 1986, 1987). While i n e a r l i e r y e a r s a r a t h e r
vague r e l a t i o n s h i p between w e l l d e p t h and p r o p p a n t s t r e n g t h d i c t a t e d t h e c h o i c e
o f p r o p p a n t type, more r e c e n t l y computerized models o f v a r y i n g c o m p l e x i t y have
 84

been u t i l i z e d which i n c l u d e n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e c a l c u l a t i o n s by comparing c o s t

and performance o f t h e s e l e c t e d m a t e r i a l s and economical revenue o f t h e s t i m u -
l a t i o n j o b . S i m p l e r non-computerized e v a l u a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a r e based on e i t h e r
p r o p p a n t expenses o r t e c h n i c a l m e r i t s o f t h e j o b d e s i g n and do n o t c o n s i d e r
p r o d u c t i v i t y o r revenue, and include cost/performance comparisons and
nomographs. The purpose o f computerized proppant s e l e c t i o n models i s t o
determine how p o s t - f r a c t u r e i n c r e m e n t a l and c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t i v i t y i s a f f e c t e d
by changes o f type, s i z e and q u a n t i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t s u p p o r t i n g t h e c r a c k . The
t e c h n i c a l c h o i c e s a r e t h e n expressed i n economical terms by a p p l i c a t i o n o f n e t
present worth c a l c u l a t i o n s , thereby allowing t o s e l e c t the f r a c t u r i n g design
which b e s t f i t s t h e f e a s i b i l i t y performance g o a l s o f t h e w e l l t o be t r e a t e d .
The o v e r a l l g u i d e l i n e i s always c o s t o f p r o p p a n t p e r u n i t c o n d u c t i v i t y o r
c o n d u c t i v i t y p e r US $ (BRIM 1986, ANDERSON & PHILLIPS 1987; c f . s e c t i o n
1.3.4.1.).

1.4.12.3. Simulation techniques and input data

The computer programs f o r p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n r e q u i r e e n t e r i n g o f r e s e r v o i r ,
hydrocarbon, p r o p p a n t and economical d a t a and d e l i v e r an o u t p u t o f p r o p p a n t
q u a n t i t y and c o s t , and revenue f r o m hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t ,
t h e r e b y e n a b l i n g t o choose t h e most f e a s i b l e case o u t o f v a r i o u s r u n s h a v i n g
been made w i t h d i f f e r e n t parameters. I n i t i a l d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n expenses
a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s , and e f f e c t s o f income t a x and w i n d f a l l p r o -
f i t s a r e a l s o o m i t t e d f o r s i m p l i c i t y (NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB 1983). The r e s u l t s
o f p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n e v a l u a t i o n by computer programs i n d i c a t e t h e e f f e c t o f
f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y on e s t i m a t e d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e and o f p r o p p a n t c h o i c e
on t h e t r e a t m e n t economics (McDANIEL & WILLINGHAM 1978). Some aspects o f c o s t
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t types, s i z e s and q u a n t i t i e s as w e l l as e v o l u -
t i o n o f p o s t - f r a c t u r e w e l l performance p r e d i c t i o n a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

1.4.12.3.1. Cost effectiveness of various

proppant types, sizes and quantities
Assuming t h a t a l l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g expenses e x c e p t p r o p p a n t c o s t a r e con-
s t a n t d u r i n g s e v e r a l s t i m u l a t i o n runs, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e c o s t -
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f v a r i o u s types, s i z e s and amounts o f proppants by comparing n e t
p r e s e n t v a l u e o f f u t u r e p r o d u c t i o n when d i f f e r e n t parameter c o m b i n a t i o n s a r e
examined i n t h e program l o o p s (ANDERSON & PHILLIPS 1987), w i t h t h e optimum p r o p -
p a n t b e i n g t h e one g i v i n g t h e h i g h e s t c u m u l a t i v e n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e . More s o p h i s -
t i c a t e d programs do n o t s i m u l a t e t h e f r a c t u r e as an e n t i r e wedge, b u t as a num-
b e r o f d i s c r e t e c e l l s , t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g t o i n c l u d e a l s o p r o p p a n t t a i l - i n s and
head-ins i n t o t h e e v a l u a t i o n . The r o u t i n e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f computerized r e s e r -
v o i r s i m u l a t o r s and proppant s e l e c t i o n models i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e
c u r r e n t economical s t a t e o f t h e hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y and a l l o w s f r a c t u r i n g
t r e a t m e n t d e c i s i o n s t o be based e x c l u s i v e l y on w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y g o a l s o f t h e
o p e r a t o r and s p e c i f i c r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s (ANDERSON & PHILLIPS 1986).

1.4.12.3.2.Evolution of post-fracture well performance forecast

As b o t h computer programs and a d d i t i o n a l manual techniques have g o t i n c r e a -
s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d w i t h time, r e s u l t i n g a l s o i n more and more r e l i a b l e p r e d i c -
t i o n s and assessments, t h e r e i s an e v o l u t i o n o f s k i l l i n p r o j e c t i o n s o f p o s t -
f r a c t u r e w e l l performance (BRIM 1986). I n terms o f computerized f r a c t u r e s i m u l a -
t i o n , p r o d u c t i o n and s e r v i c e companies have developed v a r i o u s c o m p u t a t i o n a l mo-
d e l s f o r o f f t a k e f o r e c a s t ( f o r example numerical s i m u l a t i o n ; SETTARI 1980,
LEICHT 1985). A comparative assessment o f v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n models and
t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n t advantages and drawbacks i s c a r r i e d o u t by ANDERSON & PHIL-
LIPS ( 1 9 8 7 ) . Concerning economical e v a l u a t i o n , p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s v a r y w i t h t i m e
and t h e r e f o r e c u m u l a t i v e w i t h d r a w a l a f t e r some t i m e p e r i o d s h o u l d be chosen as
 85

a base f o r comparison (ELBEL & SOOKPRASONG 1985) which i s i n fact incorporated

i n t o many c o m p u t a t i o n a l models.

1.4.12.4. Sign if icance for economical feasibi 1 i ty model 1 ins

The main advantage o f i n t e g r a t e d computer programs f o r proppant s e l e c t i o n
and p r o d u c t i o n f o r e c a s t based on e n t e r i n g o f d e t a i l e d r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x and
f l u i d d a t a i s economical c r o s s - c h e c k i n g i n c l u d i n g c o n t r o l whether t h e recommen-
ded c h o i c e o f a h i g h e r - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t i s j u s t i f i e d by s u f f i c i e n t r e s e r v e s
and r e a s o n a b l y f a s t payout o f t h e investment o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b as d e s i g -
ned. I t c o u l d happen t h a t r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s would r e q u i r e a h i g h e r - q u a l i t y
and t h u s more expensive proppant which i s , however, n o t supported by o v e r a l l
s i z e , pay t h i c k n e s s and hydrocarbon c o n t e n t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e (ROBINSON, HOL-
DITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986). Comparative e v a l u a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t performance has t o
i n c l u d e economical a n a l y s i s , as p r o p p a n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s can be b e s t e s t i m a t e d
f r o m t h e r e s u l t i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y i n d e x i n c r e a s e and t h e n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e i n c r e -
mental i n c r e a s e (NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB 1983). Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l -
lows on p r o p p a n t q u a l i t y and d r a i n a g e e f f i c i e n c y d i f f e r e n c e s as w e l l as e a r l y
and l a t e p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y .

1.4.12.4.1. Proppant quality and drainage efficiency differences

I f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a more expensive proppant t y p e even i n low c l o s u r e
s t r e s s regimes i s e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e , i t s h o u l d be c a r r i e d o u t because o f
t h e h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e b e t t e r - q u a l i t y proppant and t h u s more pronounced
p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t between f r a c t u r e and f o r m a t i o n (NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB
1983 a l s o r e p o r t t h a t economical a n a l y s i s o f t e n i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i n c r e m e n t a l
p r e s e n t v a l u e o b t a i n e d by f r a c t u r i n g can be i n c r e a s e d by u s i n g a h i g h - p e r f o r -
mance p r o p p a n t even though p r o p p a n t expenses a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r ) .

Comparing t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f sand and i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s i n

f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s , ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD (1986) found t h a t r e s e r v o i r
zones t r e a t e d w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants c l e a r l y had a much l a r g e r
c o n d u c t i v i t y t h a n those o p e r a t e d w i t h sand even though j o b s i z e s were about t h e
same i n terms o f proppants pumped, t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t was i n j e c -
t e d i n t o much deeper h o r i z o n s o f t h e p r o d u c t i v e column, and sand was pumped i n
much h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t h a n i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s . I n cases where
i t i s t e c h n i c a l l y and o p e r a t i o n a l l y f e a s i b l e , t h e use o f l a r g e r - s i z e d p r o p p a n t s
o f t h e same t y p e may be more cost/performance e f f e c t i v e t h a n u s i n g a more expen-
s i v e proppant t y p e o f t h e same g r a i n s i z e (ANDERSON & PHILLIPS 1986).

1.4.12.4.2. Early and late production history

One parameter which f r a c t u r e s i m u l a t i o n computer programs u s u a l l y do n o t i n -
c o r p o r a t e i s f i e l d s t a t u s d u r i n g course o f e x p l o i t a t i o n h i s t o r y . HOLDITCH
(1984) demonstrates t h a t i n e a r l y f i e l d l i f e , f r a c t u r i n g w i t h b a u x i t e p r o p p a n t s
r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r g a s - f l o w r a t e s and t h u s a g r e a t e r percentage o f gas produc-
t i o n i n comparison t o t h e q u a n t i t i e s o b t a i n e d a f t e r s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h sand. I n -
v e r s e l y , however, i n l a t e e x p l o i t a t i o n h i s t o r y , t h e average r a t e coming o u t o f
a sand-propped c r a c k i s h i g h e r t h a n t h a t d e l i v e r e d by a b a u x i t e - i n f i l l e d f r a c -
t u r e , because i n t h e l a t t e r case, most o f t h e hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s have a l r e a d y
been d r a i n e d o f f i n e a r l y f i e l d l i f e and t h e r e f o r e i n stages o f advanced d e p l e -
t i o n t h e a l r e a d y c o n s i d e r a b l y d e p l e t e d and exhausted r e s e r v o i r o n l y r e l e a s e s
f u r t h e r hydrocarbons a t c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r r a t e s . T h i s i n v e r s e p r o f i t a b i l i t y be-
h a v i o u r o f sand and b a u x i t e proppants d u r i n g l a t e and e a r l y f i e l d l i f e , respec-
t i v e l y , needs adequate c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n d e s i g n i n g t h e p r o p p i n g agent i n t h e
range o f l o w e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s where t h e danger o f sand c r u s h i n g i s n o t y e t
p r e s e n t and t h e o n l y d e c i s i v e q u e s t i o n i s how t o o b t a i n maximum c o n d u c t i v i t y
and p r o d u c t i o n d u r i n g t h e whole t i m e o f w e l l o r f i e l d e x p l o i t a t i o n ( c f . a l s o
 86

section 4.8.9.4.)

P r o p p a n t c o s t f a c t o r s w h i c h have t o be examined f o r e c o n o m i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y
o f f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s do n o t o n l y c o m p r i s e p r o p p a n t r e t a i l p r i c e w h i c h i s o n l y
one f a c e t o f t h e o v e r a l l expenses o f u s i n g a s p e c i f i c p r o p p a n t , b u t i n c l u d e
a l s o number o f p r o p p a n t g r a i n s b y u n i t ( v o l u m e p e r pound), a d d i t i o n a l p o l y m e r
l o a d i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d t h a t i s necessary t o t r a n s p o r t t h e denser prop-
p a n t , a d d i t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t r e q u i r e d on t h e w e l l h e a d such as s p e c i a l f l o w b a c k ma-
n i f o l d s , and a d d i t i o n a l m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s t h a t a r e caused b y a b r a s i o n and e r o -
sion (SINCLAIR, GRAHAM & SINCLAIR 1 9 8 3 ) . R e p l a c i n g s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e b y r e s i n -
c o a t e d sand c a n r e s u l t i n a b t . 50 % t o t a l p r o p p a n t expense s a v i n g s due t o b o t h
c h e a p e r pound p r i c e and h i g h e r pound volume o f t h e l a t t e r p r o d u c t ( c f . s e c t i o n s
1 . 2 . 6 . and 1 . 4 . 7 . 2 . ) . The change f r o m a h i g h - d e n s i t y t o a l o w - d e n s i t y p r o p p a n t
e n a b l e s r e d u c t i o n o f p o l y m e r l o a d i n g o f t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d u p t o 30 % w i t h o u t
a f f e c t i n g proppant transport o r s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

1.4.12.5.Proppant volume vs. weight

T e c h n i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l c o m p a r i s o n o f d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y p e s h a s t o i n -
c l u d e an e v a l u a t i o n o f expenses b a s e d on volume v s . w e i g h t , as b o t h p a r a m e t e r s
r e s u l t i n d i f f e r e n t o v e r a l l p r o p p a n t c o s t (CUTLER, E N N I S S , JONES & CARROLL
1983; CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & SWANSON 1 9 8 5 ) . N e g l e c t i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y d i f f e r c n -
ces between v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t t y p e s , f r a c t u r e d e s i g n s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d b a s i n g
on t h e c o n c e p t t o pump t h e same volume o f p r o p p a n t s r e g a r d l e s s o f m a t e r i a l den-
s i t y i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h e same v o l u m e t r i c a l p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n p e r u n i t
a r e a w i t h i n t h e c r a c k . I d e n t i c a l u n i t volumes o f d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y p e s , how-
ever, have d i f f e r e n t w e i g h t s as a consequence o f t h e d i f f e r e n t s p e c i f i c g r a v i -
t i e s o f t h e m a t e r i a l s . As p r o p p a n t s a r e m a r k e t e d on a w e i g h t base, more h i g h e r -
d e n s i t y m a t e r i a l i s needed t o a c h i e v e t h e same v o l u m e t r i c a l p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n
as w i t h l o w e r - d e n s i t y m a t e r i a l . The p r i c e d i f f e r e n c e o f p r o p p a n t s when compa-
r i n g e q u a l w e i g h t s i s t h e r e f o r e i n c r e a s i n g when c o m p a r i n g e q u a l volumes ( c f .
section 1.4.7.1.).

N e g l e c t i n g p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and c o n d u c t i v i t y d i f f e r e n c e s , t a p d e n s i t y ( c f .
section 1.4.7.2.) i s t h e more i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r f o r e c o n o m i c a l e v a l u a t i o n
w i t h r e s p e c t t o s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , because i t d e t e r m i n e s p r o p p a n t c o s t o n a v o -
lume b a s i s . A g i v e n f r a c t u r e w i l l be f i l l e d b y d i f f e r e n t w e i g h t s f o r p r o p p a n t s
w i t h d i f f e r e n t tap densities, w i t h the lower the tap density, the less weight
i t t a k e s t o f i l l t h e f r a c t u r e . P r o p p a n t p r i c i n g s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e compared o n
a volume b a s i s b y m u l t i p l y i n g expenses on a w e i g h t b a s i s b y t a p d e n s i t y t o d e -
t e r m i n e p r i c e p e r volume.

1.4.12.6.Other aspects
An a d d i t i o n a l o r p a r t i a l l y a l s o a l t e r n a t i v e t e c h n i q u e t o c o m p u t e r i z e d f r a c -
t u r e s i m u l a t i o n m o d e l l i n g a r e h a n d - a p p l i e d i n t e g r a l e v a l u a t i o n methods e s p e c i a l -
l y f o r p o s t - t r e a t m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e assessment (BRINKMANN, KRUMER & REINICKE
1980; R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1 9 8 5 ) . Manual and g r a p h i c a l ways o f
d e s i g n i n g and e v a l u a t i n g f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s a r e c o m p i l e d i n HAL-
LIBURTON ( 1 9 7 1 ) . Type c u r v e s p r o v i d e f o r many c a s e s a r e l a t i v e l y f a s t and i n e x -
p e n s i v e method as compared t o i t e r a t i v e n u m e r i c a l c o m p u t e r i z e d r e s e r v o i r s i m u l a -
t o r s (VEATCH 1 9 8 6 ) . A s p e c t s o f p r e - f r a c t u r i n g w e l l d e l i v e r a b i l i t y p r e d i c t i o n
a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y S I N H A & FURLONG ( 1 9 7 9 ) . Combined c o m p u t e r f r a c t u r e s i m u -
l a t i o n and t y p e c u r v e m a t c h i n g i s r e p o r t e d b y ROBERTS ( 1 9 8 1 ) and SOLIMAN, VEN-
DITTO & SLUSHER ( 1 9 8 4 ) . VEATCH ( 1 9 7 7 ) p r e s e n t s c o m p u t e r s t u d i e s f o r d e t e r m i n a -
t i o n o f i n - s i t u f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas r e s e r v o i r s . Some
a s p e c t s o f p r o p p a n t volume m i n i m i z a t i o n and d e s i g n o p t i m i z a t i o n as w e l l as p r o p -
p a n t s e l e c t i o n v s . p a y o u t m a x i m i z a t i o n a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .
 87

1.4.12.6.1. Proppant volume minimization and design optimization

POULSEN & SOLIMAN (1987) p r e s e n t a numerical procedure f o r d e t e r m i n i n g p r o p -
p a n t schedules f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s which aims on p r o p p a n t quan-
t i t y m i n i m i z a t i o n and o p t i m i z a t i o n based on crack c o n d u c t i v i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n c u r -
ves. The procedure i s based on m o d e l l i n g o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , f r a c t u r e w i d t h ,
proppant t y p e and p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and i n c l u d e s an economical a n a l y s i s
t h a t i s c o n s i d e r i n g c o s t o f each t r e a t m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e , time-dependent produc-
t i o n r a t e as p r e d i c t e d by a f r a c t u r e d - w e l l s i m u l a t o r , c u r r e n t and expected o i l
and gas p r i c e s , and minimum a t t r a c t i v e r a t e o f investment r e t u r n . The c r i t e r i a
o f t h e o p e r a t o r f o r making investment d e c i s i o n s a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t parameters,
w i t h l i m i t e d amount o f c a p i t a l a v a i l a b l e f o r investment r e q u i r i n g t o compare i n -
cremental b e n e f i t - c o s t r a t i o s between a l t e r n a t i v e s i n an e f f o r t t o maximize t h e
r e t u r n on a g i v e n investment, whereas h i g h e r investment p o t e n t i a l a l l o w s compa-
r i s o n o f i n c r e m e n t a l r a t e s o f r e t u r n . The d e s i g n o p t i m i z a t i o n procedure can be
used f o r e i t h e r s t a i r - s t e p p e d o r ramped proppant schedules ( c f . a l s o HANDKE
1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 5 . ) .

The c h o i c e o f approach f o r d e t e r m i n i n g f o l d s o f p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e achieved

f r o m f r a c t u r i n g and t h e s e l e c t i o n o f performance d e c l i n e b e h a v i o u r i s v e r y i m -
p o r t a n t and can be q u i t e c r i t i c a l when d o i n g economical o p t i m i z a t i o n s t u d i e s
(VEATCH 1986). The approaches s h o u l d be v e r i f i e d w i t h f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e whenever
p o s s i b l e . I t i s o f t e n f e a s i b l e t o develop s h o r t - c u t t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n and c o s t
e s t i m a t i o n methods when assessing l a r g e numbers o f designs, w i t h development o f
t y p i c a l curves f o r s p e c i f i c f o r m a t i o n s b e i n g a s u i t a b l e t o o l . These t y p i c a l c u r -
ves can be programmed f o r a u t o m a t i c i n t e r p o l a t i o n and p r o v i d e a method f o r r a -
p i d l y g e n e r a t i n g massive s e t s o f e s t i m a t e s a t minimal expenses. F r a c t u r e d e s i g n
must n o t be l i m i t e d t o s e l e c t i o n o f p r o p p a n t and f l u i d t y p ? s and q u a n t i t i e s ,
b u t a v e r y i m p o r t a n t and even h i g h l y c r i t i c a l f a c t o r i s w e l l b e h a v i o u r . Well
performance p r e d i c t i o n as a consequence o f t h e l a y o u t o f t h e f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t
has key s i g n i f i c a n c e i n p l a n n i n g o f t h e o p e r a t i o n .

1.4.12.6.2. Proppant selection vs. payout maximization

Sometimes c r a c k d e s i g n and p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o r e s e r v o i r r e q u i r e -
ment i s d i f f i c u l t t o match w i t h economical f e a s i b i l i t y o r a t l e a s t w i t h maximum
p a y o u t . OSBORNE, McLEOD & SCHROEDER (1981) p r e s e n t an example o f economical un-
f o r t u n i t y where w e l l s w i t h weaker gas p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y due t o p o o r e r r e s e r -
v o i r f a c i e s a r e t h e ones i n g r e a t e s t need o f a f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t w i t h e x c l u -
s i v e l y i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants, because t h e y a r e t h e most li-
k e l y t o be s u b j e c t e d t o l a r g e drawdowns d u r i n g e a r l y w e l l l i f e . On t h e o t h e r
hand, w e l l s w i t h s t r o n g gas p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y as a consequence o f b e t t e r r e -
s e r v o i r f a c i e s a r e n o t s u b j e c t e d t o such h i g h drawdowns and u s u a l l y o n l y r e -
q u i r e a t a i l - i n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants f o l l o w i n g pumping
o f n a t u r a l sand i n t h e main stage, t h e r e b y s a v i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e proppant expen-
ses. I n such cases, t h e f e a s i b i l i t y e v a l u a t i o n has t o be made f o r t h e whole
group o f w e l l s o r even f o r t h e e n t i r e f i e l d i n c l u d i n g c r e s t a l and m a r g i n a l
areas r a t h e r t h a n comparing t r e a t m e n t c o s t s and p r o d u c t i o n revenues f o r i n d i v i -
dual w e l l s .

1.4.13. Proppant selection guidelines

R e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s , some g e n e r a l g u i d e l i -
nes o f r u l e - o f - t h u m b c h a r a c t e r can be g i v e n as a summary f o r p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n
f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n i n o i l and gas w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n i n hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y . A l -
though t h e f o l l o w i n g c u m - g r a n o - s a l i s g u i d e l i n e s a r e h e l p f u l f o r t h e f i r s t ap-
proach o f p r o p p a n t c h o i c e , c a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d n o t t o overemphasize
these g e n e r a l c r i t e r i a due t o t h e i r p a r t i a l l y c o n s i d e r a b l e a b s t r a c t i o n t o even
o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n which cannot account f o r a l l t h e s p e c i f i c cases ( c f . McDA-
NIEL 1987). More p r e c i s e and s o p h i s t i c a t e d proppant s e l e c t i o n i n e v i t a b l y r e q u i -
 88

res plunging into the detailed assessments which have been briefly outlined in
the preceding divisions (the proppant application spectrum in oil and gas reser-
voir hydraulic fracturing stimulation is summarized in tabs. 1 and 4). The most
important characteristics of natural sand, intermediate-strength low-density
alumina silicate proppants, intermediate-strength high-density alumina oxide
and silicate proppants, high-strength high-density alumina oxide proppants, and
high-strength low-density zirconia-silicate proppants are briefly sketched as
follows.

1.4.13.1. Natural sand

Natural sand is the cheapest of all proppant types and has always been avai-
lable in nearly unlimited quantities due to widespread occurrences, uncomplica-
ted accessibility and easy processing. Its application, however, is restricted
to shallow wells due to its low closure stress resistivity which is the reason
for classifying natural sand as low-strength proppant (cf. section 1.3.1.1.).
Having been applied since the very beginning of hydraulic fracturing technology
(cf. section l . Z . Z . ) , natural sand is nowadays more and more replaced by synthe-
tic high-conductivity proppants in all the cases where no extreme cost contain-
ment is necessary, and also in subcritical closure stress regimes man-made in-
termediate- and high-strength proppants that give better permeability contrast
between fracture and formation can be selected.
The oil price drop in 1986 has temporarily again focussed attention on the
cheap sand wherever applicable as a consequence of pronounced to partially even
exaggerated fracture treatment cost containment (cf. section 2.2.1.5.), but in-
creasing demand of hydrocarbon reservoir stimulation for progressive production
enhancement will automatically push natural sand into a backseat position in
the proppant market during the next years. The various intermediate- and high-
strength synthetic proppants which during the last ten years already successive-
ly replaced natural sand in many sections of the oil and gas market are briefly
discussed as follows.

1.4.13.2. Intermediate-strength low-density

alumina silicate proppants
Intermediate-strength low-density alumina silicate proppants (cf. section
1.3.2.1.) have the best pumping characteristics o f all synthetic proppants due
to their low specific gravity which is comparable to that of sand. The higher
closure stress resistivity allows the application of this material in shallow
to intermediate-depth reservoirs beyond the pressure boundary of natural sand.
Due to the availability of intermediate-strength low-density alumina silicate
proppants only since a few years, they have much future potential for applica-
tion in particularly many marginal oil and gas pay zones by replacement of natu-
ral sand in order to profit from the higher conductivity of the synthetic mate-
rial. Intermediate-strength low-density alumina silicate proppants are also the
cheapest of all artificial fracture-supporting materials and are harmless to
the operational equipment. Effects of proppant settling are still insignificant
for a wide variety o f carrier fluids and a broad spectrum of proppant concentra-
tions. Thus intermediate-strength low-density alumina silicate proppants are
the economically most feasible proppant type in any respect if the boundary of
closure stress resistivity is not exceeded.

1.4.13.3. Intermediate-strength high-density

alumina oxide and silicate proppants
Intermediate-strength high-density alumina oxide and silicate proppants (cf.
section 1.3.2.1.) are mainly applied for hydraulic fracturing of gas reservoirs
 a9

i n moderate t o h i g h depth. Being cheaper, l i g h t e r and l e s s a b r a s i v e t h a n s i n t e -

r e d b a u x i t e , t h e y a r e chosen i n a l l t h e cases where l i g h t w e i g h t s y n t h e t i c prop-
p a n t s a r e no l o n g e r r e s i s t i n g t o t h e c l o s u r e s t r e s s p r o p e r l y , b u t h i g h - s t r e n g t h
alumina o x i d e proppants a r e n o t y e t necessary, and t h u s b o t h c o s t premium and
disadvantage o f even h i g h e r p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y can be avoided. As i n t e r m e d i a t e -
s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants a r e a l s o s t i l l n o t
v e r y h a r m f u l t o t h e t r e a t i n g equipment, p r o f i t o f t h e i r h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y i s
f r e q u e n t l y a l s o made i n boundary cases, and t h e m a t e r i a l i s o f t e n p r e f e r r e d
w i t h r e s p e c t t o n a t u r a l sand o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y proppants i n
o r d e r t o go a b s o l u t e l y on t h e s a f e s i d e and n o t t o r i s k any f a i l u r e o f t h e p r o p -
p a n t s which have t o r e s i s t t o a broad change o f p r e s s u r e drawdown and b u i l d u p
d u r i n g l o n g - t e r m f i e l d p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y t h a t can comprise up t o s e v e r a l deca-
des. The s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y i s s t i l l low enough t o a l l o w good pumping b e h a v i o u r
w i t h l i t t l e r i s k o f screenout, b u t depending on c a r r i e r f l u i d c o m p o s i t i o n and
weight, e f f e c t s o f proppant s e t t l i n g may a l r e a d y become s i g n i f i c a n t .

Experience i n t h e p a s t i n Europe has shown t h a t a f t e r i t s i n v e n t i o n and i n -

t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e market, i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e and
s i l i c a t e proppants have become t h e s t a n d a r d m a t e r i a l f o r t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r
s t i m u l a t i o n i n moderate t o h i g h d e p t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . ) and have i n most a p p l i -
c a t i o n s t o t a l l y r e p l a c e d h i g h - s t r e n g t h alumina o x i d e proppants which were du-
r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f deep gas f r a c t u r i n g t h e e x c l u s i v e s y n t h e t i c proppants
a v a i l a b l e i n t h e market ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) .

1.4.13.4. High-strength high-density alumina oxide proppants

H i g h - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e proppants o r s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e ( c f .
section 1.3.2.1.) have been t h e f i r s t s y n t h e t i c proppants t h a t were i n t r o d u c e d
t o t h e o i l and gas i n d u s t r y . W h i l e t h e y have been v e r y commonly a p p l i e d i n t h e
e a r l y y e a r s o f deep r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n , t h e i r market share has been i n c r e a -
s i n g l y taken o v e r i n t h e l a s t y e a r s by proppants w i t h l o w e r s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y
which have a b e t t e r pumping b e h a v i o u r and t h a t a r e o f t e n a l s o cheaper. The h i g h
s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e does n o t o n l y l e a d t o problems o f p r o p p a n t
s e t t l i n g i n l i g h t e r c a r r i e r f l u i d s , b u t a l s o i n c r e a s e s t h e r i s k o f premature
screenout t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n when u s i n g h e a v i e r t r a n s p o r t
media i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e o r t o a v o i d s e t t l i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . and
6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . The h i g h e r r i s k o f t r e a t m e n t f a i l u r e can o n l y p a r t i a l l y be compen-
sated by s p e c i a l p r i c i n g o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e which t r a d i t i o n a l l y has been t h e
most expensive o f a l l proppants, b u t has been o f f e r e d r e c e n t l y v e r y c o m p e t i t i v e -
l y i n o r d e r t o t r y t o r e g a i n some l o s t market shares o r due t o t h e a t t e m p t s o f
r i v a l i z i n g proppant companies t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r market p e n e t r a t i o n a t t h e e x -
pense o f t h a t o f t h e i r c o m p e t i t o r s .

Another m a j o r disadvantage o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e i s i t s c o n s i d e r a b l e a b r a s i v e -
ness t o t h e t r e a t m e n t equipment ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 6 . ) which f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t e s
i t s economical f e a s i b i l i t y . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e t h u s seems now-
adays t o be more o r l e s s l i m i t e d t o deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g
where a l l t h e o t h e r m a t e r i a l s f a i l ( i n c l u d i n g boundary cases where i t i s essen-
t i a l t o go on t h e a b s o l u t e l y s a f e s i d e f o r u n d i s t u r b e d l o n g - t e r m f i e l d p e r f o r -
mance), and replacement o f l i g h t e r proppants by s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e i n s h a l l o w e r
r e s e r v o i r s can o n l y be achieved by a more t h a n c o m p e t i t i v e p r i c i n g p r o b a b l y
coupled w i t h an i n c e n t i v e f o r s u c c e s s f u l placement downhole i n t h e f r a c t u r e . A
s p e c i a l u t i l i z a t i o n o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e i s h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g and
g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n s t e a m - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s i n enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y p r o j e c t s ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 1 . 4 . 5 . 1 . and 5 . 7 . 1 . ) .

1.4.13.5. H igh-st rength low-dens i ty zi rconia-si 1 icate proppant s

H i g h - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 2 . 2 . )
are an almost i d e a l m a t e r i a l f o r a wide range o f a p p l i c a t i o n s as a consequence
 90

o f t h e i r t e c h n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . The m a t e r i a l has been i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e h y d r a u -

l i c s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t o n l y a c o u p l e o f y e a r s a f t e r s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e has f i r s t
been p r e s e n t e d and s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d i n t h e f i e l d and t h u s z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e
proppants belong together w i t h s i n t e r e d bauxite t o the o l d e s t synthetic high-
q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 4 . ) . Low s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and h i g h c l o s u r e
stress r e s i s t i v i t y o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants are e x c e l l e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
f o r usage i n s h a l l o w t o deep w e l l s w i t h o u t any p r o b l e m s o f p l a c e m e n t and s e t t -
l i n g , and t h e v e r y good c o n d u c t i v i t y p r o v i d e s i n a l m o s t a l l t h e c a s e s t h e n e c e s -
s a r y c o n t r a s t between f o r m a t i o n and f r a c t u r e i n o r d e r t o a l l o w h y d r o c a r b o n f l o w
a t economically f e a s i b l e r a t e s .

The m a j o r t e c h n i c a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s , however, a r e t h e sudden c a t a s t r o p h i c a l

f a i l u r e o f t h e b r i t t l e g l a s s y m a t e r i a l i n t o p o w d e r - l i k e c r u s h i n g r e m n a n t s when
t h e b o u n d a r y c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s exceeded ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 2 . ) , and t h e l o w f r i c -
t i o n a n g l e w h i c h does n o t o n l y g u a r a n t e e a b e t t e r e n t r y o f t h e m a t e r i a l i n t o
t h e c r a c k , b u t a l s o an e a s i e r subsequent escape f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e by f l o w b a c k
( c f . section 1.4.3.). A l l the technical benefits of high-strength zirconia-sili-
c a t e proppants ( i n c l u d i n g t h e i r harmless behaviour t o t h e o p e r a t i o n a l e q u i p -
m e n t ) , however, a r e c o m p l e t e l y compensated and d e t e r i o r a t e d b y t h e h i g h p r i c e
o f the m a t e r i a l . High-strength low-density z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants are the
m o s t e x p e n s i v e o f a l l c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e p r o p p a n t t y p e s and t h e r e f o r e t h e i r
market p e n e t r a t i o n i s s e r i o u s l y l i m i t e d d e s p i t e the favourable t e c h n i c a l proper-
t i e s ( c f . section 2.2.2.3.).

1.5. Proppant applications

S y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s o f v a r i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n and g r a i n s i z e a r e a p p l i e d i n t h e
o i l and gas i n d u s t r y f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f p r o d u c t i o n
and i n j e c t i o n b o r e h o l e s i n h y d r o c a r b o n - b e a r i n g r e s e r v o i r s , as w e l l as i n o t h e r
m a r k e t segments o u t s i d e h y d r o c a r b o n e x p l o i t a t i o n such as i n t h e s t e e l f o u n d r y
i n d u s t r y f o r h e a t exchange and i n t h e gas p u r i f i c a t i o n i n d u s t r y f o r d u s t a b s o r p -
t i o n and f i l t r a t i o n . The m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e b r i e f l y s k e t c h e d as
f o l l o w s ( a summary o f u t i l i z a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s i n h y d r a u -
l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o f o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s and o t h e r m a r k e t s i s p r o v i -
ded i n t a b s . 1 and 4 ) .

1.5.1. Oil- and gas-field applications

The m a j o r o i l - and g a s - f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n o f n a t u r a l sand and s y n t h e t i c p r o p -
p a n t s i s h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f deep l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y g a s - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s
and c a r b o n a t e s and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o s h a l l o w o r deep l o w - t o m o d e r a t e - p e r m e a b i -
l i t y o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s and c h a l k s ( c f . c h a p t e r 4 ) . G a s - b e a r i n g t i g h t sand-
stone formations i n v a r i o u s depth i n t e r v a l s are t y p i c a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by 25 -
100 f t n e t t h i c k n e s s , 3 - 8 % p o r o s i t y ; 1,500 - 15,000 p s i r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e
and i n - s i t u p e r m e a b i l i t y o f u p t o 1 md (HOLDITCH 1 9 8 4 ) , b u t in m o s t c a s e s b e i n g
i n t h e m i c r o d a r c y r a n g e (AGARWAL, CARTER & POLLOCK 1979; ATTEBERRY, TUCKER &
RITZ 1979; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 . ) .

P r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n s h o u l d g e n e r a l l y f o c u s o n g e t t i n g t h e maximum c o n d u c t i v i -
t y o r t h e optimum n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e p e r i n v e s t e d US $, r e s p e c t i v e l y (BRIM 1986,
ANDERSON & PHILLIPS 1987; c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 3 . 4 . and 1 . 4 . 1 2 . ) . The second m a j o r
o i l - and g a s - f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n i s g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f p r i m a r i l y p o o r l y - c e m e n t e d
a n d / o r s e c o n d a r i l y u n s t a b l e , more o r l e s s s h a l l o w o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s and
c h a l k s ( c f . c h a p t e r 5 ) . The b r i e f o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s o f f e r s o n l y a f e w comments
on t h e most i m p o r t a n t b r a n c h e s o f p r o p p a n t a p p l i c a t i o n w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e -
r e n c e t o p r o p p a n t t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s (more d e t a i l s w i t h s p e c i a l emphasis on
r e s e r v o i r c o m p o s i t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e p r e s e n t e d i n c h a p t e r s 2 and 3 ) . D i s -
t i n c t i o n i n t h e s h o r t o v e r v i e w i s made between h i g h - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a o x i d e and
s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s , l o w - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s and z i r c o n i a - s i l i -
cate proppants.
 91

1.5.1.1. High-density alumina oxide and silicate proppants

I n terms o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p -
pants, d i s t i n c t i o n can be made between s t a n d a r d g r a i n s i z e s c o m p r i s i n g m a i n l y
20/40 and s u b o r d i n a t e l y 16/20 mesh, and c o a r s e r g r a i n s i z e s i n c l u d i n g 12/20 o r
even l a r g e r .

1.5.1.1.1. Standard grain sizes

The most a b u n d a n t l y a p p l i e d p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l i n o i l - and g a s - f i e l d hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s s t i l l 20/40 l o w - s t r e n g t h n a t u r a l sand due t o t h e c u r r e n t domi-
nance o f r a t h e r s h a l l o w w e l l s t h a t r e q u i r e n o t more t h a n a t a i l - i n o f a r t i f i -
c i a l i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s o f a b t . 10 - 30 % t h e q u a n t i t y o f
t h e p r e v i o u s l y pumped sand, i f man-made m a t e r i a l s a r e used a t a l l . Sand o f
20/40 and a l s o 30/50 o r 40/60 g r a i n s i z e i s t h e dominant m a t e r i a l used f o r g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g . Next i n t h e r a n k i n g l i s t o f c u m u l a t i v e annual consumption a r e
20/40 and t o l e s s e r amount ( e s p e c i a l l y f o r t a i l - i n a p p l i c a t i o n s ; c f . s e c t i o n
2.4.1.2.3.) a l s o 16/20 s y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina
o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants i n t h e predominant p a r t o f t h e cases and h i g h -
s t r e n g t h b a u x i t e proppants i n t h e s u b o r d i n a t e share o f t h i s p o r t i o n . Most o f
t h e p a s t and f u t u r e massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g j o b s i n t i g h t deep R o t l i e g e n d
(Lower Permian), C a r b o n i f e r o u s and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o B u n t s a n d s t e i n (Lower
T r i a s s i c ) g a s - b e a r i n g sandstones i n Germany FRG, N e t h e r l a n d s , B r i t i s h and Dutch
Southern N o r t h Sea and a d j o i n i n g areas have been c a r r i e d o u t and w i l l be done
w i t h t h i s p r o p p a n t t y p e (MADER 1987; c f . c h a p t e r 2 . 4 . ) .

Some s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e pumping o f 20/40 l o w - d e n s i t y i n t e r m e d i a t e -

s t r e n g t h proppants i n t h e e a r l y stage and 20/40 and/or 16/20 h i g h - d e n s i t y i n t e r -
m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h and/or h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants i n t h e l a t e s t a g e o f t h e f r a c t u -
r i n g o p e r a t i o n f o r t h e reason o f g e t t i n g a s a f e r l e a d - i n o f t h e l i g h t e r prop-
p a n t s w i t h l e s s s u r f a c e f r i c t i o n t h a t m i n i m i z e t h e danger o f premature screen-
o u t . O t h e r e x t r a o r d i n a r y cases a r e t a i l - i n t r e a t m e n t s w i t h a l a r g e r q u a n t i t y o f
20/40 sand f o l l o w e d by a s m a l l e r p o r t i o n o f 20/40 o r 16/20 i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r
even h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants i n o r d e r t o maximize c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y i n
t h e immediate w e l l b o r e s u r r o u n d i n g s where r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e drawdown reaches
i t s maximum (MADER 1987, 1988 a; c f . c h a p t e r s 2 and 3 ) . A s p e c i a l u t i l i z a t i o n
i s a l s o pumping o f e x c l u s i v e l y i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e
and s i l i c a t e o r l o w - d e n s i t y alumina s i l i c a t e proppants w i t h a s m a l l e r q u a n t i t y
of 20/40 m a t e r i a l f i r s t which i s f o l l o w e d by t h e main l o t o f 16/20 m a t e r i a l
( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1.2.3.).

1.5.1.1.2. Coarser grain sizes

12/20 i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y and h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants a r e
used i n some e x t r a o r d i n a r y r e s e r v o i r s t o achieve a p a r t i c u l a r l y pronounced p e r -
m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t between f o r m a t i o n and p r o p p a n t package, w i t h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
i n most cases b e i n g l i m i t e d t o t a i l - i n s d u r i n g advanced stages o f f r a c t u r i n g
jobs, because t h e coarse g r a i n s i z e i s c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e r i s k o f
screenout. 6/9, 8/12 and 12/20 m a t e r i a l o f v a r i o u s t y p e ( p a r t i a l l y o n l y as a
t a i l - i n c o u p l e d w i t h f i n e r g r a i n s i z e s ) i s a l r e a d y o c c a s i o n a l l y r e q u i r e d (some
examples o f coarse p r o p p a n t usage a r e r e p o r t e d by FAST, HOLMAN & COVLIN 1977;
BLACK, RIPLEY, BEECROFT & PAMPLIN 1979; GRUESBECK, SALATHIEL & ECHOLS 1979; LAM-
BERT, DOLAN & GALLUS 1983; BARBER & THEMIG 1985, ROBINSON 1985, NIEMEYER & R E I -
NART 1986; PARKER, ADAMS & LIANKUI 1986; BARBY & BARBEE 1987) o r c o u l d be an ap-
p l i c a t i o n o f h i g h f u t u r e promotion p o t e n t i a l f o r h i g h - v i s c o s i t y o i l production,
o i l - f i e l d w a t e r i n j e c t i o n , o i l - and g a s - f i e l d as w e l l as a q u i f e r waste l i q u i d
d i s p o s a l ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.7.), c o a l seam d e g a s i f i c a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 3 . ) ,
and geothermal h e a t e x p l o i t a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 7 . ) . O c c a s i o n a l l y as-
 92

s o c i a t e d n o n - o i l - f i e l d u t i l i z a t i o n s c o m p r i s e m i n e r a l l e a c h i n g and p r o d u c t i o n o f
aqueous s o l u t i o n s b y w e l l s (BARBY & BARBEE 1 9 8 7 ) .

6 / 9 sand has f o r m e r l y been e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d f o r o i l - and w a t e r - p r o d u c t i o n

w e l l g r a v e l p a c k i n g , b u t l a t e r more s o p h i s t i c a t e d d e s i g n t e c h n i q u e s have p r o v e n
s m a l l e r - s i z e d g r a v e l t o be s u p e r i o r f o r e f f e c t i v e sand c o n t r o l (SCHWARTZ 1969,
S A U C I E R 1974; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 3 . ) . I n some cases b e i n g c o a r s e r e s e r v o i r sands
o f a e o l i a n o r f l u v i a l h i g h - e n e r g y o r i g i n , c o a r s e 1 2 / 2 0 and 1 6 / 2 0 o r e v e n 8 / 1 2
i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s a n d / o r
sand a r e s t i l l nowadays r e q u i r e d f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g .

1.5.1.2. Low-dens i ty alumina s i 1 icate proppant s

20/40 i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y alumina s i l i c a t e proppant ( c f . sec-
t i o n 1.3.2.1.) which i s only commercially a v a i l a b l e since a b t . 5 years i s pre-
s e n t l y g r e a t l y e x p a n d i n g and has - i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e r e s i n - c o a t e d v a r i e t y
- c e r t a i n l y a b i g f u t u r e due t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i t s a p p l i c a t i o n i n many mar-
g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s where so f a r no s u i t a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e h a s been d i s c o -
v e r e d ( s u c h as o i l - b e a r i n g m a r g i n a l c h a l k s as w e l l as c a r b o n a t e s h e l l and
q u a r t z sand s t r e a k s and s h e e t s i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h m e c h a n i c a l l y a n d / o r c h e m i c a l l y
u n s t a b l e mudstones; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 5 . 1 . ) . The m a j o r a d v a n t a g e o f s y n t h e t i c
low-density intermediate- s t r e n g t h alumina s i l i c a t e proppants i s t h e low speci-
f i c g r a v i t y t h a t i s a l m o s t c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f n a t u r a l q u a r t z sand w h i c h r e -
s u l t s i n a f a v o u r a b l e pumping b e h a v i o u r , c o u p l e d w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y t h a n q u a r t z sand. Thus i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i -
t y alumina s i l i c a t e proppants are scheduled t o replace low-strength n a t u r a l
q u a r t z sand i n i n c r e a s i n g s h a r e s due t o t h e i r b e t t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y and h i g h e r
closure stress r e s i s t i v i t y , i f the price difference i s not too high f o r applica-
t i o n s where t r a d i t i o n a l l y o n l y n a t u r a l q u a r t z sand had been used, b u t a much
b e t t e r f r a c t u r e performance can be achieved by u s i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h low-
d e n s i t y alumina s i l i c a t e proppants.

1.5.1.3. Zirconia-si 1 icate proppants

High-strength low-density z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 2 . 2 . )
have t h e m a j o r d i s a d v a n t a g e t o be c o n s i d e r a b l y more e x p e n s i v e t h a n a l u m i n a
o x i d e ( c e r a m i c ) p r o p p a n t s ( b o t h i n t e r m s o f volume and w e i g h t ; c f . s e c t i o n
1 . 4 . 1 2 . 5 . ) as a consequence o f t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s w i t h c o n s i d e r a b -
l y l a r g e r amounts o f r e j e c t s f o r t h e r e a s o n o f g r a i n s i z e b e i n g o u t o f s p e c i f i -
c a t i o n , and due t o t e r m i n a t i o n o f g o v e r n m e n t a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g
company some y e a r s ago. Thus i n c o n t r a s t t o a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p -
p a n t s w h i c h have become c h e a p e r d u r i n g t h e l a s t y e a r s and o n l y v e r y r e c e n t l y
were a g a i n pushed u p i n p r i c e b u t s t i l l r e m a i n b e l o w t h e f o r m e r l e v e l w h i c h
t h e y had d u r i n g many y e a r s o f t h e g o l d e n s t i m u l a t i o n p e r i o d , z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e
p r o p p a n t s have k e p t t h e i r p r i c e o r e v e n g o t more e x p e n s i v e , t h e r e b y h a v i n g an
important marketing disadvantage w i t h respect t o the c o m p e t i t i v e products ( c f .
section 2.2.2.3.).

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s i s
t h e r e f o r e more o r l e s s l i m i t e d t o some o n s h o r e a r e a s ( i n c l u d i n g MHF t r e a t -
m e n t s ) , b u t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f y o f f s h o r e f o r more t h a n
t a i l - i n j o b s ( a i m i n g i n many c a s e s on t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f gamma-ray f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t c o n t r o l m o n i t o r i n g by w e l l l o g g i n g o f n a t u r a l proppant r a d i o a c t i c i t y
( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) . A t e m p o r a r i l y b e t t e r s i t u a t i o n had a r i s e n i n Europe i n
t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s y n t h e t i c h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s when a
h i g h o i l p r i c e and a s t r o n g US $ p e r m i t t e d t r e a t m e n t e x e c u t i o n when t e c h n i c a l l y
n e c e s s a r y and n o t when e c o n o m i c a l l y m o s t f e a s i b l e , w i t h i n t h o s e days r e p e a t e d -
l y having occurred t h a t purchase o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants from t h e l o c a l
s u p p l i e r i n F r a n c e t u r n e d o u t t o be t h e b e t t e r s o l u t i o n a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e
l i n e t h a t t o w a i t f o r a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e o r t o pay t h e a i r
 93

f r e i g h t premium t o f l y i n t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e p r o d u c t i o n p l a n t i n t h e USA t o
t h e w e l l s i t e i n Europe. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e major t e c h n i c a l advantage o f z i r -
c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants i s t h e low s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f t h a t h i g h - s t r e n g t h mate-
r i a l which i s even lower t h a n t h a t o f some o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h -
d e n s i t y proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 2 . ) .

The h i g h p r i c e i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e v e r y l i m i t e d mechanical and chemical

s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y a l s o t r i g g e r e d t h e disappearance o f t h e expensive g l a s s
beads ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 3 . 1 . ) i n f o r m e r y e a r s when t h e cheaper and h a r d e r c e r a -
mic proppants were i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e o i l and gas market.

1.5.2. Non-oil- and gas-field applications

8/12 and 12/20 h i g h - s t r e n g t h b a u x i t e proppants a r e a l s o a p p l i e d o u t s i d e o f
t h e o i l and gas market p r e d o m i n a n t l y as heat-exchange ( s t a t i c e n v i r o n m e n t ) and
h e a t - t r a n s f e r (dynamic m i l i e u ) p e l l e t s i n c u p o l a f u r n a c e s i n t h e s t e e l f o u n d r y
market, f u r n a c e s i n alumina and g l a s s i n d u s t r y , and f u r n a c e s f o r hydrocarbon
combustion ( a i m i n g on r e t r i e v a l o f r e s i d u a l h e a t ) , as w e l l as d u s t a b s o r p t i o n
o r f i l t e r i n g p e l l e t s i n t h e gas p u r i f i c a t i o n market. Other n o n - o i l - and gas-
f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s o f ceramic proppants o f v a r i o u s t y p e and g r a i n s i z e a r e r e -
s i n , polymer, w a t e r and gas f i l t r a t i o n ; s h o t b l a s t i n g by h a r d e n i n g s t a i n l e s s
s t e e l by peening r a t h e r t h a n by c u t t i n g , f l u i d bed r e a c t i o n s , wear r e s i s t a n c e ,
metal d e b u r r i n g , f i l l i n g , g r i n d i n g , i n s u l a t i o n and cement c o n s t i t u e n t s , w i t h
most o f these market segments a t t h e moment i n Europe s t i l l b e i n g i n an immatu-
r e stage, i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e USA where up t o a few p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l annual
ceramic p r o p p a n t s a l e s i s made t o i n d u s t r i e s o t h e r than o i l and gas companies
already since longer time.

As a consequence o f t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n Europe f o r t h e development o f an

i m p o r t a n t second market segment i n t h e coming y e a r s , f o u n d r y h e a t exhange and
gas p u r i f i c a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n s o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e proppant p e l l e t s a r e b r i e f l y
o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

1.5.2.1. Foundry heat exchange

Heat exchange a p p l i c a t i o n o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e o f p r e f e r a b l y 12/20 g r a i n s i z e
i n c u p o l a furnaces f o r h o t wind p r o d u c t i o n i n s t e e l f o u n d r i e s has been d e v e l o -
ped i n t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s ( f i r s t i n t r o d u c t i o n t o f o u n d r y i n d u s t r y i n 1976) as a
means o f e f f e c t i v e h e a t r e t r i e v a l (KGT 1986). The c u p o l a f u r n a c e i s composed o f
an upper gas p a r t and a l o w e r a i r p a r t . I n t h e upper gas p a r t , soaking i s done
w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e gas v e l o c i t y , whereas i n t h e lower a i r p a r t , c o l d a i r i s
i n j e c t e d w i t h h i g h p r e s s u r e . Hot b l a s t - f u r n a c e gas comes from t h e a d j o i n i n g b u r -
n i n g chamber and p e n e t r a t e s a c y l i n d r i c a l tower c o n t a i n i n g s e v e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n
d i s k s which a r e p e r f o r a t e d by numerous small h o l e s and a l s o c o n t a i n some l a r g e r
o r i f i c e s . Gas v e l o c i t y i s a d j u s t e d i n a way t h a t t h e proppants o r p e l l e t s a r e
k e p t i n suspension as a f l u i d i z e d bed between t h e d i s k s , b u t w i t h t i m e s l o w l y
pass downwards t h r o u g h t h e o r i f i c e s t o t h e n e x t d i s k below, whereas t h e gas
stream moves upwards.

Heat t r a n s i t i o n i s o p t i m i z e d by c o n t r o l l e d r e m a i n i n g t i m e o f t h e p e l l e t s b e t -
ween t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n d i s k s due t o e x a c t c a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e gas stream. Having
taken up s u f f i c i e n t h e a t d u r i n g t h e i r way downwards, t h e p e l l e t s f i n a l l y pass
v i a a g a s - t i g h t t r a n s i t i o n from t h e upper h o t gas p a r t i n t o t h e lower c o l d a i r
p a r t where t h e y a r e c o o l e d down by t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e i r h e a t t o t h e c o l d wind
( w h i c h i s t h e r e b y heated up and l e a v e s t h e chamber as h o t w i n d g o i n g i n t o t h e
foundry process system) and t h e n a r e l i f t e d t o t h e t o p o f t h e c u p o l a f u r n a c e
where t h e c i r c u i t s t a r t s a g a i n w i t h e n t r y o f t h e p e l l e t s i n t o t h e d i s k tower o f
t h e upper gas p a r t . The heated p e l l e t s f o r m a g a s - t i g h t c l o s u r e between upper
gas p a r t and lower a i r p a r t even a t h i g h d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e s . E f f e c t s of
proppant o r p e l l e t t y p e and g r a i n s i z e a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s .
 94

1.5.2.1.1. Pellet type

The e f f e c t i v i t y o f h e a t r e t r i e v a l i n c u p o l a f u r n a c e s t h r o u g h h e a t exchange
b y t h e s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e p e l l e t s i s much h i g h e r t h a n i n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e c u p e r a -
t o r s w h i c h s u f f e r f r o m t h e p r o b l e m o f s i n t e r i n g o f d u s t on b r i c k l i n i n g and
p i p e s , whereas t h e p e l l e t s y s t e m i n t h e c u p o l a f u r n a c e i n c l u d e s s e l f - c l e a n i n g
by l a t e r removal o f t h e d u s t s i n t e r e d o n t o t h e p e l l e t s u r f a c e d u r i n g c o o l i n g
and g r a v i t a t i o n a l s e g r e g a t i o n o f d u s t and p e l l e t s i n t h e l i f t system, t h e r e b y
a l s o s a v i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e m a i n t e n a n c e work and expenses.

Concerning proppant type s e l e c t i o n , h i g h - s t r e n g t h alumina oxide proppants

( s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e ) a r e much more s u i t a b l e t h a n i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i -
t y a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s due t o t h e i r m i n e r a l o g i c a l h o m o g e n e i t y ,
c h e m i c a l i n e r t n e s s and h i g h e r s p e c i f i c d e n s i t y . The m i n e r a l o g i c a l h o m o g e n e i t y
o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e b e i n g a l m o s t p u r e corundum p r o v i d e s a b e t t e r p e l l e t s i n t e r -
i n g d u r i n g m a n u f a c t u r i n g and t h u s h i g h e r m e c h a n i c a l and t h e r m o d y n a m i c a l s t a b i l i -
t y w i t h a l o w e r p o t e n t i a l o f e x p l o s i o n and c r a c k i n g of g r a i n s d u r i n g r e p e a t e d
h e a t i n g and c o o l i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y ( e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t t h e s i n t e r e d b a u x i -
t e p e l l e t s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y r e s i s t a n t a g a i n s t breakage i n t h e range o f a p p l i e d
c h a n g i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s w h i c h g o up t o 900 - 1,000 o C ) . The c h e m i c a l i n e r t n e s s
due t o s c a r c i t y t o a l m o s t l a c k o f s i l i c a p r e v e n t s s o l u t i o n i n t h e h o t a l c a l i n e
e n v i r o n m e n t ( s i m i l a r l y as i n s t e a m - d r i v e a r e a s i n o i l f i e l d s when u s e d f o r g r a -
v e l packing and/or h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g ; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 6 . ) and t h u s
a l s o enhances p e l l e t s t a b i l i t y . The h i g h e r s p e c i f i c d e n s i t y a m e l i o r a t e s t h e e f -
f e c t i v e n e s s o f g r a v i t a t i o n a l s e g r e g a t i o n o f p e l l e t s and d u s t i n t h e l i f t s y s t e m
where t h e d u s t i s s e p a r a t e d and removed.

1 . 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . Pellet grain size

I n t e r m s o f g r a i n s i z e c h o i c e , 12/20 s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e has so f a r p r o v e n t o
be t h e optimum f o r t h e f o u n d r y h e a t exchange a p p l i c a t i o n . S m a l l e r p e l l e t s gene-
r a l l y r e s u l t i n b e t t e r h e a t t r a n s i t i o n t h a n l a r g e r ones, b u t i f t h e y a r e t o o
s m a l l , however, gas v e l o c i t y in t h e c u p o l a f u r n a c e i s t o o h i g h and t h e p e l l e t s
a r e t r a n s p o r t e d a g a i n s t t h e s t r e a m upwards t o t h e n e x t d i s k and a r e e v e n b l o w n
o u t w i t h t h e f l u e gas c u r r e n t ( t h e same happens when p e l l e t s o f t o o l o w s p e c i -
f i c d e n s i t y a r e used, as e v i d e n c e d by a c c i d e n t a l f i e l d t e s t s w i t h t h e l i g h t e r
a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s i n s t e a d o f t h e h e a v i e r s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e
p e l l e t s ) . O p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s has t o be l i m i t e d t o changes o f p e l l e t
s i z e and s p e c i f i c d e n s i t y , because t h e gas v e l o c i t y i s more o r l e s s f i x e d t o
g u a r a n t e e t h e r e q u i r e d m e l t i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e c u p o l a f u r n a c e and i s i n d i r e c t l y
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r a w i r o n t h r o u g h p u t . L a r g e r and h e a v i e r p e l l e t s l e a d t o b e t -
t e r s e g r e g a t i o n f r o m d u s t and a l s o p r e v e n t l o s s o f m a t e r i a l !,. b l o w o u t a t t h e
top.

C o n c e r n i n g t h e g a s - t i g h t t r a n s i t i o n between u p p e r gas p a r t and l o w e r a i r

p a r t o f t h e c u p o l a f u r n a c e , an u n i m o d a l p e l l e t g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n such as
t h e n a r r o w l y - s c r e e n e d 12/20 s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e g i v e s s a t i s f a c t o r y s e p a r a t i o n . A
b i m o d a l p e l l e t p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d r e s u l t i n an even b e t t e r t i g h t n e s s due t o p l u g -
g i n g o f t h e i n t e r s t i t i a l s between t h e c o a r s e g r a i n s b y t h e f i n e g r a i n s , b u t t h e
p r o b l e m w o u l d be g r a v i t a t i o n a l s e g r e g a t i o n o f b o t h g r a i n s i z e c l a s s e s i n t h e
d i s k t o w e r i n t h e u p p e r gas p a r t b e f o r e t h e assemblage r e a c h e s t h e t r a n s i t i o n
a t t h e end o f i t s downwards movement, and a l s o d u r i n g r e c y c l i n g and c l e a n i n g o f
t h e g r a i n s which are l i f t e d t o t h e t o p o f t h e d i s k tower system w i t h d i f f e r e n t
t r a n s p o r t v e l o c i t i e s due t o t h e i r d i f f e r e n t w e i g h t .
 95

1.5.2.1.3. Alumina and glass industry heat exchange

A s i m i l a r h e a t exchange a p p l i c a t i o n of s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e p e l l e t s as i n c u p o l a
f u r n a c e s i n t h e s t e e l f o u n d r y i n d u s t r y i s performed i n alumina m e l t i n g f u r n a -
ces, hydrocarbon combustion furnaces, and g l a s s i n d u s t r y f u r n a c e s . W h i l e t h e
h e a t exchange a p p l i c a t i o n i s a l r e a d y common p r a c t i c e i n t h e USA s i n c e many
y e a r s and t h e whole package o f v a r i o u s n o n - o i l - and g a s - f i e l d proppant a p p l i c a -
t i o n s comprises up t o a c o u p l e o f p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l annual p r o p p a n t s a l e s l e -
v e l , t h e t e c h n i q u e i s i n Europe s t i l l i n t h e i n i t i a l stages and t h e market seg-
ment i s d e v e l o p i n g w i t h i n t h e n e x t few y e a r s t o p r o b a b l y a l s o reach an impor-
t a n t second s e c t o r o f usage o f m a t e r i a l w i t h a p o s s i b l y even h i g h e r share o f
m a r k e t i n g p o t e n t i a l t h a n i n t h e USA p a r t i c u l a r l y i n l i g h t o f t h e expected b o o s t -
i n g o f t h e f o u n d r y c u p o l a f u r n a c e market segment.

1.5.2.2. Mechanical gas purification

Mechanical gas p u r i f i c a t i o n i s performed i n t h e cement i n d u s t r y w i t h g r a v e l -
bed f i l t e r s (LURGI 1983) where s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e o r g l a s s bead p e l l e t s o f a b t .
6/10 o r s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o 8/12 o r 12/20 g r a i n s i z e a r e needed. S i n t e r e d b a u x i -
t e has t h e advantage t o be m e c h a n i c a l l y more r e s i s t a n t and t o be c o n s i d e r a b l y
cheaper t h a n g l a s s beads. The rough b a u x i t e s u r f a c e i n comparison t o t h e smooth
g l a s s s u r f a c e a l s o g i v e s a b e t t e r performance p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g c l e a n i n g o f
t h e p e l l e t s f r o m a d h e r i n g d u s t . D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between o p e r a t i o n a l and
c l e a n i n g stage o f g r a v e l - b e d - f i l t e r s i n mechanical gas p u r i f i c a t i o n p l a n t s .

1.5.2.2.1. Operational stage

A t t h e end o f t h e heat-exchanging r o t a r y k i l n i n t h e cement i n d u s t r y process
l i n e , t h e f u r n a c e and t h e n t h e f i l t e r a r e i n s t a l l e d . The f i l t e r i s a combina-
t i o n between a mechanical s e p a r a t o r ( p r e c l e a n i n g c y c l o n e ) and t h e t u b e - t y p e g r a -
v e l - b e d f i l t e r ( g r a n u l a t e - t u b e - f i l t e r ; LURGI 1983) where t h e p e l l e t s a r e e n c l o -
sed between two w i r e n e t s . The g r a v e l - b e d f i l t e r p r i n c i p a l l y has t o f u l f i l l
t h r e e d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s i n t h e process : p u r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e gas by separa-
t i o n o f dust, maintenance o f t r a n s p o r t a b i l i t y i n t h e system ( t h e p e l l e t s have
t o possess s u f f i c i e n t buoyancy i n t h e gas c u r r e n t ) , and p o s s i b i l i t y o f c l e a n i n g
t h e p e l l e t s f r o m t h e a d h e r i n g d u s t . The raw gas i s c l e a n e d f i r s t i n t h e c y c -
lone, w i t h t h e r e m a i n i n g f i n e d u s t t h e n second b e i n g t r a p p e d i n t h e g r a n u l a t e
f i l t e r where i t s t i c k s t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e p e l l e t s p r e f e r a b l y i n t h e f i r s t
q u a r t e r o f t h e g r a v e l bed t h i c k n e s s . W i t h time, t h e g r a v e l - b e d f i l t e r i s t o o
much s a t u r a t e d w i t h d u s t and then c l e a n i n g has t o be made.

1.5.2.2.2. Cleaning stage

The whole p l a n t c o n s i s t s o f a b t . e i g h t moduls which a r e r u n n i n g s e p a r a t e l y .
The o p e r a t i o n i n c l u d e s simultaneous p u r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e gas i n a b t . f i v e t o s i x
moduls, and t h e o t h e r moduls a r e d u r i n g t h a t t i m e i n c l e a n i n g stzr;e. Once t h e y
a r e p u t back on stream, o t h e r moduls a r e taken o u t f r o m p u r i , i c a t i o n and a r e
cleaned. C l e a n i n g i s performed by b l o w i n g compressed a i r i n t o t h e modul and i n -
s t a l l i n g a v e n t i l a t o r w i t h a c y c l o n e a t t h e t o p . The d u s t - b e a r i n g p e l l e t granu-
l a t e i s blown upwards where g r a v i t a t i o n a l s e p a r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e , w i t h t h e hea-
v i e r p e l l e t s f a l l i n g back t o t h e ground on t h e g r a v e l - b e d f i l t e r and t h e l i g h -
t e r d u s t b e i n g blown o u t .

The g r a i n s i z e o f t h e p e l l e t s i n t h e g r a v e l bed i s determined by t h e s p a c i n g

o f the holes i n the w i r e nets t h a t enclose the granulate. Sintered bauxite i s
more s u i t a b l e t h a n i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a -
t e proppants, because t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y denser m a t e r i a l has a b e t t e r s e g r e g a b i -
l i t y a t c l e a n i n g stage ( s i m i l a r l y as t h e p e l l e t s i n t h e l i f t i n g system o f t h e
c u p o l a furnace; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 5 . 2 . 1 . ) . I f t h e y a r e t o o heavy, t h e gas c u r r e n t
 96

r a t e has t o be r e a d j u s t e d .

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e d y n a m i c a l s t r e s s i n t h e above d e s c r i b e d g r a v e l - b e d f i l -
t e r , o t h e r systems o p e r a t e w i t h p e l l e t s t h a t a r e s u b j e c t e d t o o n l y s t a t i c a l
stress.

1 . 6 . Conclusion and outlook

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f o i l - and g a s - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s
w i t h v a r i o u s s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s c a n be done w i t h f i v e d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y p e s
w h i c h a r e a v a i l a b l e i n s e v e r a l g r a i n s i z e s and a t d i f f e r e n t p r i c e s i n t h e mar-
k e t . Depending on m i n e r a l o g i c a l and c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n as w e l l as m e c h a n i c a l
and c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , t h e v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t s c a n be a p p l i e d i n d i f f e r e n t p r e s -
sure, t e m p e r a t u r e and b r i n e r e g i m e s , w i t h c l o s u r e s t r e s s b e i n g t h e m o s t i m p o r -
t d n t f a c t o r c o n t r o l l i n g p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n . The p r e d o m i n a n t a p p l i c a t i o n i n Eu-
rope comprises intermediate- t o high-strength proppants (and p a r t i a l l y a l s o
sand i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o r i n some c a s e s e v e n as r e p l a c e m e n t o f s y n t h e t i c p r o p -
p a n t s ) f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s deep t i g h t g a s -
b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s i n Germany FRG and N e t h e r l a n d s o n s h o r e and B r i t i s h and D u t c h
S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea o f f s h o r e . The m a i n p r o p p a n t a p p l i c a t i o n s i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e i n t h e f i e l d s o f o i l p r o d u c t i o n , w a t e r o f f t a k e
and i n j e c t i o n , s h a l l o w and deep g a s w i t h d r a w a l , and s t e a m - d r i v e enhanced o i l r e -
c o v e r y . O t h e r p r o p p a n t u t i l i z a t i o n s a r e i n t h e m a r k e t segments o f f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s , g e o t h e r m a l w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n and h e a t e x t r a c t i o n , c o a l
seam d e g a s i f i c a t i o n , f o u n d r y c u p o l a f u r n a c e h e a t t r a n s f e r , and m e c h a n i c a l gas
purification.

Based on t h e p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f a s p e c t s o f p r o p p a n t c h o i c e f o r v a r i o u s ap-
p l i c a t i o n s f r o m p r e d o m i n a n t l y t e c h n i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w , a more d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t
o f m a r k e t i n g and e c o n o m i c a l a s p e c t s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g
w i t h d e t a i l e d r e v i e w , s t a t u s , f o r e c a s t and p e r s p e c t i v e s o f s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y
i n W e s t e r n and E a s t e r n Europe i s g i v e n i n c h a p t e r 2, t e c h n i c a l and m a r k e t i n g a s -
p e c t s o f R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s s t i m u l a t i o n in E u r o p e a r e s k e t c h e d i n sec-
t i o n 3 as a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e e c o n o m i c a l l y i n f l u e n c e d d i v i s i o n s t o t h e t e c h n i -
c a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d p a r t s , and v a r i o u s t e c h n i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g p o s s i -
b i l i t i e s o f p r o m o t i n g and e n h a n c i n g t h e f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
m a r g i n a l o i l - and g a s - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s , a r e o u t l i n e d i n c h a p t e r 4. S e c t i o n 5
p r e s e n t s an a c c o u n t o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g , and d i v i s i o n 6 summarizes h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g m o n i t o r i n g b y w e l l l o g g i n g and o t h e r t e c h n i -
ques. The b i b l i o g r a p h y i s c o m p i l e d as s u b j e c t k e y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and as g e n e r a l
reference l i s t i n chapter 7 .

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f o i l and a a s r e s e r v o i r s
i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a g r o w i n g b r a n c h o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t i n E u r o p e and
w i l l a l s o i n t h e f u t u r e r e m a i n t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a r k e t segment o f a p p l i c a t i o n
o f t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f c u r r e n t l y c o m m e r c i a l l y m a n u f a c t u r e d and d i s t r i b u t e d
p r o p p a n t t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s , w i t h t h e l a r g e s t q u a n t i t i e s o f m a t e r i a l b e i n g
c o n t i n u e d t o be consumed b y MHF t r e a t m e n t s o f deep t i g h t gas sands. E x p e r i m e n -
t a l a p p r o a c h e s d u r i n g t h e l a s t y e a r s have e v e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t p r o v i d e d an
a d e q u a t e demand b y t h e m a r k e t , some new p r o p p a n t t y p e s o f enhanced t e c h n i c a l
p e r f o r m a n c e and b e t t e r e c o n o m i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y may be d e v e l o p e d i n t h e coming
y e a r s t o a d j u s t t o an i n c r e a s i n g l y d i v e r s i f i e d s p e c t r u m o f f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n .
 97

2 . M a r k e t i n g a n d E c o n o m i c s
2.0.Summary a n d a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n Western and E a s t e r n Europe

t a k e s p l a c e i n d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f r e s e r v o i r s and under d i f f e r e n t g e o l o g i c a l , en-
g i n e e r i n g , t e c h n i c a l , marketing, economical and p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . I n compa-
r i s o n t o t h e USA, g e n e r a l i n f l u e n c e s on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g
such as changes o f hydrocarbon p r i c e s and proppant p r i c e s have i n Europe more
s e r i o u s and a l s o more d i v e r s i f i e d consequences f o r t h e o v e r a l l s t i m u l a t i o n sce-
n e r y . The impacts o f r e d u c t i o n o f hydrocarbon p r i c e s and p r o p p a n t p r i c e s d u r i n g
t h e l a s t few y e a r s a r e i n Europe even accentuated by t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e US $ ex-
change r a t e ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o o t h e r w o r l d g u i d e c u r r e n c i e s such as DM and L ) .
The t e c h n o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t t y p e s d u r i n g
t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s took p l a c e p a r a l l e l t o s e v e r a l m a j o r changes o f t h e h y d r o c a r -
bon p r i c e s c e n a r i o and t h e US $ exchange r a t e s c e n a r i o i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n . The
m a j o r o i l p r i c e drop i n l a t e 1 9 8 5 / e a r l y 1986 h i t t h e ( m a i n l y Western) European
s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t much s t r o n g e r than t h a t i n t h e USA due t o v a r i o u s reasons
c o m p r i s i n g amount o f d r i l l i n g r i g s , frequency o f s t i m u l a t i o n jobs, o p e r a t i n g
m e n t a l i t y and p h i l o s o p h y , p r o p p a n t p r i c e a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e , c o m b i n a t i o n
w i t h f a l l i n g US $ value, and p r o p p a n t m a r k e t i n g a c t i v i t y . The o i l p r i c e h i s t o r y
o f t h e l a s t 20 y e a r s comprises t h e 1973 and 1979 o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n s , t h e 1986
o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e , and t h e 1987 and 1988 o i l p r i c e weakness. W h i l e p r i o r t o
t h e i n v e n t i o n and market i n t r o d u c t i o n o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants i n
1976 p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f s t i m u l a t i o n o f deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e r e s e r v o i r s have been
v e r y l i m i t e d and t h e f i r s t y e a r s o f a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a r t i f i c i a l h i g h - q u a l i t y
proppants s u f f e r e d f r o m s h o r t a g e i n s u p p l y and e l e v a t e d p r i c e s o f t h e new p r o -
ducts, t h e e a r l y 1980's became t h e golden y e a r s o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g due t o performance o f numerous t r e a t m e n t s on v a r i o u s s c a l e i n t h e economi-
c a l framework o f a h i g h o i l p r i c e and a s t r o n g US $. The 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h
c o m p l e t e l y r e v e r s e d o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n market p o t e n t i a l . I n
c o n t r a s t t o t h e USA, many p a r t s o f Europe a r e so f a r i n terms o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n s u f f i c i e n t l y a t t e n d e d markets where a l a r g e p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s
w i t h numerous p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f s t i m u l a t i o n , b u t c o m p l i c a t e d g e o l o g i c a l and en-
g i n e e r i n g r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s , many d i f f e r e n t m e n t a l i t i e s and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
i n t e r l o c k i n g r e q u i r e much more t i m e and a c t i v i t y , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r n e c e s s i t y be-
i n g t h e development o f a sound m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y which i n t e g r a t e s g e o l o g i c a l ,
r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g , t e c h n i c a l and economical concepts. The main d i f f e r e n c e s
o f t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g market between USA and Europe comprise ab-
s o l u t e and r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y o f d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n , s u c c e s s / f a i l u r e r a -
t i o and c o n s o r t i a 1 s t r u c t u r e , o p e r a t i n g m e n t a l i t y and t r e a t m e n t c o s t , i n t e g r a -
t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n i n t o t h e t o t a l w e l l concept, and proppant m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e -
gy. L a c k i n g c o n t i n u i t y i n m a r k e t i n g a t t e n t i o n , m i s s i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e mar-
k e t requirements, and f a i l u r e t o f o r e s e e d e v e l o p i n g market t r e n d s has i n Europe
i n t h e l a s t y e a r s r e p e a t e d l y r e s u l t e d i n s e r i o u s business l o s s e s f o r p r o p p a n t
companies b o t h t o p r o p p a n t c o m p e t i t i o n and n a t u r a l sand. A r e a l market e v a l u a -
t i o n s a r e g i v e n f o r b o t h Western Europe and E a s t e r n Europe f o r t h e p e r i o d s 1977
- 1985, 1986 ( p a r t i a l l y i n c l u d i n g t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1987), and 1987 ( c o m p r i s i n g
m a i n l y t h e second h a l f ) - 1990 (and a l s o e x t e n d i n g f u r t h e r i n t o t h e f u t u r e ) ,
t h u s c o n t a i n i n g review, s t a t u s , f o r e c a s t and p e r s p e c t i v e s . Emphasis i s a l s o p u t
on economical, commercial, p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l aspects o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g e s p e c i a l l y i n E a s t e r n Europe. I n Western Europe, t h e main t a r -
g e t s o f s t i m u l a t i o n b y h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n p a s t and f u t u r e a r e
deep l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y g a s - b e a r i n g R o t l i e g e n d (Lower Permian) and C a r b o n i f e r o u s
sandstones i n Germany FRG and N e t h e r l a n d s onshore as w e l l as i n B r i t i s h and
Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea o f f s h o r e , w i t h m a i n l y i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h
proppants b e i n g r e q u i r e d due t o h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s i n t h e e a s t e r n p a r t o f
t h e p r o s p e c t i v e R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s b e l t , whereas i n i t s w e s t e r n p a r t ,
l o w e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s a l s o p e r m i t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f n a t u r a l sand i n combina-
t i o n w i t h o r even i n replacement o f s y n t h e t i c proppants. The t a i l - i n f r a c t u r i n g
s t r a t e g y c o m p r i s i n g pumping o f s m a l l e r q u a n t i t i e s o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h -
 98

s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s in t h e second s t a g e o f t h e t r e a t m e n t f o l l o w i n g i n j e c t i o n o f
l a r g e r amounts o f sand i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n seems t o be t h e m o s t
s u i t a b l e t e c h n i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l s t i m u l a t i o n d e s i g n f o r many B r i t i s h S o u t h e r n
N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r s , w i t h t h e a d v a n t a g e s b e i n g c u t t i n g c o s t and in-
c r e a s i n g e f f e c t i v i t y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g b y m i n i m i z i n g p r o p p a n t expenses
and m a x i m i z i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e w e l l b o r e , r e -
s p e c t i v e l y . The R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s MHF o p e r a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d o u t
w i t h p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s r a n g i n g f r o m 100 t u p t o 650 t i n t h e l a r g e s t t r e a t -
m e n t s . A p a r t f r o m R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s , B u n t s a n d s t e i n ( L o w e r T r i a s s i c )
gas r e s e r v o i r s a l s o r e q u i r e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n i n p a r t s
o f t h e m e n t i o n e d a r e a s . S m a l l f r a c t u r i n g j o b s w i t h 20 - 70 t o f sand have in
t h e p a s t been m a i n l y done i n s h a l l o w o i l - b e a r i n g C r e t a c e o u s s a n d s t o n e s i n Germa-
n y FRG and N e t h e r l a n d s as w e l l as T e r t i a r y s a n d s t o n e s i n A u s t r i a , C z e c h o s l o v a -
k i a , Y u g o s l a v i a and H u n g a r y . I n t h e N o r w e g i a n and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o B r i t i s h
N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea, u n s t a b l e o i l - b e a r i n g C r e t a c e o u s c h a l k s and J u r a s s i c s a n d s t o -
nes r e q u i r e g r a v e l p a c k i n g a n d / o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e -
s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y p r o p p a n t s a n d / o r sand. P a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t a r e combi-
n a t i o n s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g w i t h b o t h c o n v e n t i o n a l and
r e s i n - c o a t e d l o w - d e n s i t y i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s i n some s o f t f l o w i n g
c h a l k s i n undercompacted and o v e r p r e s s u r e d r e s e r v o i r s . The d r a m a t i c a l e f f e c t o f
t h e o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e i n l a t e 1 9 8 5 / e a r l y 1986 ( w h i c h had an e v e n more s e v e r e
and t r a g i c a l i m p a c t due t o t h e c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a s e r i o u s d r o p o f t h e US $ e x -
change r a t e ) was i n Western Europe even a c c e n t u a t e d b y an i n c r e a s e d c a n c e l l a -
t i o n r a t e o f p l a n n e d t r e a t m e n t s due t o s e v e r a l t e c h n i c a l r e a s o n s r e s u l t i n g f r o m
a m i s m a t c h o f p r e d i c t i o n and p e n e t r a t i o n and a l s o due t o p a r t i a l l y l o n g d r i l -
l i n g times e x t e n d i n g over several p e r i o d s w i t h d i f f e r e n t general economical f r a -
mework. P r o p p a n t p r i c e e v o l u t i o n i n t h e l a s t f i v e y e a r s i n c l u d e s t h e 1985 p r o p -
p a n t p r i c e l o w e r i n g and t h e 1987 p r o p p a n t p r i c e i n c r e a s e . I n a d d i t i o n t o p r i c e
r e d u c t i o n s and r i s e s e n a c t e d b y s u p p l y i n g companies, f l u c t u a t i o n s i n U S $ e x -
change r a t e p r o v o k e a l t e r a t i o n s o f c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s o f v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t t y p e s .
As a consequence o f t h e 1985 p r o p p a n t p r i c e c u t and t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e d r o p , a
much h i g h e r - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t m a t e r i a l i s now a v a i l a b l e i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r
q u a n t i t i e s a t a c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r p r i c e t h a n some y e a r s ago, b u t i s s e r i o u s l y
l i m i t e d i n a p p l i c a t i o n due t o a p r e s e n t l y p o o r e c o n o m i c a l framework p a r t i c u l a r -
l y in Europe, whereas some y e a r s ago, a much l o w e r - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t m a t e r i a l
t h a t was o f f e r e d a t a m a r k e d l y h i g h e r p r i c e t h a n now was v i r t u a l l y u n r e s t r i c t e d
i n d i s t r i b u t i o n due t o a s t r o n g demand e x c e e d i n g t h e p r e v i o u s c a p a c i t i e s o f
s u p p l y . T h e r e f o r e t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e c o m p l e t e l y r e v e r s e d t h e s t i m u l a -
t i o n m a r k e t b y c h a n g i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n f r o m good t o e x c e l l e n t f e a s i b i l i t y o f hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g when o n l y i n s u f f i c i e n t amounts o f h i g h e r - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t s
were a v a i l a b l e a t h i g h p r i c e s t o p o o r a t t r a c t i v i t y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g when
more t h a n enough p r o p p a n t m a t e r i a l i s a v a i l a b l e a t l o w p r i c e s . The v a r i o u s
p r i c e d r o p s and r i s e s f o r a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s had a l s o s e r i o u s
i m p a c t s o n t h e i r c o m p e t i t i v e power w i t h r e s p e c t t o z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s
w h i c h k e p t a l m o s t a l l t n e t i m e t h e i r f o r m e r e l e v a t e d p r i c e p o s i t i o n due t o more
e x p e n s i v e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s , and t h a t a r e i n t e r m s o f r e a l p r i c e i n E u r o p e n o t
i n f l u e n c e d b y v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n . I n c o n -
t r a s t t o W e s t e r n Europe, t h e d i f f e r e n t e c o n o m i c a l s y s t e m in E a s t e r n E u r o p e
l e a d s t o a more o r l e s s i n d e p e n d e n c y f r o m t h e o i l p r i c e s c e n a r i o and a l s o f r o m
t h e US $ exchange r a t e s c e n a r i o w h i c h means t h a t b a s i c a l l y t h e d r i l l i n g and s t i -
m u l a t i o n programmes go ahead r e g a r d l e s s o f g e n e r a l e c o n o m i c a l c r i s e s i n W e s t e r n
Europe and USA. I n E a s t e r n Europe, t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g h i g h l i g h t
i s c u r r e n t l y Y u g o s l a v i a where MHF t r e a t m e n t s f o c u s on deep h o t g a s - and conden-
s a t e - b e a r i n g T e r t i a r y s a n d s t o n e s and c o n g l o m e r a t e s , w i t h p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s
b e i n g needed u p t o 650 t p e r w e l l w h i c h a r e t h u s e x c e e d i n g p a r t i a l l y e v e n t h e
l o t s pumped d u r i n g t h e l a r g e s t o p e r a t i o n s i n Western Europe. The MHF j o b s in Yu-
g o s l a v i a a r e m a i n l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h s m a l l e r amounts o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h
l o w - d e n s i t y p r o p p a n t s i n t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e and l a r g e r volumes o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h
proppants i n t h e main stage o f t h e treatment. I n t h e o t h e r E a s t e r n European
countries, so f a r m a i n l y s m a l l e r f r a c t u r e j o b s w i t h a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y sand as
p r o p p i n g a g e n t s in q u a n t i t i e s u p t o 20 - 150 t have been c a r r i e d o u t . M a j o r s t i -
m u l a t i o n campaigns have a l s o been p e r f o r m e d i n T u r k e y . I n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c a l
 99

and f i n a n c i a l h a n d l i n g , t h e t r e a t m e n t s a r e i n E a s t e r n Europe o f t e n done by own

s e r v i c e w i t h purchase o f equipment abroad, and h a r d c u r r e n c y payment i s enabled
by f a v o u r a b l e e x p o r t volumes o r World Bank c r e d i t s . C o n s i d e r a b l e improvement o f
t h e s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l i n E a s t e r n Europe i s expected f r o m t h e p o l i t i c a l and
economical r e o r g a n i z a t i o n under t h e g u i d e l i n e s o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ( p e r e s t r o i k a ) ,
a c c e l e r a t i o n ( u s k o r e n i e ) and t r a n s p a r e n c y ( g l a s n o s t ) i n USSR and sooner o r l a -
t e r a l s o s a t e l l i t e c o u n t r i e s , and f r o m t h e o b l i g a t i o n s o f f u l f i l l i n g t h e g o a l s
o f o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n as f i x e d i n t h e c u r r e n t f i v e y e a r p l a n . As o i l and
gas a r e t h e m a j o r source o f h a r d c u r r e n c y f o r t h e USSR and because b o t h o i l
p r i c e drop and US $ exchange r a t e c o l l a p s e r e s u l t i n l o w e r n e t r e t u r n s , t h e l o s -
ses have t o be compensated by s e l l i n g i n c r e a s i n g amounts o f hydrocarbons i n Wes-
t e r n c o u n t r i e s . T h i s has been r e n d e r e d p o s s i b l e by meeting and o v e r s h o o t i n g o f
t h e p l a n f o r e c a s t i n t h e l a s t y e a r s by achievement o f a h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d l e v e l
o f o i l p r o d u c t i o n . The p a r t i a l independence o f t h e USSR f r o m t h e w o r l d market
and i t s e f f o r t s t o a m e l i o r a t e hydrocarbon s u p p l y s e c u r i t y a r e u n d e r l i n e d by t h e
f a c t t h a t i n c o n t r a s t t o c o n s i d e r a b l e budget c u t t i n g i n t h e western hemisphere
f o r d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n and r e s u l t i n g s e r i o u s l y l e s s e x p l o r a t i o n and deve-
lopment a c t i v i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o o r i g i n a l p l a n s b e f o r e t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e
crash, t h e USSR has i n 1986 even stepped up d r i l l i n g i n o r d e r t o r a p i d l y r e -
p l a c e m a t u r i n g o i l p r o d u c t i o n f r o m p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e p l e t e d f i e l d s . Because o f
i t s r o l e as an overwhelming source o f h a r d currency, p e t r o l e u m development com-
mands t o p p r i o r i t y i n t h e USSR a l s o a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e drop, whereas a t
t h e same t i m e i n t h e USA, p e t r o l e u m has f a l l e n t o t h e bottom o f t h e governmen-
t a l p r i o r i t y l i s t . While o p e r a t o r s i n USA and Europe a r e r e l u c t a n t t o i n v e s t
money i n new p r o j e c t s , t h e USSR has boosted i t s e f f o r t s t o s u s t a i n and expand
o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n and e x p o r t s . The l o g i c a l r e s u l t o f these enormous e f -
f o r t s r e g a r d l e s s o f w o r l d economical c o n s t e l l a t i o n s have been t h e o v e r p a s s i n g
o f t h e p l a n goal f o r t h e annual o i l p r o d u c t i o n q u a n t i t y i n 1987 w i t h b r e a k i n g
t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n r e c o r d s o pronouncedly t h a t o i l e x p o r t s reached a maximum. Con-
c e r n i n g m a r k e t i n g approach f o r s t i m u l a t i o n and o t h e r s e r v i c e s , t h e d i f f e r e n t l o -
g i s t i c a l and f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n between Western and E a s t e r n Europe r e s u l t s i n
a d i f f e r e n t s t r a t e g y o f t r e a t m e n t o p e r a t i o n . While i n Western Europe and va-
r i o u s o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n companies commonly ask es-
t a b l i s h e d s e r v i c e companies o f m a i n l y N o r t h American provenance t o c a r r y o u t
t h e whole s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s i n c l u d i n g s u p p l y o f a l l t h e mechanical and chemical
a d d i t i v e s f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n , i n E a s t e r n Europe t h e p r o d u c t i o n companies o f t e n
p r e f e r t o buy t h e i r own equipment, t o purchase most o r a l l o f t h e m a t e r i a l d i -
r e c t l y , and t o do t h e j o b s w i t h o u t t h e s u p p o r t o f Western s e r v i c e companies a f -
t e r p r o b a b l y a few i n t r o d u c t o r y , t r a i n i n g o r p i l o t t r e a t m e n t s . V a r i o u s s t i m u l a -
t i o n p r o j e c t s i n b o t h Western and E a s t e r n Europe i n t h e near f u t u r e a r e b r i e f l y
o u t l i n e d . The main n e c e s s i t y f o r many European c o u n t r i e s i n t h e near f u t u r e i s
t o i n c r e a s e domestic hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o achieve some more i n d e -
pendency f r o m u n f a v o u r a b l e changes o f t h e economical and p o l i t i c a l s e t t i n g
( t h i s a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r E a s t e r n Europe). A s a consequence o f t h e r e g i o -
n a l m a r k e t i n g assessment, t h e o v e r a l l c o n c l u s i o n can be made t h a t p r o v i d e d an
a g a i n more s t a b l e o i l p r i c e a t a reasonable l e v e l , p a r t i a l l y a l s o a s t r o n g e r va-
l u e of t h e US $ ( e s p e c i a l l y a p p l y i n g f o r Western Europe), and an adequate p r i -
c i n g o f proppants and s e r v i c e , b o t h Western and E a s t e r n Europe a r e growing s t i -
m u l a t i o n markets w i t h i n c r e a s i n g demand o f proppants f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n c l u d i n g p r o m o t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t s i n m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s i n
t h e near f u t u r e .

2.1. Introduction ........................................................ 106

2.2. Economical influences on hydraulic proppant fracturing .............. 107

2.2.1. I n f l u e n c e s o f hydrocarbon p r i c e changes ..................... 107
2.2.1.1. O i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n ............................... 108
2.2.1.1.1. 1973 and 1979 o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n s . . . . 108
2.2.1.1.1.1. O i l p r i c e t r e n d changes . 108
2.2.1.1.1.2. Nominal o i l p r i c e l e v e l
and impact o f o i l p r i c e
jumps ................... 109
 100

2.2.1.1.2. 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e ............

p r i c e l e v e l and i m p a c t o f
t h e c r a s h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.2.1.1.3. 1987 and 1988 o i l p r i c e weakness . . . . . . 110
2.2.1.1.4. C y c l i c i t i e s during course o f the o i l
p r i c e e v o l u t i o n ....................... 111
2.2.1.1.5. Reasons and e f f e c t s o f t h e 1986 o i l
p r i c e c r a s h ........................... 111
2.2.1.1.5.1. N e t b a c k p r i c i n g and mar-
k e t share s t r a t e g y vs.
f i x e d p r i c i n g and p r o d u c -
t i o n l i m i t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . 111
2.2.1.1.5.2. O i l p r i c e d e f e n s e and
market c o m p a t i b i l i t y vs.
c h a n g i n g p r i c i n g p o l i c y . 112
2.2.1.2. E f f e c t o f o i l p r i c e changes on h y d r o c a r b o n i n d u s t r y 1 1 2
2.2.1.2.1. D r i l l i n g r i g c o u n t .................... 113
2.2.1.2.1.1. 1986 and 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.2.1.2.1.2. 1988 _ . . _ _ . . . . _ _ . _ . 114 ..___.
2.2.1.2.2. A r t i f i c i a l and n a t u r a l m a r k e t f o r c e s .. 115
2.2.1.2.2.1. Swing p r o d u c t i o n f o r m a r -
k e t i m b a l a n c e compensa-
t i o n .................... 115
2.2.1.2.2.2. OPEC r e s i d u a l m a r k e t
s h a r e and p r i c e e f f e c t s . 115
2.2.1.2.3. V a r i a b l e s d e t e r m i n i n g o i l p r i c e l e v e l . 116
2.2.1.2.3.1. Coupling o f o i l produc-
t i o n r a t e and p r i c e
n i v e a u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.2.1.2.3.2. Current ideal o i l price
l e v e l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.2.1.2.3.3. O i l p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s and
o i l s e c t o r dominance . . . . 117
2.2.1.2.3.4. O i l p o l i t i c a l t r i a n g l e USA
- S a u d i a A r a b i a - I r a n . . 118
2.2.1.2.4. M a r k e t f o r c e s and oil p r i c e e v o l u t i o n . 118
2.2.1.2.4.1. 1970 - 1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.2.1.2.4.2. 1979 - 1986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.2.1.2.4.3. Market r e g u l a t i o n vs.dis-

2.2.1.2.5. O i l c o n s u m p t i o n and o u t p u t .
2.2.1.2.5.1. OECD demand v s
t i o n and s u b s t i t u t i o n ... 120
2.2.1.2.5.2. OPEC and non-OPEC p r o d u c -
t i o n v s . demand . . . . . . . . . 120
2.2.1.2.6. O t h e r a s p e c t s ......................... 120
2.2.1.3. I m p a c t o f v a r y i n g U S $ exchange r a t e on o i l p r i c e
e v o l u t i o n ......................................... 121
2.2.1.3.1. I m p o r t p r i c e f o r c r u d e o i l i n Germany
FRG ................................... 122
2.2.1.3.2. OPEC o i l s a l e income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.2.1.3.2.1. O i l p r i c e c o n v e n t i o n and
d e f e n s e . . . . . . _ _ . . _ _ . .123 ...
2.2.1.3.2.2. OPEC v s . n o oduc-
tion ...... . . . . . 123
2.2.1.3.2.3. OPEC p r o d u c ing
and o v e r h a n g c a p a c i t y . . . 124
2.2.1.3.3. C u r r e n t v s . c o n s t a n t US $ r a t e c a l c u l a -
t i o n .............
 101

2.2.1.4. Possible future consequences of the 1986 oil price

collapse .......................................... 125
2.2.1.4.1. Declining reserves due to suspension of
exploration and development ........... 125
2.2.1.4.1.1. Production decline ex-
ceeding reserve addition 125
2.2.1.4.1.2. Oil demand vs. supply in
the next decades ........ 126
2.2.1.4.1.3. Influence of political
systems and financial re-
lationships ............. 126
2.2.1.4.2. Regaining power of the OPEC ........... 127
2.2.1.4.2.1. Evolution of world oil
production and demand ... 127
2.2.1.4.2.2. Symmetrical boom-crash-
boom cycle .............. 128
2.2.1.4.2.3. Reserve life and oil de-
mand increase ........... 129
2.2.1.4.2.4. Netback pricing, swing
production and market
share recapturing ....... 129
2.2.1.4.2.5. Oil reserve distribution
and OPEC capacity utili-
zation .................. 130
2.2.1.4.2.6. Imbalance between oil re-
serves and consumption .. 130
2.2.1.4.2.7. Increasing oil demand ex-
ceeding critical OPEC
output rate ............. 131
2.2.1.4.3. Oil price instability and market uncer-
tainty ................................ 131
2.2.1.4.3.1. Cooperation attempts bet-
ween OPEC and non-OPEC .. 132
2.2.1.4.3.2. Market shares vs. price
stability ............... 132
2.2.1.4.3.3. Downstream integration of
oil-producing countries . 132
2.2.1.4.3.4. Pricing policy of list
vs. flexible prices ..... 133
2.2.1.4.3.5. Possibilities of another
oil price war ........... 133
2.2.1.4.3.6. Impact of a possible ge-
neral economic recession 134
2.2.1.4.3.7. Oil price collapse as re-
sult of lacking interna-
tional cooperation ...... 134
2.2.1.4.3.8. Different assessment of
US $ 18 agreement price . 134
2.2.1.4.4. Energy supply diversification effects . 135
2.2.1.5. Present consequences of the 1986 oil price drop for
the stimulation market ............................ 135
2.2.1.5.1. Fracturing strategy of deep gas wells
before and after the 1986 oil industry
crisis ................................ 135
2.2.1.5.1.1. Fracturing potential be-
fore the 1986 oil price
drop .................... 135
2.2.1.5.1.2. Fracturing potential af-
ter the 1986 oil price
crash ................... 136
2.2.1.5.2. Reduction of capital expenditure and
organizatory streamlining in explora-
 102

t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n companies ......... 137

2.2.1.5.2.1. Development and comple-
tion activity ...
2.2.1.5.2.2. D r i l l i n g meterage
2.2.1.5.2.3. Staff layoff ....
2.2.1.5.2.4. Company merging .
2.2.1.5.2.5. Cash management . . . . . . . . . 140
2.2.1.5.2.6. Survival of independents 140
2.2.1.5.2.7. Responsibility transfer
by c o n t r a c t i n g and t a k e -
o v e r .................... 141
2.2.1.5.2.8. Executive s k i l l require-
ment change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.2.1.5.3. B u s i n e s s d e t e r i o r a t i o n f o r s e r v i c e com-
p a n i e s ................................ 142
2.2.1.5.3.1. S t i m u l a t i o n b o a t employ-

2.2.1.5.3.2. Well s e r v i c e e x p e n d i t u r e s
and t o t a l number o f j o b s 142
2.2.1.5.3.3. S e r v i c e c o s t p e r w e l l and
share of recompletions .. 143
2.2.1.5.4. Banking r e l a t i o n s h i p s and i n v e s t m e n t
s t r a t e g i e s ............................ 143
2.2.1.5.4.1. Banking r e l a t i o n s h i p s
2.2.1.5.4.2. Investment s t r a t e g i e s . . . 144
2.2.1.5.4.3. Other a s p e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2.2.1.6. Oil p r i c e e v o l u t i o n and g a s m a r k e t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2.2.1.6.1. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e g a s mar-
ket and i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e from the o i l
m a r k e t ................................ 145
2.2.1.6.2. I n f l u e n c e o f the 1986 o i l p r i c e d r o p on
g a s development d r i l l i n g i n North S e a . 146
2.2.1.6.2.1. Gas s u p p l y c o n t r a c t s and
economical s a f e t y . . . . . . . 146
2.2.1.6.2.2. Continuity of gas-f i e l d
development . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
2.2.1.6.2.3. Government back-up and
supply s e c u r i t y ......... 147
2.2.1.6.2.4. G a s - f i e l d development vs.
g a s p r i c e and demand evo-
lution .................. 148
2.2.1.6.2.5. Disturbance of o i
development . . . . . 148
2.2.1.6.2.6. Gas i m p o r t and c o
f i e l d development . . . . . . . 149
2.2.1.6.3. Significance of the east-west energy
t r a d e i n the European g a s m a r k e t . . . . . . 149
2.2.1.6.3.1. Evolution o
gas market
2.2.1.6.3.2. Supply/dema
2.2.1.6.3.2.1. General
aspects .. 151
2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 3 . 2 . 2 . Nether-

2.2.1.6.3.2.3. Great
B r i t a i n . . 152
2.2.1.6.3.2.4. Norway . . . 152
2.2.1.6.3.2.5. USSR . . . . . 1 5 3
2.2.1.6.3.2.6. Supply
s e c u r i t y . 154
2.2.1.6.3.2.7. Mutual
b e n e f i t . . 154
 103

2.2.1.6.3.3. I n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation
and c o m p e t i t i v e c h a l l e n g e 155
2.2.1.6.3.4. Market shares and r e s e r v e
d i s t r i b u t i o n ............ 155
2.2.1.6.3.5. Future e v o l u t i o n o f the
N o r t h Sea gas p r o v i n c e . . 156
2.2.1.6.4. E v o l u t i o n a r y t r e n d s o f t h e w o r l d gas
market ................................ 156
2.2.1.6.4.1. Problematic l i n k i n g o f
o i l and gas p r i c e s ...... 157
2.2.1.6.4.2. Energy s u p p l y d i v e r s i f i -
c a t i o n concepts . . . . . . . . . 157
2.2.1.6.4.3. Economical and t e c h n i c a l
t r e n d s .................. 157
2.2.1.6.4.4. O i l s u b s t i t u t i o n by gas . 158
2.2.1.6.4.5. Unconventional gas ex-
p l o i t a t i o n .............. 158
2.2.1.6.4.6. Gas m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i e s 159
2.2.2. I n f l u e n c e s o f proppant p r i c e changes ........................ 159
2.2.2.1. 1985 p r o p p a n t p r i c e l o w e r i n g ...................... 160
2.2.2.1.1. M a r k e t i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r 1985 p r o p -
p a n t p r i c e l o w e r i n g ................... 160
2.2.2.1.2. S u p e r i m p o s i t i o n by t h e US $ exchange
r a t e drop ............................. 161
2.2.2.1.3. Economical r e s u l t s o f 1985 proppant
p r i c e d e c l i n e ......................... 161
2.2.2.1:3.1. Reversal o f f r a c t u r i n g
p o t e n t i a l and p r o p p a n t
a v a i l a b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.2.2.1.3.2. Capital expenditure c u t -
t i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n j o b
suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.2.2.2. 1987 p r o p p a n t p r i c e i n c r e a s e ...................... 163
2.2.2.2.1. Reasoning f o r renewed p r o p p a n t p r i c e
i n c r e a s e .............................. 163
2.2.2.2.2. Market r e a c t i o n and economical conse-
quences o f t h e 1987 p r o p p a n t p r i c e i n -
crease ................................ 164
2.2.2.3. C o m p e t i t i o n o f v a r i o u s proppant types ............. 164
2.2.2.3.1. I n f l u e n c e o f t h e 1985 p r o p p a n t p r i c e
r e d u c t i o n ............................. 164
2.2.2.3.2. I n f l u e n c e o f t h e 1987 p r o p p a n t p r i c e
i n c r e a s e .............................. 165

2.3. Stimulation market differences between USA and Europe ............... 166
2.3.1. General aspects ............................................. 166
2.3.2. Frequency o f d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n ....................... 166
2.3.2.1. Percentages o f f r a c t u r i n g n e c e s s i t y f o r economical
p r o d u c t i o n ........................................ 167
2.3.2.2. Treatment c o s t and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f f r a c t u r i n g i n
w e l l c o m p l e t i o n ................................... 167
2.3.3. S u c c e s s / f a i l u r e r a t i o and c o n s o r t i a 1 s t r u c t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
2.3.4. O p e r a t i n g m e n t a l i t y and t r e a t m e n t c o s t ...................... 168
2.3.4.1. I n t e g r a t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n i n t o t h e t o t a l w e l l con-
c e p t .............................................. 168
2.3.4.2. Proppant p r i c e and t r e a t m e n t c o s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
2.3.5. US $ exchange r a t e d e c l i n e .. .. . . . _ ... . .. .. . . . . .. .. .. . . .. . . .. 169
2.3.6. Proppant m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y ................................. 170
2.3.6.1. Lacking c o n t i n u i t y i n marketing a t t e n t i o n ... . .. .. . 170
2.3.6.2. Business shares o f t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t companies 171
2.3.6.2.1. Skewed market share r a t i o o f m a j o r
proppant s u p p l i e r s .................... 171
 104

2.3.6.2.2. Impact o f s e r v i c e companies v s . own

t r e a t m e n t management .................. 172
2.3.6.3. P r i c e changes and market t u r n i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

2.4. Areal marketing assessment of hydraulic proppant fracturing . . . . . . . . . 173

2.4.0. General aspects ............................................. 173
2.4.1. Western Europe 1977 - 1985 .................................. 174
2.4.1.1. Germany FRG ....................................... 174
2.4.1.1.1. Deep gas f r a c t u r i n g ................... 174
2.4.1.1.1.1. R e s e r v o i r d e p t h and p r o p -
p a n t q u a n t i t i e s ......... 176
2.4.1.1.1.1.1. 1975-1978 176
2.4.1.1.1.1.2. 1978-1985 176
2.4. 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 . F r a c t u r e l e n g t h and s t i -
m u l a t i o n r a t i o . . . . . . . . . . 177
2.4 1.1.1.3. Cost and temporal execu-
t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t s . . . . . . 177
2.4 1 . 1 . 1 . 4 . T e c h n i c a l and economical
fracturing potential i n
1985-1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.4.1.1.2. Sha low o i l f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.4. 1.1.2.1. N a t u r a l sand . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.4. 1.1.2.2. Intermediate-strength
s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s ..... 182
2.4.1.2. B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea ........................ 182
2.4.1.2.1. General aspects ....................... 182
2.4.1.2.2. M o d e r a t e l y deep gas f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . 183
2.4.1.2.2.1. C a r b o n i f e r o u s . . . . . . . . . . . 183
2.4.1.2.2.2. R o t l i e g e n d .............. 183
2.4.1.2.3. T a i l - i n f r a c t u r i n g p o l i c y . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2.4.1.2.3.1. Aims and performance o f
p r o p p a n t t a i l - i n schedule 186
2.4.1.2.3.2. Principles o f t a i l - i n
p r o p p a n t s t a g i n g . . . . . . . . 188
2.4.1.2.3.3. Proppant c o s t containment 188
2.4.1.2.3.4. Proppant m i x i n g and s e t t -
l i n g .................... 189
2.4.1.2.3.5. Proppant flowback preven-
t i o n .................... 189
2.4.1.2.3.6. T a i l - i n o p t i m i z a t i o n and
e f f e c t i v i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
2.4.1.2.4. D i f f e r e n c e s between o f f s h o r e and on-
shore f r a c t u r i n g ...................... 190
2.4.1.2.5. M o d e r a t e l y deep o i l f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . 192
2.4.2. Western Europe 1986 ......................................... 192
2.4.2.1. O i l p r i c e d e c l i n e ................................. 192
2.4.2.2. A r e a l f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y ......................... 193
2.4.2.2.1. R o t l i e g e n d gas f r a c t u r i n g i n N o r t h Sea 193
2.4.2.2.2. Unemployment o f d r i l l i n g r i g s and s t i -
m u l a t i o n b o a t s ........................ 194
2.4.2.3. I n c r e a s e d c a n c e l l a t i o n r a t e s o f j o b s .............. 194
2.4.2.3.1. R e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
2.4.2.3.2. Well t y p e ............................. 196
2.4.2.4. Proppant m a r k e t i n g a c t i v i t y ....................... 196
2.4.2.4.1. Business l o s s t o p r o p p a n t c o m p e t i t i o n . 197
2.4.2.4.1.1. Y u g o s l a v i a .............. 197
2.4.2.4.1.2. B r i t i s h Southern Northsea 197
2.4.2.4.2. Business loss t o n a t u r a l sand ......... 199
2.4.2.4.2.1. Y u g o s l a v i a .............. 199
2.4.2.4.2.2. Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
2.4.2.4.2.3. B r i t i s h Southern Northsea 199
2.4.3. E a s t e r n Europe u n t i l 1986 ................................... 201
 105

2.4.3.1. Y u g o s l a v i a and Hungary ............................ 201

2.4.3.2. USSR .............................................. 202
2.4.3.3. O t h e r E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s .................. 202
2.4.3.4. Southern Europe and N o r t h e r n A f r i c a ............... 203
2.4.4. Status i n E a s t e r n Europe .................................... 203
2.4.4.1. O i l p r i c e and US $ exchange r a t e .................. 204
2.4.4.1.1. E x p o r t o f USSR o i l and gas t o Western
and E a s t e r n Europe .................... 204
2.4.4.1.2. Dependency o f Comecon c o u n t r i e s on USSR
o i l and gas ........................... 206
2.4.4.1.3. B a r t e r trade vs . hard currency sale o f
o i l and gas ........................... 206
2.4.4.1.4. R o l e o f hydrocarbon e x p o r t s i n t h e USSR
f o r e i g n t r a d e ......................... 207
2.4.4.1.5. USSR o i l p r o d u c t i o n ................... 207
2.4.4.1.5.1. M e e t i n g and o v e r s h o o t i n g
o f p l a n f o r e c a s t ........ 208
2.4.4.1.5.2. Impact o f r e c o r d produc-
t i o n f o r o i l e x p o r t s .... 208
2.4.4.1.5.3. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f Western
S i b e r i a share ........... 208
2.4.4.1.6. Currency c o n v e r t i b i l i t y and exchange
r a t e s ................................. 208
2.4.4.2. P o l i t i c a l r e s t r i c t i o n s i n t h e p a s t ................ 209
2.4.4.2.1. USA p e t r o l e u m equipment s u p p l y embargo
1978-1987 ............................. 209
2.4.2.2.2. Status a f t e r l i q u i d a t i o n o f the f o r e i g n
p o l i c y s a n c t i o n s ...................... 209
2.4.4.3. P r e s e n t s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l and economical r e -
s t r u c t u r i n g ....................................... 210
2.4.4.3.1. Supply o f s y n t h e t i c h i g h - q u a l i t y p r o p -
p a n t s ................................. 210
2.4.4.3.2. P o l i t i c a l and economical r e o r g a n i z a t i o n 210
2.4.4.3.3. Hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n g o a l s o f t h e
f i v e - y e a r p l a n ........................ 210
2.4.4.3.4. Differences i n d r i l l i n g a c t i v i t y i n
Western and E a s t e r n Europe a f t e r t h e
1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h .................. 211
2.4.4.4. S e l f - s e r v i c i n g t r e a t m e n t p o l i c y ................... 211
2.4.4.5. Economical and f i n a n c i a l aspects .................. 212
2.4.4.5.1. World Bank c r e d i t s f o r Y u g o s l a v i a Hun-.
gary, Poland and Romania .............. 212
2.4.4.5.2. E x p o r t revenues i n Yugoslavia, Czecho-
s l o v a k i a , Germany GDR and B u l g a r i a .... 212
2.4.4.5.3. Hard c u r r e n c y a c q u i s i t i o n o f USSR and
Germany GDR ........................... 212
2.4.4.5.4. P o l i t i c a l and economical r e o r g a n i z a t i o n 213
2.4.4.5.4.1. Restructuring, transpa-
rency, a c c e l e r a t i o n ( p e -
r e s t r o i k a , g l a s n o s t , us-
k o r e n i e ................. 213
2.4.4.5.4.2. Mutual b e n e f i t f o r i n t e r -
n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n .... 213
2.4.4.5.5. J o i n t v e n t u r e s ........................ 214
2.4.4.5.5.1. B a l t i c Sea .............. 214
2.4.4.5.5.2. Other USSR o f f s h o r e areas 214
2.4.4.6. R e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g and hydrocarbon s u p p l y as-
p e c t s ............................................. 215
2.4.4.6.1. Gas s u p p l y ............................ 215
2.4.4.6.2. O i l s u p p l y ............................ 215
2.4.5. Western Europe 1987 - 1990 .................................. 216
2.4.5.1. B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea ........................ 216
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2.4.5.1.1. R o l e o f m a j o r s t i m u l a t i o n campaigns i n
t h e European gas development scene . . . . 216
2.4.5.1.2. Cancellation r i s k o f s t i m u l a t i o n jobs . 217
2 . 4 . 5 . 1 . 3 . S e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y o f U n i t e d Kingdom gas
i n d u s t r y .............................. 217
2.4.5.1.4. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f gas development a c t i v i -
t y .........................
2.4.5.2. Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.5.3. O t h e r areas ....................................... 219
2.4.5.4. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f f r a c t u r i n g f o r i n c r e a s i n g proven
.................................. 221
t m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y ....
2.4.5.5.1. D i r e c t p r o p p a n t s a l e s t o end u
2.4.5.5.1.1. Drawbacks o f s e r v i c e com-
pany s t o c k s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
2.4.5.5.1.2. Treatment s e l f p e r f o r m a n c e
i n E a s t e r n Europe . . . . . . . 222
2.4.5.5.2. L i q u i d a t i o n o f s e r v i c e company s t o c k s . 222
2.4.5.5.3. Stand-by s u p p l y by p r o p p a n t companies . 223
2.4.6. E a s t e r n Europe 1987 - 1990 .................................. 223
2 . 4 . 6 . 1 . General aspects ................................... 224
2.4.6.2. Y u g o s l a v i a and Hungary ...................... 224
2.4.6.3. USSR .............................................. 225
2.4.6.3.1. Hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l 225
2.4.6.3.2. I m p o r t vs. domestic m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f
h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s ............... 225
2.6.4.3.3. Significance o f i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f o i l
and gas e x p l o i t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . 226
2.6.4.3.4. P r i o r i t y o f p e t r o l e u m development vs.
o i l p r i c e l e v e l ....................... 226
China .................................
2.4.6.4. . ,. 226
O t h e r E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.6.5. 227
Southern Europe and N o r t h e r n A f r i c a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.6.6. 227
2.5. Concluding assessment o f p r o p p a n t m a r k e t i n g p o t e n t i a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

2.1. Introduction
H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l - and g a s - b e a r i n g forma-
t i o n s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Europe ( b u t a l s o i n many o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d ) n o t
o n l y i n f l u e n c e d by t e c h n i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g aspects, b u t a l s o s t r o n g -
l y depends on m a r k e t i n g , economical and p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n c o n t r a s t t o
t h e USA, Europe i s n o t o n l y p o l i t i c a l l y a complex aggregate o f c o u n t r i e s speak-
i n g a s u i t e o f d i f f e r e n t languages and h a v i n g a v a r i e t y o f m e n t a l i t i e s , w i t h
t h e m a j o r d i s t i n c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g economical s i t u a t i o n , s t a t u s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l
development, commercial c a p a c i t y , f i n a n c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e -
dure and f o r e i g n t r a d e a c t i v i t y h a v i n g t o be made between Western and E a s t e r n
Europe, b u t a l s o i n c l u d e s a wide spectrum o f o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r t y p e s i n
terms o f s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l , t e c t o n i c a l , s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l , p e t r o p h y s i c a l and e n g i -
n e e r i n g c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . An e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e a r e a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and
g r a v e l p a c k i n g p o t e n t i a l f o r a p p l i c a t i o n of proppants f r o m b o t h t e c h n i c a l and
m a r k e t i n g p o i n t o f view has t o i n t e g r a t e t h e g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n by comparing t h e
d i f f e r e n t cases and summarizing n o t o n l y s c i e n t i f i c , e n g i n e e r i n g and t e c h n o l o g i -
c a l , b u t a l s o economical and even i d e o l o g i c a l and m e n t a l i t y - r e l a t e d a s p e c t s .

F o l l o w i n g an i n t r o d u c t i o n o f p r o p p a n t t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s i n c l u d i n g assess-
ment o f t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t aspects o f c o m p o s i t i o n and p r o p e r t i e s as a base
f o r proppant s e l e c t i o n f o r v a r i o u s s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n s ( c h a p t e r l ) , t h e p r e -
s e n t d i s c u s s i o n g i v e s r e v i e w , s t a t u s and f o r e c a s t o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g i n Western and E a s t e r n Europe p r e d o m i n a n t l y from m a r k e t i n g and economical
p o i n t s o f view, w i t h emphasis b e i n g p u t on s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s c o n t r o l -
l i n g t h e g e n e r a l f e a s i b i l i t y s i t u a t i o n of t h e o i l and gas i n d u s t r y . Comparative
 107

e v a l u a t i o n w i t h USA, M i d d l e E a s t and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d i s f r e q u e n t l y p e r -
formed d u r i n g course o f t h e g e n e r a l and r e g i o n a l assessments. The account o f
t e c h n i c a l and m a r k e t i n g aspects o f R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s s t i m u l a t i o n i n
Europe i n d i v i s i o n 3 r e p r e s e n t s an a r e a l case s t u d y and forms a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m
t h e e c o n o m i c a l l y i n f l u e n c e d s e c t i o n s t o t h e p a r t s c o n c e n t r a t i n g on t e c h n i c a l
and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g p o i n t s o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n c h a p t e r 4.
D i v i s i o n 5 p r e s e n t s a m a i n l y t e c h n i c a l overview and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o market-
i n g o u t l i n e o f g r a v e l packing. U n i t 6 summarizes f r a c t u r e and g r a v e l pack moni-
t o r i n g . V a r i o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r o m o t i o n and enhancement o f r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a -
t i o n by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a p p l i c a t i o n
o f proppants a r e compiled i n c h a p t e r 4 t h a t i s f o c u s s i n g on t e c h n i c a l and r e s e r -
v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g aspects o f f o r m a t i o n t r e a t m e n t . A c o m p i l a t i o n o f an e x t e n s i v e
b i b l i o g r a p h y w i t h a s u b j e c t key c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n t o v a r i o u s s p e c i a l t o p i c s and
t h e general r e f e r e n c e l i s t a r e g i v e n i n s e c t i o n 7 .

A f t e r an i n t r o d u c t o r y o u t l i n e o f t h e main economical i n f l u e n c e s on h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g b e i n g changes o f hydrocarbon p r i c e s and p r o p p a n t p r i c e s and
commenting on t h e m a j o r f l u c t u a t i o n s o f t h e o i l p r i c e i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n du-
r i n g t h e l a s t 15 y e a r s ( d i s c u s s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s o f t h e
US $ exchange r a t e ) , d i f f e r e n c e s o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n market between USA and Eu-
r o p e a r e taken as a t o o l t o s k e t c h t h e s p e c i f i c r e a c t i o n s o f b o t h m a r k e t s t o
t h e l a t e 1 9 8 5 / e a r l y 1986 o i l p r i c e drop and t h e r e b y induced m a j o r c r i s i s o f t h e
hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r y . A m a j o r p a r t o f t h e r e p o r t i s devoted t o an
a r e a l m a r k e t i n g assessment o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n Western and Eas-
t e r n Europe, w i t h d i s t i n c t i o n b e i n g made between r e v i e w (1977 - 1985), s t a t u s
( 1 9 8 6 / e a r l y 1987) and f o r e c a s t ( l a t e 1987 - 1990 and a l s o f o l l o w i n g y e a r s ) f o r
the i n d i v i d u a l sections o f the market.

2.2. Economical influences on hydraulic proppant fracturing

D u r i n g t h e l a s t 10 y e a r s s i n c e h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g (VEATCH 1983,
VEATCH & M O S C H O V I D I S 1986) o f deep t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s s t a r t e d t o boom w i t h t h e i n -
v e n t i o n o f t h e f i r s t h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants (COBS 1985, WESTERN PETROLEUM
1985) and t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n t o p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y i n l a t e 1976 (COOKE 1976,
1977; ATTEBERRY, TUCKER & RITZ 1979; HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981; c f . sec-
t i o n 1.2.), v a r i o u s e v e n t s i n t h e g e n e r a l w o r l d economy had c o n s i d e r a b l e i n -
f l u e n c e s on t h e hydrocarbon s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t and t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r o p -
p a n t p r o m o t i o n . The most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y a r e changes o f hydrocarbon p r i c e s (BEUDELL 1986 a, 1986 b;
GRIFFITHS 1986, HARBEN 1986, MENGES 1986, OEHME 1986, RUNGE 1986, V A R Z I 1986,
MADER 1987) and changes o f p r o p p a n t p r i c e s .

A s b o t h p r i c e s a r e v a l i d w o r l d - w i d e i n US $ ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n b e i n g o n l y a
few p r o p p a n t t y p e s t h a t a r e s o l d f o r o t h e r c u r r e n c i e s as w e l l ) , t h e v a r i a t i o n s
o f t h e exchange r a t e o f t h e US $ ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o o t h e r c o n v e r t i b l e g u i d e c u r -
r e n c i e s such as DM and t ) have a l s o an i m p o r t a n t superimposed s i g n i f i c a n c e on
t h e European s t i m u l a t i o n market (comparable t o t h e i r impact on t h e r e l a t i v e o i l
p r i c e e v o l u t i o n i n Europe). V a r i o u s impacts o f hydrocarbon p r i c e changes and
p r o p p a n t p r i c e changes on h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l a r e d i s c u s s e d
as f o l l o w s .

2.2.1. Influences o f hydrocarbon price changes

The t e c h n o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f v a r i o u s proppant t y p e s took
p l a c e p a r a l l e l t o s e v e r a l m a j o r changes o f t h e hydrocarbon p r i c e s c e n a r i o . F o l -
l o w i n g a summary o f t h e o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n i n t h e l a s t decades, v a r i o u s a c t u a l
consequences o f r i s i n g and f a l l i n g o i l p r i c e f o r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n market a r e d i s -
cussed p a r t i c u l a r l y i n view o f t h e tremendous impact o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e d r o p
and t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e which reached i t s h i s t o r i c a l minimum
l e v e l i n t h e f o u r t h q u a r t e r o f 1987 and k e p t b e i n g weak t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t
 108

p a r t o f 1988 ( t h e r e c o v e r y o f a b t . 20 - 25 % o f i t s v a l u e h a v i n g t a k e n p l a c e i n
t h e second h a l f o f 1988 has a t t h e bottom o f t h e economical l i n e t o be c l a s s i -
f i e d as b e i n g s t i l l i n s u f f i c i e n t , m a i n l y due t o t h e ongoing u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f
t h e US $ e v o l u t i o n and t h e r e s u l t i n g s t i l l r e t a r d e d r e a d i n e s s f o r i n v e s t m e n t s ,
and was even a l r e a d y p a r t i a l l y a g a i n compensated by a renewed d r o p a t t h e end
o f 1988). An o u t l o o k i s a l s o g i v e n on p o s s i b l e f u t u r e consequences o f t h e 1986
o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e . F i n a l l y , some comments a r e o f f e r e d on t h e impetus o f t h e
o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n f o r t h e gas market,

2.2.1.1. Oil price evolution

The o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n i n t h e l a s t 15 y e a r s was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s e v e r a l
booming and f a l l i n g e v e n t s which s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y i n
e i t h e r way. Changes o f t h e o i l p r i c e i n upwards o r downwards d i r e c t i o n were
a l s o r e p e a t e d l y accentuated by s h i f t i n g l e v e l s o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e w i t h
r e s p e c t t o o t h e r l e a d i n g w o r l d c u r r e n c i e s such as DM and t . The o i l p r i c e h i s -
t o r y o f t h e l a s t 20 y e a r s can be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two main p e r i o d s c o m p r i s i n g
t h e 1970's o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n s and t h e 1980's o i l p r i c e drop and c r a s h . The
d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s focusses on 1973 and 1979 o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n s , 1986 o i l
p r i c e c o l l a p s e , and 1987 and 1988 o i l p r i c e weakness. Emphasis i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
p u t on t h e r o l e o f t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f Petroleum E x p o r t i n g C o u n t r i e s (OPEC) on
t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n . Some reasons and e f f e c t s o f t h e 1986
oil p r i c e c r a s h a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d , and comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on c y c l i c i t i e s
d u r i n g course o f t h e o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n .

2.2.1.1.1. 1973 and 1979 oil price explosions

The l a t e 1 9 8 5 / e a r l y 1986 o i l and gas i n d u s t r y c r i s i s i s t h e f i f t h a f t e r t h e
Second World War ( e a r l i e r c r i s e s have been i n t h e m i d d l e 1950's, l a t e 1950's,
e a r l y 1960's and i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 ' s / e a r l y 1970's b e f o r e t h e f i r s t o i l p r i c e i n -
crease shock i n l a t e 1 9 7 3 / e a r l y 1974) and p r o b a b l y had t h e w o r s t e f f e c t o f a l l
t h e h i t h e r t o c r i s e s , as t h e o i l and gas market was most s e v e r e l y h i t b y nume-
r o u s o p e r a t i o n s becoming uneconomical almost o v e r n i g h t ( c f . a l s o LEE 1 9 8 2 ) .
F o l l o w i n g t h e d r a s t i c a l o i l p r i c e i n c r e a s e i n two main s t e p s i n l a t e 1 9 7 3 / e a r l y
1974 (when t h e OPEC began t o f i x and t o c o n t r o l t h e o i l p r i c e ; B I L D 1987) and
l a t e 1 9 7 9 / e a r l y 1980 (OEHME 1986, RUNGE 1986) up t o a l e v e l t h a t was d u r i n g ex-
treme p e r i o d s more than 20 t i m e s o f t h a t i n t h e e a r l y 1970's, t h e p r i c e r a p i d l y
c o l l a p s e d almost t o a n i v e a u t h a t e x i s t e d i n t h e t i m e s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e f i r s t
o i l p r i c e shock ( a t l e a s t i f c a l c u l a t i n g n o t o n l y w i t h t h e a b s o l u t e f i g u r e , b u t
a l s o i n c o r p o r a t i n g i n f l a t i o n and d i f f e r e n t exchange r a t e s between US $ and
o t h e r guide c u r r e n c i e s i n t h e w o r l d market; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) . Some com-
ments a r e g i v e n as f o l l o w s on o i l p r i c e t r e n d changes as w e l l as nominal o i l
p r i c e l e v e l and impact o f o i l p r i c e jumps.

2.2.1.1.1.1. Oil price trend changes

As a consequence o f t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a f t e r t h e second o i l
p r i c e shock i n l a t e 1 9 7 9 / e a r l y 1980, t h e o i l p r i c e s l o w l y s t a r t e d to l e a v e i t s
c e r t a i n l y much exaggerated l e v e l i n 1982 and approached more and more a reaso-
n a b l e n i v e a u u n t i l l a t e 1985 when t h e d r a s t i c a l drop was i n i t i a t e d t h r o u g h some
p r e c u r s o r y f l u c t u a t i o n s and soon a f t e r t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1986 a l m o s t w i t h i n a
c o u p l e o f months u n t i l e a r l y 1986 r e v e r s e d more t h a n 12 y e a r s o i l p r i c e h i s t o r y
( w i t h t h e o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e becoming i n Europe a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e even
more s e r i o u s by t h e accompanying decrease o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e ; c f . sec-
t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) . O i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n and t h e a s s o c i a t e d p e r i o d s o f c r i s i s and
boom a r e summarized by A T T I G A ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

Many o f t h e a c t u a l problems a r e t h e r e s u l t of t h e o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n a f t e r
t h e Second World War (SPATSCHEK 1987). I n t h e booming p e r i o d o f 1950 - 1972,
 109

low o i l p r i c e s supported a r a p i d t o s a l t a t i n g increase o f o i l demand and pro-

g r e s s i v e replacement o f o t h e r energy media, and i n the h i g h - p r i c e p e r i o d
1973 - 1985, t h e OPEC-dictated o i l p r i c e explosions enabled the extension o f
e x p l o r a t i o n t o new f r o n t i e r s and t h e development o f energy-saving technologies.
A t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y t h i s h i s t o r i c a l o i l p r i c e and energy supply c o n s t e l l a t i o n
programmed the 1986 o i l p r i c e crash.

2.2.1.1.1.2. Nominal oil price level

and impact of oil price jumps
The h i s t o r i c a l o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n i n c l u d e s several major e x p l o s i o n a r y i n -
creases of t h e l e v e l from f o r m e r l y a b t . 1 - 5 US $ per b a r r e (BISHOP 1988) be-
f o r e 1973 t o ( p a r t i a l l y as a r e a c t i o n t o the I s r a e l i a n / E g y p t i n war) 10 - 15 US
$ i n 1973/1974 (when the OPEC group s t a r t e d t o d i c t a t e the o i l p r i c e l e v e l by
s t r o n g l y c o n t r o l l i n g p r o d u c t i o n q u a n t i t i e s and t h e i r p h y s i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n as
w e l l as by p o l i t i c a l t h r e a t e n i n g ) and then ( p a r t i a l l y t r i g g e r e d by t h e begin-
n i n g o f t h e I r a q i a n - I r a n i a n war) up t o 35 US $ in 1979/1980 ( w i t h a maximum up
t o 40 US $ o r i n places such as t h e spot market even more than 45 US $ having
been reached t e m p o r a r i l y i n 1980/1981).

The consequence o f t h i s o i l p r i c e development was t h a t 1981 has seen the

peak o f the world-wide hydrocarbon d r i l l i n g r i g count so f a r (GRIFFITHS 1986,
HARBEN 1986, DOUGHERTY 1987; the delay of t h e climax o f r i g employment i n t h e
North Sea t o 1984/1985 i s a s p e c i a l e f f e c t of r e t a r d e d approach t o t h i s expen-
s i v e o f f s h o r e area; OILMAN 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.2.1.). The h i g h o i l p r i c e n i -
veau guaranteed t h e OPEC group an a d d i t i o n a l income o f i n t o t a l more than 5
B i l l . DM d u r i n g the l a s t 13 years (OEHME 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.3.2.). Aspects
o f European o i l and gas supply a f t e r the f i r s t o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n are discus-
sed by LOTTRINGHAUS & SCHMITT (1975).

2.2.1.1.2. 1986 oil price collapse

IR l a t e 1981 and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n 1982, t h e o i l p r i c e s t a r t e d s l o w l y t o leave
i t s c e r t a i n l y s e r i o u s l y exaggerated niveau (being p a r t i a l l y an e f f e c t o f a gene-
r a l l y decreasing energy demand due t o t h e e f f o r t s p u t on conservation; KEG
1986) and g r a d u a l l y d e c l i n e d t o 25 - 30 US $ (MINERALULWIRTSCHAFT 1983, BEUDELL
1986 c ) . I n l a t e 1985, t h e decrease had p a r t i a l l y already proceeded t o r e a l p r i -
ces i n the range o f 20 - 25 US $ ( a l t h o u g h t h e o f f i c i a l OPEC p r i c e was s t i l l a t
28 - 30 US $; BECK 1987, ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL 1984, ERDUL UND KOHLE - ERDGAS -
PETROCHEMIE 1987 b ) , thereby announcing the b i g event which a r r i v e d s h o r t l y
a f t e r the beginning o f 1986 when t h e p r i c e a t once f e l l down t o 10 - 15 US $
and reached t e m p o r a r i l y even l e v e l s o f 5 - 9 US $ (GRIFFITHS 1986, HARBEN 1986,
KEG 1986, THOMAS 1986, ALGAR 1987 b, ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1987 C; MA-
BRO 1987, 1988; SCHMIDT 1987, McCANN 1988). Some e f f e c t s o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e
drop are o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s , and comments are a l s o g i v e n on r e t u r n t o reaso-
nable o i l p r i c e l e v e l and impact o f the crash.

2.2.1.1.2.1. Effects of the 1986 oil price drop

T h i s event represented a s h o r t - t e r m r e d u c t i o n o f the o i l p r i c e t o l e s s than
50 % o f i t s value d u r i n g abt. h a l f a year o r a 60 - 70 % r e d u c t i o n o f the l a t e
1985 p r i c e (CROUSE 1987) and was a consequence o f t h e f a c t t h a t i n view o f per-
s i s t i n g oversupply and d e c l i n i n g market shares, t h e OPEC (ROBERTS 1986, 1987)
renounced o f i t s q u a n t i t y and p r i c e c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e end o f 1985 and thereby
terminated a p e r i o d o f o i l p r i c e d i c t a t i o n t h a t l a s t e d more than 12 years s i n c e
i t s beginning i n l a t e 1973, g i v i n g way t o a f r e e market system due t o the l a c k
o f a surplus management concept f o r p r o d u c t i o n t o match o v e r a l l demand made up
o f a c t u a l consumption and stock movements (BEUOELL 1986 c, A T T I G A 1987; c f . sec-
t i o n s 2.2.1.2.2. and 2.2.1.2.4.). The o i l p r i c e o f e a r l y t o mid 1986 ranged i n
 110

r e a l terms n e a r t h e low l e v e l s j u s t p r i o r t o t h e f i r s t o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n i n
1973 (THOMPSON & SINGLETON 1 9 8 8 ) .

I n m i d t o l a t e 1986, t h e average o i l p r i c e ( t h e a c t u a l p r i c e k e p t f l u c t u a -
t i n g w i t h a range o f a few US $ upwards o r downwards) l e f t i t s minimum below U S
$ 10 ( a n average v a l u e o f 6 - 9 US $ was h e l d i n J u l y 1986 a t t h e peak o f t h e
c r i s i s ; McCANN 1988) and g r a d u a l l y approached a n i v e a u o f a b t . US $ 13 - 15
(CROUSE 1987). W i t h no agreement between OPEC and non-OPEC t o r e s t r a i n produc-
t i o n , t h e downward p r e s s u r e on t h e o i l p r i c e became i r r e s i s t i b l e , and f i n a l l y
OPEC was f o r c e d t o f o r m a l l y abandon i t s market share p o l i c y and t o r e v e r t t o
c u t t i n g back i n o u t p u t (McCANN 1988).

2.2.1.1.2.2. Return t o reasonable oil price level

and impact o f the crash
Near t h e end o f 1986, r e g a i n i n g consensus and agreement o f t h e OPEC under
t h e f o r c e o f enormous l o s s e s o f income and t h e t h r e a t o f even some members f a -
c i n g b a n k r u p t c y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e average o i l p r i c e a t a b t . US $ 18 (BECK 1987,
CROUSE 1987; ERDOL UND KOHLE - ERDGAS - PETROCHEMIE 1987 a, 1987 b; VIELVOYE
1987 a, 1987 b; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.4.3.8.), b u t c o u l d n o t l i q u i d a t e numerous m i -
n o r v a r i a t i o n s i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y downwards d i r e c t i o n due t o c u r r e n t e s c a l a t i o n s
i n t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t as w e l l as temporal
s l i g h t changes i n t h e w o r l d o i l demand and s u p p l y c o n s t e l l a t i o n .

The i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e o i l p r i c e i s a l s o caused by t h e disagreement i n t h e

OPEC group on t h e s t a t u s o f t h e US $ 18 c o n v e n t i o n p r i c e l e v e l (OIL GAS JOURNAL
1987 c ) . W h i l e t h e key members i n t e n d t o h o l d t h e p r i c e a t t h i s n i v e a u i n o r d e r
t o a l l o w t h e o i l t o r e g a i n some o f i t s l o s t market share, o t h e r a g g r e s s i v e coun-
t r i e s would l i k e t o use t h i s base as a s p r i n g b o a r d t o h i g h e r p r i c e s i n 1988 t o
1990 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 4 . 3 . 8 . ) . B i g n a t i o n a l markets such as t h a t i n t h e USA
more o r l e s s t r a c k e d t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n , w i t h t h e changes i n
t h e USA h a v i n g been f r o m U S $ 24 - 27 i n January 1986 v i a US $ 13 i n t h e second
q u a r t e r and US $ 8 - 9 i n August t o US $ 14 - 15 i n December 1986 and US $
17 - 19 i n t h e second q u a r t e r o f 1987 (BECK & SMITH 1987, BECK & WILLIAMS 1987,
OPL GAS JOURNAL 1987 g, WEST 1987). E v a l u a t i n g t h e e f f e c t o f an US $ 18 o i l
p r i c e b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e 1986 c r a s h (KINNEY 1987) r e v e a l s t h a t w h i l e an US $
18 l e v e l was f e a r e d by t h e hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y when t h e p r i c e was s t i l l a t US
$ 25 - 30, a f t e r t h e drop down below US $ 10 a renewed c l i m b t o US $ 18 was t a -
ken as a s i g n o f market s t a b i l i z a t i o n and t r i g g e r e d s l i g h t t o moderate p i c k - u p
o f a c t i v i t y w i t h reasonable improvement o f e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n c a s h f l o w .

2.2.1.1.3. 1987 and 1988 oil price weakness

Throughout 1987, t h e o i l p r i c e more o r l e s s remained i n t h e range o f US $
15 - 22 w i t h t h e average b e i n g US $ 1 7 - 18. I n e a r l y 1988, however, some p o l i -
t i c a l and economical e f f e c t s r e l a t e d t o t h e s t i l l ongoing I r a n i a n - I r a q i a n war
and t h e renewed weakness o f t h e US $ w i t h o u t any hope o f n e a r - f u t u r e r e a s o n a b l e
improvement o f i t s exchange r a t e t o o t h e r l e a d i n g w o r l d c u r r e n c i e s such as DM
and k t r i g g e r e d a n o t h e r a t l e a s t temporal d e c l i n e o f t h e r e a l o i l p r i c e t o an
average l e v e l o f US $ 12 - 15 d e s p i t e t h e o f f i c i a l l i s t p r i c e r e m a i n i n g a t US $
18 (AL-CHALABI 1987, ATTIGA 1987, VIELVOYE 1987 a, NARAGHl 1988; O I L DAILY 1988
a, 1988 e ) a t which t h e economics o f f i n d i n g and d e v e l o p i n g new r e s e r v e s i n
non-OPEC p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s a r e r a t h e r m a r g i n a l (NARAGHI 1 9 8 8 ) . S h o r t - t e r m
f l u c t u a t i o n s ( d a i l y t o m o n t h l y ) o f o i l p r i c e may i n c l u d e p l u s o r minus U S $ 5 .

I n m i d 1988, n e i t h e r t h e end o f t h e I r a n i a n - I r a q i a n war n o r t h e s l i g h t l y r e -

c o v e r i n g US $ exchange r a t e had a s t a b i l i z i n g impact on t h e o i l p r i c e which r e -
mained t o be weak and i n t h e l o n g e r range u n p r e d i c t a b l e i n terms o f i t s f u r t h e r
e v o l u t i o n . I n l a t e 1988, an a g a i n s l i g h t l y f a l l i n g v a l u e o f t h e US $ a f t e r an
i n t e r m i t t e n t r e c o v e r y and v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g predomi-
 111

n a n t l y t h e t h r e a t o f another OPEC p r i c e war (WILLIAMS 1988) l e a d i n g i n d i s p e n s i b -

l y t o a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e 1986 p r i c e c o l l a p s e w i t h p r o b a b l y even worse conse-
quences had a downwards impact on t h e o i l p r i c e which averaged a t US $ 12 - 15
(OIL GAS JOURNAL 1988 d) and i n s h o r t p e r i o d s even ranqed a t US $ 10 - 13. Down-
wards p r e s s u r e n t h e US $ exchange r a t e and thus a l s o - t h e r e a l o i l p r i c e was
also exerted y t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n i n t h e USA a t t h e end o f 1988 which
gave a f o r e c a s t o f t h e economical p o l i c y t o be expected f o r t h e n e x t c o u p l e o f
years.

2.2.1.1.4. Cyclicities during course of the oil price evolution

Several cyc i c i t i e s have been o f key s i g n i f i c a n c e d u r i n g course o f t h e o i l
p r i c e e v o l u t i o n and had d e c i s i v e impact on t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f t h e s u i t e o f hy-
drocarbon p r i c e changes. O i l p r i c e h i s t o r y was i n summary c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n
1979 - 1981 by c y c l i c a l l y overheated o i l p r i c e s t r i g g e r i n g an overexpansion o f
d r i l l i n g t h a t i n t u r n caused an o v e r b u i l d i n g o f c a p a c i t y and i n v e n t o r y (PERKINS
1988). The d e c l i n i n g a c t i v i t y due t o s l o w l y f a l l i n g o i l p r i c e l e d t o c y c l i c a l
c o r r e c t i o n o f excess i n v e n t o r y i n 1982 - 1984, whereas t h e s c e n a r i o was d i s t u r -
bed i n 1984 - 1985 by a c y c l i c a l l y o v e r v a l u e d US $.

I n 1986, c y c l i c a l c o r r e c t i o n o f o i l p r i c e s caused d r i l l i n g c o l l a p s e , and ad-

d i t i o n a l impact was g i v e n by b r i n g i n g t h e US $ back t o r e a l i s t i c v a l u e s and
even below t h a t . 1987 was a t r a n s i t i o n a l y e a r a f t e r t h e b i g s l i d e and was cha-
r a c t e r i z e d by hope and o u t l o o k t o b e t t e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s , and t h e temporary agree-
ment on a c o n v e n t i o n p r i c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.4.3.8) gave an a r t i f i c i a l s t a b i l i -
z a t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n which many companies took advantage o f and c o n s o l i d a -
t e d . The 1988 renewed o i l p r i c e i n s t a b i l i t y and v o l a t i l i t y i s m a i n l y t h e r e s u l t
o f t h e i n d e c i s i v e n e s s o f t h e OPEC as a whole c o n c e r n i n g p r i c e p o l i t i c s and l a c k -
i n g d i s c i p l i n e o f v a r i o u s member c o u n t r i e s t o observe a l l o c a t e d and agreed o u t -
p u t quotas (CROUSE 1988 b ) . M i d t o l a t e 1988 has p a r a l l e l s w i t h t h e g r e a t 1986
o i l p r i c e c r a s h even though netback p r i c i n g i s d i s c o n t i n u e d , w i t h t h e o n l y com-
f o r t b e i n g t h a t a f u l l r e r u n o f 1986 i s n o t expected (VIELVOYE 1988 b ) .

2.2.1.1.5. Reasons and effects of the 1986 oil price crash

Reviewing t h e p o l i t i c a l and economical c o n s t e l l a t i o n s , t h e renouncement o f
d e f i n i t e p r o d u c t i o n q u a n t i t i e s and f i x e d crude o i l p r i c e s i n l a t e 1985 and t h e
replacement o f t h e f o r m e r l e a d i n g aspects by t h e new goal o f achievement o f a
reasonable share o f w o r l d o i l p r o d u c t i o n by t h e OPEC c o n s o r t i u m had t h e r e s u l t
t h a t t h e p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s had t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e w o r l d market c o n c e r n i n g
p r i c i n g and c o n t r a c t n e g o t i a t i n g (ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1987 c ) . The
main i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s a r e netback p r i c i n g and market share s t r a t e g y vs. f i -
xed p r i c i n g and p r o d u c t i o n l i m i t a t i o n , and o i l p r i c e defense and market compati-
b i l i t y v s . changing p r i c i n g p o l i c y .

2.2.1.1.5.1. Netback pricing and market share strategy vs.

fixed pricing and production limitation
The consumers u t i l i z e d t h e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e s u p p l y a t netback c o n d i t i o n s o r on
t h e s p o t market (BECK & WILLIAMS 1987, OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987 f ) , w i t h t h e conse-
quence b e i n g t h a t i n 1986, almost 90 % o f t h e w o r l d o i l t r a d e was done based on
s p o t market c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s new s t r a t e g y o f netback c o n d i t i o n s f i n a l l y caused
t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h . I n l a t e 1986, t h e OPEC group a d j u s t e d themselves t o
t h e new s i t u a t i o n b y r e n o u n c i n g f r o m m a r k e t share p o l i c y and r e t u r n i n g t o p r o -
d u c t i o n q u a n t i t y agreement and d i s c i p l i n e ( w i t h t h e l a t t e r aim h a v i n g been a t
l e a s t intended, w h i l e achievement was hampered by c o n t i n u o u s v i o l a t i o n through
some members o f t h e c a r t e l ) , and s t a b i l i z e d t h e o i l p r i c e a t a b t . US $ 18 by de-
c i d i n g t o p r e v e n t f u r t h e r e x t e n s i o n o f t h e p r i c e war, s t o p netback s a l e s by end
o f 1986 and r e t u r n t o base p r i c e s and p r o d u c t i o n l i m i t a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n
 112

2.2.1.4.3.8.).

Thus t h e i n c r e a s i n g o i l market share s t r a t e g y o r c h e s t r a t e d by S a u d i - A r a b i a

i n l a t e 1985 b r o u g h t about t h e most p r e c i p i t o u s d e c l i n e i n o i l p r i c e s i n t h e
OPEC h i s t o r y w i t h i n a v e r y s h o r t t i m e p e r i o d (NARAGHI 1988). The m a j o r i m p l i c a -
t i o n o f t h i s e x e r c i s e i n c o n t r a s t t o p r e v a i l i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l wisdom was t h a t
t h e r e e x i s t e d a s h o r t r u n p r i c e e l a s t i c i t y o f demand f o r OPEC o i l o f substan-
t i a l magnitude and e f f e c t i v e n e s s . The immediate t a s k f a c e d by t h e OPEC was t o
implement a m a r k e t - c l e a r i n g o i l p r i c e s t r a t e g y t h a t would balance c u r r e n t econo-
m i c a l u t i l i t y o f member c o u n t r i e s , would e f f e c t i v e l y r e p r e s e n t t h e m a r g i n a l
c o s t o f crude o i l p r o d u c t i o n by non-OPEC c o u n t r i e s , and would c u r t a i l s u b s t i t u -
t i o n o f t h e o t h e r competing f u e l s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.2.2. and 2 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 4 . ) .

2.2.1.1.5.2. Oil price defense and market c m a t i b i l i t y

vs. changing pricing policy
I n t h e p a s t , OPEC had been a b l e t o defend t h e o i l p r i c e when i t s m a r k e t
share had been more o r l e s s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h i t s needs and c o u l d be d i s t r i b u t e d
among member c o u n t r i e s w i t h o u t c r e a t i n g f i n a n c i a l h a r d s h i p (AL-CHALABI 1987).
I n t h e golden years, OPEC was a b l e t o m a i n t a i n i t s r o l e o f a swing p r o d u c e r t o
defend a p r i c e f r o m w h i c h o t h e r s b e n e f i t e d i n terms o f g r e a t e r i n v e s t m e n t s i n
o i l sources ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.2.2.1.). W i t h d e c l i n i n g market share, however,
t h e p r i c e defense mechanism became more and more p r e c a r i o u s i n 1985. Saudi Ara-
b i a , assuming t h e r o l e o f swing producer w i t h i n t h e OPEC by a b s o r b i n g t h e a d d i -
t i o n a l f a l l i n demand and a l l o w i n g t h e o t h e r members t o produce a t t h e i r f u l l
q u o t a o r even exceed i t , was t e m p o r a r i l y a b l e t o s t i l l defend t h e p r i c e . Once
demand dropped below t h e c r i t i c a l r a t e o f 2 M i o . b b l / d p r o d u c t i o n , Saudi A r a b i a
had t o change i t s p o l i c y i n o r d e r t o have t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t o produce i t s f u l l
q u o t a as f i x e d i n l a t e 1984. The m a r k e t - o r i e n t e d p r i c e mechanism o f Saudi Ara-
b i a then l e d t o de f a c t o abandonment o f t h e f i x e d p r i c e system w h i c h c o u l d be
defended o n l y by p r o d u c t i o n programming, t o more o r l e s s market-share p r i c i n g
p o l i c y , which i n t u r n had tremendous impact on t h e o i l p r i c e l e v e l and caused
the worldwide petroleum i n d u s t r y crash.

TEWKSBURY (1977) performed a long-range f o r e c a s t o f o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n

which concluded w i t h t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f a reasonable o i l p r i c e r e d u c t i o n i n
1985, w i t h t h i s p r o g n o s i s h a v i n g been a c t u a l l y met i n l a t e 1 9 8 5 / e a r l y 1986 a l -
most t e n y e a r s a f t e r t h e p r o g n o s i s was made and n e a r l y e x a c t l y as i t was p r e -
viewn. The f r e e f a l l o f o i l market p r i c e s and ensuing market chaos f r o m a more
o r l e s s s t a b l e range o f U S $ 28 - 34 f o r many y e a r s up t o l a t e 1985 and t h e r a -
p i d i t y w i t h which nominal p r i c e s plunged t o US $ 6 - 9 i n e a r l y t o m i d 1986 i s
t h e drawback o f t h e f o r m e r success o f t h e OPEC i n m a i n t a i n i n g h i g h o i l p r i c e s
(McCANN 1988). The h i g h p r i c e s o f t h e l a t e 1970's and e a r l y 1980's c a l l e d f o r t h
a r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n non-OPEC o i l p r o d u c t i o n which i n c r e a s i n g l y t h r e a t e n e d
OPEC 's market share.

2.2.1.2. Effects of o i l price changes on hydrocarbon industry

Summarizing t h e h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u t i o n , a f t e r two o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n s w h i c h
generated an i n c r e a s e i n e x p l o r a t i o n and development a c t i v i t y up t o a l e v e l be-
i n g much h i g h e r t h a n e v e r b e f o r e s i n c e t h e Second World War, t h e slow and c o n t i -
nuous d e p r e s s i o n f r o m t h e c e r t a i n l y exaggerated peak t o more o r l e s s normal po-
s i t i o n s and somewhat below was suddenly a c c e l e r a t e d by a pronounced o i l p r i c e
c r a s h t h a t t u r n e d t h e apparent o r a r t i f i c i a l undersupply problem i n t o a r e a l un-
derdemand c r i s i s . While t h e hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y i n a l l p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d was
more than happy t o a d j u s t t o t h e h i g h e r o i l p r i c e s by expansion o f t h e b u s i -
ness, t h e r e v e r s e a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e l o w e r p r i c e s by c u t t i n g back was v e r y p a i n -
f u l and h i t t h e whole economical system, e s p e c i a l l y because i t was a l s o more o r
l e s s accompanied by t h e most s e r i o u s s l i d e - d o w n o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e du-
r i n g t h e l a s t 40 y e a r s .
 113

The considerable consequences o f t h e o i l p r i c e crash on e x p l o r a t i o n and ex-

p l o i t a t i o n a c t i v i t y have t o be understood i n l i g h t o f c o s t p e r b a r r e l being the
most important economic d e c i s i o n t o o l (EYCK 1987). The o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e i n i -
t i a t e d a whole s e r i e s o f fundamental changes i n the hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y , ran-
g i n g from a c t u a l sharp c u t s o f income f o r governments and companies t o a very
changed environment w i t h many u n c e r t a i n t i e s (HOLMES 1987). The o u t l i n e as f o l -
lows comments on d r i l l i n g r i g count as w e l l as a r t i f i c i a l and n a t u r a l market
forces. Some v a r i a b l e s determining o i l p r i c e l e v e l , market f o r c e s and o i l p r i c e
e v o l u t i o n , and o i l consumption and o u t p u t are a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d .

2.2.1.2.1. Drilling rig count

An overview o f the h i s t o r i c a l o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n i n c l u d i n g comments on
p r i c e e l a s t i c i t y and p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r e d i c t i o n o f f u t u r e o i l p r i c e changes
and c r e d i b i l i t y o f such f o r e c a s t s i s a l s o presented by DOUGHERTY (1987). The i m -
p a c t o f t h e upwards and downwards changes o f the o i l p r i c e d u r i n g the l a s t f i f -
teen years i s h i g h l i g h t e d by the USA count o f a c t i v e r i g s d r i l l i n g on hydrocar-
bon t a r g e t s ( t h a t can be considered as being the most p r e s c r i p t i v e i n d i c a t o r o f
the i n d u s t r y ' s investment l e v e l ) .

2.2.1.2.1.1. 1986 and 1987

The annual average USA r i g count reached from a number below 1,500 b e f o r e 1973
i t s climax i n 1981 w i t h abt. 4,500 r i g s , w i t h t h i s f i g u r e being f i v e and a h a l f
times h i g h e r than b o t h t e n years e a r l i e r and f i v e years l a t e r when i n 1986 a t o -
t a l world-wide number o f l e s s than 1,000 a c t i v e r i g s was recorded (MILLER & NEW-
LIN 1987, SCHUBERT 1987) comprising i n e a r l y 1986 a b t . 900 and i n mid 1986 a b t .
700. I n the N o r t h Sea r e p r e s e n t i n g the most important European petroleum p r o -
vince, the sharp i n c i s i o n caused by t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e crash i s r e f l e c t e d by a
t o t a l count o f w e l l s d r i l l e d o f 260 i n 1984 and 1985 each vs. 180 i n 1986 and
200 i n 1987 (QUINLAN 1988). I n the whole o f f s h o r e Europe area comprising N o r t h
Sea, I r i s h Sea, B a l t i c Sea and A d r i a t i c Sea, abt. 50 - 60 r i g s were a c t i v e
a f t e r the o i l p r i c e crash i n 1986 and 1987, whereas p r i o r t o t h a t more than 90
r i g s were running (McNALLY 1987). A s i m i l a r i n d i c a t i o n i s g i v e n by t h e world-
wide number o f seismical p a r t i e s a c t i v e i n hydrocarbon e x p l o r a t i o n which d e c l i -
ned from abt. 1,250 i n the golden y e a r o f 1981 t o a b t . 400 i n e a r l y 1987 (ERDUL
UND KOHLE - ERDGAS - PETROCHEMIE 1987 b ) . I n the USA, abt. 12,700 o p e r a t o r s
d r i l l e d i n 1982 a t l e a s t one w e l l on an o p e r a t o r - o f - r e c o r d basis, b u t i n 1987,
t h i s number had dropped t o o n l y a b t . 5,700 operators, w i t h v i r t u a l l y almost a l l
o f these 7,000 l o s t o p e r a t o r s having been independents (MOORE 1988 a; c f . sec-
t i o n 2.2.1.5.2.). The t o t a l number o f w e l l s completed i n the USA d u r i n g 1986
was abt. 35,000 which was t h e lowest amount since 33,000 boreholes were f i n i s h -
ed i n 1974.

With t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f low o i l p r i c e s , e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g

l e v e l s i n t h e N o r t h Sea were slashed t o t h e bare minimum i n t h e second h a l f o f
1986 and the f i r s t h a l f o f 1987 ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.5.2. and 2.4.2.), whereas
i n t h e second h a l f o f 1987, a c t i v i t y p i c k e d up considerably, because companies
learned t o l i v e w i t h t h e prospect o f a medium-term o i l p r i c e around US $ 18
( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.4.3.8.), and r e l a t i v e l y inexpensive r i g and t h e r e f o r e t o t a l
o p e r a t i n g r a t e s s t a r t e d t o look a t t r a c t i v e (CAPEL 1988). D r i l l i n g a c t i v i t y i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e t o boom/bust c y c l e s (PERKINS 1988). D r i l l i n g i s i n h e r e n t -
l y c y c l i c a l because i t i s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c a p i t a l - i n t e n s i v e . The h i g h r i s k ,
l a r g e number o f d e c i s i o n makers and h i g h frequency o f reinvestment d e c i s i o n s
add t o the v o l a t i 1 it y .

C o n t r a s t i n g w i t h a l l o t h e r r e p o r t s , POPESCU & HODGSHON (1987) p u t forward

t h a t e x p l o r a t o r y d r i l l i n g i n Western Europe as a whole was v i r t u a l l y unchanged
i n 1986 from i t s 1985 l e v e l , and N o r t h Sea d r i l l i n g r e d u c t i o n i n 1986 was o n l y
 114

a b t . 10 %, w i t h , however, t h e amount o f w e l l s h a v i n g been d r i l l e d i n t h e f i r s t

q u a r t e r o f 1986 i n t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h Sea h a v i n g been h i g h e r t h a n i n any o t h e r
q u a r t e r of U n i t e d Kingdom o f f s h o r e o i l and gas a c t i v i t y . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p f a l -
s i f i e s t h e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e , as many o f t h e i t e m s d r i l l e d i n t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r
o f 1986 would have been suspended o r c a n c e l l e d i f i t would n o t have been t o o
l a t e a t t h e moment when t h e o i l p r i c e r a p i d l y dropped. On t h e o t h e r hand, a
s l i g h t t o moderate decrease i n d r i l l i n g frequency i n t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h Sea i n
1986 i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a d i r e c t consequence o f t h e o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e , b u t has
a l s o t o be understood i n l i g h t o f 1984 and 1985 h a v i n g s e t r e c o r d s o f U n i t e d
Kingdom o f f s h o r e d r i l l i n g abundance (HOLBROOK 1987). Aspects o f hydrocarbon ac-
q u i s i t i o n a c t i v i t y i n an e r a o f low o i l p r i c e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by WOODS &
HOLTBERG ( 1 9 8 6 ) . The f l u c t u a t i o n s o f t h e d r i l l i n g r i g number as a consequence
o f t h e economical f e a s i b i l i t y s c e n a r i o changes h i g h 1 i g h t t h a t t h e r e c o v e r a b l e
hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s a r e a f f e c t e d by o i l and gas p r i c e s (GRUY, GARB & HERRON
1980; GARB, GRUY & HERRON 1981).

2 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 1988
I n 1988, o v e r a l l w o r l d d r i l l i n g i s r i s i n g a g a i n c o n s i d e r a b l y i n many areas
and i s exceeding t h e l e v e l o f 1986 and p o s s i b l y even t h a t o f 1985 (WORLD O I L
1988 a ) . T o t a l number o f w e l l s d r i l l e d worldwide a r e a b t . 60,100 i n 1986, a b t .
57,100 i n 1987 and a b t . 60,900 i n 1988. By end o f 1987, t o t a l w o r l d o i l r e s e r -
ves have reached a b t . 800 B i l l . b b l , and t o t a l w o r l d gas r e s e r v e s have a t t a i n e d
a b t . 3,860 T c f . I n t h e USA, o i l w e l l c o m p l e t i o n s decreased f r o m a b t . 41,000 in
1984 v i a a b t . 26,000 i n 1985 t o a b t . 17,000 i n 1986, and gas w e l l c o m p l e t i o n s
d i m i n i s h e d f r o m a b t . 15,700 i n 1984 v i a 10,000 i n 1985 t o o n l y 6,500 i n 1986
(MOORE 1986, 1987 b ) . Reviewing o i l p r i c e h i s t o r y w i t h a p r i c e e s c a l a t i o n o f
a b t . 40 % / y e a r on average o v e r a p e r i o d o f s i x y e a r s (1973 - 1979) r e v e a l s t h a t
t h e impetus of t h e o r d e r o f magnitude i n c r e a s e i n p r i c e ( w h i c h was g r e a t l y i n
excess o f t h e i n f l a t i o n r a t e ) caused reduced consumption t h r o u g h buyer c h o i c e ,
c o n s e r v a t i o n , s u b s t i t u t i o n , enhanced e f f i c i e n c y and c o n v e r s i o n t o o t h e r energy
sources, and b r o u g h t on m a j o r i n c r e a s e s i n non-OPEC o i l p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y .

A f t e r t h e peak o f t h e c r a s h , t h e USA d r i l l i n g r i g c o u n t o n l y s l o w l y improved

v i a a s l i g h t f u r t h e r d e c l i n e u n t i l e a r l y 1987 r e f l e c t i n g numerous p r o j e c t can-
c e l l a t i o n s and postponements t o a l i t t l e h i g h e r f i g u r e o f a b t . 800 - 950 i n m i d
1987 (BECK 1987), t h u s s t i l l s t a y i n g a t a l e v e l o f o n l y a b t . one f i f t h o f t h a t
i n t h e golden y e a r s (AL-CHALABI 1987). I n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1988, an i n c r e a s e
i n a c t i v e d r i l l i n g r i g s o f a b t . 20 % was recorded which c o u l d b r i n g t h e annual
r i g c o u n t average by end o f 1988 t o 1,030 - 1,120, w i t h 1988 t h u s o v e r a l l ap-
p e a r i n g t o be a n o t h e r r e c o v e r y y e a r f o r t h e p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y as a c t i v i t y i n -
creases f o r t h e second s t r a i g h t y e a r s i n c e t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e (CROUSE
1988 a ) . I t t h u s t e m p o r a r i l y l o o k e d l i k e as i f t h e boundary o f 1,000 r i g s m i g h t
p r o b a b l y f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e be exceeded a g a i n i n 1988 a f t e r t h e depressed y e a r s
o f 1986 and 1987 when f o l l o w i n g a number o f almost 2,000 i n 1985 t h e r i g c o u n t
f e l l f o r two y e a r s on average below 1,000. The mid t o l a t e 1988 o i l p r i c e de-
c l i n e f r o m U S $ 16 - 18 t o 12 - 15, however, r e s u l t e d i n t h e average m o n t h l y
r i g c o u n t i n t h e second h a l f o f 1988 d r o p p i n g t o 920 - 940 (OIL DAILY 1988 f )
which most p r o b a b l y b r i n g s t h e annual average again down below 1,000.

Counting w i t h a c u t o f f o f 45 days a c t i v i t y p e r i o d , t h e number o f a c t i v e r i g s

was i n 1988 w i t h a b t . 1,530 a b t . 10 % h i g h e r t h a n i n 1987 when a b t . 1,390 r i g s
were a c t i v e i n t h e USA, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a f t e r s i x c o n s e c u t i v e y e a r s o f d e c l i -
n i n g number o f a v a i l a b l e r i g s , heavy r i g f l e e t a t t r i t i o n i n t h e USA i s p r o b a b l y
coming t o an end (FITTS & CROWHURST 1988). R i g u t i l i z a t i o n w h i c h i s d e f i n e d as
t h e r a t i o o f a c t i v e r i g s t o a v a i l a b l e r i g s was 56 % i n 1988 w i t h r e s p e c t t o
42 % i n 1987 which, however, i s s t i l l c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r t h a n t h e 67 % o f 1984
and l a g s markedly b e h i n d t h e average r a t e found d u r i n g t h e l a s t 35 y e a r s .
 115

2,2.1.2.2. Artificial and natural market forces

The u n y i e l d i n g downward p r e s s u r e o f t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n caused t h e e x p o r t vo-
lume o f t h e OPEC t o f a l l d r a m a t i c a l l y , f i n a l l y r e s u l t i n g i n c a p i t u l a t i o n o f t h e
OPEC t o market f o r c e s i n l a t e 1985 w i t h abandonment o f p r o d u c t i o n r e s t r a i n t i n
f a v o u r o f s e e k i n g i t s f a i r share i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o i l market (RANDOL 1986).
Some aspects o f swing p r o d u c t i o n f o r market imbalance compensation as w e l l as
OPEC r e s i d u a l market share and p r i c e e f f e c t s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

2.2.1.2.2.1. Swing production for market imbalance compensation

The main reason f o r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h was t h e d e c i s i o n o f Saudi Ara-
b i a t o be no l o n g e r t h e swing p r o d u c e r i n t h e OPEC ( b y swinging, Saudi A r a b i a
f o r a l o n g t i m e s u c c e s s f u l l y p r e v e n t e d t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e o i l p r i c e due t o mar-
k e t power; ERDUL UND KOHLE - ERDGAS - PETROCHEMIE 1987 c, OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987
f, VIELVOYE 1988 b ) , because t h e c o u n t r y was g e n u i n e l y f e d up w i t h i t s f o r m e r
s e l f - c h o s e n r o l e o f b e i n g t h e swing producer (BECK & WILLIAMS 1987; c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.4.2.4.) and s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y p r o p p i n g up t h e sagging p r i c e s t r u c t u r e o f
t h e a s s o c i a t i o n w h i l e o t h e r OPEC members showed no d i s c i p l i n e i n r e s t r a i n i n g
o u t p u t and w h i l e t h e r e was no c o o p e r a t i o n f r o m non-OPEC o i l e x p o r t e r s t o h e l p
m a i n t a i n a s t a b l e market.

W h i l e t h e s e l f - r e s t r i c t i o n o f Saudi A r a b i a ' s p r o d u c t i o n t o a b t . 2.5 Mio.

b b l / d i n 1985 s t i l l e f f e c t i v e l y compensated t h e excesses o f e x p l o i t a t i o n by
o t h e r u n d i s c i p l i n e d OPEC members t h a t c o n t i n u e d t o v i o l a t e t h e i r quotas, an i n -
crease t o a b t . 5.0 Mio. b b l / d s i n c e t h e end o f 1985 (ERDUL UND KOHLE - ERDGAS -
PETROCHEMIE 1987 c ) when Saudi A r a b i a was f o r c e d t o pay more s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n
t o i t s own economical and f i n a n c i a l balance r a t h e r t h a n t o subvent b r o t h e r coun-
t r i e s t h a t a r e u n w i l l i n g t o r e s p e c t and accept t h e r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s , r e -
s p e c t i v e l y , i n i t i a t e d t h e f r e e f a l l o f t h e o i l p r i c e down t o a l e v e l which r e -
f l e c t s i t s n a t u r a l market v a l u e r a t h e r t h a n t h e a r t i f i c i a l l y l i f t e d p o s i t i o n
t h a t was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p o l i t i c a l t h r e a t e n i n g and d i c t a t i o n . W i t h Saudi Ara-
b i a b e i n g u n w i l l i n g t o f u r t h e r p l a y t h e swing producer, no o t h e r OPEC n a t i o n i s
l i k e l y t o be ready o r even a b l e t o f u l f i l l t h i s f u n c t i o n (PETROLEUM REVIEW 1987
a).
I n o r d e r n o t t o t h r e a t t h e US $ 18 agreement p r i c e , Saudi A r a b i a n e v e r t h e -
l e s s c o n t i n u e d t o p l a y t h e r o l e o f swing producer i n 1987 when necessary (BECK
1987, CROUSE 1988 b ) . D u r i n g t h e l a s t t h r e e years, almost a l l t h e i n c r e a s e s and
r e d u c t i o n s o f t o t a l OPEC o u t p u t w i t h i n a f l u c t u a t i o n marge o f 3 - 4 Mio. b b l / d
were performed and backed-up by Saudi A r a b i a through swinging, w i t h Saudi Ara-
b i a t h e r e f o r e h a v i n g a p i v o t a l r o l e i n t h e w o r l d o i l m a r k e t (THOMPSON & SINGLE-
TON 1988). Comments on o i l p r i c e and demand i n t e r a c t i o n s a r e a l s o g i v e n by LUMS-
DEN ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

2.2.1.2.2.2. OPEC residual market share and price effects

I n terms o f market share, v a r i o u s o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n s and t h e b i g o i l p r i c e
c r a s h have a l l d r a s t i c a l l y changed t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e OPEC group i n t h e
t o t a l w o r l d o i l m a r k e t (BILD 1987). The OPEC group s t a r t e d t o f i x and t o con-
t r o l t h e o i l p r i c e and t h u s t o c l a i m a market share i n 1973/1974. A f t e r t h e se-
cond o i l p r i c e shock i n 1979/1980, t h e slow downwards o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e o i l
p r i c e f o r c e d t h e OPEC b i t t o b i t t o concede on p r i c e , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e
t h e market share d r a s t i c a l l y f e l l and was h a l v e d i n t h e p e r i o d 1981 t o 1985.
R e a l i s t i c a l l y , t h e OPEC group always had o n l y t h e r e s i d u a l m a r k e t share (PETRO-
LEUM REVIEW 1988 c ) i n s u p p l y i n g those q u a n t i t i e s necessary f o r d e l i v e r y which
t h e customer c o u n t r i e s c o u l d n o t e s t a b l i s h by domestic p r o d u c t i o n o r i m p o r t
f r o m somewhere e l s e .

Increasing exploitation of own r e s e r v e s and c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t s o f energy

 116

c o n s e r v a t i o n were t h e main reasons f o r t h e h a l v i n g o f t h e r e s i d u a l market share

o f t h e OPEC. As market share i s a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e always c a l c u l a t e d i n
q u a n t i t y t i m e s p r i c e , f o l l o w i n g t h e o f f i c i a l renouncement o f a f i x e d p r i c e i n
l a t e 1985 and t h e g i v e - u p o f p r o d u c t i o n l i m i t a t i o n quotas, t h e tremendous p r i c e
f a l l i n combination w i t h s l i g h t l y increasing q u a n t i t i e s could n o t reverse t h e
downwards o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e o i l s a l e revenues f o r t h e OPEC group i n 1986, and
o n l y t h e r e t u r n t o f i x e d p r i c e s and l i m i t e d p r o d u c t i o n q u a n t i t i e s i n l a t e 1986/
e a r l y 1987 was a b l e t o t r i g g e r a g a i n a moderate i n c r e a s e i n m a r k e t share and r e -
venues. The n e t e f f e c t o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h was a 16 % i n c r e a s e o f t h e
OPEC o i l p r o d u c t i o n t o reach a b t . 33 % share o f w o r l d o i l o u t p u t (ERDUL-ERDGAS-
KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1987 e ) .

The 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h has a much b i g g e r impact on company upstream spend-

i n g t h a t upon a c t u a l s u p p l y (PETROLEUM REVIEW 1987 a ) . I t has t u r n e d o u t t h a t
non-OPEC p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s were l o w e r than was g e n e r a l l y assumed, and a f u r t h e r
b u f f e r a g a i n s t more d r a s t i c i n d i g e n o u s p r o d u c t i o n l o s s e s were those o u t p u t t a x
regimes i n p l a c e . I f a company i s p a y i n g a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h m a r g i n a l t a x r a t e ,
o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e s can i n i t i a l l y impact more s e v e r e l y on t h e t r e a s u r y o f t h e go-
vernment imposing t h a t t a x t h a n upon t h e company i t s e l f . S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e
p r i c e f a l l engendered a s t r o n g upstream e f f i c i e n c y d r i v e a l o n g w i t h s h a r p l y f a l -
l i n g o i l f i e l d equipment and s e r v i c e c o s t s .

2 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 3 . Variables determining oil price level

Some v a r i a b l e s d e t e r m i n i n g o i l p r i c e l e v e l a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s a l o n g
t h e l i n e s o f c o u p l i n g o f o i l p r o d u c t i o n r a t e and p r i c e , c u r r e n t i d e a l o i l p r i c e
l e v e l , o i l p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s and o i l s e c t o r dominance, and o i l p o l i t i c a l t r i a n g l e
USA - Saudi A r a b i a - I r a n .

2.2.1.2.3.1. Coupling o f oil production rate and price niveau

O i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n a l s o has shown t h a t t h e p r i m a r y d e t e r m i n a n t o f c r u d e o i l
p r i c e i s t h e volume o f crude o i l o f f e r e d f o r s a l e , w i t h r e l a t i v e l y small percen-
tage changes i n volume c a u s i n g r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e percentage changes i n p r i c e
( f o r example, a l o w e r i n g o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f f e r e d f o r purchase b y a b t . 4 % o f
t h e w o r l d consumption i n l a t e 1 9 8 6 / e a r l y 1987 l i f t e d t h e p r i c e by a b t . 40 %
from 12 t o 18 US $; DOUGHERTY 1987, NARAGHI 1988, OIL DAILY 1988 e ) . C a l c u l a -
t i n g w i t h t h e o f f i c i a l OPEC l i s t p r i c e o f 29 US $ / b b l which was v a l i d s t i l l i n
l a t e 1985, t h e c r a s h i n 1986 b r o u g h t t h e p r i c e down t o a b t . 25 - 30 % o f t h e
f o r m e r v a l u e a t t h e peak o f t h e c r i s i s and a b t . 40 % on average, whereas t h e
r e g a i n i n g consensus o f t h e group and r e t u r n t o p r o d u c t i o n l i m i t a t i o n s moved t h e
p r i c e back t o a b t . 60 % o f i t s e a r l i e r l e v e l w i t h o u t , however, r e e s t a b l i s h i n g
c o n f i d e n c e i n i t s s t a b i l i t y t h a t has been l o s t d u r i n g t h e p r i c e c o l l a p s e . I n
l a t e 1987, o i l p r i c e was a b t . 25 % h i g h e r t h a n i n l a t e 1986 (CROUSE 1988 b ) .

A t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e , t h e o i l p r i c e i s even e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e r a t e se-
l e c t e d by t h e m a j o r producer o f t h e w o r l d , w i t h t h i s p o s i t i o n h a v i n g changed
f r o m t h e USA t o Saudi A r a b i a i n t h e 1960's. Examining t h e OPEC e f f o r t s t o come
t o an agreement on p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s and p r i c e s , and j u d g i n g t h e r o l e o f Saudi
A r a b i a f r o m t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n b o t h s e c u r i n g n a t i o n a l income and s t r e n g t h e n i n g
t h e i r market l e a d e r s h i p , t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e upheaval cannot be i n t e r p r e t e d as
r e f l e c t i n g t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e OPEC, b u t r a t h e r was t h e l o g i c a l u n f o l d i n g o f
Saudi A r a b i a ' s p l a n t o b r i n g o i l p r i c e down t o a s u s t a i n a b l e l e v e l . The e f f e c t
o f Saudi A r a b i a ' s i n c r e a s i n g o i l market share s t r a t e g y was plummeting o f t h e
average marker o i l p r i c e f r o m US $ 28 - 30 t o US $ 1 2 - 15, and d u r i n g t h e t i m e
i n t e r v a l o f f r e e market f o r c e s , a 1 % i n c r e a s e i n g l o b a l o i l s u p p l y r e s u l t e d i n
a 12 % d e c l i n e i n average o i l p r i c e (NARAGHI 1988). O t h e r economical aspects o f
o i l p r i c e and i t s changes i n p a s t and f u t u r e a r e d i s c u s s e d by AL-BLEHED (1987),
OOUGHERTY & AL-BLEHED (1987) and LUMSOEN (1988), and t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n s w i t h i n
t h e OPEC group t h a t l e d t o t h e o i l p r i c e c r a s h a r e e v a l u a t e d by RANDOL ( 1 9 8 6 ) .
 117

SAFER (1977) comments on c h a l l e n g e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f t h e w o r l d o i l market,

p r e d i c t i o n o f o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n , and r o l e o f t h e OPEC group ( c f . a l s o TEWKS-
BURY 1977). WEFA (1988) analyzes boom o r b u s t o f t h e o i l market i n c l u d i n g up-
and downswings, and MACKAY CONSULTANTS (1988) p r e s e n t a p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e o i l
and gas i n d u s t r y t r e n d s i n t h e n e x t y e a r s . KONZELMANN (1976) even assesses o i l
as b e i n g t h e f a t e o f mankind.

The g l o b a l o i l p r i c e i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y s e t by c o m p e t i t i o n among t h e w o r l d ' s

o i l - e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s and n o t by economists o f t h e o i l - i m p o r t i n g n a t i o n s
(IVANHOE 1988). O i l consumed i n t e r n a l l y w i t h i n any p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r y s e l l s a t
t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r i c e s e t by t h e e x p o r t e r s . Non-OPEC p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s
s i n c e t h e f i r s t o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n i n 1973 t h a t a r e used i n t e r n a l l y w i t h i n any
n a t i o n a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r e x p o r t and consequently t h i s o i l does n o t a f f e c t
t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r i c e , w i t h t h e c r i t i c a l volume t h u s o n l y b e i n g t h e n e t
amount t h a t i s a v a i l a b l e f o r e x p o r t which i s u s u a l l y l e s s than 25 % o f t h e t o -
t a l p r o d u c t i o n o f non-OPEC c o u n t r i e s .

2.2.1.2.3.2. Current ideal oil price level

The i d e a l o i l p r i c e l e v e l f o r a t l e a s t t h e OPEC group i s a t t h e moment a b t .
US $ 18, because i t i s low enough t o spur demand b u t n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h t o
head o f f d e c l i n e s i n non-OPEC p r o d u c t i o n (OIL GAS JOURNAL 1988 e ) . US $ 18
means a l e v e l o f demand f o r OPEC o i l t h a t y i e l d s optimum revenues f o r OPEC mem-
b e r s t h u s s a t i s f y i n g OPEC needs w h i l e t a k i n g i n t o account t h e p r i c e e l a s t i c i t y
o f supplyldemand. W h i l e US $ 18 i s h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e , US $ 15 would be t h e abso-
l u t e minimum t o l e r a b l e f o r t h e OPEC group. A t US $ 18, demand f o r OPEC o i l i s
a b t . 19.5 Mio. b b l / d i n 1987/1988. I f o i l p r i c e s d e c l i n e , OPEC's revenue s h o r t -
f a l l i n c r e a s e s g e o m e t r i c a l l y , w i t h t h e gap expanding a t i t s f a s t e s t r a t e once
p r i c e s d r o p under US $ 15. I f o i l p r i c e s were t o remain i n t h e US $ 17 - 22 r a n -
ge, OPEC c o u l d b a s i c a l l y g e n e r a t e t h e same amount of revenues i f i t a d j u s t s i t s
p r o d u c t i o n a c c o r d i n g l y , whereas f o r p r i c e s o f more t h a n US $ 22, OPEC would
a g a i n be worse o f f .

T h e r e f o r e i t i s expected t h a t i n l i g h t o f own i n t e r e s t , t h e OPEC group w i l l

be a t t e m p t i n g t o s t a b i l i z e t h e o i l p r i c e a t a b t . US $ 18 t h e r e b y c o n f i r m i n g t h e
l a t e 1986 agreement ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.1.2. and 2.2.1.4.3.8.) by r e s t r i c t i n g
p r o d u c t i o n t o a b t . 19.5 Mio. b b l / d . US $ 18 can be regarded as t h e maximum d e s i -
r a b l e p r i c e f o r t h e OPEC a t t h e moment, because a t t h i s l e v e l even denominated
i n weakening d o l l a r s , some new p r o d u c t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o come on stream o u t s i d e
OPEC, and w i t h h i g h e r p r i c e s , n a t u r a l gas and c o a l b e g i n t o r e p l a c e o i l (OIL
GAS JOURNAL 1987 n ) .

2.2.1.2.3.3. Oil production costs and oil sector dominance

I n view o f t h e enormous d i f f e r e n c e i n p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s o f 0.05 - 0.2 US
$ / b b l i n t h e OPEC area and 5 - 15 US $ i n many o f t h e non-OPEC c o u n t r i e s , i t
would have been a s i m p l e o p e r a t i o n f o r OPEC t o have d r i v e n down t h e p r i c e t o a
p o i n t l o w e r t h a n non-OPEC l o n g - r u n m a r g i n a l c o s t l e v e l s (McCANN 1988). F o r va-
r i o u s reasons, however, t h i s was never a v i a b l e s o l u t i o n f o r OPEC. Such a p r i c e
d e c l i n e would be p o l i t i c a l l y unacceptable t o those OPEC members l a c k i n g l a r g e
r e s e r v e s and would l e a d t o i n c r e a s i n g d i v i s i o n s between c o u n t r i e s w i t h m a j o r
and m i n o r r e s e r v e s , w i t h l o w - r e s e r v e OPEC members t h u s b e i n g e f f e c t i v e l y e x c l u -
ded f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a l o n g - t e r m s t r a t e g i c p r i c e d e c l i n e .

Another reason i s t h e dominance o f t h e o i l s e c t o r t o OPEC member economies

and e x p o r t revenues as opposed t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y m i n o r p a r t p l a y e d by t h e o i l
s e c t o r i n t h e t o t a l g r o s s n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t o f many b i g g e r non-OPEC p r o d u c e r s
(such as G r e a t B r i t a i n , Norway and M e x i c o ) . F i n a l l y , OPEC o i l p r o d u c t i o n i s r e -
l a t i v e l y p r i c e - i n e l a s t i c e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e s h o r t term, w i t h t h e d e s i r e d non-
OPEC response t o any p r i c e f a l l b e i n g lagged, whereas t h e s h o r t - t e r m c o s t s t o
 118
the c a r t e l would be f e l t immediately. T h u s the r e s t o r a t i o n of market s t a b i l i t y
i n l a t e 1986 by p l a c i n g t h e US $ 18 agreement p r i c e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 .
and 2 . 2 . 1 . 4 . 3 . 8 . ) a t more o r l e s s a midpoint between the p r i c e h i g h s of t h e e a r -
l y 1980's and the lows of e a r l y t o mid 1986 has t u r n e d o u t t o be t h e o v e r a l l op-
timum s o l u t i o n .

2.2.1.2.3.4.Oilpolitical triangle USA - Saudi Arabia - Iran

I n terms of p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e o i l p r i c e g y r a t i o n s of the 1970's,
t h e o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e of 1986, and t h e subsequent o i l p r i c e r e c o v e r y a r e the
r e s u l t of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h i n a t r i a n g u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the USA a t the
t o p and Saudi Arabia and I r a n forming the base of t h e t r i a n g l e (PETROLEUM RE-
VIEW 1987 a ) . I t a p p e a r s from o i l p r i c e h i s t o r y t h a t whenever USA and e i t h e r
Saudi Arabia o r I r a n a g r e e on a c e r t a i n p o l i c y towards o i l p r i c e , t h e t h i r d p a r -
t y has very l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e . In 1973, the Arabian o i l embargo l e d by Saudi Ara-
b i a was undermined by the USA which voiced i t s t o t a l o p p o s i t i o n and a c t i v e l y en-
couraged I r a n and o t h e r non-Arabian c o u n t r i e s t o t a k e advantage of the s i t u a -
t i o n and t o overproduce.
In t h e l a t e 1970's, USA s u p p o r t e d Saudi Arabia t o f l o o d the o i l market i n o r -
d e r t o p r e v e n t o i l p r i c e s from r i s i n g even h i g h e r . Throughout the 1980's, t h e
USA was keen t o keep o i l p r i c e s a s low a s p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o reduce e n e r g y
c o s t s and promote growth, which c o i n c i d e d w i t h the i n t e r e s t of Saudi Arabia t o
s t i m u l a t e o i l demand t h a t had been badly a f f e c t e d by the p r i c e h i k e s of t h e
1 9 7 0 ' s . The l e v e l of o i l p r i c e s and t h e i n f l u e n c e which t h e p o l i t i c a l t r i a n g l e
USA - Saudi Arabia - I r a n has upon them w i l l p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n f u t u r e
e n e r g y s e c u r i t y . I n a d d i t i o n , w i t h o u t t h e O P E C , o i l p r i c e s would d e c l i n e t o l e -
v e l s t h a t would encourage g r e a t e r dependence on Gulf s u p p l i e s , t h e r e b y p o s s i b l y
harming long-term energy s e c u r i t y of the OECD.

Market forces and oil price evolution

2.2.1.2.4.
The o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n d u r i n g t h e l a s t 20 y e a r s was predominantly d r i v e n by
market f o r c e s (PETROLEUM REVIEW 1988 c ) . Four p e r i o d s can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d :
1970 - 1973 ( l e a d i n g t o t h e f i r s t o i l p r i c e i n c r e a s e ) , 1974 - 1979 ( g u i d i n g t o
the second o i l p r i c e u p l i f t ) , 1979 - 1985 ( g i v i n g r i s e t o t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e
plunge) and the c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n 1986 - 1989 and beyond. Comments a r e a l s o o f -
f e r e d on market r e g u l a t i o n vs. d i s e q u i l i b r i u m compensation.

1970
2.2.1.2.4.1. - 1979
Between 1970 and 1973, world o i l demand i n c r e a s e d by o v e r 8 Mio. b b l / d main-
l y due t o t h e d e c l i n i n g r e a l o i l p r i c e s of the p r e v i o u s two decades (PETROLEUM
REVIEW 1988 c ) . As non-OPEC o i l s u p p l y i n c r e a s e d o n l y m a r g i n a l l y , demand f o r
OPEC o i l i n c r e a s e d s h a r p l y by a l m o s t 7 . 5 M i o . b b l / d . T h e r e f o r e the p r o d u c t i o n
l e v e l came very c l o s e t o OPEC o u t p u t c a p a c i t y and i f t h e s i t u a t i o n had c o n t i -
nued, demand would have by f a r exceeded s u p p l y . T h u s market f o r c e s s e t the
s t a g e f o r the f i r s t o i l p r i c e i n c r e a s e i n l a t e 1973, w i t h OPEC's r o l e having
been i m p o r t a n t i n t i m i n g , b u t p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s such a s the A r a b - I s r a e l war and
t h e magnitude of p r i c e i n c r e a s e s having been c o n s i d e r a b l y more s i g n i f i c a n t . I n
t h e second p e r i o d , demand f o r o i l d e s p i t e the now r e a s o n a b l y h i g h e r p r i c e con-
tinued t o increase.

While non-OPEC o i l s u p p l y began t o r i s e , demand f o r OPEC o i l was c l o s e t o

i t s p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y , w i t h thus the o i l p r i c e e x p l o d i n g a g a i n i n l a t e 1979
i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a brake of the e x c e s s i v e l y p r o g r e s s i n g demand. The I r a n i a n
r e v o l u t i o n and the I r a n i a n - I r a q i a n war were i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s , n o t so much t h a t
t h e y reduced the o i l flow from the r e g i o n , b u t because t h e y c r e a t e d demand f o r
p r e c a u t i o n a r y and s p e c u l a t i v e s t o c k , w i t h a g a i n market fundamentals p l a y i n g a
 119

c r u c i a l r o l e i n t h e two sharp p r i c e i n c r e a s e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1 . ) .

2.2.1.2.4.2. 1979 - 1986

The 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e was a l s o caused by market f o r c e s . The sharp f a l l
i n o i l demand between 1979 and 1985 and t h e even g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n non-OPEC
o i l s u p p l i e s r e s u l t e d i n a w o r l d r e q u i r e m e n t f o r OPEC o i l a t a l e v e l t h a t was
t o o small f o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n t o s u s t a i n (PETROLEUM REVIEW 1988 c ) . The de-
c l i n e o f more t h a n 13 Mio. b b l / d i n OPEC o i l demand l e d t o an OPEC o i l produc-
t i o n o f l e s s than 16 Mio. b b l / d i n 1985 and a r e c o r d minimum o f 13.4 Mio. b b l / d
i n 1987 (compared w i t h t h e maximum o f 31 Mio. b b l / d i n 1973; ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE
NACHRICHTEN 1987 d ) . The l o n g - t e r m exposure t o t h e two o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n s has
been a s i g n i f i c a n t advance by t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s i n energy conserva-
t i o n measures on t h e one hand ( r e p r e s e n t i n g a macroeconomical response t o t h e
o i l shocks) and a s i g n i f i c a n t improvement i n energy e f f i c i e n c y ( b e i n g a m i c r o -
economical response t o t h e p r i c e r i s e s ; McCANN 1988). As market f o r e c a s t s i n
m i d t o l a t e 1985 i n d i c a t e d f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n demand f o r OPEC o i l i n case
o f absence o f m a j o r steps, t h e o n l y o p t i o n was t o f l o a t o i l p r i c e s i n o r d e r t o
s t o p o r even r e v e r s e t h e d e c l i n i n g t r e n d (PETROLEUM R E V I E W 1988 c ) .

The impact o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e plunge was t h u s l o g i c a l l y a t u r n a r o u n d o f

t h e o i l market. Demand i n c r e a s e d r e l a t i v e l y s h a r p l y by 1 . 8 Mio. b b l / d between
1985 and 1987, and t h e r i s e i n non-OPEC s u p p l y was more o r l e s s t e r m i n a t e d . I t
was t h i s t u r n a r o u n d i n t h e market t h a t was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n OPEC once a g a i n em-
b a r k i n g on a r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e o i l market. Thus w h i l e OPEC p l a y e d a r e g u l a t i n g
r o l e , market fundamentals s e t t h e stage f o r t h e two o i l p r i c e i n c r e a s e s o f
1973/1974 and 1979/1980 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.1.) as w e l l as f o r t h e 1986 p r i c e
c o l l a p s e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.2.). The r o l e o f OPEC was i m p o r t a n t i n t h e two
p r i c e i n c r e a s e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e magnitude o f t h e r i s e and o f f i c i a l i z i n g i t ,
b u t i t s r o l e was even more s i g n i f i c a n t between 1982 and 1985 when i t managed t o
p r e v e n t a p r i c e c r a s h by r e d u c i n g o u t p u t .

2.2.1.2.4.3. Market regulation vs . di sequ i 1 ibr ium compensat ion

H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e o i l market has been r e g u l a t e d by m a j o r o i l companies u n t i l
1970 and by OPEC a f t e r w a r d s (PETROLEUM REVIEW 1988 c ) . The system o f r i g i d o i l
p r i c i n g , however, w i l l have d i f f i c u l t i e s i n s u r v i v i n g because o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l
changes t h a t have t a k e n p l a c e i n o i l t r a d i n g . The f i r s t r i g i d i t y i n t h e OPEC
p r i c i n g system arose because w i t h g i v e n demand, i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o f i x b o t h
s u p p l y and p r i c e s , b u t i t c o u l d o n l y happen by c o i n c i d e n c e i f t h e market i s i n
balance a t a g i v e n p r i c e . I f adjustments t o t h e system a r e n o t made, however,
d i s e q u i l i b r i u m emerges. One p o s s i b i l i t y i s t o have a swing producer t o a d j u s t
i t s o u t p u t t o balance t h e market, b u t u n l e s s o v e r a l l s u p p l y and p r i c e s a r e f r e -
q u e n t l y a d j u s t e d , t h e swing p r o d u c e r w i l l l o s e i t s market share.

I n t h e l a s t decade, fundamental changes i n t h e system o f o i l t r a d i n g have

f o r c e d o i l p r i c e s t o become more market r e s p o n s i v e . The s e r i e s o f reasons i n c l u -
des i n c r e a s e i n s p o t t r a n s a c t i o n s , emergence o f o i l f u t u r e and f o r w a r d markets,
i n c r e a s i n g i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e downstream s e c t o r i n t o t h e o i l segment o f t h e p r o -
d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s ; appearance o f new m a r k e t i n g p r a c t i c e s such as netback p r i -
c i n g , p r o c e s s i n g d e a l s and b a r t e r t r a d e ; i n c r e a s i n g number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s i n
t h e o i l market, and f a l l i n t h e OPEC share i n g l o b a l o i l s u p p l i e s .

2.2.1.2.5. Oil consumption and output

Aspects o f o i l consumption and o u t p u t a r e discussed a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f OECD
demand vs. c o n s e r v a t i o n and s u b s t i t u t i o n as w e l l as OPEC and non-OPEC produc-
t i o n vs. demand as f o l l o w s .
 120

2.2.1.2.5,l.OECD demand vs . conservation and s u b s t i t u t i o n

O i l and t o t a l energy consumption p e r u n i t o f gross n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t dropped
i n most o f t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n f o r Economic C o o p e r a t i o n and Development (OECD)
c o u n t r i e s d u r i n g t h e 1973 - 1985 i n t e r v a l , b u t s i n c e t h e o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e i n
1986, t h i s t r e n d has r e v e r s e d (NARAGHI 1988). Due t o c o n s e r v a t i o n measures and
f u e l s u b s t i t u t i o n e f f e c t s b r o u g h t about by t h e 1973/1974 and 1979/1980 p r i c e h i -
kes, t h e OECD c o u n t r i e s used 38 % l e s s o i l p e r u n i t o f o u t p u t i n 1985 t h a n i n
1973. I n 1986, o i l consumption l e v e l s i n a l l r e g i o n s o f t h e w o r l d have i n c r e a -
sed f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e s i n c e 1981 as a consequence o f now much cheaper o i l be-
i n g a v a i l a b l e , and g l o b a l o i l consumption i n 1986 has reached t h e same n i v e a u
as i n 1976. L e v e l l i n g - o f f a n d / o r s l i g h t l y i n c r e a s i n g o i l f u e l share o f p r i m a r y
energy consumption i n 1986 t o o k p l a c e on a w o r l d - w i d e b a s i s .

The consequence o f t h e r e t u r n t o a more e l e v a t e d l i s t p r i c e o f US $ 18 i n

l a t e 1986 means an a b t . 40 % income i n c r e a s e w i t h r e s p e c t t o a US $ 12 s c e n a r i o
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e average l e v e l d u r i n g t h e peak o f t h e c r i s i s . I n 1986, f o r t h e
f i r s t t i m e s i n c e 1978, t h e share o f o i l i n p r i m a r y energy consumption r e v e r s e d
a d e c l i n i n g p a t t e r n , and i n t h e f r e e market economies ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e
USA), t h e i n c r e a s i n g share o f apparent o i l consumption i n 1986 was accompanied
by d e c r e a s i n g shares f o r gas and c o a l consumption. I f c o n t i n u e d i n t h e f u t u r e ,
these t r e n d s c o u l d s i g n a l p o s s i b l e r e v e r s a l o f consumer b e h a v i o u r and conserva-
t i o n measures and p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r t h e c l a s s i c a l debate o v e r t h e e v e r - i l l u -
s i v e e q u i l i b r i u m p r i c e o f crude o i l .

2.2.1.2.5.2.OPEC and non-OPEC product ion vs . demand

A l t h o u g h f r e q u e n t l y e x h i b i t i n g no consensus and d i s c i p l i n e c o n c e r n i n g p r i c e
and p r o d u c t i o n q u a n t i t i e s , t h e OPEC group has e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y w e l l h e l d t o -
g e t h e r s i n c e i n 1981/1982 t h e f i r s t l o s s e s i n revenues o c c u r r e d due t o b e g i n -
n i n g o f d e c l i n i n g demand and f a l l i n g p r i c e s (HOLMES 1987). Because i n l a t e 1985
as a consequence o f l o w e r demand and h i g h e r non-OPEC p r o d u c t i o n t h e a b s o l u t e l e -
v e l o f o i l e x p o r t by t h e OPEC had f a l l e n down t o h a l f t h e amount o f 1980/1981,
t h e OPEC t r i e d t o g e t again more market share by r e n o u n c i n g f r o m f i x e d p r i c e
and p r o d u c t i o n quotas which provoked t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h t h a t had t h r e e -
f o l d r e s u l t s . The f i r s t e f f e c t was OPEC's l o s s o f revenue w i t h v e r y much l o w e r
p r i c e s , because t h e income i n 1985 was o n l y s t i l l h a l f o f t h a t i n 1980/1981,
and t h e revenue i n 1986 was a g a i n o n l y h a l f o f t h a t i n 1985. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e
OPEC group r e t a i n e d i t s cohesion and r e - e s t a b l i s h e d p r i c e t a r g e t and volume d i s -
cipline.

The second main r e s u l t o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e was t h e c u r t a i l m e n t o f

non-OPEC p r o d u c t i o n . The 1986 o u t p u t l e v e l s were a b t . 0 . 8 M i o . b b l / d l e s s t h a n
t h e y m i g h t have been expected a t p r i c e s r e m a i n i n g a t 1985 n i v e a u . The b u l k o f
t h i s l o s s was i n t h e USA where p r o d u c t i o n may have dropped as much as 0.5 Mio.
b b l / d . The t h i r d i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e s l i d e was t h e i n f l u e n c e
o f l o w e r oil p r i c e s on demand. World demand i n c r e a s e d by a b t . 0 . 8 Mio. b b l / d
o v e r what i t m i g h t have been i f p r i c e s remained a t a b t . US $ 28. Some o f t h i s
i n c r e a s e d demand i n 1986 was s u b s t a n t i a l s t o c k b u i l d e s p e c i a l l y in Europe, and
some was due t o s u b s t i t u t i o n o f o t h e r energy sources by l o w - p r i c e d f u e l o i l p a r -
t i c u l a r l y i n t h e USA, t h u s u n d e r l i n i n g t h a t o i l demand a t t h e m a r g i n i s s t r o n g -
l y i n f l u e n c e d by o i l p r i c e l e v e l .

2.2.1.2.6. Other aspects

E f f e c t s o f t h e 1986 c r i s i s on o i l and gas i n d u s t r y a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by DAN-
C Y , DANCY & TAYLOR (1987) and KELKAR (1987), and o t h e r o i l p r i c e aspects a r e
e v a l u a t e d by ROBERTS (1984), HILL (1987) and POWERS & STEVENSON ( 1 9 8 7 ) . CAMP-
BELL & HUBBARD (1984), ZWICKY (1984) and DOUGHERTY (1987) i n v e s t i g a t e p o s s i b i l i -
 121

t i e s o f reasonably r e l i a b l e p r e d i c t i o n o f the d i r e c t i o n s o f o i l p r i c e evolu-

t i o n , and KELLY (1987) assesses t h e q u e s t i o n o f o i l p r i c e s t a b i l i t y and c o n s o l i -
d a t i o n . VEATCH (1986) e v a l u a t e s economical aspects o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c -
t u r i n g . Aspects o f t h e r o l e o f t h e OPEC i n w o r l d o i l market and p r i c e e v o l u t i o n
a r e a1 so d i s c u s s e d by GATELY (1984), and AL-CHALABI (1987) and ATTIGA (1987)
summarize o i l p r i c e h i s t o r y and a s s o c i a t e d p e r i o d s o f boom and c r i s i s p a r t i c u -
l a r l y from the viewpoint o f the organization o f Arabian petroleum exporting
c o u n t r i e s (OAPEC). P o l i t i c a l p r o s p e c t s w i t h i n t h e A r a b i a n area a r e i l l u s t r a t e d
by SHARABI (1988), and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e s and o i l /
gas p r i c e e v o l u t i o n i s sketched by GLASNER (1985). FRANSSEN (1988) comments on
p o l i t i c a l , s t r a t e g i c a l and r e s o u r c e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f o i l s u p p l y dimensions, and
LUMSDEN (1988) e v a l u a t e s o i l p r i c e and demand i n t e r a c t i o n s . MORSE (1988) i l l u -
s t r a t e s t h e impact on markets o f non-OPEC o i l s u p p l i e s . T A R I K I (1985) i l l u m i n a -
t e s t h e s i t u a t i o n o f g l o b a l o i l markets o f b e i n g under s t r e s s .

As a consequence of t h e d i m i n i s h i n g revenues f r o m o i l s a l e , more and more

OPEC members a r e pushing i n t o downstream v e n t u r e s i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h i n t e g r a -
t e d p r o d u c t i o n (WILLIAMS 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.4.3.3.). The downstream moves
a r e t h e most apparent r e i n t e g r a t i o n e f f o r t s and a r e a n a t u r a l r e s u l t o f t h e i r
c a p a c i t y s u r p l u s , c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e o i l market, and t h e d e s i r e o f t h e produ-
c i n q c o u n t r i e s f o r more assured o u t l e t s q i v e n t h i s market share c o m p e t i t i o n (PE-
TROLEUM REVIEW 1987 a ) . Downstream i n t e g F a t i o n o f OPEC s t a t e s as a c o m p e l i i n g
c o m p e t i t i v e edge i s a l s o emphasized b y PETROLEUM REVIEW ( 987 a) and STAUFER
(1988).

2.2.1.3. Impact o f varying US $

exchange rate on oil price evolution
The low o i l D r i c e w h i c h was i n 1986 t e m o r a r i l v c o n s i d e r a b Y below US $ 10
and a l s o t h r o u g h o u t 1987 and e a r l y 1988 n e v e r exceeded an average v a l u e o f ' U S $
18 was o u t s i d e t h e USA and o t h e r d o l l a r - c u r r e n c y c o u n t r i e s even accentuated by
t h e accompanying weakness o f t h e US $ ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 2.3.5.). The exchange
r a t e o f t h e US $ w i t h r e s p e c t t o o t h e r w o r l d g u i d e c u r r e n c i e s such as DM and L
s t a r t e d t o d e c l i n e i n m i d t o l a t e 1985, reached i n t h e f o u r t h q u a r t e r o f 1987
i t s h i s t o r i c a l minimum l e v e l a f t e r d i m i n i s h i n g i t s v a l u e by 40 - 50 % w i t h i n
two years, k e p t b e i n g low t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t p a r t o f 1988, and o n l y i n t h e
second h a l f o f 1988 experienced a s l i g h t r e c o v e r y o f a b t . 20 - 25 % o f i t s va-
l u e t h a t , however, may be o f o n l y temporary n a t u r e , as a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d by an
a l r e a d y renewed s l i g h t d r o p a f t e r t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n i n t h e USA a t t h e
end o f 1988).

Another m a j o r i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r i s t h e i n f l a t i o n which had t h e consequence

t h a t t h e n e t r e t u r n f r o m hydrocarbon s a l e i n Europe was i n m i d 1986 o n l y a b t .
40 % o f t h a t on average i n 1985, and t h a t an o i l p r i c e i n nominal terms o f 10 -
15 US $ i n 1986 i s i n r e a l terms e q u i v a l e n t t o a b t . 5 US $ i n 197211973. R e l a -
t i v e t o t h e DM, t h e v a l u e o f t h e US $ was h a l v e d f r o m 3.20 OM i n e a r l y 1985 t o
1.60 DM (and t e m p o r a r i l y even below) i n l a t e 1987 (THOMPSON & SINGLETON 1988)
which i n terms o f o i l p r i c e means t h a t an US $ 27 b a r r e l p r i c e i n e a r l y 1985
was e q u i v a l e n t t o DM 86, whereas US $ 19 i n l a t e 1987 corresponded t o o n l y DM
31. Thus t h e w o r l d o i l p r i c e was o n l y 30 % l o w e r i n US $ b u t 65 % l o w e r i n DM,
r e s u l t i n g i n t h e f a c t t h a t on t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l market, a b a r r e l o f o i l was
more t h a n 50 % cheaper i n l a t e 1987 t h a n i n e a r l y 1985, w i t h o v e r h a l f o f t h i s
decrease b e i n g d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e d e p r e c i a t e d US $.

The e f f e c t s o f t h e sharp 1986 o i l p r i c e d r o p have been d r a m a t i c t o even t r a u -

m a t i c , l e a d i n g f o r p r o d u c t i o n , s e r v i c e and s u p p l y companies t o a b a t t l e f o r s u r -
v i v a l o f t h e f i t t e s t , w i t h many small companies h a v i n g been f a c e d w i t h g o i n g
o u t o f business and v a r i o u s l a r g e r companies h a v i n g t r i e d t o escape t h i s f a t e
by merging and mutual c o r p o r a t e t a k e o v e r ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.5.2.4.) f o r easier
s u r v i v a l u n t i l b e t t e r t i m e s come back (GRIFFITHS 1986, MEISTER & CADY 1986). US
$ revenues t o OPEC have c o n s i d e r a b l y d e c l i n e d b o t h i n r e a l and nominal terms
 122
due t o t h e d e p r e c i a t i n g U S $ on f o r e i g n exchange m a r k e t s d u r i n g t h e l a s t y e a r s
(McCANN 1988). Thus OPEC was squeezed f r o m two s i d e s r e c e n t l y , w i t h o n t h e one
hand l o w e r o i l p r i c e s h a v i n g r e d u c e d t h e v a l u e o f o i l e x p o r t r e v e n u e s in n o m i -
n a l terms, whereas on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e d e p r e c i a t i n g US $ a g a i n s t a b a s k e t o f
o t h e r OECD-member c u r r e n c i e s l e d t o a d e c l i n e o f p u r c h a s i n g power o f t h e nomi-
n a l r e v e n u e s i n r e a l t e r m s . The v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s and i m p a c t s a r e i l l u s t r a -
t e d as f o l l o w s b y o u t l i n i n g some examples c o m p r i s i n g i m p o r t p r i c e f o r c r u d e o i l
i n Germany FRG, OPEC o i l s a l e income, and c u r r e n t v s . c o n s t a n t US $ r a t e c a l c u -
lation. I m p a c t s o f c h a n g i n g US $ r a t e on t h e w o r l d o i l m a r k e t a r e a l s o d i s c u s -
sed b y WEFA (1988).

2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 1 . Import price for crude oil in Germany FRG

As a consequence o f o i l p r i c e d r o p and US $ r a t e c o l l a p s e , t h e i m p o r t p r i c e
of c r u d e o i l a t t h e Germany FRG b o u n d a r y w h i c h r e a c h e d i t s h i s t o r i c a l maximum
i n M a r c h 1985 w i t h 697 DM/t and had an a v e r a g e o f 622 DM/t i n 1985 f e l l v i a 493
O M / t i n J a n u a r y 1986 down t o t h e minimum o f 120 DM/t i n J u l y 1986 (REINICKE,
TRENEL, HERBST, KEMPGEN & LINZ 1988) and 178 D M / t i n A u g u s t 1986 (EROOL-ERDGAS-
KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1987 C , ERDUL UND KOHLE - ERDGAS - PETROCHEMIE 1987 b ) and
p r o b a b l y a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y e v e n f u r t h e r i n l a t e 1 9 8 7 / e a r l y 1988 when a n o t h e r
s l i g h t r e a l o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e c o i n c i d e d w i t h an e x t r e m e weakness o f t h e U S $ .
The minimum o f 178 O M / t i n A u g u s t 1986 r e p r e s e n t s a l e v e l t h a t f o r t h e l a s t
t i m e had been a c h i e v e d a t t h e end o f 1973 b e f o r e t h e o n s e t o f t h e OPEC-induced
p r i c e explosions.

The i m p o r t p r i c e o f c r u d e o i l as w e l l as t h e r e v e n u e s o f d o m e s t i c c r u d e o i l
t h u s were i n 1986 and 1987 more t h a n 60 % l o w e r t h a n i n 1985, w i t h t h e i m p r o v e -
ment o f t h e oil p r i c e l e v e l f r o m 1986 t o 1987 h a v i n g been d u r i n g m o s t o f t h e
t i m e more o r l e s s compensated b y a f u r t h e r weakening o f t h e US $ (EROOL UND KOH-
LE - ERDGAS - PETROCHEMIE 1988). I n 1987, t h e i m p o r t p r i c e f o r c r u d e o i l i n c r e a -
sed t o a b t . 220 - 260 DM/t (ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE 1988 a ) t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i r s t
h a l f o f t h e y e a r due t o t h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e a v e r a g e o i l p r i c e f r o m 8 - 1 2 US $
i n m i d 1986 t o 18 US $ i n l a t e 1986 and e a r l y 1987 ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . and
2 . 2 . 1 . 4 . 3 . 8 . ) , whereas t h e US $ k e p t b e i n g weak and had n o s t r e n g t h e n i n g i n -
f 1uence.

As a consequence o f t h e d i m i n i s h i n g s t r e n g t h o f t h e US $ i n l a t e r 1987, t h e
r e v e n u e f o r d o m e s t i c c r u d e o i l i n Germany FRG f e l l f r o m 200 - 220 DM/t o n ave-
r a g e i n 1986 and 1987 t o 140 D M / t i n l a t e 1 9 8 7 / e a r l y 1988. I n a s i m i l a r way,
t h e n e t o i l b i l l o f Germany FRG was more t h a n h a l v e d f r o m 64.5 B i l l . DM i n 1985
t o 30.8 B i l l . DM i n 1986 i n s p i t e o f i n c r e a s e d n e t o i l i m p o r t s (ERDOL-ERDGAS-
KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1987 c ) . I m p a c t s o f US $ weakness o n o i l p r i c e and e x p l o r a -
t i o n / d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t y a r e a l s o s k e t c h e d b y QUINLAN (1988).

2.2.1.3.2. OPEC oil sale income

As a consequence o f b o t h e n e r g y s a v i n g campaigns and o i l p r i c e d r o p , t h e t o -
t a l income o f t h e OPEC g r o u p f r o m s a l e o f t h e i r o i l f e l l down f r o m t h e # , 1 : ~ m u m
o f a b t . 280 B i l l . U S $ i n lp80/1981 t o a b t . 134 B i l l . U S $ i n 1985 and t o o n l y
a b t . 75 B i l l . US $ i n 1986 (ACGAR 1987 b; ERDOL-ERDGAS-KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1987
b , 1987 c; ERDOL UND KOHLE - ERDGAS - PETROCHEMIE 1987 d, HOLMES 1987). I n
t e r m s o f o i l volume, t h e d e c l i n i n g power o f t h e o i l m a r k e t f o l l o w i n g t h e second
o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n i n 1979 and t h e w o r l d p e t r o l e u m r e c e s s i o n w h i c h c u l m i n a t e d
i n t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h t r i g g e r e d a s t e a d y r e d u c t i o n o f t h e OPEC o i l e x p o r t
q u a n t i t y f r o m 11 B i l l . b b l i n 1979 t o o n l y 5 B i l l . b b l i n 1986 when t h e c a p a c i -
t y o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s had r e a c h e d such a l e v e l t h a t USSR/China e x p o r t e d 2 B i l l .
b b l and o t h e r non-OPEC n a t i o n s e x p o r t e d 3 B i l l . b b l o f o i l , t h e r e b y c u t t i n g o f f
c o n s i d e r a b l e b u s i n e s s f r o m t h e OPEC, and t h e r e s t was compensated b y e n e r g y c o n -
v e r s i o n and c o n s e r v a t i o n (IVANHOE 1988).
 123

The combined l o s s o f the OPEC group i n 1986 as a consequence o f t h e o i l

p r i c e c o l l a p s e exceeds 50 B i l l . US $ (AL-CHALABI 1987, McCANN 1988), and i n
1987, the OPEC o i l revenues have been again o n l y a b t . one q u a r t e r o f t h e peak
l e v e l o f 280 B i l l . US $ reached i n 1980/1981. The establishment o f t h e US $ 18
agreement p r i c e i n l a t e 1986 ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.1.2. and 2.2.1.4.3.8.) brought
the 1987 OPEC o i l s a l e revenue back t o a b t . 97 B i l l . US $ which i s a b t . t h e mid-
p o i n t o f the l e v e l s o f 1985 and 1986 (McCANN 1988). Some aspects o f o i l p r i c e
convention and defense, OPEC vs. non-OPEC production, and OPEC p r o d u c t i o n c e i -
l i n g and overhang c a p a c i t y are i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

2.2.1.3.2.1. Oil price convention and defense

I n l a t e 1986, t h e s i t u a t i o n was g r a d u a l l y s t a b i l i z i n g again t o an o i l p r i c e
niveau o f a b t . 18 US $ on average ( b e i n g t h e r e s u l t o f a r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e
OPEC group towards a consensus f o r c e d by t h e d r a s t i c a l c o l l a p s e o f t h e i r i n -
come; IBG 1986; ROBERTS 1986, 1987; ALGAR 1987 b, NARAGHI 1988; c f . s e c t i o n s
2.2.1.1.2. and 2.2.1.4.3.8.) which was s t i l l more o r less v a l i d i n mid 1987
( w i t h i n t h e range o f 15 - 22 US $ according t o s h o r t - t e r m f l u c t u a t i o n s o f t h e
r e a l value), w i t h again, however, t h i s nominal- terms l e v e l being as a conse-
quence o f US $ weakness and i n f l a t i o n i n r e a l terms e q u i v a l e n t t o o n l y a b t . 8 -
10 US $ i n 1972/1973 (MENGES 1986, OEHME 1986, RUNGE 1986). The 1986 revenues
o f t h e OPEC group amounted o n l y t o t h e i r 1973 l e v e l w i t h i n f l a t i o n assumed t o
be j u s t 6 % a n n u a l l y i n t h e i n t e r i m p e r i o d (OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987 f ) . These seve-
r a l abrupt p r i c e changes d u r i n g the l a s t 15 years have turned r e p e a t e d l y o i l
and general w o r l d economics o u t o f e q u i l i b r i u m (SCHAEFER & POWERS 1984, OEHME
1986). The d a i l y OPEC s a l e volume f e l l from 31 Mio. bbl i n 1979 b e f o r e t h e se-
cond o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n v i a 19 Mio. bbl i n 1982 t o 16 Mio. bbl and l e s s i n
1985 p r i o r t o the major o i l p r i c e crash (AL-CHARABI 1987; ERDUL UND KOHLE - ERD-
GAS - PETROCHEMIE 1987 c ) .

The OPEC p r i c e defence p o l i c y by s e t t i n g p r i c e s a t c e r t a i n l e v e l s below

which no member c o u n t r y s o l d i t s o i l and by l e a v i n g the p r o d u c t i o n niveau t o be
r e g u l a t e d by the market had t h e o n l y drawback t h a t t h e p r i c e s were s e t a t such
h i g h l e v e l s t h a t the r e s u l t s became s e l f - d e f e a t i n g by d r a s t i c a l drop o f demand
f o r o i l i n general and i n c r e a s i n g s u p p l i e s o f o i l o u t s i d e t h e OPEC, r e s u l t i n g
i n a d e c l i n e o f the OPEC w o r l d o i l supply share from abt. 70 % i n 1980/1981 t o
l e s s than 40 % i n 1985/1986 (AL-CHARABI 1987). Between 1975 and 1985, some 10
Mio. b b l / d o f a d d i t i o n a l supplies from the non-OPEC producing r e g i o n were added
t o non-Communist output, and some 7 Mio. b b l / d were l o s t i n non-Communist w o r l d
demand as a consequence o f energy conservation and f u e l s u b s t i t u t i o n .

2.2.1.3.2.2. OPEC vs . non-OPEC product ion

The tremendous l o s s i n OPEC o i l revenues as a r e s u l t o f s l o w l y f a l l i n g p r i -
ces i n the p e r i o d 1981 - 1985 and the o i l p r i c e drop i n 1986 i s h i g h l i g h t e d by
comparing OPEC and non-OPEC p r o d u c t i o n (PETROLEUM REVIEW 1988 a ) . The e v o l u t i o n
o f OPEC t o non-OPEC (non-Communist world) o u t p u t passed from 30 - 31 t o 14 - 15
Mio b b l / d i n 1973 through 1977 v i a 31 t o 17.5 i n 1979, 22.5 t o 18.8 i n 1981 and
18.9 t o 20.1 i n 1981 t o 15.4 t o 23.1 i n 1985 (McCANN 1988), w i t h thus t h e r e l a -
t i o n s h i p having been f o r t h e f i r s t time already reversed i n 1981 and having rea-
ched a s i g n i f i c a n t d i s e q u i l i b r i u m f o r the OPEC i n 1985. OPEC share i n w o r l d
energy dropped from one t h i r d i n 1973 t o abt. 10 % i n 1987 (SCANLON 1988). Thus
by m a i n t a i n i n g h i g h p r i c e s , OPEC has a t the bottom o f t h e l i n e p r i c e d i t s e l f
o u t o f the market and was c o n t i n u o u s l y l o s i n g market share (PETROLEUM R E V I E W
1988 c ) .

I n 1987 and 1988, as a consequence o f i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r the reason o f l o -

wer p r i c e s , OPEC p r o d u c t i o n climbed again t o a b t . 18 - 20 Mio. b b l / d (OIL GAS
JOURNAL 1988 d, VIELVOYE 1988 b ) a f t e r having reached a r e c o r d minimum o f 13.4
Mio. b b l / d i n e a r l y 1987 (ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1987 d) and having
 124

amounted t o 14 - 18 Mio. b b l / d i n t h e p e r i o d 1983 - 1986 (ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL

1984). On t h e o t h e r hand, non-OPEC o u t p u t i n 1986 t h r o u g h 1988 s t a y e d more o r
l e s s c o n s t a n t a t 22.5 - 22.6 Mio. b b l / d , w i t h t h e s t a g n a n t s i t u a t i o n even a l r e a -
dy s l i g h t l y p o i n t i n g downwards (McCANN 1988). Thus w h i l e i n 1973 OPEC and non-
OPEC counted f o r 67.5 % and 32.5 % o f t o t a l non-Communist w o r l d o i l p r o d u c t i o n ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e r a t i o had c o m p l e t e l y t u r n e d around i n 1986 w i t h non-OPEC ac-
c o u n t i n g f o r o v e r h a l f o f t o t a l non-Communist w o r l d o i l p r o d u c t i o n w i t h 55.2 %
and OPEC d e l i v e r i n g t h e balance o r t h e r e s i d u e o f 44.8 %.

2.2.1.3.2.3. OPEC product i o n c e i 1ins and overhang capacity

The average agreed p r o d u c t i o n c e i l i n g o f t h e OPEC group i n t h e l a s t y e a r s
was i n t h e range o f 15 - 1 7 Mio. b b l / d , w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e a c t u a l t o t a l o u t -
p u t o f up t o 3 Mio. b b l / d b e i n g c o n t r i b u t e d by u n c o n t r o l l e d and v i o l a t e d o v e r -
p r o d u c t i o n o f some member c o u n t r i e s which f o r v a r i o u s reasons d i d n o t observe
t h e i r quotas (PETROLEUM R E V I E W 1987 a ) . The average p r o d u c t i o n c e i l i n g o f a b t .
16.5 - 1 7 . 0 Mio. b b l / d i s more o r l e s s matching domestic o i l consumption i n t h e
USA (BECK 1987) which can o n l y be covered by a b t . 50 % by own p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h
t h e second h a l f o f i t h a v i n g t o be i m p o r t e d (CROUSE 1987). The a b t . 8.5 Mio.
b b l / d i m p o r t and domestic p r o d u c t i o n volume o f t h e USA, r e s p e c t i v e l y , again i s
e q u i v a l e n t t o a b t . two t h i r d s o f t o t a l USSR domestic o u t p u t ( c f . s e c t i o n
2 . 4 . 4 . 1 . ) . The USA i s t h e b i g g e s t o i l i m p o r t e r o f t h e w o r l d , whereas t h e USSR
i s t h e l a r g e s t producer and t h e g r e a t e s t non-OPEC e x p o r t e r (PETROLEUM R E V I E W
1987 a ) .

The c u r r e n t overhang p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y o f t h e OPEC i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e

f a c t t h a t an annual o u t p u t p o t e n t i a l o f 1 . 5 B i l l . t i s p o s s i b l e , b u t a t p r e s e n t
o n l y 800 - 900 Mio t a r e produced p e r y e a r (LUBBEN & LEINER 1988). Annual OPEC
o u t p u t r o s e f r o m a b t . 440 Mio. t i n 1960 c o n t i n u o u s l y up t o 1 . 5 B i l l . t i n
1973, w i t h t h i s l e v e l h a v i n g been k e p t more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t u n t i l 1979 when a
gradual s l i d e s t a r t e d t h a t b r o u g h t annual OPEC p r o d u c t i o n down t o 800 M i o . t i n
t h e l a s t y e a r s . On t h e o t h e r hand, non-OPEC o u t p u t was a b t . 600 Mio. t i n 1966
and s i n c e t h a t y e a r i n c r e a s e d up t o 2 B i l l . t which was reached some y e a r s ago,
w i t h t h i s l e v e l h a v i n g so f a r been k e p t c o n s t a n t o r a l r e a d y s l i g h t l y d e c l i n i n g ,
because i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e OPEC, t h e non-OPEC c o u n t r i e s do n o t have any o v e r -
hang c a p a c i t y , b u t i n s t e a d of t h i s have a l r e a d y reached t h e maximum l i m i t and
t h e i n e v i t a b l e d e c l i n e b e g i n s as a consequence of f a s t e r consumption t h a n r e s e r -
ve a d d i t i o n b y new d i s c o v e r i e s . T o t a l w o r l d annual o i l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e l a s t
y e a r s amounted t o 2.8 - 3.0 B i l l . t (ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL 1982, ERDTJL- ERDGAS-
KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1987 e ) . OPEC annual o i l e x p o r t i n 1974 t h r o u g h 1979 reached
1.45 B i l l . t, and due t o t h e p r i c e e x p l o s i o n s , t h e income was doubled f r o m 91
B i l l . US $ i n 1974 t o 199 B i l l . US $ i n 1979 (ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL 1980 a ) .

2.2.1.3.3. Current vs. constant US f r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n

YU (1988) g i v e s an o u t l i n e o f t h e impact o f US $ exchange r a t e v a r i a t i o n s on
o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n by examining t h e development o f o i l p r i c e s as p a i d i n l o c a l
c u r r e n c i e s . The r i s e and f a l l o f o i l p r i c e s in r e c e n t y e a r s has been d r a m a t i c a l
enough based on t h e US $, b u t w i t h t h e f l u c t u a t i n g exchange r a t e o f t h e w o r l d
t r a d e base c u r r e n c y , o i l p r i c e a l t e r a t i o n s a r e even more s t a r t l i n g when conver-
t e d i n t o t h e l o c a l c u r r e n c i e s as p a i d by t h e o i l i m p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s . From l a t e
1980 t o e a r l y 1985, t h e average exchange r a t e o f t h e US $ i n c r e a s e d by a l m o s t
60 % . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s , a l t h o u g h t h e w o r l d crude o i l p r i c e i n t h e same pe-
r i o d d e c l i n e d f r o m i t s peak o f US $ 45 o r more t o US $ 30 ( r e p r e s e n t i n g a d r o p
o f 33 % i n c u r r e n t d o l l a r s o r 47 % i n 1980 c o n s t a n t d o l l a r s ) , t h e average p r i c e
drop m a r g i n c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e n e t i m p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s 1980 l o c a l c u r r e n c i e s was
c o n s i s t e n t l y much s m a l l e r t h a n t h e former, and i n 1984, t h e r e was even a r i s e .
I n a d d i t i o n , i n Western Europe which i s t h e w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t o i l i m p o r t i n g mar-
k e t w i t h a 38 % share o f t o t a l w o r l d o i l i m p o r t s , t h e average p r i c e o f impor-
t e d o i l i n terms of l o c a l 1980 c u r r e n c i e s even r o s e f r o m e a r l y 1983 and reached
 125

i t s c l i m a x by l a t e 1984 when i t was 67 % h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e USA.

Consequently, t h e e f f e c t o f p r i c e drop i n US $ d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d was sub-

s t a n t i a l l y weakened i n s t i m u l a t i n g w o r l d o i l demand and c o n t a i n i n g h i g h - c o s t
o i l p r o d u c t i o n , energy c o n s e r v a t i o n and o i l s u b s t i t u t i o n . Since e a r l y 1985, t h e
average US $ exchange r a t e dropped t o a l e v e l i n l a t e 1986 b e i n g 28 % below
t h a t o f e a r l y 1985. T h i s d e c l i n e made t h e margin o f t h e p r i c e f a l l i n c o n s t a n t
l o c a l currencies o f o i l - i m p o r t i n g countries l a r g e r than t h a t c a l c u l a t e d i n cur-
r e n t and c o n s t a n t US $ and narrowed t h e gap between them. I n l a t e 1986, t h e ac-
t u a l w o r l d o i l p r i c e was 67 % l o w e r than i t s peak i n l a t e 1980. I n 1987, t h e
weakening o f t h e US $ continued, w i t h t h e US $ 18 o i l p r i c e i n l a t e 1986 s u f f e r -
i n g a f u r t h e r d r o p by 20 % due t o exchange r a t e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n 1987. A f t e r r e a -
c h i n g i t s h i s t o r i c a l minimum i n l a t e 1987 f o l l o w i n g a v a l u e d i m i n u t i o n o f a b t .
40 - 50 % w i t h i n two y e a r s , t h e US $ exchange r a t e s l i g h t l y improved i n m i d
1988 by a b t . 20 - 25 % which b r o u g h t t h e s t i l l v a l i d o f f i c i a l US $ 18 o i l mar-
k e r p r i c e a l i t t l e back t o i t s r e a l i t y a l s o i n terms o f o t h e r c u r r e n c i e s . I n
l a t e 1988, however, a n o t h e r downwards t r e n d had a l r e a d y a g a i n p a r t i a l l y compen-
s a t e d t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e m i d 1988 r e c o v e r y o f t h e US $, and a l s o t h e o i l p r i c e
was on a renewed downwards movement c o n s i d e r a b l y below t h e s t i l l v a l i d o f f i c i a l
marker p r i c e .

2.2.1.4. Possible future consequences

of the 1986 oil price collapse
The most i m p o r t a n t f u t u r e consequences o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e ( c f .
s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.2.) and t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y which i t c r e a -
t e d ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 2.4.2.) and t h a t s t i l l had c o n s i d e r a b l e impact on p l a n -
n i n g and o p e r a t i n g d u r i n g 1987 and 1988 a r e d e c l i n i n g r e s e r v e s due t o suspen-
s i o n and c a n c e l l a t i o n o f e x p l o r a t i o n and development, r e g a i n i n g power o f t h e
OPEC, o i l p r i c e i n s t a b i l i t y and m a r k e t u n c e r t a i n t y , and energy s u p p l y d i v e r s i f i -
cation effects.

2.2.1.4.1. Declining reserves due to suspension

of exploration and development
The g r e a t e s t danger o f t h e 1986 m a j o r o i l p r i c e drop and t h e r e s u l t i n g uncer-
t a i n t y and f r i g h t e n i n g o f t h e m a r k e t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y suspension o f much o f t h e
e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g a c t i v i t y as w e l l as s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s
( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 2.4.2. and 2 . 3 . ) i n many p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . A l t h o u g h t h e
o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e w i l l n o t depress N o r t h Sea p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s i n t h e s h o r t
t e r m due t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y low o p e r a t i n g c o s t o f most f i e l d s p ? r t i c u l a r l y a t
f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n o f c a p a c i t y , i t w i l l r e s u l t i n postponement and r e s t r u c t u r i n g
o f new p r o j e c t s , because a t t h e c u r r e n t o i l p r i c e l e v e l , a l l o f t h e d i s c o v e r i e s
coming up f o r development a r e e i t h e r j u s t m a r g i n a l l y economical o r even n o t eco-
nomical a t a l l a t l e a s t i n t h e B r i t i s h s e c t o r (BEUDELL 1986 c ) . Emphasis i n t h e
t r a n s i t i o n a l stage w i l l t h e r e f o r e be on r e t a r d e d development i n c l u d i n g p a r t i a l
e x p l o i t a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r s t h r o u g h fewer w e l l s . Some aspects o f p r o d u c t i o n de-
c l i n e exceeding r e s e r v e a d d i t i o n , o i l demand vs. s u p p l y i n t h e n e x t decades as
w e l l as i n f l u e n c e o f p o l i t i c a l systems and f i n a n c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e d i s c u s -
sed as f o l l o w s .

2.2.1.4.1.1. Production decline exceeding reserve addition

C o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t s a r e e s p e c i a l l y v i s i b l e i n t h e USA where e x p l o r a t i o n
d r i l l i n g has dropped c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h (HOLMES
1987; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 2 . ) . The USA has always o p e r a t e d on a low r e s e r v e ba-
s i s which has been p o s s i b l e i n r e c e n t y e a r s because o f a h i g h l e v e l o f e x p l o r a -
t i o n a c t i v i t y t h a t has tended more o r l e s s t o r e p l a c e t h e produced o i l . W i t h
 126

s u c h a l o w amount o f a c t i v i t y as i n 1986 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 2 . ) and w i t h t h e se-

v e r e d e n t i n c o n f i d e n c e in t h e i n d u s t r y i n t h a t c o u n t r y , however, i t w i l l be
d i f f i c u l t t o regenerate e x p l o r a t i o n a c t i v i t y a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y high l e v e l t o
s t e m p r o d u c t i o n d e c l i n e t h a t has been p r e d i c t e d and i s i n e v i t a b l e , b u t h a s been
a c c e l e r a t e d b y s e v e r a l y e a r s b y t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e . Assuming a s l i g h t
t o m o d e r a t e o i l p r i c e r i s e , many non-OPEC c o u n t r i e s w i l l seek t o e n c o u r a g e o i l
e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n f o r r e a s o n s o f s u p p l y s e c u r i t y , payment b a l a n c e , f o -
r e i g n exchange, and l o c a l employment a l m o s t i r r e s p e c t i v e o f p r i c e l e v e l .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e a d d i t i o n a l o i l w h i c h c a n b e e x p e c t e d i s l i k e l y t o b e more
t h a n o u t w e i g h e d b y t h e r e d u c t i o n o f o u t p u t i n USA and G r e a t B r i t a i n (PETROLEUM
ENGINEER 1988 c ) where p r o d u c t i o n h a s a l r e a d y peaked and i s i n e v i t a b l y g o i n g
down. T h i s w i l l r e s u l t i n g r o w i n g dependence on i m p o r t e d oil i n a number o f k e y
i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s . The l o w o i l p r i c e i n 1986 p a r t i c u l a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d t h a t
c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e o n o i l p r o j e c t s i s s e n s i t i v e t o a d e q u a t e c a s h f l o w and
p r i c e p r o s p e c t s . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a d d i t i o n a l e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l f o r
p r e v e n t i o n o f a n o t h e r o i l c r i s i s i s a l s o u n d e r l i n e d b y LORBACH ( 1 9 8 8 b ) , and
t h e d i s c r e p a n c y between much o i l and n o t enough e x p l o r a t i o n i s i l l u m i n a t e d b y
STAHMER ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

Oil demand vs. supply in the next decades

2.2.1.4.1.2.
As o i l w i l l d e f i n i t e l y r e m a i n t o b e t h e l e a d i n g p r i m a r y e n e r g y s o u r c e w i t h i n
t h e n e x t y e a r s ( p r o b a b l y e v e n beyond t h e y e a r 2000) d e s p i t e a s l o w d e c l i n e i n
r e l a t i v e m a r k e t s h a r e due t o s u b s t i t u t i o n b y gas and n u c l e a r power (LINDEN
1985, FEHRINGER 1986, OEHME 1986, SCHMIDT 1 9 8 7 ) , n e g l e c t a n c e o f e x t e n s i o n o f
e x i s t i n g c a p a c i t i e s due t o e c o n o m i c a l f o r c e s combined w i t h l a c k o f e n c o u r a g e -
ment and m i s s i n g o p t i m i s t i c o u t l o o k , and t h e r e s u l t i n g c u r t a i l m e n t o f e x p l o r a -
t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s f o r a c o u p l e o f y e a r s ( c f . a l s o HOLBROOK 1987,
RENSBURG & MALIK 1987, SCHAEFER & POWERS 1987, WOODS 1987) c o u l d mean t h a t w i t h -
i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e when more and more c u r r e n t l y p r o d u c t i v e w e l l s and f i e l d s be-
come e x h a u s t e d , n o t enough new r e s e r v e s m i g h t be i m m e d i a t e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r e x -
p l o i t a t i o n and t h e g l o b a l e n e r g y s u p p l y w i l l d e c r e a s e ( a n a n a l y s i s o f s u p p l y
and demand f o r o i l and gas and a s t u d y o f t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f t h e i n d u s t r y i s p e r -
f o r m e d b y SWEENEY & WYANT 1980, SCHLESINGER 1982, ECK 1983, H I L L 1983, PICKENS
1983 and CECIL 1 9 8 7 ) . A s p e c t s o f o i l p r i c e c r i s e s and s u p p l y s e c u r i t y a r e a l s o
d i s c u s s e d b y BAUER ( 1 9 8 1 ) , and a p r o g n o s i s o f w o r l d e n e r g y demand i s g i v e n b y
WESTERHAUSEN ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

T o t a l w o r l d e n e r g y demand, however, w i l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e u n t i l t h e
y e a r 2000 p r e d o m i n a n t l y due t o r i s i n g c o n s u m p t i o n i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s
b y a d j u s t m e n t o f l i v i n g s t a n d a r d and i n d u s t r i a l g r o w t h (HULTIN 1983, LINDEN
1985, DOUGHERTY & AL-BLEHED 1987, OSMAN 1987, SCHMIDT 1 9 8 7 ) , whereas i n t h e
h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , demand w i l l o n l y more o r l e s s f l u c t u a t e a r o u n d
i t s p r e s e n t l e v e l due t o s t i l l i n c r e a s i n g e f f e c t i v i t y o f e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n ,
p r o c e s s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , o i l s u b s t i t u t i o n c h i e f l y b y g a s and o n l y s l i g h t i n d u -
s t r i a l g r o w t h t o s t a g n a t i o n o r e v e n some s h r i n k a g e due t o p r o g r e s s i v e m a r k e t sa-
t u r a t i o n i n many s e c t o r s and b r a n c h e s ( I B G 1 9 8 6 ) .

2.2.1.4.1.3.Influence o f political systems

and financial relationships
U n l e s s t h e g e n e r a l demand w i l l be r e d u c e d b y a m a j o r e c o n o m i c a l r e c e s s i o n i n
t h e n e a r f u t u r e (OFFSHORE O I L INTERNATIONAL 1 9 8 8 ) , t h e d e l a y e d e x p l o r a t i o n o f
new r e s e r v e s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 2 . ) c o u l d r e s u l t i n an e s t a b l i s h e d s h o r -
t a g e i n t h e coming y e a r s . P r o g n o s i s i s g i v e n t h a t f o l l o w i n g t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e
crash ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.2.), o i l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h Sea w i l l r e -
m a i n s t e a d y f o r a b o u t a n o t h e r y e a r and b e g i n f a l l i n g a f t e r t h a t u n l e s s d e l a y e d
p r o j e c t s a r e r e v i v e d , whereas i n t h e N o r w e g i a n N o r t h Sea, new f i e l d s a r e a b l e
t o b o o s t p r o d u c t i o n u n l e s s t h e government c o n t i n u e s t o l i m i t e x p o r t s ( O I L GAS
 127

JOURNAL 1986). O i l o u t p u t d e c l i n e i n t h e USA w i l l g a i n speed i n 1987 due t o mo-

r i b u n d d r i l l i n g i n 1986, whereas t h e USSR by c o n t r a s t stepped up d r i l l i n g i n
1986 i n i t s e f f o r t s t o r a p i d l y r e p l a c e m a t u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n i n p r o g r e s s i v e l y de-
p l e t e d f i e l d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.4.). R i s k , s t o p p i n g r u l e s and economical v i a b i l i -
t y o f e x p l o r a t i o n d r i l l i n g programs a r e d i s c u s s e d by R A N K I N (1982), and JAMISON
(1984) analyzes f u t u r e p e t r o l e u m e x p l o r a t i o n i n t h e USA. NEAL & REED (1981) com-
ment on t h e i m p a c t o f t a x e s on e x p l o r a t i o n economics and t h u s f e a s i b i l i t y o f
d i s c o v e r y o f a d d i t i o n a l hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s . Economical aspects o f t h e low o i l
p r i c e s c e n a r i o a r e a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d by FLATH (1987). GLASNER (1985) d i s c u s s e s
t h e dependency o f o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n f r o m p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e s .

The consequences o f t h e o i l p r i c e h i s t o r y on demand and s u p p l y a r e summari-

zed by YU ( 1 9 8 8 ) . The l o w o i l p r i c e i n t h e f i r s t t w e n t y - f i v e post-Second World
War y e a r s had t r i g g e r e d t h e r a p i d growth o f w o r l d o i l demand and t h e c o n v e r s i o n
o f w o r l d energy consumption s t r u c t u r e f r o m c o a l t o petroleum. The d r a s t i c a l es-
c a l a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d o i l p r i c e d u r i n g t h e 1970's and e a r l y 1980's ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.1.1.) had b r o u g h t about a d e c l i n e o f demand and t h e p r e s e n t o i l g l u t . Un-
f o r t u n a t e l y i n t h e m i d 1970's and e a r l y 1980's, almost t h e whole w o r l d i g n o r e d
t h e impact which t h e d r a s t i c a l e s c a l a t i o n o f o i l p r i c e s had upon energy demand
and supply, and f a i l e d t o f o r e s e e t h e subsequent o i l g l u t and p r i c e f a l l . There-
f o r e t h e meaning o f t h e p r e s e n t low l e v e l o f o i l p r i c e s i n t h e f u t u r e i n terms
o f demand and s u p p l y and t h e p r i c e o f o i l i s a problem which c a l l s f o r c l o s e
watch and s e r i o u s study.

2.2.1.4.2. Regaining power o f the OPEC

The e v o l u t i o n as sketched above w i l l a t l e a s t i n n some areas sooner o r l a -
t e r enable t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f Petroleum E x p o r t i n g C o u n t r i e s (OPEC) t o a c q u i r e
again a c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r o i l m a r k e t share t h a n be o r e ( w h i c h i s t h e n i g h t -
mare o f a l l non-OPEC c o u n t r i e s ) , w i t h t h e f i r s t s l i g h t renewed market e x t e n s i o n
a l r e a d y h a v i n g been achieved i n l a t e 1 9 8 6 / e a r l y 1987 (OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1986 d,
ALGAR 1987 b, ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1987 b, OIL DAILY 1988 a ) , w i t h
market f a c t o r s moving i n OPEC's f a v o u r as demand r i s e s . I n 1987/1988, w o r l d o i l
r e q u i r e m e n t has a l r e a d y i n c r e a s e d by a b t . 1 . 8 Mio. b b l / d s i n c e 1985, r e s u l t i n g
i n a 1.6 Mio. b b l / d o r 10 % i n c r e a s e i n demand f o r OPEC o i l (PETROLEUM REVIEW
1988 c ) . W i t h t h e assumption o f 1.5 % annual i n c r e a s e i n w o r l d o i l r e q u i r e m e n t
and non-OPEC o i l s u p p l y r e m a i n i n g more o r l e s s a t t h e c u r r e n t l e v e l , t h e demand
f o r OPEC o i l w i l l remain below 20 Mio. b b l / d i n t h e near f u t u r e , b u t i n t h e se-
cond h a l f o f t h e 1990's, i t w i l l r e a c h c l o s e t o 27 M i o . b b l / d which i s near t h e
maximum OPEC p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y , w i t h t h i s l o n g - t e r m t r e n d , however, n o t r e -
s p e c t i n g sharp s h o r t - t e r m f l u c t u a t i o n s i n demand.

H i s t o r i c a l l y , demand f o r OPEC o i l has f l u c t u a t e d by more than 1 Mio. b b l / d

on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e average annual demand, and p a r t i c u l a r l y these f l u c t u a -
t i o n s have c r e a t e d problems f o r o i l market s t a b i l i t y . The r e g a i n i n g power o f
t h e OPEC i n t h e f u t u r e i s d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s along t h e l i n e s o f e v o l u t i o n o f
w o r l d o i l p r o d u c t i o n and demand, symmetrical boom-crash-boom c y c l e , r e s e r v e
l i f e and o i l demand i n c r e a s e ; netback p r i c i n g , swing p r o d u c t i o n and market
share r e c a p t u r i n g ; o i l r e s e r v e d i s t r i b u t i o n and OPEC c a p a c i t y u t i l i z a t i o n , imba-
l a n c e between o i l r e s e r v e s and consumption, and i n c r e a s i n g o i l demand exceeding
c r i t i c a l OPEC o u t p u t r a t e .

2.2.1.4.2.1. Evolution o f world oil production and demand

The dependency o f t h e w o r l d f r o m OPEC o i l i n t h e f u t u r e i s a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d
by p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y and r e s e r v o i r d u r a t i o n i n OPEC and non-OPEC groups (LOB-
BEN & LEINER 1988). OPEC annual p r o d u c t i o n r o s e f r o m 440 Mio. t i n 1960 c o n t i -
n u o u s l y t o 1 . 5 B i l l . t i n 1973 ( r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f u l l o u t p u t c a p a c i t y o f t h e
a s s o c i a t i o n ) which was k e p t u n t i l 1979, b u t l a t e r d e c l i n i n g demand b r o u g h t t h e
annual OPEC p r o d u c t i o n down t o 800 - 900 Mio. t i n t h e l a s t y e a r s . I n c o n t r a s t
 128

t o t h i s , non-OPEC a n n u a l o u t p u t c l i m b e d f r o m 600 M i o . t i n 1966 u p t o 2 B i l l . t

i n r e c e n t y e a r s w h i c h means r e a c h i n g o f t h e u p p e r l i m i t o f t h e w i t h d r a w a l p o t e n -
t i a l w i t h n o o v e r h a n g c a p a c i t y b e i n g l e f t , whereas t h e OPEC g r o u p has a t t h e mo-
ment a b t . 35 - 45 % o v e r h a n g p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) .
As w o r l d o i l r e s e r v e s a r e c u r r e n t l y e s t i m a t e d as b e i n g a b t . 120 B i l l . t o r
1,750 B i l l . b b l ( w i t h t h e s e r e s e r v e s b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d b y 59 % t o OPEC, 27 % t o
non-OPEC non-communist and 14 % t o communist c o u n t r i e s ; PETROLEUM R E V I E W 1987
a ) , based on p r e s e n t p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l s o f 2 B i l l . t o f t h e non-OPEC g r o u p and
900 M i o . t o f t h e OPEC c a r t e l , t h e t o t a l w o r l d r e s e r v e s w o u l d r e a c h a b t . 42
y e a r s i f c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t o t a l w o r l d w i t h d r a w a l o f 2.9 B i l l . t (ERDOEL-ERDGAS
AKTUELL 1982, ERDDL-ERDGAS- KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1987 e ) . The peak o f w o r l d o i l
p r o d u c t i o n has been r e a c h e d i n 1979 and 1980 w i t h a b t . 3.1 - 3.2 B i l l . t (ERO-
OEL-EROGAS AKTUELL 1 9 8 1 a ) . The b o u n d a r y o f 3 B i l l . t a n n u a l w o r l d o i l p r o d u c -
t i o n was exceeded f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n 1977, w i t h i n t h i s y e a r t h r e e c o u n t r i e s
c o n t r i b u t i n g h a l f o f t h e d e l i v e r y i n c l u d i n g USSR w i t h a b t . 550 M i o . t ( c f . sec-
t i o n 2.4.4.), USA w i t h a b t . 460 M i o . t and Saudi A r a b i a w i t h a b t . 450 M i o . t
(EROOEL-EROGAS AKTUELL 1978 b ) .

C u r r e n t w o r l d d a i l y o i l o u t p u t i s a b t . 53.6 - 5 5 . 1 M i o . b b l , o f w h i c h OPEC
a s s o c i a t i o n c o n t r i b u t e s 15.7 - 1 7 . 5 , non-OPEC non-communist g r o u p 2 2 . 4 - 22.7,
and communist b l o c k 1 5 . 0 - 1 7 . 5 . M i o . b b l (BECK 1 9 8 7 ) . D a i l y p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e
USSR w i t h 1 2 . 1 - 12.6 M i o . b b l ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . ) c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y w i t h t h a t
o f t h e USA o f 8 . 3 - 9 . 1 M i o . b b l and t h e t o t a l demand o f t h e USA o f 1 6 . 2 - 1 6 . 5
M i o . b b l , w i t h i m p o r t t h u s a c c o u n t i n g f o r a b t . 50 % o f t h e USA o i l demand
(MOORE ( 1 9 8 8 d ) . I f e v a l u a t i n g s e p a r a t e l y w i t h OPEC and non-OPEC p r o d u c t i o n
quantities, non-OPEC r e s e r v e s w o u l d l a s t o n l y s t i l l 15 y e a r s , whereas t h e OPEC
p o t e n t i a l i s s t i l l s p a n n i n g a b t . 100 y e a r s . Due t o d e c l i n i n g o u t p u t i n t h e non-
OPEC w o r l d , demand o f OPEC o i l c a n be e x p e c t e d t o r i s e t o a b t . 1 . 3 B i l l . t i n
t h e m i d t o l a t e 1990's w h i c h w o u l d m o s t p r o b a b l y have t h e consequence o f an o i l
p r i c e i n c r e a s e t o a b t . US $ 20 - 30. E s t i m a t i o n s o f f u t u r e o i l demand a r e a l s o
g i v e n b y LORBACH ( 1 9 8 8 a ) , and t e c h n i c a l and p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s o f p r e v e n t i o n o f
a n o t h e r o i l p r i c e c r i s i s a r e d i s c u s s e d b y LORBACH ( 1 9 8 8 b ) . W o r l d o i l r e s e r v e s
and demand a r e e v a l u a t e d b y LORBACH ( 1 9 8 0 ) and WESTERHAUSEN ( 1 9 8 0 ) . S I N O R
( 1 9 8 6 ) i n v e s t i g a t e s l o n g - t e r m c y c l e s and p r e d i c t i o n o f p e t r o l e u m demand.

2.2.1.4.2.2. Symnetr ical boom-crash-boom cycle

When t h e r e f o r e a t some t i m e i n t h e f u t u r e t h e w o r l d i s a g a i n f a c i n g a n a t u -
r a l o r a r t i f i c i a l o i l s h o r t a g e (MINERALOLWIRTSCHAFT 1983) o r a s p e c i a l demand/
s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n i s a t l e a s t a p p a r e n t l y g e n e r a t e d due t o t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e
n a t u r a l m a r k e t mechanisms i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h d i r e c t e d changes o r i n d e p e n d e n t l y
f r o m e x t e r n a l d i s t u r b a n c e s (OEHME 1 9 8 6 ) , p r i c e s c o u l d be e x p e c t e d t o r i s e a g a i n
d r a m a t i c a l l y i n a s i m i l a r way as a l r e a d y happened l e s s t h e n f i f t e e n y e a r s ago,
w i t h t h e n a f u l l s y m m e t r i c a l c y c l e o f o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n c o m p r i s i n g boom,
c r a s h and renewed b u r s t h a v i n g been c o m p l e t e d (GRIFFITHS 1 9 8 6 ) . I n t e r m s o f mar-
ket forces, i n t h e n e x t few y e a r s a l r e a d y pressure i s expected t o b u i l d up on
o i l p r i c e s (PETROLEUM REVIEW 1988 c ) .

Temporarily a t l e a s t balancing o f t h e market by o u t p u t adjustment can pre-

v e n t a n o t h e r o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e . The f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 1990's s h o u l d w i t n e s s a
more o r l e s s s t a b l e o i l m a r k e t w i t h o u t , however, r e t u r n i n g t o f i x e d and r i g i d
p r i c e s . Towards t h e second h a l f o f t h e 199O's, t i g h t e n i n g o f s u p p l y and demand
b a l a n c e s a r e p r e d i c t e d t o c u l m i n a t e i n an upwards p r e s s u r e on o i l p r i c e s . W h i l e
t h e a v e r a g e a n n u a l demand f o r OPEC o i l s t i l l r e m a i n s w i t h i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n capa-
c i t y , t h e s h o r t - t e r m demand f l u c t u a t i o n s w i l l i n e v i t a b l y r e s u l t i n s h o r t a g e s
w h i c h may l e a d t o a n o t h e r v e r y s h a r p i n c r e a s e i n o i l p r i c e .
 129

2.2.1.4.2.3. Reserve life and oil demand increase

I n view o f t h e d r a s t i c a l changes o f t h e OPEC o i l e x p o r t volume f r o m 11 B i l l .
b b l i n 1979 t o o n l y 5 B i l l . b b l i n 1986, t h e c r i t i c a l l e v e l a t which t h e OPEC
can be expected t o be back i n t h e l e a d i n g p o s i t i o n f o r g l o b a l o i l p r i c i n g i s
a b t . 7.3 B i l l . b b l p e r y e a r w h i c h corresponds t o a b t . 20 Mio. b b l / d , because a t
t h i s volume OPEC i s supposed t o be a b l e t o m a i n t a i n p r i c e d i s c i p l i n e w i t h i n i t s
r a n k s . I n m i d t o l a t e 1988, OPEC p r o d u c t i o n was s t i l l a b t . 15 % below t h i s c r i -
t i c a l e x p o r t l e v e l , and s t i l l s l i g h t l y d i m i n i s h i n g demand does a t t h e moment
n o t p r o v i d e any t h r e a t t h a t t h e m a r k e t c o u l d t u r n around soon a g a i n . As i t can
be e s t i m a t e d , however, t h a t none o f t h e non-OPEC c o u n t r i e s e x c e p t o f Norway and
Mexico (and c e r t a i n l y USSR and China) have o i l r e s e r v e s l a s t i n g beyond t h e y e a r
2000 and i n l i g h t o f t h e d i m i n i s h i n g g l o b a l o i l d i s c o v e r y r a t e s i n c e a l r e a d y
1965, i t i s o n l y a q u e s t i o n o f t i m e when OPEC w i l l be a g a i n i n a s t r o n g p o s i -
t i o n , because t h i s area o f t h e w o r l d i s t h e o n l y one where s t i l l new g i a n t o i l
f i e l d s a r e discovered, whereas i n non-OPEC n a t i o n s new d i s c o v e r i e s a r e no l o n -
g e r keeping up w i t h p r o d u c t i o n .

The overhang o f o i l o v e r s u p p l y a t t h e moment i s h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t

due t o quota agreements w i t h i n t h e group i n o r d e r t o s t a b i l i z e and defend t h e
o i l p r i c e l e v e l , OPEC i s l i m i t e d t o produce a b t . 15 - 18 Mio. b b l / d w h i c h i s
a b t . h a l f o f t h e a c t u a l o u t p u t c a p a c i t y (AL-CHALABI 1987) and a b t . h a l f o f t h e
r e a l p r o d u c t i o n volume i n 1973 - 1979 ( 2 8 - 32 Mio. b b l / d ; HOLMES 1987). W i t h
d e c l i n i n g o u t p u t i n non-OPEC c o u n t r i e s w i t h i n t h e n e x t years, t h e annual i n -
crease i n demand f o r OPEC o i l i s e s t i m a t e d t o be a b t . 1 Mio. b b l / d i n t h e near
f u t u r e (HOLMES 1987).

The c u r r e n t o i l p r i c e l e v e l does no l o n g e r s u f f i c i e n t l y c o v e r t h e i n c r e a s i n g
e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s , and t h e tendency w i l l be t h a t t h e o i l p r i c e
w i l l r i s e t h e f a s t e r , t h e l o n g e r t h e p r e s e n t unequal expense s i t u a t i o n i s l a s t -
i n g (OEHME 1986). P r e d i c t i o n s o f f u t u r e o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n a r e a l s o made by SE-
KERA (1986) and THOMPSON & SINGLETON ( 1 9 8 8 ) . G e o p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f
M i d d l e E a s t o i l a r e d i s c u s s e d by KEPLINGER (1986), RANDOL (1986), ALGAR (1987
b ) , MIDDLETON (1987) and ROBERTS (1987), and p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r e l i a b l e f o r e c a s t
o f f u t u r e o i l p r i c e e v a l u a t i o n a r e assessed by DOUGHERTY ( 1 9 8 7 ) . P o l i t i c a l
aspects o f energy p o l i c y a r e summarized by BARRETT (1986), SCOTT (1986) and
FRANSSEN (1988), and CETRON (1986) o u t 1 i n e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l r i s k s and
energy p r o j e c t investments. The r o l e o f t h e OPEC group i n t h e w o r l d o i l market
i s a l s o h i g h 1 i g h t e d by SAFER (1977) and TEWKSBURY ( 1 9 7 7 ) .

2.2.1.4.2.4. Netback p r ic ins, swing product ion

and market share recapturing
RANDOL (1986) d e s c r i b e s some r e a s o n i n g b e h i n d t h e l a t e 1985 d e c i s i o n o f Sau-
d i - A r a b i a t o be no l o n g e r t h e swing producer i n t h e OPEC (AL-CHALABI 1987, BECK
& WILLIAMS 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.2.2.1.), because t h e c o u n t r y became f e d up
w i t h i t s s e l f - c h o s e n r o l e o f s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y p r o p p i n g up t h e sagging p r i c e
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e OPEC, w h i l e o t h e r OPEC members show no d i s c i p l i n e i n r e s t r a i n -
i n g o u t p u t and w h i l e t h e r e was no c o o p e r a t i o n f r o m t h e non-OPEC o i l e x p o r t e r s
t o h e l p m a i n t a i n a s t a b l e market. Netback p r i c i n g i n 1986 has t u r n e d o u t t o be
a v e r y e f f e c t i v e OPEC i n s t r u m e n t t o r e c a p t u r e o i l market shares on a volume
base f r o m non-OPEC producers which had been l o s t i n e a r l i e r y e a r s and t o r e -
bound f r o m r e c o r d low market shares i n 1985, b u t on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e f l o o d
o f OPEC netback o i l overburdened an a l r e a d y s o f t o i l market and f o r c e d t h e o i l
p r i c e t o tumble below US $ 10 (BECK & WILLIAMS 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.2.).
The s u c c e s s f u l r e c a p t u r i n g o f m a r k e t shares f o r t h e OPEC i s h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e o i l i m p o r t s i n Western Europe i n 1986 i n c r e a s e d by a b t . 10 % f o l -
l o w i n g a 5 % d r o p i n 1985, w i t h most o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e coming from OPEC coun-
t r i e s (CROLL 1987).
 130

The 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h t h a t was p r o v o k e d b y t h e OPEC d e c i s i o n t o abandon

production l i m i t a t i o n i n favour o f seeking t h e f a i r share o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
o i l m a r k e t l e a d s t o r e t a r d a t i o n o f f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t on non-OPEC s u p p l i e s as
a consequence o f s h a r p e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n e x p e n d i t u r e c u t t i n g i n r e -
sponse t o t h e e a r n i n g s i m p a c t o f p l u m m e t i n g o i l p r i c e s . The OPEC a l s o s p e c u l a -
t e s on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t t h e l o w e r t h e o i l p r i c e i n s h o r t - t e r m , t h e s t r o n -
g e r t h e f o r c e s p u s h i n g i t u p a g a i n in t h e l o n g - t e r m ( c f . a l s o OEHME 1 9 8 6 ) ,
b r i n g i n g t h e g r o u p t h e n q u i c k l y back t o t h e l e a d i n g r o l e i n t h e w o r l d e n e r g y
m a r k e t . A s p e c t s o f o i l s u p p l y and demand as w e l l as p r i c e e v o l u t i o n f r o m t h e
s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f A r a b i a n p e t r o l e u m e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s (OAPEC)
a r e summarized b y ATTIGA ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

2.2.1.4.2.5.Oil reserve distribution

and OPEC capacity utilization
Over 90 % o f w o r l d o i l r e s e r v e s a r e s i t u a t e d i n OPEC, USA, USSR and European
Economic Community (EEC; NARAGHI 1 9 8 8 ) . W h i l e a c c o u n t i n g f o r i n e x c e s s o f 60 %
o f t h e o i l demand o f t h e f r e e w o r l d , USA and EEC have t h e h i g h e s t o i l r e s e r v e
d e p l e t i o n r a t e s a l o n g w i t h t h e l o w e s t p r o v e n o i l r e s e r v e s . Assuming t h a t OPEC
i s t h e p r i c e s e t t e r , non-OPEC p r o d u c e r s a r e p r i c e t a k e r s and s u p p o r t e r s , and n o
major m a t e r i a l l y adverse p o l i t i c a l upheavals occur around t h e P e r s i a n G u l f , i t
c a n be s u r m i s e d t h a t t h e a n n u a l w e i g h t e d a v e r a g e c r u d e o i l p r i c e w i l l m o s t p r o -
b a b l y s t a y in t h e US $ 18 - 20 r a n g e u n t i l 1992 - 1994 when t h e OPEC c a p a c i t y
u t i l i z a t i o n r a t e w i l l have r i s e n f r o m i t s c u r r e n t 65 - 67 % t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t 80 - 85 % l e v e l .

Consequent t o t h e 1992 - 1994 p e r i o d when OPEC i s e x p e c t e d t o become t h e ma-

j o r s u p p l i e r o f c r u d e o i l a g a i n , t h e o i l p r i c e w i l l e x p e r i e n c e w i t h more drama-
t i c annual i n c r e a s e s i n r e a l t e r m s . Non-OPEC o i l p r o d u c t i o n i s e x p e c t e d t o
r e a c h i t s summit i n 1988 t o 1990 and t h e n i s c o n s i d e r e d t o d e c l i n e s l o w l y (PE-
TROLEUW R E V I E W 1988 a ) . OPEC p r o d u c e s a b t . 40 % o f t h e w o r l d s o u r c e s , and a b t .
85 % o f t h e OPEC r e s e r v e s a r e s i t u a t e d i n t h e G u l f r e g i o n ( c f . a l s o SCANLON
1988) where p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s p e r b a r r e l a r e 0 . 0 5 - 0 . 2 U S $ i n c o n t r a s t t o
5 - 15 US $ i n many p a r t s o f t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d (McCANN 1 9 8 8 ) . As a conse-
quence o f a l l t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i t c a n be p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e w h o l e w o r l d
w i l l depend upon t h e G u l f OPEC c o u n t r i e s c o n c e r n i n g o i l s u p p l y sometime a f t e r
1995, w i t h OPEC r e v i v a l b e i n g i n i t i a t e d b y c h e a p e r o i l c u r r e n t l y d i s c o u r a g i n g
e n e r g y e f f i c i e n c y and f r o n t i e r e x p l o r a t i o n .

Imbalance between oil reserves and consumption

2.2.1.4.2.6.
The c o n t i n u i n g dependence o f t h e w o r l d o i l m a r k e t on t h e OPEC i s u n d e r l i n e d
b y t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e i m b a l a n c e between r e s e r v e s and c o n s u m p t i o n ( O I L GAS JOURNAL
1987 m ) . The OECD c o u n t r i e s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e non-communist i n d u s t r i a l w o r l d a c -
c o u n t f o r more t h a n 57 % o f t o t a l w o r l d c o n s u m p t i o n b u t h o l d l i t t l e more t h a n
6 % o f w o r l d o i l r e s e r v e s , whereas t h e OPEC g r o u p r e p r e s e n t s l i t t l e more t h a n
5 % o f t o t a l c o n s u m p t i o n b u t has more t h a n 75 % o f t o t a l r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s ,
w i t h 63 % o f t h e t o t a l r e s e r v e s b e i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f r e g i o n .
O i l p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s a r e much more e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d t h a n r e s e r v e s , w i t h t h e
OECD g r o u p a c c o u n t i n g f o r n e a r l y 26 % o f t o t a l o u t p u t , OPEC 32 %, communist
b l o c k 28 % and d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s 1 4 % .

R e s e r v e l i v e s a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e c o m p r i s e f o r t h e OECD a b t . 11 y e a r s ,
communist b l o c k a b t . 14 y e a r s , d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a b t . 27 y e a r s , OPEC t o t a l
a b t . 104 y e a r s and P e r s i a n G u l f OPEC members a b t . 1 3 1 y e a r s . These r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s r e f l e c t t h a t d e s p i t e i t s c u r r e n t i n a b i l i t y t o d e f e n d an US $ 18 r e f e r e n c e
p r i c e , t h e OPEC g r o u p w i l l r e m a i n i n c o n t r o l o f t h e o i l m a r k e t f o r as l o n g as
t h e non-OPEC w o r l d needs i t s o i l . Temporary a p p a r e n t abandonment o f t h e p r i c e
t a r g e t b y t h e OPEC seems a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y t o be d e s i g n e d t o g u a r a n t e e t h a t
t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f OPEC o i l p e r s i s t s and grows.
 131

2.2.1.4.2.7, Increasing oil demand

exceeding critical OPEC output r a t e
THOMPSON & SINGLETON (1988) s k e t c h a v e r y p e s s i m i s t i c worst-case s c e n a r i o
and p r e d i c t c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e o f t h e o i l p r i c e a l r e a d y w i t h i n t h e n e x t few
y e a r s . A s a consequence o f l o w e r o i l p r i c e s a f t e r t h e crash, w o r l d p e t r o l e u m
consumption i n c r e a s e d by 2 . 5 % f r o m 1985 t o 1986 f o l l o w i n g f o u r y e a r s o f almost
no growth, and s i m i l a r o r even l a r g e r i n c r e a s e r a t e s a r e expected f o r 1987 and
1988. T h e r e f o r e t h e demand f o r OPEC o i l w i l l soon exceed t h e 20 Mio. b b l / d boun-
d a r y and can be expected t o r i s e t o 25 - 30 Mio. b b l / d i n some y e a r s . T h i s de-
mand l e v e l would b r i n g OPEC i n t o a v e r y s t r o n g p o s i t i o n t o f o r c e r e a l p r i c e i n -
creases, w i t h t h e model o f THOMPSON & SINGLETON (1988) p r e d i c t i n g t h a t t h e o i l
p r i c e i s g o i n g t o r i s e t o t h e 1980/1981 n i v e a u i n r e a l terms and i s h o l d i n g
t h a t l e v e l t h r o u g h 1994/1995. The h i g h n i v e a u o f r e a l o i l p r i c e w i l l p e r s i s t
l o n g e r i n t h e e a r l y 1990's t h a n i n t h e e a r l y 1980's p r i m a r i l y because OPEC's
p r i c e - m a k i n g power w i l l be more h e a v i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e P e r s i a n G u l f r e g i o n
and USA consumers w i l l n o t have access t o l o w - c o s t c a p i t a l t o make energy con-
servation investments.

GUSTAJTIS (1985) comments a l r e a d y b e f o r e t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h and l o o k -

i n g o u t f r o m t h e 1985 o i l p r i c e l e v e l t h a t t h e unprecedented r i s e o f w o r l d o i l
p r i c e i n t h e l a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s has r e s u l t e d i n a massive i n v e s t m e n t boom i n
o i l and gas e x p l o r a t i o n and development. Much o f t h e i n v e s t m e n t made s i n c e 1980
i s now viewed as an enormous business m i s t a k e which leads t o a d e c l i n e o f i n -
vestment c a p i t a l . A s e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t a b t . 70 % o f p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e d i n t h e
n e x t decade w i l l come f r o m r e s e r v e s y e t u n d i s c o v e r e d w i l l p r o v e t o be u n a t t a i -
n a b l e u n l e s s investments a r e made, f a i l u r e t o do so w i l l p r e c i p i t a t e another
o i l c r i s i s by c a t a p u l t i n g t h e p r i c e c o n s i d e r a b l y upwards.

2.2.1.4.3. Oil price instability and market uncertainty

A f t e r t h e peak o f t h e 1986 c r i s i s , t h e hydrocarbon market began t o r e c o v e r
w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f an again s l o w l y r i s i n g o i l p r i c e , b u t i n l a t e 1 9 8 6 / e a r l y
1987 f i r s t some l i t t l e s t e p s f o r w a r d were o f t e n a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h o t h e r a l m o s t
compensating s t e p s i n backwards d i r e c t i o n which gave no s e c u r i t y f o r p l a n n i n g
of c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e , second so f a r an adequate o i l p r i c e l e v e l w i t h s u f f i -
c i e n t c e r t a i n t y o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n which would enable t o r e t u r n t o an a c t i v i t y a t
l e a s t more o r l e s s comparable t o t h a t b e f o r e t h e onset o f t h e p r i c e f a l l has
n o t y e t been reached, and t h i r d t h e US $ exchange r a t e ( t h a t s t a r t e d t o d e c l i n e
i n l a t e 1985 and reached i t s p r e l i m i n a r y minimum l e v e l i n e a r l y t o m i d 1986)
k e p t b e i n g v e r y low s t i l l i n m i d 1987, w i t h o n l y m i n o r p e r s p e c t i v e s o f an i n -
crease t o a reasonable l e v e l w i t h i n t h e n e x t few months ( t h u s by m i d 1987 an
again h i g h e r a b s o l u t e o i l p r i c e which i s almost a t a n i v e a u s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n
m i d 1985 i s i n Europe r e l a t i v e l y even much lower than i n those days due t o t h e
now much weaker US $ than two y e a r s ago and t h e p r o g r e s s i v e i n f l a t i o n s i n c e
t h a t time).

I n l a t e 1987, a s l i g h t l y s t a b i l i z i n g o i l p r i c e was compensated by f u r t h e r

f a l l i n g o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e down t o i t s a b s o l u t e minimum s i n c e t h e end o f
t h e Second World War, and i n e a r l y 1988, a s l i g h t l y r e v i v i n g US $ which stopped
i t s d e c l i n e and a t l e a s t s t a y e d more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t c o i n c i d e d w i t h another
l i t t l e decrease o f t h e average r e a l o i l p r i c e ( O I L D A I L Y 1988 a; c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.3.). A t t h e end o f 1988, t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n i n t h e USA c o n f i r m i n g
t h e g e n e r a l economical g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e coming y e a r s r e s u l t e d i n renewed down-
wards p r e s s u r e on t h e US $ exchange r a t e .

T h i s c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f a n o t h e r downwards tendency, a l t h o u g h c o m p r i s i n g o n l y
d e c l i n e o f t h e r e a l o i l p r i c e o f a few US $ p e r b a r r e l , c r e a t e d a g a i n much un-
c e r t a i n t y i n t h e hydrocarbon e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r y and caused n o t
 132

o n l y managements t o be even more c a u t i o u s w i t h l o n g - t e r m d e v e l o p m e n t and i n v e s t -

ment d e c i s i o n s as w e l l as p e r s o n n e l p l a n n i n g , b u t had a l s o p o l i t i c a l consequen-
c e s o n t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l r e l a t e d t o t h e o i l scene. The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s
c o n c e n t r a t e s on c o o p e r a t i o n a t t e m p t s between OPEC and non-OPEC, m a r k e t s h a r e s
v s . p r i c e s t a b i l i t y , downstream i n t e g r a t i o n o f o i l - p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s , p r i c i n g
p o l i c y o f l i s t v s . f l e x i b l e p r i c e s , p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a n o t h e r o i l p r i c e war, i m -
p a c t o f a p o s s i b l e g e n e r a l e c o n o m i c a l r e c e s s i o n , o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e as r e s u l t
o f l a c k i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n , and d i f f e r e n t assessment o f t h e U S $ 1 8
agreement p r i c e .

2.2.1.4.3.1. Cooperation at terrpts between OPEC and non-OPEC

F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e i r h i s t o r y , t h e OPEC i s s u e d a s e r i o u s a l a r m f o r p r o -
t e c t i o n o f t h e o i l p r i c e and p r e v e n t i o n o f i t s f u r t h e r downwards o r i e n t a t i o n
n o t o n l y w i t h i n t h e group, b u t addressed t h e i n v i t a t i o n f o r a c r i t i c a l session
a l s o t o v a r i o u s non-OPEC o i l p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s (I4cCANN 1988, O I L DAILY 1988
a ) . LUKMAN ( 1 9 8 7 ) emphasizes t h a t c o o p e r a t i o n between OPEC and non-OPEC coun-
t r i e s i s t h e k e y t o m a r k e t s t a b i l i t y ( c f . a l s o O I L GAS JOURNAL 1988 g ) , and AL-
CHALABI ( 1 9 8 7 ) e v e n c o n c l u d e s t h a t t r i l a t e r a l c o o p e r a t i o n between cotisuming na-
tions, OPEC c o u n t r i e s and o t h e r o i l - p r o d u c e r s i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e f e n d t h e o i l
p r i c e w h i c h i s backed u p b y t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e l o n g r u n , non-OPEC o i l - p r o d u c -
i n g c o u n t r i e s c o u l d even s u f f e r more t h a n OPEC f r o m any p r i c e c o l l a p s e g i v e n
t h e v e r y h i g h c o s t o f r e p l a c e m e n t o f consumed o i l t h r o u g h e x p e n s i v e d i s c o v e r i e s
o f new f i e l d s o r enhanced d e v e l o p m e n t o f o l d f i e l d s . U n c e r t a i n t i e s a b o u t f u t u r e
w o r l d o i l p r i c e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y KILGORE ( 1 9 8 2 ) . I n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a -
t i o n between o i l p r o d u c e r s and consumers a i m i n g on m a r k e t r e g u l a t i o n i s e x p e c -
t e d t o be a v e r y p o s i t i v e and c o n s t r u c t i v e s t e p i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f p r e v e n t i n g
f u r t h e r s h a r p o i l p r i c e changes (PETROLEUM REVIEW 1988 c ) .

2.2.1.4.3.2. Market shares vs. price stability

P r i c e s t a b i l i t y w h i c h i s a t t h e moment d i f f i c u l t t o a c h i e v e b y p o l i t i c a l a r -
rangement and m a r k e t i n s t r u m e n t s c a n i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e be i m p r o v e d i n c a s e o f
a g e n e r a l e c o n o m i c a l r e c e s s i o n w h i c h l o w e r s demand f o r o i l (OFFSHORE O I L INTER-
NATIONAL 1 9 8 8 ) . The r e q u e s t f o r m a r k e t s t a b i l i t y as a base f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l
o i l p r i c i n g and d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g i s r e v i e w e d by STORY ( 1 9 8 6 ) , and DAVID & CARSON
( 1 9 8 3 ) comment on e n e r g y f i n a n c i n g i n t i m e s o f u n c e r t a i n t y . ROSBACO ( 1 9 8 3 ) g i -
ves an o v e r v i e w on i n v e s t m e n t e v a l u a t i o n s i n i n f l a t i o n a r y and u n s t a b l e scena-
r i o s . Aspects o f w o r l d energy markets coping w i t h i n s t a b i l i t y a r e a l s o compiled
b y ROWSE ( 1 9 8 7 ) . F u r t h e r o i l p r i c e u n c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n a d d i t i o n t o abandonment
o f production r e s t r a i n t i n favour o f seeking f a i r share i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
o i l m a r k e t a r e n e t b a c k p r i c i n g d e a l s (RANDOL 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 4 . 2 . 4 . )
w h i c h remove t h e i n c e n t i v e f o r o i l companies t o s h a r p l y c u r t a i l l i f t i n g s f r o m
t h e OPEC b y i n s u l a t i n g them f r o m m a r k e t r e a l i t y . OPEC s t r a t e g y f o r p r i c i n g d e c i -
s i o n s i s one o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o p i c s f o r t h e g l o b a l e n e r g y m a r k e t s , w i t h
r a t i o n a l i t y and s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f OPEC imposed p r i c e s , p r o s p e c t f o r c o n t i n u e d
s t a b i l i t y o f OPEC a s a c o h e s i v e body, and o u t l o o k f o r o i l p r i c e s i n t h e f u t u r e
a t t r a c t i n g g r e a t e s t a t t e n t i o n (NARAGHI 1 9 8 8 ) .

2.2.1.4.3.3. Downstream integration o f oi 1-producing countries

I n m i d 1988, t h e c o n t i n u i n g f a i l u r e o f OPEC t o s u s t a i n o f f i c i a l s e l l i n g p r i -
c e s i n t h e f a c e o f c o m p e t i t i o n b y non-OPEC e x p o r t e r s as w e l l as i t s own i n a b i l i -
t y t o r e i n p r o d u c t i o n has s p a r k e d new emphasis on OPEC r e i n t e g r a t i o n (WILLIAMS
1 9 8 8 ) . S i n c e l a t e 1987, o i l m a r k e t s have r e m a i n e d m o s t l y d e p r e s s e d , OPEC d i v i s i -
veness has grown worse, and o v e r t u r e s b y a g r o u p o f non-OPEC e x p o r t e r s t o s h a r e
o u t p u t r e s t r a i n t and t h u s buoy o i l p r i c e s have so f a r f a i l e d . More and more
OPEC members a r e t h e r e f o r e p u s h i n g i n t o downstream v e n t u r e s i n o r d e r t o become
i n t e g r a t e d p r o d u c e r s . The downstream a c t i v i t i e s o f l a r g e - r e s e r v e p r o d u c e r s a r e
 133

i n t e n d e d t o i n c r e a s e market share and d i v e r s i f y r i s k , b u t t h e r e s u l t c o u l d be

c o n t i n u e d low o i l p r i c e s , as these producers t r y t o keep demand h i g h (WORLD OIL
1988 a ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e market share o f t h e l a r g e producers comes a t t h e ex-
pense o f s m a l l e r p r o d u c e r s t h a t do n o t have downstream access ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.5.2.) w h i c h w i l l have a d i v i s i v e e f f e c t on OPEC u n i t y and w i l l o f f e r
l i t t l e hope t h a t t h e c a r t e l w i l l be a b l e t o improve c o o p e r a t i o n and d i s c i p l i n e
among i t s members.

The focus on d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n , t h e f o r e i g n downstream push, a p o s s i b l e mas-

s i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n i n f u t u r e markets r e c e n t l y , and t h e s p u r n i n g o f non-OPEC o v e r -
t u r e s on p r o d u c t i o n r e s t r a i n t p o i n t t o t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t m a r k e t - r e l a t e d p r i -
c i n g w i l l c o n t i n u e t o spread and t h a t key members i n OPEC w i l l no l o n g e r t o l e -
r a t e l o s s o f m a r k e t share t o non-OPEC e x p o r t e r s i n o r d e r t o b o l s t e r p r i c e s (WIL-
LIAMS 1988). Longer-term r e i n t e g r a t i o n by some OPEC members and non-OPEC expor-
t e r s c o u l d mean depressed o i l p r i c e s , depressed margins f o r r e f i n e r s and marke-
t e r s , and a c c e l e r a t i n g o i l i m p o r t s i n n e t consuming n a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e 1990's.
Much o f t h e impetus f o r OPEC r e i n t e g r a t i o n comes f r o m t h e t h r e a t t o t h e market
share o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n by r i s i n g p r o d u c t i o n f r o m non-OPEC e x p o r t e r s .

2.2.1.4.3.4. Pricing policy o f list vs. flexible prices

I n c r e a s i n g non-OPEC o i l s u p p l y and l a g g i n g demand growth i s g o i n g t o r e i n
OPEC-s a b i l i t y t o r a i s e o i l p r i c e s u n t i l t h e y e a r 2000, because h i s t o r i c a l l y ,
OPEC has been a b l e t o j a c k up o i l p r i c e s o n l y when t h e group's p r o d u c t i o n was
a t 80 % o r more o f i t s t o t a l c a p a c i t y (WILLIAMS 1988). C o m p e t i t i o n between OPEC
and non-OPEC p r o d u c e r s f o r market share i s expected t o p e r s i s t a t l e a s t t h r o u g h
1995. F i x e d p r i c i n g has proven unworkable w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c e s t h a t key members
such as Saudi A r a b i a a r e no l o n g e r w i l l i n g t o make ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 1 . ) .

Thus i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n market share, OPEC p r o b a b l y must adopt a f l e x i b l e

p r i c i n g p o l i c y and e v e n t u a l l y abandon o f f i c i a l l i s t p r i c i n g . The group c o u l d
t h e n t a k e advantage o f immediate i n c r e a s e s i n s p o t p r i c e s and a v o i d t h e r o l e o f
swing pro,ducer. A b t . 85 % o f t h e p r o j e c t e d e x p o r t volume s h o u l d be s o l d under
c o n t r a c t and a b t . 15 % s h o u l d be b r o u g h t i n t o t h e s p o t m a r k e t f o r more t h a n t h e
n e g o t i a t e d p r i c e s i n t h e c o n t r a c t . Such an approach would n o t d u p l i c a t e t h e n e t -
b a c k - p r i c e - r e l a t e d market c r a s h o f 1986 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.2.) because t h e r e
would be adherence t o quotas vs. t h e q u o t a - b r e a k i n g e f f o r t t o r e g a i n market
share i n terms o f volume, and m a r g i n a l OPEC o i l would s e l l a t a premium i n s t e a d
o f a t a d i s c o u n t . Spot s a l e s a l s o would be a b u f f e r a g a i n s t supply/demand imba-
lances, because s p o t buyers a r e t h e f i r s t t o c u t purchases i n a s o f t market and
t o pay a premium i n a t i g h t market.

2.2.1.4.3.5. Possibilities o f another oil price war

The downstream push, however, may be a n o t h e r s i g n t h a t key OPEC p r o d u c e r s
may be g i r d i n g f o r a n o t h e r p r i c e war (WILLIAMS 1988). Even i n t h e s c e n a r i o f o r
f l e x i b l e p r i c i n g , t h e OPEC members must s t r i c t l y adhere t o quotas, because
o t h e r w i s e t h e o i l p r i c e w i l l c o l l a p s e i n an o v e r s u p p l i e d m a r k e t no m a t t e r how
t h e s u p p l y i s made a v a i l a b l e . U n t i l t h e main o i l e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s g a i n
enough share i n t h e downstream market t o f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e about t h e i r i n t e g r a -
t e d and o v e r a l l income, t h e y w i l l keep t h e o i l p r i c e u n s t a b l e i n o r d e r t o d i s -
courage development o f r e s e r v e s elsewhere. Saudi A r a b i a seems t o be p r e p a r e d t o
teach o t h e r o i l - e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s once more t h e l e s s o n t h a t f a i l u r e t o - c o o p e -
r a t e i n r e s t r a i n i n g p r o d u c t i o n w i l l have d i s a s t r o u s e f f e c t s on everyone s i n -
come, w i t h a s h o r t p r i c e war b e i n g expected t o encourage c o o p e r a t i o n and l i a b i -
l i t y . Continuous OPEC o v e r p r o d u c t i o n i n l a t e 1987 and a l m o s t t h r o u g h o u t 1988
was p r o g r e s s i v e l y undermining t h e o i l p r i c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.3.), and i n
c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e p r o l o n g e d g e n e r a l weakness o f t h e US $, t h e o i l p r i c e may
again f a l t e r if t h e surge of OPEC o u t p u t c o n t i n u e s (BECK & WILLIAMS 1987).
 134

On t h e o t h e r hand, however, t h e s i t u a t i o n i n m i d t o l a t e 1988 i s somewhat

d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t i n 1986 because i n o r d e r t o move o i l i n t h e e a r l i e r m a r k e t
s h a r e b a t t l e , t h e OPEC c o u n t r i e s had t o g u a r a n t e e t h e i r c u s t o m e r s - r e f i n i n g mar-
g i n s w i t h n e t b a c k s a l e s agreements ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1988 c ; c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.4.2.4.). I n 1988, however, t h e r e f i n i n g m a r k e t s a r e s t r o n g due t o m a r g i n
w i d e n i n g b y t h e o i l p r i c e d r o p , and t h e r e f o r e renewed s u b s t a n t i a l o v e r p r o d u c -
t i o n and m a r k e t f l o o d i n g w o u l d n o t s e r v e t h e a p p a r e n t e c o n o m i c a l i n t e r e s t s o f
any o i l - e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r y . A s u i t a b l e b r a k e f o r a l o n g e r and d e e p e r o i l p r i c e
slump and a r e a s o n a b l e w a r n i n g f o r t h e OPEC t o s t o p l a p s e o f d i s c i p l i n e i s t h e
memory of t h e m o s t d e v a s t a t i n g a s p e c t o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e w h i c h was
t h e f e a r t h a t t h e o i l p r i c e c o u l d r e m a i n b e l o w US $ 10 f o r a l o n g e r t i m e , i f
n o t i n economical terms meaning almost i n d e f i n i t e l y .

2.2.1.4.3.6.Imact o f a possible general economical recession

I n a d d i t i o n t o i n s t a b i l i t y g e n e r a t e d w i t h i n t h e OPEC g r o u p , a m a j o r e x t e r n a l
f a c t o r i n t h e assemblage o f consumers i s t h e f e a r o f r e c e s s i o n w h i c h has become
an i m p o r t a n t w i l d c a r d i n o i l m a r k e t f o r e c a s t s ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1987 e ) . S l o w e r
e c o n o m i c a l g r o w t h r e d u c e s demand f o r p e t r o l e u m and i t s p r o d u c t s and t h e r e f o r e
c a l l s o n OPEC o i l . A r e c e s s i o n w o u l d s e r i o u s l y c o m p l i c a t e e f f o r t s t o s t a b i l i z e
and r e s t o r e o i l p r i c e s , w i t h p r o s p e c t s o f r e c e s s i o n t h u s p o s i n g a g r o w i n g
t h r e a t t o t h e o i l m a r k e t . The weakness o f t h e U S $ ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) is
one o f t h e s t r o n g e s t s i g n s o f u n f a v o u r a b l e e c o n o m i c a l framework and i s e x p e c t e d
t o p r e c i p i t a t e a l s o s o o n e r o r l a t e r a c o l l a p s e o f t h e o i l p r i c e . On t h e o t h e r
hand, t h e f e a r o f a n o t h e r o i l m a r k e t c r a s h w h i c h a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e
w o u l d s e r i o u s l y h u r t a l l t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e game has an o f f s e t t i n g i n -
f l u e n c e w h i c h h o l d s a s s o c i a t i o n s o f r i v a l i z i n g members d e s p i t e l a c k i n g c o n s e n -
sus s t i l l t o g e t h e r ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1987 f ) . O i l p r i c e v o l a t i l i t y a l s o l e a d s
t o company management r e s t r u c t u r i n g w i t h c h a n g i n g emphasis f r o m t e c h n i c a l s k i l l
t o f i n a n c i a l e x p e r i e n c e and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of e x e c u t i v e s ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1987
4).

2.2.1.4.3.7.Oil price collapse as result

o f lacking international cooperat ion
A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e as t h e l o g i c a l c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e r e a l
p r i c e d e c l i n e b y a b t . U S $ 5 f r o m a b t . U S $ 18.50 i n A p r i l 1988 t o a b t . US $
1 3 . 7 5 i n September 1988 c a n o c c u r i f p r o d u c e r s c o n t i n u e t o f a i l u r e t o c o o p e r a t e
( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1988 e ) . The r e c e n t downward p r e s s u r e on p r i c e s m a i n l y stems
from f e a r s t h a t overproduction w i l l l e a d t o a sharp increase i n stocks by year
end. The o i l p r i c e d r o p o f more t h a n US $ 4 i n J u l y 1988 was p r o v o k e d b y t h e r e -
f u s a l o f Saudi A r a b i a and K u w a i t t o a c c e p t p r o d u c t i o n c u t o f f e r s made b y non-
OPEC c o u n t r i e s , t h e r e b y f o r c i n g OPEC t o f o c u s on i n t e r n a l p r o b l e m s such as o u t -
p u t d i s c i p l i n e . Many o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g f a c t o r s t h a t b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e 1986 de-
b a c l e have reemerged i n 1988, and s o l v i n g t h e p e r p e t u a l l a c k o f q u o t a d i s c i -
p l i n e among OPEC member n a t i o n s r e m a i n s c e n t r a l t o t h e f u t u r e h e a l t h o f t h e hy-
d r o c a r b o n i n d u s t r y (WORLD OIL 1988 a ) . The non-OPEC p r o p o s a l o f a 5 % p r o d u c -
t i o n c u t b a c k f o r b o t h OPEC and non-OPEC c o u n t r i e s was r e j e c t e d b y some OPEC k e y
members because of t h e i r v i e w t h a t demand w o u l d b e more s t i m u l a t e d w i t h o i l p r i -
ces b e l o w U S $ 18, whereas any p r o d u c t i o n r e s t r i c t i o n s c o u l d r a i s e t h e p r i c e
above U S $ 18 (CROUSE 1988 a, PIcCANN 1988, O I L GAS JOURNAL 1988 9 ) .

2.2.1.4.3.8.Different assessment o f the US $ 18 agreement price

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e G u l f members o f t h e OPEC g r o u p p u t f o r w a r d t h a t OPEC h a d
done enough t o c u r b e x c e s s s u p p l i e s u n i l a t e r a l l y s i n c e OPEC o u t p u t was down
a b t . 40 % f r o m 1979 l e v e l s , w h i l e non-OPEC c o u n t r i e s were p r o d u c i n g a t c a p a c i t y
(CROUSE 1988 a ) . F u r t h e r i n s t a b i l i t y i s c r e a t e d b y d i f f e r e n t meanings o f t h e
OPEC members on t h e US $ 18 agreement p r i c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) , with
 135

t h e Gulf Cooperation C o u n c i l (GCC) h a v i n g a f a i r l y o p t i m i s t i c and r e a l i s t i c un-

d e r s t a n d i n g o f demand and n o t b e i n g anxious t o see p r i c e s s u s t a i n e d above US $
18 f o r t h e reason o f f e a r t h a t r i s i n g p r i c e s w i l l depress demand, whereas among
OPEC members o u t s i d e t h e G u l f r e g i o n , US $ 18 i s seen more as t h e minimum accep-
t a b l e p r i c e ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1988 9 ) . D e s p i t e t h e u n s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t i n e a r l y
t o m i d 1988, f u t u r e c o o p e r a t i o n between OPEC and non-OPEC i s t h e r e f o r e more
r a t h e r than l e s s l i k e l y t o be a v a l u a b l e p o l i c y o p t i o n f o r c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e
w o r l d o i l market (McCANN 1988). Aspects o f o i l p r i c e i n s t a b i l i t y a r e a l s o d i s -
cussed by CROUSE (1987) and O I L GAS JOURNAL (1987 n ) .

2.2.1.4.4. Energy supp 1 y diversification effects

Another i n t e r n a t i o n a l e f f e c t i s t h a t a t o i l p r i c e s below U S $ 15, t h e w o r l d
tends t o have t o o few energy o p t i o n s f o r t h e l o n g term, whereas a t p r i c e s above
US $ 30, t h e r e a r e t o o many o f them, w i t h an optimum o i l p r i c e a t t h e b o t t o m o f
t h e l i n e t h u s b e i n g i n t h e range o f US $ 15 - 30 (OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1986 f ) .
W i t h i n t h e frame o f an o i l p r i c e o f US $ 15 - 30, a balance e x i s t s between t h e
use o f l o w - c o s t o i l and higher-expense e n e r g i e s i n c l u d i n g h i g h e r - c o s t o i l . On
t h e o t h e r hand, a world-wide s u r v e y o f undeveloped m a r g i n a l o f f s h o r e f i e l d s r e -
v e a l s t h a t even w i t h an o i l p r i c e o f US $ 15 and i n l i g h t o f e x i s t i n g t e c h n o l o -
gy and f i s c a l regimes, t h e development o f small o f f s h o r e o i l f i e l d s around t h e
w o r l d w i l l n o t s t o p e n t i r e l y , b u t f o r a m e l i o r a t i n g i t s pace, e i t h e r o i l p r i -
ces must r i s e above US $ 20 o r governments must improve f i s c a l c o n d i t i o n s t o
p r o v i d e a b e t t e r i n c e n t i v e t o t h e i n d u s t r y . Some o f t h e m a r g i n a l f i e l d s c u r r e n t -
l y h e l d by m a j o r o p e r a t o r s b u t c o n s i d e r e d t o be u n i n t e r e s t i n g by them c o u l d be
a t t r a c t i v e t o i m a g i n a t i v e independent o i l companies once t h e y a r e r e l i n q u i s h e d .

2.2.1.5. Present consequences of the 1986

oil price drop for the stimulation market
The most i m p o r t a n t p r e s e n t consequences o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e drop f o r t h e
European s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t a r e i l l u s t r a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f f r a c t u r i n g s t r a -
t e g y o f deep gas w e l l s b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l i n d u s t r y c r i s i s , r e d u c t i o n
o f c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e and o r g a n i z a t o r y s t r e a m l i n i n g o f e x p l o r a t i o n and produc-
t i o n companies, business d e t e r i o r a t i o n f o r s e r v i c e companies, and banking r e l a -
t i o n s h i p s and i n v e s t m e n t s t r a t e g i e s .

2.2.1.5.1. Fracturing strategy o f deep gas wells

before and after the 1986 oil industry crisis
Abt. 15 y e a r s ago when t h e o i l p r i c e approached i t s f i r s t b i g i n c r e a s e s (RUN-
GE 1986) t h e r e b y a m e l i o r a t i n g t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f many h i t h e r t o m a r g i n a l o r even
uneconomical p r o j e c t s , many deep gas w e l l s i n Western Europe und USA were ready
f o r MHF s t i m u l a t i o n , b u t c o u l d n o t be t r e a t e d , because s u i t a b l e s y n t h e t i c i n t e r -
mediate- and h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants t h a t c o u l d w i t h s t a n d t h e h i g h c l o s u r e
s t r e s s e s i n these depths were n o t y e t developed, and o n l y n a t u r a l sand e x i s t e d
which crushed under those c o n d i t i o n s (TUNN 1971; ATTEBERRY, TUCKER & RITZ 1979;
COOKE & GIDLEY 1979; HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981; KOHLHAAS 1982, CLARK
1983, B R I M 1986). Some aspects o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e
1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

2.2.1.5.1.1. Fracturing potential before the 1986 oil price drop

Many e c o n o m i c a l l y v e r y a t t r a c t i v e f r a c t u r e j o b s c o u l d n o t be c a r r i e d o u t
many y e a r s ago due t o l a c k o f s u i t a b l e p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l s i n t h e e a r l y 1970's.
I n t h e golden y e a r s o f h i g h o i l p r i c e s i n t h e l a t e 1970's and e a r l y 1980's ( i n
t h e l a t t e r p e r i o d i n Europe even accentuated by a h i g h US $ exchange r a t e ) ,
 136

s u p p l y o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants c o u l d as a consequence o f

i n s u f f i c i e n t m a n u f a c t u r i n g c a p a c i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e growing m a r k e t due
t o wrong o r n o t enough o p t i m i s t i c f o r e c a s t and assessment o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
t e m p o r a r i l y n o t keep pace w i t h t h e p a r t i a l l y enormous demand.

Thus as a r e s u l t o f p r e f e r e n t i a l s e r v i c e o f t h e USA market, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n

Western Europe numerous h i g h - r a n k l a r g e - s c a l e f r a c t u r e j o b s had t o be delayed
u n t i l t h e r e q u i r e d q u a n t i t i e s o f h i g h - q u a l i t y proppants were a v a i l a b l e . Expen-
s i v e w a i t i n g t i m e s o f r i g s i n those days j u s t i f i e d i n some cases even payment
o f a i r f r e i g h t f o r f a s t d e l i v e r y o f intermediate- o r high-strength proppants
f r o m t h e p l a n t s i n t h e USA t o t h e w e l l s i t e i n Europe o r b u y i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l y
more expensive p r o p p a n t t y p e t h a n scheduled f r o m l o c a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n o r d e r t o
g e t t h e j o b r a p i d l y done and make p r o f i t f r o m q u i c k p a y - o u t i n t h e s c e n a r i o o f
h i g h o i l p r i c e and h i g h US $ exchange r a t e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.2.3.). Much promo-
t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n market, however, was hampered by t h e u n d e r s u p p l y o f
b o t h European and w o r l d markets w i t h proppants i n t h e p e r i o d 1976 - 1984 com-
p r i s i n g t h e t i m e f r o m i n v e n t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c
proppants t o b e g i n n i n g o f more s e r i o u s o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e and p r i o r t o t h e 1985
p r o p p a n t p r i c e changes i n downwards d i r e c t i o n along w i t h i m p r o v i n g s u p p l y capa-
c i t y ( c f . section 2.2.2.1.).

2.2.1.5.1.2. Fracturing potential after the 1986 oil price crash

A f t e r t h e m a j o r o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e i n e a r l y 1986 (GRIFFITHS 1986, RUNGE
1986), t h e s i t u a t i o n has reversed, w i t h a g a i n numerous deep gas w e l l s t h a t a r e
w a i t i n g on t r e a t m e n t (and which p a r t i a l l y have o r i g i n a l l y been d r i l l e d i n o r d e r
t o be f r a c t u r e d soon a f t e r w a r d s as a r e s u l t o f p r e d i c t i o n o f t i g h t r e s e r v o i r f a -
c i e s i n t h e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y zone e x p l o r e d by u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas a p p r a i s a l i n
t h e b e l t o f m a r g i n a l pay zone development, w i t h t h e s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t a l r e a d y ha-
v i n g been added t o t h e d r i l l i n g c o s t i n t h e economical f e a s i b i 1 it y assessment
b e f o r e spudding o f t h e w e l l s ) n o t b e i n g a b l e t o be f r a c t u r e d , b u t t h i s t i m e f o r
economical i n s t e a d o f t e c h n i c a l reasons. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e e a r l i e r y e a r s ,
h i g h - q u a l i t y proppants a r e now a v a i l a b l e i n almost oversupply, w i t h t h u s b e i n g
no l i m i t a t i o n o f q u a n t i t i e s t o be d e l i v e r e d s t r a i g h t a f t e r o r d e r e n t r y , and
proppants b e i n g a l s o o f f e r e d f o r n e a r l y dumping p r i c e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f o r -
mer s i t u a t i o n .

The low o i l p r i c e ( w h i c h has i n Europe even a more s e r i o u s impact due t o t h e

accompanying weakness o f t h e US $ ) , however, now does h a r d l y g i v e any economi-
c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r c a r r y i n g - o u t o f many j o b s p r i o r t o a reasonable r e s t a b i l i -
z a t i o n o f t h e hydrocarbon p r i c e s c e n a r i o a t an a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l ( w h i c h would be
most s u i t a b l y r e i n f o r c e d by a r i s i n g v a l u e o f t h e U S $ ) t o be adequate t o t h e
investments t o be made by e x e c u t i n g s t i m u l a t i o n ( t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s i n p a r t s o f
Europe s t i l l c u r r e n t ) . S i m i l a r d i f f i c u l t i e s o f economical f e a s i b i l i t y a t l o w e r
o i l p r i c e s as a p p l y i n g f o r h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g a r e a l s o t o u c h i n g en-
hanced o i l r e c o v e r y p r o j e c t s (BRASHEAR, BECKER & BIGLARBIGI 1988). I n a d d i t i o n ,
t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e hydrocarbon e x p l o r a t i o n and deve-
lopment scene a f t e r t h e o i l p r i c e c r a s h i n 1986 i s l a c k i n g c o n f i d e n c e f o r f u -
t u r e i n v e s t m e n t o f money d e s p i t e e x i s t i n g hope o r even o p t i m i s m (KINNEY 1987),
and t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t reason why t h e c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e p r o -
gram s l a s h e d down and o n l y s l o w l y p i c k s up again. The impact o f t h e c o n f i d e n c e
l o s s i s so s t r o n g t h a t i t can be expected t h a t even i f t h e o i l market rebounds
and e n t e r s a n o t h e r boom phase s t i l l t h i s c e n t u r y , t h e l e s s o n s o f t h e o i l m a r k e t
shocks i n t h e 1970's and 1980's may change f o r e v e r t h e g u i d e l i n e s f o r c a p i t a l
i n v e s t m e n t and i n d u s t r y management (OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987 9 ) .
 137

2.2.1.5.2. Reduction o f capital expenditure and organizatory

streamlining in exploration and product ion c m a n i e s
The r e v i s i o n o f budgets f o r d r i l l i n g , c o m p l e t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n by t h e hy-
drocarbon e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n companies has n o t o n l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r own
c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e , f i n a n c i a l f l e x i b i l i t y and c a s h - f l o w s t r u c t u r e , b u t a l s o
had s i g n i f i c a n t impact on s e r v i c e company business, banking r e l a t i o n s h i p s and
i n v e s t m e n t s t r a t e g i e s . Economical reassessment o f t h e N o r t h Sea o i l - and gas-
f i e l d development p l a n s a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e d r o p ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.1.2.
and 2.4.2.) has r e s u l t e d i n r e d u c t i o n o f c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e on c u r r e n t develop-
ment p r o j e c t s , d e f e r r i n g o f investments i n new f i e l d development p r o j e c t s , p r e -
f e r e n c e g i v e n t o B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d gas a c q u i s i t i o n and t o
s m a l l - s c a l e developments u s i n g subsea c o m p l e t i o n s f o r t y i n g - i n o f s a t e l l i t e
f i e l d s t o e x i s t i n g p r o d u c t i o n p l a t f o r m s , severe c u t s i n planned e x p l o r a t i o n p r o -
grams o f a b t . 25 - 40 % (KEG 1986, OIL GAS JOURNAL 1986, ALGAR 1987 b, HOLBROOK
1987, SCHRUDER 1987) w h i c h w i l l a f f e c t f u t u r e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f f i e l d s f o r deve-
lopment, and r e d u c t i o n o f o p e r a t i n g c o s t s f o r e x i s t i n g p r o d u c i n g f i e l d s (BEU-
DELL 1986 b, OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1986 a, THOMAS 1986).

T h i s i s more o r l e s s r e f l e c t i n g t h e decreasing e a r n i n g s and revenues by a b t .

34 % and 24 %, r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r t h e group o f m a j o r o i l and gas companies f o l -
l o w i n g t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h (BECK & SMITH 1987). The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s
focusses on development and c o m p l e t i o n a c t i v i t y , d r i l l i n g meterage, s t a f f l a y -
o f f , company merging, cash management, s u r v i v a l o f independents, r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
t r a n s f e r by c o n t r a c t i n g and takeover, and e x e c u t i v e s k i l l r e q u i r e m e n t change.

2.2.1.5.2.1.Development and completion activity

The 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e l e d t o a 15 % d e c l i n e i n w o r l d w i d e e x p l o r a t i o n
d r i l l i n g a c t i v i t y which r e s u l t e d i n l o s s o f r e s e r v e replacement o f a b t .
2.5 - 3.0 B i l l . b b l o i l (POPESCU & HODGSHON 1987). T h i s was t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f
a t r e n d which s t a r t e d i n 1982 when t h e z e n i t h was passed and once t h e n a d i r i n
1986 was reached, w o r l d w i d e e x p l o r a t i o n d r i l l i n g had decreased by a l m o s t 30 %
s i n c e t h e golden y e a r s . I n t h e USA, t h e e f f e c t was even more pronounced and com-
p r i s e d a 60 % r e d u c t i o n i n e x p l o r a t i o n d r i l l i n g s i n c e t h e peak i n 1981 ( c f . sec-
t i o n 2.2.1.2.1.).

Subsea development o f s a t e l l i t e f i e l d s forms a v e r i t a b l e complementary s e t

t o m a j o r t r a d i t i o n a l developments w i t h p l a t f o r m and p i p e l i n e , because i t enab-
l e s small f i e l d s t o s t a r t p r o d u c i n g on t h e b a s i s o f e x i s t i n g p r o c e s s i n g c a p a c i -
t i e s and c a p a b i l i t i e s t h a t have become a v a i l a b l e because o f t h e d e c l i n e o f r e a -
sonably nearby f i e l d s (VALENTIN, VALAIS & CHAMPLON 1988). BARTON (1988) e v a l u a -
t e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f making s m a l l e r f i e l d s v i a b l e , and HARPER (1988) i n v e s t i g a -
t e s d e v e l o p i n g c o s t - e f f e c t i v e t e c h n o l o g y f o r t h e f u t u r e . COX (1984) d i s c u s s e s
economical aspects o f m a r g i n a l f i e l d development i n t h e N o r t h Sea. Adjustments
o f o i l f i e l d a c t i v i t i e s t o low revenues a r e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d by R E I N I C K E , TRE-
NEL, HERBST, KEMPGEN & LINZ (1988). Another p o i n t i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e s e v e r i t y o f
t h e i m p a c t o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h i s t h e f a c t t h a t f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e
s i n c e d r i l l i n g began almost 25 y e a r s ago, o i l p r o d u c t i o n d e c l i n e d i n t h e B r i -
t i s h N o r t h Sea s e c t o r i n 1986 (McNALLY 1987). I n t h e USA, o i l p r o d u c t i o n was
9 % l o w e r i n 1987 t h a n i n 1985, l a r g e l y because o f s h u t t i n g - i n o f s t r i p p e r
w e l l s (THOMPSON & SINGLETON 1988).

2.2.1.5.2.2. Drill in9 meterage

Germany FRG i s an e x c e l l e n t example how d r i l l i n g meterage f l u c t u a t e s as a
consequence o f o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n s and c o l l a p s e s . I n Germany FRG, d r i l l i n g i n
1986 was l e s s t h a n 50 % o f t h e meterage o f 1985, and i n 1987 and 1988 f u r t h e r
decreases took p l a c e (ERDUL UND KOHLE - ERDGAS - PETROCHEMIE 1988) which can be
 138

e x p l a i n e d by p r o p e r p l a n n i n g of the whole y e a r i n c l u d i n g c a n c e l l a t i o n of such

m a r g i n a l l y f e a s i b l e items t h a t i n 1986 have a l r e a d y been spudded o r were ready
t o s t a r t when t h e o i l p r i c e dropped. The e v o l u t i o n of t o t a l d r i l l e d meterage i n
Germany FRG d u r i n g t h e l a s t 15 y e a r s i s pronouncedly r e f l e c t i n g o i l p r i c e h i s t o -
r y (SCHRODER 1980, 1987, 1 9 8 8 ) . From t h e low i n 1973 with 1 3 6 . 4 km t o t a l o i l
and gas d r i l l i n g , a c o n t i n u o u s i n c r e a s e took p l a c e t o 1977 and 1978 when 243.4
and 264.9 k m were d r i l l e d , r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n 1979, however, the d r i l l i n g mete-
r a g e growth s t o p p e d , s t a g n a t i o n o c c u r r e d , and even a s l i g h t s h o r t r e v e r s e e v o l u -
t i o n was i n i t i a t e d , l e a d i n g from 253.7 k m i n 1979 t o 236.1 k m i n 1980.

As a consequence of the second o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n i n 1979/1980, d r i l l i n g me-

t e r a g e d r a s t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e d i n the golden y e a r s of hydrocarbon a c q u i s i t i o n and
reached 262.1 km i n 1 9 8 1 and the r e c o r d o f 334.6 km i n 1982. I n 1983 and 1984,
beginning d e c l i n e of o i l p r i c e s provoked a f a l l - b a c k from the 1982 summit t o
more o r l e s s t h e niveau of 1981, w i t h i n t o t a l 252.2 km and 265.6 k m having
been d r i l l e d i n 1983 and 1984, r e s p e c t i v e l y . A meterage of 246.6 k m i n 1985 was
a l r e a d y t h e i n d i c a t i o n of an a c c e l e r a t e d s l i d e down which was f o l l o w e d by t h e
complete c o l l a p s e i n 1986 when o n l y 176.9 km were d r i l l e d , and due t o numerous
c a n c e l l a t i o n s n o t having been immediately e f f e c t i v e i n 1986 b u t f u l l y broke
through i n 1987, t h e r e s u l t of 1987 was w i t h 118.9 km even c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s
than i n 1986, and 1988 i s n o t coming o u t b e t t e r .

In 1986 and f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , c o n t i n u i n g o i l p r i c e i n s t a b i l i t y encouraged

o n l y a few very s t r o n g American companies t o i n c r e a s e a g a i n c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e
s i g n i f i c a n t l y (MOORE 1988 d ) , w h i l e most of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s were c o n t i n u i n g t o
c u t back i n a l l branches of i n v e s t m e n t . I n t h e USA, t o t a l o i l company l o s s e s i n
1986 and 1987 a s a r e s u l t of t h e o i l p r i c e c r a s h amounted t o more than 50 B i l l .
US $ ( A L - C H A L A B I 1987).

2.2.1.5.2.3.Staff layoff
F u r t h e r consequences of a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e r e v i s e d s i t u a t i o n and company
s t r e a m l i n i n g were c u t - b a c k s on g e n e r a l overheads and s t a f f ( B E U D E L L 1986 c )
which r e s u l t e d i n s h r i n k a g e o r c l o s u r e of r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s o r even b u s i n e s s l i -
q u i d a t i o n , g i v i n g r i s e t o s e v e r a l t e r r i b l e world-wide l a y - o f f a c t i o n s a f f e c t i n g
c o n s i d e r a b l e s h a r e s of g e o s c i e n t i s t s , e n g i n e e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n people ( A L -
GAR 1987 b e s t i m a t e s thar. world-wide a b t . a q u a r t e r of a m i l l i o n hydrocarbon i n -
d u s t r y j o b s d i s a p p e a r e d due t o the 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h ) . The o i l p r i c e drop i s
t h e main reason why predominantly i n USA, G r e a t B r i t a i n and Germany FRG thou-
sands of g e o l o g i s t s and g e o p h y s i c i s t s a r e unemployed and c a n n o t f i n d a q u a l i -
f i e d j o b a t a l l , and a l s o r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r s have run i n t o s e r i o u s problems
concerning working p l a c e and j o b s e c u r i t y . As a consequence of high l a y o f f r a -
t e s , some of t h e o i l and g a s c a p i t a l s even p a r t i a l l y t u r n e d i n t o g h o s t - l i k e c i -
t i e s a s a r e s u l t of empty o f f i c e towers and abandoned l i v i n g d i s t r i c t s due t o
mass exodus of people having become unemployed. One of the w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t o i l
and g a s e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n c o r p o r a t i o n s a d j u s t e d i t s s t a f f s t e p w i s e t o
the d e c l i n i n g market s i n c e t h e s l i g h t b e g i n n i n g s of t h e r e c e s s i o n by end o f
1981 and u p t o now reduced i t s manpower by a b t . 45 %.

Most of the o i l and g a s companies i n the USA l a i d o f f a b t . 25 - 30 % of

t h e i r employees i n 1986 (THOMPSON & SINGLETON 1 9 8 8 ) . I n e a r l y 1988, most compa-
n i e s had r e s t r u c t u r e d and were o p e r a t i n g w i t h minimum personnel r e q u i r e d t o per-
form b u s i n e s s ( C R O U S E 1988 b ) . Some companies, however, even s t a r t e d a n o t h e r
l a y o f f round of a b t . 10 % of t h e i r s t a f f i n 1988 ( M O O R E 1988 d ) . J o b r o t a t i o n
and l o s s a f f e c t e d a l l l e v e l s o f company employment from l o w e s t workers t o
h i g h e s t e x e c u t i v e s , w i t h t o p management r e s t r u c t u r i n g aiming on b e t t e r economi-
c a l guidance of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n which was c a r r i e d o u t by changing emphasis from
t e c h n i c a l s k i l l t o f i n a n c i a l e x p e r i e n c e and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of e x e c u t i v e s (OIL
GAS JOURNAL 1987 9 ) .
In Germany F R G , a b t . 15 % s t a f f r e d u c t i o n s i n c e the o i l p r i c e c r a s h was rea-
 139

ched by end o f 1987 m a i n l y as a consequence o f renouncement o f r e p l a c i n g r e t i r -

i n g o r l e a v i n g employees, b u t p a r t i a l l y a l s o due t o l a y o f f (ERDUL UND KOHLE -
ERDGAS - PETROCHEMIE 1988). The renewed o i l p r i c e v o l a t i l i t y i n m i d t o l a t e
1988 which b r o u g h t t h e p r i c e l e v e l down t o 12 - 15 US $ i n r e a l terms and c r e a -
t e d a s i t u a t i o n a t t h e s w e l l o f a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e c r a s h l e d s e v e r a l companies t o
p l a n f u r t h e r manpower r e d u c t i o n by 25 - 30 % u n t i l 1992 which has t o be c a r r i e d
o u t p r e f e r e n t i a l l y by e a r l y r e t i r e m e n t , b u t some l a y o f f u n d o u b t e d l y w i l l n o t be
a b l e t o be avoided. SCHOLL (1986) comments on f u t u r e manpower r e q u i r e m e n t s i n a
d r a m a t i c a l l y changing p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y .

2.2.1.5.2.4. Company merging

The d r a m a t i c a l o i l p r i c e d r o p i n 1986 had p a r t i c u l a r l y severe consequences
f o r s m a l l e r p r o d u c t i o n , s e r v i c e and s u p p l y companies, many o f which were con-
f r o n t e d w i t h t h e f a t e o f h a v i n g t o go o u t o f business due t o b a n k r u p t c y sooner
o r l a t e r (SCOTTISH PETROLEUM ANNUAL 1987) o r b e i n g taken o v e r by o r merging
w i t h l a r g e r c o r p o r a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e dismemberment o f indepen-
dents (BEUDELL 1986 c, 1986 d; MEISTER & CADY 1986). The s u i t e of consequences
o f t h e economical c r i s i s a r e l o s s o f j o b s , l y i n g i d l e o f c a p i t a l assets, o c c u r -
rence o f b a n k r u p t c i e s and absence o f i n c e n t i v e i n t h e f u t u r e (SCOTTISH PETRO-
LEUM ANNUAL 1987). S e r v i c e companies c u t s t a f f by 30 % on average t o a d j u s t t o
t h e c o n s i d e r a b l y d i m i n i s h e d demand o f w e l l o p e r a t i o n s and t r e a t m e n t s (ERDOL UND
KOHLE - ERDGAS - PETROCHEMIE 1988).

F o r l a r g e r p r o d u c t i o n companies, t h e c r i s i s was a m a t t e r o f s t r e a m l i n i n g by
swing and roundabouts i n c l u d i n g d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f cash f l o w o u t s i d e t h e N o r t h
Sea r e g i o n and even i n t o o t h e r i n t e g r a t e d a c t i v i t i e s such as downstream f a c i l i -
t i e s ( w i t h p a r t i a l l y a d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t coming f r o m s c a l i n g down c a p a c i t i e s i n
m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t s , d i s p o s i n g o f excess p l a n t s and equipment, and w r i t i n g
down i n v e n t o r i e s t o e s t i m a t e d n e t r e a l i z a b l e value; MILLER & NEWLIN 1987), b u t
f o r s m a l l e r independents w i t h o u t downstream p o s s i b i l i t i e s , a t once a b t . 50 % o r
even t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e income was wiped o u t (GRIFFITHS 1986). Aspects o f v e r t i -
c a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f up- and downstream branches as w e l l as c o r p o r a t e t a k e o v e r
f o r i n v e s t m e n t s e c u r i t y and r e s e r v e access a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

2.2.1.5.2.4.1. Vertical integration

of UP- and downstream branches
V e r t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f up- and downstream branches o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l compa-
n i e s was t h e o n l y chance t o s t a y s t r o n g d u r i n g t h e peak o f t h e c r i s i s (CROUSE
1 9 8 7 ) . L a r g e r companies a l s o had t o r a t i o n a l i z e and r e o r g a n i z e , p a r t i a l l y by
means o f merging w i t h o t h e r s , w i t h r e p e a t e d m a j o r and m i n o r c o r p o r a t e t a k e o v e r s
and f u s i o n s h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y (MEISTER
& CADY 1986, MILLER & NEWLIN 1987) f o r l o n g - t e r m s u r v i v a l (HASSELL 1986). Compa-
n i e s w i t h b i g d e b t l o a d s have h a r d l y any p o s s i b i l i t y t o f e n d o f f t a k e o v e r b i d s
(OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987 4 ) . Company r e s t r u c t u r i n g i s a l s o g u i d e d by t h i n k i n g o f
f i n a n c i a l r a t h e r t h a n v e r t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n , w i t h j o i n t v e n t u r e s and a c q u i s i -
t i o n s t a k i n g p l a c e across i n d u s t r i a l and g e o g r a p h i c a l boundaries. P r o f i t cen-
t e r s may develop h o r i z o n t a l l y r a t h e r than v e r t i c a l l y . Aspects o f company a c q u i -
s i t i o n and merging a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by SIMOES ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

2.2.1.5.2.4.2.Corporate takeover f o r
investment security and reserve access
The r e a s o n i n g b e h i n d takeover a c t i o n s i s t h a t a t low o i l p r i c e s , b i g produc-
t i o n companies p r e f e r t o o b t a i n r e s e r v e s by b u y i n g t h e i r c o m p e t i t o r s r a t h e r
t h a n by i n v e s t i n g h e a v i l y i n e x p l o r a t i o n e f f o r t s (OIL DAILY 1988 c ) . Aspects o f
company merging and t a k e o v e r a r e a l s o mentioned by SCHUBERT ( 1 9 8 7 ) . I n some o u t -
 140

s t a n d i n g examples, even mega-merging was done, w i t h t h e managements o f t h e p r e -

v i o u s y i n d e p e n d e n t companies h a v i n g c o m p l e t e l y changed t h e way t o l o o k a t one
a n o t h e r f r o m c o m p e t i t o r s and a r c h r i v a l s t o p a r t n e r s (MILLER & NEWLIN 1987,
SCHUBERT 1987) w h i c h a r e good example cases o f how t o s u r v i v e and p r o s p e r in a
d e p r e s s e d m a r k e t . I n 1987, companies c o n t i n u e d t o c u t c o s t s and i n c r e a s e e f f i -
c i e n c y b y f o c u s s i n g on c o r e b u s i n e s s e s and s e l l i n g o r w r i t i n g down m a r g i n a l
b r a n c h e s o r a s s e t s t h a t do no l o n g e r meet t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f more s t r i n g e n t
r a t e o f r e t u r n (BECK & S M I T H 1 9 8 7 ) .

L e v e r a g e d b u y o u t s i n t h e p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y a r e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d b y PAULUS
(1988). Various aspects o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n t h e o i l patch are o u t l i n e d by
MODESITT ( 1 9 8 6 ) and EDGAR ( 1 9 8 7 ) , and p o i n t s o f f i n a n c i n g m e r g e r s and a c q u i s i -
t i o n s a r e commented b y PETRI ( 1 9 8 3 ) and SOBOTKA ( 1 9 8 6 ) . BENTLEY ( 1 9 8 8 ) e v a l u a -
t e s company s t r a t e g i e s i n a c h a n g i n g m a r k e t , and ANDERSON ( 1 9 8 8 ) r e v i e w s t h e r e -
o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e o i l and gas i n d u s t r y . Examples o f s i g n i f i c a n t c o r p o r a t e
d e a l s i n c l u d i n g t a k e o v e r s and a c q u i s i t i o n s a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d b y CAPEL ( 1 9 8 8 ) ,
w i t h i n t h e N o r t h Sea i n t e r c o m p a n y d e a l i n g g o i n g t o i n c r e a s e and l e a d i n g t o t h e
end r e s u l t o f d e c r e a s i n g number o f s m a l l e r companies.

2.2.1.5.2.5. Cash management

I n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r s a r e u n d e r i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e t o seek o u t e v e r y a v a i -
l a b l e d o l l a r o f i n t e r n a l l y generated cashflow from otherwise i d l e assets o r pre-
m a t u r e f i n a n c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s (CHAN 1985 a, 1985 b ) . Many p e t r o l e u m companies
c a n b e t t e r manage t h e i r e x i s t i n g o p e r a t i o n s t o i m p r o v e t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e s
t h r o u g h c a s h management, u p d a t e d c o l l e c t i o n p o l i c i e s , c a s h p r o c e s s i n g and d i s -
bursements, short-term investments, and more a c c u r a t e p l a n n i n g . N e t income i s
n o t a l w a y s i n d i c a t i v e o f an i n d e p e n d e n t ' s v i a b i l i t y because a c t u a l c a s h f l o w may
b e a r no r e l a t i o n t o e i t h e r n e t income o r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f c a s h -
f l o w . O p e r a t i o n a l c a s h f l o w a d j u s t s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c a s h f l o w f o r changes in w o r k -
i n g c a p i t a l a c c o u n t s such as i n v e n t o r y , a c c o u n t s r e c e i v a b l e and p a y a b l e , and
o t h e r s i n o r d e r t o d e r i v e n e t c a s h income, and n o n - o p e r a t i o n a l c a s h f l o w b r e a k s
a p a r t t h e e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s and uses o f f u n d s .

The m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t i n v o l v e d in t h e p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y t o d a y i s ob-
t a i n i n g s u f f i c i e n t c a s h t o s a t i s f y d e b t o b l i g a t i o n s , d r i l l i n g commitments, and
n e c e s s a r y c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e s , and s t i l l t o be in a p o s i t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n
sound e c o n o m i c a l a c q u i s i t i o n s and d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s when o p p o r t u n i t i e s
a r i s e . An i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t t o c o m p e t i n g in t h e e c o n o m i c a l e n v i r o n -
ment s u r r o u n d i n g t o d a y ' s p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y i s t h e q u a l i t y o f c a s h management
t h a t an i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r u s e s . E f f e c t i v e c a s h management systems p r o v i d e e f -
f i c i e n t methods t o g a t h e r and d i s b u r s e cash, f o r e c a s t w o r k i n g c a p i t a l needs o r
cash surpluses, i m p l e m e n t s h o r t - t e r m i n v e s t m e n t and b o r r o i q i n g p o l i c i e s , e s t a -
b l i s h r e p o r t i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g p r o c e d u r e s , and d i r e c t b a n k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

2.2.1.5.2.6. Survival of independents

D u r i n g t h e p r o l o n g e d slump o f t h e o i l and g a s i n d u s t r y f o l l o w i n g t h e 1986
o i l p r i c e c r a s h , t h e w o r s t damage h a s been s u f f e r e d b y s e r v i c e companies and i n -
dependent o p e r a t o r s (MOORE 1988 a ) . W h i l e i n 1982 i n t h e USA a b t . 12,700 o p e r a -
t o r s d r i l l e d a t l e a s t one w e l l on an o p e r a t o r - o f - r e c o r d b a s i s , t h i s number d r o p -
ped i n 1987 t o o n l y a b t . 5,700 o p e r a t o r s , w i t h v i r t u a l l y a l m o s t a l l o f t h e
7,000 l o s t o p e r a t o r s h a v i n g been i n d e p e n d e n t s . Those i n d e p e n d e n t s s t i l l e x i s t -
i n g are t r y i n g t o survive, w i t h outside f i n a n c i a l c a p i t a l being s t i l l the l i f e -
l i n e o f t h e independent, b u t m o s t o f i t has been u s e d up and c o m p e t i t i o n f o r
what remains i s f i e r c e . Therefore independents a r e l o o k i n g f o r l e s s exposure o f
t h e i r c a p i t a l and f o r q u i c k e r p a y o u t s , w i t h many o f them r e t u r n i n g i n t o e x i s t -
i n g f i e l d s and t r y i n g t o b o o s t p r o d u c t i o n b y r e e n t e r i n g o l d w e l l s . T h i s i s a
m a j o r r e a s o n why i n t h e USA i n 1987 r e c o m p l e t i o n s f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e s i n c e t h e
1980's outnumbered new e x p l o i t a t i o n i n s t a l l a t i o n s . I n d e p e n d e n t s w h i c h have s u r -
 141

v i v e d t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h f o l l o w s t r a t e g i e s c a l l i n g f o r r e d u c t i o n i n d e b t
and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s , s a l e o f m a r g i n a l leases, and c a u t i o u s approach t o c a p i t a l
spending (WEST 1987). MANCHESTER (1983) o u t l i n e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r o j e c t f i -
nancing p r i n c i p l e s t o independents, and WYMAN (1978) g i v e s an overview o f t h e
r o l e o f s m a l l independent producers i n t h e r a p i d l y changing o i l and gas i n d u s -
try.

I n 1987, t h e s l i g h t r e c o v e r y o f o i l p r i c e s enabled t h e independent o p e r a t o r s

i n t h e USA t o r e t u r n t o p r o f i t a b i l i t y a f t e r c o n s i d e r a b l e l o s s e s i n 1986 (WIL-
LIAMS 1988 b ) . The absence o f h e f t y writedowns o f o i l and gas p r o p e r t i e s which
axed e a r n i n g s i n 1986 h e l p e d t o renew p r o f i t a b i l i t y f o r t h e independents i n
1987. Only a c o u p l e o f them s t i l l s u f f e r e d f r o m l o s s e s compared w i t h more than
h a l f o f them i n 1986, a l t h o u g h company performance a l s o i n 1987 and 1988 f l u c -
t u a t e s w i t h o i l and gas p r i c e v a r i a t i o n s . Large and small independents a l i k e r e -
t u r n e d t o p r o f i t a b i l i t y i n 1987 a f t e r t a k i n g charges a g a i n s t e a r n i n g s i n 1986
t o w r i t e down o i l and gas book v a l u e s . The independents a l s o f o l l o w e d t h e l e a d
o f t h e m a j o r s i n sending more upstream i n v e s t m e n t d o l l a r s overseas as o i l p r i -
ces c r a t e r e d and s l i g h t l y l e s s as o i l p r i c e s rebounded, w i t h t h e i r e a r n i n g s and
operational r e s u l t s tending t o r e f l e c t the trend.

2.2.1.5.2.7. Responsibi 1 i ty transfer by contracting and takeover

B i g companies w i t h s u f f i c i e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n a r e p a r t i a l l y
i n a p o s i t i o n t o p i c k up a s s e t s f o r s a l e w o r l d - w i d e i n c l u d i n g p r o d u c t i o n as
w e l l as acreage f o r f u t u r e e x p l o r a t i o n . The low o i l p r i c e s a r e a l s o d i s s i p a t i n g
t h e c u r r e n t m a r k e t premiums o f weaker companies t h u s s e t t i n g t h e stage f o r f u r -
t h e r r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e independent s e c t o r (BATT 1983, RAMSAY 1983, ELTING
1987), because s o f a r companies t h a t have n o t been expected t o s u r v i v e sooner
o r l a t e r have had premiums i n t h e i r share p r i c e s due t o e x p e c t a t i o n s o f i n v e s -
t o r s t h a t t h e y w i l l be t h e s u b j e c t o f a t a k e o v e r b i d (ALGAR 1987 b ) . Cost sa-
v i n g s and s t r e a m l i n i n g campaigns have a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e impact on p r o j e c t mana-
gement o r c o n t r a c t i n g o f s m a l l - t o medium-sized companies which show i n c r e a s i n g
i n t e r e s t i n t h e scope o f t r a n s f e r r i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and r i s k s f o r t h e p r o v i -
s i o n and o p e r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s t o t h e l a r g e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e
companies w i t h f i r s t c l a s s c r e d i t r a t i n g s and s t r o n g b a l a n c e s h e e t s . CHAN
(1985) emphasizes t h e n a t u r e o f o i l - f i e l d c a s h f l o w as t h e l i f e b l o o d o f t h e
independents f o r t h e i r s u r v i v a l , and THOMPSON (1987) i l l u s t r a t e s t h e impact o f
t h e new t a x law on i n t e r n a l cash f l o w g e n e r a t i o n .

2.2.1.5.2.8. Executive skill requirement change

When o i l p r i c e s boomed i n t h e l a t e 1970's and e a r l y 1980's, almost e v e r y bu-
s i n e s s d e c i s i o n i n energy i n d u s t r y and i n v e s t m e n t b a n k i n g community ( r e g a r d l e s s
o f b e i n g p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e and good o r bad, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) t u r n e d o u t t o be a
f i n a n c i a l success s i m p l y because t h e o i l p r i c e c o n t i n u e d t o r i s e (MOORE 1988
a ) . S u r v i v a l a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e crash, however, r e q u i r e s much more c a r e -
f u l a t t e n t i o n on much l e s s c a p i t a l , and more i m p o r t a n t l y , i t i s necessary t o an-
t i c i p a t e f u t u r e changes and t o r e a c t and adapt t o them q u i c k l y and e f f i c i e n t l y .

T h e r e f o r e t h e c o n t i n u i n g o i l p r i c e v o l a t i l i t y has a l s o s e r i o u s impact on r e -
s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e company managements, w i t h t o p l e v e l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n b e i n g cha-
r a c t e r i z e d by a change f r o m emphasis on t e c h n i c a l s k i l l t o f i n a n c i a l e x p e r i e n c e
and economical u n d e r s t a n d i n g (OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987 9 ) . W h i l e i n t h e e a r l y
1980's d u r i n g t h e d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n boom a t t i m e s o f h i g h o i l p r i c e and
s t r o n g US $ m a i n l y e n g i n e e r s and g e o l o g i s t s r a n t h e businesses and main d e c i -
s i o n p o t e n t i a l o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n e x e c u t i v e s was on t e c h n i c a l aspects o f hydro-
carbon r e s e r v e s and ways t o u n l o c k them under a more o r l e s s p r e d i c t a b l e p r i c e
regime, t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h has c o m p l e t e l y r e v e r s e d t h i s c o n s t e l l a t i o n . I n
a c o m p e t i t i v e environment o f low o i l p r i c e and weak US $, f i n a n c i a l e x p e r t s and
economical s p e c i a l i s t s a r e now c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e boards o f many c o r p o r a t i o n s , be-
 142

cause managing c a s h f l o w and e c o n o m i c a l r i s k i s now t h e c h i e f t a s k o f p e t r o l e u m

company e x e c u t i v e s i n a m i l i e u o f h i g h l y u n p r e d i c t a b l e p r i c e e v o l u t i o n s .

2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 3 . Business deterioration for service companies

F o r s e r v i c e and s u p p l y companies, l e s s b u s i n e s s a v a i l a b l e means i n c r e a s i n g
competition, t h o u g h c u t - t h r o a t c o m p e t i t o r s c a n n o t s u r v i v e f o r l o n g , and f r o m
t h e o p e r a t o r ' s p o i n t o f view; t h e c h e a p e s t t e n d e r i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e b e s t
s o l u t i o n i n t h e l o n g r u n , because e x p e r t i s e i s p a r t o f t h e s e r v i c e o f f e r e d and
s c r e w i n g - u p o f j o b s i s much more c o s t l y t h a n a p p r o v i n g a t o n c e a more e x p e n s i v e
and more sound p r o p o s a l (GRIFFITHS 1 9 8 6 ) . Some a s p e c t s o f s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t em-
p l o y m e n t , w e l l s e r v i c e e x p e n d i t u r e s and t o t a l number o f t r e a t m e n t s , and s e r v i c e
c o s t p e r w e l l and s h a r e o f r e c o m p l e t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 3 . 1 . Stimulation boat employment

C o m p e t i t i o n was a c c e n t u a t e d a t l e a s t d u r i n g t h e peak of t h e c r i s i s i n 1986
and e a r l y 1987 b y t h e c o e x i s t e n c e o f t h r e e s e r v i c e v e s s e l s of a l m o s t e q u a l p e r -
formance c a p a b i l i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 8 . 1 . 2 . ) w h i c h had t o s h a r e a s h r i n k i n g o r
s t a g n a n t N o r t h Sea s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t (FOX 1985, OILMAN 1985 b ) , w i t h a l l o f
t h e t h r e e h i g h - l e v e l t e c h n o l o g y t r e a t m e n t b o a t s h a v i n g been p u r p o s e - b u i l t v e s -
s e l s r a t h e r t h a n r e p r e s e n t i n g c o n v e r t e d and a d a p t e d s u p p l y s h i p s (COOPER & MARS-
HALL 1984, OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1984; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 7 . 1 . 1 . ) . The a d v a n t a g e s o f
b o a t o p e r a t i o n s o v e r j o b s f r o m s k i d s mounted on t h e p l a t f o r m a r e r e d u c e d r i g
up/down t i m e , f e w e r e q u i p m e n t l i f t s and moves, o n s i t e b l e n d i n g , and t h e p o s s i b i -
l i t y o f pumping m u l t i p l e j o b s f r o m one s h i p l o a d of f l u i d s and p r o p p a n t s (BRAN-
NON, NETTERS & GRIMMER 1 9 8 7 ) . Only t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n v e s s e l s w i t h
l a r g e p r o p p a n t and f l u i d s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y has a l l o w e d t o p e r f o r m MHF t r e a t m e n t s
on N o r t h Sea r e s e r v o i r s w h i c h have been f o r m e r l y i m p o s s i b l e due t o l i m i t e d
space a v a i l a b l e on t h e p l a t f o r m s .

On t h e o t h e r hand, d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f v e s s e l t r e a t m e n t s v s . s k i d j o b s a r e p a r -
t i a l l y t i m e - and c o s t - e x p e n s i v e t r a v e l t o / f r o m l o c a t i o n , and bad w e a t h e r c a n
cause an o p e r a t i o n t o be a b o r t e d o r d e l a y e d . A s p e c t s o f N o r t h Sea s t i m u l a t i o n
l o g i s t i c s and r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e o u t l i n e d b y MACADAM ( 1 9 8 4 ) . The s o l u t i o n w h i c h
emerged i n t h e N o r t h Sea i n 1986/1987 f r o m t h e t r e a t m e n t f l e e t o v e r c a p a c i t y d i -
lemma as a consequence o f underdemand, a g g r e s s i v e t o e x a g g e r a t e d c o m p e t i t i o n ,
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o r r e p u t a t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e , and v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s was a t
l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y t h a t due t o p r o p o s a l s u b m i s s i o n and a p p r o v a l u n d e r t h e in-
f l u e n c e o f s e r v i c e companies and o p e r a t o r s , one b o a t c a r r i e d o u t t h e b u l k o f
t h e p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g work, t h e second v e s s e l t o o k c a r e o f t h e m a i n amount o f
t h e a c i d f r a c t u r i n g j o b s , and t h e t h i r d b o a t s p e n t much o f t h e t i m e unemployed
i n t h e h a r b o u r . R e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e d e c r e a s i n g amounts o f o r d e r s and t h e c o n c l u -
s i o n o f b u s i n e s s a t c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r r a t e s due t o s t r o n g c o m p e t i t i o n w h i c h
was sometimes e v e n n e a r t h e b r e a k - e v e n p o i n t , a l s o s e r v i c e companies had t o ad-
j u s t t o t h e new s i t u a t i o n b y p e r f o r m a n c e o f a d a p t i v e s h r i n k a g e w h i c h was i n e v i -
t a b l y l i n k e d w i t h o f f i c e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n and d i s m i s s a l o f numerous p e o p l e ( t h e
same a l s o a p p l i e s f o r d r i l l i n g c o n t r a c t o r s ) . S e r v i c e company s t r a t e g i e s f o r s u r -
v i v a l a r e a l s o e v a l u a t e d b y CLARK ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 3 . 2 . Well service expenditures and total number o f jobs

The amount o f b u s i n e s s d e c l i n e f o r t h e s e r v i c e companies due t o t h e 1986 o i l
p r i c e c r a s h i s h i g h l i g h t e d f o r t h e USA m a r k e t b y MOORE ( 1 9 8 8 b ) . W e l l s e r v i c e
e x p e n d i t u r e s b y USA o p e r a t o r s d r o p p e d f r o m t h e 1 9 8 1 h i g h o f more t h a n 4 B i l l .
US $ v i a a b t . 3 . 5 B i l l . US $ i n 1984 and a b t . 2 . 5 B i l l . US $ i n 1985 t o a b t .
1 . 5 B i l l . US $ i n 1986 w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s o n l y one t h i r d o f t h e l e v e l i n t h e peak
y e a r of 1 9 8 1 o r a 65 % v a l u e d r o p . P i c k i n g u p o f b u s i n e s s i n l a t e 1986 b r o u g h t
t h e w e l l s e r v i c e e x p e n d i t u r e l e v e l i n 1987 back t o 2 . 3 B i l l . US $. I n t e r m s o f
 143

executed s e r v i c e jobs, t h e d e c l i n e was f r o m 565,000 j o b s i n 1981 t o 480,000 ope-

r a t i o n s i n 1985 and 390,000 t r e a t m e n t s i n 1986, and t h e improvement o f t h e eco-
nomical f e a s i b i l i t y scene i n 1987 l i f t e d t h e number a g a i n t o 415,000 j o b s . The
r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t o t a l number o f o p e r a t i o n s and c u m u l a t i v e e x p e n d i t u r e s em-
phasizes t h a t a t low o i l p r i c e s , f i r s t of a l l c o n s i d e r a b l y cheaper w e l l s e r v i c e
j o b s a r e c a r r i e d out, and t h e number o f j o b s decreases o n l y i n t h e second l i n e .

2.2.1.5.3.3. Service cost per well and share o f recompletions

The t r e n d as d i s c u s s e d above i s f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e e v o l u t i o n o f w e l l
s e r v i c e c o s t on a p e r - w e l l b a s i s f r o m a b t . 5,100 US $ i n 1981 v i a a b t . 3,900 US
$ i n 1983, a b t . 3,200 US $ i n 1984, a b t . 2,750 US $ i n 1985 and a b t . 1,800 US $
i n 1986 t o a b t . 2,350 US $ i n 1987 and a b t . 2,500 US $ i n 1988 (MOORE 1986,
1987 b ) . A t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e , 1986 was t h e w o r s t y e a r f o r t h e s e r v i c e i n -
d u s t r y s i n c e e x p e n d i t u r e s peaked i n 1981, w i t h a c t i v i t y h a v i n g dropped by more
than 50 % a f t e r t h e o i l p r i c e c r a s h . A f t e r a c o n s i s t e n t c l i m b o f a b t . 1 - 4 X
a n n u a l l y i n t h e t o t a l USA w e l l p o p u l a t i o n o v e r t h e l a s t decade, t o t a l borehole
number decreased f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e again i n 1986, because w e l l abandonments
outpaced new c o m p l e t i o n s . The d i s t u r b e d m a r k e t i s h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t
o p e r a t o r s spent n e a r l y as much money f o r w e l l s e r v i c i n g i n Texas a l o n e d u r i n g
1981 as t h e y d i d i n t h e whole USA i n 1986.

Completions outpaced r e c o m p l e t i o n s i n 1986 by a r a t i o o f o n l y 7 t o 5 compa-

r e d w i t h r a t i o s o f 2 t o 1 i n 1985 and 3 t o 1 between 1982 and 1984. A h i g h e r
percentage o f r e c o m p l e t i o n s i s an obvious i n d i c a t i o n t h a t o p e r a t o r s a r e more
w i l l i n g t o recomplete o l d e r w e l l s w i t h proven r e s e r v e s and p r o d u c t i o n c a p a b i l i -
t i e s than r i s k money d r i l l i n g f o r unproven o i l and gas r e s e r v e s ( t h e same g u i d e -
l i n e a p p l i e s f o r company a c q u i s i t i o n s and takeovers, because i t i s s a f e r t o buy
known f i e l d s w i t h proven r e s e r v e s than t o i n v e s t money f o r e x p l o r a t i o n and ap-
p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g w h i c h c o u l d p a r t i a l l y r e s u l t i n f a i l u r e s and a l m o s t complete
l o s s o f c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e ) . S t i m u l a t i o n j o b s i n t h e USA d e c l i n e d by 25 % f r o m
a b t . 28,800 i n 1985 t o a b t . 21,500 i n 1986.

2.2.1.5.4. Banking relationships and investment strategies

F o l l o w i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n o f e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n as
w e l l as s e r v i c e companies, t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f p r e s e n t consequences o f t h e 1986
o i l p r i c e d r o p i s concluded by i l l u m i n a t i o n o f banking r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i n v e s t -
ment s t r a t e g i e s and o t h e r aspects.

2.2.1.5.4.1. Banking relationships

C o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e s s was a l s o p u t on t h e banking s e c t o r by t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e
c o l l a p s e as a consequence o f cash-poor s m a l l e r p r o d u c t i o n and s e r v i c e companies
seeking postponement o f t h e i r p r i n c i p a l and i n t e r e s t payments on l o a n s and c r e -
d i t f a c i l i t i e s f o r e i t h e r p r o j e c t s undertaken o r a c q u i s i t i o n s made e a r l i e r (BEU-
DELL 1986 c ) . Companies r e a c h i n g b a n k r u p t c y s t a t u s throws t h e problem on t h e
banks whether t o f o r e c l o s e o r n o t i n view o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g a s s e t s h a v i n g been
h a l v e d when p u t up f o r s a l e , w i t h p a r t i a l l y even t h e s i t u a t i o n o c c u r r i n g t h a t
t h e stockmarket quote i s more i m p o r t a n t t o e i t h e r bank o r company purchaser
than t h e u n d e r l y i n g a s s e t s (ALGAR 1987 b ) . O t h e r c a s u a l t i e s w i l l be among those
companies owned by conglomerates, banks and f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s which w i l l
seek t o w i t h d r a w f r o m N o r t h Sea e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n . STEWART (1986) com-
ments on secured o i l and gas l e n d i n g i n b a n k r u p t c i e s , and M I N T Z (1981) e v a l u a -
t e s s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s and a l t e r n a t i v e s o f reserve-based f i n a n c i n g . PELLEY &
CONSTABLE (1982) i n v e s t i g a t e r e s e r v o i r r i s k s and economical assumptions w i t h r e -
s p e c t t o bank l e n d i n g .

R e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e severe d e v a l u a t i o n o f o i l , banks a r e e x p e c t e d n o t t o lend

 144

readily anymore f o r new o i l - f i e l d d e v e l o p m e n t s and a l s o p l a c e s t r i c t c o v e n a n t s

on any c o r p o r a t e b o r r o w i n g s e c u r e d on l o w - p r i c e d o i l (BEUDELL 1986 c ) , whereas
on t h e o t h e r hand gas p r o j e c t s a r e s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 2 . ) .
T h i s c o u l d f o r c e m a j o r o p e r a t o r s t o d e f e r o i l p r o j e c t s , because t h e i r f i n a n c i a l -
l y weaker p a r t i c i p a n t s may have no c a s h o r i n s u f f i c i e n t c o l l a t e r a l t o p a y t h e i r
s h a r e o f new o r i n c r e m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t c o s t s . Thus a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e ,
t h e o i l p r i c e crash i n i t i a t e d a s u i t e o f domino-type e f f e c t s i n t h e economical
scene o f t h e h y d r o c a r b o n i n d u s t r y . Perhaps t h e g r e a t e s t damage was done t o f u -
t u r e h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s and t o c o n f i d e n c e , because h a v i n g l e a r n e d t h e
p a i n f u l l e s s o n o f t h e sudden and u n e x p e c t e d l y s e r i o u s 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h , com-
pany managements w i l l p r o b a b l y n e v e r a g a i n a u t o m a t i c a l l y assume s t e a d y o r i n -
c r e a s i n g o i l p r i c e s and t h e r e f o r e y e a r s may p a s s b e f o r e i n v e s t m e n t r e g a i n s mo-
mentum (ALGAR 1987 b ) . W h i l e r e t a r d i n g e x p l o r a t i o n and new d e v e l o p m e n t s w h i c h
a r e no l o n g e r e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e , however, t h e t u m b l i n g o i l p r i c e s h a v e g i -
ven enormous i n c e n t i v e t o i n n o v a t i v e t e c h n o l o g y w h i c h c a n f u r t h e r h e l p i n o v e r -
a l l c o s t c u t t i n g . The n e c e s s i t y o f e f f e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f l o a n s t o r e d u c e r i s k
i s emphasized b y McPHAIL ( 1 9 8 7 ) , and ROSBACD ( 1 9 8 3 ) comments o n i n v e s t m e n t e v a -
l u a t i o n s i n i n f l a t i o n a r y and u n s t a b l e s c e n a r i o s . PELLEY ( 1 9 8 2 ) d i s c u s s e s r e l a -
t i o n s h i p s between b a n k i n g and e n e r g y .

2.2.1.5.4.2. Investment strategies

D u r i n g t h e l a s t decade, t h e p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y i n t h e f r e e w o r l d s p e n t an-
n u a l l y more t h a n 100 B i l l . US $ f o r o i l and gas e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n (OEH-
M E 1 9 8 6 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o such h i g h expenses, i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o p o s t u l a t e t h a t
t h e s h a r e o f s t i m u l a t i o n s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d as much as p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o
a c h i e v e maximum p r o f i t f r o m t h e i n v e s t m e n t s . I n t h e B r i t i s h s e c t o r o f t h e N o r t h
Sea, o v e r 50 B i l l . t were i n v e s t e d i n t o h y d r o c a r b o n e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n
s i n c e t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e f i r s t c o m m e r c i a l gas f i e l d i n 1965 (OFFSHORE EN-
GINEER 1986 d; c f . s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.6.2. and 3 . 3 . ) . As a consequence o f t h e h i g h
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d gas i n t h e S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea, t h e h i t h e r t o e x -
penses i n c l u d e d a l r e a d y c o n s i d e r a b l e s h a r e s f o r s t i m u l a t i o n , and t h e amount of
investments f o r h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i s even g o i n g t o i n c r e a s e d u r i n g
t h e m a j o r R o t l i e g e n d gas d e v e l o p m e n t campaigns i n 1987 - 1990 and beyond ( c f .
sections 2.4.5.1. and 3 . 1 . 2 . ) . E s t i m a t i o n c a n be made t h a t t h e a n n u a l s t i m u l a -
t i o n m a r k e t p o t e n t i a l i n t h e N o r t h Sea i s a b t . 20 M i o . L (OILMAN 1985 b; c f .
section 3.8.1.2.).

I n 1987, t h e p r o m i s i n g o u t l o o k f o r h i g h e r a v e r a g e o i l p r i c e s as compared
w i t h t h o s e o f 1986 r e s u l t e d i n l e s s s e v e r e w o r l d - w i d e c a p i t a l c u t t i n g c o m p r i s -
i n g o n l y a b t . 10 - 20 % i n c o n t r a s t t o 25 - 40 % i n 1986 w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
o r i g i n a l b u d g e t i n g made i n l a t e 1985, t h e r e b y s l o w i n g down t h e s l i d e i n h y d r o -
c a r b o n e x p l o r a t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t (BEUDELL 1987 a; some a s p e c t s o f p i c k i n g - u p
o f b u s i n e s s i n 1987 a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d b y QUINLAN 1 9 8 8 ) . I m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e s
a r e t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e o i l and gas i n d u s t r y f r o m t h e s h a r p r e d u c t i o n i n c o s t o f
d r i l l i n g , w o r k o v e r , c o m p l e t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n s e r v i c e s , w i t h l o w e r r a t e s b e i n g
a good r e a s o n f o r b u d g e t d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n t h e l i g h t o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e ca-
p i t a l expenditure level.

2.2.1.5.4.3. Other aspects

A l t h o u g h t h i s s i t u a t i o n was a g a i n s l i g h t l y u n d e r m i n e d b y a n o t h e r m i n o r de-
c l i n e o f t h e r e a l o i l p r i c e i n e a r l y 1988 as a consequence o f t h e p o l i t i c a l un-
c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t a r e a ( w h i c h was a c c e p t e d t o be so s e r i o u s t h a t
t h e OPEC a l a r m e d a l s o n o n - g r o u p c o u n t r i e s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a c r i t i c a l s e s s i o n
l o o k i n g f o r j o i n t e f f o r t s t o s t o p t h e downwards o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e o i l p r i c e ;
O I L DAILY 1988 a; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 4 . 3 . ) , t h e g e n e r a l r i s i n g t r e n d o f t h e hy-
d r o c a r b o n e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r y r e c o v e r i n g f r o m t h e 1986 c r i s i s
i s g o i n g on, as a l s o r e f l e c t e d b y d o u b l i n g o f t h e number o f r i g s b e i n g a c t i v e
i n t h e N o r t h Sea w i t h r e s p e c t t o 1987 ( O I L DAILY 1988 b ) f o l l o w i n g t h e i r h a l -
 145

v i n g f r o m e a r l y t o l a t e 1986 when numerous unemployed r i g s were s t a c k e d a l o n g

t h e c o a s t l i n e (SCOTTISH PETROLEUM ANNUAL 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 2 . ) . The most
s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on r e t a r d e d p i c k - u p o f a c t i v i t y d e s p i t e more o r l e s s s t a -
b i l i z i n g o i l p r i c e l e v e l c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a t a t t h e peak o f t h e c r i s i s i s
l a c k i n g c o n f i d e n c e i n f u t u r e i n v e s t m e n t o f money d e s p i t e s u f f i c i e n t hope o r
even optimism (KINNEY 1987). Managements s i m p l y do n o t r e l y on t h e s i t u a t i o n ,
and h e s i t a t i o n w i t h postponement i f any doubt can be found i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
f o r t h e scenery. Challenges t o i n d u s t r y v i a b i l i t y f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f t h e i n -
vestment community a r e analyzed by MAXWELL (1986).

The t r a d i t i o n a l areas o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e w o r l d a r e p r e -

d o m i n a n t l y t h e USA and p a r t s o f Western Europe ( i n c l u d i n g m a i n l y t h e B r i t i s h
and Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea as w e l l as N e t h e r l a n d s and Germany FRG onshore).
E a s t e r n Europe and N o r t h e r n A f r i c a a r e d e v e l o p i n g areas where so f a r i n s u f f i -
c i e n t m a r k e t i n g a c t i v i t y was made by p r o p p a n t and p a r t i a l l y a l s o s e r v i c e compa-
n i e s , w i t h m a j o r r e g i o n s o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n E a s t e r n Europe be-
i n g Yugoslavia, Hungary and Turkey. I n view o f p r o p p a n t m a r k e t i n g and s a l e s ,
t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e had d i f f e r e n t consequences i n USA and Europe ( c f .
c h a p t e r 2 . 3 . ) , and an i m p o r t a n t a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e e x c l u s i v e l y a f f e c t i n g t h e Eu-
ropean market was t h e US $ exchange r a t e drop ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.3.).

2.2.1.6. Oil price evolution and gas market

O i l and gas a r e d i f f e r e n t hydrocarbon phases which o f t e n o c c u r t o g e t h e r ( a t
l e a s t more o r l e s s gas i s d i s s o l v e d w i t h i n t h e o i l , o r i n some cases, t h e o i l
r e s e r v o i r has a gas cap when f r e e gas has e x s o l v e d f r o m t h e o i l ) , b u t a l s o a r e
frequently d i s t r i b u t e d i n d i f f e r e n t r e s e r v o i r s comprising separate storeys o f
t h e g e o l o g i c a l column. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s p l i t n a t u r a l occurrences, t h e i n d u s t -
r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n and economical s i g n i f i c a n c e o f o i l and gas a r e i n many r e -
s p e c t s d i f f e r e n t and t h u s t h e market s t r u c t u r e and p o t e n t i a l o f b o t h h y d r o c a r -
bon phases i s n o t s i m p l y comparable. These r e l a t i o n s h i p s have an i m p o r t a n t i m -
p a c t on t h e r e a c t i o n and p o s i t i o n o f t h e gas market a b s o l u t e l y as w e l l as r e l a -
t i v e l y t o t h a t o f t h e o i l market i n view o f t h e changes o f t h e o i l p r i c e l e v e l
i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n i n t h e p a s t . Aspects o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f t h e gas
market and i t s independence f r o m t h e o i l market, i n f l u e n c e o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i -
ce drop on gas development d r i l l i n g i n t h e N o r t h Sea, s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e e a s t
west energy t r a d e i n t h e European gas market, and e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e n d s o f t h e
w o r l d gas market a r e e v a l u a t e d as f o l l o w s .

The o u t l i n e o f v a r i o u s economical and t e c h n i c a l f a c t o r s o f t h e gas m a r k e t i n -

c l u d i n g f u t u r e t r e n d s i s p r e s e n t e d i n some more d e t a i l because o f t h e s i g n i f i -
c a n t r o l e which s t i m u l a t i o n p l a y s i n enhancement o f gas r e s e r v e s and t h e i r p r o -
d u c i b i l i t y . H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s a l r e a d y now much more abundant i n
gas r e s e r v o i r s t h a n i n o i l pay zones b o t h i n Europe and i n N o r t h America, and
t h i s r a t i o i s expected t o s h i f t even more towards gas i n t h e coming decades, i n
c o n t r a s t t o t h e p a s t when emphasis has been almost everywhere i n t h e w o r l d on
t h e o i l s e c t o r b e f o r e t h e i n c r e a s i n g r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e economical v a l u e o f gas
s t a r t e d some f i f t e e n y e a r s ago ( a l m o s t c o i n c i d e n t w i t h t h e f i r s t p o l i t i c a l a v a i -
l a b i l i t y t h r e a t and o i l p r i c e jump) and a c c e l e r a t e d a t t h e t i m e when s y n t h e t i c
h i g h - and i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants f o r deep w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n were i n t r o -
duced t o t h e hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y .

2.2.1.6.1. Characteristic features o f the gas market

and its independence from the oil market
As a consequence o f i t s e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y l e s s hazardous n a t u r e , gas which
went a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e l a t e r on stream f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n and l a r g e - s c a l e
i n d u s t r i a l and urban a p p l i c a t i o n t h a n o i l , has a much b e t t e r f u t u r e i n compari-
son t o o i l a t l e a s t i n Europe due t o i n c r e a s i n g replacement o f o i l by gas f o r
a1 1 t y p e s o f h e a t i n g and combustion systems. Hydrocarbon e x p l o r a t i o n and deve-
 146

lopment d r i l l i n g i n t h e n e x t y e a r s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e N o r t h Sea w i l l p r e d o m i -
n a n t l y f o c u s on s e v e r a l r i c h gas p r o v i n c e s w h i c h w i l l s e c u r e s u p p l y u n t i l t h e
y e a r 2000 o r e v e n beyond (FISHMAN 1986; GREGORY 1986, 1987; THOMAS 1986, ALGAR
1987 a, BAND 1987, POTTER 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 5 . and 3 . 1 . ) .

A l t h o u g h o i l and g a s p r i c e s a r e l i n k e d i n some r e s p e c t (LINDEN 1 9 8 5 ) , t h e

gas m a r k e t h a s a c e r t a i n i n d e p e n d e n c e and c o n t i n u e s t o e v o l v e r a p i d l y , whereas
t h e o i l m a r k e t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a more o r l e s s s t a g n a n t n a t u r e due t o s t i l l
p e r s i s t i n g aims on i n c r e a s i n g r e p l a c e m e n t o f o i l by gas and o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s
i n o r d e r t o g e t r i d o f t h e p o l i t i c a l dependence f r o m t h e OPEC g r o u p and t o
r e a c h t h e p o i n t where demand can be s a t i s f i e d i n l a r g e amounts f r o m t h e N o r t h
Sea and o t h e r European o i l p r o v i n c e s . N a t u r a l gas has i n t h e p a s t and f u t u r e
y e a r s a l s o an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e e n e r g y t r a d e between E a s t e r n and W e s t e r n Eu-
r o p e (O'ANDREA 1987) and t h u s c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e p r o g r e s s i v e a p p r o a c h o f t h e
two p o l i t i c a l complexes w i t h d i f f e r e n t e c o n o m i c a l and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . A s p e c t s
o f gas demand and p r i c i n g a r e o u t l i n e d b y FRANSSEN ( 1 9 8 2 ) and J I M I S O N ( 1 9 8 6 ) .
HOLTBERG, WOODS & ASHBY ( 1 9 8 7 ) c o n c l u d e t h a t n a t u r a l gas w i l l p l a y a m a j o r r o l e
i n a h i g h l y c o m p e t i t i v e e n e r g y m i x w e l l i n t o t h e n e x t c e n t u r y . DAHLE ( 1 9 8 8 ) il-
l u s t r a t e s s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s o f gas and o i l , and GADONNIEUX (1988)
o u t l i n e s gas c h a l l e n g e s i n a c o m p e t i t i v e m a r k e t . BRIERLEY ( 1 9 8 8 ) summarizes t h e
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f gas as a g l o b a l e n e r g y s o u r c e . TECLAW ( 1 9 8 8 ) c h a r a c t e r i z e s n a t u -
r a l gas as a s t r a t e g i c f u e l f o r t h e 1 9 9 0 ' s . W o r l d t o t a l a n n u a l gas p r o d u c t i o n
i s i n t h e r a n g e o f 1,500 - 2,000 B i l l . m3 s i n c e s e v e r a l y e a r s (ERDOEL-ERDGAS AK-
TUELL 1 9 8 1 b ) .

Because gas i s l i k e l y t o r e m a i n a premium f u e l i n t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e , de-

mand s h o u l d c o n t i n u e t o i n c r e a s e o v e r t h e n e x t decade o r more d e s p i t e a s h o r t -
t e r m e r o s i o n o f c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s f o l l o w i n g t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e (FISHMAN
1986).

2.2.1.6.2. I n f l u e n c e o f the 1986 o i l p r i c e drop

on gas development d r i l l i n g i n the North Sea
I n t e r m s o f t h e s c h e d u l e d m a j o r d e v e l o p m e n t campaigns o f R o t l i e g e n d gas
f i e l d s i n t h e B r i t i s h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2 . 4 . 3 . and 3 . 1 . ) , t h e
1986 o i l p r i c e d r o p had o n l y m i n o r i m p e t u s on t h e p r o g r e s s o f p r e p a r a t i o n and
a c q u i s i t i o n as a consequence o f t h e r e l a t i v e independence o f t h e g a s m a r k e t
f r o m t h e o i l m a r k e t due t o l o n g - t e r m p l a n n i n g and a r r a n g e m e n t s , w i t h m o s t o f
t h e gas h a v i n g a l r e a d y been s o l d p r i o r t o p r o d u c t i o n d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n .
The i n f l u e n c e s o f t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e o n d e v e l o p m e n t d r i l l i n g p a r t i c u -
l a r l y i n t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h Sea a r e i l l u s t r a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f gas s u p p l y
c o n t r a c t s and e c o n o m i c a l s a f e t y , c o n t i n u i t y o f p l a n n e d and a p p r o v e d g a s - f i e l d
d e v e l o p m e n t , government back-up and s u p p l y s e c u r i t y , g a s - f i e l d d e v e l o p m e n t v s .
gas p r i c e and demand e v o l u t i o n , d i s t u r b a n c e o f o i l - f i e l d development, and gas
i m p o r t and c o n d e n s a t e f i e l d d e v e l o p m e n t .

2.2.1.6.2.1. Gas supply contracts and economical s a f e t y

Gas s u p p l y c o n t r a c t s a r e l o n g - t e r m r a t h e r t h a n s p o t - m a r k e t - r e l a t e d l i k e o i l
demand and s u p p l y , and i n c l u d e s p e c i f i e d p r i c e s , minimum o f f t a k e q u a n t i t i e s ,
take-or-pay c l a u s e s (YURKEWICZ 1 9 8 6 ) , and s t r i c t f o r m u l a s f o r p r i c e a d j u s t -
ments, w i t h a l l t h e s e measures b e i n g n e c e s s a r y t o s a f e g u a r d t h e l a r g e i n v e s t -
ment i n f u l l y d e d i c a t e d f i e l d f a c i l i t i e s and i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o f e x p o r t p i p e l i n e
and i m p o r t t e r m i n a l needed t o g e t t h e gas t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r m a r k e t t o w h i c h i t
has been c o n t r a c t e d (THOMAS 1 9 8 6 ) . Thus lo^ o i l p r i c e s have l i t t l e d i r e c t i m -
p a c t o n B r i t i s h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea g a s - f i e l d development, i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h e
d u r a t i o n o f t h e p e r i o d o f cheap o i l and w i t h o u t any c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e a d a p t a -
t i o n o f o i l - f i e l d d e v e l o p m e n t . W h i l e m o s t o f t h e c o n t r a c t s r e m a i n unchanged,
o t h e r n e g o t i a t i o n s w i l l s u f f e r f r o m a d e c l i n e i n p r i c e s u p t o a b t . 30 % as a
consequence o f some agreement l i n k a g e t o t h e now l o w e r g a s / o i l p r i c e r a t i o (BEU-
 147

DELL 1986 b ) , w i t h t h e o v e r a l l e f f e c t , however, b e i n g n o t h i n g l i k e as severe as

t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d by o i l p r o d u c t i o n companies who had t o contend w i t h a p r i c e
slump o f some 60 % .

The o n l y c r o s s l i n k i n g element i s t h e f a c t t h a t most o f t h e companies w i t h -

drawing gas i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea a r e a l s o m a j o r o i l producers and
some o f t h e economy measures b e i n g t a k e n i n t h e wake o f low o i l p r i c e s a r e a f -
f e c t i n g budgets n o t j u s t f o r t h e o i l areas, b u t t o some e x t e n t a l s o f o r gas ex-
p l o r a t i o n and development (BEUDELL 1986 c, FISHMAN 1986). I n many areas, how-
e v e r , t h e r e i s a c l e a r s h i f t o f a c t i v i t y w i t h p r o m o t i o n o f gas p r o j e c t s a t t h e
expense o f o i l p l a n s which a r e c u t back o r suspended (BEUOELL 1986 b ) . On t h e
o t h e r hand and i n c o n t r a s t t o Europe, t h e gas market i n t h e USA a l s o s u f f e r e d
c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m t h e o i l p r i c e c r a s h . Gas s u p p l y and m a r k e t i n g t r e n d s a r e a l s o
o u t l i n e d by BERGMANN (1982).

2.2.1.6.2.2. Continuity o f planned

and approved gas-f ield development
Gas development d r i l l i n g i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea ( c h i e f l y i n t h e
t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d gas b e l t ) , b u t t o m i n o r amounts a l s o i n N e t h e r l a n d s and Germa-
ny FRG i n R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s , i s t h e r e f o r e more o r l e s s independent
f r o m t h e o i l p r i c e s c e n a r i o , because s u p p l y has t o be p r o v i d e d i n o r d e r t o f u l -
f i l l t h e n e g o t i a t e d and concluded l o n g - t e r m d e l i v e r y c o n t r a c t s ( c f . s e c t i o n s
2.4.5. and 3 . 1 . ) . As t h e gas market i s s t i l l booming due t o c o n t i n u o u s l y i n c r e a -
s i n g replacement o f o i l by gas p a r t i c u l a r l y i n urban h e a t i n g , development o f
t h e t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d gas b e l t has a good f u t u r e a t l e a s t f o r t h e n e x t f i v e
y e a r s when t h e m a j o r d r i l l i n g and f r a c t u r i n g campaigns a r e g o i n g t o be c a r r i e d
o u t ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.1.2. and 2.4.5.1.). I n a d d i t i o n , development o f t h e p l a n -
ned f i e l d s f o r w h i c h t h e gas had been a l r e a d y s o l d by c o n t r a c t has been appro-
ved by t h e government and i s backed-up a g a i n s t t h e danger o f gas i m p o r t s f r o m
abroad. Proppant demand i s a l s o more o r l e s s f o r e s e e a b l e , because e x p l o r a t i o n
and a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g has a l r e a d y shown t h a t i n many f i e l d s almost a l l t h e de-
velopment w e l l s w i l l have t o be f r a c t u r e d (OILMAN 1987 a ) , and t h e c l o s u r e
s t r e s s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r depth as w e l l as t h e l o n g - t e r m f i e l d p r o d u c t i o n p l a n -
n i n g o f up t o 20 - 30 y e a r s l e a v e s no o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y f o r g o i n g on t h e s a f e
s i d e than t o p r o p t h e whole f r a c t u r e w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s and
n o t t o use n a t u r a l sand a t a l l .

T h e r e f o r e t h e huge d r i l l i n g and f r a c t u r i n g campaigns i n t h e Southern N o r t h

Sea R o t l i e g e n d gas b e l t f r o m 1987 onwards u n t i l t h e e a r l y 1990's (FISHMAN 1986;
GREGORY 1986, 1987; OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1986 a, OILMAN 1987 a) comprise t h e b u l k
o f t h e European business f o r t h e proppant companies i n t h e n e x t y e a r s and c o u l d
even r e p r e s e n t one o f t h e m a j o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i o n s which
o i l and gas i n d u s t r y has e x p e r i e n c e d so f a r . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f n a t u r a l gas i n
t h e N o r t h Sea i s u n d e r l i n e d by a s t r o n g i n c r e a s e i n p r o d u c t i o n i n 1987 f o l l o w -
i n g t h e g e n e r a l p i c k i n g - u p o f a c t i v i t y a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h (QUINLAN
1986). The development campaigns i n 1987 - 1990 and beyond a r e p r o b a b l y t h e
g r e a t e s t a c t i v i t y s i n c e t h e i n i t i a l boom t h a t f o l l o w e d gas d i s c o v e r y i n t h e B r i -
t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea i n t h e e a r l y 1960's (VIELVOYE 1988 a) and a r e c e r t a i n l y
t h e l a r g e s t Western European gas f i e l d development p r o j e c t i n t h e l a s t t e n
y e a r s (McNALLY 1987).

2.2.1.6.2.3. Government back-up and supply security

T h i s upsurge o f gas development has been t r i g g e r e d by t h e need o f B r i t i s h
Gas t o r e p l a c e s u p p l i e s f r o m t h e F r i g g f i e l d (MURE 1987) which s t a r t e d t o p r o -
duce i n 1977 (ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL 1976 b) and w i l l be d e p l e t e d by 1992/1993
( i n i t i a l r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s o f F r i g g have been 250 B i l l . m3 o r 10 T c f , o f
w h i c h a b t . h a l f each i s on B r i t i s h and Norwegian N o r t h Sea t e r r i t o r y ; ERDOEL-
EROGAS AKTUELL 1976 b ) . B r i t i s h Gas has o r i g i n a l l y planned t o r e p l a c e t h e F r i g g
 148

s u p p l i e s w i t h gas f r o m t h e S l e i p n e r f i e l d i n t h e Norwegian N o r t h Sea, b u t t h e

B r i t i s h government vetoed t h e i m p o r t c o n t r a c t i n 1985 ( a b t . 20 % o f t h e t o t a l
U n i t e d Kingdom gas s u p p l y i s coming f r o m t h e F r i g g f i e l d ; PETROLEUM R E V I E W 1988
d ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o replacement, gas demand has c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g
t h e l a t e 1970's and e a r l y 1980's. T h e r e f o r e s t i l l b e f o r e t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e
c r a s h huge development p l a n s f o r R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s have been made and s t a r -
t e d t o c o n f i r m by a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g which i s t h e base f o r c o n c l u s i o n o f gas de-
l i v e r y c o n t r a c t s t h a t have been s i g n e d w i t h B r i t i s h Gas, w i t h t h e f i r s t f i e l d s
s t a r t i n g s u p p l y t o B r i t i s h Gas i n autumn 1988 (VIELVOYE 1987 c, 1987 d) and t h e
o t h e r s s u c c e s s i v e l y f o l l o w i n g t h r o u g h 1990 and beyond (CAPEL 1988, OILMAN 1987
a).
S t r o n g governmental s u p p o r t o f gas development i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h
Sea g i v e s t h e o p e r a t i n g companies s u f f i c i e n t s a f e t y a l s o a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l
p r i c e c o l l a p s e t h a t a l l t h e p r o j e c t s can be f i n i s h e d e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l y .
There i s o n l y l i t t l e concern t h a t B r i t i s h Gas c o u l d s t o p t h e gas development
boom by s t a r t i n g t o c o n t r a c t gas f r o m t h e Norwegian S l e i p n e r and T r o l l (GRAY
1987) f i e l d s f o r i m p o r t f r o m t h e m i d 1990's (Norway has o p e n l y s t a t e d t h a t i t
needs t o g e t i n t o t h e U n i t e d Kingdom gas market; OILMAN 1987 a ) , because a l -
though h a v i n g c o n v e r t e d r e c e n t l y t o a p r i v a t e company, B r i t i s h Gas s t i l l r e -
mains t h e m o n o p o l i s t i c gas buyer i n Great B r i t a i n and needs p e r m i s s i o n t o i m -
p o r t n a t u r a l gas f r o m t h e government which p r e f e r s t o back-up domestic compa-
n i e s and t o keep o u t i m p o r t s , w i t h n a t i o n a l hydrocarbon o p e r a t o r s a l s o t h e i r s e l -
ves m a i n t a i n i n g p r e s s u r e on t h e government t o s t i c k t o t h i s a t t i t u d e (VIELVOYE
1988 a ) . The T r o l l f i e l d has a b t . 45 T c f (1,125 B i l l . m3) r e c o v e r a b l e gas r e s e r -
ves which make i t t h e t e n t h l a r g e s t gas f i e l d i n t h e w o r l d (McNALLY 1 9 8 7 ) . The
planned p u t t i n g on stream o f t h e gas f i e l d complex Vulcan, V a l i a n t , Vanguard,
Ravenspurn South ( c f . f i g . 6 ) and C l e e t o n as t h e f i r s t group o f newly developed
Rotliegend f i e l d s ( w i t h the exception o f Cleeton having a l l required conside-
r a b l e amounts o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n ) s t i l l i n f a l l 1988
has been s u c c e s s f u l l y achieved (PETROLEUM R E V I E W 1988 d, VIELVOYE 1988 c ) .

2.2.1.6.2.4. Gas-f ield development

vs. gas price and demand evolution
The development h i s t o r y o f t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d gas
f i e l d b e l t i s an e x c e l l e n t example how gas p r i c e c o n t r o l s a c q u i s i t i o n a c t i v i t y
(PETROLEUM R E V I E W 1988 d ) . A f t e r t h e i n i t i a l phase o f i n t e n s e e x p l o r a t i o n and
development i n t h e l a t e 1960's and e a r l y 1970's, a downturn o c c u r r e d u n t i l t h e
b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1980's which was t r i g g e r e d by market f o r c e s . By t h a t time, B r i -
t i s h Gas had secured s u f f i c i e n t s u p p l i e s f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l l a r g e f i e l d s t o meet
t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s and t h e p r i c e t h e y were o f f e r i n g f o r a d d i t i o n a l r e s e r v e s d i d
n o t warrant f u r t h e r exploration. During t h i s period, the operators turned t h e i r
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea and t h e development o f o i l r e s e r v e s .
Throughout t h e 1970's, however, demand f o r gas t r e b l e d , and by t h e end o f t h e
decade, B r i t i s h Gas had t o l o o k f o r new s u p p l i e s and o f f e r e d p r i c e s t h a t made
i t a t t r a c t i v e f o r t h e o p e r a t o r s t o r e t u r n t o t h e Southern N o r t h Sea and t o r e -
sume e x p l o r a t i o n which i n i t i a t e d t h e gas f i e l d d r i l l i n g , c o m p l e t i o n and s t i m u l a -
t i o n boom o f t h e 1980's t h a t w i l l e x t e n d a t l e a s t t o t h e e a r l y 1990's.

2.2.1.6.2.5. Disturbance of oi 1 -field development

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e gas market s i t u a t i o n which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by more o r
l e s s s e c u r i t y , t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e had t e r r i b l e consequences f o r t h e
o i l market, w i t h f i e l d s s t i l l r e m a i n i n g t o be developed h a v i n g become hopeless
uneconomical a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e drop and i n m i d t o l a t e 1987 i n a s l i g h t -
l y more s t a b i l i z e d s i t u a t i o n s t i l l r e m a i n i n g m a r g i n a l e x c e p t o f l a r g e r f i e l d s .
S m a l l e r s a t e l l i t e s can be made more f e a s i b l e o n l y by widespread use o f subsea
c o m p l e t i o n s w i t h p r o d u c t i o n processed a t e x i s t i n g p l a t f o r m s a t t h e b i g s p o t s
nearby (THOMAS 1986; aspects of development o f small o i l and gas f i e l d d i s c o v e -
 149

r i e s i n t h e N o r t h Sea a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by MORRISON & JOLLIFFEE 1982 and VOSPER &

STEVENS 1982; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.5.2.1.). Thus t h e a c t i v i t y a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l
p r i c e c r a s h focussed on spur e x p l o i t a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y f o r f i e l d s b e i n g c l o s e t o
e x i s t i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s w i t h spare c a p a c i t i e s and cheap t y i n g - i n o f s a t e l l i t e s
(ALGAR 1987 b ) . On t h e o t h e r hand, many new o i l f i e l d developments a r e s t i l l
e c o n o m i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e a t an o i l p r i c e o f a b t . US $ 15, a l t h o u g h a h i g h e r o i l
p r i c e l e v e l and p a r t i c u l a r l y a b e t t e r back-up by a s t r o n g e r US $ exchange r a t e
would c e r t a i n l y g i v e a much b e t t e r i n c e n t i v e .

2.2.1.6.2.6. Gas import and condensate-f i e l d development

The 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e c o u l d indeed have a p o s i t i v e impact on t h e a c t i -
v i t y i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d gas b e l t due t o t h e delayed
development o f gas condensate f i e l d s i n t h e N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea (FISHMAN 1986 a,
GREGORY 1987) which s u f f e r f r o m t h e problem o f l a r g e i n c r e m e n t a l c a p i t a l i n v e s t -
ment b e i n g r e q u i r e d t o c y c l e t h e gas and o f d e f e r r a l o f income f r o m s e l l i n g t h e
gas t h r o u g h o u t t h e c y c l i n g p e r i o d (ALGAR 1987 b ) . Gas condensate f i e l d develop-
ment, i f t a k i n g p l a c e a t a l l , i s t h e r e f o r e r e s t r i c t e d t o those patches w i t h ex-
c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h l i q u i d c o n t e n t , and even those w i l l need some t y p e o f enhanced
o i l r e c o v e r y i n v e s t m e n t i n c e n t i v e t o be e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e . The e x c l u s i o n o f
Norwegian gas so f a r f r o m i m p o r t i n t o t h e U n i t e d Kingdom (KNOTT 1986) a l s o
a f t e r t h e p r i v a t i z a t i o n o f B r i t i s h Gas which s t i l l a c t s as m o n o p o l i s t i c gas
buyer, i s t r i g g e r i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e f u r t h e r u p g r a d i n g o f t h e B r i t i s h Southern
N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d gas b e l t (GREGORY 1986), which means a g a i n f u r t h e r promo-
t i o n o f the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g f o r increasing acqui-
s i t i o n o f gas f o r c o v e r i n g r i s i n g domestic demand i n G r e a t B r i t a i n w i t h o u t t h e
s u p p o r t o f c o n t r a c t i n g gas abroad, b u t e x c l u s i v e l y f r o m indigeneous sources.

As i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t B r i t i s h Gas has t o buy s i g n i f i c a n t new q u a n t i t i e s f o r

s e c u r i n g s u p p l y o f t h e f o r e c a s t e d demand u n t i l t h e n e x t c e n t u r y , t h e r e i s a
good market f o r t h e gas l i b e r a t e d f r o m R o t l i e g e n d f i e l d s i n t h e B r i t i s h Sou-
t h e r n N o r t h Sea, and t h e economical impetus i s g i v e n p a r t i c u l a r l y by t h e f a c t
t h a t i f t h e demand o f B r i t i s h Gas cannot be s a t i s f i e d by s u p p l y from t h e U n i t e d
Kingdom N o r t h Sea s e c t o r , B r i t i s h Gas would have t o c o n t r a c t s u b s t a n t i a l v o l u -
mes f r o m Norway a l r e a d y i n t h e n e x t y e a r s (GREGORY 1987). B r i t i s h Gas i t s e l f ,
however, has a s t r o n g i n t e r e s t n o t t o d i s c o u r a g e domestic e x p l o r a t i o n and deve-
lopment by b u y i n g abroad e a r l i e r t h a n a b s o l u t e l y necessary, b u t a t t h e b o t t o m
o f t h e l i n e has t o meet t h e demand o f i t s customers. T h e r e f o r e t h e c o n s t e l l a -
t i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h gas market i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e f o r e x p l o -
r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n companies t o develop as many gas f i e l d s as p o s s i b l e t h o -
r o u g h l y which i n d i s p e n s i b l y i n c o r p o r a t e s l a r g e - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r -
i n g campaigns f o r l i b e r a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l amounts o f gas.

2.2.1.6.3. Significance o f the east-west

energy trade i n the European gas market
The importance o f gas development d r i l l i n g i n c l u d i n g s t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e
N o r t h Sea and o t h e r hydrocarbon p r o v i n c e s i n Europe i n p a s t and f u t u r e has t o
be understood w i t h t h e background o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e e a s t - w e s t energy
t r a d e i n t h e European gas market (D'ANDREA 1987). The development o f t h e econo-
m i c a l p a r t n e r s h i p between E a s t e r n and Western Europe was t h e l o g i c a l consequen-
ce o f r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e energy consumption p r o f i l e d u r i n g t h e l a s t decades
which was t o c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t i n f l u e n c e d by t h e o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n . Some
comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on e v o l u t i o n o f t h e European gas market s u p p l y
and demand s i t u a t i o n , and i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n and c o m p e t i t i v e c h a l l e n g e s ,
and f u t u r e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e N o r t h Sea gas p r o v i n c e .
 150

2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 3 . 1 . Evolution o f the European gas market

During c o u r s e of more than 100 y e a r s of n a t u r a l g a s a c q u i s i t i o n and e x p l o i t a -
t i o n h i s t o r y , 1987 was t h e y e a r of f i r s t exceeding 100,000 B i l l . m3 ( 4 , 0 0 0 T c f )
world Sas r e s e r v e s ( E R D U L U N D K O H L E - ERDGAS - PETROCHEMIE 1987 d ) . So f a r a b t .
150,000 B i l l . m3 (6,000T c f ) have been d i s c o v e r e d , of which h i t h e r t o a b t . one
q u a r t e r has been produced a n d / o r consumed. The b i g g e s t g a s p r o d u c e r s of t h e
world a r e i n descending o r d e r USSR, USA, Canada, N e t h e r l a n d s , A l g e r i a , G r e a t
B r i t a i n , Romania. I n d o n e s i a , Mexico and Norway, which t o g e t h e r have more than
80 % of the t o t a l world g a s p r o d u c t i o n . S i n c e 1950, world gas p r o d u c t i o n has
i n c r e a s e d more than t e n t i m e s .

Germany FRG i s t h e second l a r g e s t n a t u r a l gas i m p o r t e r of t h e world ( a f t e r

J a p a n ) w i t h a t o t a l import q u a n t i t y of 40 B i l l . m3 i n 1985 which d e r i v e d by
33 % from N e t h e r l a n d s , 24 % from USSR and 1 3 % from Norway and Denmark, w i t h
t h e remaining 30 % coming from domestic p r o d u c t i o n ( E R D U L U N D KOHLE - ERDGAS -
PETROCHEMIE 1986) of R o t l i e g e n d , B u n t s a n d s t e i n , Z e c h s t e i n and C a r b o n i f e r o u s
f i e l d s i n the Northwest German g a s - f i e l d b e l t . The d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n of c o n t r a c -
t e d g a s among v a r i o u s s o u r c e s of d e l i v e r y s e c u r e s s u p p l y , d i m i n i s h e s o r even
e l i m i n a t e s p o l i t i c a l dependency, and i n c r e a s e s f l e x i b i l i t y a n d c o m p e t i t i o n ( E R D -
OEL-ERDGAS 1 9 7 8 ) . The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e f o c u s s e s on h i s t o r i c a l changes of ener-
gy consumption spectrum a s well a s p o l i t i c a l and economical i n f l u e n c e s on m u l t i -
l a t e r a l energy t r a d e .

2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 3 . 1 . 1 . Historical changes o f energy consumption spectrum

I n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s , c o a l and t o a l e s s e r amount o i l and w a t e r power c o n t r i b u t e d
o v e r 95 % of primary e n e r g y consumption, w i t h t h e s h a r e of n a t u r a l g a s being a l -
most n o n - e x i s t e n t ( O ' A N D R E A 1 9 8 7 ) . S i g n i f i c a n t changes in e n e r g y consumption
p a t t e r n s t a r t e d t o develop i n the 1960's and 1970'5, and the p r o c e s s of r e o r g a -
n i z a t i o n has s t a b i l i z e d i n t h e l a s t y e a r s , a s a number of c o u n t r i e s had a c h i e -
ved a r e a s o n a b l e b a l a n c e i n energy supply d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n . I m p o r t a n t g a s d i s c o -
v e r i e s i n Western Europe and USSR i n t h e l a t e 1950's and e a r l y 1960's provided
v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s the o p p o r t u n i t y and d e s i r a b i l i t y of e s t a b l i s h i n g the n e c e s s a -
r y i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e use of n a t u r a l g a s . F a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g development
and growth of g a s markets i n Europe and world a r e s e c u r i t y of e n e r g y s u p p l i e s
and d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n , h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c y of n a t u r a l gas compared t o o t h e r f u e l s ,
a v a i l a b i l i t y of n a t u r a l gas a t r e l a t i v e l y low c o s t s t o consumers, long-term con-
t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i n s a l e and purchase of g a s s u p p l i e s , c a p a b i l i t y f o r
t r a n s p o r t of n a t u r a l gas o v e r long d i s t a n c e s by l a r g e - d i a m e t e r p i p e l i n e s and
sea-going v e s s e l s , development of technology i n e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n of
o f f s h o r e r e s o u r c e s , promotion of i n t e r - and i n t r a r e g i o n a l g a s t r a d e , and i n c r e a -
sed p u b l i c awareness of t h e r o l e of n a t u r a l g a s f o r an improved environment.

2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 3 . 1 . 2 . Pol it ical and economical

influences on multilateral energy trade
S i g n i f i c a n c e and i n f l u e n c e of t h e above mentioned f a c t o r s have v a r i e d i n the
d i f f e r e n t European gas markets due t o e x i s t e n c e of d i f f e r e n t economical s y s -
tems; p r e v a i l i n g p o l i t i c a l , economical and f i s c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; and e x p o s u r e
of g a s markets t o competing s o u r c e s of energy ( D ' A N D R E A 1 9 8 7 ) . I n Western E u -
r o p e , s e c u r i t y of e n e r g y supply and d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n achieved a high d e g r e e o f
importance f o l l o w i n g t h e f i r s t major i n c i s i o n i n t o o i l p r i c e h i s t o r y by the
1973/74 o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1 . ) when governments implemen-
t e d v a r i o u s measures t o reduce t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e dependence on o i l which a s a
t o p p r i o r i t y item i n c l u d e d an i n c r e a s e d usage of n a t u r a l g a s . I n l i g h t of being
no l o n g e r c o n s t r a i n e d by p h y s i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s f o r moving gas s u p p l i e s t o mar-
k e t s , n a t u r a l g a s q u i c k l y r e c e i v e d renewed r e c o g n i t i o n a s a v i a b l e e n e r g y a l t e r -
n a t i v e t o economies which had p l a c e d primary r e l i a n c e on coal and n u c l e a r power
t o a l l e v i a t e t h e i r energy problems.
 151

T h i s s i t u a t i o n a l s o caused renewed i n t e r e s t and growth i n t h e o v e r a l l p e r -

s p e c t i v e o f energy t r a d e w i t h i n Europe as w e l l as i n t e r - and i n t r a r e g i o n a l de-
pendency on gas t r a d e . I n c r e a s e d interdependence on gas t r a d e f r o m sources w i t h -
i n and o u t s i d e Europe caused governments, o f t e n t o t h e c o n s t e r n a t i o n o f p r i v a t e
commercial e n t e r p r i s e s , t o be d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n n e g o t i a t i n g gas t r a d e agree-
ments, as p o l i t i c a l and economical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s achieved a new l e v e l o f s t r a -
t e g i c a l importance i n b i l a t e r a l and m u l t i l a t e r a l energy t r a d e r e l a t i o n s . Some
aspects o f t h e energy p o l i c y i n t h e European community a r e summarized by CLEU-
T I N X (1986), and c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f t h e European gas market a r e performed by
BERGMANN (1988) and N O R V I K ( 1 9 8 8 ) . D'ANDREA (1979) comments on t h e p r o s p e c t s o f
n a t u r a l gas s u p p l i e s and markets i n Europe and t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on t h e USA. L I E -
SEN (1977) analyzes p r e s e n t and f u t u r e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f n a t u r a l gas f o r Western
Europe.

2.2.1.5.3.2. Supply/demand situation

The gas r e s e r v e s o f Western Europe a r e much g r e a t e r t h a n i t s o i l r e s e r v e s
w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r energy c o n t e n t , and i t s gas p r o d u c t i o n covers n e a r l y t h r e e
q u a r t e r s o f i t s own needs as opposed t o o n l y one t h i r d f o r crude o i l (VALENTIN,
VALAIS & CHAMPLON 1988). Western European gas r e s e r v e s a r e t h u s an i m p o r t a n t
a s s e t i n t h e s e c u r i t y o f i t s energy s u p p l i e s . The most s t r i k i n g aspect o f Euro-
pean gas r e s o u r c e s i s t h e o f f s h o r e c o n c e n t r a t i o n which i s more pronounced than
t h a t o f any o t h e r c o n t i n e n t , w i t h more than 64 % o f t h e proven r e s e r v e s and p r o -
b a b l y more t h a n 75 % o f t h e u l t i m a t e r e s o u r c e s b e i n g s i t u a t e d o f f s h o r e , and
w i t h t h e N o r t h Sea h a v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t share due t o Norway, N e t h e r l a n d s and U n i -
t e d Kingdom t h e r e h a v i n g more t h a n 85 % o f t h e o v e r a l l r e s e r v e s . A f t e r d i s c u s -
s i o n o f some g e n e r a l aspects, c o u n t r y - s p e c i f i c comments on s u p p l y and demand
a r e o f f e r e d f o r N e t h e r l a n d s , G r e a t B r i t a i n , Norway and USSR. Some p o i n t s o f
s u p p l y s e c u r i t y and mutual b e n e f i t a r e a l s o touched.

2.2.1.6.3.2.1. General aspects

T o t a l n a t u r a l gas consumption i n Europe i n 1985 amounted t o 925 B i l l . m3 (37
T c f ) o f which 27 % and 73 % were t a k e n i n Western and E a s t e r n Europe, r e s p e c t i -
v e l y , w i t h t h e USSR h a v i n g an 85 % share o f t h e E a s t e r n European q u a n t i t y (D'AN-
DREA 1987). Source o f gas s u p p l i e s f o r t h i s consumption l e v e l o r i g i n a t e d essen-
t i a l l y f r o m w i t h i n Europe i t s e l f , w i t h o n l y 2.5 % h a v i n g been i m p o r t e d f r o m A l -
g e r i a and L i b y a . I n Western Europe, gas consumption was c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s i n g
f r o m 1970 t o 1979, t h e n d e c l i n i n g i n t h e y e a r s 1980 - 1982 r e f l e c t i n g a g e n e r a l
decrease i n energy demand, and s i n c e 1983 r i s i n g a g a i n t o reach a l e v e l h i g h e r
t h a n e v e r b e f o r e i n t h e l a s t y e a r s (KEG 1986).

W h i l e s e v e r a l s i g n i f i c a n t p r o d u c e r s such as Germany FRG, I t a l y , France and

Romania c o u l d n o t a f f o r d t o e x p o r t gas due t o domestic energy demand exceeding
i n t e r n a l s u p p l y and even r e q u i r i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t , s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t i e s
i n N e t h e r l a n d s , Norway and USSR enabled t h e l a t t e r c o u n t r i e s t o e x p o r t l a r g e vo-
lumes o f gas, w i t h i n a d d i t i o n t o t h a t o n l y Denmark s u p p l y i n g small amounts t o
f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s . G r e a t B r i t a i n i s more o r l e s s s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t w i t h n e i t h e r
s i g n i f i c a n t import nor considerable export i f the q u a n t i t i e s from the F r i g g
f i e l d ( w h i c h i s c r o s s e d by t h e boundary between t h e B r i t i s h and Norwegian sec-
t o r s o f t h e N o r t h Sea and t h u s r e p r e s e n t s a s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n ) a r e n e g l e c t e d .

2.2.1.6.3.2.2. Netherlands
The N e t h e r l a n d s have h i t h e r t o been t h e p r i n c i p a l gas e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r y t o
Western European markets because o f e a r l y d i s c o v e r y and development o f s i z e a b l e
r e s e r v e s i n t h e g i a n t Groningen f i e l d (JENSEN 1988; c f . f i g . 6 and s e c t i o n
3 . 3 . ) and o t h e r s m a l l e r patches p r o d u c i n g f r o m p a r t i a l l y t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d where
 152

a l s o some s t i m u l a t i o n by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g was necessary t o p u t t h e f a c i l i -

t i e s on stream, b u t r e c e n t e v a l u a t i o n s o f gas r e s e r v e s and domestic m a r k e t r e -
quirements i n d i c a t e t h a t e x p o r t s f r o m t h e N e t h e r l a n d s w i l l d e c l i n e i n t h e e a r l y
1990's as p a r t o f t h e l o n g - t e r m s t r a t e g y o f t h e N e t h e r l a n d s t o r e t a i n n a t u r a l
gas as t h e p r i m a r y source o f energy f o r domestic s u p p l y r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h i s con-
c e p t , however, c o u l d a l s o be a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c e n t i v e t o push development o f f u r -
t h e r R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s i n t h e Dutch N o r t h Sea t o compensate t h e d e c l i n i n g
o u t p u t f r o m Groningen and t h e o t h e r e x i s t i n g f i e l d s , which i n c l u d e s a reaso-
nable c o n t r i b u t i o n o f hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g f o r the a c q u i s i t i o n o f
l a r g e new r e s e r v e s i n t h e t i g h t f a c i e s b e l t o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d .

2.2.1.6.3.2.3. Great B r i t a i n
Great B r i t a i n which s o f a r has e x p o r t e d gas o n l y i n v e r y l i m i t e d amounts
a l s o needs i n c r e a s i n g amounts o f i t s indigeneous gas p r o d u c t i o n f o r domestic de-
mand, b u t w h i l e i t t e m p o r a r i l y seemed t h a t t h e U n i t e d Kingdom would be f o r c e d
t o c o n t r a c t some q u a n t i t i e s t o be i m p o r t e d f r o m Norway, a t l e a s t i n t e r m i t t e n t
governmental d e c i s i o n t o renounce f r o m i m p o r t and t o expand t h e indigeneous f a -
c i l i t i e s has c o n s i d e r a b l y promoted t h e development p o t e n t i a l i n t h e B r i t i s h Sou-
t h e r n N o r t h Sea as w e l l as t h e p r o s p e c t s o f measuring m a r k e t p e n e t r a t i o n o f na-
t u r a l gas i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom (KNOTT 1986, OILMAN 1987 a ) . A t t h e moment,
20 - 30 % o f t h e Great B r i t a i n domestic gas s u p p l y i s s t i l l coming f r o m t h e
F r i g g f i e l d (DUFONO & LAFFRONT 1978, GREGORY 1987, MURE 1987) which i s c u t by
t h e b o r d e r l i n e between U n i t e d Kingdom and Norwegian N o r t h Sea s e c t o r s , b u t i n
t h e e a r l y 199O's, d e c l i n i n g d e l i v e r y f r o m F r i g g w i l l be compensated by i n c r e a s -
i n g o u t p u t f r o m Southern N o r t h Sea t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d f i e l d s f o l l o w i n g s t i m u l a -
t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r s by h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and c o m p l e t i o n d u r i n g
course o f t h e c u r r e n t and coming m a j o r development campaigns ( c f . s e c t i o n s
2.4.5.1.).

T h e r e f o r e t h e U n i t e d Kingdom can be expected t o m a i n t a i n s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y o f

o i l and gas s u p p l y beyond t h e y e a r 2000 (PETROLEUM R E V I E W 1988 b) which i n
terms o f gas i s p r i m a r i l y a s c e r t a i n e d by i n c r e a s i n g development o f m a r g i n a l
f i e l d s and i n c r e a s i n g r e c o v e r y f r o m e x i s t i n g f i e l d s c h i e f l y t h r o u g h h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n (KNOTT 1985). LEWIS-DAVIES (1988) i n v e s t i g a t e s
t h e f u t u r e gas s u p p l y and demand o f t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, and WHITTING (1979) o u t -
l i n e s t h e B r i t i s h n a t u r a l gas s u p p l y and demand s t r a t e g y . JOHNSON (1978) p r e -
s e n t s an economical and f i n a n c i a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h Sea s e c t o r r e l a -
t i n g gross n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t t o i n v e s t m e n t s t r a t e g y , and BAYLEY (1984) e v a l u a t e s
market p r o s p e c t s and t h e gas balance o f t h e U n i t e d Kingdom.

I n terms o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f R o t l i e g e n d gas r e s e r v e s , a b t . 20 T c f (500 B i l l .

m3) had been c u m u l a t i v e l y produced f r o m t h e Southern N o r t h Sea t h r o u g h a b t . 20
y e a r s s i n c e o f f t a k e s t a r t e d i n 1967 (PETROLEUM R E V I E W 1988 d ) . Average d a i l y
o f f s h o r e p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e B r i t i s h s e c t o r i s a b t . t w i c e t h a t o f t h e Dutch sec-
t o r . The v a s t Groningen f i e l d onshore Netherlands, however, on t h e o t h e r hand
produces a l o n e almost as much as t h e e n t i r e U n i t e d Kingdom c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f .
According t o t h e l a r g e r e s e r v e s , t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea s e c t o r c o n t a i n s
enough gas t o s a t i s f y t h e demand o f B r i t i s h Gas as w e l l as t o l o o k i n t o d i r e c t
sales t o i n d u s t r i a l users.

2.2.1.4.3.2.4. Norway
Norway has no domestic markets f o r gas and t h e r e f o r e i s a i m i n g on p l a y i n g an
i n c r e a s i n g r o l e i n s a t i s f y i n g f u t u r e Western European gas r e q u i r e m e n t s e s p e c i a l -
l y f o l l o w i n g development o f s e v e r a l l a r g e f i e l d s such as S l e i p n e r and T r o l l
(GRAY 1987) i n t h e l a s t y e a r s and i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e (KNOTT 1986). Norway has
s o f a r d i v i d e d i t s gas e x p o r t s between U n i t e d Kingdom and c o n t i n e n t a l Europe
(JENSEN 1988). The development o f t h e g i a n t gas f i e l d s T r o l l and S l e i p n e r i n
t h e coming y e a r s f a c e s Norway w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t i t s r e s e r v e a d d i t i o n s i n n a t u -
 153

r a l gas p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e more remote N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea a r e i n excess o f any

e a r l y market requirements, and t h e r e f o r e Norway has a l r e a d y o p e n l y s t a t e d t h a t
i t needs t o g e t i n t o t h e U n i t e d Kingdom gas market w i t h e x p o r t s (OILMAN 1987 a)
a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e F r i g g f i e l d ( c r o s s i n g t h e boundary b e t -
ween t h e B r i t i s h and Norwegian s e c t o r s o f t h e N o r t h Sea) i n a s e m i - j o i n t ven-
t u r e . T r o l l i s t h e t e n t h l a r g e s t gas f i e l d o f t h e w o r l d due t o r e c o v e r a b l e r e -
serves o f 45 T c f (1,125 B i l l . m3), and t h e l a r g e amounts o f gas enable Norway
t o become t h e w o r l d ' s t h i r d b i g g e s t e x p o r t e r o f n a t u r a l gas a f t e r .USSR and
N e t h e r l a n d s (McNALLY 1987).

The f u t u r e o f Norwegian gas i s analyzed by AGER-HANSSEN (1982), JOHNSEN

(1982) and JACOBSEN (1988), and t h e g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n o f Norway b e i n g a c o u n t r y
w i t h an energy s u r p l u s i n t h e European energy market i s i l l u s t r a t e d by FROGNES
(1981, 1983). Aspects o f Norway's p o s i t i o n i n t h e o i l market and i t s r e l a t i o n s
t o t h e OPEC a r e o u t l i n e d by DAHLE (1987), GODEC & ALLARD (1987), NORENG (1987),
SOLHEIM (1987) and UDGAARD (1987). A l g e r i a which p i o n e e r e d l i q u i d n a t u r a l gas
e x p o r t s t o Europe f r o m i t s g i a n t Hassi R'Mel f i e l d l o s t some m a r k e t p o s i t i o n du-
r i n g t h e e x t e n s i v e p r i c e debates f o l l o w i n g t h e second o i l p r i c e shock (JENSEN
1988).

2.2.1.5.3.2.5. USSR
The dominant gas e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r y i n whole Europe i s t h e USSR w h i c h h o l d s
c u r r e n t l y a b t . 43 % o f t h e w o r l d ' s proven gas r e s e r v e s and r a n k s f i r s t i n t h e
w o r l d gas p r o d u c t i o n (D'ANDREA 1987; ERDOL UND KOHLE - ERDGAS - PETROCHEMIE
1986, 1987 d; JENSEN 1988, O I L GAS JOURNAL 1988 f ) , and i s t h e l a r g e s t o i l and
gas producer o f t h e w o r l d (CHADWICK, LONG & NISSANKE 1988). The USSR t o t a l gas
r e s e r v e s reached a b t . 1,500 T c f (37,500 B i l l . m3) by end o f 1987 (FUEG 1987) i n
comparison w i t h a b t . 3,860 T c f (96,500 B i l l . m3) worldwide (WORLD OIL 1988 a ) .
Having s u f f i c i e n t p o t e n t i a l and b e i n g f a c e d w i t h u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f t h e f u t u r e
p r o s p e c t s o f o i l p r o d u c t i o n b e i n g adequate t o meet domestic and e x p o r t n e c e s s i -
t i e s , t h e USSR has g i v e n n a t u r a l gas a h i g h p r i o r i t y i n i t s o v e r a l l energy p l a n -
n i n g a c t i v i t i e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.4.). N a t u r a l gas has p r o v i d e d a reasonable
c h o i c e f o r t h e USSR o f d i v e r s i f y i n g i t s energy s u p p l i e s and i n c o n t r i b u t i n g an
i m p o r t a n t share i n h a r d c u r r e n c y e a r n i n g s e s p e c i a l l y w i t h t h e r e c e n t d e c l i n e i n
exporting other fuels.

The USSR accounts t o g e t h e r w i t h I r a n and Q a t a r f o r n e a r l y 80 % o f t h e

w o r l d ' s e x p o r t a b l e gas s u r p l u s e s (JENSEN 1988), and s i x o t h e r c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d -
i n g Norway, A l g e r i a , N i g e r i a , M a l a y s i a and Abu Dhabi have ample gas r e s e r v e s t o
s u p p o r t any f o r e s e e a b l e w o r l d - s c a l e e x p o r t p r o j e c t . The Ob r e g i o n i n Western S i -
beria/USSR has t h e l a r g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f gas r e s e r v e s i n t h e w o r l d . I t i n c l u -
des w i t h t h e s u p e r g i a n t s Urengoi ( p r o d u c i n g sweet gas f r o m Upper Cretaceous Ce-
nomanian r e s e r v o i r s i n 1,100 - 3,100 m depth, and t h e J u r a s s i c i n 4,500 m depth
i s o i l - b e a r i n g i n some f i e l d s ) and Yamburg t h e w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t and t h i r d l a r -
g e s t gas f i e l d s which a r e connected by t h e Yamal p i p e l i n e system o f o v e r 5,500
km l e n g t h and 1,420 mm ( 5 6 i n ) d i a m e t e r t o Western Europe. O t h e r s u p e r g i a n t gas
f i e l d s which a r e p a r t i a l l y s t i l l i n t h e development stage a r e Astrakhan, Bova-
nenko, Karachaganak, Medvezhye and Sovietabad (FUEG 1988; c f . t a b . 9 ) . Urengoi
accounted i n 1987 f o r 42 % o f t h e t o t a l gas p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e USSR and had i n i -
t i a l r e s e r v e s more t h a n double t h a n those proven f o r t h e e n t i r e N o r t h Sea, and
Yamburg a l s o i s b e l i e v e d t o have g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l t h a n a l l N o r t h
Sea f i e l d s found t o d a t e (OIL GAS JOURNAL 1988 f ) . Western S i b e r i a i s scheduled
t o r e a c h a b t . 70 % o f t h e t o t a l USSR gas o u t p u t i n 1990, and t h e s u p e r g i a n t
Urengoi which came on stream i n 1978 (OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987 0 ) and has a l r e a d y
c u m u l a t i v e l y produced o v e r 40 T c f (1,000 B i l l . m3) o f gas i s n o t expected t o de-
c l i n e u n t i l t h e l a t e 1990's (RIGASSI 1986).

Western S i b e r i a c o n t a i n s w i t h a b t . 60 - 70 % t h e b u l k o f t h e USSR gas r e s e r -

ves (FISCHER 1981). T o t a l USSR gas p r o d u c t i o n reached t h e r e c o r d l e v e l o f 25.6
T c f (640 B i l l . m3) i n 1987 a f t e r a r a p i d e v o l u t i o n f r o m 10.2 T c f (255 B i l l . m3)
 154

i n 1975 v i a 1 5 . 4 T c f ( 3 8 5 B i l l . m3) in 1980 and 22.7 T c f ( 5 6 8 B i l l . m3) in

1985, and i s e x p e c t e d t o i n c r e a s e u n t i l t h e y e a r 2000 up t o 45 T c f (1,125 B i l l .
m3; O I L GAS JOURNAL 1987 0). T h e r e f o r e b y 1989, gas w i l l p r o b a b l y f o r t h e f i r s t
t i m e r e p r e s e n t a l a r g e r p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e USSR f u e l b a l a n c e t h a n o i l . W e s t e r n
S i b e r i a ' s s h a r e i n t h e t o t a l USSR qas o u t p u t i n c r e a s e d f r o m 1.3 T c f ( 3 2 . 5 B i l l .
m3) i n 1975 v i a 5 . 6 T c f ( 1 4 0 B i i l . m 3 ) ' i n 9 8 0 and 1 3 . 1 T c f ( 3 2 8 s i l l . m3) i n
1985 t o 1 6 . 1 T c f ( 4 0 3 B i l l . m3) i n 1987 w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s a b t . 63 % o f t o t a l
USSR gas p r o d u c t i o n and i s e x p e c t e d t o r i s e t o a b t . 35.3 T c f ( 8 8 3 B i l l . m3) in
2000 w h i c h t h e n w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d t o o v e r 78 % o f t h e t o t a l USSR o u t p u t . The mag-
n i t u d e o f t h e S o v i e t e x p o r t a b l e gas s u r p l u s e s and t h e r e l a t i v e l y f a v o u r a b l e e c o -
n o m i c s o f t h e i r d e l i v e r y has r e n d e r e d i m p o r t p o l i c y o f t h e c u s t o m e r s r a t h e r
t h a n a v a i l a b l e r e s e r v e s and p r o d u c t p r i c i n q he l i m i t i n g f a c t o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
m a r k e t s h a r e w h i c h S o v i e t gas c a n c a r v e o u t n E u r o p e . The r e s e r v e s a r e s o
l a r g e t h a t t h e USSR c o u l d more t h a n d o u b l e i t s gas e x p o r t s t o H e s t e r n E u r o p e
w i t h i n t e n y e a r s (STERN 1 9 8 6 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e e c o n o m i c a l n e c e s s i t y o f t h e
USSR t o e a r n h a r d c u r r e n c y f r o m c h i e f l y h y d r o c a r b o n s a l e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . ) ,
t h e r e i s no r e a s o n o f f e a r i n g c o m m e r c i a l o r s e c u r i t y r i s k s o f i m p o r t i n g oil and
gas f r o m t h e USSR w h i c h i s a s o l i d t r a d e p a r t n e r and d e l i v e r s r e l i a b l y and has
no i n t e r e s t t o e x e r c i s e economic l e v e r a g e f o r p o l i t i c a l c o n c e s s i o n s . Gas d e l i v e -
r i e s t o l l e s t e r n Europe have c o n s e q u e n t l y r e a c h e d h i t h e r t o r e c o r d l e v e l s in 1986
and 1987, and p l a n s a r e made f o r s u p p l y a l s o t o o t h e r c o u n t r i e s t h a n t h o s e a l -
r e a d y c o n t r a c t i n g g a s f r o m t h e USSR (GORST 1 9 8 8 ) .

2.2.1.6.3.2.6. Supply security

Up t o t h e y e a r 2000, a b t . 60 % o f t h e t o t a l European gas c o n s u m p t i o n c a n be
c e r t a i n l y s u p p l i e d f r o m s o u r c e s w i t h i n Europe, whereas l a t e r a l s o v a r i o u s quan-
t i t i e s may d e r i v e f r o m o t h e r c o u n t r i e s (KEG 1 9 8 6 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e gas s u p p l y
n e t w o r k s t r u c t u r e and t h e r e l a t e d s e c u r i t y measures g u a r a n t e e t h e c o m p e n s a t i o n
o f d e l i v e r y i n t e r r u p t i o n s such as p o s s i b l e embargo s i t u a t i o n s e n a c t e d b y one
s u p p l i e r b y f l e x i b i l i t y t o s h i f t t o o t h e r s o u r c e s and t o s w i t c h q u a n t i t i e s w i t h -
i n t h e s y s t e m b y i n c r e a s i n g gas a v a i l a b i l i t y on s p e c i f i c demand. The s u p p l y sa-
f e t y i s m a i n l y given by t h e broad d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f sources o f imported volu-
mes w i t h o u t e x c e s s i v e dependency on one i n d i v i d u a l s u p p l i e r , r e a s o n a b l e s e c u r i -
t y measures f o r t h e c a s e o f u n f o r e s e e n d e l i v e r y i n t e r r u p t i o n s s u c h as r e s e r v e
c a p a c i t i e s f o r d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n and u n d e r g r o u n d s t o r a g e o f peak c o m p e n s a t i o n
volumes, and b o u n d a r y - c r o s s i n g c o o p e r a t i o n between t h e n a t i o n a l gas i n d u s t r i e s
( c f . a l s o LIESEN 1 9 8 5 ) . The e n e r g y s c e n a r i o h i s t o r y i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e c a n be
summarized a s r e f l e c t i n g i n c r e a s i n g r e l i a n c e o n n a t u r a l gas (D'ANDREA 1 9 8 3 ) . As-
p e c t s o f t h e USSR n a t u r a l gas i n d u s t r y a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y FISCHER ( 1 9 8 1 ) .

2.2.1.6.3.2.7. Mutual benefit

Thus t h e o i l p r i c e e x p l o s i o n s and r e l a t e d e n e r g y shocks o f t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s have
had a p r o f o u n d i m p a c t on t h e e n e r s y economy o f Europe, because g o v e r n m e n t s i m -
p l e m e n t e d p o l i c i e s t o r e d u c e t h e i r dependence on oil i m p o r t s , i n c r e a s e t h e i r do-
m e s t i c e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n , p r o m o t e i n t e r f u e l s u b s t i t u t i o n and i n c r e a s e e n e r ~ i ye f -
f i c i e n c y t h r o u g h c o n s e r v a t i o n and t e c h n i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s (D'ANDREA 1 9 8 1 ) . A:; i m -
p o r t a n t component o f t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in t h e European e n e r g y economy was t h e
e x p a n s i o n o f t h e e a s t - w e s t t r a d e . I n c r e a s e d e n e r g y i m p o r t s f r o m t h e e a s t have
a l l o w e d i n d u s t r i a l i z e d m a r k e t economies i n t h e w e s t t o d i v e r s i f y t h e i r s o u r c e s
o f e n e r g y s u p p l y and p r o v i d e b u s i n e s s o p p o r t u n i t i e s , w h i l e i n c r e a s e d r e v e n u e s
f r o m e n e r g y e x p o r t s have p e r m i t t e d c e n t r a l l y p l a n n e d economies i n t h e e a s t t o
i m p o r t goods and s e r v i c e s t h a t a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e u p g r a d i n g o f t h e i r i n d u s -
t r i a l technologization.
 155

2.2.1.6.3.3. International cooperat ion

and competitive challenges
Some f u t u r e c h a l l e n g e s t o t h e European gas i n d u s t r y a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d by L I E -
SEN ( 1 9 8 5 ) . Gas i s bought and s o l d on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l market where s u b s t a n t i a l
and o f t e n fundamental d i f f e r e n c e s p e r s i s t among v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s , and t h e c h a l -
lenges faced d i f f e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y . While i n some r e g i o n s , t h e development o f
t h e gas i n d u s t r y i s e s s e n t i a l l y complete and t h e s t r a t e g i c o b j e c t i v e s a r e con-
cerned w i t h f u t u r e s u p p l y f o r t h e l o n g t e r m o r f o r t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f m a r k e t
p o s i t i o n s i n an i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p e t i t i v e environment, t h e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e i n s t a l -
l a t i o n o f a gas t r a n s m i s s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n system i s t h e t a r g e t i n o t h e r
areas, and p r o b a b l y i n c e r t a i n c o u n t r i e s , n a t u r a l gas w i l l never be o f m a j o r i m -
p o r t a n c e f o r a v a r i e t y o f reasons. The n e c e s s i t y t o a d j u s t t h e e x i s t i n g c a p a c i -
t y t o meet a s m a l l e r o v e r a l l energy demand i s t h e most s e r i o u s c h a l l e n g e f a c e d
on o t h e r energy s e c t o r s , b u t does h a r d l y a p p l y t o t h e gas i n d u s t r y which e n j o y s
c o n t i n u i t y due t o t e c h n i c a l and s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s .

The c h i e f r e q u i r e m e n t i s t o m a i n t a i n and promote a c o n s t r u c t i v e a t t i t u d e t o -

wards gas on t h e p a r t o f consumers and governments. The m a j o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l ad-
vantages o f gas a r e t h e l a c k o f any severe impact on t h e environment and t h e
easy c o n t r o l . E x t e r n a l source d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n c o u p l e d w i t h a m a j o r indigeneous
s u p p l y base i s t h e key s t r a t e g y f o r energy d e l i v e r y s e c u r i t y , which i s backed
up by t h e proven w o r l d - w i d e n a t u r a l gas r e s e r v e s exceeding c u r r e n t w o r l d gas
consumption by a f a c t o r o f o v e r 50. One o f t h e main arguments f o r n a t u r a l gas
i n Europe i s t h e r e d u c t i o n i n u n i l a t e r a l i m p o r t dependence and t h e i n c r e a s e d se-
c u r i t y o f s u p p l i e s achieved by t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f gas i n t h e o v e r a l l energy mar-
ket.

Aspects o f government p o l i c y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l gas t r a d e i n t h e USA a r e exa-

mined by P R I C E (1986), and LICHTBLAU (1986) comments on p e t r o l e u m i m p o r t and ex-
p o r t p o l i c i e s i n t h e USA. KALISCH (1988) g i v e s a gas energy s u p p l y o u t l o o k un-
t i l t h e y e a r 2010 f o r t h e USA under d i f f e r e n t o i l and gas p r i c e s c e n a r i o s . NAY-
LOR & FERRIES (1988) summarize g a s . p r i c e and m a r k e t i n g e v o l u t i o n i n t h e USA.
O t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e n a t u r a l gas i n d u s t r y a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by MAY & MA-
THEWS ( 1 9 8 3 ) . SCHLESINGER (1982) p r e s e n t s an o u t l o o k o f gas energy demand and
c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s i n t h e USA, and o t h e r aspects o f t h e USA gas m a r k e t a r e d i s c u s -
sed by ABBOTT (1982), BUSH 1982), K I N G (1982), MEANS (1982) and HOCHHEISER
( 1 9 8 8 ) . KUMAR (1988) comments on r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f n a t u r a l gas markets by r e g u l a -
t i o n and l e g i s l a t i o n . CUNNINGHAM (1982) emphasizes t h e r o l e o f market competi-
t i o n f o r shaping o f f u t u r e gas p r i c e s . TEK (1979) c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e c h a l l e n g e
o f worldwide n a t u r a l gas matching s u p p l y - l i m i t e d markets and m a r k e t - l i m i t e d sup-
p l i e s . RIETMAN & KID0 (1977) document improvement o f u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y o f n a t u -
r a l gas by r e a l i s t i c gas p r i c e s .

2.2.1.6.3.4.Market shares and reserves distribution

W h i l e proven w o r l d w i d e gas r e s e r v e s compare f a v o u r a b l y t o those o f o i l , many
gas d i s c o v e r i e s a r e remote from consuming markets and t h u s c o s t l y t o commercia-
l i z e (JENSEN 1988). Less than h a l f o f t h e w o r l d ' s t o t a l gas r e s e r v e s a r e dedica-
t e d t o s p e c i f i c l o c a l o r e x p o r t m a r k e t o u t l e t s , and an e q u a l l y l a r g e q u a n t i t y
o f gas may a l s o be c l a s s i f i e d as e x p o r t a b l e s u r p l u s b e i n g l a r g e enough t o sup-
p o r t an e x p o r t p r o j e c t , b u t h a v i n g no market o u t l e t y e t a v a i l a b l e . Since new ex-
p o r t commitments a r e n o t growing as r a p i d l y as gas d i s c o v e r i e s i n m a j o r e x p o r t
r e g i o n s a r e i n c r e a s i n g , t h e e x p o r t a b l e s u r p l u s c a t e g o r y i s s t e a d i l y becoming
l a r g e r which a l s o p r o g r e s s i v e l y enhances o v e r a l l s u p p l y s e c u r i t y . On w o r l d - w i d e
scale, o i l consumption d e c l i n e d b y 3.5 % between 1977 and 1986, whereas gas con-
sumption i n c r e a s e d by 29 %, w i t h t h e g a i n s t h a t n a t u r a l gas has made i n t h e
w o r l d energy markets, however, h a v i n g been r e g i o n a l l y v e r y uneven.

I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s where gas has h i s t o r i c a l l y h e l d a h i g h share of energy

 156

m a r k e t s , demand has d e c l i n e d i n a b s o l u t e t e r m s o v e r t h e m e n t i o n e d p e r i o d , whe-

r e a s i t s usage in Japan has more t h a n t r i p l e d as a consequence o f g r o w t h f r o m a
s m a l l b a s e . By f a r t h e l a r g e s t i n c r e m e n t o f e x p a n s i o n has t a k e n p l a c e in t h e
USSR where an a g g r e s s i v e gas u t i l i z a t i o n p r o g r a m has e s t a b l i s h e d one o f t h e
w o r l d ' s m o s t g a s - i n t e n s i v e economies ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . ) . G r o w t h o f gas con-
s u m p t i o n i n E u r o p e has been c o m p a r a t i v e l y r a p i d a t an e a r l i e r p e r i o d , b u t f o r
many p a r t s o f Europe, g a s has now a c h i e v e d more o r l e s s a l e v e l o f m a r k e t matu-
r i t y and i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s i n g i t s s h a r e o f e n e r g y m a r k e t s . The r e d u -
c e d g r o w t h p r o s p e c t s f o r gas demand i n Europe and N o r t h A m e r i c a w h i c h have dam-
pened t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r w o r l d g a s t r a d e r e l a t i v e t o w h a t was a n t i c i p a t e d a
decade ago a r e p a r t i a l l y t h e r e s u l t o f e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n and i n d u s t r i a l r e -
structuring.

2.2.1.6.3.5. Future evolution o f the North Sea gas province

The m o s t i m p o r t a n t g a s p r o v i n c e i n Western Europe i s t h e N o r t h Sea where c u r -
r e n t l y Norway, N e t h e r l a n d s and U n i t e d Kingdom have more t h a n 85 % o f t h e o v e r -
a l l r e s e r v e s (VALENTIN, VALAIS & CHAMPLON 1 9 8 8 ) . The n e a r e r and f a r t h e r f u t u r e
w i l l be c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y g r a d u a l l y d i m i n i s h i n g p r o d u c t i o n s o u r c e s o f e a s i l y a c -
c e s s i b l e and r e t r i e v a b l e gas. The d e c l i n e o f t h e p r e s e n t l y p r o d u c i n g f i e l d s as
w e l l as t h o s e w h i c h a r e d e v e l o p e d a t t h e moment c a n o n l y be compensated in t h e
f u t u r e b y e x p l o r a t i o n and a c q u i s i t i o n o f new g e n e r a t i o n s o f f i e l d s i n i n c r e a s -
i n g w a t e r d e p t h , more r e m o t e g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n and more u n f a v o u r a b l e c l i m a -
t i c c o n d i t i o n s . F u t u r e p r o j e c t s c o n c e r n i n g new g e n e r a t i o n s o f f i e l d s i n W e s t e r n
Europe and e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e N o r t h Sea w i l l r e q u i r e l a r g e r and l a r g e r i n v e s t -
ments t o g e t h e r w i t h t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s w h i c h w i l l be f a r ahead o f t h e
t e c h n i q u e s t h a t have a l r e a d y been m a s t e r e d , w i t h t h i s b e i n g t h e p r i c e t h a t Wes-
t e r n Europe w i l l have t o p a y i n o r d e r t o l i m i t t h e i n c r e a s e i n i t s dependency
on i m p o r t e d gas s u p p l i e s . The f r o n t i e r gas f i e l d s (DELACOUR 1986) w h i c h have t o
be d e v e l o p e d a r e a t t h e l i m i t o r e v e n beyond o f c o m m e r c i a l f e a s i b i l i t y g i v e n
t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f t e c h n o l o g y and e c o n o m i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ( c f . a l s o VALAIS
1987).

2.2.1.6.4. Evolutionary trends o f the world gas market

LINDEN ( 1 9 8 5 ) o u t l i n e s some e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e n d s o f t h e w o r l d gas m a r k e t b y
commenting on t h e r o l e o f gas i n a c h a n g i n g t e c h n o l o g i c a l and c o m p e t i t i v e e n v i -
ronment. Gas c u r r e n t l y c o v e r s a b t . 20 % o f t h e t o t a l w o r l d e n e r g y demand ( L I E -
SEN 1 9 8 5 ) , b u t t h i s r a t e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o grow s u b s t a n t i a l l y d u r i n g t h e n e x t de-
cades (LINDEN 1985) w h i c h a r e e x p e c t e d t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c c e l e r a t i n g t e c h -
n o l o g i c a l change, g r o w i n g i n t e r f u e l c o m p e t i t i o n and c o n t i n u i n g s t r u c t u r a l chan-
ges i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d economies, w i t h gas more and more s u b s t i t u t i n g and r e -
p l a c i n g o i l in many b r a n c h e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n . Because r a d i c a l changes o f t h e
w o r l d ' s f u t u r e e n e r g y p e r c e p t i o n have o c c u r r e d o v e r t h e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t span
o f the l a s t twenty years, the r e l i a b i l i t y o f a f o r e c a s t f o r the next twenty
y e a r s i s m a i n l y d e p e n d i n g o n f u t u r e r a t e o f e n e r g y demand g r o w t h , adequacy o f
w o r l d o i l and gas s u p p l i e s , and o u t l o o k f o r w o r l d o i l p r i c e s t a b i l i t y .

BRIERLEY ( 1 9 8 8 ) emphasizes t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f g a s as a g l o b a l e n e r g y s o u r -
ce, and GADONNIEUX ( 1 9 8 8 ) i l l u s t r a t e s gas c h a l l e n g e s i n a c o m p e t i t i v e e n v i r o n -
ment. GUNDERMANN ( 1 9 8 2 ) c h a r a c t e r i z e s n a t u r a l gas i n t h e e n e r g y m a r k e t o f t h e
f u t u r e , and ERDOEL-ERDGAS ( 1 9 7 8 ) o u t l i n e s d e v e l o p m e n t o f p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i -
b u t i o n as w e l l as s u p p l y s e c u r i t y o f n a t u r a l gas u p t o t h e y e a r 2000 and be-
yond. The summary as f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a t e s on p r o b l e m a t i c l i n k i n g o f o i l and gas
prices, e n e r g y s u p p l y d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n c o n c e p t s , e c o n o m i c a l and t e c h n i c a l
t r e n d s , o i l s u b s t i t u t i o n b y gas, u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas e x p l o i t a t i o n , and g a s m a r -
keting strategies.
 157

2.2.1.6.4.1. Problematic linking of oil and gas prices

One of t h e m a j o r problems o f t h e p r e s e n t energy m a r k e t i s t h e a r t i f i c i a l
l i n k i n g of t h e p r i c e s t r u c t u r e f o r gas and o i l (LINDEN 1985). T y i n g gas t o o i l
g e o l o g i c a l l y , e c o n o m i c a l l y and c o n c e p t u a l l y l e a d s t o l o o k i n g a t i t s p r o s p e c t s
w i t h t u n n e l v i s i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n f a i l u r e t o pursue a g g r e s s i v e gas s u p p l y and
u t i l i z a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s . Independent f r o m t h e o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n , t h e v a l u e o f
gas v a r i e s w i d e l y depending on where i t i s s o l d , a t what r a t e i t i s taken and
a t what degree o f r e l i a b i l i t y i t i s p r o v i d e d . Because gas has an e s s e n t i a l ,
v e r y c a p i t a l - i n t e n s i v e , g e o g r a p h i c a l l y c o n s t r a i n e d and t h e r e f o r e q u i t e appro-
p r i a t e l y r e g u l a t e d u t i l i t y f u n c t i o n t o p r o v i d e r e l i a b l e and a f f o r d a b l e energy
s e r v i c e s t o r e s i d e n t i a l , commercial and i n d u s t r i a l customers t h a t have l i t t l e
o r no f u e l s w i t c h i n q c a p a b i l i t y , t h e r e i s no immutable and fundamental r a t i o -
nale f o r l i n k i n g the p r i c e . o f g a s - w i t h t h a t o f residual f u e l o i l . o n c e r n i ng
supply, t h e obvious abundance o f n a t u r a l gas o f b o t h c o n v e n t i o n a l and unconven-
t i o n a l t y p e r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e use o f a v a i l a b l e f i n a n c i a l
and i n t e l l e c t u a l r e s o u r c e s t o i n c r e a s e f u t u r e gas s u p p l y s e c u r i t y .

2.2.1.6.4.2.Energy supp 1y diversification concepts

The f u t u r e s u p p l y d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n concept should be based on t h e e a s t - c o s t
energy s e r v i c e s t r a t e g y which moves n a t u r a l gas as t h e cheapest, c l e a n e s t and
h i g h e s t e f f e c t i v e energy t y p e i n t o a v e r y f a v o u r a b l e p o s i t i o n (LINDEN 1985). A l -
though t h e r e a r e n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y , monetary and b r o a d e r g e o p o l i t i c a l and geo-
s t r a t e g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t r e q u i r e f l e x i b i l i t y i n terms o f energy s u p p l y
spectrum, t h e q u e s t i o n i s whether any o f those p o l i t i c a l and economical con-
c e p t s a r e based on m i s t a k e n n o t i o n s o f t h e p o t e n t i a l o f domestic resources, t h e
i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f shortages, t h e i n h e r e n t u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f f o r e i g n sources, and
t h e n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y b e n e f i t s o f a u t a r k y . Adequate and p r o p e r l y balanced e n e r -
gy r e s e a r c h programs a r e c l e a r l y an e s s e n t i a l component o f sound l e a s t - c o s t
s t r a t e g i e s f o r p r o v i d i n g energy s e r v i c e s which n o t o n l y have t o i n c l u d e s o l u -
t i o n s t o d e f i n a b l e problems, b u t a l s o i n s u r a n c e f o r a reasonable range o f con-
t i n g e n c i e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r i n n o v a t i o n and n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l approaches.

HOLTBERG, WOODS & ASHBY (1987) o u t l i n e t h a t n a t u r a l gas w i l l pay a m a j o r

r o l e i n a h i g h l y c o m p e t i t i v e energy mix w e l l i n t o t h e n e x t c e n t u r y . New s u p p l y
t e c h n o l o g i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y advanced techniques f o r p r o d u c t i o n f r o m u n c o n v e n t i o -
n a l gas resources, w i l l enhance t h e accentuated p o s i t i o n o f gas i n i n t e r f u e l
c o m p e t i t i o n and assure t h e r e l i a b i l t y o f l o n g - t e r m s u p p l i e s .

2.2.1.6.4.3. Economical and technical trends

Concerning p e r c e i v a b l e economical and t e c h n i c a l t r e n d s , t h e o v e r r i d i n g f a c -
t o r i s t h e l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n c o s t and r i s k o f f i n a n c i n g m a j o r energy p r o j e c t s
(LINDEN 1985). The u n l i k e l i n e s s o f s i g n i f i c a n t m i t i g a t i o n o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g cau-
ses b e i n g a b n o r m a l l y h i g h i n t e r e s t r a t e s , u n c o n t r o l l a b l e s l i p p a g e o f c o n s t r u c -
t i o n schedules, l a r g e c o s t o v e r r u n s and g e n e r a l v o l a t i l i t y o f t h e energy mar-
k e t , has d r a s t i c a l l y s h i f t e d t h e r e l a t i v e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s of a l t e r n a t i v e energy
s u p p l y and u t i l i z a t i o n investments. M a j o r o i l and gas e x p l o r a t i o n p r o j e c t s i n
remote l o c a t i o n s and h o s t i l e environments have become l e s s a t t r a c t i v e , whereas
development o f even m a r g i n a l hydrocarbon resources i n l o w - r i s k m i l i e u and con-
s e r v a t i o n have become more a t t r a c t i v e . New e x p l o r a t i o n , c o m p l e t i o n and produc-
t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s expanding t h e a v a i l a b l e p r o s p e c t s a r e t h e guarantee t h a t ma-
j o r commercial o i l and gas d i s c o v e r i e s w i l l c o n t i n u e w e l l beyond t h e y e a r 2000.
The tendency o f making m a r g i n a l sources o f gas e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e w i l l be en-
hanced by t h e growing r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e t r u e f o r m v a l u e o f gas r e l a t i v e t o
o i l , c o a l and c e n t r a l l y generated e l e c t r i c i t y w i t h t h e advent o f new and impro-
ved end-use t e c h n o l o g i e s . I n l i g h t o f s e c u r i n g supply, some o f t h e f a s t e s t - m o v -
i n g energy t e c h n o l o g i e s i n t h e n e x t decades w i l l be more a c c u r a t e and e f f e c t i v e
e x p l o r a t i o n concepts and d r i l l i n g d i a g n o s t i c s , r e m o t e l y o p e r a t e d and c o n t r o l l e d
 158

deep o n s h o r e and d e e p - w a t e r o f f s h o r e d r i l l i n g , d e e p - w a t e r c o m p l e t i o n and g a s - f i -

red cogeneration.

As t h e r e i s p r e s e n t l y no r e a s o n t o assume any m a j o r upwards o i l p r i c e move

i n r e a l t e r m s b e f o r e t h e y e a r 2000, t h e f u t u r e o f g a s is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y con-
t i n u e d t o u g h b u r n e r t i p c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m f u e l o i l in s t a t i o n a r y h e a t e n e r g y ap-
p l i c a t i o n s where t h e s u p e r i o r c o m b u s t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and n o n - p o l l u t i n g n a -
t u r e o f gas do n o t o f f e r a s u b s t a n t i a l c o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e . Even w i t h o u t o i l
c o m p e t i t i o n , t h e p r i c e o f gas i n l o w f o r m v a l u e a p p l i c a t i o n s w o u l d be l i m i t e d
b y c o a l and e l e c t r i c i t y c o m p e t i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y due t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e f -
f i c i e n c i e s and l o w i n v e s t m e n t c o s t s o f t h e l a t t e r . The r a p i d i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
more e f f i c i e n t and c o s t - e f f e c t i v e gas u t i l i z a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s and t h e s t a b i l i -
z a t i o n o f n a t u r a l gas p r i c e s have now stemmed t h e g r o w i n g e l e c t r i c a l i n r o a d s
i n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l gas m a r k e t s and have opened many new m a r k e t s where g a s i s
o f superior competitiveness.

2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 4 . 4 . Oil substitution by gas

I n a r e a s w i t h a b u n d a n t gas r e s o u r c e s , gas w i l l c o n t i n u e t o s u b s t i t u t e o i l i n
v a r i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e r e b y f u r t h e r r e d u c i n g p r e s s u r e o n w o r l d o i l demand and
thus extending t h e period o f r e l a t i v e o i l p r i c e s t a b i l i t y . I n areas w i t h o u t suf-
f i c i e n t d o m e s t i c gas r e s o u r c e s b u t w i t h i n r e a c h o f e c o n o m i c a l l y c o m p e t i t i v e e x -
p o r t p r o j e c t s , gas c o n s u m p t i o n w i l l a l s o r e m a i n a t h i g h l e v e l s o r e v e n grow
(LINDEN 1 9 8 5 ) . C o n c e r n i n g i m p o r t , t h e s o u r c e s o f gas a r e h i g h l y d i v e r s i f i e d and
have so f a r p r o v e n t o be more r e l i a b l e t h a n t h o s e o f o i l , w i t h f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e
o f e n e r g y s e c u r i t y b e i n g p r o v i d e d b y i n c r e a s i n g d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f f u e l u s e and
o n g o i n g s u b s t i t u t i o n o f o i l b y gas, t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e o i l e x p o r t p o t e n -
t i a l . As w o r l d - w i d e gas e x p l o r a t i o n i s s t i l l i n a r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y s t a g e , there
i s a h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t b o t h p r o v e n r e s e r v e s and r e m a i n i n g r e c o v e r a b l e r e -
s o u r c e s w i l l s u b s t a n t i a l l y r i s e o v e r t h e n e x t decades, p a r t i c u l a r I y w i t h p r o -
g r e s s i v e e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l g a s . A g a s e n e r g y
s u p p l y o u t l o o k u n t i l t h e y e a r 2010 i s a l s o g i v e n by KALISCH ( 1 9 8 8 ) , and JENSEN
( 1 9 8 8 ) comments on w o r l d g a s s u p p l i e s , m a r k e t s and t r a d e . A s p e c t s o f a r e a l g a s
p o t e n t i a l a r e a l s o p r o v i d e d b y SHARMA, PATIL, KAMATH & GOOBOLE ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

2.2.1.6.4.5. Unconvent i ona 1 gas exp loi tat ion

The d e f i n i t i o n o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas i s f l e x i b l e , because t h e b o u n d a r y b e t -
ween w h a t i s e c o n o m i c a l l y and t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y p o s s i b l e o r n o t has a l r e a d y s h i f -
t e d s e v e r a l t i m e s q u i t e r a p i d l y d u r i n g c o u r s e o f gas a c q u i s i t i o n and w i t h d r a w a l
t e c h n o l o g y e v o l u t i o n (LINDEN 1 9 8 5 ) . C o p r o d u c t i o n o f i m m o b i l e g a s i n s o l i d h y d r a -
t e s and gas d i s s o l v e d i n g e o p r e s s u r e d b r i n e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 2 . ) b y new t e c h n i -
ques l o o k s e c o n o m i c a l l y p r o m i s i n g e v e n a t t o d a y ' s m a r k e t p r i c e s . The e c o n o m i c a l -
l y and s t r a t e g i c a l l y m o s t i m p o r t a n t u n c o n v e n t i o n a l n a t u r a l gas r e s o u r c e s u n t i l
t h e y e a r 2000 a r e t i g h t gas sands ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 1 . ) , s h a l e gas ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 4 . 4 . ) and deep u n m i n e a b l e c o a l seam gas ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 3 . ; HAAS, BRASHEAR &
MORRA 1985; KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1 9 8 8 ) , w i t h a l l o f t h e s e r e s e r v o i r s r e q u i r i n g h y -
d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n smaller o r l a r g e r scale i n o r d e r t o ensure fea-
s i b l e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . ) . As t h e s e t h r e e s o u r c e s t o g e t h e r
y i e l d a l r e a d y s u b s t a n t i a l amounts o f gas f o r commercial p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e USA
which i s by f a r t h e most mature gas-producing r e g i o n o f t h e world, t h e t r a n s i -
t i o n f r o m u n c o n v e n t i o n a l t o c o n v e n t i o n a l gas r e s o u r c e s t a k e s a l r e a d y p l a c e , and
i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e , huge m a r g i n a l gas r e s o u r c e s o f t h e m e n t i o n e d t y p e s w i l l
come i n t o p l a y i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s as w e l l .

I f massive h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i s p r u d e n t l y a p p l i e d , a t o t a l o f
more t h a n 600 T c f (15,000 B i l l . m3) o f t i g h t gas r e s e r v e s a r e w a i t i n g o n a c q u i -
s i t i o n i n t h e USA, w i t h u p t o 4 - 8 T c f (100 - 200 B i l l . m3) p e r y e a r b e i n g
a b l e t o be accessed b y 1990 ( P A I , G A R B I S & HALL 1 9 8 3 ) .
 159

The economical and s t r a t e g i c a l importance o f adding t o n a t u r a l gas r e s o u r c e s

t h a t can be r e c o v e r e d a t c o m p e t i t i v e c o s t s i s obvious (LINDEN 1985). I t would
t a k e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c f u e l p l a n t s a t g r e a t expense t o produce sub-
s t i t u t e gas f r o m c o a l , o r r e p l a c e l i q u i d s f r o m o i l s h a l e o r c o a l , t o y i e l d as
much u s e f u l o u t p u t o v e r t h e i r economical l i f e t i m e s as t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f a d d i t i o -
n a l m a r g i n a l n a t u r a l gas r e s o u r c e s i n t o f e a s i b l e r e s e r v e s . F u r t h e r improvements
i n deep e x p l o r a t i o n and d r i l l i n g t e c h n o l o g y w i l l p e r m i t e x t e n s i o n o f t h e e f f e c -
t i v i t y g a i n s t o new deep gas d i s c o v e r i e s . A t l e a s t i n t h e USA, however, t h e e a r -
l i e s t l a r g e increment o f new s u p p l y i s c l e a r l y t h a t o b t a i n a b l e through improve-
ment i n s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s o f b o t h s h a l l o w and deep t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s which
w i l l make r e c o v e r y o f a g r e a t e r p o r t i o n o f these r e s o u r c e s p r o f i t a b l e a t c u r -
r e n t and p r o j e c t e d m a r k e t - c l e a r i n g p r i c e s , w i t h a g a i n h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g p l a y i n g a key r o l e i n t h i s s c e n a r i o .

2.2.1.6.4.6. Gas market ins strategies

Concerning gas m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y , l e a s t - c o s t s e r v i c e o p t i o n s t o energy con-
sumers a r e key elements o f t h e concept which has t o be designed t o achieve i t s
e s s e n t i a l o b j e c t i v e s independent f r o m o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n and c o m p e t i t i o n o f
gas w i t h o t h e r energy t y p e s (LINDEN 1985). A s t r a t e g y f l e x i b l e enough t o cope
w i t h t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f t h e w o r l d energy market must emphasize v a l u e o f s e r -
v i c e o v e r volume o f s e r v i c e , which i n t u r n demands c o n t i n u e d r a p i d development
and c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n o f h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y end-use t e c h n o l o g i e s opening a wide
spectrum f o r gas p e n e t r a t i o n . These t e c h n o l o g i e s a l s o have t o o f f e r a t t r a c t i v e
i n v e s t m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s w i t h s h o r t payback times t o p r e s e n t and p r o s p e c t i v e
gas u s e r s o r o u t s i d e i n v e s t o r s , even i f t h a t means temporary o r even permanent
s h r i n k a g e o f s a l e s volume. Any downside e f f e c t on gas demand caused by t h e i n -
t r o d u c t i o n o f more e f f i c i e n t end-use t e c h n o l o g i e s w i l l be o f f s e t by t h e i n c r e a -
sed p r o b a b i l i t y o f keeping e x i s t i n g customers i n s t e a d o f l o s i n g them t o competi-
t i v e energy s e r v i c e o p t i o n s , and t h e enhanced a b i l i t y t o f u r t h e r p e n e t r a t e
i e x i s t n g markets w i t h r e l a t i v e l y cheap gas t h a t has been conserved, as w e l l as
t o c a p t u r e new markets. Gas s u p p l y and m a r k e t i n g t r e n d s a r e a l s o s t u d i e d by
BERGMANN ( 1 9 8 2 ) .

T h e r e f o r e a m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y based on more e f f i c i e n t end-use i s a l s o a con-

c e p t f o r m a i n t a i n i n g gas i n d u s t r y p r o f i t a b i l i t y . C o s t - e f f e c t i v e end-use e f f i -
c i e n c y improvements i n c r e a s e r a t h e r t h a n decrease t h e m a r g i n between d e l i v e r e d
c o s t o f gas and what i t i s w o r t h t o end users, because h i g h e r f i x e d c o s t s p e r
u n i t s a l e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l o w e r volumes w i l l be more t h a n compensated by t h e
c o m b i n a t i o n o f l o w e r average a c q u i s i t i o n c o s t r e s u l t i n g f r o m s l o w e r d e p l e t i o n
o f r e l a t i v e l y low m a r g i n a l c o s t sources o f supply, and h i g h e r break-even b u r n e r -
t i p p r i c e o r f o r m v a l u e coming f r o m u s i n g l e s s gas t o p r o v i d e t h e same o r even
h i g h e r - q u a l i t y energy s e r v i c e i n improved equipment whose h i g h e r f i r s t c o s t i s
p a i d back q u i c k l y . The e x i s t i n g f i x e d i n v e s t m e n t can t h e r e f o r e be j u s t i f i e d on
t h e b a s i s o f h i g h e r net-added v a l u e o f t h e energy s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d r a t h e r than
m e r e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e volume o f gas s o l d . The c o m p e t i t i v e p o s i t i o n o f gas i s
f u r t h e r improved by p r o g r e s s i v e c o n s e r v a t i o n and c o g e n e r a t i o n by c o s t - e f f e c t i v e
e f f i c i e n c y ameliorations.

M a r k e t i n g and economical aspects o f gas sources and s u p p l i e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s -

sed by AL-FARISS (1988), JENSEN (1988), KALISCH (1988), NAYLOR & FERRIES (1988)
and SALAMA ( 1 9 8 8 ) . Comments on t h e f u t u r e market f o r n a t u r a l gas and i t s e f f e c t
on e x p l o r a t i o n a r e a l s o g i v e n by GRUB (1984). MAY & WHITE (1981) i n v e s t i g a t e
problems and p r o s p e c t s o f n a t u r a l gas p r i c e r e g u l a t i o n .

2.2.2. Influences o f proppant price changes

A p a r t f r o m o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.) and development o f t h e
US $ exchange r a t e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) , v a r i a t i o n s i n proppant p r i c e a l s o
have s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on t h e economical f e a s i b i l i t y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
 160

r i n g i n t h e a c t u a l o i l and gas economical s c e n a r i o and f i n a n c i a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n ,

and t h u s have i m p o r t a n t impact on t h e m a r k e t i n g p o t e n t i a l o f r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a -
t i o n treatments .

Changes o f p r o p p a n t p r i c e l e v e l tqok a l s o p l a c e almost p a r a l l e l t o m a j o r

changes i n t h e hydrocarbon p r i c e n i v e a u and i n a l a t e r stage a l s o t o t h e US $
v a l u e f l u c t u a t i o n s . I n t h e l a t e 1970's and t h e e a r l y 1980.5, l a r g e p r o p p a n t de-
mand which t e m p o r a r i l y even c o u l d n o t be met by s u p p l y k e p t p r o p p a n t p r i c e s
h i g h , w i t h t h e s t r o n g t o p a r t i a l l y even e x c e s s i v e demand h a v i n g been n o t o n l y a
consequence o f t h e f a v o u r a b l e g e n e r a l economical s i t u a t i o n d u r i n g t h e g o l d e n
age o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , b u t r e s u l t i n g a l s o f r o m t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e
consumers t h a t a f t e r a l o n g t i m e o f f r u s t r a t i o n , e x p e c t a t i o n and hope now f i n a l -
l y s u i t a b l e proppants t h a t c o u l d w i t h s t a n d t h e h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s i n deep
t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s were a v a i l a b l e and t h u s a l l o w e d t o c a r r y o u t o p e r a t i o n s which
f o r m e r l y had t o be suspended due t o l a c k o f adequate proppants t h a t would have
r e s i s t e d t o c r u s h i n g and t h u s c o l l a p s e o f t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y - g e n e r a t e d f r a c t u r e
i n g r e a t e r depth. W h i l e no changes o f p r o p p a n t p r i c e s were necessary i n t h e g o l -
den age o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , t h e o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e b e g i n n i n g i n t h e e a r l y
1980's c r e a t e d another s i t u a t i o n .

Proppant p r i c e e v o l u t i o n i n t h e l a s t f i v e y e a r s i n c l u d e s t h e 1985 p r o p p a n t
p r i c e l o w e r i n g and t h e 1987 p r o p p a n t p r i c e i n c r e a s e . Some s p e c i a l impacts o f
p r o p p a n t p r i c e changes on c o m p e t i t i o n o f v a r i o u s proppant t y p e s a r e a l s o i l l u -
strated.

2.2.2.1. 1985 proppant price lower ins

The e x p e c t a t i o n s f r o m and t h e consequences o f t h e 1985 p r o p p a n t p r i c e 1ower-
i n g a r e e x p l a i n e d along t h e l i n e s o f m a r k e t i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and econom c a l r e -
s u l t s . Aspects o f s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n and a c c e n t u a t i o n o f t h e 1985 proppan price
l o w e r i n g by t h e U S $ exchange r a t e drop a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d .

2.2.2.1.1. Marketing considerations

f o r 1985 proppant price lowering
The main m a r k e t i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r t h e 1985 p r o p p a n t p r i c e l o w e r ng were
p r o m o t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y as w e l l as c a p t u r e o f m a r k e t share
f r o m o r even e l i m i n a t i o n o f C o m p e t i t i o n . When t h e hydrocarbon p r i c e s s t a r t e d t o
d e c l i n e s l o w l y a c o u p l e o f y e a r s ago ( b e i n g t h e p r e c e d i n g s t e p s o f t h e anyway
unexpected b i g d r o p t h a t took p l a c e i n e a r l y 1986, b u t b e i n g p a r t i a l l y a l s o t h e
consequence o f t h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e w i t h r e s p e c t t o o t h e r
w o r l d guide c u r r e n c i e s such as DM and t i n t h e e a r l y 1980's s i n c e i t s f i r s t
minimum l e v e l i n t h e l a t e 1970's). c o m p e t i t i o n o f t h e p r o p p a n t companies manu-
f a c t u r i n g alumina o x i d e and s i i i c a t e ' proppants as a r e s u l t o f d i m i n i s h i n g b o t h
a b s o l u t e and r e l a t i v e m a r k e t shares, and customer demand r e q u i r e d enhanced qua-
l i t y , b e t t e r a v a i l a b i l i t y and l o w e r p r i c e s o f t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f p r o p p a n t s o f -
f e r e d a t t h e hydrocarbon s t i m u l a t i o n market. Another i d e a was t o i n c r e a s e t h e
c o m p e t i t i v e d i f f e r e n c e t o z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants t h a t a r e s o l d i n c u r r e n c y
o t h e r than U S $ and which moved i n t o a worse f e a s i b i l i t y p o s i t i o n by l o o s i n g go-
vernmental financial s u p p o r t f o r p r o d u c t i o n and m a r k e t i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.2.3.).

Thus i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f new m a n u f a c t u r i n g c a p a c i t i e s by
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f new p l a n t s and e x t e n s i o n o f e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s i n o r d e r t o be
a b l e t o f u l f i l l t h e expected demand when l o w e r i n g t h e p r i c e , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
m a r k e t i n g concepts were r e v i s e d and some p a r t i e s i n i t i a t e d s e v e r a l p u l s a t o r y
s t e p s o f f a l l i n g p r i c e s f o r alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s t o f i n a l l y
a b t . h a l f i t s o r i g i n a l l e v e l i n m i d t o l a t e 1985, which i n c l u d i n g i n f l a t i o n
means even almost r e d u c t i o n t o a b t . a q u a r t e r o f t h e f o r m e r p r i c e , whereas t h e
p r i c e f o r z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s was k e p t more o r l e s s a t i t s e l e v a t e d po-
 161

s i t i o n o r even i n c r e a s e d due t o t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f governmental protection and

support.

2.2.2.1.2. Superimpos tion by the US S exchange rate drop

F o r t h e European customers, t h e r e d u c t i o n o f p r i c e s f o r alumina o x i d e and s i -
l i c a t e proppants was e s p e c i a l l y i n 1986 and e a r l y t o m i d 1987 even a c c e n t u a t e d
by t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e w i t h r e s p e c t t o s t r o n g European g u i d e
c u r r e n c i e s such as DM and L t h a t a f t e r a c h i e v i n g i t s peak n i v e a u i n t h e v e r y
e a r l y 1980's s l o w l y s t a r t e d t o go down i n t h e e a r l y t o m i d 1980's and t h e n acce-
l e r a t e d t o f a l l f r o m l a t e 1985 onwards t o r e a c h i n l a t e 1 9 8 6 / e a r l y 1987 f o r t h e
second t i m e i n t h e f i n a n c e p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y a f t e r t h e Second World War i t s r e -
l a t i v e minimum l e v e l ( a n d l a t e r i n t h e f o u r t h q u a r t e r o f 1987 even a c h i e v i n g
i t s h i s t o r i c a l a b s o l u t e minimum n i v e a u ) . The f a v o u r a b l e impact o f t h e US $ ex-
change r a t e d r o p on t h e p r o p p a n t p r i c e f o r t h e European customers b e i n g hydro-
carbon p r o d u c t i o n companies a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e , however, was more than
compensated by i t s d i s a s t r o u s consequence on t h e o i l p r i c e w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s a
f u r t h e r d e v a l u a t i o n and t h u s i n c r e a s i n g d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l economical
s i t u a t i o n c o m p l e t e l y independent f r o m t h e o i l p r i c e c r a s h i t s e l f ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.3.).

Given t h e s c e n a r i o o f h i g h o i l p r i c e s ( i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a h i g h US $ ex-
change r a t e ) i n t h e e a r l y 1980's, t h i s d r a s t i c a l r e d u c t i o n o f p r o p p a n t p r i c e s
( f o r Europe f a v o u r a b l y combined w i t h t h e drop o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e ) c o u l d
r e a l l y have t r i g g e r e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e g r e a t e s t h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g cam-
p a i g n which o i l and gas i n d u s t r y had e v e r seen, because p a r t i c u l a r l y i n deep
t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n , t h e p r o p p a n t c o s t may r e a c h up t o two t h i r d s
o f t h e t o t a l expenses o f t h e t r e a t m e n t and an a b t . 50 - 75 % r e d u c t i o n o f p r o p -
p a n t c o s t ( o r more i f i n f l a t i o n and d e c l i n e o f US $ v a l u e a r e p r o p e r l y i n c l u -
ded) would have been q u i t e an a m e l i o r a t i o n o f t h e economical f e a s i b i l i t y o f t h e
whole j o b and would have enabled t h e e x e c u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
i n such f o r m a t i o n s o f more o r l e s s m a r g i n a l t y p e where i t s a p p l i c a t i o n was f o r -
m e r l y f a r f r o m b e i n g commercial ( f o r example t h e c u m u l a t i v e c o s t o f a MHF opera-
t i o n i n a R o t l i e g e n d w e l l i n t h e S o h l i n g e n field/Germany FRG i n 1982 where a b t .
550 t o f p r o p p a n t s had been pumped amounted up t o 6 Mio. DM; JOHN 1983, KLOSE &
KRUMER 1983, LEICHT 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.1.1. and 3 . 3 . ) .

Many p r o p p a n t end u s e r s t h e r e f o r e h e a r t i l y welcomed t h e r e d u c t i o n o f p r i c e s

f o r alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants as a v e r y s u i t a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y t o con-
s i d e r now more w e l l s f o r h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t h a n e v e r b e f o r e , be-
cause i n t h e p a s t t h e h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o s t rendered many h i g h - p o t e n t i a l i t e m s
m a r g i n a l l y economical and p a r t i c u l a r l y f r i g h t e n e d s m a l l e r o p e r a t i n g companies
w i t h l i m i t e d f i n a n c i a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s , as a consequence o f t h e f a c t t h a t f o r Eu-
ropean customers and t h e i r way o f understanding, f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o f a
w e l l i s o f t e n n o t p a r t o f t h e whole i n v e s t m e n t f o r d r i l l i n g and t e s t i n g , b u t i s
something a d d i t i o n a l and o p t i o n a l ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 3 . 4 . ) . The economical r e s u l t
o f t h e p r o p p a n t p r i c e r e d u c t i o n s , however, was n o t m e e t i n g t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s due
t o t h e d i s t u r b i n g e f f e c t o f t h e o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e which t o o k p l a c e c o m p l e t e l y
independent f r o m b o t h US $ exchange r a t e d r o p and p r o p p a n t p r i c e decrease,

2.2.2.1.3. Economical results of 1985 proppant price decline

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , however, s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e enormous r e d u c t i o n o f t h e p r i c e s
f o r alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants enacted by some m a r k e t - l e a d e r - t y p e
p r o p p a n t companies came i n t o f o r c e i n m i d t o l a t e 1985, t h e o i l and gas market
was c o n s i d e r a b l y d i s t u r b e d i n e a r l y 1986 by becoming f l o o d e d w i t h v a s t q u a n t i -
t i e s o f o i l d e r i v i n g f r o m u n c o o r d i n a t e d and v i o l a t e d o v e r p r o d u c t i o n o f r i v a l i -
z i n g OPEC c o u n t r i e s ( t h e o i l o v e r s u p p l y was p a r t i a l l y a l s o t h e consequence o f
t h e I r a n i a n - I r a q i a n war and of t h e desperate a t t e m p t s o f Saudi A r a b i a t o g e t
t h e o t h e r OPEC c o u n t r i e s under c o n t r o l and t o reason, u n i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y ;
 162

c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.4. and 2.2.1.5.) and r e s u l t i n g i n such a t e r r i b l e l o w e r i n g

o f t h e o i l p r i c e t h a t f o r most o f t h e hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n companies s e r i o u s
c u t t i n g back o f t h e c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e budget i n c l u d i n g suspension o f almost
a l l t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s was t h e o n l y answer which was e c o n o m i c a l l y sound as an
acceptable s o l u t i o n .

Coupled w i t h a d r a s t i c a l f a l l o f t h e v a l u e o f t h e US $ which s t a r t e d t o go
down t o r e a c h f o r t h e second t i m e i n t h e post-Second-World-War h i s t o r y a l o w e r
exchange r a t e ( f o r example i n r e l a t i o n t o DM and t ) t h a n e v e r b e f o r e , o i l con-
sumers c o u l d make d o u b l e p r o f i t o f t h e o v e r s u p p l y and p r i c e c o l l a p s e s i t u a t i o n
by b u y i n g a l m o s t u n l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s f o r cheap p r i c e s , b u t t h e p r o d u c t i o n
companies were s e r i o u s l y h i t i n a t w o - f o l d manner, w i t h a few s m a l l e r opera-
t i o n s b e i n g now r e l a t i v e l y ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o cash b a c k f l o w ) much more e x p e n s i v e
and t h e r e f o r e much l e s s e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e t h a n s e v e r a l l a r g e r j o b s b e f o r e .
Some aspects o f r e v e r s a l o f f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l and p r o p p a n t a v a i l a b i l i t y as
w e l l as c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e c u t t i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n j o b suspension a r e o u t l i n e d
as f o l l o w s .

2.2.2.1.3.1. Reversal o f fracturing potential

and proppant availability
The p a r t i c u l a r t r a g e d y f o r p r o p p a n t and s e r v i c e companies i s t h a t d u r i n g t h e
golden y e a r s o f hydrocarbon d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h e l a t e 1970's and e a r -
l y 1980's, abundant f r a c t u r e j o b s were c a r r i e d o u t a t h i g h p r o p p a n t and s e r v i c e
p r i c e s (backed-up by h i g h o i l p r i c e s and s t r o n g US $ g u a r a n t e i n g f a s t p a y - o u t
o f i n v e s t m e n t f o r t h e hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n companies), whereas s i n c e t h e ma-
j o r o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e i n e a r l y 1986 u n t i l a t l e a s t e a r l y t o m i d 1987, a n o t h e r
s i t u a t i o n has a r r i v e d . F o l l o w i n g p r o p p a n t p r i c e r e d u c t i o n , o i l p r i c e c r a s h ( c f .
section 2.2.1.1.2.) and US $ exchange r a t e drop ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) , prop-
p a n t s and - due t o i n e v i t a b l e a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e s e r v i c e companies ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.5.3.) - s e r v i c e a r e cheaper t h a n e v e r b e f o r e and p r o p p a n t s a r e nowadays
r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e i n almost u n l i m i t e d q u a n t i t y and even enhanced q u a l i t y w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h a t a c o u p l e o f y e a r s ago when p r o p p a n t demand was so l a r g e t h a t
t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g companies had t o produce a t maximum c a p a c i t y , and no t i m e was
l e f t f o r q u a l i t y improvement and e f f o r t s were o n l y made t o i n c r e a s e t h e o u t p u t
given a constant q u a l i t y .

A s a consequence o f t h e 1985 p r o p p a n t p r i c e c u t s and t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e

drop, a much h i g h e r - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t m a t e r i a l i s now a v a i l a b l e i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y
l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s a t a c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r p r i c e t h a n some y e a r s ago, b u t i s se-
r i o u s l y l i m i t e d i n a p p l i c a t i o n due t o a p r e s e n t l y p o o r economical framework p a r -
t i c u l a r l y i n Europe, whereas some y e a r s ago, a much l o w e r - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t mate-
r i a l t h a t was o f f e r e d a t a markedly h i g h e r p r i c e t h a n now was v i r t u a l l y u n r e -
s t r i c t e d i n d i s t r i b u t i o n due t o a s t r o n g demand exceeding t h e p r e v i o u s c a p a c i -
t i e s o f s u p p l y . T h e r e f o r e t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e c o m p l e t e l y r e v e r s e d t h e
s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t by changing t h e s i t u a t i o n f r o m good t o e x c e l l e n t f e a s i b i l i t y
o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g when o n l y i n s u f f i c i e n t amounts o f h i g h - q u a l i t y p r o p -
p a n t s were a v a i l a b l e a t h i g h p r i c e s t o p o o r a t t r a c t i v i t y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g when more t h a n enough p r o p p a n t m a t e r i a l i s a v a i l a b l e a t l o w p r i c e s .

2.2.2.1.3.2. Capita 1 expenditure cut t ins

and stimulation job suspension
I n 1986 and p a r t i a l l y even s t i l l i n e a r l y 1987, t h e bad g e n e r a l economical
s i t u a t i o n o f an o i l p r i c e approaching almost t h e l e v e l around o r even below t h e
f i r s t c l a s s i c a l p r i c e shock a b t . 15 y e a r s ago ( a t l e a s t i f p r o g r e s s i o n o f i n f l a -
t i o n s i n c e t h a t t i m e and t h e p r e s e n t low U S $ v a l u e a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n ; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.2.) d u r i n g t h e w o r s t phase and b e i n g i n Europe
even accentuated by t h e d e c l i n e of t h e US $ exchange r a t e ( w i t h a l l t h e e f f e c t s
 163

t o g e t h e r t r i g g e r i n g i n e a r l y 1986 w i t h i n o n l y a few weeks a r e c u r r e n t i n c i s i o n

i n t o t h e o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n t o a l e v e l f a r back i n post-Second-World-War his-
t o r y ) , however, c o u l d even g i v e n t h e mentioned proppant- (and a l s o s e r v i c e - ) r e -
l a t e d f a c t s n o t o n l y n o t j u s t i f y an expansion o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y as an
answer t o t h e c o n s i d e r a b l y lowered proppant and s e r v i c e c o s t , b u t a l s o even n o t
p r o v i d e any c o n v i n c i n g arguments f o r a t l e a s t m a i n t a i n i n g t h e p r e v i o u s l e v e l o f
f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s , w i t h most o f t h e hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n companies t h u s c u t -
t i n g down t h e i r budget o f c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e by a t l e a s t 25 % (OEHME 1986) and
p o s t p o n i n g almost a l l t h e i r s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y f o r a t l e a s t one o r two y e a r s .

The g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n i s o n l y r e a s o n a b l y a m e l i o r a t i n g i n t h e m a j o r c e n t r e s
o f a c t i v i t y s i n c e a b t . m i d 1987, whereas i n o t h e r common and m a r g i n a l areas,
much o f t h e p r o m i s i n g p i c k i n g - u p was i n l a t e 1987 a g a i n s e r i o u s l y d i s t u r b e d by
t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e down t o a l e v e l which had never been r e a -
ched b e f o r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.3.), and i n e a r l y t o m i d 1988 by an a g a i n l i t t l e
s l i d e o f t h e o i l p r i c e which a l t h o u g h b e i n g almost n e g l i g i b l e i n i t s range, ne-
v e r t h e l e s s h i t a v e r y s e n s i b l e i n d u s t r y t h a t i n t e r p r e t e d t h e f l u c t u a t i o n beyond
t h e average v a r i a t i o n s as a market s i g n a l and became again c o n s i d e r a b l y uncer-
t a i n c o n c e r n i n g f u r t h e r i n v e s t m e n t d e c i s i o n s . The s e r i o s i t y o f t h e ongoing c r i -
s i s c o n s t e l l a t i o n i s h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e a l a r m which t h e OPEC group addressed
a l s o t o v a r i o u s non-members f o r a desperate t r i a l t o s t o p f u r t h e r downwards
o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e o i l p r i c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.4.3.).

2.2.2.2. 1987 proppant price increase

As t h e 1985 p r o p p a n t p r i c e l o w e r i n g had n o t t h e expected f a v o u r a b l e impact
on t h e hydrocarbon e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r y by t r i g g e r i n g a renewed
boom o f s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y as a consequence o f market d e t e r i o r a t i o n by t h e
1986 o i l p r i c e crash, t h e p r o p p a n t s u p p l i e r s were a l r e a d y a n x i o u s l y w a i t i n g f o r
t h e e a r l i e s t p o s s i b i l i t y t o r a i s e t h e p r i c e again i n o r d e r t o b o t h compensate
t h e business l o s s e s d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s i n i t i a t e d by o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e and US $
exchange r a t e d r o p and provoked s t i m u l a t i o n l e v e l d e c l i n e , and i n c r e a s e t h e i r
p r o f i t i n a t i m e o f renewed p i c k i n g - u p o f t r e a t m e n t a c t i v i t y and r i s i n g p r o p -
p a n t consumption. The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s i n c l u d e s comments on t h e r e a s o n i n g f o r
renewed p r o p p a n t p r i c e i n c r e a s e s , and m a r k e t r e a c t i o n and economical consequen-
ces o f t h e 1987 p r o p p a n t p r i c e i n c r e a s e .

2.2.2.2.1. Reasoning f o r renewed proppant price increases

Independent f r o m a l l economical i n f l u e n c e s , t h e f u t u r e i s c h a r a c t e r zed by
need and urgency f o r u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas (KUUSKRAA 1980) w h i c h a u t o m a t i c a l y p r o -
mises a t l e a s t some booming o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g . E f f e c t s o price
and technology on gas r e s o u r c e s i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o d i s c u s -
sed by BAKER ( 1 9 8 1 ) . SCHAEFER & POWERS (1984) comment on t h e imDact o f r a p i d l y
changjng economical environment on p e t r o l e u m e x p l o r a t i o n and' a c q u i s i t i o n . E f -
f e c t s o f i n c r e a s i n g gas p r i c e s on known gas r e s e r v e s a r e o u t l i n e d by H I C K S &
RAHMAN ( 1 9 8 4 ) .

Concerning p r o p p a n t p r i c e e v o l u t i o n , p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s u p p l y companies f o r
t h e coming b i g demand o f m a t e r i a l d u r i n g course o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d de-
velopment campaigns i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea i n 1987 - 1990 i n Europe
( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.6.2., 2.4.1.2. and 2.4.5.1.) as w e l l as t h e a d a p t a t i o n t o
t h e w o r l d - w i d e p i c k i n g - u p of h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n c l u d e d more o r
l e s s c a r e f u l l y planned and t i m e d a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e p r o p p a n t p r i c e s t o t h e expec-
t e d m a j o r businesses and p r o f i t s . I n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e t h e i r n e t r e t u r n d u r i n g
t h i s p r o b a b l y h i s t o r i c a l h i g h l i g h t o f h y d r a u l i c r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n i n Europe
as w e l l as m a x i m i z i n g t h e payback w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e l y i m p r o v i n g b u s i n e s s perspec-
t i v e s ( t h e r e b y a l s o p a r t i a l l y compensating t h e income l o s s e s generated by t h e
1985 proppant p r i c e l o w e r i n g w h i c h had n o t t h e expected impact on s a l e s volumes
due t o t h e s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s f o l l o w i n g 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h ) , some p a r t i e s i n
 164

m i d t o l a t e 1987 r e v e r s e d t h e i r 1985 p r i c e d r o p p o l i c y and i n c r e a s e d t h e p r i c e s

again s i g n i f i c a n t l y , w i t h o u t , however, r e a c h i n g t h e l e v e l h e l d i n 1985 b e f o r e
the i n i t i a t i o n o f the p r i c e f a l l .

2.2.2.2. Market reaction and economical

consequences o f the 1987 price increase
W h i l e some s l i g h t t o moderate i n c r e a s e i n p r o p p a n t p r i c e would c e r t a i n l y
have been more than j u s t i f i e d i n o r d e r t o l e t a l s o proppant and s e r v i c e compa-
n i e s s u r v i v e and r e c o n s o l i d a t e , t h e market has r e a c t e d w i t h s e r i o u s b u s i n e s s
l o s s e s f o r some p a r t i e s which showed l i m i t e d f l e x i b i l i t y i n p r i c i n g t o m a j o r
customers and t r i e d t o p l a y t h e c a r d o f i n c r e a s e d p r i c e s even f o r c o n t r a c t s
where b i d d i n g was made a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e a r l i e r p r i c i n g c o n c e p t d u r i n g t h e
t r a n s i t i o n a l phase between o l d and new l i s t p r i c e s , and a few m a j o r d e a l s went
t o c o m p e t i t o r s thus p u n i s h i n g and d i s a d v a n t a g i n g some o f t h e i n i t i a t o r s o f t h e
p r i c e r i s e which d i d n o t want t o a d j u s t t o t h e demand o f t h e market o r s i m p l y
d i d n o t understand t h e European market and i t s s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s ( c f . a l s o sec-
t i o n 2.4.2.4.1.).

In view o f t h e expected demand o f a n n u a l l y between 5 and 10 m i l l i o n l b s .

(2,300 - 4,600 t ) o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s f o r t h e p e r i o d o f t h r e e o r
f o u r y e a r s i n Europe ( c o m p r i s i n g c h i e f l y q u a n t i t i e s needed f o r R o t l i e g e n d f r a c -
t u r i n g i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea), even a p r i c e i n c r e a s e o f a c o u p l e of
c e n t s r e s u l t s i n case o f more o r l e s s c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h t h e c o m p e t i t i o n i n con-
siderable amelioration o f the desolate t o c r i t i c a l f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n o f the
proppant companies which more o r l e s s made s e r i o u s l o s s e s d u r i n g t h e 1986 c r i -
s i s . The l a t e 1987 p r o p p a n t p r i c e i n c r e a s e was subsequently i n e a r l y t o m i d
1988 from t h e view o f t h e European customers even accentuated by an a g a i n
s l i g h t l y s t a b i l i z i n g US $ exchange r a t e .

2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . Comet i t ion o f various proppant types

The v a r i o u s p r i c e drops and r i s e s f o r alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants
had a l s o s e r i o u s impacts on t h e i r c o m p e t i t i v e power w i t h r e s p e c t t o z i r c o n i a - s i -
l i c a t e proppants which k e p t almost a l l t h e t i m e t h e i r f o r m e r e l e v a t e d p r i c e po-
s i t i o n due t o more expensive p r o d u c t i o n process, and which a r e manufactured i n
Europe and s o l d f o r c u r r e n c i e s o t h e r than US $, w i t h t h u s t h e i r p r i c i n g i n Eu-
rope and o t h e r n o n - d o l l a r markets o f t h e w o r l d n o t b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d by v a r i a -
t i o n s o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e f o -
cusses on some aspects o f consequences o f t h e 1985 p r i c e r e d u c t i o n and t h e 1987
p r i c e increase f o r the competitiveness o f the d i f f e r e n t proppant types.

2.2.2.3.1. Influence o f the 1985 proppant price reduction

While b e f o r e t h e f i r s t p r o p p a n t p r i c e r e d u c t i o n i n m i d 1985 c o m p e t i t i o n had
t o be made through performance and s e r v i c e a t a l e v e l o f more o r l e s s comparab-
l e p r i c e s f o r a l l t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o d u c t s , w i t h o u t anyone b e i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y
cheaper t o a l l o w a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e p r i c e i n s t r u m e n t as a p o w e r f u l m a r k e t i n g
and s a l e s t o o l , t h e p r i c e drops f o r alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants have
moved them i n t o a v e r y advantageous p r i c e s i t u a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o z i r c o n i a - s i -
l i c a t e proppants.

As a consequence o f t h e f a c t t h a t due t o t h e p r i c e c u t s , t h e c o s t f o r a l u m i -
na o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants was f i n a l l y o n l y between two t h i r d s and h a l f
t h e p r i c e f o r z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants, t h e l a t t e r p r o d u c t g o t almost unmar-
k e t a b l e i n Europe and l o s t c o n s i d e r a b l e shares. T h i s e f f e c t was even accentua-
t e d by t h e s t a r t i n g d e c l i n e o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e which made alumina s i l i c a -
t e and o x i d e proppants i n Europe a g a i n cheaper, and by t e r m i n a t i o n o f governmen-
t a l f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e
 165

proppants t h a t rendered t h e i r p r i c i n g even more tough w i t h l e a v i n g even l e s s

room f o r downwards adjustments t h a n b e f o r e . D u r i n g t h e t i m e s i n c e m i d 1985 and
p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r t h e o i l p r i c e c r a s h i n e a r l y 1986, a l m o s t no customer was
w i l l i n g t o pay such a h i g h premium f o r z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s and t h u s
t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n was i n Europe v i r t u a l l y l i m i t e d t o a few t a i l - i n o p e r a t i o n s
i n o r d e r t o make b e n e f i t o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m gamma-ray f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g by l o g g i n g t h e n a t u r a l r a d i o a c t i v i t y o f t h e z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e
proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 2 . 1 . ) .

T h e r e f o r e t h e companies m a n u f a c t u r i n g and s e l l i n g alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e

proppants had a b i g advantage f r o m t h e i r p r i c e drop by n e a r l y c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i -
n a t i n g a s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t o r w i t h whom t h e y had t o share t h e m a r k e t i n f o r m e r
years, b u t who now p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r t h e o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e when c o s t c o n t a i n -
ment advanced t o a t o p - p r i o r i t y i t e m i n most o f t h e o p e r a t i n g companies had a l -
most no arguments l e f t t o convince c l i e n t s t o t a k e i t s p r o d u c t . The c o m p e t i t i v e
d i f f e r e n c e between alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants and z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e
proppants was f o r European customers i n 1986 and e a r l y 1987 even i n c r e a s e d by
t h e f a l l i n g US $ exchange r a t e down t o i t s r e l a t i v e minimum i n post-Second
World War h i s t o r y , t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g a n o t h e r proppant p r i c e c u t beyond t h e i n -
fluence o f the s u p p l i e r o f the m a t e r i a l .

2.2.2.3.2. Influence of the 1987 proppant price increase

The l a t e 1987 p r o p p a n t p r i c e i n c r e a s e , however, was a l r e a d y a s t e p i n back-
wards d i r e c t i o n . A l t h o u g h even a f t e r t h e r e v e r s e p r i c e a d j u s t m e n t i n o r d e r t o
a m e l i o r a t e t h e n e t r e t u r n s i t u a t i o n , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n c o s t between alumina
o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s and z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s i s s t i l l s u f f i -
c i e n t t o remain a p o w e r f u l m a r k e t i n g t o o l , t h e danger i s t h e r e t h a t a n o t h e r
p r i c e r i s e f o r alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants c o u l d t u r n t h e m a r k e t i n t o
another d i r e c t i o n . The producers o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants, however, have
l i t t l e i f any p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a d j u s t m e n t by l o w e r i n g t h e i r p r i c e s , because t h e
process o f making f u s e d proppants w i t h r e s p e c t t o s i n t e r e d ones i s c o n s i d e r a b l y
more expensive and t h e European p r o p p a n t company p r o d u c i n g z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e
proppants c o u l d n o t b e n e f i t f r o m t h e a u t o m a t i c a l a d d i t i o n a l p r i c e decrease t h a t
was p r o v i d e d by t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s i t u a t i o n i n e a r l y t o m i d 1988 when a s l i g h t l y a g a i n s t a -
b i l i z i n g US $ exchange r a t e performed a n o t h e r m i n o r p r i c e r i s e f o r alumina
o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants independent f r o m any i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e i r sup-
p l i e r s , t h e p r o d u c e r s o f t h e l a t t e r m a t e r i a l s have t o be warned t h a t a n o t h e r
company-induced p r i c e i n c r e a s e would b r i n g t h e z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s back
i n t o t h e i r c o m p e t i t i v e p o s i t i o n w h i c h t h e y had p r i o r t o t h e m i d 1985 p r o p p a n t
p r i c e drops and t h e n t h e expected improvement o f n e t r e t u r n s f o r alumina o x i d e
and s i l i c a t e proppants c o u l d be more t h a n compensated by c o n s i d e r a b l e b u s i n e s s
l o s s e s t o z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 2.3.6.3.). T h i s danger
i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s because a f u r t h e r r e c o v e r i n g US $ exchange r a t e c o u l d
p r o v i d e an a u t o m a t i c a l p r i c e r i s e f o r alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s a t
t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e f o r t h e European customers, w i t h t h e producers o f t h e
l a t t e r m a t e r i a l s h a v i n g no i n f l u e n c e on an i n c r e a s i n g v a l u e o f t h e US $ e x c e p t
o f once a g a i n l o w e r i n g t h e p r o p p a n t p r i c e i n Europe which then, however, would
be c e r t a i n l y a t t h e expense o f c r e d i b i l i t y , c o n f i d e n c e and r e l i a b i l i t y t h a t
t h e y r e c e i v e f r o m t h e i r customers.

W h i l e t h e r e c o v e r i n g and s t r e n g t h e n i n g US $ i n m i d t o l a t e 1988 provoked a l -

ready a n o t h e r s t e p towards a p o s s i b l e renewed t u r n a r o u n d o f t h e p r o p p a n t mar-
k e t , t h e a g a i n d e c l i n i n g power o f t h e US $ a f t e r t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n i n
t h e USA a t t h e end o f 1988 r e l e a s e d a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y t h i s p r e s s u r e and p r e -
vented t h e s u p p l i e r s o f alumina s i l i c a t e and o x i d e proppants f r o m r e g r e t t i n g
t h e 1987 p r o p p a n t p r i c e i n c r e a s e . A l t h o u g h t h e f o r e c a s t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e
US $ exchange r a t e i n t h e v e r y n e a r f u t u r e does n o t i n c l u d e any s i g n i f i c a n t son
t o f e a r t h e achievement o f such a c o n s t e l l a t i o n as sketched above, t h e whole i n -
 166

t e r n a t i o n a l m u l t i l a t e r a l p o l i t i c a l and economical game c o n t a i n s t o o much u n c e r -

t a i n t i e s t h a t any p a r t y can f e e l t h e i r p o s i t i o n t o be s a f e , and changes a g a i n s t
t h e p r o g n o s i s a r e always a b l e t o a r r i v e .

2.3. Stimulation market differences between USA and Europe

W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e USA market, t h e e a r l y t o m i d 1986 c r i s i s ( i n p a r t s o f
t h e area s t i l l l a s t i n g t o l a t e 1986 and even e a r l y 1987 o r l o n g e r ) t h a t was i n i -
t i a t e d by t h e s e r i o u s o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e h i t t h e ( m a i n l y Western) European s t i -
m u l a t i o n market much s t r o n g e r , r e s u l t e d i n much more c u t - b a c k o f t h e a c t i v i t y
and took much more t i m e t o r e c o v e r and t o r e a d j u s t t o an a g a i n b e t t e r s i t u a t i o n
( t h e l a t t e r phase i s s t i l l n o t t e r m i n a t e d and i s s l o w l y moving a l o n g t h e r i s i n g
branch) due t o s e v e r a l reasons. The d i f f e r e n c e s o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s i n c l u d e f r e -
quency o f d r i l l i n g r i g s and s t i m u l a t i o n , s u c c e s s / f a i l u r e r a t i o and c o n s o r t i a 1
s t r u c t u r e , o p e r a t i n g m e n t a l i t y and t r e a t m e n t c o s t , US $ exchange r a t e d e c l i n e ,
and proppant m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y .

2.3.1. General aspects

M A R T I N S (1987) p r e s e n t s a summarized comparison o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n markets
o f t h e t i g h t gas b a s i n s i n t h e USA and t h e Rotliegend/Carboniferous t i g h t gas
b e l t i n t h e Southern N o r t h Sea t o i l l u s t r a t e g e n e r a l aspects o f t h e d i f f e r e n t
s e t t i n g o f t h e h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g markets i n Europe and USA. Absolu-
t e l y h i g h e r w e l l and f r a c t u r e c o s t i n Europe a r e t h e reason f o r a r e l a t i v e l y l o -
wer f r a c t u r e / w e l l expense r a t i o o f a b t . 10 - 20 % i n Europe w i t h r e s p e c t t o
a b t . 40 % i n t h e USA. Well numbers p e r f i e l d r e a c h i n t h e Southern N o r t h Sea
o n l y 4 - 40 i n c o n t r a s t t o 40 - 1,000 w e l l s p e r f i e l d i n t i g h t gas b a s i n s i n
t h e USA. The l o w e r f r a c t u r e / w e l l c o s t r a t i o r e l a t i v e l y promotes s t i m u l a t i o n i n
Europe as an a d d i t i o n a l s t e p of t e s t i n g o r even an i n t e g r a t e d p a r t o f t h e whole
d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n o p e r a t i o n , w h i l e t h e h i g h e r w e l l q u a n t i t y i n t h e USA
g i v e s r i s e t o an a b s o l u t e l y h i g h e r f r a c t u r e a c t i v i t y i n t h e l a t t e r area.

F l u i d e f f i c i e n c y i s i n Europe l e s s t h a n in t h e USA, whereas gas f l o w r a t e s

a r e b e t t e r i n t h e f o r m e r area, b u t a r e o f t e n l i n k e d w i t h s e r i o u s non-Darcy f l o w
which i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be u n i m p o r t a n t i n t h e l a t t e r r e g i o n . S e r v i c e b o a t c a p a c i -
t y i s o f t e n t h e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r o f t h e f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s i n t h e Southern
N o r t h Sea where t h e l o c a t i o n s a r e up t o s e v e r a l hundreds o f k i l o m e t r e s away
from t h e shore l i n e ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 8 . 1 . 2 . ) , i n c o n t r a s t t o many l a n d t i g h t gas
f i e l d s i n t h e USA where p l e n t y o f m a t e r i a l and equipment can be i n s t a l l e d w i t h -
o u t p h y s i c a l l i m i t a t i o n o f s u r f a c e f a c i l i t i e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.1.1.4.). ODD
(1982) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h e economics o f o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n i n N o r t h America
as a benchmark f o r Europe, and MORRISON & JOLLIFFEE (1982) p r e s e n t an o u t l i n e
o f t h e N o r t h Sea t a x and economical system.

2.3.2. Frequency of drilling and stimulation

Much more d r i l l i n g r i g s a r e o p e r a t i n g i n t h e USA w i t h r e s p e c t t o Europe, and
thus as a consequence o f t h e a b s o l u t e l y c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r market a l s o a r e l a -
t i v e l y h i g h e r p o t e n t i a l o f s t i m u l a t i o n i s p r e s e n t i n t h e USA. The d i f f e r e n c e i n
r i g c o u n t a l s o remained d u r i n g t h e peak o f t h e c r i s i s , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
proppant demand a l s o r e l a t i v e l y s t a y i n g independent f r o m t h e a b s o l u t e change o f
t h e s a l e s l e v e l i n b o t h areas. Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on p e r c e n t a -
ges o f f r a c t u r i n g n e c e s s i t y f o r economical p r o d u c t i o n as w e l l as t r e a t m e n t c o s t
and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f f r a c t u r i n g i n w e l l c o m p l e t i o n .
 167

2.3.2.1. Percentages of fracturing

necessity for economical production
The a b s o l u t e as w e l l as t h e r e l a t i v e frequency o f s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s i s much
h i g h e r i n t h e USA t h a n i n Europe b o t h b e f o r e t h e l a t e 1 9 8 5 / e a r l y 1986 o i l p r i c e
d e c l i n e and a f t e r t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r y due t o de-
t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l economical s i t u a t i o n . I n t h e USA, a b t . 35 - 40 % o f
a l l t h e hydrocarbon w e l l s d r i l l e d i n t h e l a s t decade have been f r a c t u r e d i n o r -
d e r t o achieve commercial p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h a b t . 25 - 30 % o f t h e t o t a l USA r e -
serves h a v i n g been made e c o n o m i c a l l y p r o d u c i b l e by h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n
(VEATCH 1983, OIL GAS JOURNAL 1984), whereas i n Europe, t h e percentage i s gene-
r a l l y much l o w e r and even i n h i g h - p o t e n t i a l areas o f s t i m u l a t i o n o f t e n does n o t
exceed 10 - 20 %, i f r e a c h i n g these shares a t a l l .

Percentages o f f r a c t u r i n g n e c e s s i t y o f 30 - 50 % o r even more ( i n extreme ca-

ses up t o 100 % ) a p p l y i n Europe o n l y f o r w e l l - d e f i n e d patches o f some p l a y s
such as a s u i t e o f t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s i n t h e Southern N o r t h Sea ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.6.2., 2.4.1.2., 2.4.5.1. and 3.3.), w i t h t h e o v e r a l l p o t e n t i a l
i n t h e whole f a c i e s b e l t , however, b e i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e
r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e i n f r a c t u r e p o t e n t i a l , as a consequence o f much more w e l l s
b e i n g d r i l l e d i n USA w i t h r e s p e c t t o Europe, a l s o an a b s o l u t e l y l a r g e r amount
o f w e l l s i s s t i m u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e mentioned shares. The h i g h e r frequency
o f j o b s i n t h e USA r e s u l t s i n more o f t e n use o f t h e equipment, and t h u s s e r v i c e
charges a r e a l s o much lower w i t h r e s p e c t t o Europe. S t i m u l a t i o n l o g i s t i c s and
r e q u i r e m e n t s i n t h e N o r t h Sea i n Europe a r e o u t l i n e d by MACADAM ( 1 9 8 4 ) .

2.3.2.2. Treatment cost and significance

o f fracturing in well completion
I n t h e USA, t h e percentage o f w e l l s b e i n g f r a c t u r e d has c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a -
sed i n t h e l a s t t h r e e years, because t r e a t m e n t c o s t has decreased due t o p r i c e
c u t s by s e r v i c e and proppant companies, w i t h cheaper j o b s f i t t i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y
b e t t e r i n t o r e v i s e d budgets o f independents (BATT 1983, RAMSEY 1983, ELTING
1987) which o n l y have a r a t h e r f i x e d c e r t a i n amount o f money t o be s p e n t f o r
s t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e i r c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e p l a n n i n g p e r i o d and f o r which cash ma-
nagement has t o p p r i o r i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.5.2.5.). CHAN (1985) s t r e s s e s t h e
n a t u r e o f o i l - f i e l d c a s h f l o w as t h e independents- l i f e b l o o d f o r s u r v i v a l , w i t h
t h e independent producers b e i n g under i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e t o seek o u t e v e r y
a v a i l a b l e d o l l a r o f i n t e r n a l l y generated c a s h f l o w f r o m o t h e r w i s e i d l e a s s e t s o r
premature f i n a n c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s .

As a consequence o f t h e e v e r i n c r e a s i n g development o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l
and gas r e s e r v o i r s , h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g has i n t h e USA a l r e a d y become
one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t aspects o f w e l l c o m p l e t i o n (WATERS 1980; ROBINSON,
HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986), whereas i n Europe, i t i s s t i l l a l o n g way t o go t o
t h i s stage, and p r e s e n t l y t h e e v o l u t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n i s i n Europe i n many
areas s t i l l a t t h e l e v e l o f performance o n l y i n case o f e x c e p t i o n a l and i n d i s -
p e n s i b l e circumstances, w i t h t h e o n l y e x c e p t i o n p r o b a b l y b e i n g t h e t h o r o u g h l y
planned R o t l i e g e n d development campaigns i n t h e N o r t h Sea i n 1987 - 1990 and be-
yond w h i c h a r e based on t h e c o n c e p t t h a t e n c o u n t e r i n g t h e expected t i g h t f a c i e s
c o u l d mean f r a c t u r i n g almost e v e r y w e l l i n t h e s u i t e o f p r o d u c t i o n d r i l l i n g .

2.3.3. Success/failure ratio and consortia1 structure

I n t h e USA, i t i s a l r e a d y s i n c e a l o n g t i m e w e l l understood t h a t because t h e
search f o r o i l and gas becomes more d i f f i c u l t w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p r o s p e c t i o n and
e x p l o r a t i o n m a t u r i t y o f more and more b a s i n s where t h e b i g and obvious d e p o s i t s
have been found a l r e a d y much e a r l i e r , and nowadays and i n t h e f u t u r e s m a l l e r
c o n v e n t i o n a l as w e l l as i n n o v a t i v e d e p o s i t s have t o be d i s c o v e r e d which r e q u i r e
 168

more and more s o p h i s t i c a t e d s t r a t e g i e s and t e c h n i q u e s and where t h e s u c c e s s / f a i -

l u r e r a t i o may be lower, i t i s i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t t o f r a c t u r e as many e x i s t -
i n g w e l l s as p o s s i b l e t o compensate t h e d e c l i n i n g impact o f e x p l o r a t i o n d r i l -
l i n g on s u p p l y o f a d d i t i o n a l r e s e r v e s by t h e impetus o f s t i m u l a t i o n (KNOTT
1 9 8 6 ) . H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g w i l l p l a y an e v e r i n c r e a s i n g r o l e i n main-
t a i n i n g t h e l e v e l o f o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e USA as h i g h as p o s s i b l e (WA-
TERS 1980), and t h i s c o n c l u s i o n a l s o needs u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n Europe and o t h e r
areas where i t i s n o t y e t p a r t o f common sense i n hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r comple-
t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n .

I n Europe, t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o n s o r t i a r e q u i r e s agreement between t h e

p a r t n e r s , w i t h f r a c t u r e j o b s as w e l l as whole d r i l l i n g p r o j e c t s b e i n g o f t e n se-
r i o u s l y delayed i f one o f t h e two t o f o u r o r even more p a r t i e s sees no need f o r
i n v e s t m e n t a t t h e moment, and t h e s t i l l h i g h e r p r i c e s o f m a t e r i a l s and opera-
t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e USA have i n Europe so f a r n o t had a s i m i l a r t r i g g e r -
i n g and p r o m o t i n g e f f e c t , and i f t h e r e had been one, i t was k i l l e d by t h e o i l
p r i c e d r o p (GRIFFITHS 1986, RUNGE 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.) and t h e d e c l i n e
o f t h e US $ v a l u e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.3.; a l t h o u g h a t l e a s t some N o r t h Sea
f i e l d s a r e s t i l l a b l e t o c o v e r o p e r a t i n g c o s t and r o y a l t y payments i n case o f
an even s t i l l l o w e r o i l p r i c e ; BEUDELL 1986 a ) . T h r e a t e n i n g u n w i l l i n g p a r t n e r s
w i t h s o l e - r i s k o p e r a t i o n s o n l y works i n e x p l o r a t i o n , b u t cannot be a p p l i e d i n
development d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n . F i n a n c i n g p r o j e c t s v i a t u r n k e y c o n t r a c -
t o r s i s o u t l i n e d by MARPLE & RULEY (1987).

2.3.4. Operating mentality and treatment cost

The o p e r a t i n g m e n t a l i t y and p h i l o s o p h y i n t h e USA i s much more d i r e c t and de-
c i s i v e t h a n i n Europe, b e i n g an e f f e c t o f t h e g e n e r a l l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d Ameri-
can t h i n k i n g i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e h e s i t a t i n g and w e l l - r e a s o n i n g European m e n t a l i -
t y . I n Europe, r e p e a t e d r e v i e w o f t h e p l a n s , renewed economical f e a s i b i l i t y s t u -
d i e s , more c o m p l i c a t e d h i e r a r c h i c a l p e r m i s s i o n procedures w i t h o f t e n t o o many
and p a r t i a l l y r i v a l i z i n g d e c i d i n g f u n c t i o n s , another m e n t a l i t y where sometimes
s u b j e c t i v e i n t e r e s t s can s e r i o u s l y i n f l u e n c e o b j e c t i v e purposes and can hamper
p r o j e c t a p p r o v a l s , and c e r t a i n l y sometimes a l s o l a c k i n g encouragement f o r unpo-
p u l a r approaches and m i s s i n g readyness t o c o n s i d e r more r i s k o f t e n l e a d t o a l t e -
r a t i o n , suspension o r even t o t a l c a n c e l l a t i o n o f planned jobs, whereas i n t h e
USA a c t i o n i s made a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e " g e t i t done as soon as p o s s i b l e " , and
a l s o a h i g h e r r i s k i s o f t e n accepted (NEWENDORP 1983 o u t l i n e s a s t r a t e g y f o r i m -
p l e m e n t i n g r i s k a n a l y s i s ) i n c o n t r a s t t o Europe where e v e r y t h i n g s h o u l d i d e a l l y
be on t h e most s a f e s i d e . E v a l u a t i o n s o f economical r i s k f o r N o r t h Sea o f f s h o r e
f i e l d development a r e c a r r i e d o u t by SULLIVAN (1982) and TWEEDIE & KENNY
( 1 9 8 2 ) . Some aspects of i n t e g r a t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n i n t o t h e t o t a l w e l l concept,
and p r o p p a n t p r i c e and t r e a t m e n t c o s t a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

2.3.4.1. Integration o f stimulation into the total well concept

The f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t s t i m u l a t i o n approach between Europe and USA i s
p a r t i a l l y a l s o a consequence of t h e American concept and u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e
f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t i s p a r t o f t h e d r i l l i n g and t e s t i n g budget and i s a u t o m a t i -
c a l l y i n c l u d e d t h e r e i n , whereas a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l European t h i n k i n g ,
h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g was f o r l o n g t i m e s c o n s i d e r e d t o be something ad-
d i t i o n a l and o p t i o n a l and t h e r e f o r e once d e c i s i o n was t o be made, t h e r e was a l -
ways c o n s i d e r a b l e r e a s o n i n g whether t h e a d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t s h o u l d be made o r
n o t . Thus a t a t i m e a f t e r t h e o i l p r i c e c r a s h when even w e l l - l o g g i n g r u n s were
s u b j e c t t o s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e a m l i n i n g , c a s i n g schedules f o r d r i l l i n g were changed
i n o r d e r t o save money, r e s e r v o i r c o r i n g was reduced t o t h e b a r e minimum neces-
s a r y f o r p e t r o p h y s i c a l c a l i b r a t i o n o f l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o r was even a l m o s t t o -
t a l l y e l i m i n a t e d , and many expensive s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s were e i t h e r suspended and
postponed o r c o m p l e t e l y c a n c e l l e d . The American way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e whole
package as an i n t e g r a t e d o b j e c t i s o n l y r e c e n t l y spreading i n Europe as w e l l ,
 169

m a i n l y i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e huge development d r i l l i n g campaigns i n t h e B r i -

t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d b e l t ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.6.2., 2.4.1.2.,
2.4.5.1. and 3.3.) where any o t h e r s t r a t e g y o f gas a c q u i s i t i o n would be condem-
ned t o f a i l u r e .

The n e c e s s i t y o f a more r i s k y o p e r a t i n g m e n t a l i t y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Germany

FRG u n d e r l i n e d by t h e phenomena t h a t t h e l a s t c o u p l e o f b i g g e r gas s t r i k e s i n
t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s by e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s d a t e s back more t h a n f i v e y e a r s (SCHRU-
DER 1985) and o n l y a few s m a l l e r d i s c o v e r i e s were made i n 1986/1987 (SCHRUDER
1987), which i s i n marked c o n t r a s t t o t h e f a c t t h a t most o f t h e s e v e r a l dozens
o f MHF j o b s h a v i n g been c a r r i e d o u t i n Germany FRG so f a r have been performed
i n t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s . D i s c o v e r y r a t e s i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d have been c o n s i d e r a b l y
h i g h e r t h a n i n t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s i n Germany FRG i n t h e l a s t y e a r s due t o a
s t r o n g and pushed gas e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g programme even a f t e r
t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e crash, b u t an even h i g h e r amount o f new f i e l d s o r b l o c k s
c o u l d have been proven t o c o n t a i n e c o n o m i c a l l y a c c e s s i b l e gas r e s e r v e s i f hy-
d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n would have had an adequate p o s i t i o n as
compared t o t h e emphasis on d r i l l i n g .

2.3.4.2. Proppant price and treatment cost

The t o t a l p r o p p a n t p r i c e i n Europe i s a t t h e bottom o f t h e l i n e a l m o s t t i m e s
1 . 5 o r even t w i c e t h e p r i c e i n t h e USA as a consequence o f sea f r e i g h t as w e l l
as a d d i t i o n a l h a n d l i n g and warehousing surcharges. The n e a r l y doubled p r i c e ma-
kes many o p e r a t i o n s i n Europe ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o j o b s i n t h e USA) much l e s s econo-
m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e ( i f a t a l l ) and t h u s i s one o f t h e main reasons f o r t h e absolu-
t e l y much l o w e r s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y ( i n view o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ,
because p r o p p a n t c o s t i s o f t e n t h e l a r g e s t share o f t h e t o t a l t r e a t m e n t expen-
ses) a l r e a d y i n good t i m e s and t h u s e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e 1986 c r i s i s and t h e f o l -
l o w i n g y e a r s . I n c o n t r a s t t o up t o 100 % c o s t d i f f e r e n c e between Europe and cen-
t r a l USA, a l t e r a t i o n s o f expenses up t o 20 - 30 % can a l s o o c c u r f o r r e g i o n a l
p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e USA w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e m i d d l e p o r t i o n o f t h a t area as a
r e s u l t o f l o g i s t i c a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e s .

2.3.5. US $ exchange rate decline

The c o s t f o r m a t e r i a l and o p e r a t i o n s i n Europe was r e l a t i v e l y cheaper f r o m
l a t e 1985 onwards w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e USA a l s o as a consequence o f t h e d e c l i -
n i n g US $ exchange r a t e ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o DM and L ) t h a t superimposed i n Europe
t h e p r i c e r e d u c t i o n s o f t h e s u p p l y and s e r v i c e companies. A t t h e same time,
however, t h e d e c r e a s i n g v a l u e o f t h e US $ d e t e r i o r a t e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y t h e
g e n e r a l economical s i t u a t i o n by g i v i n g a l o w e r n e t r e t u r n f r o m t h e hydrocarbon
s a l e s ( t h u s i n Europe i n d u c i n g an even s t r o n g e r r e d u c t i o n o f t h e o i l p r i c e t h a n
e f f e c t i v e i n t h e USA; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.3.). T h i s f i n a n c i a l p o l i t i c a l c o n s t e l l a -
t i o n had an i m p o r t a n t a d d i t i o n a l impact on t h e s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t i n Europe and
o t h e r n o n - d o l l a r - c u r r e n c y areas i n c o n t r a s t t o i t s i n s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e USA.

The cheaper p r i c e t o be p a i d f o r goods and s e r v i c e r e s u l t i n g f r o m p r i c e c u t s

t o g e t h e r w i t h US $ d e v a l u a t i o n t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t l e a d t o an i n c r e a s e o f i n v e s t -
ments i n Europe, because t h e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t o f t h e weak US $ on t h e a l r e a d y
u n f a v o u r a b l y low o i l p r i c e d i d no l o n g e r p e r m i t t o make i n v e s t m e n t s w i t h a s u f -
f i c i e n t l y h i g h d i s c o u n t e d cash f l o w r a t e even under s i m p l e s t t e c h n i c a l c o n d i -
t i o n s . Thus i n many p r e d o m i n a n t l y Western European companies an almost t o t a l
f r e e z e o f t h e budget o f c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e (above c e r t a i n i n e v i t a b l e o b l i g a -
t i o n s s e t by t h e m i n i n g a u t h o r i t y when l i c e n s i n g t h e concessions and e x c e p t o f
such i t e m s where c o n t r a c t s had a l r e a d y been signed) was t h e g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y t o
s u r v i v e u n t i l a t i m e w i t h h i g h e r o i l p r i c e and s t r o n g e r US $ came s l o w l y back
by s l i g h t s t a b i l i z a t i o n f r o m l a t e 1986 onwards, a l t h o u g h h a v i n g s t i l l i n m i d
1988 n o t y e t reached a l e v e l t h a t a l l o w s renewed s a f e p l a n n i n g o f s i g n i f i c a n t l y
h i g h e r i n v e s t m e n t s than d u r i n g t h e peak o f t h e c r i s i s and s h o r t l y a f t e r i t .
 170

2.3.6. Proppant marketing strategy

A s t h e main p r o p p a n t producers have b o t h head o f f i c e s and m a n u f a c t u r i n g
p l a n t s i n t h e USA, t h i s area ( i n c l u d i n g Canada) i s much b e t t e r covered by mar-
k e t i n g and s a l e s p r o m o t i o n a c t i v i t y and i s developed s i n c e many y e a r s , whereas
many p a r t s o f Europe were v i r t u a l l y unattended u n t i l r e c e n t l y . Sales t o Europe
were i n t h e l a s t y e a r s p r e d o m i n a n t l y made upon s p o t - l i k e r e q u e s t by t h e market,
w i t h t h e h i g h l i g h t s b e i n g t h e MHF t r e a t m e n t s i n Germany FRG; B r i t i s h , D u t c h and
Norwegian N o r t h Sea; and Yugoslavia, and o r d e r s were o b t a i n e d by i n d i v i d u a l
proppant companies i n some cases by pure chance and l u c k (sometimes i n c l u d i n g
unexpected backdoor approaches t h r o u g h s u p p l y companies which g o t t h e business,
b u t were u n a b l e t o d e l i v e r t h e r e q u e s t e d q u a n t i t i e s f r o m t h e i r own s o u r c e s ) ,
b u t n o t as a r e s u l t o f s t e p w i s e groundwork by sound m a r k e t i n g and s a l e s promo-
t i o n concepts based on u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f g e o l o g i c a l , e n g i n e e r i n g and economical
r e 1 a t ion s h ips .

The much b e t t e r communication and t r a n s p a r e n c y o f t h e l a t e s t t e c h n i c a l news

c o n c e r n i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t types and t h e c o n s u l t i n g by t h e s a l e s r e p r e -
s e n t a t i v e s i n t h e USA r e i n f o r c e s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n t h i s
area and t h u s h e l p s p r o d u c t i o n and s e r v i c e companies t o d e c i d e i n a d i r e c t i o n
f a v o u r a b l e f o r t h e p r o p p a n t company i n a much more e f f e c t i v e way t h a n i n Eu-
rope. Given comparable s t a n d a r d o f m a r k e t i n g management, an adequate p e n e t r a -
t i o n i s a l s o i n Europe undoubtedly p o s s i b l e and i s o n l y a q u e s t i o n o f manpower
and t i m e . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n summarizes aspects o f l a c k i n g c o n t i n u i t y i n
marketing attention, b u s i n e s s shares o f t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t companies, and
p r i c e changes and m a r k e t t u r n i n g .

2.3.6.1. Lacking c o n t i n u i t y i n marketing a t t e n t i o n

The h i t h e r t o u n s a t i s f y i n g p r o p p a n t s a l e s l e v e l i n Europe i s t h e r e f o r e t h e l o -
g i c a l and i n e v i t a b l e consequence o f l a c k i n g c o n t i n u i t y and c o n c e p t o f m a r k e t i n g
and s a l e s s t r a t e g y i n t h a t area. I n c o n t r a s t t o market t r a n s p a r e n c y and i l l u s -
t r a t i o n , c o n f u s i o n and embarassment was c r e a t e d by v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t companies
by n o t o n l y n e g l e c t i n g t h e i r m a r k e t i n g a c t i v i t y , b u t i n a d d i t i o n t o t h a t chan-
g i n g names o f p r o p p a n t p r o d u c t s and companies ( i n some cases r e p e a t e d l y w i t h i n
a c o u p l e o f y e a r s ) , a l t e r n a t i o n o f l i m i t e d p e r i o d s o f t i m e when l o c a l t e c h n i c a l
s a l e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s were a c t i n g w i t h phases when nobody e x c e p t t h e head o f -
f i c e i n t h e USA was r e s p o n s i b l e , employment o f m a r k e t i n g managers w i t h soon f o l -
l o w i n g premature t e r m i n a t i o n w i t h o u t l o g i c a l and u n d e r s t a n d a b l e r e a s o n i n g and
w i t h o u t r e s p e c t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e European market, and f i n a l l y chan-
g i n g proppant p r i c e s r e p e a t e d l y i n downwards and upwards d i r e c t i o n . A s a conse-
quence o f a l l these shortcomings, Europe i s i n many p a r t s s t i l l nowadays a p o o r -
l y understood p r o p p a n t m a r k e t .

Reviewing t h e p a s t and c u r r e n t m a r k e t i n g a c t i v i t y o f p r o p p a n t companies i n

Europe, c o n c l u s i o n has t o be made t h a t t h e g e n e r a l l y u n s a t i s f y i n g p a s t and p r e -
s e n t s a l e s l e v e l i s t h e l o g i c a l and i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t o f s e r i o u s n e g l e c t a n c e
and exaggerated u n d e r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l o f a market where numerous pos-
s i b i l i t i e s o f s t i m u l a t i o n e x i s t , b u t c o m p l i c a t e d r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s , many d i f -
f e r e n t m e n t a l i t i e s and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n t e r l o c k i n g r e q u i r e much more t i m e and
a c t i v i t y , c o u p l e d w i t h p a t i e n c e , t o achieve t h e goal o f t h e m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y
by h a v i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g j o b s . T h i s t a r g e t , how-
e v e r , can even today w i t h good i n t e r c o n t i n e n t a l o r a l and w r i t t e n communication
i n s c i e n t i f i c , t e c h n i c a l and commercial aspects n o t be achieved w i t h o u t a f u l l -
t i m e l o c a l m a r k e t i n g management r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w i t h i n Europe.

Release o f t h e p r o p p a n t m a r k e t i n g p o t e n t i a l i n Europe and i t s c o n v e r s i o n

i n t o o r d e r s can t h e r e f o r e a t t h e moment o n l y be achieved by i n v e s t m e n t i n t o t h e
market which, however, s h o u l d i n f a c t h a v i n g been done a l r e a d y much e a r l i e r .
 171

Again i t has t o be emphasized t h a t c o n t i n u i t y o f work s h o u l d be achieved by a

l o n g e r assignment o f m a r k e t i n g personnel r a t h e r than h i r i n g and f i r i n g p o l i c y
w i t h premature personnel t e r m i n a t i o n w i t h o u t understandable reasons s i m p l y be-
cause e x e c u t i v e s a r e n o t w i l l i n g t o w a i t s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g t o observe t h e mar-
k e t r e a c t i o n a f t e r a reasonable l e a n t i m e . The market needs i n f a c t q u i t e some
t i m e i n o r d e r t o response and t o r e f l e c t t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e market attendance
e f f o r t s i n v i s i b l y i n c r e a s i n g s a l e s l e v e l s independent f r o m seasonal f l u c t u a -
t i o n s and v a r i a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e g e n e r a l economical framework.

2.3.6.2. Business shares o f the d i f f e r e n t proppant companies

Aspects o f business shares o f t h e d i f f e r e n t proppant companies a r e e v a l u a t e d
a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f skewed market share r a t i o o f m a j o r proppant s u p p l i e r s as
w e l l as impact o f s e r v i c e companies vs. own t r e a t m e n t management as f o l l o w s .

2.3.6.2.1. Skewed market share r a t i o o f major proppant suppliers

As t h e s e r v i c e companies b e i n g t h e main proppant customers do n o t d i v i d e t h e
p r o p p a n t business by 50 : 50 between t h e m a j o r s u p p l i e r s ( a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n -
s h i p a p p l i e s f o r t h e w e l l - l o g g i n g business p r o v i d e d by t h e hydrocarbon produc-
t i o n companies), b u t almost always generate an asymmetrical d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h
s l i g h t f a v o u r i z a t i o n o f one s u p p l i e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s c o m p e t i t i o n , t h e i n d i -
v i d u a l p r o p p a n t companies should be i n s p i r e d t o undertake e f f o r t s t o skew t h e
r a t i o towards 60 : 40 o r even 70 : 30 t o t h e i r b e n e f i t and a t t h e expense o f
t h e i r c o m p e t i t i o n . W i t h t h e background o f i d e n t i c a l p r i c e s and comparable p e r -
formance o f t h e v a r i o u s c o r r e l a t i n g p r o p p a n t types, t h i s goal can o n l y be a c h i e -
ved b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e and knowledge o f t h e t e c h n i c a l and m a r k e t i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i -
ve, w i t h g e o l o g i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g e x p e r i e n c e b e i n g e s s e n t i a l t o ob-
t a i n c r e d i b i l i t y and c o n f i d e n c e and b e i n g regarded by t h e customers n o t s i m p l y
as a s a l e s agent t h a t t r i e s t o promote p r o d u c t no m a t t e r how and i r r e s p e c t i v e
o f p r a c t i c a l demand, b u t as a t e c h n i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r t n o t o n l y f o r t h e
c o m m e r c i a l l y o f f e r e d p r o p p a n t types, b u t a l s o f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n gene-
r a l and t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e s p e c i f i c r e s e r v o i r s .

A d d i t i o n a l m a r k e t shares can be o b t a i n e d by t r y i n g t o c o n v i n c e s e r v i c e compa-

n i e s and o p e r a t o r s t o i n c r e a s i n g amounts o f t h e b e n e f i t s o f r e p l a c i n g n a t u r a l
sand by ceramic p r o p p a n t s . T a l k i n g t o a l l t h e o p e r a t o r s i s t h e o n l y way t o make
s u r e t h a t a l l t h e r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n i s p r o p e r l y f e d t o t h e end u s e r and i s
n o t o b l i t e r a t e d o r drowned i n t h e b u l k p r o p o s a l o f t h e s e r v i c e company.

The skew o f t h e p r o p p a n t market f r o m 50 : 50 towards 60 : 40 o r even 70 : 30

was achieved by one o f t h e m a j o r proppant s u p p l i e r s i n Europe f o r q u i t e some
t i m e by good c o o p e r a t i o n and c o n f i d e n t b u s i n e s s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h one s e r v i c e
company which a c c o r d i n g t o i t s c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s i n terms o f p r i c e and p e r f o r -
mance won most o f t h e p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g c o n t r a c t s i n t h e N o r t h Sea d u r i n g t h e
l a s t few years, w i t h t h e p r o p p a n t company t h e r e b y h a v i n g had an a c c i d e n t a l p r e -
f e r e n t i a l o u t l e t i n t o t h e N o r t h Sea market ( w h i c h i s t h e l a r g e s t share o f t h e
European f r a c t u r i n g scene) d e s p i t e g e n e r a l l y i n s u f f i c i e n t m a r k e t i n g a t t e n t i o n .
F o l l o w i n g t h e l a t e 1987 p r o p p a n t p r i c e increase, however, t h i s advantage was
l o s t t o t h e c o m p e t i t i o n as a consequence o f p l a y i n g t h e p r i c e c a r d t o o h i g h due
t o l i m i t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m a r k e t requirements ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) .
T h i s example most s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h l i g h t s t h e need o f improved m a r k e t i n g and
s a l e s s t r a t e g i e s by e x p e r i e n c e d l o c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s who a r e a l s o f a m i l i a r
w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r needs o f t h e European m a r k e t and t h e m e n t a l i t y o f t h e
people w o r k i n g t h e r e .
 172

2.3.6.2.2. Impact o f service companies

vs. own treatment management
The f o r m e r l y s t r o n g t o d o m i n a n t i m p a c t o f t h e s e r v i c e companies o n s t i m u l a -
t i o n d e s i g n and c h i e f l y p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n i s d e c l i n i n g . The r e a s o n i s t h a t o n
t h e one hand, W e s t e r n European companies have i n i n c r e a s i n g amounts t h e i r own
e x p e r t s who p l a y s i m u l a t i o n s i n t h e c o m p u t e r w i t h i n - h o u s e p r o g r a m s and make a
d e s i g n i n c l u d i n g p r o p p a n t c h o i c e , and t h e n ask t h e s e r v i c e company t o e i t h e r mo-
d i f y and i m p r o v e t h e c o n c e p t o r e v e n a l m o s t d i r e c t l y e x e c u t e t h e p l a n n e d t r e a t -
ment. On t h e o t h e r hand, E a s t e r n European companies have f r e q u e n t l y own e q u i p -
ment and c a r r y o u t many j o b s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y s m a l l e r ones) t h e m s e l v e s , w i t h e v e n
t h e s e r v i c e companies b e i n g p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t d i r e c t p r o p p a n t p u r c h a s e b y t h e
E a s t e r n European o p e r a t o r s and t r y i n g t o f o c u s t h e i r b u s i n e s s o n f l u i d s , a d d i t i -
ves and o t h e r c h e m i c a l s . The E a s t e r n European m e n t a l i t y i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m
t h e W e s t e r n European and A m e r i c a n way o f t h i n k i n g . F r i e n d s h i p has a v e r y h i g h
r a n k a l s o i n b u s i n e s s l i f e . Once a company r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i s acknowledged t o b e
a t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t and i s r e g a r d e d as a p e r s o n a l f r i e n d , t h e E a s t e r n European
s p e c i a l i s t s w i l l a l m o s t a l w a y s a d d r e s s t h e m s e l v e s t o h i m and a l s o g i v e h i m
t h e i r b u s i n e s s , w i t h i n some c a s e s even n o t t a l k i n g t o c o m p e t i t i o n a t a l l r e -
g a r d l e s s o f any p r i c i n g s t r u c t u r e .

2.3.6.3. Price changes and market turning

S i n c e t h e 1985 p r i c e d r o p s f o r a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s w h i c h
moved t h e more e x p e n s i v e z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s i n t o an a l m o s t unmarke-
t a b l e s i t u a t i o n , t h e m a r k e t i n E u r o p e was v i r t u a l l y o n l y s h a r e d b y t h e m a j o r
p r o d u c e r s o f a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s . The r a t i o o f 60 : 40 o r
70 : 30 w h i c h may be a c h i e v e d b y one o f t h e m a j o r companies w i t h r e s p e c t t o
t h e i r c o m p e t i t i o n , however, i s o n l y v a l i d as l o n g as t h e p r i c e d i f f e r e n c e b e t -
ween a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s o n t h e one hand and z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e
p r o p p a n t s o n t h e o t h e r hand i s s u f f i c i e n t t o p r e v e n t r e a s o n a b l e m a r k e t p e n e t r a -
t i o n o f the l a t t e r product.

T h e r e f o r e a g a i n a w a r n i n g has t o be i s s u e d t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f a l u m i n a
o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s t h a t f o l l o w i n g t h e l a t e 1987 p r i c e r i s e and t h e r e -
c o v e r i n g US $ exchange r a t e i n e a r l y 1988, a n o t h e r company-induced p r i c e i n c r e a -
se c o u l d b r i n g t h e z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s back i n t o t h e i r f o r m e r c o m p e t i t i -
ve p o s i t i o n w h i c h w o u l d c e r t a i n l y d e s t r o y much o f t h e above s k e t c h e d m a r k e t i n g
c o n c e p t s , w i t h t h e p r o b a b i l i t y b e i n g v e r y h i g h t h a t i n t h i s case, t h e z i r c o n i a -
s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s w o u l d a g a i n a c h i e v e a t l e a s t 20 - 30 % m a r k e t s h a r e as compa-
r e d t o t h e i r a l m o s t i n s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t h e moment c o m p r i s i n g n o t more t h a n
5 - 10 % o f t h e w h o l e p r o p p a n t b u s i n e s s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 2 . ) . The w a r n i n g
n o t t o p e r f o r m a n o t h e r a r t i f i c i a l p r i c e r i s e has t o be examined p a r t i c u l a r l y
w i t h r e s p e c t t o p o s s i b l e a u t o m a t i c a l p r i c e i n c r e a s e s f o r t h e European c u s t o m e r s
b y a f u r t h e r r e g a i n i n g US $ exchange r a t e t o w h i c h t h e p r o p p a n t companies have
a b s o l u t e l y no i n f l u e n c e a t a l l .
 173

2.4. Areal marketing assessment o f hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y i n Europe i s o f d i f f e r e n t s i g n i f i c a n -
c e i n t h e w e s t e r n and e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e area due t o r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g ,
t e c h n o l o g i c a l and economical reasons. A r e a l m a r k e t i n g e v a l u a t i o n s a r e g i v e n as
f o l l o w s f o r b o t h Western Europe and E a s t e r n Europe f o r t h e p e r i o d s 1977 - 1985,
1986 ( i n c l u d i n g p a r t i a l l y t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1987), and 1987 ( c o m p r i s i n g m a i n l y
t h e second h a l f ) - 1990 ( a n d p a r t i a l l y even beyond), t h u s c o n t a i n i n g review,
s t a t u s , f o r e c a s t and p e r s p e c t i v e s . The f i r s t p e r i o d comprises t h e range b e f o r e
t h e m a j o r 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h and covers t h e t i m e f r o m t h e o n s e t o f a v a i l a b i l i -
t y o f s y n t h e t i c h i g h - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t s t h r o u g h t h e golden y e a r s o f hydrocarbon
s t i m u l a t i o n t o t h e market c o l l a p s e . The second i n t e r v a l i n c l u d e s t h e immediate
o i l p r i c e d r o p range and t h e p e r i o d o f reduced and/or r e t a r d e d a c t i v i t y s h o r t l y
a f t e r t h e m a r k e t t u r n i n g . The t h i r d s e c t i o n f i n a l l y comprises t h e b e g i n n i n g r e -
c o v e r y f r o m t h e o i l p r i c e c r a s h and t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s which a r e more t h a n
e v e r b e f o r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r e a l i s t i c p r o j e c t assessment w i t h o u t exaggerated
optimism, b u t on t h e o t h e r hand c e r t a i n l y a l s o n o t based on e x c e s s i v e p e s s i -
mism. As a r e s u l t o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y t o prognose and t o p l a n i n e x a c t t i m e f r a -
mes due t o many t e c h n i c a l and economical u n c e r t a i n t i e s , t h e l a t t e r p e r i o d i s
p a r t i a l l y even f a r t h e r e x t e n d i n g i n t o t h e f u t u r e as a consequence o f some de-
l a y s and postponements as w e l l as appearance o f f o l l o w - u p p r o j e c t s due t o favou-
r a b l e impact o f e a r l i e r j o b s and campaigns.

2.4.0. General aspects

Emphasis i s i n t h e p r e s e n t r e v i e w , s t a t u s r e p o r t and p r e d i c t i o n a l s o p u t on
economical, commercial, p o l i t i c a l and even i d e o l o g i c a l aspects of h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g e s p e c i a l l y f o r E a s t e r n Europe. As f a r as more or l e s s r e g i o -
n a l l y o r t e m p o r a l l y l i n k e d w i t h h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , comments a r e
a l s o o f f e r e d on g r a v e l p a c k i n g w h i c h i n terms o f p r o p p a n t consumption has gene-
r a l l y o n l y a small share o f t h e t o t a l p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y d e l i v e r e d t o h y d r o c a r -
bon i n d u s t r y and i s i n many areas w i t h g e o l o g i c a l l y o l d e r and more l i t h i f i e d
sandstones even almost o f n e g l i g i b l e n a t u r e i n comparison t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g , whereas o t h e r r e g i o n s w i t h g e o l o g i c a l l y younger and l e s s c o n s o l i d a t e d
sands and c h a l k s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p r o p p a n t u t i l i z a t i o n p r e d o m i n a n t l y f o r
gravel packing w i t h o n l y a subordinate q u a n t i t y going t o hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g
( c f . c h a p t e r 5 ) . References on g e n e r a l and s p e c i f i c , r e g i o n a l and s t r a t i g r a p h i -
c a l , r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g and t e c h n i c a l aspects o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g a r e compiled i n c h a p t e r 7, and f u r t h e r m a r k e t i n g d e t a i l s a r e c o l l e c t e d i n
MADER ( 1 9 8 7 ) . An overview map o f t h e c e n t r e s o f a c t i v i t y i n Europe i s p r e s e n t e d
i n f i g . 2, and a summary of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s i s e x h i b i t e d i n t a b . 5.

The European p r o p p a n t market can be s p l i t i n t o c e n t r e s o f a c t i v i t y o f mas-

s i v e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (MHF), s m a l l e r - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g
( c f . f i g . 2 ) . Massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y i n p a s t and f u t u r e concen-
t r a t e s on B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea, N e t h e r l a n d s onshore, Germany
FRG onshore, and Yugoslavia. S m a l l e r - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e areas
o f MHF e x e c u t i o n and i n a d d i t i o n t o these i n t h e B r i t i s h and Norwegian N o r t h e r n
N o r t h Sea, Germany GDR, Poland, S o v i e t Union, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, A u s t r i a ,
France, I t a l y , B u l g a r i a , Romania, Turkey, T u n i s i a and A l g e r i a . Gravel p a c k i n g
focusses on Norwegian and B r i t i s h N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea, Germany FRG, A u s t r i a , Cze-
c h o s l o v a k i a , I t a l i a n and Yugoslavian A d r i a t i c Sea, and S o v i e t Union ( c f . f i g s .
4 - 8 ) . The N o r t h Sea i s by f a r t h e area w i t h h i g h e s t s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l i n
p a s t and f u t u r e and i s a mature o i l and gas p r o v i n c e , w i t h c u r r e n t developments
r e p r e s e n t i n g a l r e a d y t h e t h i r d g e n e r a t i o n (THOMAS 1986).
 174

2.4.1. Western Europe 1977 - 1985

When t h e f i r s t i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants were i n -
t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t a b t . 10 y e a r s ago (DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER
1985, WESTERN PETROLEUM 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 4 . ) , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e USA and
p a r t s o f Western Europe many w e l l s were w a i t i n g on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t h a t i n -
d i s p e n s i b l y r e q u i r e d s y n t h e t i c h i g h - q u a l i t y proppants which c o u l d w i t h s t a n d
h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s i n deep t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) . As
b e f o r e t h e i n v e n t i o n o f adequate proppants t h e t r e a t m e n t s c o u l d f r e q u e n t l y n o t
be c a r r i e d o u t due t o t h e f a c t t h a t sand and o t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s were
n o t s t a b l e enough t o p r e v e n t c r u s h i n g , t h e appearance o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - and
h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants ( t h e f i r s t commercial f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n o f s i n t e r e d bau-
x i t e f o r p r o p p i n g o f s t i m u l a t e d f o r m a t i o n s took p l a c e i n 1976; COOKE 1976,
1977; ATTEBERRY, TUCKER & R I T Z 1979; HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981) i n i t i a t e d
a boom o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g which became t h e golden y e a r s o f s t i m u l a t i o n i n
t h e l a t e 1970s and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e e a r l y 1980s when t h e economical f e a s i b i l i -
t y o f t h e t r e a t m e n t s was even enhanced by f u r t h e r r i s i n g o i l p r i c e s and espe-
c i a l l y i n t h e l a t t e r p e r i o d i n Europe backed- up by a h i g h US $ exchange r a t e
( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) . The most i m p o r t a n t areas o f f r a c t u r i n g performance a r e
Germany FRG and B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea ( c f . f i g . 6 as w e l l as t a b s . 6 and
7) which a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e s e c t i o n s below.

2.4.1.1. Germany FRG

I n Western Europe, t h e main t a r g e t s o f MHF s t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e p e r i o d 1977 -
1985 have been deep t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d ( c f . c h a p t e r 3 ) and C a r b o n i f e r o u s gas-bear-
i n g sandstones i n Germany FRG onshore, N e t h e r l a n d s onshore and o f f s h o r e , and
B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea. I n some cases, f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n s have a l s o been
performed i n B u n t s a n d s t e i n g a s - b e a r i n g sandstones i n t h e mentioned areas ( s e d i -
m e n t o l o g i c a l and d i a g e n e t i c a l aspects o f B u n t s a n d s t e i n and R o t l i e g e n d d e p o s i t s
as a base f o r r e s e r v o i r m o d e l l i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d i n PLEIN 1978, LUTZNER 1981, R O -
BINSON 1981; DRONG, PLEIN, SANNEMANN, SCHUEPBACH & ZIMDARS 1982; GLENNIE 1983,
1986; LEE 1984; MADER 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1988 b; MADER & TEYSSEN
1985, MADER & YARDLEY 1985; BIFANI, GEORGE & LEVER 1987; GRALLA 1988, MADER &
CHATALOV 1988, M A R T I N & EVANS 1988 and RICHARDSON, SANGREE & SNEIDER 1988; c f .
s e c t i o n 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 . ) . Some aspects o f deep gas and s h a l l o w o i l f r a c t u r i n g a r e o u t -
l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

2.4.1.1.1. Deep gas f r a c t u r i n g

The most i m p o r t a n t f i e l d s where MHF s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s o f R o t l i e g e n d and
C a r b o n i f e r o u s deep t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s have been c a r r i e d o u t i n Germany FRG
a r e i n t h e E a s t Hannover area ( f i e l d names a r e p r e s e n t e d i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r
i n each r e g i o n ) Hamwiede and W i t t o r f i n t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s and E b s t o r f , Munster-
l a g e r , Preyersmuhle-Hastedt and S o h l i n g e n i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d ; i n t h e South Hanno-
v e r area A l f e l d - E l z e i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d and H i l d e s h e i m e r Wald i n t h e C a r b o n i f e -
rous; i n t h e South Oldenburg area Cappeln, Goldenstedt, Syke, Uchte, Varnhorn
and Wietingsmoor i n t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s ( t h e R o t l i e g e n d i s i n t h e l a t t e r area n o t
p r e s e n t o r n o t develuped i n r e s e r v o i r f a c i e s ) ; i n t h e West Emsland area Ruten-
brock i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d and Emlichheim, Fehndorf, Frenswegen and Rutenbrock i n
t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s (accompanied by Coevorden on t h e i m m e d i a t e l y n e i g h b o u r i n g
Dutch t e r r i t o r y on t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e s t a t e boundary); and i n t h e E a s t F r i e s -
l a n d area Hamburger Sand, Leer and Leybucht i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d and Uphuser Meer
i n t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s ( c f . maps and e x p l a n a t i o n s i n BRINKMANN 1982, JOHN 1983;
R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985; SCHRCIDER 1986; c f . f i g . 4 and t a b .
6 ) . Deep gas f r a c t u r i n g i n R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s t i g h t sandstones i n Ger-
many FRG i s i l l u s t r a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f r e s e r v o i r d e p t h and p r o p p a n t q u a n t i -
t i e s , f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and s t i m u l a t i o n r a t i o , and c o s t and temporal e x e c u t i o n o f
t r e a t m e n t s as f o l l o w s . The t e c h n i c a l and economical f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i n t h e
p e r i o d 1985 - 1989 i s a l s o b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d .
 175

Hydraulic Proppant Fracturing

and Gravel Packing in Europe
CENTRES OF ACTIVITY I N PAST AND FUTURE

I m a s s i v e hydraulic fracturing (MHF)

= smaller-scale fracturing
A = gravel packing

Moscow

Kaliningrade Smolensk

Charkov
0

- 500 krn

Fig. 2

Overview map o f p a s t , p r e s e n t and f u t u r e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a -

v e l p a c k i n g p o t e n t i a l i n Western and E a s t e r n Europe. D i s t i n c t i o n c a n b e made i n
t h e p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t between m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , s m a l l e r -
s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g , and g r a v e l p a c k i n g .
 176

2 .4.1.1.1.1. Reservoir depth and proppant quantities

Comments on r e s e r v o i r depth and p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
t r e a t m e n t s i n Germany FRG a r e g i v e n f o r t h e p e r i o d s 1975 - 1978 when h i g h -
s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants were i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e hydrocarbon s t i m u l a t i o n mar-
k e t , and 1978 - 1985 c o m p r i s i n g t h e golden y e a r s o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g i n b o t h Europe and USA.

2.4.1.1.1.1.1. 1975 - 1978

The demand/supply s i t u a t i o n i n t h e European gas market l e d t o an e x t e n s i v e
e f f o r t t o develop t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s i n Germany FRG s t a r t i n g i n 1977 (BRINK-
MANN 1982) w i t h some p r e c u r s o r t r e a t m e n t s b e g i n n i n g i n 1975. Massive h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g i n Germany FRG was f i r s t a p p l i e d i n 1975 i n t h e w e l l A l f e l d - E l z e Z 4
( R o t l i e g e n d ) and 1976 i n t h e w e l l H i l d e s h e i m e r Wald Z 1 ( C a r b o n i f e r o u s ) where
as a consequence o f s t i l l u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s a b t . 80 -
150 t o f n a t u r a l sand have been i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e c r a c k s (ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL
1975, 1976 a ) . S m a l l e r - s c a l e sand f r a c t u r i n g has a l r e a d y been c a r r i e d o u t e a r -
l i e r , w i t h success, however, h a v i n g been l i m i t e d by r a p i d c l o s i n g o f t h e c r a c k s
due t o sand c r u s h i n g i n t h e h i g h - p r e s s u r e regime o f t h e deep gas r e s e r v o i r s
(TUNN 1971).

I n 1978, b o t h s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n
1 . 3 . ) were f i r s t used i n massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n Germany FRG
when a b t . 70 t o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and a b t . 140 t o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p -
p a n t s were pumped i n t o two d i f f e r e n t C a r b o n i f e r o u s r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y s i n t h e
w e l l Hamwiede Z 2 (ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL 1978 a ) . The f i r s t s u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a -
t i o n o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s opened s u i t a b l e p e r s p e c t i v e s f o r t h e economical-
l y f e a s i b l e a c q u i s i t i o n o f R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s t i g h t gas r e s e r v e s , and
a l t h o u g h i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l phase o c c a s i o n a l l y s t i l l n a t u r a l sand was used
( w e l l Cappeln Z 4 a was t r e a t e d w i t h 250 t o f sand i n l a t e 1978; ERDOEL-ERDGAS
AKTUELL 1979 a ) , s y n t h e t i c h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants were a b u n d a n t l y t o e x c l u s i v e -
l y u t i l i z e d i n progressively increasing quantities.

2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 1978 - 1985
The b i g g e s t t r e a t m e n t s and t h e l a r g e s t number o f massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g j o b s i n Europe d u r i n g t h e e a r l i e r p a r t o f t h e p e r i o d 1977 - 1985 have been
c a r r i e d o u t i n Germany FRG (BRINKMANN, FUHRBERG & SCHUBER 1980; BRINKMANN, KRU-
MER & R E I N I C K E 1980; BRINKMANN 1982, GUNDERMANN 1982, SCHWARZ & SCHUBER 1982;
JOHN 1983, 1987; KLOSE & KRUMER 1983, BLEAKLEY 1984, RIECKMANN & PUSCH 1984,
LEICHT 1985; R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985; SOMMER 1987, 1988)
where t h e R o t l i e g e n d ( c f . c h a p t e r 3) and C a r b o n i f e r o u s r e s e r v o i r r o c k s ( c f .
f i g . 3 ) a r e i n depths between 3,000 and 6,000 m ( e q u i v a l e n t t o between 9,000
and 18,000 f t ) w i t h b o t t o m h o l e temperatures between 120 and 180 OC (PHILIPP &
R E I N I C K E 1982, JOHN 1983, KLOSE & KRUMER 1983) and t h u s i n almost a l l t h e cases
t h e whole t r e a t m e n t had t o be made w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p -
pants, and o n l y i n a few e x c e p t i o n s a l s o sand had been used ( c f . s e c t i o n
3.3.2.). D e t a i l s o f R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n s a r e g i v e n
by KLOSE & KRUMER (1983); R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI (1985) and SOM-
MER (1987), and aspects o f i n d i v i d u a l massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n s a r e
a l s o r e p o r t e d by ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL (1977, 1980 b ) and SCHRUDER ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

As such h i g h r e s e r v o i r depths o f p r o d u c t i v e sandstones and c o n s e q u e n t l y a l s o

c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s a r e nowhere e l s e reached i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s
g a s - f i e l d b e l t f r o m G r e a t B r i t a i n t o Poland, and a l s o a s i m i l a r c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f p r o s p e c t i v e patches w i t h h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i s n o t f o u n d e l s e -
where, Germany FRG was f o r many y e a r s t h e b i g g e s t European m a r k e t f o r i n t e r m e -
d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s . Several dozens o f l a r g e - s c a l e f r a c t u r e j o b s
 177

have been c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g t h i s time i n Northwest Germany s i n c e 1976/1977 ( a

couple o f operations p e r y e a r ) i n t h e East Hannover, South Oldenburg, West Ems-
l a n d and East F r i e s l a n d areas (ALBERTSEN 1985) between the bounding gas f i e l d s
Groningen/The Netherlands (STKUBLE & MILIUS 1970, ROSSUM 1975, BEEK & TROOST
1978) i n the west and Salzwedel/Germany GDR i n t h e e a s t (JOHN 1983; c f . f i g . 4)
where t h e t r e a t e d w e l l s occupy a broad seam r e p r e s e n t i n g a zone o f h i g h f r a c t u -
r i n g p o t e n t i a l a l s o f o r f u r t h e r w e l l s i n t h e f u t u r e . Proppant q u a n t i t i e s consu-
med i n t h e MHF treatments exceeded i n most cases 100 t, w i t h i n a t l e a s t one
t h i r d o f the o p e r a t i o n s comprising more than 200 t and i n t h e b i g g e s t j o b s even
r a n g i n g between 400 and 650 t.

2.4.1.1.1.2. Fracture length and stimulation ratio

F r a c t u r e l e n g t h ( a s evaluated w i t h a c t u a l treatment data) v a r i e d between 100
and 550 m, and propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t ranged w i t h i n the l i m i t s o f 10 m ( t h i n
Carboniferous sandstones) and 115 m ( t h i c k Rotliegend sandstones; KLOSE & KRU-
MER 1983; R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985). Various w e l l s have been
f r a c t u r e d i n several v e r t i c a l l y successive horizons t h a t are separated by t h i c k
mudstone i n t e r v a l s from each other, and have been f r a c t u r e d i n d i v i d u a l l y and
then commingled f o r pressure b u i l d - u p a n a l y s i s and p a r t i a l l y a l s o p r o d u c t i o n
(REINICKE, BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985; w i t h commingling here i m p l y i n g i n -
t e r h o r i z o n communication o n l y through the w e l l b o r e and n o t v i a t h e f r a c t u r e i n
these multilayer/multifracture systems; BENNETT, REYNOLDS & RAGHAVAN 1982 a,
1982 b; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.1.1. and 4.10.1.). While most o f the f r a c t u r i n g opera-
t i o n s have been g r e a t successes r e s u l t i n g i n s t i m u l a t i o n r a t i o s o f 8 - 10,
o t h e r treatments have been l e s s e f f e c t i v e and o n l y gave r i s e t o improvement r a -
t i o s o f 3 - 6, and a l s o several jobs have turned o u t t o be f a i l u r e s m a i n l y due
t o h i g h water s a t u r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.12.1.) and s o f t r e s e r v o i r rocks (BRINK-
MANN 1982), w i t h n e q a t i v e items i n c l u d i n q b o t h premature screenout t e r m i n a t i o n
and compiete f a i l u r e , and b o r d e r l i n e ca;es have a l s o come o u t (SLUSSER & R I E C K -
MANN 1976).

2.4.1.1.1.3. Cost and temoral execution o f treatments

T o t a l f r a c t u r i n g expenses i n t h e deep t i g h t formations reached up t o 6 Mio.
DM o r 2.5 Mio. US $ p e r j o b (JOHN 1983, KLOSE & KRUMER 1983, BLEAKLEY 1984,
LEICHT 1985). The b i g Sohlingen R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d has become the h i g h l i g h t
o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n Germany FRG p a r t i c u l a r l y due t o s i z e and
success o f t h e executed jobs, b u t comparably voluminous and b e n e f i c i a l t r e a t -
ments have a l s o been performed i n many o t h e r f i e l d s . Late 1985 has seen some o f
t h e l a r g e s t operations t h a t were ever done i n Europe which, however, have s o
f a r been a l s o the l a s t j o b s i n Germany FRG. As a consequence o f t h e s e r i o u s o i l
p r i c e d e c l i n e i n e a r l y 1986 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.2.; t h a t had an even worse e f -
f e c t due t o t h e accompanying US $ exchange r a t e drop; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.3.), no
h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n was performed i n Germany FRG i n 1986 a t
a l l , and the same subsequently a p p l i e d f o r 1987 and 1988 when i n s p i t e o f t h e
s l i g h t t o moderate market recovery o n l y a few small- t o m i n i - s c a l e treatments
were c a r r i e d o u t i n a time o f u n c e r t a i n t y o f o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n coupled w i t h
extremely weak and u n r e l i a b l e US $ ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.3.).

The t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e MHF a c t i v i t y i n Germany FRG i s the consequence o f se-

r i o u s l y c u t t i n g back o f the d r i l l i n g budget ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.5.2.2.) t h a t com-
p r i s e s i n 1987 and 1988 probably n o t more than one t h i r d and/or one h a l f , r e -
s p e c t i v e l y , o f b o t h number o f items and t o t a l meterage o f t h e niveau achieved
i n 1985 b e f o r e t h e beginning o f the o i l p r i c e drop. The a c t i v i t y l e v e l i n 1986
i s somewhat a r t i f i c i a l and d i s t u r b e d by v a r i o u s influences, as a f t e r t h e w o r s t
f i n a l stage o f t h e o i l p r i c e f a l l i n e a r l y 1986, a l l the companies t r i e d t o de-
l e t e o r s t r e a m l i n e as much o b j e c t s as possible, b u t t h a t was no l o n g e r a b l e f o r
such items where t h e d r i l l i n g c o n t r a c t had already been awarded, t h e d r i l l i n g
s i t e had been prepared o r the w e l l had even already been spudded. Containment
 178

o f c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e e s p e c i a l l y a f f e c t s predominantly development d r i l l i n g
and c o m p l e t i o n , whereas e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g c o n t i n u e d t o r u n a t
c o m p a r a t i v e l y h i g h e r l e v e l s i n 1986 and e a r l y 1987, b u t w e r e i n l a t e 1987 and
1988 a l s o p r o g r e s s i v e l y r e d u c e d t o a minimum as a consequence o f p e r s i s t i n g oil
p r i c e and US $ weakness. A p p r a i s a l and d e v e l o p m e n t d r i l l i n g i s c u r r e n t l y o n l y
p e r f o r m e d a t a l e v e l t h a t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o s e c u r e gas d e l i v e r y c o n t r a c t o b l i g a -
t i o n s i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e , and t o i n c r e a s e p r o v e n r e s e r v e s i n o r d e r t o a l l o w
more p r o f i t a b l e gas m a r k e t i n g and t h u s b u s i n e s s c o n s o l i d a t i o n .

2.4.1.1.1.4. Technical and economical

fracturing potential in 1985 - 1989
W h i l e a t l e a s t some m a r g i n a l MHF c a n d i d a t e s a r e s t i l l a v a i l a b l e , t h e o n l y
p e r s p e c t i v e f o r a g a i n a r e a s o n a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y i n Germany FRG compa-
r a b l e t o t h a t p r i o r t o 1986 w o u l d be an o i l p r i c e o f a t l e a s t US $ 20 w i t h a
s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b l e a v e r a g e v a l u e and an a g a i n c o n s i d e r a b l y s t r o n g e r US $ t h a n
a t t h e moment, w i t h t h e b o u n d a r y p r o b a b l y b e i n g an exchange r a t e o f a t l e a s t 2
DM. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , however, e v e n i n m i d t o l a t e 1988 t h e r e i s n o t y e t any hope
f o r e i t h e r a m e l i o r a t i o n o f t h e e c o n o m i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y o f renewed MHF t r e a t m e n t s
i n Germany FRG, and t h e r e i s d e s p i t e a s l i g h t improvement o f t h e US $ exchange
r a t e e v o l u t i o n i n t h e l a s t t h i r d o f 1988 a l m o s t n o hope t h a t t h e b o u n d a r y o f 2
DM i s g o i n g t o be c r o s s e d i n t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e , because a t t h e e n d o f 1988
t h e US $ was a l r e a d y s l i d i n g down a g a i n ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.3.).

T h e r e f o r e s i n c e t h e l a s t j o b s h a v i n g been c a r r i e d o u t i n l a t e 1985, n o mas-

s i v e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t has been p e r f o r m e d f o r more t h a n t h r e e
y e a r s i n t h e p e r i o d 1986 - 1988, and a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c u r r e n t l y s t i l l d e p r e s s e d
o i l p r i c e and US $ exchange r a t e s i t u a t i o n , i t l o o k s l i k e as i f a l s o i n 1989 n o
s t i m u l a t i o n w i l l t a k e p l a c e . W h i l e i n m o s t o f t h e MHF t r e a t m e n t s c a r r i e d o u t s o
f a r i n Germany FRG c o n v e n t i o n a l w a t e r - o r o i l - b a s e d g e l s o f v a r i o u s v i s c o s i t i e s
have been u s e d as f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s , r e c e n t l y a l s o CO2-foam has been t a k e n as
a g e n t t r a n s p o r t i n g and p l a c i n g t h e p r o p p a n t s b e i n g a p i l o t a p p l i c a t i o n i n Eu-
r o p e (SLATTER, RUCKER & C R I S P 1986; SOMMER 1987, 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . ) . Labo-
r a t o r y t e s t i n g has r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s r e s e r v o i r r o c k s e x h i b i t a
h i g h d e g r e e o f p l a s t i c i t y (SLUSSER & RIECKMANN 1976; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) .

2.4.1.1.2. Shallow oil fracturing

W h i l e s h a l l o w o i l f r a c t u r i n g has been h i t h e r t o p e r f o r m e d i n v a r i o u s European
c o u n t r i e s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h n a t u r a l sand as p r o p p i n g a g e n t , some r e s e r -
v o i r s e x i s t where i n t e r m s o f a d e q u a t e c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y i n t e r m e d i a t e -
strength synthetic proppants are required.

2.4.1.1.2.1. Natural sand

From t h e s u i t e o f s m a l l f r a c t u r e j o b s c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a b t . 20 - 70 t o f
sand, s e v e r a l campaigns i n C r e t a c e o u s s h a l l o w s a n d s t o n e o i l r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e
Emsland a r e a i n t h e b o u n d a r y b e l t between N e t h e r l a n d s and Germany FRG d e s e r v e
p a r t i c u l a r mentioning. I n t h e T e r t i a r y o f t h e Vienna B a s i n i n A u s t r i a , someti-
mes even o c c a s i o n a l l y v e r y s m a l l t r e a t m e n t s i z e s o f a b t . 6 - 12 t c a n b e t h e op-
timum (DOLAK & PERNTHANER 1976, MURER 1981) and a r e s u c c e s s f u l b o t h i n new
w e l l s and i n o l d w e l l s p r o d u c i n g u n d e r l o w f o r m a t i o n s t r e s s and w i t h good i s o l a -
t i o n a g a i n s t n e i g h b o u r i n g i n t e r v a l s . I n t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s B e n t h e i m e r Sand-
s t e i n ( V a l a n g i n i a n ) i n t h e Emsland a r e a , numerous f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s as w e l l
as v a r y i n g amounts o f g r a v e l pack o p e r a t i o n s have been c a r r i e d o u t o n b o t h
s i d e s o f t h e s t a t e b o u n d a r y i n s e v e r a l f i e l d s c o m p r i s i n g m a i n l y R u h l e r m o o r and
G e o r g s d o r f on t h e German s i d e and Schoonebeek on t h e D u t c h s i d e (GESEMANN & BA-
DURA 1976; f o r l o c a t i o n maps and f i e l d c r o s s s e c t i o n s c f . BOIGK 1980; c f . fig.
 179

Fig. 3

Schematical geological cross-section (without scale) through the gas-bearing re-

servoir column in Northwest Europe (Germany FRG and adjoining areas). Tight gas
sandstones are predominantly Rotliegend and Carboniferous, whereas the Buntsand-
stein requires only in some regions artificial transmissibility enhancement by
stimulation. While Carboniferous, Rotliegend and Buntsandstein pays contain ex-
clusively sweet gas (in the Rotliegend, apart from combustible methane occasio-
nally also inert nitrogen occurs in larger shares), the Zechstein carbonates in-
clude sour gas with considerable amounts of the aggressive and toxic hydrogen
sulphide. In many cases, the individual storeys of the reservoir pile are cha-
racterized by different gas-water-contact levels. Rotliegend anticlines and
horst-graben-structures are especially favourably developed below Zechstein
salt diapirs, because the thick salt plugs resulted in retarded heat flux and
lower reservoir temperature than in the surroundings of the salt domes. The Car-
boniferous contains not only sandstone reservoirs, but also bears numerous coal
seams where the gas for all the four pay horizons originated during course of
coalification and subsequently migrated through the cover strata along faults
and fissures into the various traps. The thickest reservoirs with the best pe-
trophysical development in the Rotliegend occur in the lower and upper parts of
the section, whereas the middle portion of the sequence is in most cases charac-
terized by low-permeability sandstones which require massive hydraulic fractu-
ring stimulation in order to achieve economically feasible gas production ra-
tes. The tight Carboniferous needs in most cases fracturing treatments for al-
lowing profitable gas withdrawal, while in the Buntsandstein, hydraulic stimula-
tion has only occasionally to be performed in some areas of the red bed basin.
Legend : 1 = gas-bearing sandstone, 2 = water-containing sandstone, 3 = coal
seam, 4 = carbonates, 5 = mudstones and marls; 6 = Zechstein salt layers, cus-
hions and plugs; 7 = gas-water-contact, 8 = tight gas-bearing sandstone reser-
voirs with various hydraulic proppant fracturing potential, 9 = unconformity.
 180

H
100 km

Overview map of centres of hydraulic proppant fracturing and gravel packing in

past, present and future in Western and Eastern Europe. F o r more details in Ger-
many FRG, Netherlands and North Sea cf. figs. 4 and 6, and for general outline
cf. also fig. 2.
 181

1 Centres of massive hydraulic proppant fracturing (MHF) in

Rotliegend ( 0 ) and Carboniferous ( 0 )in Germany FRG
*ELMSHORN \-
) SCHWERIN

- J

*HAMBURG J
BREMERHAVEN ,
c -
: GDR
LUNEBURG
I 0 Leer OLDENBURG
\,
-
~

<
Preyersmuhle-Hastedt
\ -

eBREMEN 0 Sohllngen
0W l t t o r f 0 ~ u n s t e r l o g e r
@ Wustrow
I
I
Vornhorn 0 Syke @.--
@
I Sogermeer Schmarbeck
EMHEN ,bRutenbrack 0
Coppeln VE,',EN Hamwiede OEbstorf - J

Munster Salzwedel
o
, WA:SRODE
* I 1
CoevordenlO F e h n d o r f Goldenstedt t
0 1 . MEPPEN VECHTA 0 Wietingsmoor *CELLE
1: %m;ichheim

' ---A\oFrenswegen
*LINGEN
DIEPHOLZ

'Uchte
FRG :>GDR
'\
!.BENTHEIM H A N N OVER

OSNABRUCK BRAUNSCHWEIG ,'

ENSCHEOE'
-' MINDEN

'0
Alfeld-Elze
,
,' HAMELN
I MUNSTER BIELEFELD Hildesheimer W o l d
50km

Fig. 4 (above) and Fig. 6 (below)

Centres of massive hydraulic proppant fracturing (MHF) in

Rotliegend ( 0 ) and Buntsandstein ( 0 ) in the N o r t h S e a

100km

GREAT BRITAIN

GERMANY FRG
 182

5 and t a b . 6 ) .

Sand f r a c t u r i n g was a l s o common s i n c e t h e e a r l y days o f o i l e x p l o r a t i o n and

p r o d u c t i o n s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e Second World War in many p a r t s o f t h e oil f i e l d
b e l t i n N o r t h w e s t Germany and t o s u b o r d i n a t e amounts i n t h e l a s t 20 y e a r s a l s o
i n Southern Germany, w i t h some r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f i e l d s b e i n g i n N o r t h w e s t Germany
Adorf, Emlichheim, Meerdorf and Scheerhorn, and i n Southern Germany Hauerz,
Monchsrot and P f u l l e n d o r f - O s t r a c h . To m i n o r amounts, sand f r a c t u r i n g was a l s o
done i n T e r t i a r y sandstones i n t h e Vienna B a s i n i n A u s t r i a ( f o r example i n t h e
f i e l d s Matzen, H o c h l e i t e n , Neusiedel, Stockerau, T r a t n a c h and Z i s t e r s d o r f ; DO-
LAK & PERNTHANER 1976, MURER 1981) as w e l l as i n t h e Po V a l l e y and t h e A d r i a t i c
Sea i n I t a l y ( c f . f i g . 5 and t a b . 8 ) .

2.4.1.1.2.2. Intermediat e-st rengt h synt het i c proppant s

The low c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s i n t h e s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r depth o f a b t . 700 - 2,500
m (2,100 - 7,500 f t ) d i d so f a r n o t r e q u i r e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e -
s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants i n o i l - w e l l f r a c t u r i n g i n Germany FRG and o t h e r
c o u n t r i e s . The few deeper w e l l s i n Germany FRG where sand would n o t have been
an adequate p r o p p i n g agent were suspended f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g due t o i n s u f f i -
c i e n t r e s e r v e s t o e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f y s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h expensive p r o p p a n t s i n
t h e p e r i o d o f b o t h h i g h o i l and p r o p p a n t p r i c e s i n t h e e a r l y 1980's. A f t e r the
d e c l i n e o f b o t h o i l and p r o p p a n t p r i c e s , however, t h e j o b s a r e i n t h e l a t e
1980's s t i l l f a r f r o m b e i n g f e a s i b l e , even in l i g h t o f Only s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s o f
sand o r p r o p p a n t s b e i n g needed i n o i l - w e l l f r a c t u r i n g t h a t do n o t have such a
l a r g e share o f t h e t o t a l c o s t o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t in comparison t o
deep gas w e l l s .

2.4.1.2. B r i t i s h Southern North Sea

I n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea, R o t l i e g e n d and p a r t i a l l y a l s o C a r b o n i f e -
r o u s r e s e r v o i r r o c k depth i s much s h a l l o w e r and c l o s u r e s t r e s s c o n s e q u e n t l y i s
c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r t h a n i n Germany FRG and N e t h e r l a n d s (ALLISON 1986; c f . sec-
t i o n 3 . 3 . ) , and t h u s many f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s can be c a r r i e d o u t a t l e a s t p a r -
t i a l l y s t i l l w i t h sand i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e o t h e r area where o p e r a t i o n s w i t h a l -
most e x c l u s i v e l y i n t e r m e d i a t e - and/or h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants a r e i n e v i t a b l e
f o r s u c c e s s f u l l o n g - t e r m achievement o f t h e goal o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b . F o l -
l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l aspects, v a r i o u s p o i n t s o f m o d e r a t e l y deep
gas f r a c t u r i n g , t a i l - i n f r a c t u r i n g p o l i c y , d i f f e r e n c e s between o f f s h o r e and on-
shore f r a c t u r i n g , and m o d e r a t e l y deep o i l f r a c t u r i n g a r e o u t l i n e d .

2.4.1.2.1. General aspects

Due t o a t i m e l a g i n e x p l o r a t i o n and development d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e onshore areas, h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e B r i t i s h
and Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea p r e d o m i n a n t l y took p l a c e i n t h e l a t e r p a r t o f t h e
golden s t i m u l a t i o n p e r i o d ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 3 . ) , w i t h t h i s b e i n g one o f t h e r e a -
sons why e s p e c i a l l y t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea i s s t i l l a v e r y p r o l i f e r i c
area f o r s t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e coming y e a r s d e s p i t e t h e d e t e r i o r a t e d g e n e r a l econo-
m i c a l s i t u a t i o n as a consequence o f much l o w e r o i l p r i c e s t h a n b e f o r e (SCHUN-
E I C H 1983, STEPHENS & MARTINS 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.2.) and t h e a d d i t i o n a l
impact o f t h e c o n s i d e r a b l y low U S $ exchange r a t e s i n c e a b t . e a r l y 1986 ( c f .
section 2.2.1.3.). An o u t l i n e o f t h e p e t r o l e u m p o t e n t i a l o f t h e N o r t h Sea i s
a l s o g i v e n by HOYLE (1983), and NYSTAD (1981) p r o v i d e s and economical a n a l y s i s
o f t h e N o r t h Sea o i l and gas r e g i o n .

Another m a j o r reason f o r t h e i n d i s p e n s i b l e o p e r a t i o n o f some l a r g e s t i m u l a -

t i o n campaigns i n t h e coming y e a r s a r e a l r e a d y s i g n e d gas d e l i v e r y c o n t r a c t s
( t h a t guarantee t h e s a l e o f t h e gas which s t i l l has t o be a c q u i r e d by f i e l d de-
 183

velopment; OILMAN 1987 a; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.6.2.) which n e c e s s i t a t e t o f u l f i l l

t h e e n t e r e d commitments almost r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e economical and p o l i t i c a l frame-
work ( c e r t a i n l y backed-up, however, by a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y s t i l l good p r i c e s ha-
v i n g been f i x e d i n t h e agreements, as w e l l as by government p r o t e c t i o n t o keep
gas i m p o r t s o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.6.3.). The Southern N o r t h Sea
i s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c e n t r e o f gas p r o d u c t i o n i n Great B r i t a i n and has h i s t o r i c a l -
l y c o n t r i b u t e d up t o a b t . 90 % o f t h e t o t a l gas s u p p l y i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom,
and i t i s e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e Southern N o r t h Sea w i l l c o n t i n u e t o p l a y i t s domi-
n a n t r o l e u n t i l t h e end o f t h e c e n t u r y , because i t s t i l l h o l d s o v e r 50 % of a l l
U n i t e d Kingdom proven and p r o b a b l e gas r e s e r v e s .

The a c c e n t u a t e d p o s i t i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea i n terms o f s t i m u -

l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l and hydrocarbon p r o s p e c t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e whole N o r t h Sea i n
comparison t o t h e s e c t o r s o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s i s h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e predominant
share o f t h i s area i n t h e r e c o r d d r i l l i n g r i g c o u n t i n 1984/1985 (OILMAN 1985).
Economical e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d gas b e l t
a r e a l s o g i v e n by FISHMAN (1986), GREGORY (1986), THOMAS (1986), ALGAR (1987
a ) , BAND (1987) and POTTER (1987). Successful s t i m u l a t i o n p r a c t i c e s i n t h e
Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea a r e summarized by COULTER & P U R V I S (1980). Development
d e t a i l s f o r b o t h o f f s h o r e p r o v i n c e s u n t i l t h e y e a r 2000 a r e g i v e n by OFFSHORE
ENGINEER (1985 c, 1986 c ) . A p a r t f r o m p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s , some f r a c t u r e j o b s have
i n t h i s area a l s o been c a r r i e d o u t i n underground gas s t o r a g e w e l l s ( c f . HOLLIS
1982).

2.4.1.2.2. Moderately deep gas fracturing

Proppant q u a n t i t i e s between 100 and 250 t a r e most common f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g o f R o t l i e g e n d g a s - b e a r i n g sandstones i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea,
w i t h l a r g e r j o b s r e q u i r i n g 250 - 400 t o f p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l b e i n g r a r e excep-
t i o n s . Some aspects o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n C a r b o n i f e r o u s and R o t -
l i e g e n d a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

2.4.1.2.2.1. Carboniferous
The C a r b o n i f e r o u s has so f a r i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea o n l y i n a few
cases been encountered gas-bearing, as most o f t h e deeper r e s e r v o i r s a r e below
t h e g a s - w a t e r - c o n t a c t which i s s i m i l a r l y as f o r m a t i o n d e p t h r i s i n g f r o m Germany
FRG i n t h e E a s t t o t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea i n t h e West (some more Carbo-
n i f e r o u s d i s c o v e r i e s a r e expected d u r i n g p r o g r e s s i n g e x p l o r a t i o n ; OILMAN 1987
e, VIELVOYE 1987 b, CAPEL 1988, PETROLEUM REVIEW 1988 d ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e Car-
b o n i f e r o u s u n d e r l y i n g t h e R o t l i e g e n d ( c f . f i g . 3) has i n many cases been almost
t o t a l l y i g n o r e d so f a r , because t h e m a j o r i t y o f e x p l o r a t i o n and development
w e l l s have been d r i l l e d t o a t a r g e t depth j u s t p e n e t r a t i n g t h e t o p o f t h e Carbo-
n i f e r o u s (OILMAN 1987 e ) as a consequence o f t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y p o o r r e s e r v o i r
f a c i e s and t h e h i g h g a s - w a t e r - c o n t a c t i n t h i s s t o r e y . The B u n t s a n d s t e i n has i n
some f i e l d s i n t h e B r i t i s h and e s p e c i a l l y t h e Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea a l s o r e -
p e a t e d l y been f r a c t u r e d .

2.4.1.2.2.2. Rot 1 iegend

R e s e r v o i r d e p t h o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d sandstones i s i n most cases a b t . 8,000 -
9,000 f t ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a b t . 2,700 - 3,000 m), and o n l y i n some patches a b t .
6,000 f t ( a b t . 2,000 m) f o r t h e s h a l l o w e r range and a b t . 10,000 f t ( a b t . 3,300
in) f o r t h e deeper range ( c f . f i g s . 3 and 6 ) . Summaries o f N o r t h Sea w e l l s t i m u -
l a t i o n a r e g i v e n by LAFLEUR & JOHNSON (1973) and MARTINS & HARPER ( 1 9 8 5 ) . The
most i m p o r t a n t f i e l d s where MHF s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s o f t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s
have a l r e a d y been c a r r i e d o u t and/or a r e s t i l l g o i n g t o be p e r f o r m e d a r e i n t h e
B r i t i s h N o r t h Sea i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d ( f i e l d names a r e s t a t e d i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r -
d e r ) Amethyst, I n d e f a t i g a b l e , Leman Bank, Ravenspurn, Rough, Thames, V a l i a n t ,
 184

Tab. 5

Centres of past and future activity of hydraulic proppant fracturing in Europe

z
0
m E
CENTRES OF c IT E
z a >
0
0
2a w V
0
a w
LL
w w
7
a
W
PAST AND o a o a w a ul
> > n t
w > w
n >
a t Il- a
FUTURE
ACTIVITY O F
T
HYDRAULIC

PROP PANT

FRACTURING
c
IN EUROPE
n
3
3
Albania D B "
Aust r i a D Matzen. S t o c k e r o u , T r o t n a c h . Z l s t e r s d o r f
Belgium
Bulgaria D Bodorski, Lukurit,Tornak
Czechoslovakia b B 7
Denmark D Dan Gorm
Finland
France D L a c q , Cerneux.Vllle P e r d u e
Germany FRG I Sohlingen. Goldenstedt. H a m w i e d e , R u h l e
Germanv GDR D S o l z w e d e l - P e c k e n s e n , Winkelstedt, Wenze
Greece
Hungary I BI I Barcs Bele2na.Inke.Mako.No~vkaniszo I
Ireland D

Italy D

Netherlands I A m e l a n d . Coevorden, B-12.0-5. L-8/10, P-6/12

Norway D Vaiholl. Holtenbanken. Brage,Ekoflsk.Hod
Po l and D M i ~ d 2 y z d r o j e Uciechbw-Bagdaj,
. Zuchlbw,Buk
Portugal
Romania
I
I
Soain I I
Sw eden
Switzerland
Turkey D

U n i t e d Kingdom I Indefatigable. Rovenspurn.Vulcan.VoIlant

USSR I Krasnodarskoe, Orenburgskoe, A s l r o h o n s k o e
Y uqoslavia I

Fig. 7

Various possibilities of proppant distribution types within hydraulic fractures

exist including tail-in, lead-in, banking and pillaring of proppants in order
to optimize flow conditions and closure stress resistivity. Legend :
1 = reservoir sandstone surrounding the hydraulic fracture, 2 = bounding mud-
stones, 3 = fine-grained proppants (40/60 o r 50/70), 4 = medium-grained prop-
pants (20/40), 5 = coarse-grained proppants (16/20, 12/20 o r 8/12), 5 = bounda-
ry of the hydraulic fracture wing, 7 = perforations. Schematically, no scale.
 185

Proppant distribution types within hydraulic fractures I

Fig. 7
 186

Vanguard, Vulcan and West Sole, and i n t h e B u n t s a n d s t e i n Esmond, Forbes and Gor-
don ( c f . f i g s . 6 and 8 as w e l l as t a b . 7 ) . I n t h e Dutch N o r t h Sea, emphasis o f
t h e a c t i v i t y i s i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d i n Ameland, K-12, L-8, L-10 and P-2, whereas
B u n t s a n d s t e i n s t i m u l a t i o n focusses on P-6 and P-8 ( c f . f i g s . 6 and 8 as w e l l as
tab. 8 ) .

W h i l e i n t h e p a s t f r a c t u r e j o b s have been p r e d o m i n a n t l y done w i t h e i t h e r

o n l y sand o r e x c l u s i v e l y i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants, i n t h e l a s t
y e a r s t h e concept o f t a i l i n g - i n (HOWARD & FAST 1970 a, HOWELL & THOMAS 1978;
HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981) has been more and more a p p l i e d , w i t h t h i s me-
t h o d commonly i n c l u d i n g f i r s t pumping o f 100 - 200 t o f sand o f 20/40 g r a i n
s i z e f o l l o w e d by a t a i l - i n o f 25 - 75 t o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s o f
20/40 o r 16/20 g r a i n s i z e . S u b o r d i n a t e a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e t h r e e - f o l d d i v i d e d j o b s
w i t h s u c c e s s i v e pumping o f 20/40, 16/20 and f i n a l l y 12/20 g r a i n s i z e o f p r o p -
p i n g m a t e r i a l , o r i n r a r e r cases a l s o successions o f i n j e c t i o n o f 40/60, 20/40
and 16/20 o r 12/20 p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s .

2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . 3 . Tail-in fracturing policy

T a i l i n g - i n can comprise sequences o f d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y p e s and/or g r a i n
s i z e s , w i t h t h e b e s t r e s u l t s b e i n g achieved when v a r y i n g b o t h parameters (compa-
r a t i v e e f f e c t i v i t y s t u d i e s o f v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t successions and m i x t u r e s a r e c a r -
r i e d o u t by McOANIEL & WILLINGHAM 1978; HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981). The
o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s i n c l u d e s aims and performance o f p r o p p a n t t a i l - i n schedules,
p r i n c i p l e s o f t a i l - i n proppant s t a g i n g , proppant c o s t containment ( b e i n g t h e
m a j o r t a i l - i n advantage), p r o p p a n t m i x i n g and s e t t l i n g ( b e i n g t h e most s e r i o u s
t a i l - i n drawbacks), p r o p p a n t flowback p r e v e n t i o n , and t a i l - i n o p t i m i z a t i o n and
e f f e c t i v i t y . The i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e proppant t a i l - i n p o l i c y i s i n c l u d e d i n t o
t h i s c h a p t e r due t o t h e predominant a p p l i c a t i o n o f t a i l - i n o p e r a t i o n s i n R o t l i e -
gend f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n o f t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r sands i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern
N o r t h Sea.

2.4.1.2.3.1. Aims and performance o f proppant tail-in schedules

T a i l i n g - i n u s u a l l y i n c l u d e s succession o f d i s c r e t e q u a n t i t i e s t h a t a r e n o t
i n t e r m i x e d ( c f . f i g . 7 ) ; b l e n d i n g o f m a t e r i a l s (such as f o r m e r l y done w i t h sand
and g l a s s beads o r s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e ; c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.11.1.1.) i s nowadays no
l o n g e r c o n s i d e r e d , as a m i x t u r e o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s and/or g r a i n s i z e s o f p r o p -
p a n t s l e a d s t o e q u a l i z a t i o n and homogenization and p a r t i a l l y a l s o compensation
o f f a v o u r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l components (McOANIEL & WILLINGHAM
1978 and KOHLHAAS 1982 r e p o r t t h a t m i x t u r e s o f sand and g l a s s beads have a t
h i g h s t r e s s n o t any c o n d u c t i v i t y more t h a n t h a t o f sand a l o n e o r have even l e s s
depending on m i x t u r e r a t i o , g r a i n s i z e and s t r e s s regime; c f . c h a p t e r 1 . 4 . 1 1 . ) .

The use o f h i g h e r - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t t y p e s and/or l a r g e r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s

f o r t a i l - i n s p r o v i d e s maximum c o n d u c t i v i t y near t h e w e l l b o r e where i t i s needed
most u r g e n t l y (CALLANAN, CIPOLLA & LEWIS 1983). D e t e r m i n a t i o n when t o u i e a
t a i l - i n i n s t e a d o f pumping a l l h i g h - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t i s a f u n c t i o n o f i r i c , w i e n -
t a l i n c r e a s e in hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n vs. added p r o p p a n t c o s t . A s p e c i a l a p p l i -
c a t i o n o f t a i l - i n schedules i s i n s e r t i n g r a d i o a c t i v e l y - c o a t e d proppants i n t h e
t e r m i n a l stage f o r placement near t h e w e l l b o r e i n o r d e r t o e n a b l e gamma-ray
f r a c t u r e height monitoring o f n a t u r a l o r a r t i f i c i a l proppant r a d i o a c t i v i t y
(HART, ENGI & MORRIS 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) .

A p a r t f r o m proppants, a l s o modern water-based f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s can be t a i l o -

r e d t o meet v i s c o s i t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n a wide range o f temperature a p p l i c a -
t i o n s by p r o p e r use o f p r i m a r y and secondary g e l l i n g agents (ATTEBERRY, TUCKER
& RITZ 1979; P A I , G A R B I S & HALL 1983; LEE & OANESHY 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . ) ,
and s i m i l a r l y , t a i l o r e d - p u l s e l o a d i n g can be used f o r m u l t i p l e e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u -
r i n g o f b o r e h o l e s (WARPINSKI, SCHMIDT, COOPER, WALLING & NORTHROP 1979;
HYDRAULIC PROP-
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Tab. 6
 188

SCHMIDT, W A R P I N S K I & COOPER 1980; SWIFT & KUSUBOV 1980, 1981; CUOERMAN 1982,
1986; McHUGH & KEOUGH 1982; KEOUGH, CURRAN & McHUGH 1984; STOLLER 1985; c f .
a l s o s e c t i o n s 4.2.2. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 6 . ) . CHARLES, HUDOCK, U O I C K & HALL (1983) r e p o r t
t a i l o r i n g o f proppants i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e desired conductivity ratio.

2.4.1.2.3.2.Principles o f tail-in proppant staging

The most common t a i l - i n schedule i s pumping a l a r g e amount o f 20/40 sand o r
i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t f o l l o w e d by a t e r m i n a l l i t t l e q u a n t i t y o f 16/20
o r even 12/20 i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t c o m p r i s i n g a b t . 10 - 40 %
o f t h e t o t a l p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y (PAI, GARBIS & HALL 1983; GARBIS, BROWN & MAU-
R I T Z 1985). The t a i l - i n amount o f p r o p p a n t s s h o u l d be i n terms o f c r a c k l e n g t h
i d e a l l y a b t . 100 f t i n s m a l l f r a c t u r e s , w h i l e i n l a r g e r c r a c k s , t h e t a i l - i n
p r o p p a n t l e n g t h should a t l e a s t equal a c t u a l f r a c t u r e h e i g h t . On t h e o t h e r
hand, a l s o t h e r e v e r s e arrangement r e p r e s e n t i n g l e a d - i n s t r a t e g y i s p o s s i b l e ,
w i t h f i r s t pumping o f a small amount o f 20/40 o r even f i n e r sand o r i n t e r m e d i a -
t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t as t h e head o f t h e t r e a t m e n t and t h e n f o l l o w i n g w i t h t h e
main body o f 20/40 o r 16/20 i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s . T h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n
can be even completed by a l i t t l e f i n a l t a i l - i n o f 1 6 / 2 0 o r 12/20 i n t e r m e d i a t e -
o r high-strength proppants.

W h i l e 20/40 and 40/70 sand a r e most commonly used as l e a d - i n proppant, S I N -

CLAIR (1980) d e s c r i b e s s u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a t i o n o f 100 mesh sand f r o m M i l l c r e e k /
Oklahoma which i s more f r e q u e n t l y used as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e and r e t a i n s a
l a r g e percentage o f i t s p e r m e a b i l i t y under l o a d due t o i t s many s u p p o r t p o i n t s
a l l o w e d by t h e f i n e g r a i n s i z e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.3.1.2. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . As-
p e c t s o f t a i l - i n p r o p p a n t s c h e d u l i n g o f v a r i o u s b o t h c o a r s e r t a i l o r f i n e r head
g r a i n s i z e assemblages and successions a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by D A V I S (1975), KUN-
OERT & SMINK (1979), LINOLEY & McGHEE (1983), McMECHAN & CONWAY (1983), PA1 &
G A R B I S (1983 b) and GARBIS, BROWN & MAURITZ ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

S p e c i a l d i v i d e d t r e a t m e n t s o f l e a d - i n o r t a i l - i n c h a r a c t e r comprise pumping
o f f i r s t smaller o r l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s o f l i g h t intermediate- o r high-strength
proppants and second l a r g e r o r s m a l l e r q u a n t i t i e s o f heavy i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r
h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s . T h i s concept aims on e n a b l i n g a s a f e r l e a d - i n by t h e
l i g h t p r o p p a n t which has b e t t e r suspension p r o p e r t i e s i n t h e f l u i d and decrea-
ses t h e r i s k o f e a r l y s c r e e n o u t b e f o r e reasonable amounts o f p r o p p a n t s c o u l d be
p l a c e d i n t h e d i s t a l segment o f t h e f r a c t u r e , and on a c h i e v i n g a s t r o n g e r f r a c -
t u r e s u p p o r t by a h i g h e r - q u a l i t y m a t e r i a l i n t h e p r o x i m a l s e c t i o n o f t h e c r a c k
where t h e h i g h e s t c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s e f f e c t i v e and screenout f a i l u r e i n t h e l a -
t e r stage o f t h e o p e r a t i o n would n o t have such a t e r r i b l e e f f e c t , because a t
l e a s t a l r e a d y t h e l i g h t p r o p p a n t has been s u c c e s s f u l l y i n s e r t e d ( t h i s s p e c i a l
combined f r a c t u r i n g s t r a t e g y has been a p p l i e d w i t h g r e a t b e n e f i t i n Yugoslavia;
c f . section 2.4.3.1.).

2.4.1.2.3.3.Proppant cost containment

The main purpose o f t h e t a i l - i n s t r a t e g y i s t o c u t down s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t by
i n s e r t i n g an expensive s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t o n l y i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y o f t h e
w e l l b o r e where c l o s u r e s t r e s s has i t s maximum p a r t i c u l a r l y upon h i g h drawdown
o f r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e i n t h e stage o f advanced d e p l e t i o n a f t e r many y e a r s o f
p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y (AGARWAL 1980), whereas i n those p a r t s o f t h e f r a c t u r e wings
t h a t a r e f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e immediate s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e borehole, cheap
n a t u r a l sand i s o f t e n s t i l l s u f f i c i e n t t o r e s i s t t o t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y low c l o -
sure s t r e s s e s i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r s i n compa-
r i s o n t o those i n Germany FRG and N e t h e r l a n d s where d e p t h and t h u s p r e s s u r e o f
most o f t h e g a s - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s a r e s l i g h t l y t o c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r and t h u s
i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants a r e i n most cases i n d i s p e n s i b l e f o r
t h e whole o p e r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 3 . ) . M i n i m i z a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
c o s t s can be p a r t i c u l a r l y achieved by s e l e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t p r o p -
 189

p a n t t y p e s as t a i l - i n l o t s as a consequence o f d i f f e r e n t p r i c e s o f n a t u r a l
sand, i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants (PA1 & G A R B I S 1983; c f . s e c t i o n
1.3.).

D u r i n g t i m e s o f h i g h proppant p r i c e s , ceramic proppants were a t l e a s t t h r e e

t o f o u r t i m e s as expensive as sand ( i n t h e e a r l y days o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t
i n t r o d u c t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n , l i m i t a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t i e s r e s u l t e d i n a
p r i c e d i f f e r e n c e o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and sand up t o 15 t i m e s o r even more) and
now i n a p e r i o d o f low p r o p p a n t p r i c e s , ceramic proppants a r e s t i l l two t o f o u r
t i m e s as expensive as sand ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.2.). T h e r e f o r e t h e t a i l - i n p h i l o -
sophy i n t h e r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern
N o r t h Sea makes s u r e t h a t i n t h e most c r i t i c a l s e c t i o n around t h e w e l l b o r e
where c l o s u r e o f t h e f r a c t u r e would d e t e r i o r a t e t h e e f f e c t o f t h e whole opera-
t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.4.2.), a p r o p p a n t adequate t o a l l p o s s i b l e ranges o f c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s o r i g i n a t i n g d u r i n g l o n g p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y guarantees t h a t t h e d r a i -
nage p a t h i s k e p t open i n t h e zone which i s w i t h advanced d e p l e t i o n and d e c l i n e
o f the r e s e r v o i r pressure subjected t o the highest closure stresses ( e f f e c t s o f
p r o d u c i n g t i m e and drawdown a r e d i s c u s s e d by AGARWAL 1980).

2.4.1.2.3.4. Proppant mixing and settling

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e i n s e r t i o n o f sand i n t h e more d i s t a n t t i p s o f t h e
f r a c t u r e wings i s s u f f i c i e n t t o w i t h s t a n d t o t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y low c l o s u r e
s t r e s s e s and as a consequence o f t h e volume s p l i t t i n g between sand and i n t e r m e -
d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants, c o n s i d e r a b l e amounts o f s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t can be saved
e s p e c i a l l y i n l a r g e f r a c t u r i n g campaigns a f f e c t i n g up t o s e v e r a l dozens o f
w e l l s i n b i g t i g h t gas f i e l d s . The s e l e c t i o n o f c o a r s e r g r a i n s i z e s i n t h e
n e a r e r v i c i n i t y o f t h e w e l l b o r e i n comparison t o f i n e r g r a i n s i z e s i n t h e f r a c -
t u r e wing s e c t i o n s b e i n g f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e i s a l s o i n d e p e n d e n t l y
f r o m p r o p p a n t t y p e a i m i n g on enhancement o f c o n d u c t i v i t y between f r a c t u r e and
f o r m a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 5 . ) i n t h e zone o f g r e a t e s t f l o w r a t e a t t h e f r a c -
t u r e mouth.

The m a j o r drawbacks o f t h e t a i l - i n p o l i c y , however, a r e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f

d r a s t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l zone between d i f f e r e n t
g r a i n s i z e s i n t h e p r o p p a n t package due t o a t l e a s t some m i x i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n
1.4.11.) w i t h p l u g g i n g o f t h e pores between c o a r s e r g r a i n s by f i n e r g r a i n s , and
t h e - a c c o r d i n g t o Stokes' law - a b t . f o u r t i m e s f a s t e r s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y o f
a b t . t w i c e l a r g e r g r a i n s which may l e a d t o c r e a t i o n o f asymmetrical wedges o f
c o a r s e r m a t e r i a l near t h e b o r e h o l e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.6.) t h a t a r e n o t i n c o n t i -
nuous c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r e s e r v o i r and t h u s a homogeneous s t r i p - l i k e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f t h e t a i l around t h e w e l l b o r e i s n o t achieved ( a s p e c t s o f s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s
o f proppants a r e d i s c u s s e d by LOCKETT & AL-HABBOOBY (1973), M I R Z A & RICHARDSON
(1979), DUNAND & SOUCEMARIANADIN 1985, KIRKBY & ROCKEFELLER 1985, ROODHART
1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 2 . ) .

Another disadvantage o f t a i l - i n p r o p p a n t s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e f r a c -
t u r e d r e s e r v o i r i s t h a t an a c c i d e n t a l unwanted i n t e r m i x i n g o f v a r i o u s s i z e s and
shapes o f p r o p p a n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.11.) w i t h i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n zone o f s e v e r a l
pumping stages would l e a d t o i n c r e a s i n g p a c k i n g e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e g r a i n s dlid
p a r t i a l l y a l s o enhanced i n f l o w o f p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e s i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e (CLARK
1983).

2.4.1.2.3.5. Proppant f lowback prevent ion

T a i l i n g - i n o f c o a r s e r proppants i n t o t h e p r o x i m a l p a r t o f t h e f r a c t u r e near
t h e w e l l b o r e i s a l s o an e f f e c t i v e means f o r proppant flowback p r e v e n t i o n , be-
cause t h e c o a r s e r proppant s l u g a c t s l i k e a g r a v e l pack (CROW 1977; c f . s e c t i o n
4.12.3.2.). I f t h e g r a i n s i z e d i f f e r e n c e between t a i l - i n l o t and main proppant
q u a n t i t y has been p r o p e r l y s e l e c t e d , t h e t a i l - i n segment b r i d g e s moving s m a l l e r
 190

p r o p p a n t g r a i n s a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between b o t h p r o p p a n t s t a g e s and s t o p s f u r t h e r
m i g r a t i o n , t h e r e b y s t a b i l i z i n g t h e p r o p p a n t p o p u l a t i o n i n p l a c e and s e c u r i n g
p e r s i s t e n c e o f h i g h f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . The t a i l - i n o f c o a r s e r g r a i n s r e t a i n -
i n g t h e s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s i n t h e more d i s t a l p o r t i o n s o f t h e c r a c k i s compa-
r a b l e t o s t o p p i n g movement o f f o r m a t i o n sand b y p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g g i n g
w i t h g r a v e l i n m e c h a n i c a l sand c o n t r o l ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 8 . ) .

2.4.1.2.3.6. Tail-in optimization and effectivity

In l i g h t o f t h e above d i s c u s s e d drawbacks o f t h e t a i l - i n t r e a t m e n t t e c h n i -
que, i n v i e w o f t h e b o u n d a r y s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y o f sand and f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f
a b s o l u t e l y g o i n g on t h e s a f e s i d e t o have t h e s e c u r i t y t h a t t h e p r o p p i n g mate-
r i a l w i l l n o t c o l l a p s e even when s u b j e c t e d t o t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e r e s e r v o i r
p r e s s u r e drawdown and t h u s c l o s u r e s t r e s s i n c r e a s e d u r i n g l o n g - t e r m h y d r o c a r b o n
p r o d u c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 4 . ) f r o m t h e o f f s h o r e f i e l d s where any remedy ope-
r a t i o n causes s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r expenses t h a n i n o n s h o r e s e t t i n g s , several
companies f i n a l l y d e c i d e d t o p e r f o r m i n t h e 1987 - 1990 f r a c t u r i n g campaigns i n
t h e B r i t i s h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea o n l y a t a i l - i n c o n c e p t c o n c e r n i n g g r a i n s i z e s o f
i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s ( m a i n l y s t a r t i n g w i t h a l i t t l e volume o f a b t .
25,000 - 100,000 l b s . ( a b t . 12 - 50 t ) o f 20140 f o l l o w e d b y t h e m a i n q u a n t i t y
o f a b t . 300,000 - 400,000 l b s . ( a b t . 150 - 200 t ) o f 16/20, w i t h i n some c a s e s
e v e n a l i t t l e f i n a l t a i l o f 12/20 m a t e r i a l b e i n g p o s s i b l e ) , b u t n o t t o u s e sand
a t a l l as a p r o p p i n g a g e n t .

Other intermediate-strength proppant treatment schedules a r e l e a d i n g - i n abt.

25 - 80 t ( a b t . 50,000 - 160,000 l b s ) o f 2 0 / 4 0 t h a t i s f o l l o w e d b y a b t . 100 -
200 t (200,000 - 400,000 l b s ) o f 16/20 o r i n some c a s e s a l s o 20/40, w i t h t h e
j o b b e i n g t e r m i n a t e d b y t a i l i n g - i n a b t . 25 - 50 t (50,000 - 100,000 l b s ) o f
1 6 / 2 0 o r even 1 2 / 2 0 m a t e r i a l . A p a r t f r o m g e t t i n g h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t i e s o f t h e
f r a c t u r e s propped w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h m a t e r i a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o c r a c k s
i n f i l l e d w i t h sand, t h i s d e s i g n s c h e d u l e a l s o g i v e s t h e g u a r a n t e e o f s a t i s f a c t o -
r y f r a c t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e t h r o u g h o u t f i e l d l i f e u n a f f e c t e d f r o m any changes o f
p r e s s u r e r e g i m e and t h u s t h e i n v e s t m e n t w i l l p a y o f f v e r y w e l l .

C o n c e r n i n g t a i l - i n e f f e c t i v i t y , LI & ZHU ( 1 9 8 6 ) r e p o r t p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e in
m o d e r a t e - t o h i g h - d e p t h o i l r e s e r v o i r s in C h i n a where h i g h - s t r e n g t h b a u x i t e
t a i l - i n s f o l l o w i n g pumping o f sand have n o t p r o v i d e d h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t i e s t h a n
u n i f o r m f r a c t u r e packages. The q u a n t i t a t i v e s h a r e o f t h e t a i l w i t h r e s p e c t t o
t h e t o t a l p r o p p a n t l o a d s h o u l d n o t b e s e l e c t e d t o o low, because t h i s c o u l d
cause s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a n d / o r m i x t u r e o f p r o p p a n t s a t t h e w e l l b o r e w h i c h a r e en-
hanced b y p e r m e a b i l i t y and f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t v a r i a t i o n s (GARBIS, BROWN & MAU-
RITZ 1 9 8 5 ) . A s p e c t s o f R o t l i e g e n d gas r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e B r i t i s h Sou-
t h e r n N o r t h Sea a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y ACHARYA & K I M ( 1 9 8 7 ) , and COULTER & PUR-
V I S ( 1 9 8 0 ) p r e s e n t e x p e r i e n c e o f R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n f r a c t u r i n g i n p a r -
t i a l l y w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e D u t c h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea.

2.4.1.2.4. Differences between offshore and onshore fracturing

Due t o t h e d i f f e r e n t l o g i s t i c a l s i t u a t i o n o f o n s h o r e and o f f s h o r e p r o j e c t s
( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 3 . 8 . ) and r e s u l t i n g f r o m p r e v i o u s l y more o r l e s s f i x e d f i e l d
d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s i n c l u d i n g commitment o f s e l l i n g t h e gas p r i o r t o t h e s t a r t o f
production d r i l l i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.6.2.), t h e o i l p r i c e d r o p i n e a r l y 1986
( i n Europe s u p e r i m p o s e d b y t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e w h i c h r e a c h e d
a minimum a l m o s t a t t h e same t i m e ; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) has o n l y l e a d t o a
more o r l e s s c u t back o f t h e l e v e l o f s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y ( w h i c h was f o r t h e
s e r v i c e and p r o p p a n t companies n e g a t i v e l y a c c e n t u a t e d by t h e c o i n c i d e n c e w i t h
h i g h e r c a n c e l l a t i o n r a t e s f o r t e c h n i c a l r e a s o n s ; c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.2.2.) i n c l u -
d i n g postponement o f o n l y l i m i t e d amounts o f p r o j e c t s , b u t has i n c o n t r a s t t o
t h e s i t u a t i o n i n p a r t s of o n s h o r e Europe ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . 1 . ) not given
r i s e t o t o t a l s u s p e n s i o n and t h u s a l s o q u i t e some j o b s have been c a r r i e d o u t i n
 191

HYDRAULIC PROP-
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 192

1986 i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d gas b e l t ( i n c o n t r a s t t o Ger-

many FRG where n o t h i n g took p l a c e ) .

1987 has seen a l r e a d y a g a i n some m a j o r campaigns and p a r t i c u l a r l y 1988 met

t h e schedule t o become t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a pronounced boom o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g i n t h i s area ( w h i c h extends u n t i l 1989 and 1990 o r even l a t e r ) , al-
though c o n t i n u i n g o i l p r i c e and US $ weakness caused i n some f i e l d s q u i t e some
d e l a y o f t h e o r i g i n a l p l a n n i n g and i n some cases even i n c l u d e d schedule m o d i f i -
c a t i o n s f o r t h e purpose o f c o s t containment. F u r t h e r aspects o f d i f f e r e n t f r a c -
t u r e p h i l o s o p h y and s t r a t e g y i n o f f s h o r e and onshore areas a r e d i s c u s s e d i n sec-
t i o n 3.8. Some d i f f e r e n c e s between o f f s h o r e and onshore f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t s a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d by ROODHART, K U I P E R & D A V I E S ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

2.4.1.2.5. Moderately deep oil fracturing

I n a d d i t i o n t o m o d e r a t e l y deep gas f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h
Sea, so f a r a l s o some m o d e r a t e l y deep o i l f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h e r n
N o r t h Sea has been c a r r i e d o u t i n a few f i e l d s (DESPAX, CHARLEZ, CLINKEMAILLE &
ECONOMIDES 1987). The t r e a t m e n t s have been performed i n t h e J u r a s s i c B r e n t Sand
group (JOHNSON & KROL 1984) and have been executed e i t h e r w i t h sand o r w i t h i n -
t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s . W h i l e h i t h e r -
t o m a i n l y i n d i v i d u a l w e l l s have been s t i m u l a t e d due t o a c t u a l demand, s e v e r a l
s m a l l e r o r l a r g e r o p e r a t i o n campaigns c o n s i s t i n g o f a s u i t e o f j o b s a r e schedu-
l e d f o r t h e coming y e a r s . The T e r t i a r y Eocene sandstones which have r e c e n t l y
been proven t o be another m a j o r o i l - b e a r i n g r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y (BEUDELL 1987 b,
CAPEL 1988) a r e expected to r a t h e r r e q u i r e g r a v e l p a c k i n g t h a n h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . Some o f t h e hydrocarbon f i e l d s i n t h e N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea a r e
c o n s i d e r a b l y o v e r p r e s s u r e d (LINDBERG & FERTL 1980).

The most i m p o r t a n t f i e l d s where m o d e r a t e l y deep o i l f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s

have a l r e a d y been c a r r i e d o u t and/or a r e s t i l l g o i n g t o be performed a r e ( i n a l -
p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r ) Brae, Heather, H u t t o n , Montrose, T a r t a n and T h i s t l e ( c f . f i g .
8 and t a b . 7 ) .

2.4.2. Western Europe 1986

The c o n s i d e r a b l y decreased l e v e l o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n Western
Europe i n 1986 (and p a r t i a l l y s t i l l i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1987) i s n o t o n l y a
consequence o f t h e u n e x p e c t e d l y s t r o n g o i l p r i c e drop ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . )
and t h e accompanying superimposing impact o f t h e severe US $ exchange r a t e de-
c l i n e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.3.), b u t a l s o r e s u l t s f r o m t h e c o i n c i d e n c e o f t h e dete-
r i o r a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l economical s i t u a t i o n w i t h i n c r e a s e d C a n c e l l a t i o n r a t e s
o f s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s due t o t e c h n i c a l reasons, and i s a l s o t h e e f f e c t o f
t h e h i t h e r t o m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y and a c t i v i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t companies. The f o l -
l o w i n g summary i n c l u d e s o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e , a r e a l f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y , i n c r e a s e d
c a n c e l l a t i o n r a t e s o f j o b s , and p r o p p a n t m a r k e t i n g a c t i v i t y .

2.4.2.1. Oil price decline

The o i l p r i c e dropped s e r i o u s l y i n l a t e 1985 and e s p e c i a l l y e a r l y 1986 (RUN-
GE 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) , w i t h t h e e f f e c t i n Europe b e i n g even more se-
r i o u s due t o t h e f a l l o f t h e US $ exchange r a t e which a c c e l e r a t e d i n l a t e 1985
and reached i t s minimum i n e a r l y 1986 t h r o u g h m i d 1987, and improved n o t s u f f i -
c i e n t l y s i g n i f i c a n t t o regain confidence f o r l a r g e r investments u n t i l mid t o
l a t e 1988 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) . The r e s u l t o f t h e marked changes o f t h e gene-
r a l economical framework, e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e peak o f t h e c r i s i s i n e a r l y t o m i d
1986 when t h e f r e s h o i l p r i c e c r a s h was h u r t i n g t h e whole hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y
s e v e r e l y , was t h a t almost a l l t h e o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n companies i n Western
Europe s e v e r e l y r e v i s e d t h e i r budgets of c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e , and c u t down i n -
 193

vestments by a t a b t . 25 - 40 % ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.5.2.) by d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c i n g
o r even t o t a l l y f r e e z i n g t h e d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n programmes c h i e f l y w i t h i n
t h e N o r t h Sea (BEUDELL 1986 c, GRIFFITHS 1986, HARBEN 1986, OEHME 1986, VIEL-
VOYE 1986, ALGAR 1987 b; MABRO 1987, 1988). Summarizing f o r Western Europe as a
whole, however, i n d i c a t e s t h a t e x p l o r a t o r y d r i l l i n g was v i r t u a l l y unchanged i n
1986 f r o m i t s 1985 l e v e l , t h e r e b y r e f l e c t i n g p r i m a r i l y t h e h i g h e r i n t e r e s t i n
onshore e x p l o r a t i o n where much l e s s s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s (POPESCU &
HODGSHON 1987).

The s t r e a m l i n i n g o f companies and t h e i r c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e a l s o a f f e c t e d ge-

n e r a l overheads and personnel, g i v i n g r i s e t o s e v e r a l m a j o r l a y - o f f campaigns
i n hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n and s e r v i c e i n d u s t r y a f f e c t i n g w o r l d - w i d e p r o b a b l y a l -
most a q u a r t e r o f a m i l l i o n employees and p a r t i a l l y c a u s i n g mass p e o p l e exodus
f r o m o i l c a p i t a l s t h u s l e a v i n g t h e r e some g h o s t - l i k e abandoned q u a r t e r s ( c f .
s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 2 . ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e a c t i v i t y o f some m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n compa-
n i e s t h a t have a b e t t e r o v e r a l l p o s i t i o n , a r e backed-up by b e i n g owned o r sha-
r e - h o l d e d by o t h e r p r o f i t a b l e businesses, have market p r o t e c t i o n o r f i n a n c i a l
s u p p o r t by t h e government and a r e t h u s almost o f s e m i - n a t i o n a l n a t u r e , o r a r e
committed t o f u l f i l l t h e i r gas d e l i v e r y c o n t r a c t s which had been concluded
p r i o r t o t h e c r i s i s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.6.2.) and t h u s a r e f o r c e d t o go ahead r e -
g a r d l e s s o f t h e economical s i t u a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h a c o u p l e o f j o b s f r o m smal-
l e r companies s t i l l m a i n t a i n e d a p r i n c i p a l l y reasonable l e v e l o f market poten-
t i a l i n view o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g .

2.4.2.2. Areal fracturing activity

The a r e a l h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y i n Western Europe i n 1986
i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f R o t l i e g e n d gas f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e N o r t h Sea
as w e l l as unemployment o f d r i l l i n g r i g s and s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t s as f o l l o w s .

2.4.2.2.1. Rotliegend gas fracturing i n the North Sea

H y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n Western Europe was i n 1986 almost e x c l u s i v e -
l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s i n t h e B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern
N o r t h Sea where i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e
proppants were used e i t h e r f o r t h e f u l l t r e a t m e n t o r as t a i l - i n t e r m i n a l stages
( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1.2.3.) f o l l o w i n g a m a j o r e a r l y phase o f sand pumping. The few
e x c e p t i o n s were Cretaceous o i l - b e a r i n g sandstones i n t h e D u t c h Southern N o r t h
Sea where sand was a p p l i e d , and Cretaceous o i l - b e a r i n g c h a l k i n t h e Norwegian
N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea where b o t h c o n v e n t i o n a l and r e s i n - c o a t e d i n t e r m e d i a t e -
s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y ceramic proppants were t a k e n (HARTLEY & BOSMA 1985; TAN-
SOE, K I N G & HOLMAN 1986) f o r combined h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g
i n s o f t f l o w i n g undercompacted and o v e r p r e s s u r e d c h a l k s (ATTARD, MATHES & MOWER
1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.3.). Some t i g h t Mesozoic sands i n t h e N o r t h e r n N o r t h
Sea were a l s o s t i m u l a t e d (DESPAX, CHARLEZ, CLINKEMAILLE & ECONOMIDES 1987). On-
shore Germany FRG and N e t h e r l a n d s , n o t h i n g took p l a c e b o t h i n deep g a s - w e l l
f r a c t u r i n g w i t h s y n t h e t i c proppants and s h a l l o w o i l - w e l l f r a c t u r i n g w i t h n a t u -
r a l sand ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . 1 . ) .

The B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d gas b e l t has i t s own development

concept and due t o predominant s a l e o f t h e gas p r i o r t o development d r i l l i n g
and h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.6.2.), the province kept
i t s a c t i v i t y more o r l e s s u n a f f e c t e d by t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e drop and was
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d c o n t i n u i n g i t s approach t o t h e m a j o r development campaigns i n
1987 - 1990 (economical aspects a r e a l s o summarized by FISHMAN 1986, GREGORY
1986, OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1986 a, THOMAS 1986, ALGAR 1987 a, BAND 1987, POTTER
1987). T h i s i s r e f l e c t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r o f 1986, i n t o -
t a l more w e l l s had been d r i l l e d i n t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h Sea than i n any o t h e r quar-
t e r i n t h e h i s t o r y o f U n i t e d Kingdom o f f s h o r e o i l and gas a c t i v i t y , and f o r
1986 as a whole, o n l y s l i g h t l y fewer w e l l s have been d r i l l e d t h a n t h e average
 194

number h a v i n g been b r o u g h t down i n t h e p e r i o d 1983 - 1985 (POPESCU & HODGSHON

1 9 8 7 ) . I n t h e D u t c h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea, p r o j e c t s were s h i f t e d f r o m o i l s p o t s t o
gas p a t c h e s a l o n g w i t h g e n e r a l b u d g e t c u t t i n g as a consequence o f t h e o i l p r i c e
c o l l a p s e (BEUDELL 1986 b ) .

2.4.2.2.2. Unemployment of drilling rigs and stimulation boats

The c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y in t h e N o r t h Sea
(GRIFFITHS 1986, VIELVOYE 1986) was b e s t e x p r e s s e d in t h e second h a l f o f 1986
b y numerous unemployed j a c k - u p p l a t f o r m s h a v i n g been l i n e d u p l i k e a p e a r l
c h a i n a l o n g t h e B r i t i s h and N o r w e g i a n c o a s t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y between N e w c a s t l e
and Aberdeen on t h e B r i t i s h s i d e and between S t a v a n g e r and B e r g e n on t h e Norwe-
g i a n s i d e ; c f . a l s o SCOTTISH PETROLEUM ANNUAL 1 9 8 7 ) . An i n d i r e c t i n d i c a t o r was
t h e employment o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t s i n t h e N o r t h Sea where a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
f a c t t h a t t h r e e s e r v i c e v e s s e l s (FOX 1985, OILMAN 1985 b ) o f p u r p o s e - b u i l t na-
t u r e (COOPER & MARSHALL 1984, OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1984) h a d t o s h a r e a s t a g n a n t
o r s h r i n k i n g f r a c t u r i n g m a r k e t , some b o a t s k e p t w a i t i n g f o r j o b s i n t h e h a r b o u r
o f t h e i r o f f s h o r e base up t o s e v e r a l months t i m e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3 . 7 . 1 . 1 . and
3.8.1.2.).

The t o t a l number o f a c t i v e r i g s in t h e N o r t h Sea d r o p p e d by a l m o s t 30 % du-

r i n g 1986, w i t h more t h a n 40 p l a t f o r m s b e i n g w i t h o u t j o b i n l a t e 1986 i n con-
t r a s t t o o n l y a c o u p l e o f them one y e a r e a r l i e r (OEHME 1 9 8 6 ) . Up t o a b t . 70
r i g s have been s t a c k e d o f f N o r t h w e s t Europe i n t h e w o r s t p e r i o d o f 1986 and
e a r l y 1987, and l e s s t h a n 40 r i g s r e m a i n e d w o r k i n g i n t h a t p e r i o d (McNALLY
1987, VIELVOYE 1987 b ) . I n t h e second h a l f o f 1987, r e c o v e r y o f t h e N o r t h Sea
m a r k e t r e s u l t e d in r i s e o f t h e a c t i v e d r i l l i n g r i g number t o a b t . 65 and f a l l
o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f s t a c k e d r i g s t o a b t . 40.

2.4.2.3. Increased cancellation rates

A c c o r d i n g t o Murphy's law, t h e c r i s i s t h a t was t r i g g e r e d b y t h e o i l p r i c e de-
c l i n e was f o r t h e European h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g m a r k e t i n g segment e v e n
n e g a t i v e l y a c c e n t u a t e d , as t h e r e d u c e d amount o f d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i -
v i t y in m a i n l y t h e N o r t h Sea d u r i n g t h e peak o f t h e c r i s i s c o i n c i d e d w i t h an un-
u s u a l l y increased r a t e o f c a n c e l l a t i o n s o f planned f r a c t u r e jobs ( w i t h r e s p e c t
t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s ) i n e a r l y t o l a t e 1986. M o s t o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e i n c r e a -
sed c a n c e l l a t i o n r a t e s r e l a t e t o r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s and w e l l t y p e .

2.4.2.3.1. Reservoir properties

The r e a s o n s f o r s t i m u l a t i o n j o b c a n c e l l a t i o n a g a i n s t e x p e c t a t i o n and p l a n -
n i n g a r e m u l t i p l e and d e p e n d i n g on a c t u a l w e l l r e s u l t s . The f i r s t p o s s i b i l i t y
i s t h a t no gas was f o u n d i n a w a t e r - b e a r i n g r e s e r v o i r i n e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s when
t h e t a r g e t f o r m a t i o n was e n c o u n t e r e d deeper t h a n p r o g n o s e d o r t h e g a s - w a t e r - c o n -
t a c t was m e t in a h i g h e r p o s i t i o n t h a n p r e d i c t e d . The second example i s t h a t
t h e p r o v e n r e s e r v o i r i s t o o t i g h t t o a l l o w e c o n o m i c a l gas w i t h d r a w a l e v e n a f t e r
a h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t ( t o o l o w p r e - f r a c t u r i n g gas o f f t a k e
r a t e o r c o m p l e t e l y t i g h t ) in c o n t r a s t t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f p r e s e n c e o f l o w p e r -
m e a b i l i t i e s i n a f a v o u r a b l e range f o r a c o m m e r c i a l i t y o f p r o d u c t i o n a f t e r f r a c -
t u r i n g . The t h i r d cause i s t h a t t h e r e s e r v o i r has u n e x p e c t e d l y good p e r m e a b i l i -
t y and t h u s a f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n i s n o t n e c e s s a r y , t h e r e b y c o n t r a d i c t i n g t h e
e x p e c t a t i o n o f p o o r r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s t h a t w o u l d have r e q u i r e d s t i m u l a t i o n .
The f o u r t h e f f e c t i s t h a t t h e h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t i s suspended and t h e w e l l i s
s h u t - i n t o w a i t f o r a b e t t e r g e n e r a l e c o n o m i c a l s i t u a t i o n as an answer t o t h e
change o f framework c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g d r i l l i n g o f d e e p e r w e l l s w h i c h w e r e o f t e n
spudded w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f l a t e r f r a c t u r i n g a t a t i m e
when t h e o i l p r i c e was s t i l l p r o m i s i n g , b u t w h i c h f i n a l l y e n c o u n t e r e d t h e t a r -
g e t f o r m a t i o n a t a t i m e when t h e o i l p r i c e l e v e l t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e US $ v a l u e
 195

Centres of hydraulic proppant fracturing

and gravel packing in the North Sea
massive hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g l M H F l

smaller-scale f r a c t u r i n g

gravel packing

M100 km

. *

Fig. 8
 196

had so f a r c o l l a p s e d t h a t the o r i g i n a l p l a n s could no l o n g e r be m a i n t a i n e d and

d e c i s i o n was made t o postpone t h e t r e a t m e n t .

All the mentioned r e a s o n s have r e p e a t e d l y r e s u l t e d i n c a n c e l l a t i o n s of hy-

d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s t h a t had been scheduled and d e s i g n e d be-
f o r e , w i t h some of t h e w i t h d r a w a l s having been come i n t o f o r c e a l m o s t i n t h e
l a s t minute of j o b p r e p a r a t i o n predominantly i n 1986 and p a r t i a l l y a l s o i n t h e
f i r s t h a l f of 1987. For t h e i n d i v i d u a l proppant and s e r v i c e companies, a l l
t h e s e e f f e c t s a d d i t i o n a l l y i n t e r f e r e d w i t h l o s s of some b u s i n e s s t o c o m p e t i t i o n
which, however, i s a l s o t a k i n g p l a c e i n good t i m e s , and w i t h g e t t i n g some o r -
d e r s l a t e r than e x p e c t e d o r even n o t a t a l l due t o i n t e r m i t t e n t s t o c k l i q u i d a -
t i o n by t h e s e r v i c e companies e n a b l i n g them t o c a r r y o u t s e v e r a l o p e r a t i o n s of
v a r i o u s s i z e w i t h o u t i n between t a k i n g new proppant m a t e r i a l ( c f . s e c t i o n
2 . 4 . 5 . 5 . 2 . ) . In the poor economical p e r i o d , a l l t h e s e f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e t o h i t
t h e i n d u s t r y very s e r i o u s l y . A n e g a t i v e consequence d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e
s t r e a m l i n i n g of the budgets i n t h e c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 2 . )
was replacement of e x p e n s i v e s y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h prop-
p a n t s by cheap n a t u r a l sand i n t h e s t i m u l a t i o n d e s i g n wherever p o s s i b l e accord-
ing t o r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s , i n c o n t r a s t t o sometimes generous a p p l i c a t i o n of a
h i g h e r - q u a l i t y proppant t y p e even i f n o t i n d i s p e n s i b l y r e q u i r e d f o r t h e whole
j o b i n t h e golden y e a r s of h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g .

2.4.2.3.2. Well type

The high r a t e of c a n c e l l a t i o n s i n e a r l y t o l a t e 1986 was mainly caused by
t h e predominance of e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l w e l l s where g e o l o g i c a l and r e s e r -
v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g r i s k i s o f t e n very h i g h . For ( a t l e a s t the second h a l f o f )
1987 and e s p e c i a l l y f o r 1988, the c a n c e l l a t i o n r a t e can be e x p e c t e d t o have
been much lower, a s i n t h e s e y e a r s , p r o d u c t i o n (development) d r i l l i n g was p r e -
v a i l i n g where the r i s k i s c o n s i d e r a b l y lower, because the s t r u c t u r e s and t h e i r
c o n t e n t s a r e more o r l e s s a l r e a d y known. I n t h e f i r s t h a l f of 1987, t h e c a n c e l -
l a t i o n r a t e s were a l r e a d y lower than in 1986 a l s o f o r the reason of reduced o r i -
g i n a l p l a n n i n g of t r e a t m e n t s i n l i g h t of t h e poor economical framework, w i t h
t h e d e l e t i o n s of t h e i t e m s p r i o r t o t h e i r appearance on t h e program l i s t of
w e l l s t o be spudded mainly a f f e c t i n g h i g h e r - r i s k p r o s p e c t s which c o u l d e a s i l y
be s u b j e c t e d a l s o t o l a t e r c a n c e l l a t i o n ( i n 1986 s h o r t l y a f t e r the w o r s t s t a g e
of t h e c r i s i s was r e a c h e d , i t was o f t e n t o o l a t e t o s t o p and prevent such items
t o be d r i l l e d ) .

2.4.2.4. Proppant marketing a c t i v i t y

I n view o f t h e t o t a l marketing and s a l e s l e v e l of p r o p p a n t s i n Europe, an-
o t h e r reason f o r t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y poor r e s u l t i n 1986 w i t h r e s p e c t t o the ex-
p e c t a t i o n s i s t h e h i t h e r t o underdevelopment of E a s t e r n Europe, Southern Europe
and Northern A f r i c a a s a consequence of t h e n e g l e c t a n c e of t h e s e markets i n the
p a s t . I f having been b e t t e r a t t e n d e d , h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g campaigns would be
now i n a much more advanced s t a g e of p r e p a r a t i o n in E a s t e r n Europe, Southern E u -
rope and Northern A f r i c a and could have p a r t i a l l y even a l r e a d y i n 1986 and f o l -
lowing y e a r s r e s u l t e d i n a d d i t i o n a l b u s i n e s s f o r p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p r o p p a n t com-
p a n i e s ( t h a t supply i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s e r v i c e companies which
u s u a l l y o p e r a t e the j o b s a s c o n t r a c t o r s a l s o t o t h o s e hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n
companies t h a t c a r r y o u t s m a l l e r o r l a r g e r j o b s themselves w i t h o u t i n t e r c a l a -
t i o n o r i n t e r v e n t i o n of s e r v i c e companies; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . 4 . and 2 . 4 . 5 . 5 . 1 . )
t h a t would have been a t the bottom of t h e l i n e a very welcome compensation of
the q u a n t i t i e s l o s t i n Western Europe due t o the r e a s o n s d i s c u s s e d above.
The i n s u f f i c i e n t marketing a t t e n t i o n by t h e proppant companies d u r i n g t h e
l a s t y e a r s i s h i g h l i g h t e d by the f a c t t h a t even in h i g h - p o t e n t i a l a r e a s such a s
G r e a t B r i t a i n and N e t h e r l a n d s , t h e r e have s t i l l r e c e n t l y been e n c o u n t e r e d some
o i l and g a s companies where t h e r e s p o n s i b l e r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r s had never heard
 197

b e f o r e of t h e p r o d u c t s u i t e and t h e l o g i s t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e m a j o r p r o p -
p a n t s u p p l i e r s , a l t h o u g h these companies a l s o do have w e l l s t h a t r e q u i r e f r a c t u -
r i n g w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants i f adequate l a y o u t i s performed. On
t h e o t h e r hand, t h e p r o p p a n t companies so f a r know v e r y l i t t l e o r a l m o s t no-
t h i n g about t h e demand o f s e v e r a l p o t e n t i a l Western and E a s t e r n European coun-
t r i e s . Some examples o f business l o s s t o proppant c o m p e t i t i o n and n a t u r a l sand
a r e mentioned as f o l l o w s .

2.4.2.4.1. Business loss to proppant competition

Business l o s s t o p r o p p a n t c o m p e t i t i o n o c c u r r e d r e p e a t e d l y on l a r g e - s c a l e o r -
d e r b a s i s i n t h e l a s t y e a r s i n Y u g o s l a v i a and i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h
Sea. Some p a r t i c u l a r l y s p e c t a c u l a r examples where m a j o r chances o f business con-
c l u s i o n have been l o s t due t o v a r i o u s reasons a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s . W h i l e
some o f t h e cases a r e t h e consequence o f e x c e s s i v e p r i c e p o k e r i n g o r s i m p l e ne-
g l e c t a n c e o f t h e market i n e a r l i e r times, o t h e r i t e m s a r e t h e r e s u l t o f e l i m i -
n a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l market f o r c e s by s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g due t o i n t r a c o r p o r a t i o n
r e 1a t i o n s h i p s .

2.4.2.4.1.1. Yugoslavia
F o l l o w i n g a s m a l l - s c a l e p r e c u r s o r t r e a t m e n t i n Yugoslavia ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.4.2.4.2.1.) which was v e r y s u c c e s s f u l and opened t h e way f o r a b i g MHF cam-
p a i g n i n t h a t c o u n t r y , t h e i n s u f f i c i e n t m a r k e t i n g a t t e n t i o n i n E a s t e r n Europe
by t h e m a j o r p r o p p a n t companies was s e r i o u s l y punished by enormous business
l o s s f o r some o f them i n l a t e 1985 when a f t e r an u n s u c c e s s f u l approach o f va-
r i o u s proppant companies by t h e Yugoslavians f o r a q u o t a t i o n , i n t o t a l 5,400 t
o f proppants were purchased i n almost one l o t f r o m s u p p l y companies w h i c h was
scheduled t o be enough f o r t h e 10 - 12 planned j o b s o f t h e MHF s t i m u l a t i o n cam-
p a i g n t h r o u g h o u t a c o u p l e o f years, and s e v e r a l m a j o r proppant companies were
o n l y awaking by t h i s e v e n t and t o o l a t e r e a l i z i n g t h a t a l s o a t l e a s t p a r t s o f
E a s t e r n Europe have c o n s i d e r a b l e m a r k e t i n g p o t e n t i a l . W h i l e some o f t h e m a j o r
p r o p p a n t companies c o u l d s t i l l s l i p i n t o t h e deal by an unexpected backdoor ap-
proach due t o t h e l i m i t e d d e l i v e r y c a p a c i t y o f one o f t h e c o m p e t i t o r s , o t h e r
p a r t i e s had a b s o l u t e l y no p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s a c t i o n which p r o b a b l y was t h e
h i s t o r i c a l l y b i g g e s t proppant deal i n one movement i n whole Europe.

2.4.2.4.1.2. British Southern North Sea

Some case s t u d i e s o f p r o p p a n t business l o s s t o c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h e B r i t i s h
Southern N o r t h Sea a r e i l l u s t r a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f p r i c e i n s i s t e n c e and l a c k -
i n g market u n d e r s t a n d i n g as w e l l as i n t e r n a l company s t r u c t u r e s and s h o r t - c u t
deals.

2.4.2.4.1.2.1. Price insistence and lacking market understanding

Another s e r i o u s business l o s s t o p r o p p a n t c o m p e t i t i o n happened d u r i n g t h e
p r e p a r a t i o n o f one o f t h e b i g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n campaigns i n t h e
B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d t i g h t gas p r o v i n c e . W h i l e b i d d i n g o f t h e
s e r v i c e companies t o t h e o p e r a t o r was made i n e a r l y t o m i d 1987, t h e p r i c e s f o r
alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants were r a i s e d e f f e c t i v e l a t e 1987 by t h e sup-
p l i e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.2.2.) who f o r a l o n g t i m e had a l r e a d y w a i t e d f o r a good
o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n c r e a s e t h e p r i c e a f t e r t h e u n f o r t u n a t e and subsequently r e g r e t -
t e d p r i c e l o w e r i n g i n l a t e 1985 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.2.1.). W h i l e f o r many y e a r s
one s e r v i c e company p e r f o r m i n g most o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n work i n t h e N o r t h Sea
had a p r e f e r e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o one m a j o r proppant s u p p l i e r , w i t h even f r e -
q u e n t l y t a k i n g t h e i r m a t e r i a l a t once w i t h o u t even t a l k i n g t o c o m p e t i t i o n a t
a l l , t h e business n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e b i g 1988 campaign changed t h e s i t u a t i o n
 198
completely.

Becoming u p s e t a b o u t t h e i n t e n t i o n o f i t s f o r m e r s t a n d a r d s u p p l i e r t o c h a r g e
t h e new h i g h e r p r o p p a n t p r i c e a l r e a d y f o r t h e d e a l t h a t was o b t a i n e d b y t h e s e r -
v i c e company based on o f f e r i n g t h e o l d l o w e r p r i c e , t h e s e r v i c e company made an
agreement w i t h t h e c o m p e t i t i o n w h i c h was w i l l i n g t o l i s t e n and t o u n d e r s t a n d
t h e s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and precommitments and t h e r e f o r e g u a r a n t e e d s t i l l t h e
o l d p r o p p a n t p r i c e f o r t h e w h o l e campaign c o m p r i s i n g s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d s o f t o n s
o f material, t h e s e r v i c e company changed i t s s u p p l i e r o b v i o u s l y n o t o n l y f o r
t h i s one d e a l , b u t was c e r t a i n l y l o o k i n g i n t o l o n g e r - t e r m f r u i t f u l c o o p e r a t i o n
f o r m u t u a l b e n e f i t s i m i l a r t o t h e p r a c t i c e done w i t h t h e c o m p e t i t o r b e f o r e .
Thus as a consequence o f p l a y i n g t h e p r i c e c a r d t o o h i g h due t o l a c k i n g u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g o f t h e m a r k e t r e q u i r e m e n t s and t h e f u t u r e p o t e n t i a l , t h e p r o p p a n t o u t -
l e t i n t o t h e N o r t h Sea was a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y t a k e n away f r o m t h e f o r m e r sup-
p l i e r and g i v e n t o i t s c o m p e t i t o r , r e s u l t i n g i n s e r i o u s b u s i n e s s l o s s and n e a r -
l y t o t a l l y r e v e r s i n g s e v e r a l y e a r s o f p u r c h a s e s t r a t e g y o f t h e s e r v i c e company
c a r r y i n g o u t most o f t h e h y d r a u l i c proppant s t i m u l a t i o n work.

These examples i l l u s t r a t e t h a t i n s u f f i c i e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e European

s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t by r e m o t e h a n d l i n g and l a c k i n g l o c a l knowledge c a n c o s t much
more money i n t e r m s o f l o s t b u s i n e s s t h a t w o u l d be t h e expenses f o r an a d e q u a t e
r e g i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . A p r o p e r c o v e r a g e o f t h e w h o l e European a r e a w o u l d com-
p r i s e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f g e o l o g i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g c o n c e p t s i n t o
t h e p r o p p a n t m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y and t h e o p e r a t i o n o u t o f a permanent European
marketing representation (the significance o f inclusion o f geological factors
i n t o h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n i s a l s o emphasized by BRITT &
LARSEN 1 9 8 6 ) .

2.4.2.4.1.2.2. I n t e r n a l company s t r u c t u r e s and short-cut deals

Company and c o r p o r a t i o n i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s , however, c a n i n some c a s e s se-
r i o u s l y d i s t u r b m a r k e t f o r c e s and c a n r e s u l t i n b u s i n e s s a p p r o v a l f o r c e r t a i n
proppant s u p p l i e r s o n l y thanks t o i n t r a - m u l t i n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s . A n example o f such a c t i o n a g a i n s t m a r k e t i n g e f f o r t s o f c o m p e t i t o r s and
s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g o f b u s i n e s s c o n c l u s i o n w i t h r e n d e r i n g a l l t h e r e a l and open
m a r k e t i n g a c t i v i t i e s o f o t h e r s u p p l i e r s and n a t u r a l m a r k e t f o r c e s a p r i o r i u s e -
l e s s and a w a s t e o f t i m e and money happened a l s o in t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e 1988
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g campaigns i n t h e B r i t i s h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea. A l t h o u g h ha-
v i n g n o t t h e b e s t r e p u t a t i o n t o t h e s e r v i c e company e x e c u t i n g t h e j o b s as a r e -
s u l t of i n a d e q u a t e b u s i n e s s b e h a v i o u r and e x a g g e r a t e d p r i c e p o k e r i n g , one o f
t h e m a j o r p r o p p a n t companies g o t t h e c o n t r a c t t o s u p p l y m a t e r i a l f o r a l a r g e
campaign o n l y b y i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t o r w h i c h had f o r m e r l y t o g e t h e r w i t h
t h e p r o p p a n t m a n u f a c t u r e r been u n d e r t h e head o f a b i g m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a -
t i o n , and e v e n a f t e r d i v o r c e as a consequence o f company s p l i t t i n g and s a l e du-
r i n g c o u r s e o f s t r e a m l i n i n g measures, a s h o r t - c u t agreement w i t h o u t i n v o l v e m e n t
o f t h e s e r v i c e company g u a r a n t e e d t h e o p e r a t o r a b e t t e r p r i c e f o r t h e m a t e r i a l
and gave t h e p r o p p a n t s u p p l i e r t h e b i g d e a l .

This business i n f a c t represented the f i r s t major action o f d i r e c t proppant

s a l e and p u r c h a s e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f r o m s u p p l i e r t o o p e r a t o r w i t h o u t i n t e g r a t i o n
and i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e s e r v i c e company. I t i s t y p i c a l f o r such t y p e o f m a r k e t -
i n g f o r c e i n v a l i d a t i o n t h a t a t t h e bottom o f t h e l i n e , o p p o r t u n i s t i c behaviour
w i t h s e c u r i n g o f f o r m e r i n - h o u s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r t h e mere sake o f b u s i n e s s
c o n c l u s i o n and money-making e n a b l e d t h e p r o p p a n t m a n u f a c t u r e r t o a g r e e w i t h o u t
h e s i t a t i o n t o a p r i c e f o r t h e w h o l e p r o p p a n t l o t w h i c h i t had e a r l i e r r e p e a t e d -
l y r e j e c t e d f r o m t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n when d i r e c t l y t a l k i n g t o t h e e x e c u -
t i n g s e r v i c e company.

C o n c l u s i o n has t h e r e f o r e t o be drawn t h a t i n some cases, m a r k e t i n g e f f o r t s

o n a sound e c o n o m i c a l and t e c h n i c a l base c a n be c o m p l e t e l y s p o i l e d b y o p p o r t u -
n i s m and a d v a n t a g e e x p l o i t a t i o n due t o i n t r a - m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n r e l a t i o n -
 199

s h i p s and d e a l s a r e made a l l o f a sudden which c o m p l e t e l y d i v e r g e f r o m o r con-

t r a d i c t t h e commonly e x h i b i t e d m a r k e t i n g p o l i c y o f t h e p r o p p a n t m a n u f a c t u r e r .
The o u t l i n e d examples i l l u s t r a t e t h a t business l o s s t o p r o p p a n t c o m p e t i t i o n has
v e r y d i v e r s e aspects which comprise n o t o n l y t e c h n i c a l and economical ques-
t i o n s , b u t i n c l u d e a l s o p o l i t i c a l and o r g a n i z a t o r y p o i n t s t h a t sometimes even
i n c o r p o r a t e complete e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e market f o r c e s , w i t h i n such cases b e i n g
a t t h e bottom o f t h e l i n e no d i f f e r e n c e between s a t i s f a c t o r y and engaged market-
i n g a t t e n t i o n on t h e one hand and i n s u f f i c i e n t r e c o g n i t i o n and n e g l e c t a n c e o f
t h e market on t h e o t h e r hand.

2.4.2.4.2. Business loss to natural sand

I n a d d i t i o n t o business l o s s t o p r o p p a n t c o m p e t i t i o n , s e v e r a l d e a l s o f p a r -
t i a l l y c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s o f s y n t h e t i c proppants f e l l through because o f
l o s s t o n a t u r a l sand f o r v a r i o u s reasons. Some examples f r o m Yugoslavia, Turkey
and B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s . The reasons f o r t h e mis-
sed o p p o r t u n i t i e s have been s i m i l a r l y as i n case o f business l o s s t o p r o p p a n t
c o m p e t i t i o n p r e d o m i n a n t l y n e g l e c t a n c e o f t h e market and e x c e s s i v e p r i c e poker-
ing.

2.4.2.4.2.1. Yugoslavia
The undersupply o f t h e European market w i t h m a t e r i a l f o r many y e a r s as a r e -
s u l t o f wrong p l a n n i n g , u n r e a l i s t i c approach, i n s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n and l a c k -
i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g had i t s consequences s t i l l i n 1985 b e f o r e t h e p r o p p a n t p r i c e
r e d u c t i o n when n e i t h e r p r o d u c t i o n n o r s e r v i c e company were a b l e t o o b t a i n i n t e r -
m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants f o r a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g j o b i n Y u g o s l a v i a ( w h i c h
f o r American p r o p p a n t companies was so f a r a w h i t e p a t c h on t h e s t i m u l a t i o n
map) t h a t p r e c u r s e d t h e MHF campaign i n t h i s c o u n t r y , and as a r e s u l t o f t h e
u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e d e s i r e d p r o d u c t i n t i m e t h a t was s e l e c t e d as b e i n g s u i -
table, coupled w i t h only l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r a p i d d e l i v e r y o f l o c a l prop-
pants, t h e designed f r a c t u r e l e n g t h had t o be reduced and t h e c r a c k had t o be
i n f i l l e d w i t h sand f o l l o w e d by a t a i l - i n o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants r a t h e r t h a n
b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y plugged w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants as would have
been a p p r o p r i a t e i n t h e g i v e n c l o s u r e s t r e s s regime (ECONOMIDES, CIKES, PFUR-
TER, U D I C K & URODA 1986).

2.4.2.4.2.2. Turkey
Another example o f l o o s i n g b u s i n e s s as a consequence o f l a c k i n g m a r k e t i n g ac-
t i v i t y was t h e purchase o f tremendous amounts o f cheap sand by l o c a l o p e r a t o r s
f o r a m a j o r f r a c t u r i n g campaign i n Turkey where i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants
would have been t e c h n i c a l l y r e q u i r e d a t l e a s t f o r t a i l - i n o p e r a t i o n s . W i t h t h e
background o f a huge sand i n v e n t o r y i n t h e warehouse, however, n e i t h e r p r o p p a n t
n o r s e r v i c e companies had any argument t o c o n v i n c e t h e p r o d u c t i o n company i n
Turkey t o change t h e j o b design, and a l e v e l o f t e c h n i c a l l y sound u n d e r s t a n d i n g
was o n l y reached when t h e sand p i l e had f i n a l l y been c o m p l e t e l y c l e a r e d by pump-
i n g downhole. A p p r o p r i a t e m a r k e t i n g a t t e n t i o n o f t h e area would c e r t a i n l y have
p r e v e n t e d t h e e x c e s s i v e purchase o f sand by t h e l o c a l o p e r a t o r and would have
opened t h e door f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t b u s i n e s s i n -
stead o f t h e sand.

2.4.2.4.2.3. British Southern North Sea

L a r g e - s c a l e b u s i n e s s l o s s o f p r o p p a n t s u p p l i e r s t o n a t u r a l sand a l s o o c c u r -
r e d i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea d u r i n g course o f R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d de-
velopment. A l t h o u g h t h e o p e r a t o r i n t h e example under d i s c u s s i o n c o n v e n t i o n a l l y
used n a t u r a l sand as t h e main q u a n t i t y o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t due t o s t i l l
HYDRAULIC PROP-
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AU STRl A

I Tratnach IOlA
I Zistersdorf IOIA
Dan A
DENMARK
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Barcs 0
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Po Valley

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LANDS

P-15 ( R i j n ) 0

Tab. 8
 201

s u f f i c i e n t l y s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r d e p t h (a1 though a l r e a d y near t h e boundary range

of sand s t a b i l i t y ) and i n s e r t e d o n l y a c o m p a r a t i v e l y small volume o f i n t e r m e d i a -
t e - s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants as t a i l - i n f o r t h e purpose o f p r o v i d i n g maximum
c o n d u c t i v i t y and c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e b o r e -
hole, replacement o f n a t u r a l sand by l o w - d e n s i t y alumina s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s was
i n s e r i o u s d i s c u s s i o n s t a g e and was a l s o h e a v i l y promoted by t h e c o n t r a c t e d s e r -
v i c e company which r e c o g n i z e d t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y a l s o as a chance o f f u r t h e r shar-
pening o f p r o f i l e and a p p l i c a t i o n spectrum. The deal c o m p r i s i n g a t l e a s t 4 Mio.
l b s (2,000 t ) o f m a t e r i a l , however, f i n a l l y f e l l t h r o u g h and n a t u r a l sand was
p r e f e r r e d , because t h e p r o p p a n t s u p p l i e r c o u l d n o t be convinced t h a t f o r such a
m a j o r p i l o t campaign o f u t i l i z i n g l o w - d e n s i t y alumina s i l i c a t e proppants i n t h e
whole t r e a t m e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i e l d t o be developed and t o renounce c o m p l e t e l y
f r o m sand ( p r o g r e s s i v e replacement o f n a t u r a l sand by s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s i s
one of t h e m a j o r m a r k e t i n g g u i d e l i n e s i n t h e c u r r e n t p r o p p a n t scene; c f . sec-
t i o n 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) , a n o t h e r r e d u c t i o n o f t h e p r i c e d i f f e r e n c e t o n a t u r a l sand would
be necessary t o o b t a i n t h e approval f r o m t h e o p e r a t o r .

As a consequence o f l a c k i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and m i s s i n g o u t -
l o o k c a p a b i l i t y , t h e proppant m a n u f a c t u r e r i n s i s t e d on t h e s t a n d a r d p r i c e f o r
the intermediate-strength l o w - d e n s i t y alumina s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s even i n view
o f t h e l a r g e q u a n t i t y t o be f i r m l y o r d e r e d as one l o t and d e s p i t e t h e coopera-
t i o n o f f e r e d by t h e s e r v i c e company i n marking up t h e m a t e r i a l c o n s i d e r a b l y
l e s s t h a n u s u a l t o h e l p b r i d g i n g t h e p r i c e gap c l o s e t o n a t u r a l sand. A t t h e
b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e , t h e proppant s u p p l i e r t h u s p r e f e r r e d t o s e l l o n l y t h e t a i l -
i n q u a n t i t y ( w h i c h amounted t o a b t . one f i f t h o f t h e volume under d i s c u s s i o n
f o r t h e whole j o b s ) a t t h e u s u a l p r i c e r a t h e r t h a n t o d e l i v e r a c o n s i d e r a b l y
l a r g e r l o t f o r a s l i g h t l y reduced p r i c e . T h i s example i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t t h e d i f -
f e r e n c e o f even a c o u p l e o f c e n t s p e r pound i n proppant p r i c e can be s u f f i c i e n t
t o k i l l m a j o r p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r o p p a n t p r o m o t i o n i n t o new segments o f a p p l i c a -
t i o n i f l a c k i n g encouragement, u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e c h n i c a l n e c e s s i t y , and
f o r e c a s t o f s t i m u l a t i n g f o l l o w - u p a c t i v i t y a r e compensated by r i g o r o u s i n s i s t -
i n g on s t a n d a r d p r i c e .

2.4.3. Eastern Europe u n t i l 1986

Almost near t h e end o f t h e p e r i o d 1977 - 1985 which r e p r e s e n t s t h e golden
age o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a t l e a s t i n Germany FRG ( i n t h e B r i t i s h
Southern N o r t h Sea, t h e t i m e 1988 - 1992 m i g h t become t h e peak o f t h e a c t i v i t y )
i n Western Europe, MHF s t i m u l a t i o n s t a r t e d t o t a k e a l s o p l a c e i n p a r t s o f Eas-
t e r n Europe. Several p a r t i a l l y e x t r e m e l y l a r g e f r a c t u r e j o b s have been c a r r i e d
o u t i n Y u g o s l a v i a i n 1985 and p a r t i c u l a r l y 1986 (ECONOMIDES, C I K E S , PFURTER,
U D l C K & URODA 1986), and w i t h o u t t h e s e r i o u s d r o p o f t h e o i l p r i c e i n e a r l y
1986, i t would have been even more. Comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on Yugosla-
v i a and Hungary, USSR, o t h e r E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s , and Southern Europe
and N o r t h e r n A f r i c a .

2.4.3.1. Yugoslavia and Hungary

R e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s i n Y u g o s l a v i a (and a l s o i n a d j o i n i n g Hungary) a r e q u i t e
c o m p l i c a t e d due t o u n u s u a l l y h i g h temperatures o f 180 - 240 OC i n 3,000 - 4,000
m d e p t h ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 9,000 - 12,000 f t ) which cause problems w i t h t h e f r a c -
t u r i n g f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.4.4. and 4.7.4.2.) and make t h e pumping o f hea-
v i e r proppants v e r y d i f f i c u l t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e s e r v o i r f l u i d s c o n t a i n H2S
and CO2 which a r e a g g r e s s i v e t o t h e equipment. The gas- and condensate-bearing
f o r m a t i o n (ECONOMIDES, C I K E S , PFURTER, U D I C K & URODA 1986) c o n s i s t s o f T e r t i a r y
conglomerates, sandstones and l i m e s t o n e b r e c c i a s . One o f t h e main aims o f hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s t o a v o i d e x c e s s i v e r e t r o g r a d e condensation .(CASTELIJNS
1981, KENYON & BEHLE 1987; DANESH, HENDERSON, K R I N I S & PEDEN 1988). The f i e l d s
belong t o t h e Molve-Kal i n o v a c - S t a r i Gradac complex i n t h e Pannonian B a s i n (DRA-
G I C E V I C , M A R I N O V I C , STANKOVIC, BATUSIC & NIKOLIC 1983; I B R A H I M P A S I C 1983; R I -
 202

G A S S I 1985, 1986; BAUK, SECEN, BABIC & SACER 198b; ENERGIEWIRTSCHAFT 1986 b,
GORST 1987) o n t h e Y u g o s l a v i a n s i d e and t o t h e B a r c s - I n k e - M a k o g r o u p on t h e Hun-
g a r i a n s i d e ( c f . f i g . 5 and t a b s . 8 - 9 ) .

The f r a c t u r e j o b s i n Y u g o s l a v i a have been c a r r i e d o u t i n a t w o - s t e p manner

w i t h pumping o f 100 - 200 t o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y p r o p p a n t s i n
t h e e a r l y s t a g e and 200 - 450 t o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y o r h i g h -
s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s i n t h e l a t e s t a g e , t h u s b e i n g a s p e c i a l t y p e o f t a i l - i n and/
o r l e a d - i n f r a c t u r i n g s t r a t e g y (HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981; c f . s e c t i o n
2.4.1.2.2.). T o t a l p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s p e r t r e a t m e n t r a n g e d between 300 and 650
t and t h u s t h e o p e r a t i o n s i n Y u g o s l a v i a i n c l u d e d some o f t h e b i g g e s t MHF j o b s
w h i c h have e v e r been c a r r i e d o u t i n Europe ( o n l y i n Germany FRG have s o f a r
been t r e a t m e n t s o f c o m p a r a b l e m a g n i t u d e p e r f o r m e d ; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . 1 . ) . The
d e s i g n o f t h e j o b s i n Hungary i s s m a l l e r due t o o t h e r r e s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s , t e c h n i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s and e c o n o m i c a l c o n d i t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h o s e
i n Yugoslavia.

2 . 4 . 3 . 2 . USSR
The f i r s t h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s were a l r e a d y c a r r i e d o u t
i n t h e USSR i n 1952. The t o t a l a n n u a l f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y i n t h e USSR r e a c h e d
i t s peak i n t h e y e a r s 1958 - 1962 w i t h u p t o 1,500 o p e r a t i o n s p e r y e a r , and l a -
t e r d e c l i n e d t o a p l a t e a u - l i k e l e v e l w i t h more o r l e s s 100 t r e a t m e n t s p e r y e a r .
The c e n t r e s o f h i t h e r t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e i n t h e USSR
a r e t h e K r a s n o d a r , V o l g o - U r a l , T a t a r i a ( m a i n l y t h e Romashkinskoe and T u m a i s i
f i e l d s ) , B a s h k i r i a , K u j b y s h e v , Turkmenia, D a g i s t a n and S i b e r i a ( m a i n l y t h e Sa-
l i m s k i and S u r g u t s k o e f i e l d s ) a r e a s . H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n has been
m a i n l y done i n o i l - p r o d u c t i o n , w a t e r - i n j e c t i o n and w a t e r - d i s p o s a l w e l l s , b u t
s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o i n d e g a s i f i c a t i o n w e l l s o f c o a l - b e a r i n g s t r a t a and g e o l o g i -
c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n w e l l s . MHF t r e a t m e n t s have so f a r n o t been done i n t h e USSR,
and a l s o s m a l l - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g d i d n o t p l a y a m a j o r r o l e i n w e l l c o m p l e t i o n ,
because p r e f e r e n c e was g i v e n t o d r i l l i n g and f a s t e x p l o i t a t i o n o f e a s i l y a c c e s -
s i b l e and r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s . The f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s t i m u l a t i o n was o n l y
l a t e l y b e t t e r r e a l i z e d when o i l p r o d u c t i o n l a g g e d b e h i n d t h e g o a l s o f t h e f i v e -
y e a r p l a n ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.4.1.5.) and t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e m a j o r w o r l d o i l
p r i c e c r i s i s t o g e t h e r w i t h a d i m i n i s h i n g s t r e n g t h o f t h e US $ gave t h e i m p e t u s
f o r s e r i o u s l o o k i n g i n t o p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f enhanced e x p l o i t a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g c a -
p a c i t i e s (EBEL 1986, ORASIANU 1987; CHADWICK, LONG & NISSANKE 1 9 8 8 ) .

Up t o now, o n l y n a t u r a l sand i n q u a n t i t i e s o f up t o 130 t, b u t i n m o s t c a s e s

o n l y 20 - 50 t has been u s e d as p r o p p i n g a g e n t i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ments i n t h e USSR. S y n t h e t i c h i g h - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t s have e i t h e r n o t been n e c e s -
s a r y i n s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r s , o r deep p a y zones had s o f a r l i t t l e p r i o r i t y f o r
s t i m u l a t i o n . A l l t h e h i t h e r t o p e r f o r m e d j o b s have been c a r r i e d o u t i n own s e r -
v i c e u s i n g h i g h - p r e s s u r e pumps o f A m e r i c a n p r o v e n a n c e w h i c h were b o u g h t more
t h a n 10 y e a r s ago s t i l l b e f o r e t h e embargo e n a c t e d b y P r e s i d e n t C a r t e r i n 1 9 7 8
when American s e r v i c e companies e v e n had o f f i c e s i n Moscow, as w e l l as w i t h do-
m e s t i c and Romanian e q u i p m e n t . The h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n o l o g y i s w e l l u n -
d e r s t o o d and a p p r e c i a t e d i n t h e USSR f r o m where i n f a c t a l s o some o f t h e f i r s t
i n s p i r a t i o n s and c o n c e p t s d e r i v e d and p i o n e e r i n g work had been done when t h e
s t i m u l a t i o n method was b o r n a l m o s t 40 y e a r s ago (CLARK 1948, WILSEY & BEARDEN
1954, KHRISTIANOVICH & ZHELTOV 1955; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . ) .

2 . 4 . 3 . 3 . Other Eastern European c o u n t r i e s

In m o s t o f t h e o t h e r E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s , s i m i l a r l y as i n t h e USSR s o
f a r o n l y s m a l l e r f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s have been done w i t h a b t . 20 - 150 t o f
sand as p r o p p i n g a g e n t ( e x a m p l e s c o m p r i s e m a i n l y Hungary, P o l a n d , Y u g o s l a v i a
and Germany GDR, and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o C z e c h o s l o v a k i a and Romania, whereas i n
B u l g a r i a and A l b a n i a , n o t h i n g has been done up t o n o w ) . I n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h -
 203

s t r e n g t h proppants have h i t h e r t o o n l y been a p p l i e d i n v e r y l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s

f o r a t a i l - i n i n Hungary (coming f r o m v e r y r e s t r i c t e d domestic m a n u f a c t u r i n g as
b y - p r o d u c t i n alumina i n d u s t r y ; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) .

I n view o f t h e apparent d e l a y i n development o f r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n i n Eas-

t e r n Europe, i t has t o be understood t h a t b e f o r e t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e crash,
f i r s t t h e p r i o r i t y o f domestic o i l and gas a c q u i s i t i o n was on d r i l l i n g and com-
p l e t i o n o f e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e pay zones which caused no m a j o r t r e a t m e n t problems
and n e c e s s i t i e s , and second t h e USSR d e l i v e r e d s u f f i c i e n t amounts o f o i l and
gas on b a r t e r - t r a d e base t o i t s sate1 1 it e s , t h e r e b y s e c u r i n g s u p p l y and t h u s
n o t t r i g g e r i n g any s e r i o u s need o f i n c r e a s i n g domestic hydrocarbon o f f t a k e s i n
t h e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s o f t h e s o c i a l i s t i c b l o c k . The 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l l a p s e coup-
l e d w i t h t h e U S $ exchange r a t e drop, however, a b r u p t l y changed t h e whole s i t u a -
t i o n by a f f e c t i n g t h e t o t a l i n t e r w o v e n f a b r i c between t h e group members on b i l a -
t e r a l s c a l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e USSR as w e l l as on m u l t i l a t e r a l s c a l e among
each o f t h e s a t e l l i t e s and f r o m each o f them t o t h e USSR.

2.4.3.4. Southern Europe and Northern A f r i c a

L a r g e r f r a c t u r i n g campaigns i n c l u d i n g c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h Western s e r v i c e com-
p a n i e s have been made i n 1986 and e a r l i e r y e a r s i n Turkey where again a l m o s t ex-
c l u s i v e l y sand was used as p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l . I n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y
proppants would have been most s u i t a b l e a t l e a s t as a t a i l - i n f o r a number o f
o p e r a t i o n s , b u t t h e e a r l y purchase o f v a s t amounts o f sand i n h i b i t e d t h e a p p l i -
c a t i o n o f t h e b e t t e r , b u t a l s o more expensive m a t e r i a l i n t h e h i t h e r t o p e r f o r -
med campaigns ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.2.4.2.).

I n N o r t h e r n A f r i c a , h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sand-
stones has so f a r m a i n l y been c a r r i e d o u t i n A l g e r i a and i n s u b o r d i n a t e amounts
a l s o i n L i b y a , Egypt, Sudan, Oman, T u n i s i a , Z a i r e , G u l f o f Guinea and Congo,
w i t h i n most cases o n l y sand h a v i n g been pumped, b u t i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h -
s t r e n g t h proppants a l s o a l r e a d y r e p e a t e d l y having been a p p l i e d . S t i m u l a t i o n i n
t h e f a r t h e r M i d d l e East h i t h e r t o m a i n l y i n c l u d e d I n d i a and P a k i s t a n .

2 . 4 . 4 . Status i n Eastern Europe

I n c o n t r a s t t o Western Europe, t h e d i f f e r e n t economical system i n E a s t e r n Eu-
rope r e s u l t s i n a more o r l e s s independency f r o m t h e o i l p r i c e s c e n a r i o and p a r -
t i a l l y a l s o f r o m t h e US $ exchange r a t e s c e n a r i o which means t h a t b a s i c a l l y t h e
d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n programmes s h o u l d have gone ahead a l s o d u r i n g 1986
t h r o u g h 1988 w i t h o u t m a j o r changes. I n view o f market p e n e t r a t i o n f o r h y d r a u l i c
proppant f r a c t u r i n g , however, t h e E a s t e r n European market ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n
b e i n g Y u g o s l a v i a and p a r t i a l l y a l s o Hungary; c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.3.1. and
2.4.6.2.) i s s e r i o u s l y underdeveloped o r p a r t i a l l y s t i l l v i r t u a l l y unattended
by Western s e r v i c e and p r o p p a n t companies due t o n e g l e c t a n c e o f m a r k e t i n g a c t i -
v i t y i n t h e p a s t when b a s i c a l l y o n l y t h e b i g and u r g e n t demand i n USA and p a r t s
o f Western Europe was s a t i s f i e d by m a r k e t i n g c o n s u l t a n c y and a d v i c i n g as w e l l
as by d e l i v e r y o f m a t e r i a l .

Due t o t h e h i t h e r t o p r e f e r e n t i a l b o t h e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n d r i l l i n g as
w e l l as c o n v e n t i o n a l c o m p l e t i o n and t e s t i n g w i t h o n l y l i t t l e s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i -
ty, t h e E a s t e r n European market i s nowadays s t i l l i n an immature t o submature
stage o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and p a r t i a l l y a l s o g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n con-
t r a s t t o Western Europe w h i c h i s a l r e a d y mature s i n c e many y e a r s , and t o t h e
p a r t i a l l y supermature s i t u a t i o n o f t h e USA e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e golden age o f
s t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e l a t e 1970's and e a r l y 1980's. As a consequence o f t h e i n t e r -
l o c k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p between f o r e i g n t r a d e o f f i c e s and more o r l e s s n a t i o n a l hy-
drocarbon p r o d u c t i o n companies as w e l l as v a r i o u s f i n a n c i a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s , nego-
t i a t i o n and c o n c l u s i o n o f business c o n t r a c t s and a p p l i c a t i o n o f t e c h n o l o g y and
m a t e r i a l t a k e much more t i m e i n E a s t e r n Europe t h a n i n Western Europe. Comments
 204

a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on o i l p r i c e and U S $ exchange r a t e , p o l i t i c a l r e s t r i c -
t i o n s i n t h e p a s t , p r e s e n t s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l and e c o n o m i c a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g ,
s e l f - s e r v i c i n g t r e a t m e n t p o l i c y , e c o n o m i c a l and f i n a n c i a l a s p e c t s , and r e s e r -
v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g and gas s u p p l y a s p e c t s .

2.4.4.1. Oil p r i c e and US $ exchange r a t e

The E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s ( e x c e p t o f t h e USSR) a r e i n t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a -
t i o n o f low o i l prices, i n c r e a s i n g devaluation o f t h e i r c u r r e n c i e s w i t h r e s p e c t
t o U S $, DM and t , and p r o g r e s s i v e i n f l a t i o n more o r l e s s s e v e r e l y f o r c e d t o
i n c r e a s e t h e i r d o m e s t i c o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n b y a l l means, because t h e USSR
has a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) and t h e more o r
l e s s accompanying U S $ exchange r a t e c o l l a p s e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) c u t back
t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f h y d r o c a r b o n s u p p l y t o i t s s a t e l l i t e s (ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL
1985 d, R I G A S S I 1985) due t o i n c r e a s i n g own demand as a s o u r c e o f h a r d c u r r e n c y
b y s a l e t o Western c o u n t r i e s . The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s p r e s e n t s some a s p e c t s o f
e x p o r t o f USSR o i l and gas t o W e s t e r n and E a s t e r n Europe, dependency o f Comecon
c o u n t r i e s on USSR oil and gas, b a r t e r t r a d e v s . h a r d c u r r e n c y s a l e o f o i l and
gas, r o l e o f h y d r o c a r b o n e x p o r t s i n t h e USSR f o r e i g n t r a d e , USSR oil
p r o d u c t i o n , and c u r r e n c y c o n v e r t i b i l i t y and exchange r a t e s .

2.4.4.1.1. Export o f USSR o i l and gas

t o Western and Eastern Europe
The gas coming f r o m t h e g i a n t S i b e r i a n gas f i e l d U r e n g o i and o t h e r s i s t o
l a r g e amounts b r o u g h t i n t r a n s i t t h r o u g h t h e USSR s a t e l l i t e s t a t e s t o W e s t e r n
Europe where i t i s s o l d t o v a r i o u s consumers a g a i n s t h i g h p r i c e s i n h a r d c u r r e n -
c y t h a t were f i x e d b y d e l i v e r y c o n t r a c t s p a r t i a l l y s t i l l d u r i n g t h e t i m e o f
h i g h o i l and gas p r i c e s and t h a t a r e now c e r t a i n l y k e p t v a l i d b y t h e USSR and
a r e backed-up b y r e l i a b l e d e l i v e r y , and o n l y b a l a n c e d and c o r r e s p o n d i n g q u a n t i -
t i e s o f t h e gas a r e d i s t r i b u t e d in t h e E a s t e r n European s a t e l l i t e s o f t h e USSR
(FEHRINGER 1 9 8 6 ) . The USSR 1986 g a s s a l e s t o W e s t e r n E u r o p e amounted t o 1 . 3 9
T c f ( a b t . 35 B i l l . m3), whereas e x p o r t t o t h e s o c i a l i s t i c c o u n t r i e s r e a c h e d
s t i l l 1 . 4 3 T c f ( a b t . 36 B i l l . m3), b u t was a l r e a d y on a marked d e c l i n e ( O I L GAS
JOURNAL 1987 0 ) . A n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r t h e o i l s u p p l y s h o r t a g e o f t h e USSR was
d e c l i n i n g own o i l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e y e a r s 1982 - 1985 (RIGASSI 1 9 8 5 ) , w i t h t h e
c u m u l a t i v e o f f t a k e even f a l l i n g behind t h e g o a l s s e t i n t h e f i v e - y e a r p l a n . I n
1986 when t h e o i l p r i c e c r a s h t o o k p l a c e , o i l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e USSR s t a r t e d t o
i n c r e a s e a g a i n as a consequence o f t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n p o l i -
t i c s ( p e r e s t r o i k a ; GORBATCHEV 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . 3 . 2 . ) and r e a c h e d 1987 a
r e c o r d l e v e l , b u t because l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l o w e r p r i c e s ,
t h e r e s u l t a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e r e m a i n s t h e same, and i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e
h a r d c u r r e n c y income, o i l and gas e x p o r t have t o r i s e f u r t h e r .

E x p o r t o f o i l and g a s a c c o u n t f o r a b t . 60 - 8 0 % o f c o n v e r t i b l e c u r r e n c y e a r -
n i n g o f t h e USSR and t h e r e f o r e have a n o v e r w h e l m i n g i m p o r t a n c e i n f o r e i g n t r a d e
(STERN 1986, AL-CHALABI 1987, GORST 1 9 8 8 ) . T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t :Jf t h e USSR t o g e t
h a r d c u r r e n c y f r o m h y d r o c a r b o n s a l e and t h e l a r g e gas r e s e r v e s w h i c h a r e s u f f i -
c i e n t f o r e v e n d o u b l i n g t h e s u p p l y q u a n t i t i e s t o Western E u r o p e in t h e n e x t
y e a r s a r e t h e reason t h a t t h e r e i s no b a s i s o f f e a r i n g commercial o r s e c u r i t y
r i s k s o f i m p o r t i n g gas o r o i l f r o m t h e USSR w h i c h has n o i n t e r e s t t o e x e r c i s e
economic l e v e r a g e f o r p o l i t i c a l c o n c e s s i o n s . The USSR e x p o r t e d i n 1987 a b t .
12 % and a b t . 3 1 % o f i t s t o t a l gas and o i l p r o d u c t i o n volume, r e s p e c t i v e l y
( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1988 f ) , w i t h gas and o i l r e p r e s e n t i n g a b t . 1 0 % and a b t . 33 %
o f t h e t o t a l v a l u e o f t h e USSR e x p o r t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T o t a l USSR o i l e x p o r t r e a -
ched a r e c o r d h i g h i n 1987 w i t h 3 . 7 M i o . b b l / d ( w i t h t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n a m o u n t i n g
t o 1 2 . 3 - 1 2 . 5 M i o . b b l / d ) , and i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e s t a t e b u d g e t i s r e f l e c -
t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t e v e n i n 1985 when t h e t o t a l o u t p u t f e l l t o t h e u n p r e c e d e n -
t e d l o w o f 1 1 . 9 M i o . b b l / d , t h e e x p o r t volume a c h i e v e d 3 . 4 Mio. b b l / d w h i c h i s
o n l y s l i g h t l y l e s s t h a n t h a t o f t h e r e c o r d y e a r o f 1987 ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1987
 205

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0). The 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h , however, more t h a n compensated t h e i n c r e a s i n g vo-

lume b y t h e c o n s i d e r a b l y d r o p p i n g p r i c e . A f t e r r i s i n g t o 51.6 % i n 1984, t h e
o i l and gas s h a r e i n o v e r a l l v a l u e o f USSR e x p o r t s t o a l l c o u n t r i e s s l i d e d t o
4 9 . 4 % i n 1985 and 43.7 % i n 1986.

2.4.4.1.2. Dependency o f Comecon countries on USSR oil and gas

A t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e , a l l t h e Comecon ( R a t f u r g e g e n s e i t i g e W i r t s c h a f t s -
h i l f e , RGW) c o u n t r i e s a r e d e p e n d i n g t o l a r g e r o r s m a l l e r d e g r e e on t h e USSR i n
t e r m s o f b o t h o i l and g a s s u p p l y (FISCHER 1978), because due t o s h o r t a g e o r
l a c k o f h a r d c u r r e n c y , t h e y c a n n o t a f f o r d t o b u y o i l and gas a t t h e w o r l d mar-
ket, and w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f Romania, a l l t h e s o c i a l i s t i c s a t e l l i t e s o f t h e
USSR c a n n o t c o v e r t h e i r w h o l e own demand b y d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n ,
p i p e l i n e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e does n o t a l l o w t h e s m a l l e r Comecon c o u n t r i e s t o r e -
nounce f r o m t h e s t e a d y d i r e c t s u p p l y f r o m t h e USSR and t o a c c e s s o t h e r s o u r c e s .
D u r i n g t h e l a s t 20 y e a r s , t h e USSR has s u f f i c i e n t l y d e l i v e r e d o i l and gas t o
t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e Comecon c o u n t r i e s and even sometimes s u p p l i e d them w i t h
l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s a t t h e expense o f c u t t i n g e x p o r t s t o t h e West, and o n l y t h e
1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h and t h e accompanying US $ weakness have c r e a t e d a n o t h e r s i -
tuation.

A l l t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d t e c h n i c a l , e c o n o m i c a l and p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e s -
p e c i a l l y t h e l o w e r o i l p r i c e and t h e weaker U S $ w i t h r e s p e c t t o e a r l i e r y e a r s ,
h i g h l i g h t a g a i n t h e f o r c e l a s t i n g on t h e USSR and p a r t i a l l y a l s o t h e o t h e r Eas-
t e r n European c o u n t r i e s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r d o m e s t i c o i l and g a s p r o d u c t i o n b y
a l l p o s s i b l e means (OILMAN 1987 c ) , w i t h s t i m u l a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r s i n e x i s t i n g
f i e l d s b e i n g one o f t h e t o p - p r i o r i t y i t e m s . P a r t i c u l a r e x c e p t i o n s f r o m t h e a f o -
r e m e n t i o n e d s c e n a r i o a r e C z e c h o s l o v a k i a where c o u n t e r t r a d e w i t h t h e USSR i s
s t i l l on a m u t u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t l e v e l , and i n some e x t e n t a l s o t h e GDR w h i c h p r o -
f i t s f r o m s p e c i a l t r a d e a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h t h e FRG and f r o m p a r t i c u l a r l y c l o s e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o t h e USSR, and t a k e s whenever p o s s i b l e a d v a n t a g e o f i t s g e o g r a -
p h i c a l p o s i t i o n a t t h e b o u n d a r y o f t h e two b i g p o l i t i c a l b l o c k s .

2.4.4.1.3. Barter trade vs. hard currency sale o f oil and gas
O i l and gas a r e t h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f h a r d c u r r e n c y f o r t h e USSR (GRIFFITHS
1 9 8 6 ) , and as b o t h o i l p r i c e d r o p and US $ exchange r a t e c o l l a p s e r e s u l t i n l o -
wer n e t r e t u r n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) , t h e l o s s e s have t o be compensated b y
s e l l i n g i n c r e a s i n g amounts o f h y d r o c a r b o n s i n Western c o u n t r i e s w h i c h t o g e t h e r
w i t h an i n c r e a s e d d o m e s t i c demand b y e n l a r g i n g t h e i n d u s t r y i n t h e USSR a r e m i s -
s i n g f o r d e l i v e r y i n t o t h e s o c i a l i s t i c s a t e l l i t e s t a t e s on b a r t e r - t r a d e b a s i s .
I n a d d i t i o n , many o f t h e E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s v i r t u a l l y f a c e b a n k r u p t c y
and a r e no l o n g e r a b l e t o p u r c h a s e even f r o m t h e USSR w h i c h in t h e p r e s e n t gene-
r a l e c o n o m i c a l s c e n a r i o i n t u r n i s no l o n g e r w i l l i n g t o s u p p l y f r e e o f c h a r g e
o r even o n c r e d i t .

I n s t e a d o f b a r t e r i n g w i t h t h e USSR, t h e s a t e l l i t e c o u n t r i e s a r e t h e i r s e l v e s
more and more f o r c e d t o g e t a c c e s s t o h a r d c u r r e n c y by s e l l i n g w h a t e v e r p o s -
s i b l e i n t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d , and t h e USSR does t h e same w i t h p r o d u c t s f o r m e r l y
d e l i v e r e d on exchange b a s i s t o i t s g r o u p members. On t h e o t h e r hand, however,
t h e USSR has t o m a i n t a i n o i l e x p o r t s t o i t s s a t e l l i t e c o u n t r i e s a t a r e a s o n a b l e
l e v e l f o r b o t h p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l r e a s o n s , because t h i s e n a b l e s t h e USSR
t o o b t a i n p r o d u c t s on b a r t e r l e v e l t h a t i t o t h e r w i s e w o u l d have t o p u r c h a s e f o r
US $ on t h e w o r l d m a r k e t , and p e r m i t s t h e s a t e l l i t e s t o a v o i d a f u r t h e r in-
c r e a s e o f t h e i r a l r e a d y tremendous d e b t i n h a r d c u r r e n c y (RIGASSI 1 9 8 5 ) .

The m o s t p r o n o u n c e d example o f b a r t e r i n g i s t h e p u r c h a s e o f Romanian d r i l -

l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n e q u i p m e n t w h i c h i s p a i d b y o i l and gas d e l i v e r i e s ( O I L GAS
JOURNAL 1987 1, R I G A S S I 1 9 8 6 ) . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s b a r t e r t r a d e o f e q u i p -
ment v s . h y d r o c a r b o n s i s u n d e r l i n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e p e r i o d 1 9 8 1 - 1987,
 207

Romania accounted f o r 43 - 50 % o f t h e USSR's t o t a l i m p o r t s o f o i l and gas

f i e l d equipment which comprise c h i e f l y heavy d r i l l i n g r i g s , b u t a l s o substan-
t i a l amounts o f c o m p l e t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n equipment. The steady i n c r e a s e o f i m -
p o r t l e v e l f r o m Romania i n t h e l a s t y e a r s went p a r a l l e l t o t h e d e c l i n i n g o i l
p r i c e t h a t had t h e consequence o f more and more c u t t i n g equipment i m p o r t q u a n t i -
t i e s f r o m Western Europe and Japan ( t h o s e f r o m t h e USA were i n d e p e n d e n t l y
s l a s h e d by t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s on s t r a t e g i c s a l e s ; c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.4.2.) by r a t e s
O f 50 - 80 %.

2.4.4.1.4. Role o f hydrocarbon exports i n the USSR f o r e i g n trade

The s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e o f o i l e x p o r t s i n t h e o v e r a l l USSR balance o f payments
i s a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d by CHAOWICK, LONG & NISSANKE (1988), whereas GORST (1985)
o u t l i n e s t h e p e r s i s t e n t s h o r t a g e o f o i l i n t h e E a s t e r n European s a t e l l i t e coun-
t r i e s due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t d e l i v e r y volumes coming f r o m t h e USSR. The s i t u a t i o n
o f p a s t and p r e s e n t domestic p r o d u c t i o n , e x p o r t p o t e n t i a l and i m p o r t r e q u i r e -
ments i n USSR and o t h e r E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s i s summarized by OILMAN
(1987 c ) and ORASIANU ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

The 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h was t h e reason t h a t f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e s i n c e 40

years, t h e v a l u e o f t h e t o t a l f o r e i g n t r a d e o f t h e USSR s l a s h e d by a b t . 10 %,
w i t h most o f t h e drop stemming f r o m lower o i l and gas p r i c e s ( O I L GAS JOURNAL
1987 h, 1987 1 ) . A t t h e bottom o f t h e l i n e , however, i n 1986 reduced e x p o r t s t o
Western Europe and o t h e r w o r l d market c o u n t r i e s accounted f o r t h e e n t i r e de-
c l i n e i n t h e USSR f o r e i g n t r a d e value, whereas t h e USSR t r a d e w i t h t h e s o c i a l i s -
t i c s a t e l l i t e s c o n t i n u e d i t s steady i n c r e a s e i n 1986. The reason f o r t h i s con-
s t e l l a t i o n i s t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l phase f r o m h i g h t o low o i l p r i c e s which was o f
d i f f e r e n t d u r a t i o n i n Western and E a s t e r n Europe. W h i l e e x p o r t s t o Western Eu-
rope ( m a i n l y t o Germany FRG) were r a p i d l y reduced because t h e low o i l p r i c e a f -
t e r t h e c r a s h was a t once v a l i d t h e r e , agreements w i t h i t s s o c i a l i s t i c s a t e l l i -
t e s t o base t h e t r a d e on average w o r l d p r i c e s d u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s f i v e y e a r s
( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o p l a n p e r i o d s ) r a t h e r than c u r r e n t w o r l d p r i c e s enabled t h e
USSR t o make s t i l l c o m p a r a t i v e l y more p r o f i t f r o m e i t h e r s e l l i n g o r b a r t e r i n g
w i t h o t h e r E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s i n a p r o l o n g e d t r a n s i t i o n a l phase which,
however, as a consequence o f p e r s i s t i n g r e l a t i v e l y low o i l p r i c e s u n t i l t h e end
o f 1988 and beyond, i s c e r t a i n l y soon coming t o an end.

2.4.4.1.5. USSR o i l production

I n 1987, t h e annual p l a n q u a n t i t y of o i l p r o d u c t i o n was f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e
s i n c e 9 y e a r s n o t o n l y met, b u t a l s o exceeded (RIGASSI 1986, 1987), and b e n e f i -
t i n g f r o m t h i s , o i l e x p o r t volume r o s e t o a r e c o r d l e v e l , b u t on t h e o t h e r
hand, lower o i l p r i c e , i n c r e a s i n g e x p l o r a t i o n c o s t s and weaker US $ have i n t h e
meantime eroded t h e p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f energy t r a d i n g (GORST 1988). C a l c u l a t i n g
on g l o b a l l e v e l , 1987 has b r o u g h t t h e USSR t o t h e second p l a c e a f t e r Saudi Ara-
b i a i n t h e w o r l d league o f o i l e x p o r t i n g c o u n t r i e s . D e s p i t e gloomy f o r e c a s t s
f o l l o w i n g a two-year d e c l i n e i n o u t p u t i n 1984 and 1985 and t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n
phase i n 1986, o v e r s h o o t i n g o f t h e t a r g e t q u a n t i t y f o r 1987 was e s t a b l i s h e d so
w e l l t h a t t h e lower range o f t h e 1990 p r o d u c t i o n goal has a l r e a d y been almost
reached.

T h i s again u n d e r l i n e s t h e n e c e s s i t y o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h i s l e v e l and even

expansion o f c a p a c i t y i n t h e n e x t y e a r s which c e r t a i n l y has t o i n c l u d e a reaso-
n a b l e amount o f s t i m u l a t i o n . The s u c c e s s f u l achievement o f t h e r e c o r d e x p l o i t a -
t i o n l e v e l a l s o h i g h l i g h t s t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e p o l i t i c a l and economical r e o r -
g a n i z a t i o n ( p e r e s t r o i k a ; GORBATCHEV 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . 3 . ) which l e d t o ma-
j o r improvements a l r e a d y i n a s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e . The e v o l u t i o n o f o i l produc-
t i o n i n t h e USSR d u r i n g t h e l a s t decade i s summarized i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f meet-
i n g and o v e r s h o o t i n g o f p l a n f o r e c a s t , impact o f r e c o r d p r o d u c t i o n f o r o i l ex-
p o r t s , and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Western S i b e r i a share.
 208

2.4.4.1.5.1.Meeting and overshooting of plan forecast

O i l p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l o f t h e USSR i n t h e l a s t y e a r s peaked a t 12.4 M i o . b b l / d
i n l a t e 1982 and then g r a d u a l l y decreased v i a 12.3 i n 1983 and 12.2 i n 1984 t o
11.9 i n 1985, b u t then as a consequence o f t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f economical and
t e c h n i c a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( p e r e s t r o i k a ; GORBATCHEV 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.4.3.)
s t a r t e d t o r i s e v i a 12.3 i n 1986 and 1 2 . 3 - 12.5 i n 1987 t o t h e r e c o r d o f
12.4 - 1 2 . 8 i n 1988, w i t h t h e p l a n f o r e c a s t o f 12.8 i n 1990 t h u s b e i n g a l r e a d y
touched ( R I G A S S I 1986, 1 9 8 7 ) . T h i s o v e r s h o o t i n g o f t h e p l a n t a r g e t t e r m i n a t e d
an almost f i f t e e n y e a r p e r i o d o f annual f a l l i n g s h o r t o f t h e p l a n g o a l , opens
t h e way t o f u r t h e r economical and t e c h n i c a l improvement o f o i l e x p l o i t a t i o n and
supply, and u n d e r l i n e s t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g concept. I t i s p l a n -
ned t o f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d a i l y o i l p r o d u c t i o n t o a b t . 13.0 - 13.5 M i o . b b l b y
t h e y e a r 2000 ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1987 0 ) and due t o t h e r e c o r d p r o d u c t i o n o f
1986 - 1988, i t i s almost w i t h o u t doubt t h a t t h e p l a n goal o f 12.8 M i o . b b l f o r
1990 w i l l be met.

2.4.4.1.5.2. Impact of record production for oil exports

The r e c o r d annual o i l p r o d u c t i o n o f 624.2 Mio. t i n 1987 (ERDOL-ERDGAS-KOHLE
NACHRICHTEN 1988 b) enabled t h e USSR t o become t h e most i m p o r t a n t o i l s u p p l i e r
f o r t h e European Economic Community (EEC) group i n 1987 and t o i n c r e a s e i t s mar-
k e t share w i t h r e s p e c t t o 1986 c o n s i d e r a b l y a t t h e expense o f t h a t o f t h e OPEC
and p a r t i c u l a r l y Saudi A r a b i a (ERDOL-ERDGAS-KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1988 a ) . W h i l e i n
1986 t h e EEC n e t o i l i m p o r t s amounted t o 355.5 M i o . t o f which 33.4 M i o . t o r
9.4 % d e r i v e d f r o m t h e USSR, 71.3 M i o . t o r 20.1 % came f r o m Saudi A r a b i a and
246.1 Mio. t o r 69.2 % were d e l i v e r e d by t h e OPEC i n t o t a l , t h e t r e n d was com-
p l e t e l y r e v e r s e d i n 1987 when t h e 346.9 Mio. t o f n e t o i l i m p o r t s were covered
by 41.1 Mio. t o r 11.8 % by t h e USSR, 39.3 Mio. t o r 11.3 % by Saudi A r a b i a ,
and 212.8 M i o . t o r 61.3 % by t h e OPEC i n t o t a l .

2.4.4.1.5.3. Significance of Western Siberia share

Western S i b e r i a c u r r e n t l y accounts f o r more than 60 % o f t h e t o t a l USSR o i l
o u t p u t . The s u p e r g i a n t o i l f i e l d Samotlor i s t h e second l a r g e s t i n t h e w o r l d
and has a l r e a d y produced n e a r l y 20 B i l l . b b l o f o i l ( R I G A S S I 1986). O t h e r Wes-
t e r n S i b e r i a n s u p e r g i a n t s a r e Fedorovo and Mamontovo ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1987 0 ) .
Western S i b e r i a p r o v i d e d a b t . 30 % o f t h e USSR o i l o u t p u t i n 1975, and s i n c e
then t h e share o f t h e area p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s e d v i a 52 % i n 1980 and 6 1 % i n
1985 t o 64 % i n 1987, w i t h e s t i m a t i o n s p r e d i c t i n g a f u r t h e r r i s e t o a b t . 75 %
i n 2000. Assessments document t h a t p r o b a b l y o n l y some 30 % o f t h e u l t i m a t e geo-
l o g i c a l o i l r e s o u r c e s have been found so f a r i n t h e USSR, and c u r r e n t proven
and h i g h l y p r o b a b l e r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s r e a c h a b t . 100 B i l l . b b l ( e x c l u d i n g ad-
d i t i o n a l r e s e r v e s t h a t can be produced by enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y t e c h n i q u e s ) ,
w i t h two t h i r d s o f a l l t h e known r e s e r v e s b e i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d i n Western S i b e r i a
(RIGASSI 1987).

2.4.4.1.6. Currency convertibility and exchange rates

The USSR has a s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n i n t h e w o r l d economical system, as t h e
agreed o r f i x e d exchange r a t e s between t h e n o n - c o n v e r t i b l e r o u b l e and t h e con-
v e r t i b l e US $, DM and t remain more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t d e s p i t e any m i n o r o r m a j o r
a l t e r a t i o n s o f exchange r a t e s among Western c u r r e n c i e s and o t h e r E a s t e r n
European c u r r e n c i e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e USSR i s t h e o n l y E a s t e r n European c o u n t r y
which can buy goods i n almost u n l i m i t e d q u a n t i t y and w i t h o u t u n f a v o u r a b l e r e -
s t r i c t i o n s o f t i m i n g a g a i n s t h a r d c u r r e n c y t h a t can be p a i d w i t h o u t any p r o -
blems once Western m a t e r i a l , equipment o r t e c h n o l o g y i s u r g e n t l y needed. The
 209

o n l y c o m p l i c a t i o n i s t h e e a r l y budget f i x a t i o n i n t h e f i v e - y e a r p l a n s which ma-

kes m a j o r changes and s h i f t s d u r i n g r u n n i n g p l a n p e r i o d s d i f f i c u l t u n l e s s sup-
p o r t e d by e x c e p t i o n a l unforeseen s i t u a t i o n s and backed-up on a h i g h p o l i t i c a l
and t e c h n i c a l l e v e l .

2.4.4.2. Political restrictions in the past

The impact o f p o l i t i c a l r e s t r i c t i o n s i n t h e p a s t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d i s c u s -
s i n g t h e USA p e t r o l e u m equipment s u p p l y embargo 1978 - 1987 and t h e s t a t u s
a f t e r l i q u i d a t i o n o f the f o r e i g n trade sanctions.

2.4.4.2.1. USA petroleum equipment supply embargo 1978 - 1987

The m a r k e t i n g and s a l e s p o t e n t i a l f o r Western s e r v i c e and p r o p p a n t companies
i n t h e USSR was u n t i l r e c e n t l y s e r i o u s l y d i s t u r b e d by t h e f o r e i g n t r a d e p o l i c y
s a n c t i o n s enacted by P r e s i d e n t C a r t e r i n 1978 and l a t e r i s s u e d i n even more se-
r i o u s f o r m i n l a t e 1 9 7 9 / e a r l y 1980 and l a t e 1 9 8 1 / e a r l y 1982 ( O I L GAS JOURNAL
1987 p) w h i c h p r a c t i c a l l y n e a r l y c o m p l e t e l y stopped e x p o r t s o f p e t r o l e u m e q u i p -
ment f r o m t h e USA t o t h e USSR f o r almost t e n y e a r s . The s a n c t i o n s have o n l y
been removed by P r e s i d e n t Reagan i n e a r l y 1987 t o a d j u s t t o t h e f a c t t h a t USA
companies no l o n g e r c l e a r l y dominate t h e w o r l d market i n o i l - f i e l d equipment,
b u t comparable m a t e r i a l c o u l d now be purchased by t h e USSR f r o m a l l around t h e
w o r l d and e s p e c i a l l y f r o m Europe and Japan (COTTRILL 1987, ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE
NACHRICHTEN 1987 a, LANDERS 1987, OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987 i ) , w i t h a t t h e b o t t o m
o f t h e l i n e t h e USA h a v i n g l o s t tremendous business o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o competi-
t o r s i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d r a t h e r than a c h i e v i n g t h e goal o f t h e embargo
t o h u r t t h e USSR by h i n d e r i n g t h e growth o f i t s hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y .

Due t o t h e widespread f o r e i g n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f p r o d u c t s o f comparable techno-

l o g y l e v e l p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Europe and Japan, t h e American s a n c t i o n s on hydro-
carbon equipment and t e c h n o l o g y had t o t a l l y l o s t t h e i r impact, and i n a d d i t i o n
t o t h e t e c h n i c a l nonsense, t h e y had a s i g n i f i c a n t d e b i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t on t h e
American p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y by r e s u l t i n g i n a b t . 2 B i l l . US $ business l o s s du-
r i n g t h e t i m e o f t h e embargo (OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987 i ) . Trade s a n c t i o n s , how-
ever, s t i l l a p p l y f o r computer technology, advanced s e i s m i c p r o d u c t s , and h i g h -
p r e s s u r e equipment i n c l u d i n g s t i m u l a t i o n pumps (RIGASSI 1987).

2.4.4.2.2. Status after liquidation of foreign policy sanctions

As t h e e a r l y 1987 o i l f i e l d s a n c t i o n s l i f t , however, took p l a c e a f t e r c o n c l u -
s i o n o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e new f i v e - y e a r p l a n (1986 - 1990), t h e renewed
m a r k e t i n g approach t o t h e USSR by f o r e i g n companies may a p a r t f r o m some excep-
t i o n s t a k e more t i m e t h a n u s u a l l y expected, b u t t h i s i s no reason f o r any de-
l a y , because t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s and n e g o t i a t i o n s should p r e f e r a b l y be concluded
e a r l y enough p r i o r t o t h e f i n a l d e c i s i o n s on t h e budget and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
expenses f o r t h e n e x t f i v e - y e a r p l a n , t h u s r e s u l t i n g f o r t h e USA a t t h e b o t t o m
of t h e l i n e i n a n o t h e r s e r i o u s business loss t o European and Japanese competi-
t i o n . T h e r e f o r e t h e u l t i m a t e r e l a x a t i o n o f t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s may have a r r i v e d
t o o l a t e f o r many American companies ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1987 p ) , and r e g a i n i n g o f
l o s t market shares i s even c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e USA f o r e i g n
p o l i c y which a t any t i m e c o u l d r e v e r t back t o s a n c t i o n s , and t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e
USSR t o become s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t i n o i l and gas t e c h n o l o g y r e q u i r e m e n t s .

The p r e s e n t l y tremendous demand o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n as a v i a b l e

t o o l o f i n c r e a s i n g o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e USSR became v e r y p r o m i n e n t du-
r i n g t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o i l and gas e x h i b i t i o n i n Moscow i n October 1987 ( N e f -
tegaz; COTTRILL 1987) which was t h e f i r s t m a j o r stage o f u n l i m i t e d c o n v e r s a t i o n
on a l l aspects a f t e r l i f t i n g o f t h e American o i l - f i e l d embargo and which was
c o n s e q u e n t l y used by t h e S o v i e t s t o express t h e i r enormous i n t e r e s t i n coope-
 210

r a t i o n w i t h W e s t e r n companies on t h e base o f m u t u a l b e n e f i t . P a r t i c u l a r i n t e -
r e s t o f A m e r i c a n and W e s t e r n European companies aimed o n t h e o f f s h o r e m a r k e t i n
t h e USSR w h i c h has a b t . one f i f t h o f t h e w o r l d ' s e n t i r e c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l v e s ,
b u t has so f a r n o t v e r y much d e v e l o p e d o f f s h o r e a c t i v i t y (COTTRILL 1987; c f .
a l s o section 2.4.4.5.5.).

2.4.4.3. Present stimulation potential

and economical restructuring
H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a r i t f r a c t u r i n g in E a s t e r n Europe ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f JUGO-
SLAWIA) i n c l u d e d s o f a r m a i n l y s m a l l - t o m e d i u m - s i z e j o b s t h a t w e r e c a r r i e d o u t
w i t h n a t u r a l sand as a p r o p p i n g a g e n t and w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y R u s s i a n o r Roma-
n i a n e q u i p m e n t i n own s e r v i c e ( s u c h j o b s have p a r t i c u l a r l y been done i n Hun-
g a r y , P o l a n d , Germany GDR and t h e USSR, and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o in C z e c h o s l o -
v a k i a and Romania, b u t have so f a r n o t been p e r f o r m e d i n B u l g a r i a and A l b a n i a ) .
The o v e r v i e w as f o l l o w s i l l u m i n a t e s some a s p e c t s o f s u p p l y o f s y n t h e t i c h i g h -
q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t s , p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n , and h y d r o c a r b o n p r o -
d u c t i o n g o a l s o f t h e f i v e - y e a r p l a n . D i f f e r e n c e s i n d r i l l i n g a c t i v i t y i n Wes-
t e r n and E a s t e r n E u r o p e a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d .

2.4.4.3.1. Supply o f synthetic high-quality proppants

D o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s
i s h i t h e r t o l i m i t e d t o m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f v e r y s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s i n H u n g a r y as a
b y - p r o d u c t i n aluminum i n d u s t r y ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) . As a consequence
o f t h e u r g e n t need o f t h e USSR t o o b t a i n h a r d c u r r e n c y b y p e t r o l e u m s a l e i n t h e
West and t h e n e c e s s i t y o f i n c r e a s i n g d o m e s t i c s u p p l y o f o i l and gas i n t h e sa-
t e l l i t e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e USSR, s t i m u l a t i o n b y b o t h a c i d i z i n g and h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g is c o n s i d e r e d t o have a g r e a t p o t e n t i a l i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e i n t h e coming
y e a r s , w i t h s u p p l y o f s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s and e q u i p m e n t a n d / o r s e r v i c e f r o m Wes-
t e r n c o u n t r i e s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 2 . 4 . 5 . 5 . 3 . and 2 . 4 . 6 . 3 . 2 . ) b e i n g i n d i s p e n -
s i b l e f o r a c h i e v i n g t h e g o a l o f a c c e l e r a t i o n o f own h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n i n
t h e E a s t e r n European s t a t e s .

2.4.4.3.2. Pol it ica 1 and economica 1 reorganization

Acceleration, r e s t r u c t u r i n g and t r a n s p a r e n c y a r e t h e c u r r e n t t o p g u i d e l i n e s
of t h e USSR b o t h d o m e s t i c and f o r e i g n p o l i c y ( u s k o r e n i e , p e r e s t r o i k a and g l a s -
n o s t ; GORBATCHEV 1987) w h i c h c e r t a i n l y w i l l be s o o n e r o r l a t e r t r a n s f e r r e d a l s o
t o the s a t e l l i t e countries, w i t h the only question being the actual timing o f
t h e i d e o l o g i c a l t r a n s f e r . Due t o t h e i r v a l i d i t y i n a l l b r a n c h e s o f t h e economi-
c a l and p o l i t i c a l systems, t h e g u i d e s l o g a n s o f a c c e l e r a t i o n , r e s t r u c t u r i n g and
t r a n s p a r e n c y t h u s a l s o a p p l y f o r o i l and gas i n d u s t r y d e v e l o p m e n t , w i t h enhance-
ment o f h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n h a v i n g p r e s e n t l y p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h p r i o r i t y .
W h i l e r e s t r u c t u r i n g i s t h e m a j o r g o a l o f improvement o f t h e p o l i t i c a l system,
s p e e d i n g - u p i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o enhance t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e o i l and gas i n -
d u s t r y t o e n a b l e f a s t e r access t o known p o t e n t i a l b y b o t h i n c r e a s i n g r e s e r v e s
and a c c e l e r a t i n g o f f t a k e , and t r a n s p a r e n c y i s a t o p i t e m f o r a m e l i o r a t i o n o f
t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n b y g u a r a n t e i n g b e t t e r d o m e s t i c and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
c o m m u n i c a t i o n and exchange and t h u s f a c i l i t a t i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

2.4.4.3.3. Hydrocarbon production goals of the five-year plan

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e new USSR f i v e - y e a r p l a n (1986 - 1 9 9 0 ) , o i l c o n s u m p t i o n
s h o u l d be d e c r e a s e d and o i l i s t o be r e p l a c e d in i n c r e a s i n g amounts b y g a s
w h i c h means i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of n a t u r a l as p r o d u c t i o n t h a t i s c e r t a i n l y i n c l u -
d i n g q u i t e some s t i m u l a t i o n (ERDOEL-FRDGAS AKTUELL 1985 b, ERDOL-ERDGAS-KOHLE
NACHRICHTEN 1986 a ) . F u r t h e r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i m p e t u s
 211

can be expected f r o m t h e r e c e n t u n s a t i s f y i n g o i l p r o d u c t i o n which lagged b e h i n d

t h e commitments i n t h e l a s t f i v e - y e a r p l a n (1980 - 1985; EBEL 1986, ERDUL-ERO-
GAS-KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1986 a; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 2.4.4.1.5.), and t h e r e f o r e some-
t h i n g has t o be done t o compensate t h e b a c k l o g by c o n t i n u o u s l y m e e t i n g t h e goal
a t t h e end o f t h e c u r r e n t f i v e - y e a r p l a n by i n c r e a s i n g o u t p u t f r o m e x i s t i n g
f i e l d s i n a d d i t i o n t o new d i s c o v e r i e s and a p p r a i s a l s . Another i n d i c a t o r o f t h e
enormous s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l i s t h e r e t a r d a t i o n o f f i e l d development which i s
h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e USSR i s one o f t h e o l d e s t o i l - p r o d u -
c i n g c o u n t r i e s i n t h e w o r l d , o v e r 70 % o f t h e c u r r e n t o u t p u t comes f r o m o n l y
5 % o f t h e d e p o s i t s (ORASIANU 1987).

I n 1987, f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e s i n c e 9 y e a r s t h e planned annual o i l p r o d u c t i o n

volume had been f u l f i l l e d and even exceeded (RIGASSI 1986, 1987) and a r e c o r d
i n e x p l o i t a t i o n was set, w i t h now t h e emphasis b e i n g on s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h i s
l e v e l so t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s can be d i v e r t e d f o r e x p o r t t o Western Eu-
rope (OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987 1, ORASIANU 1987, GORST 1988). I n 1987 and 1988, t h e
r e c o r d o i l p r o d u c t i o n reached 1 2 . 4 - 12.8 Mio b b l / d (FUEG 1988; c f . s e c t i o n
2 . 4 . 4 . 1 . 5 . ) . CHADWICK, LONG & NISSANKE (1988) g i v e an overview o f USSR o i l ex-
p o r t s and a s s o c i a t e d t r a d e adjustments, r e f i n i n g c o n s t r a i n t s and market beha-
v i o u r , as w e l l as s u b s t i t u t i o n o f o i l by gas as a consequence o f backlogs i n
o i l e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n . Past, p r e s e n t and f u t u r e o i l p r o d u c t i o n v o l u -
mes and p o t e n t i a l s o f t h e USSR a r e summarized by ORASIANU ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

2.4.4.3.4. Differences in drilling activity

in Western and Eastern Europe after the 1986 oil price crash
The p a r t i a l independence o f t h e USSR f r o m t h e w o r l d market and i t s e f f o r t s
t o a m e l i o r a t e hydrocarbon s u p p l y s e c u r i t y a r e u n d e r l i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t i n
c o n t r a s t t o c o n s i d e r a b l e budget c u t t i n g i n t h e western hemisphere f o r d r i l l i n g
and c o m p l e t i o n and r e s u l t i n g s e r i o u s l y l e s s e x p l o r a t i o n and development a c t i v i -
t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o o r i g i n a l p l a n s b e f o r e t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e crash, t h e USSR has
i n 1986 even stepped up d r i l l i n g i n o r d e r t o r a p i d l y r e p l a c e m a t u r i n g o i l p r o -
d u c t i o n f r o m p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e p l e t e d f i e l d s (OIL GAS JOURNAL 1986). Because o f
i t s r o l e as an overwhelming source o r h a r d c u r r e n c y , p e t r o l e u m development com-
mands t o p p r i o r i t y i n t h e USSR a l s o a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e drop, whereas a t
t h e same t i m e i n t h e USA, p e t r o l e u m has f a l l e n t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e governmen-
t a l p r i o r i t y l i s t (KINNEY 1987). W h i l e o p e r a t o r s i n USA and Western Europe a r e
r e l u c t a n t t o i n v e s t money i n new p r o j e c t s , t h e USSR has boosted i t s e f f o r t s t o
s u s t a i n and expand o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n and e x p o r t s . The l o g i c a l r e s u l t o f
these enormous e f f o r t s r e g a r d l e s s o f economical c o n s t e l l a t i o n s have been t h e
overpassing o f t h e p l a n goal f o r t h e annual o i l p r o d u c t i o n q u a n t i t y i n 1987
w i t h b r e a k i n g t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n r e c o r d so pronouncedly t h a t o i l e x p o r t s reached
a maximum (RIGASSI 1987, GORST 1988). I n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n o r even i n c r e a s e
t h i s f a v o u r a b l e c o n s t e l l a t i o n , i t i s planned t o exceed t h e e x p l o r a t i o n and ap-
p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g budget volume o f t h e p e r i o d 1981 - 1985 by a b t . 40 % i n 1986 -
1990 (RIGASSI 1986).

2.4.4.4. Self-servicing treatment pol icy

Concerning m a r k e t i n g approach f o r s t i m u l a t i o n and o t h e r s e r v i c e s , t h e d i f f e -
r e n t l o g i s t i c a l and f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n between Western and E a s t e r n Europe r e -
s u l t s i n a d i f f e r e n t s t r a t e g y o f t r e a t m e n t o p e r a t i o n . W h i l e i n Western Europe
and v a r i o u s o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n companies commonly
ask e s t a b l i s h e d s e r v i c e companies o f m a i n l y N o r t h American provenance t o c a r r y
o u t t h e whole s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s i n c l u d i n g s u p p l y o f a l l t h e mechanical and che-
m i c a l a d d i t i v e s f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n ( c f . a l s o PRAST 1980), i n E a s t e r n Europe t h e
p r o d u c t i o n companies o f t e n p r e f e r t o buy t h e i r own equipment, t o purchase most
o r a l l o f t h e m a t e r i a l d i r e c t l y and t o do t h e j o b s w i t h o u t t h e s u p p o r t o f We-
s t e r n s e r v i c e companies a f t e r p r o b a b l y a few i n t r o d u c t o r y , t r a i n i n g o r p i l o t
t r e a t m e n t s ( e x c e p t i o n s o f t h i s a t t i t u d e a r e up t o now t h e MHF o p e r a t i o n s i n Yu-
 212

g o s l a v i a and t o a l e s s e r amount a l s o i n Hungary on t h e o t h e r s i d e o f the state

boundary).

While t h e s e l f - s e r v i c i n g s t r a t e g y s o f a r m a i n l y i n c l u d e d performance o f smal-

l e r f r a c t u r i n g j o b s w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y Russian o r Romanian equipment, several
E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y Yugoslavia, s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o Poland
and USSR) a r e i n t e n d i n g t o c a r r y o u t a l s o b i g g e r t r e a t m e n t s t h e i r s e l v e s w i t h
h i g h - p r e s s u r e equipment which t h e y a r e g o i n g t o buy i n t h e west. The b u s i n e s s
o f Western s e r v i c e and s u p p l y companies i n E a s t e r n Europe i s t h e r e f o r e i n many
areas r e s t r i c t e d t o d e l i v e r y o f proppants, f l u i d s , a d d i t i v e s and o t h e r chemi-
c a l s , w i t h o n l y i n some r e g i o n s a l s o i n c l u d i n g i n t r o d u c t o r y s e r v i c e , training,
s u p e r v i s i o n and a d v i c e .

2.4.4.5. Economical and financial aspects

I n terms o f economical systems and f i n a n c i a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s , d i f f e r e n c e s have
t o be made between t h e i n d i v i d u a l E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s . Comments a r e o f -
f e r e d on w o r l d bank c r e d i t s f o r Yugoslavia, Hungary, Poland and Romania; e x p o r t
revenues i n Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Germany GDR and B u l g a r i a ; h a r d c u r r e n c y
a c q u i s i t i o n o f USSR and Germany GDR, p o l i t i c a l and economical r e o r g a n i z a t i o n
and j o i n t v e n t u r e s .

2.4.4.5.1. World Bank credits for

Yugoslavia, Hungary, Poland and Romania
The f i r s t group o f E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d e s Y u g o s l a v i a , Hungary,
Poland and Romania which a r e members of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Monetary Fund and
thus a r e a b l e t o o b t a i n c r e d i t s f r o m t h e World Bank i n US $ ( c f . a l s o R I G A S S I
1985, 1986; SAUNDERS & S H I R A Z I 1986) f o r expansion o f domestic hydrocarbon p r o -
d u c t i o n by d r i l l i n g , t e s t i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n . World Bank P e t r o l e u m P r o j e c t s i n -
c l u d i n g c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h Western s e r v i c e and s u p p l y companies a r e a l r e a d y r u n -
n i n g i n Y u g o s l a v i a and Hungary ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.3.1. and 2.4.6.2.) and a r e c o -
o r d i n a t e d by t h e n a t i o n a l f o r e i g n t r a d e o f f i c e s . Poland and Romania a r e a t t h e
moment p r e p a r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r World Bank sponsorship o r a r e a l r e a d y i n t h e
stage o f n e g o t i a t i o n on amount and t i m i n g o f f u n d i n g .

2.4.4.5.2. Export revenues in Yugoslavia,

Czechoslovakia, Germany GDR and Bulgaria
O t h e r E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s c o m p r i s i n g m a i n l y Yugoslavia, Czechoslova-
k i a , Germany GDR and B u l g a r i a have s u f f i c i e n t income o f h a r d c u r r e n c y f r o m h i g h
e x p o r t volumes o f v a r i o u s goods and s e r v i c e s t o be independent f r o m World Bank
C r e d i t s and t o be a b l e t o f i n a n c e p e t r o l e u m d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n themsel-
ves. The most pronounced example o f t h i s c a t e g o r y so f a r was t h e MHF campaign
i n Y u g o s l a v i a in 1986 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.3.1.) w h i c h was performed w i t h o u t any
s u p p o r t by t h e World Bank and w h i c h i s c o n t i n u e d in 198711988 i n a d d i t i o n t o an
independent World-Bank-sponsored a c t i o n b e i n g p a r t o f a l a r g e r p e t r o l e u m p r o -
ject.

2.4.4.5.3. Hard currency acquisition o f USSR and Germany GDR

Hard c u r r e n c y f o r payment o f m a t e r i a l , equipment and s e r v i c e which c a n n o t be
purchased i n E a s t e r n Europe and which a r e i n d i s p e n s i b l e f o r t h e decided techno-
l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s and t h e achievement o f t h e s e t g o a l s o f economical p l a n n i n g i s
p r i n c i p a l l y no problem f o r USSR and Germany GDR. The USSR i s p r o f i t i n g f r o m l a r -
ge incomes f r o m e x p o r t o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y gas and o i l ( t h e r o l e o f n a t u r a l gas i n
t h e e a s t - w e s t energy t r a d e i n Europe i s o u t l i n e d by D'ANDREA 1987; c f . a l s o sec-
 213

t i o n 2.2.1.6.3.). Other USSR c o n v e r t i b l e money sources a r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a n d

and sea c a r g o and passenger s e r v i c e and e x p o r t o f v a r i o u s o t h e r goods, and t h e
GDR i s making c o n s i d e r a b l e advantages f r o m t h e p r e f e r e n t i a l t r a d e w i t h t h e FRG
a t s p e c i a l b i l a t e r a l c o n d i t i o n s as w e l l as t a k i n g f e e s f r o m t r a n s i t t r a v e l , ob-
l i g a t o r y exchange a t an expensive a r t i f i c i a l r a t e f r o m f o r e i g n c i t i z e n s coming
t o t h e c o u n t r y as v i s i t o r s as w e l l as p a r t i c i p a n t s i n conferences, f a i r s and ex-
h i b i t i o n s . To a l e s s e r amount, almost t h e same a p p l i e s f o r Romania and B u l g a r i a
which a r e b o t h w o r k i n g as d r i l l i n g c o n t r a c t o r s abroad, w i t h Romania a l s o e x t e n -
s i v e l y r e b u i l d i n g Western o i l - f i e l d equipment and s e l l i n g i t w i t h i n E a s t e r n Eu-
rope f o r c e r t a i n l y dumping p r i c e s , b u t f o r e x c l u s i v e l y h a r d c u r r e n c y o r a l s o
b a r t e r t r a d e o f goods which i t o t h e r w i s e would have t o purchase f o r much money
on t h e open w o r l d market.

2.4.4.5.4. Pol it ica 1 and economical reorganizat ion

The p o l i t i c a l and economical r e o r g a n i z a t i o n which i s assessed t o be t h e se-
cond r e v o l u t i o n i n t h e USSR (GORBATCHEV 1987) i s b r i e f l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d a l o n g
t h e g u i d e l i n e s o f r e s t r u c t u r i n g , t r a n s p a r e n c y and a c c e l e r a t i o n ( p e r e s t r o i k a ,
g l a s n o s t and u s k o r e n i e ) , and t h e mutual b e n e f i t f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n
i s also stressed.

2.4.4.5.4.1. Restructuring, transparency, acceleration

(perestroika, glasnost, uskorenie)
The p o l i t i c a l and economical r e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( p e r e s t r o i k a ; GORBATCHEV 1987)
i n t h e USSR g i v e s a l s o i n c r e a s i n g freedom and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o e x p l o r a t i o n and
p r o d u c t i o n companies and f i e l d o p e r a t i o n s . While f o r m e r l y a l l t h e s u b s i d i a r i e s
were f u l l y dependant on t h e m i n i s t r i e s o f o i l and gas i n d u s t r y c o n c e r n i n g budge-
t i n g , a p p r o v a l , n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h f o r e i g n companies and p u r c h a s i n g d e c i s i o n s ,
many o f them a r e now a l r e a d y more o r l e s s independent and have t h e i r own f i n a n -
c i a l budget w h i c h t h e y can spend a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h o u t t h e ne-
c e s s a r y back-up by t h e m i n i s t r i e s , and even n o t e v e r y t h i n g has t o go n e c e s s a r i -
l y t h r o u g h t h e f o r e i g n t r a d e o f f i c e s which h i t h e r t o were almost e x c l u s i v e l y r e s -
p o n s i b l e f o r c o n d u c t i o n o f n e g o t i a t i o n s and c o n c l u s i o n o f c o n t r a c t s f o r i m p o r t
and e x p o r t (OILMAN 1987 b ) .

The economical r e s t r u c t u r i n g r e q u i r i n g i n d i v i d u a l e n t e r p r i s e s t o be s e l f - f i -
nancing i s expected t o be a s u i t a b l e motor f o r energy c o n s e r v a t i o n and r e s e r v e
m a x i m i z a t i o n i n o r d e r t o a v o i d c l o s u r e o f companies f a i l i n g t o show p r o f i t a b l e
o p e r a t i o n (GORST 1988). The main g u i d e l i n e s f o r economical r e s t r u c t u r i n g and ad-
m i n i s t r a t i v e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e i n s t i t u t i o n o f c o s t a c c o u n t i n g as w e l l as p r o -
f i t and l o s s c r i t e r i a i n d e t e r m i n i n g e f f i c i e n c y o f d i f f e r e n t i n d u s t r y branches
(OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987 0 ) . T h i s new s t r u c t u r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t r a n s p a r e n c y
( g l a s n o s t ) g i v e s much more f l e x i b i l i t y f o r problem a n a l y s i s and t r e a t m e n t con-
t r a c t c o n c l u s i o n and t h e r e f o r e i s one o f t h e ways t h a t w i l l v e r y much a l l o w t o
expand t h e volume o f w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e USSR. D i r e c t n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h Wes-
t e r n s u p p l y and s e r v i c e companies as w e l l as improved cash f l o w based on own
budgets a r e s i g n i f i c a n t elements o f a c c e l e r a t i o n ( u s k o r e n i e ) o f t h e procedures
which a l l o w much f a s t e r business c o n c l u s i o n than h i t h e r t o ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1987
P).

2.4.4.5.4.2. Mutua 1 benefit for i nternat iona 1 cooperat ion

Temporally matching w i t h t h e l i f t i n g o f t h e former USA s a n c t i o n s a g a i n s t the
USSR o i l and gas i n d u s t r y , t h e p r e s e n t r e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( p e r e s t r o i k a ) does n o t
o n l y a f f e c t p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , b u t a l s o t h e economical p a t t e r n by s i m p l i -
f y i n g e a r l i e r i n t e r w o v e n r e l a t i o n s h i p s , s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g o f procedures, and ge-
n e r a t i o n o f d i r e c t communication and a p p r o v a l . The r e s u l t s o f t h e governmental
r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e s t a t e s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y a r e mutual bene-
 214

f i t f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n and j o i n t e f f o r t s t o m a s t e r a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h
i s c r i t i c a l f o r e i t h e r s i d e and where o n l y combined a c t i o n s w i t h t h e a i m o f
a c h i e v i n g t h e optimum g o a l o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s c a n g i v e r i s e t o t h e e x p e c t e d s u c -
c e s s and o v e r a l l improvement o f t h e i n d i g e n e o u s h y d r o c a r b o n s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n as
w e l l as i n t e r n a t i o n a l c a s h f l o w and h e a l t h y n e s s o f s e r v i c e and s u p p l y i n d u s t r y
(some a s p e c t s o f t h e e c o n o m i c a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n t h e USSR a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n
O I L GAS JOURNAL 1987 p ) .

2.4.4.5.5. J o i n t ventures
J o i n t v e n t u r e s a r e o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t f o r t h e USSR f o r p r o s p e c t i o n and
a c q u i s i t i o n o f h y d r o c a r b o n r e s e r v e s i n o f f s h o r e a r e a s . Comments a r e o f f e r e d as
f o l l o w s on B a l t i c Sea and o t h e r USSR o f f s h o r e a r e a s .

2.4.4.5.5.1. B a l t i c Sea
The s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n o f t h e USSR i s a l s o v a l i d f o r t h e j o i n t v e n t u r e e x p l o -
r a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e B a l t i c Sea b y USSR, P o l a n d and Germany GDR ( O I L
GAS JOURNAL 1987 b ) , w h i c h i s t h e o n l y c a s e w i t h i n w h o l e E a s t e r n E u r o p e where
even c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h and c o o r d i n a t i o n b y a f o r e i g n t r a d e o f f i c e i s n o t n e c e s s a -
r i l y included i n t o the procedure o f p r a c t i c a l l y almost o n l y d i r e c t n e g o t i a t i o n s
between t h e j o i n t v e n t u r e h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n company and W e s t e r n s u p p l y and
s e r v i c e companies. 25 w e l l s have been d r i l l e d i n t h e B a l t i c Sea s i n c e 1 9 8 1 and
s e v e r a l p r o m i s i n g h y d r o c a r b o n a c c u m u l a t i o n s have been f o u n d (FUEG 1 9 8 8 ) . C o n c l u -
s i o n c a n t h u s be made t h a t more o r l e s s a l l t h e E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s have
p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f i n a n c i n g h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g done w i t h W e s t e r n mate-
r i a l , e q u i p m e n t and s e r v i c e , and t h e o n l y t a s k i s t o a p p r o a c h t h e s e m a r k e t s
w i t h a sound s t r a t e g i c a l c o n c e p t and s u f f i c i e n t p a t i e n c e f o r t h e l o n g n e c e s s a r y
p r e p a r a t i o n o f b u s i n e s s c o n c l u s i o n and j o b e x e c u t i o n , and w i t h t h e m e n t a l i t y o f
u n r e s t r i c t e d c o o p e r a t i o n f o r m u t u a l b e n e f i t w i t h o u t any p r e j u d g e m e n t s .

Regardless o f t h e i r d i f f e r e n t hard currency p o s s i b i l i t i e s , a l l t h e Eastern

European companies a r e a l w a y s l o o k i n g i n t o t h e m a t t e r o f c o u n t e r o r b a r t e r
t r a d e t o enhance t h e i r f i n a n c i a l power b y s a v i n g c o n v e r t i b l e money f o r o t h e r
p u r p o s e s . As many E a s t e r n European companies c a n d e l i v e r v a r i o u s raw m a t e r i a l s
and goods v e r y cheap due t o low-expense l a b o u r , exchange t r a d e w i t h s u i t a b l e ma-
t e r i a l s i s c e r t a i n l y a l s o o f i n t e r e s t t o Western s u p p l i e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y be-
cause an agreement on c o u n t e r o r b a r t e r t r a d e i s o f t e n t h e f a s t e s t way o f b u s i -
ness c o n c l u s i o n i n Eastern Europe.

2.4.4.5.5.2. Other USSR o f f s h o r e areas

The e c o n o m i c a l and p o l i t i c a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c r e a t e d some new b u s i n e s s
p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r f o r e i g n companies i n t h e USSR b y e n t e r i n g j o i n v e n t u r e s where
f o r e i g n p a r t i c i p a n t s c a n h o l d u p t o 49 % s h a r e and have t o r e p a t r i a t e p r o f i t
(FUEG 1 9 8 8 ) . Such j o i n t v e n t u r e s have t h e i r own i n d e p e n d e n t b u d g e t , t h e i r s e l f -
financing, and a r e n o t s u b j e c t t o t h e n a t i o n a l p l a n (RIGASSI 1 9 8 7 ) . The j o i n t
v e n t u r e a l s o has p r i o r i t y i n USSR a l l o c a t i o n o f f i n a n c i a l and c o n s t r u c t i o n r e -
s o u r c e s . S e v e r a l Western European and A m e r i c a n companies a r e a l r e a d y i n advan-
c e d n e g o t i a t i o n s t a g e w i t h S o v i e t m i n i s t r i e s and f i r m s t o b r i n g such j o i n t ven-
t u r e s i n t o l i f e . A j o i n t v e n t u r e c o u l d a l s o emerge as s o l u t i o n of t h e demarca-
t i o n d i s p u t e between USSR and Norway c o n c e r n i n g t h e B a r e n t s Sea (RIGASSI 1 9 8 6 ) .
The s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t o f t h e USSR i s c o n c l u d i n g j o i n t v e n t u r e s f o r e x p l o r a t i o n
and d e v e l o p m e n t o f r e m o t e o f f s h o r e a r e a s (RIGASSI 1 9 8 7 ) . The j o i n t v e n t u r e s ge-
n e r a l l y s h o u l d have t h e a b i l i t y t o e a r n h a r d c u r r e n c y t h r o u g h e x p o r t s (OIL GAS
JOURNAL 1987 p ) .
 215

2.4.4.6. Reservoir engineering and hydrocarbon supply aspects

D i f f e r e n t n e c e s s i t i e s and r e q u i r e m e n t s e x i s t f o r gas and o i l s u p p l y i n t h e
USSR as a consequence o f r e s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and r e s e r v e a v a i l a b i l i t i e s .
While gas d e l i v e r y i n l a r g e amounts exceeding t h e a c t u a l demand i s no problem
a t t h e moment and i n t h e f u t u r e , c o n s i d e r a b l e improvement o f o i l s u p p l y i s es-
s e n t i a l t o enable s a t i s f a c t o r y i n d u s t r i a l and urban d e l i v e r y as w e l l as t o f u l -
f i l l the goals o f the five-year plan.

2.4.4.6.1. Gas supply

The reason why MHF o p e r a t i o n s on gas r e s e r v o i r s have so f a r n o t been c a r r i e d
o u t i n t h e USSR, and a l s o s m a l l e r - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s were f r e q u e n t l y
performed i n i n d i v i d u a l w e l l s upon s p e c i a l occasions and n o t i n l a r g e r planned
campaigns a f f e c t i n g whole f i e l d s o r even groups o f patches, i s t h e presence o f
huge amounts o f gas i n moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandstone r e s e r v o i r s p a r -
t i c u l a r l y i n S i b e r i a where s t i m u l a t i o n i s n o t necessary, because s i g n i f i c a n t i n -
creases o f t h e a l r e a d y p r i m a r i l y h i g h p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s cannot be achieved. I n
c o n t r a s t t o r e s e r v o i r t r e a t m e n t s w h i c h a r e t h e dominant c h a l l e n g e s i n many Wes-
t e r n European gas p r o v i n c e s , s u r f a c e measures caused by p e r m a f r o s t - r e l a t e d p r o -
blems a r e t h e m a j o r t a s k i n t h e S i b e r i a n gas d i s t r i c t . The e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e r e -
serves i n t h e S i b e r i a n g i a n t gas f i e l d s which can be produced cheaply a r e t h e
main base f o r t h e l a r g e gas q u a n t i t i e s which t h e USSR e x p o r t s t o Western Europe
f o r t h e sake o f r e c e i v i n g h a r d c u r r e n c y ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 3 . ) , and t h e p o t e n -
t i a l f o r s a t i s f y i n g b o t h f o r e i g n and domestic demand seems t o be almost u n l i m i -
t e d a t l e a s t d u r i n g t h e n e x t decades, e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r a l o n g l a r g e - d i a m e t e r p i -
p e l i n e has been b u i l t and i s a l r e a d y under s a f e o p e r a t i o n w i t h o u t any d i s t u r b a n -
ces s i n c e s e v e r a l y e a r s .

T h e r e f o r e i n c o n t r a s t t o M i d d l e Europe t h e r e i s a t t h e moment and p r o b a b l y

a l s o i n t h e n e x t few y e a r s no need f o r abundant MHF s t i m u l a t i o n s on gas r e s e r -
v o i r s i n t h e USSR, because t h e enormous amounts o f gas which can be r e c o v e r e d
w i t h o u t treatment are s u f f i c i e n t t o f u l f i l l the i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e l i v e r y o b l i g a -
t i o n s a l l o w i n g even s t i l l e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e commitments i n case t h e Western Eu-
ropean market i s f u r t h e r growing and demanding and t o secure indigeneous s u p p l y
w i t h a g a i n s u f f i c i e n t f r e e c a p a c i t y t o meet p o t e n t i a l l y r i s i n g r e q u i r e m e n t by
domestic i n d u s t r i a l enlargement. Given a comparable s i t u a t i o n o f t h e N o r t h Sea
R o t l i e g e n d t i g h t gas f i e l d b e l t i n t h e USSR, t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t i n such a
case a l s o s i m i l a r l a r g e - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g would t a k e p l a c e t h e r e , be-
cause t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s w e l l developed and no problems e x i s t
c o n c e r n i n g f i n a n c i a l c a p a b i l i t y f o r purchases o f equipment, m a t e r i a l s and/or
s e r v i c e i n t h e w o r l d market.

2.4.4.6.2. Oil supply

O i l e x p l o i t a t i o n , however, needs i n c o n t r a s t t o gas p r o d u c t i o n much i n t e n s i -
f i c a t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e coming y e a r s (EBEL 1986, ORASIANU 1987), because
a l s o t h e USSR was h i t by t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) and
t h e r e c e n t US $ exchange r a t e c o l l a p s e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.3.) and t h u s has t o
compensate p r o f i t l o s s e s f r o m s a l e o f o i l on t h e w o r l d market which were n o t
foreseen and p l a n n e d and t h u s t h e e q u i v a l e n t s o f money and m a t e r i a l a r e l a c k i n g
i n t h e budgets ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . 1 . 5 . ) . While most o f t h e h i t h e r t o performed
h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e USSR a l r e a d y focussed on o i l p r o d u c t i o n
and o i l - f i e l d w a t e r i n j e c t i o n w e l l s and comprised t o m i n o r amounts a l s o unmine-
a b l e c o a l seam d e g a s i f i c a t i o n b o r e h o l e s , s t i l l c o n s i d e r a b l y more o i l r e s e r v o i r s
have t o be t r e a t e d i n t h e near f u t u r e f o r t h e purpose o f m e e t i n g t h e g o a l s s e t
by t h e new f i v e - y e a r p l a n i n o r d e r t o secure domestic supply, d e l i v e r y t o s a t e l -
l i t e c o u n t r i e s by b a r t e r t r a d e , and s a l e i n t h e w o r l d market f o r h a r d c u r r e n c y
a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y high level.
 216

2.4.5. Western Europe 1987 - 1990

A f t e r t h e slow r e a d j u s t m e n t and r e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e o i l p r i c e l e v e l f o l -
l o w i n g t h e m a j o r d e c l i n e i n e a r l y 1986, w i t h , however, almost no chance b e i n g
seen t h a t i t would a g a i n r e a c h t h e n i v e a u o f t h e g o l d e n l a t e 1970s and p a r t i c u -
l a r l y e a r l y 1980s, h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n klestern Europe has a l r e a d y
i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1987 more o r l e s s r e a s o n a b l y resumed ( t h i s b e i n g a t i m e
l a g t o t h e USA where business s t a r t e d t o s l o w l y p i c k up a g a i n a l r e a d y i n t h e
l a s t t h i r d o f 1986) and good e x p e c t a t i o n s e x i s t f o r p r e d o m i n a n t l y 1988 and
1989. I n l a t e r 1987, t h e d e c l i n e i n worldwide e x p l o r a t i o n d r i l l i n g f i n a l l y pas-
sed i t s n a d i r which was reached i n m i d 1986 and was more o r l e s s k e p t u n t i l e a r -
l y t o m i d 1987 and t h a t marked t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f a p r o g r e s s i v e s l i d e - d o w n f r o m
t h e z e n i t h i n 1981/1982 (POPESCU & HODGSHON 1987).

The r e a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e o i l p r i c e t o a h i g h e r l e v e l than d u r i n g t h e peak o f

t h e 1986 c r i s i s (VARZI 1986), however, i s i n Europe a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e
r e t a r d e d due t o t h e s t i l l low US $ exchange r a t e w h i c h k e p t f l u c t u a t i n g around
i t s p r e l i m i n a r y r e l a t i v e minimum t h r o u g h o u t m i d t o l a t e 1986 and even reached
i n t h e f o u r t h q u a r t e r o f 1987 i t s h i s t o r i c a l a b s o l u t e minimum l e v e l ( w i t h i n
s p i t e o f t h e temporary s l i g h t t o moderate i m p r o v a l o f t h e US $ s t r e n g t h i n m i d
t o l a t e 1988 even now no p e r s p e c t i v e s b e i n g seen f o r a renewed r e a s o n a b l e i n -
crease o f t h e US $ v a l u e w i t h i n t h e p r e d i c t a b l e near f u t u r e e s p e c i a l l y i n view
o f t h e renewed downwards p r e s s u r e on t h e US $ v a l u e a t t h e end o f 1988; c f . sec-
t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) . A g e n e r a l f o r e c a s t o f o i l p r i c e e v o l u t i o n and US $ r a t e develop-
ment r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e b a s i c framework o f hydrocarbon e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p l o i t a -
t i o n i s g i v e n by WEFA (1988), and MACKAY CONSULTANTS (1988) p r o v i d e a p r e d i c -
t i o n o f t h e o i l and gas i n d u s t r y t r e n d s .

I n Western Europe, an i n c r e a s i n g number o f gas f i e l d s i s developed o r p l a n -

ned t o be developed i n t h e n e x t y e a r s i n which h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
s t i m u l a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l t o o b t a i n economical p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s , and i n many ca-
ses, f e a s i b l e development r e q u i r e s w e l l p r o d u c t i o n m a x i m i z a t i o n by e f f e c t i v e
f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s w i t h optimum p r o p p a n t performance (OFFSHORE ENGINEER
1985 c , 1986 c; ROODHART, KUIPER & O A V I E S 1986). The most i m p o r t a n t p r o j e c t s i n
t h e B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea as w e l l as o t h e r areas a r e b r i e f l y o u t -
l i n e d as f o l l o w s . A s h o r t assessment o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g f o r i n c r e a s i n g proven gas r e s e r v e s i s a l s o given, and some comments a r e o f -
f e r e d on t h e impact o f p r o p p a n t m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y on t h e s t i m u l a t i o n scenery.

2.4.5.1. B r i t i s h Southern North Sea

The o u t s t a n d i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea t i g h t gas r e -
serves and t h e i r a c q u i s i t i o n i n t h e n e x t y e a r s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by d i s c u s s i n g as
f o l l o w s r o l e o f t h e m a j o r s t i m u l a t i o n campaigns i n t h e European gas development
scene, c a n c e l l a t i o n r i s k o f s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s , s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y o f t h e U n i t e d
Kingdom gas i n d u s t r y , and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f gas development a c t i v i t y .

2.4.5.1.1. Role o f major s t i m u l a t i o n campaigns

i n the European gas development scene

The main reason f o r t h e coming b i g h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g campaigns

p r e f e r e n t i a l l y i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea a r e d e f i n i t e l y planned f i e l d
developments i n t h e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y zone o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d gas b e l t (ALLISON
1986; GREGORY 1986, 1987) which a r e r e i n f o r c e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e gas has a l -
ready been s o l d by means o f commitment o f s u p p l y c o n t r a c t s ( c f . s e c t i o n s
2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 2 . and 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 3 . 2 . ) and i s one o f t h e m a j o r p r i m a r y energy r e s o u r c e s
d u r i n g t h e n e x t decades even beyond t h e y e a r 2000 (LUBBEN 1982, LINDEN 1985,
SCHINDEWOLF 1985, STEINMANN 1985, FEHRINGER 1986, BAND 1987, OILMAN 1987 a ) ,
and domestic a c t i v i t y i s a l s o s t r o n g l y backed-up by t h e government w h i c h wants
 217

t o keep i m p o r t s o f f o r e i g n gas n o t b e i n g taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r a t l e a s t

t h e near f u t u r e . The R o t l i e g e n d development campaigns i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern
N o r t h Sea i n 1987 - 1990 and even l a t e r (GREGORY 1986, 1987; OFFSHORE ENGINEER
1986 a, THOMAS 1986, FOX 1987, POTTER 1987, QUINLAN 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 3.3.) a r e
p r o b a b l y t h e o n l y s u i t e o f j o b s and/or p o t e n t i a l area where s i m i l a r l y as b e i n g
a l r e a d y common sense i n t h e USA, h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g has become one
o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t aspects o f w e l l c o m p l e t i o n (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITE-
HEAD 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 3 . 4 . ) .

A p a r t f r o m some patches o f t h e Norwegian N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea where o i l - b e a r -

i n g Upper Cretaceous c h a l k i n d i s p e n s i b l y r e q u i r e s p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , R o t l i e -
gend gas development i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea i s t h e m a j o r share o f
t h e European h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y i n e a r l y 1987 and w i l l p r o b a b l y
more o r l e s s keep t h i s r o l e t h r o u g h o u t t h e n e x t y e a r s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . ) . The R o t l i e g e n d campaign i s t h e l a r g e s t gas development p r o j e c t i n
t h e N o r t h Sea i n t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s (McNALLY 1987), and t h e planned p u t t i n g on
stream o f t h e f i r s t group o f f i e l d s c o m p r i s i n g Vulcan, V a l i a n t , Vanguard, Ra-
venspurn South and C l e e t o n i n l a t e 1988 has been achieved a c c o r d i n g t o schedule
(PETROLEUM R E V I E W 1988 d; cf,. s e c t i o n 2.2.1.6.9.). The i n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h i s
f i e l d complex i n autumn 1988 matches w i t h a b t . 50 r i g s d r i l l i n g i n t h e B r i t i s h
Southern N o r t h Sea which r e p r e s e n t s t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f a c t i v i t y s i n c e s e v e r a l
y e a r s (PETROLEUM R E V I E W 1988 d) and a g a i n u n d e r l i n e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e
R o t l i e g e n d b e l t f o r gas s u p p l y o f t h e U n i t e d Kingdom.

2.4.5.1.2. Cancellation risk of stimulation jobs

Another reason f o r an o p t i m i s t i c e x p e c t a t i o n of t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g sce-
n e r y i s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e l a r g e development p l a n s and i n c l u d e s t h e s h i f t f r o m
m a i n l y e x p l o r a t i o n d r i l l i n g i n 1986 t o p r e d o m i n a n t l y a p p r a i s a l and development
d r i l l i n g i n 1987 t h r o u g h 1990 and beyond. E x p l o r a t i o n d r i l l i n g i s o f t e n l i n k e d
w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e g e o l o g i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g r i s k as c o n f i r m e d by t h e
h i g h c a n c e l l a t i o n r a t e s ( h a v i n g been above t h e e x p e c t a t i o n l e v e l j u s t a t t h e
peak o f t h e c r i s i s , t h e r e b y a c c e n t u a t i n g i t i n a Murphy-law-type manner; c f .
s e c t i o n 2.4.2.2.). On t h e o t h e r hand, a p p r a i s a l and p r o d u c t i o n d r i l l i n g w h i c h
i s s t a r t i n g i n t h e second h a l f o f 1987 and l a s t i n g u n t i l 1989 o r even l o n g e r
has much l o w e r r i s k , because t h e s t r u c t u r e s and t h e i r c o n t e n t s a r e a l r e a d y more
o r l e s s known, w i t h much lower c a n c e l l a t i o n r a t e s t h u s b e i n g a b l e t o be expec-
t e d ( b u t n o t guaranteed due t o always p r e s e n t g e o l o g i c a l u n c e r t a i n t i e s as a con-
sequence o f n a t u r a l v a r i a b i l i t y even beyond s o p h i s t i c a t e d human and c o m p u t e r i -
zed m o d e l l i n g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) . From a p p r a i s a l and e a r l y development d r i l -
l i n g , e x p e c t a t i o n can be made w i t h s u f f i c i e n t c o n f i d e n c e t h a t most o f t h e
wells, i f i n some f i e l d s n o t a l l o f them, w i l l have t o be s t i m u l a t e d by hydrau-
l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e gas f l o w
r a t e s f r o m t h e t i g h t sandstones (OILMAN 1987 a; c f . s e c t i o n s 3.4.2. and 3 . 8 . ) .

The c e n t r e s o f MHF s t i m u l a t i o n o f t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d gas r e s e r v o i r s a r e I n d e f a -

t i g a b l e , Ravenspurn, Rough, Thames, V a l i a n t , Vanguard and Vulcan ( c f . f i g . 6
and t a b . 7 ) . An o u t l i n e o f t h e p e t r o l e u m e x p l o r a t i o n , development and s t i m u l a -
t i o n p o t e n t i a l of t h e N o r t h Sea i s a l s o g i v e n by HOYLE (1983), and NYSTAD
(1981) p r o v i d e s an economical a n a l y s i s o f t h e N o r t h Sea o i l and gas r e g i o n .

2.4.5.1.3. Self-sufficiency of United Kingdom gas industry

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea i s h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e
f a c t s t h a t i t i s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c e n t r e o f U n i t e d Kingdom gas p r o d u c t i o n , has
h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n t r i b u t e d up t o 90 % o f G r e a t B r i t a i n gas d e l i v e r y , s t i l l h o l d s
o v e r 50 % of t h e t o t a l B r i t i s h proven and p r o b a b l e gas r e s e r v e s and needs e x t e n -
s i o n o f d e l i v e r y c a p a c i t y i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o meet w i n t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f
d a i l y up t o 10 B i l l . f t 3 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 3 . ) . The c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t B r i -
t i s h Gas as t h e n a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t o r i s needing s i g n i f i c a n t new s u p p l i e s o f gas
 218

i n t h e 1990's i s t h e m a j o r c h a l l e n g e f o r t h e o p e r a t i n g companies t o d e v e l o p R o t -
l i e g e n d f i e l d s i n t h e B r i t i s h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 2 . ) , be-
cause t h e y have an i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e o v e r t h e N o r w e g i a n c o m p e t i t i o n i n t h a t
t h e U n i t e d Kingdom t a x s y s t e m i s f a r more f a v o u r a b l e t h a n t h e h a r s h N o r w e g i a n
t a x r e g i m e , and t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t and p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s a r e i n t h e S o u t h e r n N o r t h
Sea c o n s i d e r a b l y c h e a p e r t h a n i n t h e N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea.

I n c l u d i n g abundant l a r g e - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n , s u f f i c i e n t
amounts of gas c a n be l i b e r a t e d f r o m t h e R o t l i e g e n d f i e l d b e l t t o meet t h e de-
mand o f b o t h B r i t i s h Gas and d i r e c t i n d u s t r i a l u s e r s (PETROLEUM R E V I E W 1988 d ) .
By e n d o f 1987, t h e S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d f i e l d b e l t had c u m u l a t i v e l y
p r o d u c e d a b t . 8 0 T c f (2,000 B i l l . m3) o f gas s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f o f f t a k e i n
1967. Average d a i l y w i t h d r a w a l and number o f f i e l d s b e i n g d e v e l o p e d i n t h e B r i -
t i s h s e c t o r i s t w i c e as h i g h as i n t h e D u t c h s e c t o r . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e
v a s t G r o n i n g e n f i e l d o n s h o r e N e t h e r l a n d s p r o d u c e s a l o n e a l m o s t as much as t h e
e n t i r e U n i t e d Kingdom c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f .

A d d i t i o n a l i n s p i r a t i o n and f e e d - b a c k a r e t h e improvement o f t h e p r o s p e c t s o f
o b t a i n i n g bank f i n a n c e f o r gas developments, as a t l e a s t some banks w a n t t o i n -
c r e a s e l o a n s t h a t a r e backed b y gas w i t h i t s more s t a b l e p r i c e t h a n b y t h e u n r e -
l i a b l e o i l (FISHMAN 1986) where much o f t h e e a r l i e r i n v e s t m e n t s a n d c r e d i t s
have been d e v a l i d a t e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 4 . ) . A l t h o u g h t h e a r e a i s m a t u r e and
p r o d u c t i o n from t h e major f i e l d s i s i n d e c l i n e , t h e r e i s s t i l l a s u i t e o f smal-
l e r a c c u m u l a t i o n s w h i c h c a n be t i e d i n t o t h e e x i s t i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e t o m e e t
and t o compensate t h e p r o j e c t e d U n i t e d Kingdom gas s u p p l y s h o r t f a l l i n t h e n e x t
decade (GREGORY 1 9 8 6 ) .

2.4.5.1.4.Significance o f gas development activity

The B r i t i s h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea i s e x p e c t e d t o be t h e m o s t a c t i v e European
a r e a f o r gas f i e l d d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g t h e n e x t f e w y e a r s (KNOTT 1 9 8 6 ) , p a r t i c u -
l a r l y due t o s o f a r c a n c e l l a t i o n o f t h e i d e a of c o n t r a c t i n g gas f r o m new Norwe-
g i a n f i e l d s such as S l e i p n e r and T r o l l i n o r d e r t o compensate t h e d e c l i n i n g de-
l i v e r y f r o m F r i g g ( w h i c h i s c r o s s e d b y t h e b o u n d a r y between U n i t e d Kingdom and
N o r w e g i a n N o r t h Sea s e c t o r s ) and d e c i s i o n t o r e p l a c e t h e q u a n t i t i e s b y i n c r e a -
s i n g o f f t a k e f r o m t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 2 . ) . The
f i e l d d e v e l o p m e n t campaigns n e c e s s a r y t o d e l i v e r t h e gas q u a n t i t i e s t h a t have
t o r e p l a c e t h e d e c l i n i n g and l a t e r c e a s i n g s u p p l y f r o m F r i g g and t o s a t i s f y t h e
i n c r e a s e d demand have t h e d e a d l i n e t o f e e d f i r s t g a s volumes i n t o t h e p i p e l i n e
n e t w o r k o f B r i t i s h Gas b y autumn 1988 ( w h i c h has i n t h e meantime been s u c c e s s -
f u l l y a c h i e v e d ) and s u b s e q u e n t l y p r o g r e s s i v e l y t h r o u g h 1990 and beyond (OILMAN
1987 a, CAPEL 1988, VIELVOYE 1988 a ) .

The c o n s i d e r a b l e d r i l l i n g , c o m p l e t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n campaigns t a k i n g p l a c e

s i n c e m i d 1987 r e p r e s e n t t h e m o s t p r o n o u n c e d a c t i v i t y i n t h e B r i t i s h S o u t h e r n
N o r t h Sea s i n c e t h e i n i t i a l boom t h a t f o l l o w e d gas d i s c o v e r y i n t h e e a r l y
1960's (VIELVOYE 1988 a ) and mark a m a j o r m i l e s t o n e a l m o s t m a t c h i n g w i t h t h e 2 5
y e a r j u b i l e e o f d e v e l o p m e n t h i s t o r y of gas f i e l d s i n t h e B r i t i s h S o u t h e r r i N o r t h
Sea (OILMAN 1987 a ) . A s u i t e o f d e v e l o p m e n t p r o p o s a l s have a l r e a d y beer1 ;::pro-
v e d b y t h e government i n t i m e t o f i t i n t o t h e gas d e l i v e r y s c h e d u l e , m o s t o f
t h e gas has been s o l d t o B r i t i s h Gas w h i c h i s s t i l l a f t e r i t s p r i v a t i z a t i o n t h e
m o n o p o l i s t i c gas b u y e r i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 2 . ) , and an-
o t h e r g a l a x y o f f i e l d s i s w a i t i n g on a c c e p t a n c e o f d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s and c o n -
t r a c t i o n o f gas (OILMAN 1987 a ) . A l t h o u g h G r e a t B r i t a i n i s a r e l a t i v e l y young
h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c e r and s u p p l i e r because N o r t h Sea e x p l o r a t i o n and e x p l o i t a -
t i o n s t a r t e d o n l y some 20 y e a r s ago, i t i s a l r e a d y s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t i n o i l and
gas s u p p l y s i n c e many y e a r s , and t h e l a r g e - s c a l e a c q u i s i t i o n o f f u r t h e r g a s r e -
serves i n c l u d i n g s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g s t i -
m u l a t i o n o f t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d gas h e l p s t o s e c u r e t h e U n i t e d Kingdom s e l f - s u f f i -
c i e n c y o f gas a t l e a s t u n t i l t h e y e a r 2000 (KNOTT 1985, 1 9 8 6 ) .
 219

2.4.5.2. Dutch Southern North Sea

I n comparison t o t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea, t h e gas p r o s p e c t i v i t y o f
t h e R o t l i e g e n d i n t h e D u t c h N o r t h Sea i s s l i g h t l y t o c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r and
thus a l s o t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i s n o t so pronounced. Rea-
sonable a c t i v i t y , however, i s a l s o g o i n g t o t a k e p l a c e i n t h e Dutch Southern
N o r t h Sea as a consequence o f s h i f t i n g p r o j e c t s f r o m t h e o i l s p o t s t o t h e gas
patches f o l l o w i n g t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e crash, w i t h t h e main a t t r a c t i v i t y g i v e n t o
i n v e s t m e n t and p r o f i t l e v e l s by t h e s h a l l o w e r w a t e r d e p t h o f t h e Dutch s e c t o r
and t h e g e n e r a l p r o x i m i t y t o e x i s t i n g p i p e l i n e s and p r o c e s s i n g f a c i l i t i e s , com-
b i n e d w i t h a reasonable t a x regime (BEUOELL 1986 b ) . R o t l i e g e n d h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea has been a l r e a d y c a r r i e d o u t
and/or i s s t i l l g o i n g t o be performed m a i n l y i n t h e f i e l d s K-12, L-8, L-10 and
P-2, and B u n t s a n d s t e i n t r e a t m e n t s focussed i n t h e p a s t and/or c o n c e n t r a t e i n
t h e f u t u r e on t h e f i e l d s P-6 and P-8 ( c f . f i g . 6 and tab. 8 ) . Some aspects o f
R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s i n t h e Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea a r e d i s c u s s e d by HAAK &
ELEWAUT ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

I n t h e German N o r t h Sea, so f a r no commercial gas o r o i l d i s c o v e r y has been

made, and due t o t h e sequence o f e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s i n c l u d i n g ( a t l e a s t i n view
o f economical f e a s i b i l i t y i n terms o f t h e o f f s h o r e s i t u a t i o n ) so f a r o n l y f a i l u -
r e s because o f i n s u f f i c i e n t s t r u c t u r a l r e s e r v e s o r t o o h i g h n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t o f
t h e gas ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.3.4.; w i t h t h e o n l y e x c e p t i o n b e i n g two l i t t l e i n s h o r e
f i e l d s ) , o n l y v e r y l i t t l e gas p r o s p e c t i v i t y ( i f a t a l l ) remains i n t h i s area
and c e r t a i n l y t h e r e i s a t t h e moment no f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l u n l e s s a f u t u r e ex-
p l o r a t i o n w e l l has a more f a v o u r a b l e r e s u l t . C a r b o n i f e r o u s f r a c t u r i n g onshore
as w e l l as o f f s h o r e i n t h e B r i t i s h and D u t c h Southern N o r t h Sea w i l l c e r t a i n l y
be i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n i f gas p r o d u c t i o n w i t h h i g h w a t e r c u t (ARENS & BUHNEL
1985) can be p u t on a more economical base, t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g a l s o t o s t i m u l a t e
C a r b o n i f e r o u s gas r e s e r v o i r s w i t h h i g h e r w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e
( c f . section 2.4.1.2.2.1.). O i l and gas f i e l d development d e t a i l s f o r B r i t i s h ,
Dutch and Norwegian N o r t h Sea u n t i l t h e y e a r 2000 a r e g i v e n by OFFSHORE E N G I -
NEER (1986 c ) .

The coming decades a r e a l s o i n Europe c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e need and urgency

f o r u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas (KUUSKRAA 1980) w h i c h i s u n d e r l i n e d by t h e t i g h t R o t l i e -
gend f r a c t u r i n g campaigns. Economical aspects o f t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea
R o t l i e g e n d gas b e l t and t h e development o f v a r i o u s m a j o r f i e l d s i n t h i s p r o v i n -
ce i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e a r e a l s o discussed by FISHMAN (1986), GREGORY (1986,
1987), THOMAS (1986), ALGAR (1987 a ) , BAND (1987) and POTTER (1987; c f . sec-
t i o n s 2.2.1.6.2., 2.2.1.6.3.2. and 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . ) . An overview o f developed and sche-
d u l e d o i l and gas f i e l d s i n B r i t i s h and Norwegian N o r t h Sea i s g i v e n i n OFF-
SHORE ENGINEER (1985 C, 1986 C) and SCOTTISH PETROLEUM ANNUAL ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

2.4.5.3. Other areas

A p a r t f r o m R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d development i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h
Sea t h a t w i l l i n terms o f proppant a p p l i c a t i o n be e i t h e r m a i n l y done w i t h 20/40
sand f o l l o w e d by a t a i l - i n o f 16/20 i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants ( o f a b t .
10 - 30 % o f t h e sand q u a n t i t y ) i n case o f s h a l l o w e r r e s e r v o i r s ( a b t . 6,000 -
8,000 f t ) o r i n case o f deeper r e s e r v o i r s ( a b t . 8,000 - 10,000 f t ) e x c l u s i v e l y
w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants of f i r s t 20/40 ( 5 - 20 % o f t h e whole l o t )
and then second 16/20 m a t e r i a l , and which w i l l comprise by f a r t h e l a r g e s t
amount o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n Europe i n t h e v e r y near f u t u r e , s t i -
m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y i n ( m a i n l y t h e second h a l f o f ) 1987 and 1988 ( p r o b a b l y s t i l l
i n c l u d i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g c o u p l e o f y e a r s ) w i l l a l s o f o c u s on ( c l a s s i f i e d inforrna-
t i o n i s c o m p i l e d i n t a b s . 6 - 9, and l o c a l i t i e s and r e g i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n
f i g s . 4 - 8)

* some R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s sandstone gas w e l l s i n Germany FRG (BRINK-

 220

MANN, FUHRBERG & SCHOBER 1980; BRINKMANN, KRUMER & R E I N I C K E 1980; BRINKMANN
1982, SCHWARZ & SCHUBER 1982; JOHN 1983, 1987; LEICHT 1985; REINICKE, B R I N K -
MANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985; c f . f i g . 4 ) w h i c h w i l l be t r e a t e d w i t h i n t e r m e -
d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y p r o p p a n t s i n a r e s e r v o i r d e p t h between
3,000 and 6,000 m (9,000 - 18,000 f t ; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) ,

* p a r t s o f some R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s and Cretaceous sandstone o i l f i e l d s i n

t h e D u t c h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea ( c f . f i g . 6 ) w h i c h w i l l r e q u i r e sand a n d / o r i n -
t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y c e r a m i c p r o p p a n t s i n a b t . 6,000 - 10,000 f t
(2,000 - 3,300 in) r e s e r v o i r d e p t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 3 . 3 . ) ,

* some Upper T r i a s s i c o i l - b e a r i n g sandstones i n Germany FRG t h a t r e q u i r e i n t e r -

m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s i n a b t . 1,500 - 2,500 m (4,500 - 7,500 f t ) r e s e r -
v o i r d e p t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1.1.2.2. and f i g . 5 ) ,

* some Mesozoic and Cenozoic o i l - and g a s - b e a r i n g sandstones i n Y o r k s h i r e and

M i d l a n d s onshore G r e a t B r i t a i n where sand o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s
w i l l be a p p l i e d i n a r e s e r v o i r d e p t h o f 5,000 - 9,000 f t (1,500 - 3,000 m),

* p a r t s o f some J u r a s s i c sandstone ( a n d l o c a l l y a l s o c o n g l o m e r a t e ) o i l f i e l d s
i n t h e B r i t i s h and t o s u b o r d i n a t e amounts a l s o Norwegian N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea
where sand a n d / o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s w i l l be a p p l i e d
( B r e n t Sand group; c f . JOHNSON & KROL 1984; DESPAX, CHARLEZ, CLINKEMAILLE &
ECONOMIDES 1987) i n a r e s e r v o i r d e p t h o f 10,000 - 14,000 f t (3,300 - 4,600 m;
c f . f i g . 8),

* some J u r a s s i c and T e r t i a r y o i l f i e l d s i n t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea where

i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s a r e r e q u i r e d i n 9,000 - 11,000 f t
(3,000 - 3,300 m ) r e s e r v o i r d e p t h ( c f . f i g . 8 ) ,

* some C r e t a c e o u s c h a l k o i l f i e l d s i n t h e Norwegian N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea (HARTLEY

& BOSMA 1985; TANSOE, K I N G & HOLMAN 1986; ATTARD, MATHES & MOWER 1988; c f .
section 4.5.4.3.) where c o n v e n t i o n a l and r e s i n - c o a t e d i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h
l o w - d e n s i t y c e r a m i c p r o p p a n t s a r e needed i n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n a b t . 2,500 - 3,300 m (8,000 - 10,000 f t ) r e s e r -
v o i r depth ( c f . f i g . 8 ) ,

* some T e r t i a r y gas- and c o n d e n s a t e - b e a r i n g sandstones and c o n g l o m e r a t e s i n Yu-

g o s l a v i a (ECONOMIDES, C I K E S , PFURTER, U D I C K & URODA 1986; c f . f i g . 5 ) where
t h e requested m a t e r i a l i s i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y ceramic proppants
i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s i n t h e l a t e s t a g e o f t h e ope-
r a t i o n s i n a r e s e r v o i r d e p t h o f a b t . 3,000 - 4,000 m (9,000 - 12,000 f t ) ,

* p a r t s o f some gas f i e l d s i n T u r k e y w h i c h w i l l be done w i t h sand p o t e n t i a l l y

f o l l o w e d by a t a i l - i n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y c e r a m i c p r o p p a n t
i n a r e s e r v o i r d e p t h o f a b t . 1,500 - 2,500 m (4,500 - 7,500 f t ; c f . f i g . 2 ) ,

* some T e r t i a r y sandstone gas f i e l d s i n S i c i l y / I t a l y ( c f . f i g . 5 ) where i n t e r -

m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n s i t y p r o p p a n t s w i l l be needed i n a b t . 3,500 - 5,000
m (10,500 - 15,000 f t ) r e s e r v o i r depth, and

* p r o b a b l y some T e r t i a r y sandstone and c a r b o n a t e w e l l s i n Hungary, S o u t h e r n

F r a n c e and N o r t h e r n A f r i c a w h i c h a l s o r e q u i r e i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h h i g h - d e n -
s i t y p r o p p a n t s i n a r e s e r v o i r d e p t h o f a b t . 1,500 - 4,500 m (4,500 - 13,500
ft).

* The o i l f r a c t u r i n g w i t h sand i n Cretaceous s h a l l o w f i e l d s i n Germany FRG and

N e t h e r l a n d s i s a l s o s c h e d u l e d t o go ahead d u r i n g t h e coming y e a r s , w i t h de-
mand o f a b t . 20 - 70 t o f sand p e r w e l l i n a r e s e r v o i r d e p t h o f a b t . 700 -
2,500 m (2,100 - 7,500 f t ) .
 221

2.4.5.4. Significance o f f r a c t u r i n s
f o r increasing proven gas reserves
R o t l i e g e n d f r a c t u r i n g i n Germany FRG has p a r t i c u l a r l y t o be assessed i n view
o f t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f JOHN (1983) t h a t proven gas r e s e r v e s ( i n l a t e 1982) were
120 B i l l . m3, b u t t h e r e m a i n i n g s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l was a t t h a t t i m e a t l e a s t
i n t h e range o f 90 - 120 B i l l . m3, i m p l y i n g t h a t consequent s u c c e s s f u l hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g can - i n case o f v e r i f i c a t i o n o f a l l t h e assumptions - n e a r l y
double t h e h i t h e r t o proven R o t l i e g e n d gas r e s e r v e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 2 . ) . REI-
NICKE, BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI (1985) a l s o come t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a b t .
100 B i l l . m3 o f gas a r e o n l y a b l e t o be accessed by l a r g e - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f t h e t i g h t pay f o r m a t i o n s , w i t h t h e t o t a l h i t h e r t o proven gas
r e s e r v e s amounting t o a b t . 300 B i l l . m3 ( w i t h t h i s q u a n t i t y , however, i n c l u d i n g
a l s o t h e Z e c h s t e i n carbonate s o u r gas r e s e r v e s ) and a n o t h e r 300 B i l l . m3 b e i n g
p r e d i c t e d f o r f u t u r e d i s c o v e r i e s , w i t h t h u s one t h i r d o f t h i s q u a n t i t y r e a c h i n g
economical p r o d u c t i o n o n l y through MHF s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s ( t h i s matches i n
percentage w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e USA where i t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t 30 - 35 %
o f t h e r e c o v e r a b l e hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s may be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n ; WATERS 1980).

O f f s h o r e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g which i s so f a r l i m i t e d t o r i g - , p l a t -
form- and boat-based s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s w i l l be promoted d u r i n g t h e n e x t y e a r s by
t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n o f a subsea s t i m u l a t i o n vessel t h a t i s equipped
w i t h a r i s e r and t h a t i s a b l e t o c a r r y o u t o p e r a t i o n s independent f r o m w e l l
heads r e a c h i n g t h e w a t e r surface, t h u s opening t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f r a c t u r i n g
a l s o w e l l s w i t h subsea c o m p l e t i o n i n t h e N o r t h Sea (STENA 1986). Some opera-
t i o n s have a l s o a l r e a d y been c a r r i e d o u t f r o m a semisubmersible (HOOD & POWELL
1982).

2.4.5.5. Impact o f proppant marketing strategy

I n terms o f m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y and i t s impact on proppant s a l e s l e v e l s , com-
ments a r e o f f e r e d on d i r e c t p r o p p a n t s a l e s t o end users, l i q u i d a t i o n o f s e r v i c e
company s t o c k s , and stand-by s u p p l y by proppant companies.

2.4.5.5.1. D i r e c t proppant sales t o end users

The h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g scenery and p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o p p a n t c h o i c e can t o
some e x t e n t a l s o be i n f l u e n c e d by t h e m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y o f t h e p r o p p a n t com-
p a n i e s . W h i l e t r a d i t i o n a l l y s a l e s were almost e x c l u s i v e l y made t o s e r v i c e com-
p a n i e s as i n t e r m e d i a t e u s e r s which t h e n i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e proppants i n t o t h e
whole s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n and o f f e r e d t h e i r c l i e n t s , t h e p r o d u c t i o n companies
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e end users, t h e complete j o b package as an i n t e g r a t e d s e t ( i n c -
l u d i n g a s t a n d a r d b u s i n e s s mark-up range o f t h e proppants), t h e r a p i d r e v i s i o n
o f many budget i t e m s f o r d r i l l i n g and f r a c t u r i n g a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e d r o p
has opened t h e door f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e change a l s o i n t h i s m a t t e r . Some aspects
o f drawbacks o f s e r v i c e company s t o c k s and t r e a t m e n t s e l f - p e r f o r m a n c e i n Eas-
t e r n Europe a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

2.4.5.5.1.1. Drawbacks o f service conpany stocks

As a consequence o f p a r t i a l l y e x c e s s i v e s t o c k s on which s e r v i c e companies
k e p t s i t t i n g f o r q u i t e some t i m e a f t e r o p t i m i s t i c a l l y o r d e r i n g enough m a t e r i a l
t o be a b l e t o c a r r y o u t two t o t h r e e j o b s o v e r n i g h t i n good t i m e s o f t h e f r a c -
t u r i n g scenery and then p a i n f u l l y awaking when a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h
t h e expected programmes were suspended o r c a n c e l l e d by t h e o p e r a t o r s , w i t h t h e
purchased m a t e r i a l b l o c k i n g t h e s e r v i c e company warehouses and r e m a i n i n g i n
t h e i r books, t h e m e n t a l i t y o f b o t h s e r v i c e companies and p r o p p a n t s u p p l i e r s i s
 222

a t l e a s t i n p a r t s o f t h e European s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t c h a n g i n g t o w a r d s d i r e c t
p u r c h a s e o f t h e p r o p p a n t s b y t h e e n d c u s t o m e r s , t h e p r o d u c t i o n companies.

T h i s c o n s t e l l a t i o n w o u l d c e r t a i n l y g i v e much more m a r k e t t r a n s p a r e n c y t o t h e
p r o p p a n t companies t h a n b e f o r e , because i t w o u l d b e now i m m e d i a t e l y e v i d e n t who
i s t h e end u s e r and how much m a t e r i a l he needs f o r w h i c h t y p e o f j o b . The s e r -
v i c e company w o u l d g e t r i d o f t h e r i s k o f s i t t i n g on t h e p r o p p a n t s once an ope-
r a t i o n i s suspended o r c a n c e l l e d , and w o u l d compensate t h e h i t h e r t o m a r k - u p o f
t h e p r o p p a n t p r i c e b y pumping s u r c h a r g e s p e r volume u n i t , t h u s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t -
l y l o s i n g money a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e and e a r n i n g p r o f i t a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y
t h r o u g h s e r v i c e and own c h e m i c a l s . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f d i r e c t p r o p p a n t p u r c h a s e
f r o m t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s i n s t e a d o f t a k i n g t h e m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h t h e s e r v i c e compa-
n i e s i s a l s o m e n t i o n e d b y CUTLER, E N N I S S , JONES & CARROLL ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

2.4.5.5.1.2. Treatment s e l f -performance i n Eastern Europe

The c o n c e p t o f d i r e c t s a l e s w o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r l y v a l i d f o r E a s t e r n E u r o p e
where n o t o n l y t h e w h o l e e c o n o m i c a l s t r u c t u r e i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t i n
Western Europe and USA, b u t many o p e r a t i n g companies have own pumping e q u i p m e n t
a t l e a s t f o r some j o b s and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s e r v i c e companies i s i n some c a s e s
e v e n l i m i t e d t o s a l e o f c h e m i c a l s . I n W e s t e r n Europe, m a j o r companies p e r f o r m -
i n g l a r g e r f r a c t u r i n g campaigns i n 1987 - 1990 may w i s h t o s e r i o u s l y l o o k i n t o
p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f d i r e c t purchase o f proppants ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 2.4.2.4.1.2.2.)
w h i c h c a n be c a r r i e d o u t e v e n i n agreement w i t h t h e s e r v i c e companies. Concern-
ing the s t i l l highly competitive situation, i t i s c e r t a i n l y worthwhile that
b o t h p a r t i e s t a l k t o g e t h e r on a l l t h e s e a s p e c t s i n o r d e r t o f i n d a s o l u t i o n
w h i c h i s m o s t b e n e f i c i a l f o r b o t h o f them.

2.4.5.5.2. L i q u i d a t i o n o f s e r v i c e company stocks

A t e m p o r a r y drawback f o r t h e p r o p p a n t s u p p l i e r s i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n a l phase o f
p r o b a b l y a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y c h a n g i n g m a r k e t i n g p o l i c y and p u r c h a s e s t r a t e g y as
w e l l as p a r a l l e l t o b u s i n e s s p i c k - u p a l o n g w i t h r e c o v e r y f r o m t h e peak o f t h e
o i l p r i c e c r a s h i s t h e l i q u i d a t i o n o f t h e i n v e n t o r i e s b y t h e s e r v i c e companies.
D u r i n g t h e g o l d e n y e a r s o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , t h e s e r v i c e companies
c o u l d make much money and w i n c o n t r a c t s a g a i n s t c o m p e t i t o r s b y b e i n g a b l e t o
move t o w a r d s l o c a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r o r d e r e n t r y b y c a l l w i t h o u t h a v i n g
s t i l l t o g e t access t o m a t e r i a l . The common p o l i c y i n t h e s e d a y s was t o k e e p
p r o p p a n t s , f l u i d s and o t h e r c h e m i c a l s i n such amounts i n t h e warehouse and on
t h e b o a t t h a t t w o o r even t h r e e s t a n d a r d j o b s c o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t o v e r n i g h t
w i t h o u t any r e s t o c k i n g .

H a v i n g s i t on t h i s r e s e r v e i n v e n t o r y f o r q u i t e some t i m e a f t e r t h e sudden
o i l p r i c e d r o p , t h e p i c k i n g u p o f t h e a c t i v i t y i n l a t e 1986 and t h r o u g h o u t 1987
was t a k e n b y t h e s e r v i c e companies as a welcomed o c c a s i o n t o l i q u i d a t e t h e i r e x -
c e s s i v e s t o c k s n o t o n l y i n t h e o f f s h o r e bases, b u t a l s o i n warehouses a t s e v e -
r a l p l a c e s on t h e c o n t i n e n t , and t o g e t t h e i n v e n t o r i e s o u t o f t h e i r b o o k s .
T h i s c o u l d be done because t h e e x p e r i e n c e has shown d u r i n g t h e l a s t y e a r s t h a t
m o s t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s do n o t have t o be c a r r i e d o u t a t once, o r d e c i s i o n and
a p p r o v a l a r e made e a r l y enough t o a l l o w p r o p e r p r e p a r a t i o n i n t e r m s o f m a t e r i a l
a c q u i s i t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n v e s s e l l o a d i n g , and warehouses o f many s u p p l i e r s i n
s t r a t e g i c a l l y s u i t a b l e l o c a t i o n s i n Europe a l l o w s h i p p i n g o f m a t e r i a l t o a r r i v e
a t t h e b o a t base w i t h i n a c o u p l e o f days. T h a t i s why t h e p r o p p a n t companies
d i d n o t f e e l t h e i m p r o v i n g b u s i n e s s s i t u a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y b y a jump of t h e sa-
l e s l e v e l , because b y l i q u i d a t i n g t h e i r s t o c k s , t h e s e r v i c e companies c a r r i e d
o u t s e v e r a l j o b s f r o m t h e i r own s u p p l y ( w i t h e v e n some s h o r t - c i r c u i t m a t e r i a l
move between c o m p e t i n g s e r v i c e companies h a v i n g o c c u r r e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f
c h e a p e r b u y i n g and f a s t e r i n v e n t o r y l i q u i d a t i o n ) b e f o r e upon c l e a r i n g o f t h e i r
warehouse p u r c h a s i n g new m a t e r i a l f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g o p e r a t i o n .
 223

2.4.5.5.3. Stand-by supply by proppant companies

As t h e p r o d u c t i o n companies as u l t i m a t e customers, however, would c e r t a i n l y
n o t r i s k t o r e p e a t t h e u n p l e a s a n t e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e s e r v i c e companies t o p i l e
up m a t e r i a l which i s then n o t used up f o r some t i m e once t h e p r o p p a n t market
t u r n s a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y t o d i r e c t purchase by t h e end users, t h e m a r k e t i n g and
s a l e s p o l i c y o f t h e p r o p p a n t s u p p l y companies would have t o f o c u s more and more
on s h o r t - t e r m stand-by, w i t h o r d e r s coming i n almost i n t h e l a s t m i n u t e and t h e
l a r g e s t c o m p e t i t i v e advantage b e i n g w i t h t h e proppant company which can d e l i v e r
t h e f a s t e s t and always i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y . The f r e q u e n t o r d e r i n g f o r d e l i -
v e r y almost o v e r n i g h t i n d i s p e n s i b l y r e q u i r e s t h e presence o f l o c a l s t o c k s near
a c e n t r a l p o r t i n Europe f r o m which b o t h N o r t h Sea and onshore areas can be sup-
p l i e d v e r y f a s t , w i t h those companies t h a t h i t h e r t o r e l i e d on t i m e l y o r d e r s e a r -
l y enough t o b r i n g i n t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e USA h a v i n g then c e r t a i n l y a b i g d i s -
advantage which i n t h e w o r s t case can c u t them c o m p l e t e l y o f f f r o m b u s i n e s s .

Stock management improvement has t o aim on enhancing t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f

reasonable f o r e c a s t i n g o f coming s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s and t h e i r m a t e r i a l demand i n
terms o f p r o p p a n t type, g r a i n s i z e and q u a n t i t y . T h i s task needs c o n t i n u o u s mar-
k e t survey w i t h c l o s e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o r i g i n a l sources and d e f i n i t e l y r e q u i r e s
a r e g i o n a l European c o n t a c t o f f i c e as w e l l as f r e q u e n t t r a v e l l i n g f o r v i s i t i n g
and i n t e r v i e w i n g s t i m u l a t i o n s p e c i a l i s t s and commercial r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n p r o -
d u c t i o n and s e r v i c e companies i n o r d e r t o r e c e i v e t h e most a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n
f o r t h e p l a n n i n g o f t h e p h y s i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e proppant q u a n t i t i e s .

W h i l e d i r e c t s a l e s o f proppants t o p r o d u c t i o n companies as end u s e r s have

been performed a l r e a d y i n a few cases i n E a s t e r n Europe ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.4.4.),
t h i s s t r a t e g y would be more o r l e s s a m a r k e t i n g i n n o v a t i o n f o r Western Europe
( e x c e p t o f e a r l i e r l i m i t e d d e a l s w i t h some p r o d u c t i o n companies which have
t h e i r own in-house s e r v i c e branch f o r s m a l l e r j o b s ) , b u t f o r t h e reasons d i s c u s -
sed above, t h i s change o f t h e m a r k e t i n g t r e n d would be more than s e l f - u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g and c o u l d c o n s i d e r a b l y h e l p t o secure business f o r a l l t h e p a r t i c i p a -
t i n g p a r t i e s by o f f e r i n g c o m p e t i t i v e s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n company by i n -
t e n s i f y i n g t h e p r i c e b i d d i n g o f t h e s e r v i c e companies t o g e t t h e j o b which,
once p r o p p a n t p r i c e mark-up i s s m a l l e r than i t used t o be, w i l l have t o c h i e f l y
o r even a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y c o n c e n t r a t e on s e r v i c e r a t e s and t h u s e f f i c i e n c y o f
work, and f e a s i b i l i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y o f equipment.

2.4.6. Eastern Europe 1987 - 1990

I n c o n t r a s t t o Western Europe where t h e expected boom o f s t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e
p e r i o d 1987 - 1990 i n t h e N o r t h Sea i s p a r t i a l l y t h e r e s u l t o f t h e r e c o v e r y o f
t h e hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y a f t e r t h e m a j o r breakdown due t o t h e o i l p r i c e drop i n
e a r l y 1986, and p a r t i a l l y was anyway scheduled i n t h e frame of l o n g - t e r m o i l -
and e s p e c i a l l y g a s - f i e l d development p l a n s t h a t were c o n t r o l l e d by t h e e x t r a o r -
d i n a r y o f f s h o r e l o g i s t i c a l s i t u a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.8.1.), t h e more o r l e s s i n -
dependence o f t h e E a s t e r n European market f r o m o i l p r i c e t r a g e d i e s and US $ ex-
change r a t e c r i s e s up t o a c e r t a i n degree ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . ) i s t h e reason
f o r t h e absence o f a s p e c i a l b o o s t i n t h i s area d u r i n g t h e n e x t y e a r s . E a s t e r n
Europe i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n t h e v e r y near f u t u r e by c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e e x i s t i n g
and a l r e a d y f i r m l y p l a n n e d campaigns and p r o j e c t s as w e l l as by performance o f
a d d i t i o n a l j o b s as a consequence o f s u c c e s s f u l p r o m o t i o n by b o t h e x t e r n a l mar-
k e t i n g a c t i v i t y and i n t e r n a l economical f o r c e t o a m e l i o r a t e p r o d u c t i o n f o r en-
hanced domestic s u p p l y p a r t i c u l a r l y i n case o f renewed severe w i n t e r s compa-
r a b l e t o t h a t i n e a r l y 1987, a l t h o u g h t h e r i s k o f t e c h n i c a l d e l a y and adminis-
t r a t i v e postponement o f o p e r a t i o n s i s i n p a r t s o f E a s t e r n Europe much g r e a t e r
than i n Western Europe.
 224

2.4.6.1. General aspects

The main n e c e s s i t y i n t h e near f u t u r e f o r many European c o u n t r i e s , b u t p a r t i -
c u l a r l y f o r E a s t e r n Europe, i s t o i n c r e a s e b o t h r e l a t i v e and a b s o l u t e amount o f
domestic hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y t h e i n c r e a s i n g urban and i n -
d u s t r i a l demand ( w h i c h t h e severe w i n t e r 1986/87 has d r a s t i c a l l y u n d e r l i n e d
t h a t had p a r t i c u l a r l y t e r r i b l e e f f e c t s o f energy s h o r t a g e i n Romania and was i n
f a c t t h e w o r s t w i n t e r s i n c e a b t . 40 y e a r s ; R I G A S S I 1985, 1986) and t o a c h i e v e
some more independence f r o m u n f a v o u r a b l e changes o f t h e p o l i t i c a l and economi-
c a l framework. As e x p l o r a t i o n d r i l l i n g has i n p a r t s o f t h e areas a l r e a d y r e a -
ched such a mature stage t h a t s p e c t a c u l a r new d i s c o v e r i e s seem t o be n o t v e r y
l i k e l y and t h e p o s s i b l e i n c r e a s e o f p r o d u c i n g f i e l d s by new e x p l o r a t i o n h i t s
m i g h t be compensated by d e c l i n i n g o u t p u t f r o m o l d e r p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e p l e t e d
f i e l d s , t h e o n l y r e a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t impact i s seen i n m a j o r s t i m u l a t i o n cam-
p a i g n s i n e x i s t i n g f i e l d s and h i t h e r t o m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s .

Unless a comprehensive agreement on l i m i t a t i o n o f s t r a t e g i c a l c o n v e n t i o n a l

and n u c l e a r arms and a ban o f t h e t h r e a t o f a space war i s reached between USA
and USSR r e a s o n a b l y soon, t h e urgency o f t h e E a s t e r n European c o u n t r i e s t o ame-
l i o r a t e t h e i r own hydrocarbon s u p p l y i s c o n s i d e r e d t o become even more s e r i o u s
w i t h i n t h e n e x t few y e a r s ( c f . a l s o R I G A S S I 1985), t h u s a l s o i n c r e a s i n g t h e ne-
c e s s i t y o f s t i m u l a t i o n i n o r d e r t o achieve as much as p o s s i b l e p o l i t i c a l a u t a r -
k y and power. Many areas o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g can be expec-
ted, because so f a r i n most o f t h e c o u n t r i e s d r i l l i n g and c o n v e n t i o n a l comple-
t i o n had a h i g h e r p r i o r i t y . Some o f t h e most e v i d e n t and p a r t i a l l y a l r e a d y con-
c l u d e d p r o j e c t s i n Y u g o s l a v i a and Hungary, USSR, o t h e r E a s t e r n European coun-
t r i e s , and Southern Europe and N o r t h e r n A f r i c a a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s ,
and comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on China.

2.4.6.2. Yugoslavia and Hungary

Y u g o s l a v i a p r o b a b l y remains t o be t h e most i m p o r t a n t area i n terms o f hydrau-
l i c p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n i n E a s t e r n Europe because o f t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e
MHF campaign ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.3.1.; r e i n f o r c e d by t h e f a c t t h a t i n v e s t m e n t f o r
t h e proppants f o r a l l t h e planned j o b s has a l r e a d y been made, c f . s e c t i o n
2.4.2.4.1.1., and t h e w e l l s which o r i g i n a l l y have been d r i l l e d f o r t h e purpose
t o be subsequently f r a c t u r e d , a r e p r e s e n t l y s h u t - i n and a r e w a i t i n g on f r a c t u -
r i n g t o be a b l e t o be produced) t h a t was p a r t i a l l y suspended and r e s c h e d u l e d
f o l l o w i n g d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l n a t i o n a l economical s i t u a t i o n a f t e r t h e
o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e i n e a r l y 1986. The b e s t p r o m o t i o n o f a r a p i d e x e c u t i o n o f t h e
r e s t o f t h e MHF p r o j e c t i s t h e p a r t i a l l y e x c e l l e n t r e s u l t o f t h e f i r s t p a r t o f
t h e l a r g e - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t campaign i n 1986 which gave a f a s t p a y - o u t o f t h e t o -
t a l s t i m u l a t i o n expenses.

A p a r t f r o m t h e MHF j o b s b e i n g f i n a n c e d by t h e Yugoslavians themselves w i t h -

o u t any e x t e r n a l h e l p , t h e independent World Bank Petroleum P r o j e c t ( c f . SAUN-
DERS & S H I R A Z I 1988) i n c l u d e s a s u i t e o f s m a l l e r f r a c t u r e j o b s where a l s o b o t h
i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y and h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants a r e g o i n g t o be
used. V a r i o u s r e s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o w a i t i n g on s m a l l - t o medium-scale t r e a t m e n t
w i t h sand p o t e n t i a l l y f o l l o w e d by a t a i l - i n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h
proppants, w i t h t h e l a t t e r j o b s , however, p r e f e r e n t i a l l y b e i n g o p e r a t e d by t h e
Yugoslavian companies w i t h own equipment. The scheduled purchase o f h i g h - p r e s -
sure equipment aims on i n c r e a s i n g independence e n a b l i n g t h e Yugoslavians t o c a r -
r y o u t a l s o l a r g e r f r a c t u r e j o b s w i t h o u t t h e s u p p o r t o f Western s e r v i c e compa-
nies.

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s a l s o planned i n Hungary i n those p a r t s o f

t h e f i e l d zone w h i c h e x t e n d f r o m Y u g o s l a v i a across t h e s t a t e boundary as w e l l
as i n o t h e r r e g i o n s i n Southwestern and E a s t e r n Hungary, w i t h most o f t h e t r e a t -
ments b e i n g i n c l u d e d i n t h e c u r r e n t World Bank P e t r o l e u m P r o j e c t and b e i n g done
w i t h sand and/or i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s .
 225

2.4.6.3. USSR
Other a c t i v i t y i n Eastern Europe i s so f a r d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t . C e r t a i n l y
t r a d i t i o n a l sand f r a c t u r i n g w i l l continue i n the USSR w i t h own high-pressure
equipment o f American provenance which has been bought s t i l l b e f o r e t h e sanc-
t i o n s enacted by P r e s i d e n t C a r t e r i n 1978 t h a t have i n the meantime f i n a l l y
been l i f t e d by P r e s i d e n t Reagan i n e a r l y 1987 (ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE NACHRICHTEN
1987 a, LANDERS 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.4.2.) came i n t o f o r c e . Some aspects o f
h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l , i m p o r t vs. domestic manufacturing o f
h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants, s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f o i l and gas e x p l o i -
t a t i o n , and p r i o r i t y o f petroleum development vs. o i l p r i c e l e v e l are discussed
as f o l l o w s .

2.4.6.3.1. Hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l

H y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l o f p a r t i a l l y even massive s i z e i n
the n e x t few years i s p a r t i c u l a r l y seen i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas-bearing sandsto-
nes i n t h e o l d gas f i e l d s Shebelinskoe/Ukraina (3,000 - 4,000 m r e s e r v o i r
depth; c f . tab. 9), Stavropolskoe/Northern Caucasus (2,000 - 3,000 m depth), Sa-
ratovskoe (2,000 m depth) and Krasnodarskoe (3,000 - 4,000 m depth). I n the new
gas f i e l d s Orenburgskoe (3,000 - 4,000 m depth) and Karatchaganakskoe o r Boro-
dinskoe (4,000 - 5,000 m depth), c o n t r a c t s w i t h N o r t h American s e r v i c e compa-
n i e s are a l r e a d y concluded f o r c a r r y i n g o u t f r a c t u r i n g treatments w i t h interme-
d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants s t i l l i n 1988 o r 1989. P o t e n t i a l f o r l a r g e r - o r smal-
l e r - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s a l s o p r e s e n t i n the o l d o i l f i e l d Sachalins-
koe (2,000 - 3,000 depth) and the new o i l and gas f i e l d s Samotlorskoe/Siberia
(2,000 m depth; t h i s i s a whole complex o f f i e l d s w i t h many p o t e n t i a l s t i m u l a -
t i o n candidates), and I r k u t s k s k o e (4,000 m depth). Other p r o l i f i c o i l and gas
f i e l d s where h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g w i l l become i m p o r t a n t i n the near f u -
t u r e are s i t u a t e d i n Astrachan a t t h e n o r t h e r n border o f the Caspian Sea, i n
the area n o r t h o f the Black Sea, and i n the surroundings o f I r k u t s k and Novosi-
b i r s k . P a r t i c u l a r problems p r e s e n t l y e x i s t i n sour gas e x p l o r a t i o n and produc-
t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y i n Orenburgskoe and Astrahanskoe/Lower Volga).

2.4.6.3.2. Import vs. domestic manufacturing

o f h igh-s t rengt h proppant s
The USSR has a l a r g e s u i t e o f o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s i n v a r i o u s g e o l o g i c a l
formations and i n d i f f e r e n t depth ranges and as t h e r e i s h i t h e r t o e i t h e r no pos-
s i b i l i t y o r no i n t e n t i o n o f domestic manufacturing, i t i s o n l y a q u e s t i o n o f
time (and o f p r i o r i t y i n the governmental planning) when i n t e r m e d i a t e - and/or
h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants w i l l be purchased from Western s u p p l i e r s f o r a p p l i c a -
t i o n i n p r e f e r e n t i a l l y deep t i g h t o i l and gas w e l l s i n t h e USSR.

Although according t o t h e general s t a t e o f the i n d u s t r y , i t has t o be assu-

med t h a t i f r e q u i r e d t h e USSR c e r t a i n l y has p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f domestic produc-
t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c proppants i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y , i t i s almost c e r t a i n t h a t
a t l e a s t d u r i n g the n e x t few years, man-made proppants w i l l have t o be imported
i n t o t h e USSR f o r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n treatments i n t h a t country, and o n l y l a t e r
t h e r e might be an o p t i o n f o r t h e Russians t o proceed t o domestic f a b r i c a t i o n
which, however, m i g h t be a more expensive approach i n c l u d i n g q u i t e some r e j e c t s
and s u b - s p e c i f i c a t i o n m a t e r i a l b e f o r e the advanced experience o f the t r a d i t i o -
n a l proppant producers can be met and proppants o f comparable q u a l i t y can be
made i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y f o r widespread and u n r e s t r i c t e d a p p l i c a t i o n accor-
d i n g t o the requirements ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 2.4.4.3.1.).
 226

2.4.6.3.3. Sign if i cance of intensif icat ion

o f oil and gas exploitation
I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f oil and gas e x p l o i t a t i o n has c u r r e n t l y a v e r y h i g h p r i o r i -
t y i n t h e g e n e r a l s t a t e i n d u s t r i a l p l a n n i n g (KINNEY 1987, ORASIANU 1 9 8 7 ) , and
t h e new f i v e - y e a r p l a n ( 1 9 8 6 - 1990) c o n t a i n s t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o d e c r e a s e o i l
c o n s u m p t i o n b y p r o g r e s s i v e l y s u b s t i t u t i n g o i l b y gas, w h i c h r e s u l t s i n t h e n e -
c e s s i t y o f i n c r e a s i n g n a t u r a l gas p r o d u c t i o n t h a t i n d i s p e n s i b l y i n c l u d e s q u i t e
some s t i m u l a t i o n (ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL 1985 b, EBEL 1986, ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE
NACHRICHTEN 1986 a ) . The e c o n o m i c a l i m p e t u s o f i n c r e a s i n g o i l p r o d u c t i o n b y a l l
p o s s i b l e means i s t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g i m p o r t a n c e of o i l e x p o r t s f o r f o r e i g n t r a d e
b y b e i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h g a s t h e s o u r c e o f some 6 0 % o f c o n v e r t i b l e c u r r e n c y e a r n -
i n g (STERN 1986; c f . s e c t i o n s 2 . 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . and 2 . 4 . 4 . 1 . 4 . ) . W h i l e p a r t i c u l a r l y
o i l p r o d u c t i o n has s t e a d i l y d e c l i n e d s i n c e 1984, t h e e c o n o m i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f
i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i o n a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h has c o n s i d e r a b l y a c c e l e r a -
t e d e x p l o i t a t i o n c u l m i n a t i n g so f a r b y m i d 1988 i n a h i t h e r t o r e c o r d o u t p u t ,
w i t h t h e p r o g r e s s i v e improvement o f o i l p r o d u c t i o n s i n c e t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c o l -
l a p s e h a v i n g e n a b l e d t h e USSR t o e x p o r t b o t h i n 1987 and 1988 h i g h e r q u a n t i t i e s
o f o i l t h a n e v e r b e f o r e , and a l s o gas p r o d u c t i o n has r e a c h e d i t s so f a r c l i m a x
l e v e l i n e a r l y 1988 ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1988 b; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . 1 . 5 . ) .

2.4.6.3.4. P r i o r i t y o f petroleum development vs. oil price level

T h i s i s t h e r e s u l t o f p e t r o l e u m d e v e l o p m e n t commanding t o p p r i o r i t y i n t h e
USSR s i n c e s e v e r a l y e a r s d e s p i t e t h e i n t e r v e n i n g 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h , w i t h t h e
USSR even a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e d r o p h a v i n g s t i l l a g a i n b o o s t e d i t s e f f o r t s
t o s u s t a i n and expand o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n and e x p o r t s , w h i l e o n t h e o t h e r
hand a t t h e same t i m e i n t h e USA, p e t r o l e u m has f a l l e n t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e g o -
v e r n m e n t a l p r i o r i t y l i s t and l a c k i n g c o n f i d e n c e i n f u t u r e i n v e s t m e n t o f c a p i t a l
l e a d s t o postponement o f any p r o j e c t s i f o n l y s l i g h t d o u b t s a r e c a s t on t h e i r
i r r e v o c a b l e e c o n o m i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y i n v a r i o u s s c e n a r i o s (KINNEY 1 9 8 7 ) . The p e r -
s i s t i n g t o p p r i o r i t y o f p e t r o l e u m d e v e l o p m e n t and t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n c r e a -
s i n g o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n i s a l s o u n d e r l i n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o i l p r i c e
c r a s h i n 1986 was t h e r e a s o n t h a t f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e s i n c e t h e Second W o r l d
War, t h e t o t a l f o r e i g n t r a d e v a l u e o f t h USSR s l a s h e d b y a b t . 10 % i n 1986,
w i t h m o s t o f t h e d r o p stemming f r o m l o w e r o i l and gas p r i c e s ( O I L GAS JOURNAL
1987 h; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . 1 . ) .

2.4.6.4. China
I n a s i m i l a r way as f o r t h e USSR, an i n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l c a n be
e x p e c t e d i n China, because t h e new C h i n e s e f i v e - y e a r p l a n ( 1 9 8 6 - 1990) a l s o i n -
c l u d e s t h e commitment o f s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s i n g d o m e s t i c o i l and g a s p r o d u c -
t i o n (REID 1981, EBEL 1986, ENERGIEWIRTSCHAFT 1986 a, WONG 1 9 8 7 ) , and w h i l e c e r -
t a i n l y much a d d i t i o n a l c a p a c i t y i s e x p e c t e d t o come f r o m s u c c e s s f u l o f f s h o r e e x -
p l o r a t i o n , economical e x p l o i t a t i o n w i l l be i n d i s p e n s i b l y l i n k e d w i t h h y d r a u l i c
proppant f r a c t u r i n g ( a s p e c t s o f f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n i n China a r e discussed
b y L I & ZHU 1986 and PARKER, ADAMS & LIANKUI 1 9 8 6 ) . The m a r k e t p e r s p e c t i v e i s
i n c r e a s i n g , because a r e s t r u c t u r i n g campaign c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t i n t h e USSR
( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 4 . 5 . 4 . ) i s a l s o t a k i n g p l a c e i n C h i n a and i s t o s t r e a m l i n e and
d e c e n t r a l i z e o i l and g a s i n d u s t r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n s (KHIN 1 9 8 8 ) .
R e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f energy i n d u s t r y , r e l a x a t i o n o f o f f s h o r e c o n t r a c t terms, con-
s i d e r a b l e o f f s h o r e d i s c o v e r i e s , and e x t e n s i v e o f f s h o r e and o n s h o r e d e v e l o p m e n t s
a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l h i g h l i g h t s o f a c t i v i t y i n C h i n a i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1988,
and i n 1987, d r i l l i n g i n c r e a s e d f o r t h e e i g h t h c o n s e c u t i v e y e a r , m o v i n g C h i n a
i n t o t h e t h i r d r a n k a f t e r USA and USSR i n d r i l l i n g .

Some t i m e ago, C h i n a e v e n p r e s e n t e d i t s own h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s w h i c h du-

r i n g t e s t s i n Western r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r i e s have been p r o v e n t o be o f good qua-
 227

l i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) , b u t l a t e r n o t v e r y much was heard about a p p l i c a -

t i o n and w h i l e q u i t e some domestic pumping o f t h e m a t e r i a l can be assumed, t h e
Chinese proppants so f a r were never i n s e r t e d i n t o a f r a c t u r e i n f o r e i g n coun-
t r i e s . So f a r b o t h n a t u r a l sand and h i g h - s t r e n g t h b a u x i t e proppants have a l r e a -
dy been pumped i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n China, w i t h t o t a l p r o p p a n t
q u a n t i t i e s n o t exceeding 120 t i n many o p e r a t i o n s ( L I & ZHU 1986). F i e l d expe-
r i e n c e has shown t h a t i n v a r i o u s cases, f r a c t u r e s propped w i t h l o w e r c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s o f b a u x i t e have b e t t e r c o n d u c t i v i t i e s than c r a c k s plugged w i t h h i g h e r sa-
t u r a t i o n s o f sand. The use o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants as t a i l - i n a f t e r t h e i n -
j e c t i o n o f sand as main proppant l o a d g i v e s l i t t l e s u p e r i o r i t y i n g e t t i n g b e t -
t e r f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , w i t h an u n i f o r m p r o p p a n t package t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d i n g
t h e optimum r e s u l t .

2.4.6.5. Other Eastern European countries

Germany GDR which has l i m i t e d domestic s u p p l y by gas p r o d u c t i o n f r o m R o t l i e -
gend sandstones t h a t i s n o t m e e t i n g t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e demand ( c f . s e c t i o n
3.10.2.2.) and i n l i g h t o f p r o b a b l y no l o n g e r r e c e i v i n g s u f f i c i e n t d e l i v e r y
f r o m t h e USSR i s assessed t o be sooner o r l a t e r f o r c e d t o enhance o f f t a k e by
l a r g e r - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c proppant s t i m u l a t i o n than done so f a r . Several o i l - and
gas-bearing f o r m a t i o n s i n s m a l l e r o r l a r g e r f i e l d s which would r e q u i r e s t i m u l a -
t i o n f o r achievement o f adequate p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s a r e a l s o p r e s e n t onshore and
o f f s h o r e i n Poland, Romania ( c f . ORASINAU 1986) and B u l g a r i a and a r e e x p e c t e d
t o come t o c o n c l u s i o n and j o b e x e c u t i o n w i t h i n t h e n e x t few y e a r s .

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l can be r e a s o n a b l y assumed i n e v e r y
E a s t e r n European c o u n t r y , b u t t h e o p e r a t i o n s a r e expected t o t a k e i n some s t a -
t e s such as Czechoslovakia, B u l g a r i a and p a r t i c u l a r l y A l b a n i a ( w h i c h has a spe-
c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f f o r e i g n a f f a i r p o l i c y ) s t i l l some t i m e o f p r e p a r a t i o n f o r
v a r i o u s circumstances o f b o t h t e c h n i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e n a t u r e . The d i s c o v e -
r i e s i n t h e B a l t i c Sea which have so f a r been made m a i n l y i n i t s e a s t e r n p a r t
a r e h i t h e r t o n o t commercial and development would p r e s e n t m a j o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l
hazards (OIL GAS JOURNAL 1987 b ) , w h i l e i n t h e p r o m i s i n g western p a r t r e c e n t l y
t h e g e o l o g i c a l model c o l l a p s e d , and s t r u c t u r a l r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and r e t h i n k i n g
i s necessary i n o r d e r t o upgrade t h i s p a r t o f t h e o i l and gas p r o v i n c e .

2.4.6.6. Southern Europe and Northern A f r i c a

I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i n t h e E a s t e r n European complex,
a l s o some h i g h l i g h t s f r o m Southern Europe and N o r t h e r n A f r i c a deserve a t t e n -
t i o n . Turkey s h o u l d be p r i m a r i l y mentioned i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n as a n o t h e r area
o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l where f o l l o w i n g t h e s u c c e s s f u l h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g campaigns i n 1986 and e a r l i e r y e a r s q u i t e some t r e a t m e n t s
t o be c a r r i e d o u t w i t h sand and/or i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y p r o p p a n t s
i n s e v e r a l gas f i e l d s a r e scheduled f o r 1987 and succeeding y e a r s ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.4.2.4.2.2.).

O t h e r p o t e n t i a l areas o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g w i t h sand and/or i n -

t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s a r e A l g e r i a , L i b y a , Oman, G u l f o f Gui-
nea (Gabon, Cameroun and N i g e r i a ) , Angola, Congo and Z a i r e i n N o r t h e r n A f r i c a
as w e l l as I n d i a and P a k i s t a n i n t h e f a r t h e r M i d d l e E a s t . I n t h e F a r East, sys-
t e m a t i c a l f r a c t u r i n g i s n o t c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e moment, and o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y
f r a c t u r i n g j o b s a r e performed w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y n a t u r a l sand. I n t h e M i d d l e
East, t h e overwhelming share o f carbonates i n t h e s u i t e o f r e s e r v o i r s i s t h e
reason why a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i s done i n t h i s area. I n South
America, p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g focusses on B r a z i l and A r g e n t i n a , whereas Venezue-
l a i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c i d f r a c t u r i n g . Proppant f r a c t u r i n g has f o r m e r l y a l s o
been c a r r i e d o u t i n Peru. While i n most o f t h e mentioned c o u n t r i e s f r a c t u r e s t i -
m u l a t i o n i s c h i e f l y made w i t h n a t u r a l sand, e s p e c i a l l y i n B r a z i l and A l g e r i a va-
r i o u s types o f s y n t h e t i c proppants a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e p r o j e c t s o f w e l l
 228

treatment

2 . 5 . Concluding assessment o f proppant marketing potential

As a consequence o f t h e r e g i o n a l m a r k e t i n g assessment c o m p r i s i n g r e v i e w , s t a -
t u s and f o r e c a s t , and i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h an o u t l i n e o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l perspec-
t i v e s o f enhancement o f t h e p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s and t h u s e x t e n s i o n o f t h e
market ( c h a p t e r 4 ) , c o n c l u s i o n can be made t h a t p r o v i d e d an a g a i n more s t a b l e
o i l p r i c e a t a reasonable l e v e l ( c f . a l s o ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE NACHRICHTEN 1986
b ) , p a r t i a l l y a l s o a more f a v o u r a b l e h i g h e r US $ exchange r a t e ( e s p e c i a l l y i n
Western Europe) and an adequate p r i c i n g of proppants and s e r v i c e based on h i g h
t e c h n i c a l q u a l i t y , b o t h Western and E a s t e r n Europe a r e growing s t i m u l a t i o n mar-
k e t s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g demand o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s f o r hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n c l u d i n g p r o m o t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t s i n mar-
g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e near f u t u r e ( a s t a b l e h i g h e r o i l p r i c e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o
b e n e f i t a l l p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s i n c l u d i n g OPEC members, because d u r i n g t h e 1986
c r i s i s , even Saudi A r a b i a has suspended some o f i t s f u t u r e c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e
programmes; GRIFFITHS 1986). C a r e f u l m a r k e t i n g approach w i t h s t r a t e g i e s i n t e g r a -
t i n g geological, r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g , t e c h n i c a l and economical concepts a r e
e s s e n t i a l f o r d e v e l o p i n g o f new a r e a l markets where so f a r s t i m u l a t i o n has n o t
had such a s i g n i f i c a n c e as i n p a r t s o f Western Europe o r i n t h e USA.

Proppant m a r k e t i n g f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s i n Europe

n o t so much depending on s c i e n t i f i c , t e c h n i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g aspects o f p r o p -
p a n t c h o i c e f o r t h e s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n , b u t r e q u i r e s i n comparison w i t h t h e
USA much more d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n due t o d i f f e r e n t economical, f i n a n c i a l and menta-
l i t y - d e r i v e d aspects i n t h e spectrum o f c o u n t r i e s speaking n o t o n l y a s u i t e o f
d i f f e r e n t languages, b u t h a v i n g a l s o more o r l e s s d i f f e r e n t s t r a t e g i c a l p l a n -
n i n g and p r a c t i c a l e x e c u t i o n o f hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n . The main t a s k o f t e c h -
n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d m a r k e t i n g concepts f o r a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t s i n t h e n e a r f u -
t u r e i s p r o m o t i o n a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f enhancement
o f economical f e a s i b i l i t y o f m a r g i n a l o i l - and g a s - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s ( c h a p t e r
4 ) which w i l l have t o c o n t r i b u t e i n i n c r e a s i n g amounts t o t h e o v e r a l l produc-
t i o n w i t h continuing decline o f the supply from conventional r e s e r v o i r s .
 229

3 . R o t l i e g e n d S t i m u l a t i o n i n E u r o p e

3.0.Summary a n d a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s

The R o t l i e g e n d (Lower Permian) c o n t i n e n t a l r e d bed r e s e r v o i r complex c o n t a i n i n g

l a r g e amounts o f gas i n B r i t i s h and Dutch N o r t h Sea as w e l l as N e t h e r l a n d s and
Germany FRG onshore has t h e g r e a t e s t h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l o f
a l l European h y d r o c a r b o n - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s . Numerous MHF t r e a t m e n t s i n t i g h t
R o t l i e g e n d gas sandstone pay h o r i z o n s have a l r e a d y been c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g t h e
l a s t t e n y e a r s and w i l l be performed i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e , w i t h p r o p p a n t q u a n t i -
t i e s o f up t o 650 t p e r w e l l b e i n g i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced
c r a c k s d u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s w h i c h c o s t up t o s e v e r a l Mio. US $. The economi-
c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f R o t l i e g e n d p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s u n d e r l i n e d by t h e f a c t
t h a t a b t . 100 B i l l . m3 ( 4 T c f ) and 500 B i l l . m3 (20 T c f ) gas r e s e r v e s i n Germa-
ny FRG and N o r t h Sea, r e s p e c t i v e l y , can o n l y be a c q u i s i t e d and f e a s i b l y produ-
ced by l a r g e - s c a l e s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h e t i g h t pay zones. S u c c e s s f u l jumbo t r e a t -
ments a r e a b l e t o v e r i f y and c o n f i r m up t o 500 Mio. m3 (20 B c f ) o f a d d i t i o n a l
gas r e s e r v e s , and t h i s f a s t a m o r t i z a t i o n i s t h e most pronounced j u s t i f i c a t i o n
f o r t h e performance o f s u p e r g i a n t s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s i n R o t l i e g e n d and a l s o
C a r b o n i f e r o u s t i g h t p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l s . The h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g po-
t e n t i a l o f R o t l i e g e n d and a l s o C a r b o n i f e r o u s r e s e r v o i r s , t o m i n o r amounts a l s o
B u n t s a n d s t e i n (Lower T r i a s s i c ) pay zones, i s i n f l u e n c e d by v a r i o u s g e o l o g i c a l
and p e t r o p h y s i c a l f a c t o r s g i v i n g r i s e t o a zoned o r g a n i z a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r qua-
l i t y and t h u s a l s o s t i m u l a t i o n n e c e s s i t y . D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between p r i m a -
r y p e t r o p h y s i c a l z o n a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o r e s e r v o i r r o c k p e r m e a b i l i t y , secondary
geochemical z o n a t i o n due t o gas c o m p o s i t i o n , and t e r t i a r y p o l i t i c a l z o n a t i o n o f
R o t l i e g e n d gas r e s e r v o i r s w i t h f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s as a consequen-
ce o f o r g a n i z a t i o n and dynamics o f t h e economical and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e systems i n
t h e t e r r i t o r i e s where t h e gas f i e l d s a r e l o c a t e d . C o n s i d e r a b l e shares o f i n e r t
n i t r o g e n accompanying t h e c o m b u s t i b l e methane i s t h e m a j o r geochemical drawback
o f r e s e r v o i r p r o s p e c t i v i t y and t h u s a l s o h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n -
t i a l i n s e v e r a l areas o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d B a s i n c o m p r i s i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y German
N o r t h Sea and Germany GDR onshore. The R o t l i e g e n d i n Germany FRG i s s t r a t i g r a -
p h i c a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e pay s t o r e y s w i t h d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y p e t r o p h y s i c a l po-
t e n t i a l a n d / o r secondary r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g r e q u i r e m e n t o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g w i t h i n t h e Weser-Elbe p r o v i n c e o r E a s t Hannover f a c i e s zone
(Wechselfolge f a c i e s b e l t ) . The Schneverdingen-Formation c o n t a i n i n g t h e Schne-
v e r d i n g e n - S a n d s t e i n a t t h e base o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d succession i n Germany FRG i s
e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e Lower S l o c h t e r e n - F o r m a t i o n i n N e t h e r l a n d s and Dutch N o r t h
Sea, and t h e Emden-Formation i n c l u d i n g t h e H a u p t s a n d s t e i n i n t h e m i d d l e s e c t i o n
o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d p r o f i l e i n Germany FRG c o r r e l a t e s w i t h t h e Upper S l o c h t e r e n -
F o r m a t i o n i n N e t h e r l a n d s and D u t c h N o r t h Sea. The Hannover-Formation c o n t a i n i n g
t h e Wustrow-Sandstein and v a r i o u s o t h e r Wechselfolge sandstones a t t h e t o p o f
t h e R o t l i e g e n d s e r i e s i n Germany FRG corresponds w i t h t h e Ten Boer-Formation i n
N e t h e r l a n d s and Dutch N o r t h Sea. The a e o l i a n dune Schneverdingen-Sandstein
( a b t . 20 - 50 m i l l i d a r c y ) i n t h e l o w e r p a r t and t h e f l u v i a l Wustrow-Sandstein
( a b t . 5 - 10 m i l l i d a r c y ) i n t h e upper s e c t i o n o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d sequence o f t h e
Weser-Elbe f a c i e s p r o v i n c e i n Germany FRG a r e g e n e r a l l y moderate- t o h i g h - p e r -
m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s n o t r e q u i r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n , whereas t h e a e o l i a n and p l a y a
sand f l a t H a u p t s a n d s t e i n (below 1 m i l l i d a r c y down t o a b t . 0.5 - 1 m i c r o d a r c y )
i n t h e m i d d l e p o r t i o n i s m a i n l y a l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y t o t i g h t r e s e r v o i r and R o t -
l i e g e n d MHF t r e a t m e n t s a r e u s u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t i n t h i s h o r i z o n . I n t h e B r i t i s h
N o r t h Sea, d i s t i n c t i o n i s made between two l a t e r a l l y i n t e r t o n g u i n g u n i t s i n t h e
R o t l i e g e n d s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l complex b e i n g t h e Leman Sandstone F o r m a t i o n w h i c h
c o n s i s t s o f c l e a n a e o l i a n and f l u v i a l sandstones a t t h e s o u t h e r n and w e s t e r n ba-
s i n margins, and t h e i n t e r d i g i t a t i n g S i l v e r p i t F o r m a t i o n i n t h e b a s i n c e n t r e
t h a t i s b u i l t up o f m a r g i n a l a e o l i a n / p l a y a and l a c u s t r i n e sandstones, s i l t s t o -
nes, mudstones and e v a p o r i t e s . The R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r complexes i n t h e Mid-Eu-
ropean B a s i n ( S o u t h e r n Permian B a s i n ) a r e m a i n l y c o n c e n t r a t e d t o t h e a e o l i a n f a -
c i e s b e l t s e p a r a t i n g t h e m a r g i n a l a l l u v i a l - f a n c h a i n and b r a i d e d r i v e r p l a i n
 230

from the central playa sand flat and desert lake area. While cross-stratified
aeolian dune sands and horizontal-laminated dry sheet sands represent excellent
reservoirs usually not necessitating permeability improvement by hydraulic prop-
pant fracturing, tight facies units originate by increasing humidity in the de-
positional area of a damp to wet playa sand and mud flat in the Wechselfolge fa-
cies belt, with the finer-grained and poorer-sorted intercalations chiefly dete-
riorating vertical permeability. The main primary-depositional features of per-
meability destruction that are secondarily requiring enhancement of transmissi-
bility by hydraulic proppant fracturing are adhesion of sand and mud during
transitional stages between dry, damp and wet playa and floodplain surfaces as
well as sedimentation of thin mud drapes as a consequence of interdune and over-
bank sandflat flooding by fluvial invasion and atmospherical precipitation. Re-
servoir quality is influenced by facies development and changes as a consequen-
ce of palaeoenvironmental, palaeoclimatological and palaeotectonical history of
the Rotliegend Basin. In some areas, the facies complex succession also re-
flects an evolution of fluvial style including progressive expansion of the al-
luvial braided-river system within the depositional basin as the marginal fan
chains and the associated aeolian dune belt shrink in extension or retreat fur-
ther towards the border of the sedimentary area as a consequence of basin enlar-
gement by stepwise onlap on the fringing highlands with successive infilling of
the trough. Progressive diminution of the degree of braiding of the river sys-
tems as the erosional highlands in the provenance area are denudated, decrea-
sing palaeoslope gradient, declining amount and grain size of clastic material
delivered from the source region, and ceasing transport capacity of the channel
network give rise to enlargement of interstream overbank flats where upon desic-
cation and reasonable persistance of quiet aquatic sedimentary conditions migra-
tion of aeolian dunes and accumulation of aeolian sheet sands from the detritus
deflated from emerged sand and gravel bars in the shallow to moderately deep
braided river channels is becoming more and more widespread, or reversely is di-
minishing in importance in case of successively increasing frequency and exten-
sion of alluvial inundations by flood pulses overtopping the channel banks at
high stage in combination with high ground water level as a consequence of
higher stream discharge and increasing precipitation rates once climatological
conditions are becoming damper and wetter. Apart from the primary depositional
facies zonation controlling together with the diagenetical history predominant-
ly of clay minerals the distribution of petrophysical properties, an anisotropi-
cal arrangement of hydraulic proppant fracturing potential i s also created by
the gas composition within the Rotliegend reservoir rocks. This secondary geo-
chemical zonation originates from the admixture of inert nitrogen to the combus-
tible hydrocarbons in some areas of the Rotliegend Basin, with the nitrogen con-
tent exceeding a certain boundary level no longer permitting commercial exploi-
tation of the gas accumulations. The impact of the gas composition on fractu-
ring potential can be modified or even compensated by economical and administra-
tive aspects of a tertiary political zonation based on domestic hydrocarbon de-
mand vs. supply and financial capacity. The continental-inland arid aeolian and
fluvial Rotliegend is underlain by the Carboniferous terrestrial and marginal-
marine humid fluvial and deltaic grey bed facies belt containing coal seams,
with this formation having acted both as source of the gas during coalification
and as collector by trapping considerable amounts of gas in channel and over-
bank sandstones. Above the Rotliegend and separated by the Zechstein marine eva-
porite cycle sequence including mudstones, carbonates, sulphates and salt, the
Buntsandstein continental-inland arid fluvial, aeolian and lacustrine red bed
complex has also captured gas having migrated from the Carboniferous coal seams
through faults, joints and fissures into the fluvial sheet-sand reservoirs. In
both Rotliegend and Buntsandstein, the primary depositional facies zonation was
in various parts of the basin unfavourably overprinted by secondary tectonical
deformation and subsidence. The high-quality reservoir belt in the southern
part o f the area is still at the surface or within shallow depth and therefore
is not able to retain gas, whereas the moderate- to poor-quality pay zone seam
in the northern part has been buried in several thousands of metres depth where
structural traps are well sealed and allowed the accumulation of large gas
fields. This combination of poor reservoir facies buried in suitable depth for
 231

hydrocarbon accumulation and t r a p p i n g i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e good pay f a c i e s occur-

r i n g i n s h a l l o w d e p t h o r even a t t h e s u r f a c e where gas c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s n o t pos-
s i b l e due t o l a c k o f s e a l i n g and t r a p p i n g u n d e r l i n e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e
R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n d i s t a l - m e d i a l t i g h t r e s e r v o i r f a c i e s b e l t which
c r o s s e s t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f M i d d l e Europe and t h a t r e p r e s e n t s t h e most p o t e n -
t i a l and i m p o r t a n t b e l t o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . R o t l i e g e n d gas accumu-
l a t i o n s i n Germany FRG a r e f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d beneath Z e c h s t e i n s a l t p l u g s where
t h e l o w e r t o t a l geopressure and t h e r e t a r d e d h e a t f l u x w i t h l o w e r r e s e r v o i r tem-
p e r a t u r e o f t e n p r e s e r v e d b e t t e r p o r o s i t i e s t h a n i n t h e r e g i o n s between t h e s a l t
domes. A l l t h e f o u r d i f f e r e n t sedimentary g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s have been l a i d
down i n t e m p o r a l l y s e p a r a t e d e p o s i t i o n a l b a s i n s which h o r i z o n t a l l y occupied
more o r l e s s t h e same g e o g r a p h i c a l area, r e s u l t i n g i n t h e i r v e r t i c a l superimpo-
s i t i o n i n t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l column d u r i n g course o f b u r i a l h i s t o r y . L a t e r a l -
l y , t h e v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l b a s i n s a r e n o t homogeneous, b u t i n c o n t r a s t t o p a r -
t i a l l y good c o r r e l a t i o n a l o n g s t r i k e s i g n i f i c a n t f a c i e s d i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r p e r -
p e n d i c u l a r l y t o s t r i k e , and a l s o p a r a l l e l t o t h e b a s i n margins, f r e q u e n t l y con-
s i d e r a b l e d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f d e p o s i t i o n a l environment l e a d i n g t o complex j u x t a -
p o s i t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t g e n e t i c a l sedimentary bodies i s encountered. These r e l a -
t i o n s h i p s g i v e r i s e t o v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l z o n a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t r e s e r v o i r
complexes and t o g e t h e r w i t h e f f e c t s o f hydrocarbon g e n e r a t i o n , m i g r a t i o n and ac-
c u m u l a t i o n a l s o t o segregated arrangement o f n a t u r a l gas d e p o s i t s w i t h i n t h e he-
terogeneous and a n i s o t r o p i c pay zone networks a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n t e r n a l geome-
t r i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e l a t t e r . The d i s c u s s i o n o f t e c h n i c a l and m a r k e t i n g as-
p e c t s o f R o t l i e g e n d s t i m u l a t i o n i n Europe i n c l u d e s h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l d i s -
t r i b u t i o n o f main f i e l d s , h i s t o r i c a l and a r e a l development o f p r o d u c t i o n and
f r a c t u r i n g , p e r m e a b i l i t y p r e d i c t i o n and e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y de-
t e r i o r a t i o n and c l a y m i n e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , minimum p r e - f r a c t u r i n g gas produc-
t i o n r a t e and poroperm p r o p e r t i e s , s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t and f r a c t u r i n g p o l i c y , p h i -
losophy o f o f f - and onshore e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l f r a c t u r i n g , i m p l i c a t i o n s o f f r a c t u -
r i n g p h i l o s o p h y on p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n , h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s o f
f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l , w a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y and o t h e r aspects. The e x p e r i e n c e o f
MHF s t i m u l a t i o n o f b o t h R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s sandstones i n t h e l a s t t e n
y e a r s has shown t h a t u n l e s s a c e r t a i n minimum p r e - f r a c t u r i n g gas p r o d u c t i o n
r a t e i s p r e s e n t , no economical p r o d u c e r can be achieved by c a r r y i n g o u t a hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . D u r i n g course o f f i e l d development campaigns, d i s -
t i n c t i o n can be made between s p o t f r a c t u r i n g c o m p r i s i n g s e q u e n t i a l l y d r i l l i n g ,
t e s t i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n o f one w e l l a f t e r t h e o t h e r , and b a t c h f r a c t u r i n g mean-
i n g f i r s t d r i l l i n g o f a l l t h e w e l l s one a f t e r t h e o t h e r and t h e n second i n an-
o t h e r round p e r f o r a t i n g , s t i m u l a t i n g and p u t t i n g on stream o f t h e whole se-
quence o f w e l l s s u c c e s s i v e l y . S e r v i c e b o a t c a p a c i t y i s o f t e n t h e l i m i t i n g f a c -
t o r f o r s t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e Southern N o r t h Sea. Some p a r t s o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d pay
s e r i e s a r e e x t r e m e l y w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e as a r e s u l t o f t h e c l a y m i n e r a l c o n s t e l l a -
t i o n , w i t h foamed o i l - b a s e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s b e i n g s u i t a b l e c a r r i e r s f o r t r e a t -
ment o f such r e s e r v o i r s . Carbon d i o x i d e o r n i t r o g e n can be used as foaming o r
e n e r g i z i n g agents i n such f l u i d s , and s u c c e s s f u l s t i m u l a t i o n can a l s o be p e r f o r -
med w i t h u t i l i z a t i o n o f c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d systems and low-pH methanol systems.
C o n c l u s i o n i s made t h a t t h e case s t u d y o f R o t l i e g e n d t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s r e -
f l e c t s t h e complex problems o f t e r r e s t r i a l l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay zones and h e l p s
t o understand t h e s u i t a b l e approaches o f t i g h t gas r e s e r v e s which w i l l c o n t r i -
b u t e t o t h e t o t a l w o r l d energy s u p p l y i n i n c r e a s i n g amounts d u r i n g t h e coming
y e a r s . I m p o r t a n t sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s o f f l u v i a l , a e o l i a n and l a c u s t r i n e depo-
s i t s i n R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n i l l u s t r a t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n and o r i g i n o f r e -
s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s as w e l l as i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e s i g n i -
f i c a n c e o f t h e s e f e a t u r e s f o r p r o p a g a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced f r a c t u r e s
and f u n c t i o n as f l o w b a r r i e r s o r p r e f e r e n t i a l c u r r e n t p a t h s a r e f i g u r e d i n e l e -
ven p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s t h a t a r e accompanied by d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n s w h i c h can
be e v a l u a t e d independent f r o m t h e main t e x t .

3.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................................ 236

3.1.1. General aspects ............................................. 236
3.1.2. Economical aspects .......................................... 237
3.1.2.1. R o t l i e g e n d f r a c t u r i n g p o l i c y and u n d e r s t a n d i n g .... 237
 232

3.1.2.2. F r a c t u r i n g j o b s i z e s and reserve a c q u i s i t i o n poten-

t i a l .............................................. 238
3.1.2.2.1. S t i m u l a t i o n treatment volumes and ex-
penses ................................ 238
3.1.2.2.2. Probably a c c e s s i b l e gas reserves ...... 238
3.1.3. F a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g the f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l o f R o t l i e g e n d
gas r e s e r v o i r s .............................................. 240

3.2. Distribution o f main f i e l d s ......................................... 240

3.2.1. V e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ....................................... 241
3.2.1.1. D e p o s i t i o n a l environment .......................... 241
3.2.1.1.1. R e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y and sedimentary f a -
cies .................................. 244
3.2.1.1.2. P a l a e o c l i m a t o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n ........ 244
3.2.1.1.3. Pal a e o t e c t o n i c a l and p a l aeoenvironmen-
t a l e v o l u t i o n ......................... 244
3.2.1.1.4. Other aspects ......................... 245
3.2.1.2. T e c t o n i c a l subsidence and gas accumulation ........ 245
3.2.1.2.1. .
Sedimentary vs t e c t o n i c a l b a s i n zona-
t i o n .................................. 245
3.2.1.2.2. Gas-water-contact l e v e l ............... 246
3.2.1.3. S t r a t i g r a p h y ...................................... 246
3.2.1.3.1. Germany FRG ........................... 246
3.2.1.3.2. Netherlands ........................... 247
3.2.1.3.3. B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea ............ 247
3.2.1.4. Gas composition ................................... 247
3.2.2. H o r i z o n t a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ..................................... 248
3.2.2.1. Germany FRG ....................................... 248
3.2.2.2. B r i t i s h and Dutch N o r t h Sea ....................... 248
3.2.2.3. Germany GDR and Poland ............................ 249
3.2.3. Other aspects ............................................... 249

3.3. H i s t o r i c a l development o f production and fracturing ................. 249

3.3.1. B r i t i s h N o r t h Sea ........................................... 250
3.3.1.1. Treatment s i z e and proppant q u a n t i t y .............. 250
3.3.1.2. O f f s h o r e f r a c t u r i n g technology and s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t 250
3.3.1.3. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f N o r t h Sea r e s e r v e f o r Great B r i t a i n 250
3.3.2. Germany FRG ................................................. 251
3.3.2.1. Evolution o f gas-field discovery .................. 251
3.3.2.2. Treatment s i z e and proppant q u a n t i t y .............. 251
3.3.3. Dutch N o r t h Sea ............................................. 252
3.3.4. German N o r t h Sea ............................................ 252
3.3.5. Other areas ................................................. 252

3.4. P e m a b i l i t y prediction and e f f e c t i v e permeability .................. 253

3.4.1. T i g h t r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y range .......................... 253
3.4.1.1. Sedimentological and d i a g e n e t i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f
t i g h t gas sands ................................... 254
3.4.1.1.1. B l a n k e t sandstones .................... 254
3.4.1.1.2. L e n t i c u l a r sandstones ................. 254
3.4.1.1.3. P o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s 255
3.4.1.1.4. R e s e r v o i r pressure and f o r m a t i o n damage 255
3.4.1.2. Microdarcy pay zone p e r m e a b i l i t y .................. 255
3.4.1.2.1. ..........
Absolute p e r m e a b i l i t y l e v e l s 256
3.4.1.2.2. P e r m e a b i l i t y c r e a t i o n ................. 256
3.4.1.3. P e r m e a b i l i t y s t r a t i g r a p h y ......................... 257
3.4.1.4. Gas and f l u i d f l o w i n t i g h t rock m a t r i x ........... 257
3.4.2. P e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n and p r e d i c t i o n ................... 257
3.4.2.1. P e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n ........................ 258
3.4.2.2. P e r m e a b i l i t y p r e d i c t i o n ........................... 258
3.4.2.3. P e r m e a b i l i t y v a r i a t i o n s ........................... 258
3.4.3. Temporary damage and r e s t o r a t i o n o f p e r m e a b i l i t y ............ 259
 233

3.5. permeability deterioration and clay mineral distribution ............ 259

3.5.1. Clay mineralogy and morphology .............................. 260
3.5.1.1. Clay morphology ................................... 260
3.5.1.2. Clay mineralogy ................................... 260
3.5.1.3. Detrital and authigenic clay minerals ............. 261
3.5.1.4. Other aspects ..................................... 261
3.5.2. Permeability deterioration .................................. 262
3.5.2.1. Clay mineral dispersion and water sensitivity ..... 262
3.5.2.1.1. Clay mineral dispersion control ....... 262
3.5.2.1.2. Clay mineral constellation and permea-
bility damage ......................... 263
3.5.2.1.3. Water- vs . oil-based stimulation fluids 263
3.5.2.2. Clay mineral stabilization ........................ 264
3.5.2.2.1. Low- and high-pH solutions ............ 264
3.5.2.2.2. Methanol prepad for illite preconditio-
ning .................................. 264
3.5.2.3. Clay mineral distribution and log interpretation .. 264
3.5.2.3.1. Porosity evaluation ................... 265
3.5.2.3.2. Deep filtrate invasion in tight sand-
stones ................................ 265
3.5.2.4. Negative orientation of permeability changes ...... 265
3.5.2.5. Capillary pressure and permeability relationships . 265
3.6. Minimum pre-fracturing gas production rate and poropenn properties .. 266
3.6.1. Pre-fracturing economical feasibility estimation ............ 266
3.6.1.1. Minimum fracture flow capacity and gas offtake rate 266
3.6.1.2. Minimum reservoir properties for profitable stimu-
lation ............................................ 267
3.6.1.3. Stimulation rentability classification ............ 267
3.6.2. Differences between exploration and development wells ....... 267
3.7. Stimulation cost and fracturing policy .............................. 267
3.7.1. Fracturing policy ........................................... 268
3.7.1.1. Impact of fracturing boats on stimulation strategy 268
3.7.1.2. Reservoir depth and stimulation expenses .......... 268
3.7.2. Pricing scenario ............................................ 269
3.7.3. Fracturing treatment sequence strategy ...................... 269
3.7.3.1. Spot fracturing ................................... 269
3.7.3.2. Batch fracturing .................................. 270

3.8. Philosophy of off- and onshore exploration well fracturing .......... 270
3.8.1. Philosophy of offshore exploration well fracturing .......... 270
3.8.1.1. Well evaluation and fracture design time .......... 271
3.8.1.2. Service boat capacity limit ....................... 271
3.8.2. Philosophy of onshore exploration well fracturing ........... 272
3.8.2.1. Job suspension vs . cost writing-off ............... 272
3.8.2.2. Changing aims of hydraulic fracturing ............. 272
3.9. Implications of fracturing philosophy on proppant selection ......... 273
3.9.1. Exploration strategy and stimulation testing ................ 273
3.9.1.1. Proppant cost containment and tail-in policy ...... 273
3.9.1.2. Proper interpretation of reservoir capacity ....... 274
3.9.2. Field experience and development concepts ................... 274
3.9.2.1. Advantages of intermediate-strength proppant inser-
tion .............................................. 274
3.9.2.2. Retardation of Carboniferous strikes .............. 275
3.9.3. Appraisal drilling strategy concepts and experience ......... 275
3.10. Horizontal and vertical differences of fracturing potential ......... 276
3.10.1. Permeability ................................................ 276
3.10.1.1. Depositional environment and grain size distribu-
 234

t i o n .............................................. 277
3.10.1.2. P e r m e a b i l i t y s t r a t i g r a p h y ......................... 277
3.10.1.3. Sedimentary f a c i e s and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l 278
3.10.1.3.1. Aeolian sediments ..................... 278
3.10.1.3.2. F l u v i a l and a l l u v i a l - f a n d e p o s i t s ..... 278
3.10.1.3.3. L a c u s t r i n e sediments and c a l c r e t e
palaeosols ............................ 279
3.10.1.3.4. Lateral continuity o f reservoir u n i t s . 279
3.10.2. Gas composition ............................................. 280
3.10.2.1. N i t r o g e n c o n t e n t .................................. 280
3.10.2.2. Impact o f economical systems on g a s - f i e l d o p e r a t i o n 281

3.11. Water s e n s i t i v i t y ................................................... 281

3.11.1. General aspects ............................................. 281
3.11.1.1. Water s e n s i t i v i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d .. 282
3.11.1.2. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f expandable c l a y m i n e r a l s .......... 282
3.11.2. Foam-fracturing s t i m u l a t i o n ................................. 283
3.11.2.1. Proppant t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y and foam s t a b i l i t y .... 283
3.11.2.1.1. Impact o f proppant a d d i t i o n on foam
s t a b i l i t y and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y ......... 284
3.11.2.1.2. Rheological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f foam
systems ............................... 284
3.11.2.1.3. W a l l - b u i l d i n g o f g e l - b e a r i n g foams . . . . 285
3.11.2.2. Carbon d i o x i d e vs . n i t r o g e n as foaming o r e n e r g i -
z i n g agent ........................................ 285
3.11.2.2.1. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and c o m p a t i b i l i t y..... 285
3.11.2.2.2. F l u i d s o l u b i l i t y and proppant t r a n s p o r t 286
3.11.2.2.3. Foam d e n s i t y and r e c o v e r a b i l i t y ....... 286
3.11.2.2.4. Rheological n a t u r e and t r a n s i t i o n o f
foams and emulsions ................... 286
3.11.2.3. Flow behaviour and foam v i s c o s i t y ................. 287
3.11.2.4. F l u i d recovery and w e l l cleanup ................... 287
3.11.2.4.1. F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e t e n t i o n ............ 288
3.11.2.4.2. Water b l o c k i n g ........................ 288
3.11.2.5. Other aspects ..................................... 289
3.11.3. C r o s s l i n k e d a c i d systems .................................... 289
3.11.4. Methanol systems ............................................ 289
3.11.5. L i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e proppant f r a c t u r i n g ................... 290
3.11.5.1. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y , foam d e n s i t y and s o l u t i o n pH-level 290
3.11.5.2. Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ........................... 291
3.11.5.3. Staged f r a c t u r i n g treatments ...................... 291
3.11.5.4. Formation damage e l i m i n a t i o n ...................... 291
3.11.5.5. Pumping r a t e and bottom h o l e temperature .......... 292

3.12. Other aspects ....................................................... 292

3.12.1. Water s a t u r a t i o n ............................................ 292
3.12.2. Gas demand .................................................. 293
3.12.3. R e s e r v o i r performance ....................................... 293

3.13. Sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s o f f l u v i a l , a e o l i a n and l a c u s t r i n e d e p o s i t s i n

R o t l i e g e n d and Buntsandstein i l l u s t r a t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r
h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s ............................... 294
3.13.0. I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................... 294
3.13.1. Angular u n c o n f o r m i t i e s and basement f o l d i n g ................ 295
3.13.1.1. General aspects ................................. 296
3.13.1.2. Explanations o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e I ........ 296
3.13.1.3. Geological formations and outcrop l o c a l i t i e s o f
presented examples .............................. 298
3.13.2. C r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n a e o l i a n dune sands and f l u v i a l chan-
n e l bar d e p o s i t s ........................................... 299
3.13.2.1. General aspects ................................. 299
3.13.2.2. Explanations of i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e I1 ....... 299
 235

3.13.2.3. Geological formations and outcrop l o c a l i t i e s o f

presented examples .............................. 302
3.13.3. Gravel agglomerations and mud drapes i n a l l u v i a l - f a n brec-
c i a s and f l u v i a l channel sandstones ........................ 302
3.13.3.1. General aspects ................................. 302
3.13.3.2. ...... 302
Explanations o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e I11
3.13.3.3. Geological formations and outcrop l o c a l i t i e s o f
presented examples .............................. 304
3.13.4. N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and sedimentary h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s i n f l u v i a l
channel and f l o o d p l a i n sandstones and mudstones ............ 305
3.13.4.1. General aspects ................................. 305
3.13.4.2. Explanations o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e I V ....... 305
3.13.4.3. Geological formations and outcrop l o c a l i t i e s o f
presented examples .............................. 306
3.13.5. G r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n changes and e r o s i o n a l surfaces i n
b r a i d e d - r i v e r channel sandstones and conglomerates ......... 308
3.13.5.1. General aspects ................................. 308
3.13.5.2. Explanations o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e V ........ 308
3.13.5.3. Geological formations and outcrop l o c a l i t i e s o f
presented examples .............................. 310
3.13.6. Synsedimentary d e s i c c a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g i n l a c u s t r i n e and f l u -
v i a l f l o o d p l a i n mudstones and n a t u r a l propping o f cracks ... 310
3.13.6.1. General aspects ................................. 311
3.13.6.2. Explanations o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e VI ....... 311
3.13.6.3. Geological formations and outcrop l o c a l i t i e s o f
presented examples .............................. 312
3.13.7. L a c u s t r i n e and f l o o d p l a i n mud drapes i n f l u v i a l channel and
a l l u v i a l p l a y a sandstones .................................. 314
3.13.7.1. General aspects ................................. 314
3.13.7.2. Explanations o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e VII ...... 314
3.13.7.3. Geological f o r m a t i o n s and o u t c r o p l o c a l i t i e s o f
presented examples .............................. 317
3.13.8. N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and sedimentary h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s i n cross-
s t r a t i f i e d a e o l i a n dune and sheet sands as w e l l as f l u v i a l
channel sands .............................................. 318
3.13.8.1. General aspects ................................. 318
3.13.8.2. Explanations o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e VIII ..... 318
3.13.8.3. Geological formations and outcrop l o c a l i t i e s o f
presented examples .............................. 321
3.13.9. Sedimentary and deformational f e a t u r e s o f l a c u s t r i n e mud
drapes i n f l u v i a l channel, overbank and a l l u v i a l p l a y a sand-
stones ..................................................... 321
3.13.9.1. General aspects ................................. 321
3.13.9.2. Explanations o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e IX ....... 322
3.13.9.3. Geological formations and outcrop l o c a l i t i e s o f
presented examples .............................. 324
3.13.10. Root tubes and carbonate c o n c r e t i o n s i n c a l c r e t e palaeosols 324
3.13.10.1. General aspects ................................. 325
3.13.10.2. Explanations o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e X ........ 325
3.13.10.3. Geological formations and outcrop l o c a l i t i e s o f
presented examples .............................. 326
3.13.11. N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e o r i g i n and d i s t r i b u t i o n i n v a r i o u s r e s e r -
v o i r rocks ................................................. 328
3.13.11.1. General aspects ................................. 328
3.13.11.2. Explanations o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e XI ....... 328
3.13.11.3. Geological formations and outcrop l o c a l i t i e s o f
presented examples .............................. 330
 236

3.1. Introduction
H y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n Western and Eastern Europe i s p r e s e n t l y i n
the s t a t u s o f r e t h i n k i n g and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . I n Western Europe, t h e major reces-
s i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n o f o i l - and gas-bearing formations provoked by t h e l a t e
1985/early 1986 o i l p r i c e drop ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.2.; n e g a t i v e l y accentuated by
the accompanying US $ exchange r a t e f a l l which was p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
the p r o l o n g a t i o n o f t h e unfavourable general economical c o n s t e l l a t i o n u n t i l
l a t e 1987 when the US $ exchange r a t e reached i t s h i s t o r i c a l minimum l e v e l ; c f .
s e c t i o n 2.2.1.3.) f o l l o w i n g the golden y e a r s o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g
i n the l a t e 1 9 7 0 ' s l e a r l y 1980's (VEATCH 1983, GRIFFITHS 1986, OEHME 1986, RUNGE
1986, VEATCH & M O S C H O V I D I S 1986, VIELVOYE 1986, MADER 1987) has p r o v i d e d t h e ne-
c e s s i t y o f r e v i e w i n g and/or r e s c h e d u l i n g and p a r t i a l l y a l s o r e d e s i g n i n g t h e MHF
treatments i n predominantly deep t i g h t Rot1 iegend and Carboniferous gas-bearing
sandstones i n Germany FRG and Netherlands onshore as w e l l as B r i t i s h and Dutch
Southern N o r t h Sea o f f s h o r e .

I n Eastern Europe, the i n c r e a s i n g urgency f o r hard currency coming from ex-

p o r t o f o i l and gas, the r i s i n g demand t o a m e l i o r a t e domestic hydrocarbon
supply and t h e p o l i t i c a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n under the guide slogans o f a c c e l e r a t i o n
(uskorenie; GORBATCHEV 1987), r e o r g a n i z a t i o n and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ( p e r e s t r o i k a )
and transparency ( g l a s n o s t ) , i n combination w i t h the more o r l e s s independency
from t h e general w o r l d economical s i t u a t i o n t h a t i s d i c t a t e d by o i l p r i c e scena-
r i o and US $ value scenario ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.4.), w i l l a l r e a d y i n the near f u -
t u r e r e s u l t i n focussing much more on s t i m u l a t i o n o f o i l - and gas-bearing forma-
t i o n s than i n the p a s t when d r i l l i n g and f a s t completion o f e a s i e r a c c e s s i b l e
hydrocarbon reserves had h i g h e r p r i o r i t y .

Much promotion o f t h e h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l packing scene-

r y i n Western and Eastern Europe i n the coming years, however, has t o i n c l u d e
sound g e o l o g i c a l , t e c h n i c a l and r e s e r v o i r engineering concepts o f development
o f i n c r e a s i n g amounts o f h i t h e r t o marginal r e s e r v o i r s , w i t h p r o d u c t i o n from
these t a r g e t s becoming i n the i n d i v i d u a l c o u n t r i e s soon more o r l e s s i m p o r t a n t
c o n t r i b u t i o n s f o r t h e compensation o f t h e n a t u r a l d e c l i n e o f t h e o u t p u t from
many p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e p l e t e d conventional r e s e r v o i r s . R o t l i e g e n d (Lower Permian)
and a l s o Carboniferous, t o subordinate amounts a l s o Buntsandstein (Lower T r i a s -
s i c ) t i g h t gas sandstone s t i m u l a t i o n i n Western Europe r e p r e s e n t the h i g h l i g h t s
o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n t h i s area b o t h i n p a s t and f u t u r e . A f t e r
d i s c u s s i o n o f some general and economical aspects, f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e f r a c -
t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l o f R o t l i e g e n d gas r e s e r v o i r s are o u t l i n e d .

3.1.1. General aspects

F o l l o w i n g t h e preceding o u t l i n e o f proppant s e l e c t i o n as a consequence o f r e -
s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s and proppant p r o p e r t i e s ( c h a p t e r 1) and t h e summary o f mar-
k e t i n g and economical aspects o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l packing i n Wes-
t e r n and Eastern Europe (MADER 1987; chapter Z ) , the p r e s e n t r e p o r t emphasizes
v a r i o u s g e o l o g i c a l , t e c h n i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f enhan-
c i n g R o t l i e g e n d s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l which according t o my view and understan-
d i n g w i l l become i n c r e a s i n g l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r a c h i e v i n g the g o a l s o f ameliora-
t e d supply-demand-relationships independent from any p o l i t i c a l t h r e a t e n i n g i n
the n e x t years. As deep t i g h t gas-bearing R o t l i e g e n d and Carboniferous sandsto-
nes w i l l remain t o be t h e major t a r g e t s o f massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (MHF)
operations i n Western Europe i n the near f u t u r e , v a r i o u s f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g
the f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l o f these p a r t i c u l a r r e s e r v o i r s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d ( c f .
f i g . 9).

While many i m p o r t a n t t i g h t gas sands i n v a r i o u s basins i n t h e USA have a l r e a -

dy been e x t e n s i v e l y described ( a r e c e n t summary volume has been compiled by
SPENCER & MAST 1986), a g e o l o g i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g s y n t h e s i s o f Rot-
l i e g e n d and Upper Carboniferous which are t h e most i m p o r t a n t t i g h t gas sand f o r -
 237

mations i n Europe has h i t h e r t o n o t been presented. The purpose o f t h i s o u t l i n e

i s t o p r o v i d e an i n t e g r a t e d overview o f g e o l o g i c a l , t e c h n i c a l and economical as-
pects o f R o t l i e g e n d and Carboniferous t i g h t gas sands i n N o r t h Sea and a d j o i n -
i n g onshore areas i n Europe where the predominant amount o f massive h y d r a u l i c
proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n p a s t and f u t u r e i s concentrated.

The present s e c t i o n i s a g e o l o g i c a l and engineering case study forming t h e

t r a n s i t i o n between t h e economically i n f l u e n c e d d i v i s i o n s and the t e c h n i c a l l y
focussed p a r t s o f t h e review and a c t u a l summary o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u -
r i n g . The d i s c u s s i o n i n chapter 4 represents a s t a t u s r e p o r t o f h y d r a u l i c stimu-
l a t i o n technology and emphasizes numerous methods f o r enhancing the h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i n Europe and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e world. Chapter 5 g i v e s an
account o f gravel packing as the second a p p l i c a t i o n o f n a t u r a l sand and synthe-
t i c proppants i n o i l and gas i n d u s t r y , as w e l l as an overview o f o t h e r sand con-
t r o l techniques. U n i t 6 summarizes h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l
packing m o n i t o r i n g . The e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e i s i n c l u d e d i n t o a general r e f e -
rence l i s t on h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l packing and i s a l s o pro-
cessed i n t o s u b j e c t key s e c t i o n s i n a b i b l i o g r a p h y ( c h a p t e r 7 ) . Technical over-
views o f t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g and summary expe-
r i e n c e r e p o r t s are g i v e n by HOWARD & FAST (1970 a), WATERS (1980), SCHOLS
(1983), VEATCH (1983), ECONOMIDES (1986), VEATCH & MOSCHOVIDIS (1986), ECONOMI-
DES & NOLTE (1987) and GIOLEY (1988).

3.1.2. Economical aspects

Several dozens o f MHF operations i n R o t l i e g e n d and Carboniferous gas-bearing
sandstones have a l r e a d y been c a r r i e d o u t onshore and o f f s h o r e i n t h e Southern
Permian Basin ( N o r t h Sea and Northwest Europe onshore; ZIEGLER 1982) i n t h e
p a s t u n t i l 1986, and almost up t o hundred treatments o r even more are scheduled
f o r t h e c u r r e n t and coming major o f f s h o r e ( B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea) develop-
ment campaigns (1987 - 1990; c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1.). I n p a r t s o f t h e area, a l s o
t h e Buntsandstein has s u b o r d i n a t e l y been subjected t o s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s
( m a i n l y i n the B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea) and w i l l a l s o have t o be
f r a c t u r e d i n some more patches i n the near f u t u r e . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as
f o l l o w s on R o t l i e g e n d f r a c t u r i n g p o l i c y and understanding as w e l l as f r a c t u r i n g
j o b s i z e s and reserve a c q u i s i t i o n p o t e n t i a l .

3.1.2.1. Rot 1 iegend fractur ins pol icy and understanding

I n view o f t h e c u r r e n t and coming major a c t i v i t y i n 1987 - 1990 ( c f . sec-
t i o n s 2.2.1.6.2. and 2.4.5.1.), t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d b e l t
( c f . f i g . 10) i s probably t h e o n l y area i n Europe where almost according t o t h e
a l r e a d y common sense i n t h e USA, h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i s one o f t h e
most i m p o r t a n t aspects o f w e l l completion (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986;
c f . s e c t i o n 2.3.), because t h e development d r i l l i n g campaigns have been planned
w i t h the c e r t a i n t y t h a t i n case o f encountering the R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r i n t h e
p r e d i c t e d o r expected t i g h t f a c i e s , almost every w e l l would have t o be
f r a c t u r e d i n t h e p o o r e s t f a c i e s patches and every second o r t h i r d w e l l would
require hydraulic stimulation i n other sections o f the low-permeability facies
belt.

I n a d d i t i o n , as a consequence o f long-term development scheduling and produc-

t i o n planning, t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d gas b e l t i s more o r
l e s s independent from t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s o f o i l p r i c e and general economical f r a -
mework ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.6.2. and 2.2.1.6.3.2.), w i t h the a c t i v i t y having been
o n l y s u b o r d i n a t e l y t o n e g l i g i b l y a f f e c t e d by the 1986 o i l p r i c e drop and having
so f a r s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d proceeded t o t h e beginning o f t h e major development cam-
paigns i n 1987 - 1990 (economical aspects o f t h i s R o t l i e g e n d gas p r o v i n c e a r e
a l s o summarized by FISHMAN 1986, GREGORY 1986, THOMAS 1986, ALGAR 1987, BAND
1987 and POTTER 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1.2.).
 238

3.1.2.2. Fracturing job sizes and reserve acquisition potential

The importance o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s r e s e r v o i r s i n terms o f
b o t h g e o l o g i c a l - e n g i n e e r i n g and m a r k e t i n g aspects o f s t i m u l a t i o n as w e l l as t h e
c o n s i d e r a b l e expenses o f MHF t r e a t m e n t s r e q u i r e an o u t l i n e o f a s u i t e o f f a c -
t o r s t h a t are p o s i t i v e l y o r negatively i n f l u e n c i n g the f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l o f
R o t l i e g e n d and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o C a r b o n i f e r o u s gas w e l l s . Some aspects o f s t i -
m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t volumes and and expenses as w e l l as p r o b a b l y a c c e s s i b l e gas
r e s e r v e s a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

3.1.2.2.1. Stimulation treatment volumes and expenses

F o r example, t h e t o t a l c o s t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n i n a R o t l i e g e n d w e l l i n t h e Soh-
l i n g e n field/Germany FRG i n l a t e 1982 where a b t . 550 t ( 1 . 2 Mio. l b s ) o f p r o p -
p a n t s have been pumped i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e amounted t o a b t . 6 Mio. DM ( 2 . 5 Mio.
US $ a c c o r d i n g t o t h e exchange r a t e a t t h a t t i m e ) which was e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i -
f i e d due t o a c q u i s i t i o n o f a b t . 500 Mio. m3 ( 2 0 B c f ) gas r e s e r v e s by t h e suc-
c e s s f u l jumbo t r e a t m e n t (JOHN 1983, KLOSE & KRUMER 1983, BLEAKLEY 1984; c f . sec-
t i o n s 2.4.1.1. and 3.3.2.2.). The numerous t r e a t m e n t s h a v i n g been c a r r i e d o u t
w i t h p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s o f a b t . 100 - 400 t i n t h e p e r i o d 1977 - 1985 i n Germa-
ny FRG a l l have amounted t o a b t . 1 - 2 Mio. US $ p e r j o b ( s e v e r a l m i l l i o n DM
each w i t h r e s p e c t t o v a r y i n g US $ exchange r a t e ) , and t h e s t i m u l a t i o n opera-
t i o n s i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea can be assessed t o have been even more
expensive and have reached a c o u p l e o f m i l l i o n US $ each, w i t h some d i s c o u n t
p r o b a b l y h a v i n g been achieved i n case o f whole f i e l d campaigns w i t h c o n t i n u o u s
employment o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.7.1.1.).

V a r i o u s aspects o f MHF s t i m u l a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e l a s t y e a r s i n R o t l i e -
gend and C a r b o n i f e r o u s sandstones a r e r e p o r t e d by TUNN (1971); BRINKMANN, FUHR-
BERG & SCHUBER (1980) ; BRINKMANN, KRUMER & R E I N I C K E (1980) ; BRINKMANN (1982),
GUNDERMANN (1982), SCHWARZ & SCHUBER (1982), JOHN (1983, 1987), KLOSE & KRUMER
(1983), BLEAKLEY (1984), RIECKMANN & PUSCH (1984), LEICHT (1985) ; R E I N I C K E ,
BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI (1985); STEPHENS & MARTINS (1985), ACHARYA & K I M
(1987), SOMMER (1987, 1988) and TAN, McGOWEN, LEE & SOLIMAN (1988).

3.1.2.2.2. Probably accessible gas reserves

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s u n d e r l i n e d by t h e e s t i -
mate t h a t i n Germany FRG, t h e r e m a i n i n g p o t e n t i a l o f R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e -
r o u s t i g h t gas sands i s a b t . 100 B i l l . m3 ( 4 T c f ; t h i s i s one t h i r d o f t h e ex-
p e c t e d f u t u r e d i s c o v e r i e s ) which can o n l y be produced e c o n o m i c a l l y i n case o f
i n v o l v e m e n t o f MHF s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s (JOHN 1983; R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN,
SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985). The a c t u a l proven gas r e s e r v e s a r e a b t . 250 B i l l . m3 ( 1 0
T c f ) , o f which a t l e a s t 10 % can o n l y be e c o n o m i c a l l y a c q u i s i t e d and withdrawn
b y massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n (SCHRUDER 1988). ACHARYA & K I M
(1987) e s t i m a t e t h e t o t a l proven and p r o b a b l e R o t l i e g e n d gas r e s e r v e s i n N o r t h
Sea, N e t h e r l a n d s and Germany FRG t o be i n t h e range o f a b t . 85 T c f (2,125 B i l l .
m3), and FISHMAN (1986) expects an a d d i t i o n a l q u a n t i t y o f a b t . 20 T c f (500
B i l l . m3) t o be a b l e t o be o b t a i n e d by development ( i n c l u d i n g s t i m u l a t i o n ) du-
r i n g t h e n e x t y e a r s . MARTIN & EVANS (1988) o u t l i n e t h a t t h e R o t l i e g e n d a e o l i a n
dune sand r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea a r e e s t i m a t e d t o c o n t a i n
r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s o f o v e r 800 B i l l . m3 ( 3 2 T c f ) i n f i e l d s i n p r o d u c t i o n and
under development. I t can be e s t i m a t e d t h a t a t l e a s t a q u a r t e r o f t h i s amount
can o n l y be e c o n o m i c a l l y l i b e r a t e d by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g e i t h e r i n p a s t o r f u -
ture.
 239

Rotliegend a n d C a r b o n i f e r o u s g a s - b e a r l n g s a n d s t o n e
h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n N o r t h w e s t e r n Europe
Geofogrcol block m o d e / scheme w i t h o u t scale
/

Fig. 9 (above) and Fig. 10 (below)

I Centres of massive hydraulic proppant fracturing in Rotliegend (01, Carboni-

ferous ( 0 ) and Buntsandstein ( 0 )in North Sea and onshore Middle Europe
 240

3 . 1 . 3 . Factors influencing the fracturing

potential of Rot 1 iegend gas reservoirs
Deep t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d and Carboniferous sandstone gas r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . f i g .
11) have been t h e major t a r g e t s o f t h e MHF treatments i n Great B r i t a i n ( o f f -
shore), i n t h e Netherlands (onshore and o f f s h o r e ) and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Germany
FRG (onshore) d u r i n g t h e l a s t t e n years ( w i t h t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f pumped prop-
pants r a n g i n g between 100 and 650 t p e r w e l l ) and w i l l c o n t i n u e t o p l a y t h e
l e a d i n g r o l e s o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n Western Europe ( e s p e c i a l l y i n
the B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea) d u r i n g t h e n e x t years i n terms o f b o t h frequen-
c y and s i z e o f t h e j o b s (and thus a l s o proppant consumption; MADER 1987, 1988
b) .
A f t e r an i n t r o d u c t i o n by sketching some general and economical aspects and
commenting on d i s t r i b u t i o n o f main f i e l d s and h i s t o r i c a l development o f produc-
t i o n and f r a c t u r i n g , the d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s i n c l u d e s questions o f p e r m e a b i l i -
t y p r e d i c t i o n and e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n and c l a y
mineralogy, water s a t u r a t i o n , gas demand, minimum p r e - f r a c t u r i n g gas p r o d u c t i o n
r a t e s and poroperm p r o p e r t i e s , r e s e r v o i r performance, s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t and f r a c -
t u r i n g p o l i c y , philosophy o f o f f s h o r e and onshore e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l f r a c t u r i n g ,
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f f r a c t u r i n g philosophy on proppant s e l e c t i o n , a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g
s t r a t e g y concepts and experience, h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s o f f r a c -
t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l ( i n c l u d i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y and gas composition aspects), and wa-
t e r s e n s i t i v i t y ( v a r i o u s references on b o t h general and s p e c i a l t o p i c s from nu-
merous f i e l d s o f a p p l i c a t i o n are compiled i n chapter 7 ) .

Sedimentological and d i a g e n e t i c a l aspects o f Buntsandstein and R o t l i e g e n d de-

p o s i t s as a base f o r r e s e r v o i r m o d e l l i n g are discussed by PLEIN (1978), LUTZNER
(1981), ROBINSON (1981) ; DRONG, PLEIN, SANNEMANN, SCHUEPBACH & ZIMDARS (1982) ;
GLENNIE (1983, 1986), LEE (1984), MADER (1981, 1982, 1983, 1984 a, 1985 a, 1985
b, 1985 c, 1988 b), MADER & TEYSSEN (1985), MADER & YARDLEY (1985); BIFANI,
GEORGE & LEVER (1987) ; GRALLA (1988), MADER & CHATALOV (1988), MARTIN & EVANS
(1988) and RICHARDSON, SANGREE & SNEIOER (1988). An o u t l i n e o f t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l
environment o f the Upper Carboniferous i s g i v e n i n OILMAN (1987 e ) . I m p o r t a n t
sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s o f f l u v i a l , a e o l i a n and l a c u s t r i n e d e p o s i t s i n R o t l i e -
gend and Buntsandstein i l l u s t r a t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s
and being s i g n i f i c a n t f o r f l u i d f l o w and propagation o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced
f r a c t u r e s are compiled i n photographic p l a t e s and a r e equipped w i t h l o n g e r ex-
p l a n a t i o n s t h a t can be evaluated a l s o independent from the main t e x t ( c f . sec-
t i o n 3.13.).

3.2. Distribution of main fields

The Mid-European R o t l i e g e n d Basin (Southern Permian Basin; ZIEGLER 1982) and
the gas-prospective c o n t i n e n t a l - i n l a n d a r i d aeolian, f l u v i a l , a l l u v i a l - f a n , la-
c u s t r i n e and palaeosol r e d bed f a c i e s b e l t along i t s southern margin reaches
from England through B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea, Netherlands, Germany
FRG and Germany GDR t o Poland and almost t o the Russian boundary i n Pomerania
(PLEIN 1978, GLENNIE 1983, MADER 1985 a ) . The R o t l i e g e n d i s u n d e r l a i n by t h e
Carboniferous t e r r e s t r i a l and marginal-marine humid f l u v i a l and d e l t a i c g r e y
bed f a c i e s b e l t c o n t a i n i n g coal seams, and o v e r l a i n by t h e Zechstein marine eva-
p o r i t e c y c l e sequence i n c l u d i n g mudstones, carbonates, sulphates and s a l t , and
t h e Buntsandstein c o n t i n e n t a l - i n l a n d a r i d aeolian, f l u v i a l , l a c u s t r i n e and
palaeosol r e d bed f a c i e s b e l t ( c f . f i g . 11).

A l l these f o u r d i f f e r e n t sedimentary g e o l o g i c a l formations have been l a i d

down i n t e m p o r a l l y separate d e p o s i t i o n a l basins which h o r i z o n t a l l y occupied
more o r l e s s the same geographical area, w i t h the more o r l e s s s p a t i a l c o i n c i -
dence r e s u l t i n g i n t h e i r v e r t i c a l superimposition i n the s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l column
 241

d u r i n g course o f b u r i a l h i s t o r y . L a t e r a l l y , the various i n d i v i d u a l basins are

n o t homogeneous, b u t i n c o n t r a s t t o p a r t i a l l y good c o r r e l a t i o n along s t r i k e ,
s i g n i f i c a n t f a c i e s d i f f e r e n c e s occur p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o s t r i k e , and a l s o p a r a l -
l e l t o the basin margins, f r e q u e n t l y considerable d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f d e p o s i t i o -
n a l environment l e a d i n g t o a complex j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t g e n e t i c a l sedi-
mentary bodies i s encountered. These r e l a t i o n s h i p s g i v e r i s e t o v e r t i c a l and ho-
r i z o n t a l zonation o f d i f f e r e n t r e s e r v o i r complexes and together w i t h e f f e c t s o f
hydrocarbon generation, m i g r a t i o n and accumulation a l s o t o segregated arrange-
ment o f n a t u r a l gas deposits w i t h i n the heterogeneous and a n i s o t r o p i c pay zone
networks according t o the i n t e r n a l geometrical o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the l a t t e r . The
discontinuous arrangement o f gas f i e l d s i n t h e sedimentary f a c i e s b e l t as a con-
sequence o f t e c t o n i c a l o v e r p r i n t i n g and t r a p formation a l s o has s i g n i f i c a n t im-
p a c t on a r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f proppant s t i m u l a t i o n requirement. V e r t i c a l and ho-
r i z o n t a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f gas f i e l d s and h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l
are discussed i n more d e t a i l as f o l l o w s .

3.2.1. Vertical distribution

W i t h i n the Rotliegend trend, gas f i e l d s have been mainly discovered i n the
B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea, Dutch North Sea, Netherlands onshore, Germany FRG
onshore and Western Poland. Only minor amounts o f accumulations have been found
i n Germany GDR and Eastern Poland ( c f . f i g s . 5 and 1 0 ) . The Carboniferous grey
coal-bearing sandstone and mudstone succession u n d e r l i e s the Rotliegend i n the
whole area o f d i s t r i b u t i o n of s u i t a b l e Permian r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . f i g . 11) and has
acted both as source formation o f the gas d u r i n g c o a l i f i c a t i o n o f the various
t h i n n e r and t h i c k e r seams ( m a t u r i t y aspects o f the Upper Carboniferous are d i s -
cussed by KETTEL 1981), and as c o l l e c t i n g horizons by t r a p p i n g considerable
amounts o f the generated gas i n Upper Carboniferous f l u v i a l and d e l t a i c sandsto-
nes. Rotliegend and Carboniferous are i n many cases separated by a pronounced
angular unconformity ( c f . f i g s . 3 and 11 as w e l l as p l a t e I i n s e c t i o n
3.13.1.).

Due t o m i g r a t i o n along non-sealing normal f a u l t s and through f i s s u r e s and

j o i n t s i n the geological column, the gas which was l i b e r a t e d from Upper Carboni-
ferous coal seams n o t o n l y accumulated i n Upper Carboniferous f l u v i a l sandsto-
nes o f f r e q u e n t l y ribbon- and l e n t i c u l a r type and o n l y s u b o r d i n a t e l y b l a n k e t na-
ture, and R o t l i e g e n d a e o l i a n and f l u v i a l sandstones o f i n many case b l a n k e t cha-
r a c t e r and o n l y t o minor amounts a l s o ribbon- and l e n t i c u l a r type, b u t i n some
places a l s o reached Lower T r i a s s i c Buntsandstein f l u v i a l sheet-sand r e s e r v o i r s
o f p r e v a i l i n g b l a n k e t geometry. Aspects o f d e p o s i t i o n a l environment, t e c t o n i c a l
subsidence and gas accumulation, s t r a t i g r a p h y , and gas composition o f the s u i t e
o f r e s e r v o i r storeys are o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s ( i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f sedimentary
s t r u c t u r e s of Rotliegend and Buntsandstein f a c i e s associations are assembled on
photographic p l a t e s which together w i t h d e t a i l e d explanations are compiled i n
s e c t i o n 3.13. and i n MADER 1985 a, 1985 b ) .

3.2.1.1. Depositional environment

The r e s e r v o i r complexes i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d are mainly associated t o the aeo-
l i a n f a c i e s b e l t ( c f . p l a t e 11) between the marginal a l l u v i a l - f a n ( c f . p l a t e
111) and f l u v i a l g r a v e l l y sandstone seam ( c f . p l a t e s I V and V) and the c e n t r a l
damp t o wet playa and d e s e r t l a k e mudstone body ( c f . p l a t e s V I and V I I ) c o n t a i n -
i n g s a l t i n t e r c a l a t i o n s (Wechselfolge f a c i e s and marginal f a c i e s ; GRALLA 1988).
Some aspects o f r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y and sedimentary facies, p a l a e o c l i m a t o l o g i c a l
e v o l u t i o n , and p a l a e o t e c t o n i c a l and palaeoenvironmental e v o l u t i o n are b r i e f l y
o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .
 242

Fig. 11
S c h e m a t i c a l g e o l o g i c a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e gas-bearing r e s e r v o i r column
i n Northwest Germany and s u r r o u n d i n g areas. Three t i g h t gas sandstone s t o r e y s
can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d c o m p r i s i n g C a r b o n i f e r o u s , R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n .
The Z e c h s t e i n carbonates c o n t a i n s o u r gas w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e shares o f t h e ag-
g r e s s i v e and t o x i c hydrogen s u l p h i d e , whereas t h e R o t l i e g e n d i n c l u d e s sweet gas
t h a t o n l y c o n s i s t s o f c o m b u s t i b l e methane and sometimes a l s o o f i n e r t n i t r o g e n .
All t h e gas d e r i v e s f r o m c o a l i f i c a t i o n o f C a r b o n i f e r o u s c o a l seams and has m i -
g r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e cover h o r i z o n sequence a l o n g f a u l t s and f i s s u r e s . C a r b o n i f e -
r o u s and R o t l i e g e n d t i g h t gas sandstones a r e i n many cases c a n d i d a t e s f o r
large-scale h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n , whereas t h e Buntsand-
s t e i n r e q u i r e s o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y s y n t h e t i c p e r m e a b i l i t y improvement. The gas-wa-
ter-contacts i n t h e d i f f e r e n t reservoir l e v e l s are frequently d i f f e r e n t , with
t h e r e b y each o f t h e u n i t s r e p r e s e n t i n g a s e p a r a t e pay s t o r e y .

Legend : 1 = gas-bearing sandstones, 2 = w a t e r - c o n t a i n i n g sandstones, 3 = c o a l

seams, 4 = carbonates, 5 = mudstones and m a r l s , 6 = Z e c h s t e i n s a l t , 7 = Muschel-
k a l k s a l t , 8 = h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l , 9 = unconformity.

Fig. 12

=distribution types within hydraulic fractures I

Homogeneous Proppant banking M u l t i p l e proppant Multiple proppant

proppant w i t h open f l o w banking w i t h open banking w l t h o u t o p e n

distribution flow channel flow channel f l o w channel

 243

Fig. I1
 244

3.2.1.1.1. Reservoir quality and sedimentary facies

The b e s t r e s e r v o i r s a r e found i n l a r g e - s c a l e cross-bedded a e o l i a n dune sands
(MADER & YARDLEY 1985; c f . p l a t e II/l-6), whereas p o o r e r f a c i e s c o n d i t i o n s a r e
l i n k e d w i t h s m a l l - s c a l e cross-bedded a e o l i a n dune sands and h o r i z o n t a l - l a m i n a -
t e d a e o l i a n s h e e t sands ( c f . p l a t e VIII/l-5) which f r e q u e n t l y c o n t a i n i n t e r c a l a -
t i o n s o f h o r i z o n t a l - s t r a t i f i e d damp t o wet p l a y a sandstones and mudstones (MA-
DER 1983 a; c f . p l a t e IX) t h a t d e t e r i o r a t e p r e d o m i n a n t l y v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y
( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 3.10.1.1.). S p e c i a l t r a p s o f f a v o u r a b l e R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r
f a c i e s a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e synsedimentary t e c t o n i c a l f e a t u r e s o f c h i e f l y graben na-
t u r e where a c c e l e r a t e d subsidence w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g p l a t f o r m s and
a d d i t i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n f r o m e r o s i o n p e r m i t t e d accumulation o f p a r t i c u l a r l y t h i c k
and sometimes a l s o e s p e c i a l l y p u r e a e o l i a n dune sands ( t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t syn-
d e p o s i t i o n a l R o t l i e g e n d graben f e a t u r e i s t h e Schneverdingen-Graben; DRONG,
PLEIN, SANNEMANN, SCHUEPBACH & ZIMDARS 1982; HEDEMANN, MASCHEK, PAULUS & PLElN
1984; GRALLA 1988). C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f c o n t i n e n t a l d e p o s i t i o n a l f a c i e s t y p e s
f o r hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n a r e g i v e n by RICHARDSON, SANGREE & SNEIDER (1986).

3.2.1.1.2. Palaeoclimatological evolution

Throughout t h e R o t l i e g e n d sequence, a p a l a e o c l i m a t o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n l e a d i n g
f r o m d r i e r c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e l o w e r p a r t where m a i n l y t h i c k cross-bedded a e o l i a n
dune sands ( c f . p l a t e II/l-6) formed t o w e t t e r c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e upper p a r t
where more and more s m a l l - s c a l e c r o s s - s t r a t i f i e d a e o l i a n dune sands and h o r i z o n -
t a l - l a m i n a t e d a e o l i a n sheet sands ( c f . p l a t e VIII/l-5) and damp t o wet a e o l i a n ,
adhesion and a q u a t i c p l a y a sediments ( c f . p l a t e s V I and VII) o r i g i n a t e d t o -
g e t h e r w i t h i n c r e a s i n g amounts o f l a c u s t r i n e mudstones and f l u v i a l sandstones
( c f . p l a t e IV) t h a t were l a i d down i n l a r g e s h a l l o w p l a y a l a k e s and b r a i d e d
s m a l l d r a i n a g e channels i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e sand and mud f l a t as w e l l s as sheet-
f l o o d i n u n d a t i o n s o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l p l a i n . I n some areas, t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f f a -
c i e s complexes a l s o r e f l e c t s an e v o l u t i o n o f f l u v i a l s t y l e (MADER 1983 b, 1984
a, 1985 a, 1985 b; MADER & CHATALOV 1988) i n c l u d i n g p r o g r e s s i v e expansion o f
t h e a l l u v i a l b r a i d e d - r i v e r system w i t h i n t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l b a s i n as t h e m a r g i n a l
f a n c h a i n s and t h e a s s o c i a t e d a e o l i a n dune b e l t s h r i n k i n e x t e n s i o n o r r e t r e a t
f u r t h e r towards t h e b o r d e r o f t h e sedimentary area as a consequence o f b a s i n en-
largement by s t e p w i s e o n l a p on t h e f r i n g i n g h i g h l a n d s w i t h s u c c e s s i v e i n f i l l i n g
o f the trough.

3.2.1.1.3. Palaeotectonical and palaeoenvironmental evolution

P r o g r e s s i v e d i m i n u t i o n o f t h e degree o f b r a i d i n g o f t h e r i v e r systems as t h e
e r o s i o n a l h i g h l a n d s i n t h e provenance a r e a a r e denudated, p a l a e o s l o p e g r a d i e n t
decreases, amount and g r a i n s i z e o f c l a s t i c m a t e r i a l d e l i v e r e d f r o m t h e source
r e g i o n d e c l i n e s , and t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y o f t h e channel network ceases, g i v e s
r i s e t o enlargement o f i n t e r s t r e a m overbank f l a t s where upon d e s i c c a t i o n and
reasonable p e r s i s t e n c e o f q u i e t a q u a t i c sedimentary c o n d i t i o n s m i g r a t i o n o f aeo-
l i a n dunes ( c f . p l a t e II/l-6) and accumulation o f a e o l i a n s h e e t sands ( c f . p l a -
t e VIII/1-5) f r o m t h e d e t r i t u s d e f l a t e d f r o m emerged sand and g r a v e l b a r s i n
t h e s h a l l o w t o m o d e r a t e l y deep b r a i d e d r i v e r channels i s becoming more and more
widespread (MADER 1983 b, 1984 a, 1985 a, 1985 b ) , o r r e v e r s e l y i s d i m i n i s h i n g
i n importance i n case o f s u c c e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y and e x t e n s i o n o f a l -
l u v i a l i n u n d a t i o n s by f l o o d p u l s e s o v e r t o p p i n g t h e channel banks a t h i g h stage
i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h h i g h ground w a t e r l e v e l as a consequence o f . h i g h e r stream
d i s c h a r g e and i n c r e a s i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n r a t e s once c l i m a t o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e
becoming damper and w e t t e r .
 245

3.2.1.1.4. Other aspects

Aspects o f a e o l i a n ( c f . p l a t e s I 1 and V I I I ) , f l u v i a l ( c f . p l a t e s I 1 1 - V and
V I I ) and l a c u s t r i n e ( c f . p l a t e s V I , V I I and I X ) d e p o s i t i o n a l environments i n
t h e R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r complex, t h e s p a t i a l and temporal i n t e r t o n g u i n g o f t h e
d i f f e r e n t sedimentary m i l i e u s , t h e f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g sand body geometry and
d i s t r i b u t i o n , and t h e consequences f o r gas accumulation a r e discussed by GLEN-
N I E , MUDD & NAGTEGAAL (1978); PLEIN (1978); DRONG, PLEIN, SANNEMANN, SCHUEPBACH
& ZIMDARS (1982); GLENNIE (1983), LEE (1984), MADER (1983, 1985, 1988 b ) , MADER
& YARDLEY (1985), GRALLA (1988), HAAK & ELEWAUT (1988), MARTIN & EVANS (1988)
and RICHARDSON, SANGER & SNEIDER (1988).

The Carboniferous t i g h t gas sands o r i g i n a t e d as channel bars and drapes i n

shallow b r a i d e d r i v e r s and sheet f l o o d s and have predominantly s h e e t - l i k e geo-
metry (BRINKMANN 1982). The Buntsandstein gas r e s e r v o i r sands m a i n l y r e p r e s e n t
a l s o stream bars and sheets ( c f . p l a t e I V ) having been l a i d down i n watercour-
ses o f shallow b r a i d e d r i v e r systems o r by sheet floods, b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y a l s o
a e o l i a n dune and i n t e r d u n e sheet sands ( c f . p l a t e V I I I / l - 5 ) occur (MAOER 1985,
MADER & YARDLEY 1985). I n a l l t h r e e formations, d e p o s i t i o n a l environment and
d i a g e n e t i c a l h i s t o r y i n f l u e n c e r e s e r v o i r rock c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and thus t r e a t -
ment o p t i o n s .

3.2.1.2. Tectonical subsidence and gas accumulation

I n terms of d i s t r i b u t i o n of p o t e n t i a l and n e c e s s i t y o f h y d r a u l i c proppant
f r a c t u r i n g f o r economical gas production, t h e primary zonation o f sedimentary
f a c i e s b e l t s i n b o t h R o t l i e g e n d and Buntsandstein i n Middle Europe was unfavou-
r a b l y o v e r p r i n t e d by secondary t e c t o n i c a l deformation and t e r t i a r y hydrocarbon
accumulation. Aspects o f sedimentary vs. t e c t o n i c a l b a s i n zonation and gas-
water-contact l e v e l are b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

3.2.1.2.1. Sedimentary vs. tectonical zonation

The marginal and proximal d e p o s i t i o n a l f a c i e s seams i n t h e southern p a r t s o f
the R o t l i e g e n d and Buntsandstein basins where coarse f l u v i a l and a e o l i a n sands
( c f . p l a t e s I 1 and V I I I ) r e p r e s e n t h i g h - q u a l i t y r e s e r v o i r s (marginal f a c i e s ;
GRALLA 1988) a r e nowadays e i t h e r outcropping a t the surface o r b u r i e d i n s h a l -
low depth w i t h o u t s u f f i c i e n t l y i s o l a t e d s t r u c t u r a l , s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l and/or f a -
c i e s t r a p s t o r e t a i n gas. The more d i s t a l and c e n t r a l f a c i e s realms f u r t h e r t o
the north, however, which are moderate- t o l o w - q u a l i t y pay zones c o n t a i n i n g
o n l y s m a l l e r amounts o f a e o l i a n cross-bedded dune and h o r i z o n t a l - s t r a t i f i e d
sheet sands ( c f . p l a t e V I I I ) , b u t i n c l u d i n g m a i n l y f i n e - g r a i n e d f l u v i a l channel
sand ( c f . p l a t e I V ) and overbank mud d e p o s i t s ( c f . p l a t e s I I I / 1 - 2 and I X ) , damp
t o wet p l a y a sand and mud sediments ( c f . p l a t e s V I and V I I ; Wechselfolge f a -
c i e s ; GRALLA 1988), and playa-lake mud and s a l t ( b a s i n f a c i e s ; GRALLA 1988),
have undergone subsidence t o such a depth where t h e t h i c k s e a l i n g overburden a l -
lows t h e accumulation o f huge amounts o f gas t h a t o n l y have t o be l i b e r a t e d
from the poor r e s e r v o i r s , and t e c t o n i c a l o v e r p r i n t i n g has generated s t r u c t u r a l
t r a p s o f m a i n l y a n t i c 1 i n a l and horst/graben n a t u r e ( f l o w e r s t r u c t u r e s represent-
i n g i n v e r t e d graben f i l l i n g s t h a t are common i n t h e Mesozoic o i l - b e a r i n g se-
quence o f J u r a s s i c and Cretaceous a r e n o t developed i n the Palaeozoic gas-bear-
i n g p a r t o f t h e g e o l o g i c a l column).

T h i s combination o f poor r e s e r v o i r f a c i e s b u r i e d i n s u i t a b l e depth f o r hydro-

carbon accumulation and t r a p p i n g i n c o n t r a s t o f the good pay f a c i e s o c c u r r i n g
i n shallow depth o r even a t t h e surface where gas c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s n o t p o s s i b l e
due t o l a c k o f t r a p p i n g and s e a l i n g u n d e r l i n e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e R o t l i e -
gend and Buntsandstein d i s t a l - m e d i a l t i g h t r e s e r v o i r f a c i e s b e l t which crosses
t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f M i d d l e Europe (MADER 1985 a) and which represents t h e most
p o t e n t i a l and i m p o r t a n t b e l t o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e near f u -
 246

t u r e . I f t h e sedimentary and t e c t o n i c a l z o n a t i o n s would be o f i n v e r s e n a t u r e ,

c e r t a i n l y n o t v e r y much l a r g e - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g would be necessary f o r
access o f t h e gas r e s e r v e s , b u t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s i t u a t i o n developed i n R o t l i e -
gend and Buntsandstein, t h e most s u i t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s f o r a c c u m u l a t i o n and r e -
t a i n m e n t o f gas a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e r e l a t i v e l y p o o r e r o r even a l m o s t w o r s t
r e s e r v o i r r o c k s where o n l y l a r g e - s c a l e expensive s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s a l l o w economi-
c a l l y feasible exploitation.

The most i m p o r t a n t aspect o f s a l t d i a p i r i s m t e c t o n i c s o r h a l o k i n e t i c s i s t h e

e f f e c t o f r e t a r d e d d i a g e n e s i s i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d sandstones below t h e s a l t p l u g s
as a consequence o f t h e c o o l i n g e f f e c t o f t h e t h i c k s a l t mass ( t e m p e r a t u r e s i n
R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r s below s a l t d i a p i r s a r e on average 12 - 15 OC l o w e r t h a n
those i n R o t l i e g e n d pays between t h e s a l t domes; FRRBER 1984).

3.2.1.2.2. Gas-water-contact level

An a d d i t i o n a l c o m p l i c a t i o n i n R o t l i e g e n d sequences where t h i c k n e s s and com-
p l e t e n e s s o f t h e sequence has been enhanced by synsedimentary graben t e c t o n i c s
i s subsidence o f t h e pay zone column p a r t i a l l y below t h e g a s - w a t e r - c o n t a c t .
T h e r e f o r e i n many cases i n Germany FRG t h e l o w e r s e c t i o n ( t h e Schneverdingen-
Sandstein; c f . s e c t i o n s 3.10.1. and 3.2.1.3.1.) o f the Rotliegend succession
c o n t a i n i n g t h e b e s t r e s e r v o i r s i s e i t h e r p a r t i a l l y o r i n some cases even comple-
t e l y below t h e gas-water-contact, whereas t h e t i g h t m i d d l e s e c t i o n ( t h e Haupt-
s a n d s t e i n ) i s i n most cases above t h e gas-water-contact. W h i l e c e r t a i n l y much
more p r i m a r y p r o d u c t i o n f r o m t h e good l o w e r r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y would t a k e p l a c e
i n case o f a more f a v o u r a b l e g a s - w a t e r - l e v e l , subsidence o f t h e b e s t pay zone
i n t e r v a l p a r t i a l l y below t h e g a s - w a t e r - c o n t a c t i s a n o t h e r c r i t e r i o n g i v i n g r i s e
t o n e c e s s i t y o f l a r g e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n s i n t h e poor m i d d l e p o r -
t i o n o f the r e s e r v o i r p i l e .

W h i l e i n some occasions a t l e a s t reasonable p o r t i o n s o f t h e Schneverdingen-

S a n d s t e i n o r even t h e whole R o t l i e g e n d sequence i n c l u d i n g l o n g e r s e c t i o n s of
t h e u n d e r l y i n g C a r b o n i f e r o u s p r o f i l e a r e above t h e g a s - w a t e r - c o n t a c t s i n Germa-
ny FRG, t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea i s i n t h e overwhelm-
i n g p a r t o f s t r u c t u r e s below t h e g a s - w a t e r - l e v e l which i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t i g h t
r e s e r v o i r f a c i e s i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t drawback o f t h e gas p r o s p e c t i v i t y o f t h i s
g e o l o g i c a l s t o r e y ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 3.8.1.).

3.2.1.3. Stratigraphy
Concerning R o t l i e g e n d s t r a t i g r a p h y i n M i d d l e Europe ( S o u t h e r n Permian Basin;
ZIEGLER 1982), d i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between Germany FRG, N e t h e r l a n d s and
B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea.

3.2.1.3.1. Germany FRG

The R o t l i e g e n d s e c t i o n i n Germany FRG i s p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l - d e v e l o p e d and can
be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o v a r i o u s f o r m a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o r e c e n t s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l i n v e s -
t i g a t i o n s and c o r r e l a t i o n s (HEDEMANN, MASCHEK, PAULUS & PLEIN 1984; GRALLA
1988). The most i m p o r t a n t f a c i e s p r o v i n c e i s t h e Weser-Elbe p r o v i n c e (GRALLA
1988) o r E a s t Hannover p r o v i n c e (HEDEMANN, MASCHEK, PAULUS & PLEIN 1984) where
most o f t h e MHF s t i m u l a t i o n s o f R o t l i e g e n d t i g h t gas sands have so f a r t a k e n
p l a c e ( c f . f i g . 4) and which i s t h e c e n t r e o f R o t l i e g e n d e x p l o r a t i o n and produc-
t i o n . I n t h i s f a c i e s p r o v i n c e , t h r e e s t o r e y s can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t h e s t r a t i -
g r a p h i c a l column. The l o w e r l e v e l comprises t h e Schneverdingen-Formation w h i c h
r e f l e c t s t h e i n i t i a l stage o f b a s i n i n f i l l i n g w i t h c e n t r a l subsidence and i s
o n l y p r e s e n t i n a s u i t e o f s m a l l e r and l a r g e r grabens. The m i d d l e s e c t i o n i n c l u -
des t h e Emden-Formation which r e p r e s e n t s t h e main stage o f b a s i n i n f i l l i n g w i t h
a r e a l coverage o f s e d i m e n t a t i o n . The upper p o r t i o n comprises t h e Hannover-Forma-
 247
tion or Wechselfolge which devotes its origin to the late stage of basin infil-
ling when large expansion of the depositional area to the south enabled the sub-
sequent extensive Zechstein transgression.
The main reservoir rocks are the Schneverdingen-Sandstein in the Schneverdin-
gen-Formation at the base of the Rotliegend profile, the Slochteren-Hauptsand-
stein or simply Hauptsandstein in the middle section of the Rotliegend sequen-
ce, and the Wustrow-Sandstein (GRALLA, NIEBERDING & SOBOTT 1988) representing
the petrophysically best developed one of numerous thin sandstones in the Han-
nover-Formation or Wechselfolge at the top of the Rotliegend succession. In the
East Friesland province, the Hauptsandstein is very reduced, the Schneverdin-
gen-Formation has so far not been encountered by drilling, and the main pay
zone in this region are several Wechselfolge sandstones.

3.2.1.3.2. Nether lands

In terms of correlation with the Netherlands adjoining Germany FRG in the
west and due to the offshore extension of the Rotliegend basin in the subsur-
face also connecting the stratigraphy from Germany FRG to Dutch and British
North Sea, the Schneverdingen-Formation containing the Schneverdingen-Sandstein
in Germany FRG is equivalent to the Lower Slochteren-Formation in Netherlands
and westwards adjoining areas. The Emden-Formation including the Hauptsandstein
in Germany FRG is correlating with the Upper Slochteren-Formation in Nether-
lands and North Sea, and the Hannover-Formation containing the Wustrow-Sand-
stein and other Wechselfolge sandstones in Germany FRG can be connected with
the Ten Boer-Formation further westwards.

3.2.1.3.3. British Southern North Sea

In the British Southern North Sea, the Rotliegend section is not subdivided
in vertical direction, and distinction is made between two laterally interton-
guing units being the Leman Sandstone Formation which consists of clean aeolian
and fluvial sandstones in the southern and western basin margins, and the inter-
digitating Silverpit Formation in the basin centre that is built up of marginal
aeolian/playa and lacustrine sandstones, siltstones, mudstones and evaporites
(MARTIN & EVANS 1988). Other aspects of Rotliegend stratigraphy in the British
Southern North Sea are discussed by GRAY (1975), MARIE (1975), VEEN (1975) and
GAGE (1980).

3.2.1.4. Gas conposition

In contrast to the formation of sweet gas deposits in Carboniferous, Rotlie-
gend and Buntsandstein consisting only of combustible methane (unless inert ni-
trogen is associated with the hydrocarbons in greater shares; cf. section
3.10.2.), immigration of coal-seam-deriving gas into the Zechstein carbonates
was accompanied by mixing with additional amounts of gas that were generated
within the Zechstein and which include also the poisonous and corrosive H2S in
smaller or larger amounts, thus particularly in the Hengstlage-Sagermeer com-
plex in the South Oldenburg area (cf. fig. 4) in Germany FRG (but in subordi-
nate amounts also in Poland) creating complications of industrial exploitation
due to the necessity of removal of H2S by expensive sour gas purification in
large special plants. Hydraulic proppant fracturing has so far never been car-
ried out in the Zechstein carbonates in Middle Europe where stimulation is re-
stricted to matrix acidizing and rarely also acid fracturing (if necessary at
all), with all types of reservoir treatment often being hampered and complica-
ted by high H2S-concentrations in the formation gas. Sour gas purification com-
prising removal of the aggressive and poisonous H2S is also a great problem for
exploitation of many gas-bearing carbonate formations in the USSR.
 248

The o n l y drawback i n the R o t l i e g e n d sweet gas r e s e r v o i r b e l t and s t o r e y com-

p l e x i s the a s s o c i a t i o n o f n i t r o g e n w i t h t h e hydrocarbons i n p a r t s o f t h e Lower
Permian pay seam, w i t h t h e n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t reaching from q u a n t i t a t i v e l y n e g l i -
g i b l e admixtures v i a reasonable shares which r e q u i r e removal i n gas p u r i f i c a -
t i o n p l a n t s t o e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y h i g h amounts which no l o n g e r a l l o w economically
f e a s i b l e hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.10.2.). Helium, q u i c k s i l v e r and
higher-homology hydrocarbons a r e o n l y associated i n t r a c e s t o t h e methane i n
R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r s which do n o t r e q u i r e a t t e n t i o n concerning gas withdrawal,
processing and transmission.

3.2.2. Horizontal distribution

I n terms o f h o r i z o n t a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g poten-
t i a l o f R o t l i e g e n d and Carboniferous t i g h t gas sandstones, d i s t i n c t i o n can be
made between Germany FRG, B r i t i s h and Dutch N o r t h Sea, and Germany GDR and Po-
land. While i n Germany FRG most o f t h e operations have a l r e a d y taken p l a c e du-
r i n g the l a s t t e n years and c u r r e n t t o n e a r - f u t u r e a c t i v i t y i s almost zero as a
consequence o f the o i l p r i c e crash and t h e US $ exchange r a t e weakness, t h e pre-
dominant amount o f s t i m u l a t i o n work i n t h e B r i t i s h and Dutch N o r t h Sea i s c a r -
r i e d o u t a t t h e p r e s e n t time and w i t h i n the n e x t few years, although a l s o a l r e a -
dy considerable treatment campaigns have been undertaken i n t h e p a s t ( c f . sec-
t i o n s 2.2.1.6.2. and 2.4.1.). I n Germany GDR and Poland, so f a r o n l y l i t t l e s t i -
m u l a t i o n has been performed, b u t t h e near f u t u r e w i l l be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n -
c r e a s i n g and a c c e l e r a t i n g n e c e s s i t y t o u t i l i z e h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g
f o r i n c r e a s i n g domestic reserves and supply. H o r i z o n t a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f gas
f i e l d s and h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i n Germany FRG, B r i t i s h and
Dutch N o r t h Sea, and Germany GDR and Poland i s o u t l i n e d i n more d e t a i l as f o l -
1ows .

3.2.2.1. Germany FRG

T y p i c a l places o f R o t l i e g e n d and Carboniferous MHF e x e c u t i o n i n Germany FRG
i n the gas f i e l d b e l t between t h e bounding patches o f Groningen/The Netherlands
(STXUBLE & MILIUS 1970, ROSSUM 1975, BEEK & TROOST 1978) i n t h e west and Wus-
trow (Germany FRG)/Salzwedel (Germany GDR) i n the e a s t (PHILIPP & R E I N I C K E
1982, JOHN 1983) have been so f a r Sohlingen (ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL 1985 c ) and
s a t e l l i t e s i n t h e area o f t h e Schneverdingen-Graben (DRONG, PLEIN, SANNEMANN,
SCHUEPBACH & ZIMDARS 1982; HEDEMANN, MASCHEK, PAULUS & PLEIN 1984; GRALLA 1988)
i n the R o t l i e g e n d o f the East Hannover area o r Weser-Elbe p r o v i n c e (where t h e
h i t h e r t o l a r g e s t h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s have been c a r r i e d
out; KLOSE & KRUMER 1983, BLEAKLEY 1984, LEICHT 1985; c f . f i g s . 4 and 1 0 ) .

Other R o t l i e g e n d items o f considerable MHF s i g n i f i c a n c e are Leer, Leybucht

and Hamburger Sand i n the East F r i e s l a n d area and f a c i e s province, and A l f e l d -
Elze i n the South Hannover area and f a c i e s province. The h i g h l i g h t s o f Carboni-
f e r o u s h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g a r e Uphuser Meer i n t h e East F r i e s l a n d
area (OIETZEL & HANTELMANN 1985); Cappeln, Goldenstedt, Syke, Uchte, Varnhorn
and Mietingsmoor as w e l l as Hamwiede i n t h e South Oldenburg and East Hannover
areas, r e s p e c t i v e l y ( f o r l o c a t i o n maps c f . JOHN 1983; REINICKE, BRINKMANN,
SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985; SCHRUDER 1986, 1987); and Emlichheim, Fehndorf and Frens-
wegen i n the West Emsland area (SOMMER 1987, 1988; c f . f i g s . 4 and 10 and tab.
6 ) , w i t h Coevorden a d j o i n i n g i n t h e Netherlands s e c t o r on t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e
s t a t e boundary.

3.2.2.2. B r i t i s h and Dutch North Sea

The a c t i v i t y i n the B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea concentrates on the R o t l i e -
gend f i e l d complex around the Sole P i t area (comprising m a i n l y the r e g i o n o f
t h e Amethyst, I n d e f a t i g a b l e , Leman Bank (VEEN 1975; GLENNIE, MUDD & NAGTEGAAL
 249

1978; AMOCO 1988), Ravenspurn, Rough, Thames, V a l i a n t , Vanguard, Vulcan and

West Sole f i e l d s (LAFLEUR & JOHNSON 1973; OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1985 c, 1986 a,
1986 c; WORLD OIL 1985, ALLISON 1986, BRITISH PETROLEUM 1986, FISHMAN 1986,
GLENNIE 1986; GREGORY 1986, 1987; THOMAS 1986, ACHARYA & K I M 1987, FOX 1987,
OILMAN 1987 a, POTTER 1987, MARTIN & EVANS 1988) o f f s h o r e Great Yarmouth b e t -
ween Teesside i n Great B r i t a i n and Den Helder i n the Netherlands ( f o r l o c a t i o n
maps c f . ALLISON 1986, OILFIELD PUBLICATIONS 1986, QUINLAN 1988; c f . f i g s . 6
and 10 as w e l l as tabs. 7 - 8 ) . I n the Dutch North Sea, the main places o f Rot-
l i e g e n d h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n are the K-12, L-8, L-10 and
P-2 f i e l d s . While most o f the hydrocarbon accumulations c o n t a i n gas, the A r g y l l
f i e l d a t the margin o f the c e n t r a l N o r t h Sea graben i s n e a r l y the o n l y p l a c e
where the R o t l i e g e n d sandstones c o n t a i n o i l (BIFANI, GEORGE & LEVER 1987).

3.2.2.3. Germany GDR and Poland

I n Germany GDR, so f a r o n l y the Salzwedel f i e l d a t the FRG (Wustrow)/GDR
boundary ( c f . f i g . 4) and some small s a t e l l i t e s around the b i g patch are produc-
t i v e , because the r e s e r v o i r c o n t a i n s f u r t h e r t o the e a s t ( f o r example near Ber-
l i n ) almost e x c l u s i v e l y i n e r t n i t r o g e n ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 3.10.2.). I n Poland,
again sweet combustible gas has accumulated i n R o t l i e g e n d sandstones, w i t h the
most important f i e l d s being i n the Fore-Sudetic Monocline Bogdaj-Uciechow near
Ostrbw Wielkopolski; Zalecze, Zuchlbw and Wierzchowice; i n the area south o f
Poznan Grodzisk, Ujazd, Bukowiec, Buk and Kleka; and i n the Pomeranian area
around Szczecin Miedzyzdroje ( c f . f i g . 5 and tab. 9 ) . H y d r a u l i c proppant
f r a c t u r i n g has h i t h e r t o been c a r r i e d o u t i n the R o t l i e g e n d i n Germany GDR and
Poland o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y and on s m a l l e r s c a l e i n c o n t r a s t t o abundant MHF a p p l i -
c a t i o n i n Germany FRG.

3.2.3. Other aspects

The R o t l i e g e n d i s i n Middle Europe already since several years the most pro-
s p e c t i v e t a r g e t h o r i z o n o f gas e x p l o r a t i o n (SCHRUDER 1985) and w i l l keep t h i s
p o s i t i o n a l s o a t l e a s t i n the near f u t u r e . The Carboniferous w i l l be o f progres-
s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g importance, b u t i s expected t o always l a g behind the R o t l i e -
gend i n s i g n i f i c a n c e , w i t h the main reason being the h i g h e r water s a t u r a t i o n
w i t h i n the p e t r o p h y s i c a l l y poorer r e s e r v o i r s which are f r e q u e n t l y s i t u a t e d
c l o s e t o o r even below the gas-water-contact ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.8.1.). Laboratory
t e s t i n g has shown t h a t the Carboniferous r e s e r v o i r rocks e x h i b i t a h i g h degree
o f p l a s t i c i t y (SLUSSER & RIECKMANN 1976; c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.3.2.3.).

R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s i n Germany FRG are f r e q u e n t l y found beneath Zechstein

s a l t p l u g s where the lower t o t a l geopressure and the r e t a r d e d heat f l u x o f t e n
preserved b e t t e r p o r o s i t i e s than i n the r e g i o n s between t h e s a l t domes (FARBER
1984; c f . s e c t i o n 3.2.1.2.1.). This geological constellation i s i n contrast t o
the c o n d i t i o n s i n the USA where except o f overhang d r i l l i n g , no hydrocarbon pro-
d u c t i o n i s encountered under s a l t d i a p i r s , and the p e n e t r a t i o n o f s a l t i n grea-
t e r thicknesses p o i n t i n g t o a s a l t p l u g i s even u s u a l l y the s i g n t o abandon the
we1 1 (BLEAKLEY 1984).

3.3. Historical development o f production and fracturing

The beginning o f R o t l i e g e n d g a s e x p l o r a t i o n , p r o d u c t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n i n
Europe o n l y dates back some 25 years (McNALLY 1988). I n 1959, the g i a n t Gronin-
gen f i e l d i n t h e Netherlands ( t h e e a s t e r n t i p o f which extends through t h e Ems
e s t u a r y on Germany FRG t e r r i t o r y ) was discovered ( b y e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l Slochte-
r e n 1; ACHARYA & K I M 1987), and i n 1963 i t s l a r g e s i z e was recognized from ap-
p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g (SCHOONBEEK 1976), w i t h Groningen belonging t o the t o p t e n gas
f i e l d s i n the w o r l d and c o n t a i n i n g abt. 2,500 B i l l . m3 (100 T c f ) reserves. The
Groningen gas s t r i k e e x a c t l y 20 years ago ( o n l y some 10 years a f t e r the indus-
 250

t r i a l i n t r o d u c t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . ) was t h e
b r e a k t h r o u g h f o r t h e b e g i n n i n g o f i n t e n s e e x p l o r a t i o n i n B r i t i s h N o r t h Sea, Ger-
many FRG, D u t c h N o r t h Sea, German N o r t h Sea and o t h e r a r e a s .

3.3.1. British North Sea

The d i s c o v e r y o f t h e g i a n t R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d G r o n i n g e n (STKUBLE & M I L I U S
1970, ROSSUM 1975, BEEK & TROOST 1978) f o c u s s e d s u b s e q u e n t l y t h e a t t e n t i o n o f
e x p l o r a t i o n o n b o t h o n s h o r e and o f f s h o r e p a r t s o f t h e b e l t o f f a v o u r a b l e R o t l i e -
gend r e s e r v o i r f a c i e s i n t h e S o u t h e r n Permian B a s i n ( f o r p a l a e o g e o g r a p h i c a l
maps c f . ZIEGLER 1982, GLENNIE 1 9 8 6 ) . Some a s p e c t s o f t r e a t m e n t s i z e and p r o p -
p a n t q u a n t i t y , o f f s h o r e f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n o l o g y and s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t s , and s i g n i -
f i c a n c e o f N o r t h Sea r e s e r v e s f o r G r e a t B r i t a i n a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

3.3.1.1. Treatment size and proppant quantity

I n 1965, West S o l e became t h e f i r s t c o m m e r c i a l R o t l i e g e n d gas d i s c o v e r y i n
t h e B r i t i s h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea ( o n l y one y e a r a f t e r t h e g e n e r a l s t a r t o f N o r t h
Sea o i l and gas d r i l l i n g ) and soon l a t e r a l s o t h e t a r g e t o f f i r s t o f f s h o r e h y -
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d (COOPER & MARSHALL 1984, BRI-
TISH PETROLEUM 1986) w h i c h i n t h o s e days were o f c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l - t o m i n i a -
t u r e - s i z e and were c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a b t . 50,000 - 200,000 l b s . ( 2 5 - 100 t ) o f
n a t u r a l sand ( a b t . 10 y e a r s o f p a r t i a l l y even more b e f o r e t h e i n v e n t i o n and m a r -
k e t i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s ) . O t h e r
19651'1966 B r i t i s h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d gas s t r i k e s w e r e Leman, H e w e t t ,
I n d e f a t i g a b l e and V i k i n g . F o r comparison, t h e f i r s t c o m m e r c i a l N o r t h Sea o i l
d i s c o v e r y was o n l y made i n 1969 ( t h u s f o u r y e a r s a f t e r t h e f i r s t m a j o r g a s
s t r i k e ; THOMAS 1 9 8 6 ) . W i t h t i m e , t r e a t m e n t t e c h n o l o g y e v o l v e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y t o
m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g w i t h q u a n t i t i e s o f a b t . 100 - 500 t (200,000 - 1
M i o . l b s ) o f n a t u r a l sand a n d / o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s
w h i c h s t a r t e d t o be c a r r i e d o u t i n a second m a j o r s e r i e s o f campaigns i n t h e
l a t e 1 9 8 0 ' s a l m o s t 20 y e a r s a f t e r t h e o r i g i n a l d i s c o v e r y o f R o t l i e g e n d gas p r o -
s p e c t i v i t y i n t h e N o r t h Sea and t h e o n s e t o f p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n f o r t h e ame-
l i o r a t i o n o f gas l i b e r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 2 . ) .

3.3.1.2. Offshore fracturing technology and stimulation boats

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea e v o l v e d f r o m f i r s t
m a j o r t r e a t m e n t s i n t h e m i d 1 9 6 0 ' s v i a numerous j o b s w i t h s k i d - i n s t a l l e d , plat-
form-mounted e q u i p m e n t between 1965 and 1980 and f i r s t s h i p o p e r a t i o n s i n 1980
b y s u p p l y v e s s e l s t h a t were c o n v e r t e d i n t o s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t s t o t r e a t m e n t s c a r -
r i e d o u t b y p u r p o s e - b u i l t f r a c t u r i n g v e s s e l s f r o m 1984 onwards (COOPER & MARS-
HALL 1984), w i t h now t h r e e c o m p a r a b l e h i g h - l e v e l t e c h n o l o g y s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t s
b e i n g a v a i l a b l e i n t h e N o r t h Sea (FOX 1985, OILMAN 1985 b; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
3 . 8 . 1 . 2 . ) . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f h i g h - c a p a c i t y f r a c t u r i n g s h i p s a l l o w e d t o d r a s t i -
c a l l y i n c r e a s e t r e a t m e n t s i z e s i n t e r m s o f f l u i d and p r o p p a n t volume and o n l y
t h a n k s t o t h e s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t s i t was p o s s i b l y t o a c h i e v e t h e s t a g e of ..," >sive
h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e h o s t i l e N o r t h Sea o f f s h o r e e n v i r o n m e n t . As-
p e c t s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n p a r t i a l l y w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t -
s a n d s t e i n gas r e s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o p r e s e n t e d b y COULTER & PURVIS ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

3.3.1.3. Significance o f North Sea reserves for Great Britain

The S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea i s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c e n t r e o f gas p r o d u c t i o n i n G r e a t
B r i t a i n and has h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n t r i b u t e d n e a r l y 90 % o f t h e t o t a l gas d e l i v e r y
i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, and t h e r e i s e v e r y r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e S o u t h e r n
N o r t h Sea w i l l keep i t s d o m i n a n t r o l e u n t i l t h e y e a r 2000, as i t s t i l l c o n t a i n s
more t h a n 50 % o f t h e t o t a l p r o v e n and p r o b a b l e gas r e s e r v e s i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g -
 251

dom (FISHMAN 1986; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.6.2. and 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 3 . 2 . ) . I n t h e some

t w e n t y y e a r s f r o m t h e 1965 s t a r t o f B r i t i s h o f f s h o r e gas d r i l l i n g , s t i m u l a t i o n
and e x p l o i t a t i o n , o v e r 50 B i l l . L have been i n v e s t e d i n t o hydrocarbon e x p l o r a -
t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom s e c t o r o f t h e N o r t h Sea (OFFSHORE EN-
GINEER 1986 d ) . As a consequence o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f R o t l i e g e n d gas a c q u i s i -
t i o n i n c l u d i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e shares o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n , G r e a t
B r i t a i n advanced u n t i l 1985 t o t h e w o r l d ' s f o u r t h b i g g e s t gas producer and s i -
m u l t a n e o u s l y a l s o achieved t h e rank o f b e i n g t h e w o r l d ' s f i f t h b i g g e s t o i l p r o -
ducer. The s t i m u l a t i o n market o f t h e N o r t h Sea can be e s t i m a t e d t o have an an-
nual p o t e n t i a l o f a b t . 20 Mio. L (OILMAN 1985 b; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 3 . ) .

3.3.2. Germany FRG

The development of Rotliegend and C a r b o n i f e r o u s h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g i n Germany FRG i s summarized i n an account o f e v o l u t i o n o f g a s - f i e l d
d i s c o v e r y as w e l l as t r e a t m e n t s i z e and p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y .

3.3.2.1. Evolution o f gas-field discovery

F o l l o w i n g t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e g i a n t Groningen f i e l d i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s i n
1959 and t h e f i r s t R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea i n
1965 (West Sole f i e l d and s a t e l l i t e s ; c f . s e c t i o n 3.3.1.), onshore M i d d l e Eu-
rope i n 1966 t h e gas f i e l d Wustrow/Salzwedel a t t h e FRGIGDR-boundary ( c f . f i g .
4) was found which formed t h e t h i r d m i l e s t o n e i n R o t l i e g e n d gas access. The
b r e a k t h r o u g h i n Germany FRG was achieved w i t h t h e s t r i k e o f Schmarbeck i n 1971
which opened a whole new g a s - f i e l d p r o v i n c e i n t h e East Hannover area, w i t h i n
subsequent y e a r s a l a r g e s u i t e o f w e l l s h a v i n g been d r i l l e d and t h e new d i s c o v e -
r i e s c u l m i n a t i n g so f a r i n 1980 when one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t and g r e a t e s t
f i e l d s was found i n S o h l i n g e n which c o n f i r m e d v a r i o u s s t r a t e g i c a l concepts o f
e x p l o r a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t e c t o n i c s , s e d i m e n t a t i o n and d i a g e n e t i c a l h i s t o r y (BRA-
DEL & DRAXLER 1982, PHILIPP & R E I N I C K E 1982) i n c l u d i n g t h e p l a y o f synsedimenta-
ry Rot1 iegend graben t e c t o n i c s (DRONG, PLEIN, SANNEMANN, SCHUEPBACH & ZIMDARS
1982; HEDEMANN, MASCHEK, PAULUS & PLEIN 1984; GRALLA 1988) t h a t subsequently
gave r i s e t o an e n t i r e b e l t o f new gas s t r i k e s around t h e new i m p o r t a n t d i s c o v e -
ry spot.

I n t h e l a s t decade, a whole s u i t e o f s a t e l l i t e gas f i e l d s have been found

around t h e b i g S o h l i n g e n p a t c h p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n a system o f synsedimentary g r a -
bens ( o f which t h e Schneverdingen graben i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t one) where e x c e l -
l e n t s t o r a g e c a p a b i l i t i e s e x i s t i n t h e Schneverdingen-Sandstein, and i n t h e co-
v e r s t r a t a p i l e where c h i e f l y t h e l a t e r a l l y u n l i m i t e d H a u p t s a n d s t e i n c o n t a i n s
enormous q u a n t i t i e s o f gas i n p r i m a r i l y t i g h t f a c i e s t h a t i s i n d i s p e n s i b l y ne-
c e s s i t a t i n g h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g on l a r g e r s c a l e f o r economical gas li-
b e r a t i o n . 1987 - 1990 f i n a l l y i s g o i n g t o see a m a j o r campaign o f development
o f a whole s u i t e o f t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h
Sea which a c c o r d i n g t o t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f accumulated gas and t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s
t o r e c o v e r i t i n an e c o n o m i c a l l y most f e a s i b l e way w i l l become one o f t h e h i g h -
l i g h t s i n R o t l i e g e n d gas a c q u i s i t i o n , h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g and e x p l o i -
t a t i o n ( c f . section 2.2.1.6.2.).

3.3.2.2. Treatment size and proppant quantity

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f R o t l i e g e n d gas r e s e r v o i r s i n Germany FRG
a l s o s t a r t e d soon a f t e r t h e f i r s t d i s c o v e r i e s o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay zones
( w i t h i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s due t o l a c k o f s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l a l s o m a i n l y s m a l l e r
o p e r a t i o n s h a v i n g been c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a b t . 25 - 100 t (50,000 - 200,000 l b s )
o f n a t u r a l sand; c f . TUNN 1971) and was p a r t i c u l a r l y pronounced i n t h e l a s t t e n
y e a r s s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h -
s t r e n g t h proppants which were f i r s t a p p l i e d i n Germany FRG i n 1978 (ERDOEL-ERD-
 252

GAS AKTUELL 1978 a ) , w i t h t h e h i t h e r t o h i g h l i g h t b e i n g t h e s o f a r b i g g e s t ope-

r a t i o n i n t h e w e l l Sohlingen Z 4 i n 1982 where t h e a b t . 550 t (1.2 Mio. l b s ) o f
b a u x i t e p r o p p a n t s i n j e c t e d were t e m p o r a r i l y t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f i n a l p r o p p a n t
pumping r a t e o f a b t . 9,000 l b s . / m i n . even w o r l d r e c o r d i n MHF e x e c u t i o n w i t h
h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants, w i t h t h e r e s u l t o f t h e s u c c e s s f u l jumbo j o b h a v i n g
been t h e approval o f a b t . 500 Mio. m3 ( a b t . 20 B c f ) o f gas r e s e r v e s (KLOSE &
KRUMER 1983, BLEAKLEY 1984).

F o r comparison, b i g t r e a t m e n t s h a v i n g been c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e USA approached

pumping o f a b t . 3 - 5 Mio. l b s o f sand (WATERS 1980), and 1987 has seen t h e
w o r l d r e c o r d sand q u a n t i t y o f 3,150 t o r 6.3 Mio. l b s h a v i n g been pumped i n t o a
gas w e l l i n South Texas/USA (CONSTIEN, BRANNON & BANNISTER 1988; P I T T S 1988;
c f . section 1.1.1.4.) which a l s o p a i d o f f v e r y q u i c k l y due t o c o n f i r m a t i o n o f
enormous a d d i t i o n a l gas r e s e r v e s . Massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g w i t h p r o p p a n t
q u a n t i t i e s o f 100 - 650 t has been f r e q u e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t i n R o t l i e g e n d and Car-
b o n i f e r o u s deep t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e p e r i o d 1977 - 1985 ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.4.1.1.).

3.3.3. Dutch North Sea

In t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , o f f s h o r e e x p l o r a t i o n a l s o was t h e l o g i c a l consequence o f
t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e g i a n t Groningen f i e l d onshore and w i t h i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
years, a l s o i m p o r t a n t R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s were found e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e K - , L-
and P - b l o c k s o f t h e Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea ( f o r g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n c f .
OILFIELD PUBLICATIONS 1986, QUINLAN 1988; c f . f i g . 1 0 ) . H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c -
t u r i n g has a l r e a d y been c a r r i e d o u t i n reasonable amounts i n b o t h B r i t i s h and
Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea, b u t i t s c l i m a x w i l l be reached i n 1987 - 1990 when
t h e m a j o r development campaigns o f R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s i n t h e B r i t i s h South-
e r n N o r t h Sea ( f o r economical aspects c f . a l s o BEUDELL 1986 b, FISHMAN 1986;
GREGORY 1986, 1987; THOMAS 1986, ALGAR 1987 a, BAND 1987, POTTER 1987) r e q u i r e
o u t s t a n d i n g s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y which m i g h t be much more than a l l t h e t r e a t -
ments performed h i t h e r t o i n t h e whole R o t l i e g e n d B a s i n t o g e t h e r . Successful s t i -
m u l a t i o n p r a c t i c e s i n t h e D u t c h Southern N o r t h Sea a r e summarized by COULTER &
PURVIS (1980).

3.3.4. German North Sea

U n f o r t u n a t e l y so f a r no commercial R o t l i e g e n d gas s t r i k e has been made i n
t h e German N o r t h Sea ( i f n e g l e c t i n g t h e two small f i e l d s Emshorn and Leybucht
which a r e o n l y a few km away f r o m t h e c o a s t l i n e and have t o be c l a s s i f i e d as i n -
shore r a t h e r than o f f s h o r e l o c a l i t i e s ; OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1986 b ) . Some gas accu-
m u l a t i o n s have been found t h a t c o u l d be e x p l o i t e d e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e i f t h e y
would be s i t u a t e d onshore, b u t t h e a d d i t i o n a l t r a n s p o r t expenses f o r up t o 300
km f r o m t h e o f f s h o r e l o c a t i o n t o t h e onshore gas t e r m i n a l c a n c e l s t h e p r o j e c t
due t o p r o f i t a b i l i t y reasons. O t h e r R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r s c o n t a i n t o o h i g h n i -
t r o g e n shares ( u p t o 60 % and more) i n t h e gas t o be c o m m e r c i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e
(PLEIN 1975, SCHUNEICH 1981).

3.3.5. Other areas

The areas o f t h e Danish N o r t h Sea as w e l l as o f t h e German, P o l i s h and Rus-
s i a n B a l t i c Sea c o n t a i n o n l y reduced R o t l i e g e n d s e c t i o n s i n u n f a v o u r a b l e f a c i e s
development i n c l u d i n g o n l y n e g l i g i b l e amounts o f sands w i t h r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y ,
o r a r e a l r e a d y o u t s i d e o f t h e Permian d e p o s i t i o n a l b a s i n on t h e Fennoscandian
S h i e l d . The I r i s h o r C e l t i c Sea has s o f a r a l s o n o t d e l i v e r e d economical gas ac-
c u m u l a t i o n s i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d i n c o n t r a s t t o some f e a s i b l e d e p o s i t s i n t h e Lo-
wer T r i a s s i c B u n t s a n d s t e i n - f a c i e s r e d beds (such as t h e Morecambe f i e l d ) . I n
Germany GDR onshore, a p a r t f r o m Salzwedel ( c f . f i g . 4 ) and i t s s m a l l s a t e l l i t e s
eastwards no o t h e r b i g R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d has been encountered s o f a r w i t h
 253

reasonable shares o f c o m b u s t i b l e methane ( i n t h e B e r l i n r e g i o n , t h e r e s e r v o i r

c o n t a i n s almost o n l y i n e r t n i t r o g e n ) , whereas i n Poland onshore, commercial R o t -
1 iegend gas d i s c o v e r i e s were made p a r t i c u l a r l y around Ostrbw Wiel kopol s k i s o u t h
o f Poznah and n o r t h o f Wroclaw as w e l l as around Szczecin ( c f . f i g . 5 and
s e c t i o n 3.10.2.1.).

R e s e r v o i r subsidence due t o framework compaction by pore c o l apse i s n e g l i -

g i b l e i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d sandstones and comprises a b t . 10 - 25 cm i n 20 - 40
y e a r s i n c o n t r a s t t o s i g n i f i c a n t subsidence i n Cretaceous c h a l k pays which r a n -
ges up t o s e v e r a l metres (SCHOONBEEK 1976; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4.5 4.1.4.).

3.4. Permeability prediction and effective permeab lity

W i t h i n t h e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y zone o f t h e g a s - b e a r i n g R o t l i e g e n d sandstone
b e l t i n t h e B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea (and i n l e s s pronounced f o r m
a l s o i n Germany FRG and t h e N e t h e r l a n d s onshore), p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e n e c e s s i t y
o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s o f t e n v e r y d i f f i c u l t , because l i t t l e chan-
ges i n p e r m e a b i l i t y i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n can a l r e a d y r e s u l t i n e x e c u t i o n o r can-
c e l l a t i o n o f a s t i m u l a t i o n job, w i t h t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p meaning t h a t o u t o f an
o f f s h o r e d r i l l i n g campaign which comprises s e v e r a l dozens o f w e l l s ( a c o u p l e o f
such a c t i o n s a r e scheduled i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea i n t h e coming
y e a r s ) where h a l f o f t h e amount o f producers i s planned t o have t o be f r a c t u -
red, f o r m a t i o n e v a l u a t i o n by l o g g i n g and t e s t i n g can r e s u l t i n t h e n e c e s s i t y t o
switch t o hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f e i t h e r only a quarter o r less o r
even almost t h r e e q u a r t e r s o r more o f t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f t h e w e l l s , depen-
d i n g upon degree and o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e mismatch o f p r e d i c t i o n and a c q u i s i t i o n
o f p e r m e a b i l i t y i n d i r e c t i o n o f b e t t e r o r p o o r e r f a c i e s . Some aspects o f t i g h t
r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y range, p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n and p r e d i c t i o n , and
temporary damage and r e s t o r a t i o n o f p e r m e a b i l i t y a r e b r i e f l y sketched as f o l -
lows.

3.4.1. Tight reservoir permeability range

T i g h t gas sandstone r e s e r v o i r s a r e t h e m a j o r source o f f u t u r e gas p r o d u c t i o n
and a r e p r e d i c t e d t o achieve a share o f a b t . 50 % by t h e y e a r 2020 i n compari-
son t o t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a b t . 5 - 10 % i n t h e 1980's i n t h e USA (BAKER
1981). The maximum r e c o v e r a b l e gas r e s e r v e i n t h e t i g h t sand r e s o u r c e i s o v e r
600 T c f (15,000 B i l l . m3; NORTHROP & FROHNE 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 1 . ) . Permeabi-
l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n t r e n d s a r e e x t r e m e l y complex and no reasonable and r e l i a b l e
p r o g n o s i s i s p o s s i b l e , w i t h t h e customary method o f e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l
b e i n g p a t t e r n d r i l l i n g on whole t r e n d s which have been found by s e i s m i c e v a l u a -
tion.

I n c o n t r a s t t o c o n t i n u o u s o r b l a n k e t r e s e r v o i r s , l e n t i c u l a r pay zones must

be c o n t a c t e d by d r i l l i n g w e l l s on a spacing more t y p i c a l o f o i l - f i e l d than con-
v e n t i o n a l g a s - f i e l d development, and communication f r a c t u r i n g between t h e i s o -
l a t e d sand b o d i e s t o connect them t o t h e i r neighbours and t o t h e b o r e h o l e has
t o be a p p l i e d f r e q u e n t l y ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 0 . 2 . ) . F i e l d boundaries a r e s e t o n l y
p a r t l y by s t r u c t u r e and p o r o s i t y , b u t t o l a r g e amounts by p e r m e a b i l i t y , t h i c k -
ness and economics, w i t h i n t e r s p e r s e d h i g h e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y areas o c c u r r i n g as
sweet s p o t s . The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e sketches some s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s o f R o t l i e g e n d
and C a r b o n i f e r o u s i n Europe by commenting on m i c r o d a r c y pay zone p e r m e a b i l i t y ,
s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p e r m e a b i l i t y , and gas and f l u i d f l o w i n t i g h t
r o c k m a t r i x . The d i s c u s s i o n i s i n t r o d u c e d by an overview o f t h e g e n e r a l sedimen-
t o l o g i c a l and d i a g e n e t i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f t i g h t gas sands.
 254

3.4.1.1. Sedimentological and diagenetical

evolution o f tight gas sands
T i g h t gas sands a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an i n - s i t u p e r m e a b i l i t y t o gas o f 0 . 1
md o r l e s s and can be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t o b l a n k e t and l e n t i c u l a r sandstones
(SPENCER 1 9 8 3 ) . While b l a n k e t sandstones a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y o f m a r i n e o r m a r g i -
n a l - m a r i n e genesis, l e n t i c u l a r sandstones m a i n l y o r i g i n a t e d i n f l u v i a l and d e l -
t a i c environments. A t h i r d c a t e g o r y o f t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s comprises c h a l k ( c f .
section 4.5.4.). Sandstones a r e t i g h t as a consequence o f p r i m a r y f i n e g r a i n
s i z e o r due t o secondary i n t e n s e cementation, w i t h t h e pores b e i n g p o o r l y con-
n e c t e d by s m a l l t h r o a t s and c a p i l l a r i e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 5 . 1 . 1 . ) . D i s c r e t e gas-wa-
t e r c o n t a c t s a r e absent i n l e n t i c u l a r and some o f t h e b l a n k e t sandstone r e s e r -
v o i r s , and most o f t h e gas occurs i n s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y t r a p s . Low po-
r o s i t y , h i g h c l a y c o n t e n t and h i g h g r a i n d e n s i t i e s o f t i g h t gas sands r e n d e r
w e l l l o g a n a l y s i s d i f f i c u l t ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 5 . 2 . 3 . ) , and many t i g h t gas b a s i n s
a r e e i t h e r o v e r p r e s s u r e d o r underpressured ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 2 . ) . I n c o n t r a s t t o
c o n v e n t i o n a l pay complexes, t i g h t gas sands do n o t e x h i b i t a c o n s i s t e n t r e l a -
t i o n s h i p between p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y . Some aspects o f b l a n k e t and l e n t i c u -
l a r sandstones, p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e
and f o r m a t i o n damage a r e summarized as f o l l o w s .

3.4.1.1.1. Blanket sandstones

B l a n k e t sandstones i n e n g i n e e r i n g sense have r e l a t i v e l y b e t t e r h o r i z o n t a l
c o n t i n u i t y than l e n t i c u l a r r e s e r v o i r s and respond t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g u s u a l -
l y i n a somewhat p r e d i c t a b l e manner. I n c r e a s i n g t h e p r o p p a n t volume r e s u l t s ge-
n e r a l l y i n i n c r e a s i n g w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y up t o c e r t a i n l i m i t s . Some examples o f
b l a n k e t sandstones i n t h e Rocky Mountains t i g h t gas b a s i n s i n USA i n c l u d e t h e
Lower Cretaceous "J" Sandstone i n t h e Denver-Julesburg Basin, t h e Upper C r e t a -
ceous Almond F o r m a t i o n and F r o n t i e r F o r m a t i o n i n t h e G r e a t e r Green R i v e r Basin,
and t h e Upper Cretaceous Corcoran and C o z z e t t e Sandstones i n t h e Piceance Creek
B a s i n . A l t h o u g h b e i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y more e x t e n s i v e i n h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n t h a n
l e n t i c u l a r r e s e r v o i r s , a l s o b l a n k e t sandstones may e x h i b i t r e a s o n a b l e l a t e r a l
v a r i a b i l i t y (LORENZ 1983, NORTHROP & FROHNE 1988). A summary of b l a n k e t t i g h t
gas sands i n Texas i s g i v e n by FINLEY & O'SHEA (1983) and FINLEY ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

3.4.1.1.2. Lenticular sandstones

L e n t i c u l a r r e s e r v o i r s a r e f l u v i a l sandstones which a r e v e r y d i s c o n t i n u o u s
and e x h i b i t many i n t e r n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y v a r i a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 4 . 2 . ) . Geome-
t r y and dimensions o f t h e r e s e r v o i r u n i t s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t , and t h e r e -
f o r e t h e response o f l e n t i c u l a r sandstones t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s v e r y e r r a -
t i c and g e n e r a l l y t h e s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s a r e p o o r e r than u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e i n
massive b l a n k e t sandstones. Some examples o f l e n t i c u l a r sandstones i n t h e Rocky
Mountains t i g h t gas b a s i n s i n USA i n c l u d e f l u v i a l sandstones i n t h e Upper C r e t a -
ceous Mesaverde group and T e r t i a r y sandstones i n t h e San Juan, U i n t a , Piceance
Creek and G r e a t e r Green R i v e r B a s i n s . The economical s e v e r i t y o f sandstone l e n -
t i c u l a r i t y depends on l e n s geometry, w i t h broad l e n s e s b e i n g n e a r l y as commer-
c i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e as b l a n k e t sands (KUUSKRAA, BRASHEAR, ELKINS & MORRA 1979).
Economical f e a s i b i l i t y o f l e n t i c u l a r r e s e r v o i r s can be c o n s i d e r a b l y improved by
f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n through l e n s e s which a r e n o t d i r e c t l y i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
w e l l by communication f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 0 . 2 . 1 . ) .

Chalks a r e marine m i c r o c r y s t a l l i n e l i m e s t o n e s o f b l a n k e t c h a r a c t e r and a r e

i n t h e Rocky Mountains t i g h t gas b a s i n s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e Upper Cretaceous N i o -
b r a r a and Greenhorn f o r m a t i o n s which c o n t a i n a l s o b l a n k e t t i g h t gas sands ( a s -
p e c t s of c h a l k s t i m u l a t i o n a r e c o m p i l e d i n s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . ) .
 255

3.4.1.1.3. Porosity and permeability relationships

T i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s e x h i b i t two v a r i e t i e s o f p o r o s i t y - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s . The f i r s t t y p e comprises r o c k s w i t h h i g h p o r o s i t y b u t low p e r m e a b i l i t y
owing t o t h e s m a l l s i z e o f pores and t h r o a t s which a r e u s u a l l y w e l l i n t e r c o n n e c -
t e d . T h i s t y p e i s r e p r e s e n t e d by c h a l k ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.) and some marine
b l a n k e t sandstones. The second v a r i e t y i n c l u d e s l o w - p o r o s i t y sandstones where
s i g n i f i c a n t p o r o s i t y amounts a r e c r e a t e d by p o s t - d e p o s i t i o n a l dissolution o f
framework g r a i n s and/or m a t r i x cements, w i t h secondary p o r o s i t y (SCHMIDT & McDO-
NALD 1979) m a i n l y e x h i b i t e d as s m a l l i s o l a t e d pores o r microvugs. R e l i c t g r a i n s
and p a r t i c l e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m i n c o m p l e t e d i s s o l u t i o n do a l s o o c c u r . The second
t y p e o f p o r o s i t y - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s m a i n l y r e p r e s e n t e d by f l u v i a l
l e n t i c u l a r and marine b l a n k e t sandstones. Secondary microvugs and r e s i d u a l s o f
p r i m a r y p o r o s i t y a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h t h e r e s e r v o i r and a r e connected by s m a l l
r i b b o n - o r s h e e t - l i k e t o r t u o u s c a p i l l a r i e s . The s m a l l s i z e o f t h e c a p i l l a r i e s
r e s t r i c t s gas f l o w and causes g e n e r a l l y h i g h c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e s which can p r o -
voke l i q u i d i m b i b i t i o n d u r i n g d r i l l i n g and f r a c t u r i n g t h a t i n t u r n can t r i g g e r
f o r m a t i o n damage.

The r e s e r v o i r s a r e v e r y s t r e s s - s e n s i t i v e due t o c l o s i n g o f s m a l l c a p i l l a r i e s
o r c r a c k s when c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e i s a p p l i e d . Many o f t h e microvugs i n v e r y
t i g h t rocks are p a r t i a l l y o r completely f i l l e d w i t h authigenic c l a y minerals
( c f . s e c t i o n 3.5.1.1.). N o n - p o r e - f i l l i n g c l a y s a r e a l s o p r e s e n t as d e t r i t a l
s h a l e c l a s t s and as a l t e r a t i o n p r o d u c t s o f v o l c a n i c and o t h e r r o c k fragments
(MADER 1981, 1982, 1983 c ) . B l a n k e t sandstone r e s e r v o i r s a r e i n some cases
h i g h e r i n percentage o f q u a r t z and t e n d t o become t i g h t a t s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r
depths t h a n l e n t i c u l a r sandstones. W h i l e p a r t i a l l y p r i m a r y p o r o s i t y i s p r e s e r -
ved, c o n s i d e r a b l e amounts o f secondary p o r o s i t y a r e a l s o developed i n many
t i g h t gas sands (AL-SHAIEB & WALKER 1986; LAW, POLLASTRO & K E I G H I N 1986). Diage-
n e t i c c o m p l e x i t y i s f r e q u e n t l y a f u n c t i o n o f d e p o s i t i o n a l environment as w e l l
as b u r i a l and thermal h i s t o r y o f t h e b a s i n .

3.4.1.1.4. Reservoir pressure and formation damage

R e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e i s dependent on o r g a n i c r i c h n e s s , palaeotemperature, p r e -
sent-day temperature, a b i l i t y o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r t o s t i l l generate gas, and oc-
c u r r e n c e o f l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l s e a l i n g beds. The main mechanism f o r o v e r p r e s -
s u r i n g i s a c t i v e thermal gas g e n e r a t i o n i n source beds a s s o c i a t e d w i t h low-per-
m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s . As a consequence o f t h e i r p o r e and c a p i l l a r y c h a r a c t e r ,
t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s have a h i g h p o t e n t i a l of f o r m a t i o n damage. The t y p e s o f
p o s s i b l e f o r m a t i o n damage i n c l u d e movement o f secondary c l a y s c a u s i n g p l u g g i n g
o f pore throats, s w e l l i n g o f c l a y minerals, increasing water s a t u r a t i o n w i t h
consequent r e d u c t i o n o f r e l a t i v e gas p e r m e a b i l i t y , l e a v i n g o f f r a c t u r i n g g e l
compounds i n t h e pay zone, and p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f m i n e r a l s and compounds caused
by chemical a d d i t i v e s d u r i n g a c i d i z i n g and h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g .

O t h e r g e o l o g i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g aspects o f t i g h t gas sands a r e summarized

by K E I G H I N (1979), R I C E & SHURR (1980), BROWN & CRAFTON (1981), GAUTIER & R I C E
(1981), WALLS (1981); FINLEY, GARRETT, HAN, LIN, S A U C I E R & TYLER (1983); FINLEY
& O'SHEA (1983); FINLEY (1984, 1986); FINLEY, DUTTON, LIN & S A U C I E R (1985); JEN-
KINS (1985), AL-SHAIEB & WALKER (1986); BROWN, SMAGACA & HAEFECE (1986); CAW,
POLLASTRO & K E I G H I N (1986); LAUGHREY & HARPER (19861, MOSLOW & TILLMAN (1986);
PITMAN, ANDERS, FOUCH & NICHOLS (1986); WEIMER, SONNENBERG & YOUNG (1986) and
DUTTON & FINLEY ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

3.4.1.2. Microdarcy pay zone permeability

T i g h t r e s e r v o i r s such as o c c u r r i n g i n t h e European R o t l i e g e n d and Carboni-
f e r o u s and i n o t h e r f o r m a t i o n s have p e r m e a b i l i t i e s i n t h e m i c r o d a r c y range up
t o a b t . 1 m i l l i d a r c y (ATTEBERRY, TUCKER & RITZ 1979; KLOSE & KRTIMER 1983, BLEAK-
 256

LEY 1984, ALBERTSEN 1985; R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985). Some as-
p e c t s o f a b s o l u t e p e r m e a b i l i t y l e v e l s and p e r m e a b i l i t y c r e a t i o n a r e i l l u s t r a t e d
as f o l l o w s .

3.4.1.2.1. Absolute permeability levels

A c c o r d i n a t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n by t h e F e d e r a l Energy Reserve Commission (FERC)
o f t h e USA, t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s have a m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y l e s s t h a n 0 . 1 mD
(HUNT, RAYMOND, HASKETT & P I R I E 1981; HAAS, BRASHEAR & MORRA 1985; P A I , G A R B I S
& HALL 1985; KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988). I n such t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s , drawdown o f f l o -
wing p r e s s u r e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y pronounced d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n l i f e and t h u s a wide
range o f c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s i s p l a c e d on t h e proppants e s p e c i a l l y when f i e l d ex-
p l o i t a t i o n c o v e r s up t o s e v e r a l decades (CLARK 1983).

R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s g a s - b e a r i n g sandstones i n Germany FRG e x h i b i t

up t o 20 % and 15 % t o t a l p o r o s i t y i n extreme cases, r e s p e c t i v e l y , b u t c l a y m i -
n e r a l s and w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n c o n s i d e r a b l y reduce e f f e c t i v e p o r o s i t y and t h u s
a v a i l a b l e p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r gas f l o w i s o n l y 10 - 50 m i c r o d a r c y ( i n comparison
t o Western and E a s t e r n USA t i g h t gas sands w i t h 3 - 9 % p o r o s i t y and 1 - 50 m i -
c r o d a r c y p e r m e a b i l i t y ; GIDLEY, MUTTI, NIERODE & KEHN 1977; ELKINS 1980, JONES &
OWENS 1980; McKETTA, K O Z I A R & COOK 1980; HUNT, RAYMOND, HASKETT & P I R I E 1981;
WALLS 1981; JOHN 1983, 1987; SPENCER 1983, ECONOMIDES 1987; SATTLER, RAIBLE,
GALL & GILL 1988; SOEDER & CHOWDIAH 1988) o r 1 - 100 m i c r o d a r c y (BRINKMANN
1982; R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985). A comparison o f c o n v e n t i o n a l
and l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas r e s e r v o i r s i s g i v e n by GAUTIER & R I C E (1981), and a
r e v i e w o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas sands i s p r o v i d e d by KAZEMI ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

3.4.1.2.2. Permeability creation

The m i c r o d a r c y p e r m e a b i l i t y of many t i g h t gas sandstones i s caused by con-
s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n o f p r i m a r y p o r o s i t y up t o remnant s l o t pores between a d j o i n -
i n g a u t h i g e n i c q u a r t z overgrowths on d e t r i t a l sand g r a i n s (SOEDER & CHOWDIAH
1988), and much o f t h e pore volume i s o f secondary n a t u r e (sensu SCHMIDT & McDO-
NALD 1979), a l t h o u g h f l o w p a t h s between t h e secondary pores o f t e n c o n s i s t o f n a r -
row s l o t p o r e s (RANDOLPH, SOEDER & CHOWDIAH 1984). I n some r e s e r v o i r s , t h e de-
g r e e o f p o r e a l t e r a t i o n and hence t h e degree o f t i g h t n e s s v a r i e s d i r e c t l y as a
f u n c t i o n o f d e p t h (SOEDER & CHOWDIAH 1988), and t r a n s i t i o n a l stages between
h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandstones ( u p t o 10 md o r more) c o n t a i n i n g o n l y s l i g h t l y a l -
t e r e d p r i m a r y p o r o s i t y as t h e one end member and l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sands (down
t o 1 m i c r o d a r c y o r l e s s ) w i t h h i g h l y - a l t e r e d p r i m a r y p o r o s i t y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
narrow s l o t pores as t h e o t h e r end member o c c u r w i t h i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l column
w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e b u r i a l depth and i n r e l a t i o n t o thermal h i s t o r y . F l u o r e s c e n t
p e t r o g r a p h y and mercury p o r o s i m e t r y a r e u s e f u l techniques f o r r a p i d l y and i n e x -
p e n s i v e l y assessing t h e q u a l i t y o f a t i g h t sandstone r e s e r v o i r and can q u i c k l y
r e v e a l which zones c o n t a i n highly-permeable, g r a i n - s u p p o r t e d p r i m a r y p o r o s i t y ,
which i n t e r v a l s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t i g h t , p r o d u c t i v e s l o t p o r e / s o l u t i o n p o r e
morphology, and which s e c t i o n s i n c l u d e a h i g h l y - a 1 t e r e d low-permeabil ity p o r e
structure.

L o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas sandstones can o n l y produce gas f r o m t h e r o c k m a t r i x a t

economical r a t e s i f f l o w t o t h e w e l l b o r e i s a i d e d by n a t u r a l o r h y d r a u l i c a l l y -
induced f r a c t u r e systems o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h s e t s o f c r a c k s , b u t r e g a r d -
l e s s o f t h i s , gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e i s s t i l l governed by t h e r a t e of gas f l o w
f r o m t h e m a t r i x i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e s which depends on d e t a i l e d m a t r i x p o r e s t r u c -
t u r e and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w a t e r c o n t a i n e d t h e r e i n (WARD & MORROW 1985).
 257

3.4.1.3. Permeability stratigraphy

E f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y under r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s a l s o v a r i e s w i t h s t r a t i g r a -
phy o f the R o t l i e g e n d ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 3.10.1.2.), w i t h t h e Schneverdingen-
Sandstein i n t h e lower p a r t o f the R o t l i e g e n d succession i n the Weser-Elbe f a -
c i e s province i n Germany FRG ( f o r R o t l i e g e n d s t r a t i g r a p h y c f . s e c t i o n 3.2.1.3.)
being t h e b e s t s e c t i o n w i t h abt. 20 - 50 m i l l i d a r c y (according t o p r o d u c t i o n
t e s t s and core measurements), and the Wustrow-Sandstein i n the upper p a r t being
a l s o reasonable w i t h up t o abt. 5 - 10 m i l l i d a r c y , whereas the Hauptsandstein
i n the middle p a r t i s o f t e n very poor w i t h i n some cases n o t exceeding 1 m i l l i -
darcy, b u t f r e q u e n t l y having much l e s s p e r m e a b i l i t y down t o abt. 0.5 - 1 m i c r o -
darcy (KLOSE & KRUMER 1983; R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985). As eco-
nomical gas p r o d u c t i o n w i t h o u t f r a c t u r e treatment r e q u i r e s e f f e c t i v e r e s e r v o i r
p e r m e a b i l i t y o f a t l e a s t 0.5 - 1 m i l l i d a r c y (LEICHT 1985), the middle s e c t i o n
o f the R o t l i e g e n d pay column ( t h e Hauptsandstein) i s the major t a r g e t f o r MHF
operations i n Germany FRG. Some rocks, however, are t o o t i g h t t o produce a t com-
m e r c i a l r a t e s even i n case o f presence o f abundant n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and/or f o l -
l o w i n g h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g (SNEIDER, KING, HAWKES & D A V I S 1981; c f .
s e c t i o n 3.6.1.2.).

3.4.1.4. Gas and fluid flow in tight rock matrix

The behaviour o f t i g h t gas sandstone p e r m e a b i l i t y i n response t o changing
c o n f i n i n g pressure can be e x p l a i n e d q u a l i t a t i v e l y by t h e complex and t o r t u o u s
pore s t r u c t u r e which r e s u l t s from e x t e n s i v e compaction and diagenesis (WALLS
1981). Narrow s l o t - l i k e apertures e x i s t between pores, w i t h these t h i n cracks
p r o v i d i n g the major c o n n e c t i v i t y as they a l l o w f l u i d t o move when t h e rock i s
under e f f e c t i v e pressure c o n d i t i o n s , b u t they are e a s i l y c l o s e d by i n c r e a s i n g
overburden pressure. A t h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s , the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f the narrow
s l o t - l i k e apertures t o f l o w i s almost e l i m i n a t e d and p e r m e a b i l i t y i s p r o v i d e d
by t h e rounder c r o s s - s e c t i o n channels. The e f f e c t o f p a r t i a l s a t u r a t i o n on gas
p e r m e a b i l i t y i s a l s o l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by pore s t r u c t u r e . Water tends t o c o l -
l e c t i n small pores and cracks due t o c a p i l l a r y f o r c e s and thereby prevents
these channels from t r a n s m i t t i n g gas unless the pressure g r a d i e n t i s s u f f i c i e n t -
l y l a r g e t o cause water displacement which may be p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the
f a i l u r e o f some h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g operations t o improve w e l l performance.
The s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d i t s e l f invades the f o r m a t i o n t o some e x t e n t thereby crea-
t i n g a zone o f almost zero gas p e r m e a b i l i t y on each s i d e o f t h e f r a c t u r e , w i t h
t h i s same waterblock phenomenon being on a much l a r g e r s c a l e probably the t r a p -
p i n g mechanism f o r huge volumes o f gas i n some deep basins (MASTERS 1979; c f .
s e c t i o n 3.11.2.4.2.).

Gas i n p l a c e can be estimated f o r h y d r a u l i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d w e l l s i n t i g h t gas

r e s e r v o i r s w i t h i n a margin o f e r r o r acceptable f o r engineering purposes i f the
pressure data i s c o l l e c t e d a f t e r pseudo-radial f l o w regimes (SULLIVAN, POSTON &
PIPER 1988).

3.4.2. Permeability determination and predict ion

E f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s are determined by s t a t i s t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f l a b o r a -
t o r y core measurements and recomputation w i t h a c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r t o r e s e r v o i r
c o n d i t i o n s (JONES & OWENS 1980, LEICHT 1985). An important c o m p l i c a t i o n i s per-
m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p y and h e t e r o g e n e i t y i n t i g h t formations (ROSE 1982). Some
comments are o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on determination, p r e d i c t i o n and v a r i a t i o n s o f
permeabi 1 ity.
 258

3.4.2.1. Permeabi 1 ity determination

I n terms o f p r o p e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n , c a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d f o r n o t f a l s i -
f y i n g t h e t r u e p e r m e a b i l i t y by u n s u i t a b l e l a b o r a t o r y h a n d l i n g t e c h n i q u e s (FREE-
MAN & BUSH 1983, SOEDER & DOHERTY 1983, CHOWDIAH 1986, LUFFEL & HOWARD 1 9 8 7 ) .
Some aspects o f r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d by DELSHAD,
MacALLISTER, POPE & ROUSE (1985); WARD & MORROW (1985), FIROOZABADI & A Z I Z
(1986) ; G R A V I E R , LEMOUZY, BARROUX & ABED (1986) ; HONARPOUR, KOEDERITZ & HARVEY
(1986); PARMESWEAR & MAEREFAT (1986); WATSON, K E R I G , RICHMOND & TAO (1986) ;
C I V A N & DONALDSON (1987); DONALDSON, ALAM & C I V A N (1987); MOHANTY & MILLER
(1988) and WATSON & ERTEKIN ( 1 9 8 8 ) . MILLER & RAMEY (1985) e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t s
o f temperature and c o n s o l i d a t i o n on r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y , and ALI, AL-MARHOUN,
ABU-KHAMSIN & CELIK (1987) comment on t h e e f f e c t o f overburden p r e s s u r e on r e -
1 a t ive permeabi 1 it y .

AGGOUR & MALIK (1987) analyze t h e e f f e c t o f c y c l i c f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e chan-

ges on p e r m e a b i l i t y , and WATSON (1988) i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e impact o f s t e e p tempe-
r a t u r e g r a d i e n t s on r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y . BAKER (1988) comments on three-phase
r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y c o r r e l a t i o n s . G R I (1988) p r e s e n t s examples o f p e r m e a b i l i -
t y a l t e r a t i o n s as a consequence o f s t r e s s changes. WARD & MORROW (1985) o u t l i n e
t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s between r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s a c c o r d i n g t o overburden p r e s -
s u r e i n c r e a s e w i t h d e c r e a s i n g p o r o s i t y and i n c r e a s i n g s e n s i t i v i t y o f permeabi-
l i t y t o c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e . L o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas sandstones have h i g h s u r f a c e
area p e r u n i t volume, and s u r f a c e a d s o r p t i o n and c a p i l l a r y condensation c o n t r i -
b u t e t o r e t e n t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f w a t e r a t e x t r e m e l y h i g h c a p i l l a r y
p r e s s u r e s . BYRNES, SAMPATH & RANDOLPH (1979) i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t o f p r e s s u r e
and w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n on t i g h t gas sandstone p e r m e a b i l i t y . BERGOSH, LORD & OWEN
(1987) i n t r o d u c e t h e overburden m u l t i d i r e c t i o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y t e c h n i q u e .

E f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s o f R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s sandstones a r e a l s o
s t u d i e d by RIECKMANN ( 1 9 7 1 ) . GOGGIN, CHANDLER, KOCUREK & LAKE (1986) o u t l i n e
p e r m e a b i l i t y p a t t e r n s o f a e o l i a n d e p o s i t s . V e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y can be r e l a t e d
t o a known d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a t e r a l p e r m e a b i l i t y by a method o f s h a l e management
i n f i e l d - s c a l e models i n c l u d i n g t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f a p a t t e r n o f d e t e r m i n i s t i c a l -
l y and s t o c h a s t i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d s h a l e s (HALDORSEN & LAKE 1984).

3.4.2.2. Permeabi 1i ty predict ion

In c o n t r a s t t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s where moderate d i f f e r e n c e s of pe-
t r o p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s between e x p e c t a t i o n and r e s u l t have o f t e n almost no con-
sequences f o r c o m p l e t i o n and t e s t i n g , p r o d u c t i o n p l a n n i n g i s f r e q u e n t l y s e r i o u s -
l y a f f e c t e d by o n l y l i t t l e d e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e p r o g n o s i s in l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y
pays. While p o r o s i t y mapping may be s t i l l more o r l e s s r e l i a b l e i n sandstone r e -
s e r v o i r s even i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e boundary between sand-dominated and mud-do-
m i n a t e d f a c i e s b e l t s , p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t o u r i n g i s o f t e n more d i f f i c u l t as a con-
sequence o f much more f a c t o r s w i t h s t r o n g e r v a r i a b i l i t y and t h u s l e s s c e r t a i n
p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p r e - w e l l assessment i n f l u e n c i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o
p o r o s i t y , t h e r e b y c a u s i n g more s u r p r i s e s a f t e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r -
ma t i on by t h e d r i 1 1 ing b i t.

3.4.2.3. Permeabi 1i ty variations

P e r m e a b i l i t y changes i n t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s can o f t e n have d r a m a t i c e f f e c t s
on r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s . KUUSKRAA, BRASHEAR, ELKINS & MORRA (1979) o u t l i n e an
example where a p e r m e a b i l i t y o f 0.01 md and a c o n s t a n t f r a c t u r e d e s i g n r e s u l t s
i n a r e c o v e r y e f f i c i e n c y o f 68 % o f t h e gas i n place, w i t h p e r m e a b i l i t y changes
o f one o r d e r t o magnitude i n upwards and downwards d i r e c t i o n t o 0.1 and 0.001
md l e a d i n g t o r e c o v e r y e f f i c i e n c i e s o f 80 % and 25 % o f t h e gas i n p l a c e , r e -
spec t i v e l y .
 259

A p a r t from p e t r o p h y s i c a l e f f e c t s r e l a t e d t o d i a g e n e t i c a l c l a y m i n e r a l a u t h i -
genesis and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , p e r m e a b i l i t y i s i n f l u e n c e d by s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l and
p e t r o g r a p h i c a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n conglomerates where v a r y i n g d i s t r i -
b u t i o n o f g r a v e l c l a s t s o f d i f f e r e n t s i z e , frequency, shape and c o m p o s i t i o n i n -
t r o d u c e f u r t h e r a n i s o t r o p y and inhomogeneity f a c t o r s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k be-
yond t h e c o n t r o l e x e r t e d by sand g r a i n s and mud p a r t i c l e s and t h e i r o r i g i n a l na-
t u r e and secondary a l t e r a t i o n ( c f . p l a t e s 111/5-8, V/1-4, V I / 4 and V I I / 5 i n sec-
t i o n 3.13.).

3.4.3. Temporary damage and restoration o f Permeability

I n - s i t u gas p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t i g h t sandstone r e s e r v o i r s i s o f t e n t e n t o more
than thousand times l e s s than i n d i c a t e d by r o u t i n e t e s t s owing t o t h e combined
e f f e c t s o f overburden pressure, reduced gas s l i p p a g e , and presence o f connate
w a t e r (JONES & OWENS 1980). I n v a s i o n o f aqueous d r i l l i n g o r f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d
f i l t r a t e has l i t t l e permanent i n f l u e n c e on r o c k p e r m e a b i l i t y , b u t clean-up
times may be e x t e n s i v e because o f t h e low l e v e l o f f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y (TAN-
N I C H 1975), a l t h o u g h p e r m e a b i l i t y p r e s e r v a t i o n i n t h e invaded r e s e r v o i r zone
can be a s s i s t e d by m i n i m i z a t i o n o f i n f i l t r a t i o n (JONES & OWENS 1980). The chemi-
c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f mud f i l t r a t e s o r f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i s o r d i n a r i l y o f seconda-
r y importance i n p r e v e n t i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y impairment. E f f e c t s o f s t r e s s , gas
s l i p p a g e and w a t e r a r e c o r r e l a t i n g w i t h p e r m e a b i l i t y , b u t n o t d i r e c t l y w i t h
c l a y c o n t e n t , w i t h t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s e x p e r i e n c i n g l a r g e e f f e c t s w i t h b o t h low
and h i g h c l a y c o n t e n t s .

Most o f t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n s r e g a i n up t o 70 - 80 % o f t h e i n i t i a l l y un-
damaged p e r m e a b i l i t y o r o r i g i n a l p r o d u c t i v i t y a f t e r b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o t r e a t -
ment f l u i d s (DERBY & SMITH 1979). I n t i g h t gas pays, p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n due
t o f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i n v a s i o n does n o t a p p r e c i a b l y a f f e c t p r o d u c t i v i t y due t o
t h e i n s i g n i f i c a n t p r e s s u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e invaded zone as compared t o t h e p r e s -
s u r e drop f r o m r e s e r v o i r t o w e l l b o r e (PARROT & LONG 1979). R e s t o r a t i o n o f gas
p e r m e a b i l i t y by removing h i g h f l u i d s a t u r a t i o n s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e
can a l s o be achieved by gas c y c l i n g (BRANAGAN, COTNER & GETTMAN 1981; ZAHNER &
CRAFTON 1985). R e l i a b l e r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l f o r
p r e v e n t i n g c o s t l y d e s i g n o f MHF t r e a t m e n t s (JONES & OWENS 1980). POOLLEN
(1957), HOLDITCH (1979) and SOLIMAN & HUNT (1983) a l s o assume temporary permea-
b i l i t y damage, whereas o t h e r s have p u t f o r w a r d arguments i n favour- o f permanent
p r o d u c t i v i t y damage.

3.5. Permeability deterioration and clay mineral distribution

An i m p o r t a n t mechanism o f p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n which a p p l i e s f o r b o t h
R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s sandstones i s t h e d i a g e n e t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f
more o r l e s s u n s t a b l e framework g r a i n s ( m a i n l y r o c k fragments and f e l d s p a r s )
i n t o aggregates o f c l a y m i n e r a l s which o f t e n have t h e c r y s t a l morphology o f
r o l l s and b o o k l e t s , p a r t i a l l y i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l a u t h i g e n i c
growth o f such m i n e r a l s on t h e s u r f a c e o f framework g r a i n s o r i n t h e p o r e
space. A l t h o u g h t h e replacement o f i s o m e t r i c a l f a b r i c g r a i n s by c l a y m i n e r a l
packages r e s u l t s i n o r i g i n o f secondary i n t e r - c l a y m i n e r a l m i c r o p o r o s i t y
(SCHMIDT & McDONALD 1979) w i t h i n t h e i n t e r w o v e n networks, p l u g g i n g o f t h e f o r -
mer i n t e r - f a b r i c g r a i n pore space by neoforrned c l a y m i n e r a l and i r o n o x i d e ag-
g r e g a t e s (MADER 1981, 1982, 1983 c ) , as w e l l as o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e much smal-
l e r and p a r t i a l l y n o t p r o p e r l y i n t e r c o n n e c t e d i n t e r s t i t i a l s i n t h e p o r e network
g i v e r i s e t o much worse f l u x o f w a t e r and gas through t h e r e s e r v o i r than b e f o r e
c l a y mineral diagenesis.

f n the Carboniferous, t h i s i n t e r - c l a y mineral microporosity o f t e n leads a l s o

t o a h i g h e r w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n (due t o i n c r e a s i n g amounts o f connate w a t e r ) t h a n
t h a t expected f r o m p o r o s i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n and gas shows, w h i c h i s one o f t h e
main problems o f p r o p e r p e t r o p h y s i c a l w e l l l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h i s s t o r e y o f
 260

the gas-prospective geological column a n d based on t h a t decision on running ca-

sing, perforating, t e s t i n g and probably a l s o f r a c t u r i n g , or not t o do anything
b u t plug and abandon the well.

Formation damage by permeability d e t e r i o r a t i o n increases with f r a c t u r i n g

f l u i d pH and time of exposure (SIMON & COON 1976, ZAHNER & CRAFTON 1985). Reduc-
t i o n of pH-value can be e f f e c t i v e l y performed by addition of low amounts of me-
thanol to a crosslinked stimulation gel (HARP 1980). Formation damage by increa-
sing r e l a t i v e water permeability and water imbibition ( c f . section 4 . 5 . 4 . 5 . ) i s
becoming worse the longer the r e s e r v o i r i s exposed t o the treatment f l u i d s as
well as the l a r g e r the f r a c t u r e area i s subjected t o f l u i d invasion, with t h u s
frequently longer cracks being more s e r i o u s l y affected t h a n s h o r t e r ones (ZAH-
NER & CRAFTON 1985). Aspects of clay mineralogy and morphology as well as per-
meability d e t e r i o r a t i o n a r e discussed as follows.

3.5.1. Clay mineralogy and morphology

Different aspects of clay mineralogy and morphology as a f f e c t i n g r e s e r v o i r
sandstone porosity and permeability a s we1 1 as supporting o r i n h i b i t i n g hydro-
carbon flow a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as follows. An o u t l i n e i s a l s o given on the d i f f e -
rences between d e t r i t a l and authigenic clay minerals.

3.5.1.1. Clay morphology

Three main morphological types of dispersed clay minerals in sandstone r e s e r -
voirs can be distinguished : d i s c r e t e , pore-lining intergrown a n d pore-bridging
aggregated p a r t i c l e s (NEASHAM 1977 a ) . Discrete p a r t i c l e s are s c a t t e r e d through-
out the pore system and do not form intergrown c r y s t a l frameworks on pore walls
or within i n t e r g r a n u l a r pores. They have a more o r l e s s random arrangement with
respect t o one another a n d a f f e c t petrophysical properties mainly by reducing
intergranular pore volume and behaving as migrating f i n e s in the pore system.
Pore-lining p a r t i c l e s a r e attached t o pore walls t o form a r e l a t i v e l y c o n t i -
nuous thin clay mineral coating. The c r y s t a l s are oriented e i t h e r p a r a l l e l o r
perpendicular to the pore wall surface.
Pore-bridging aggregates extend f a r i n t o o r completely across pore t h r o a t s
t o c r e a t e the bridging e f f e c t by extensive development of intergrown and/or i n -
tertwined clay minerals within the pore system, creating both microporosity and
tortuous fluid-flow pathways. Low-permeability r e s e r v o i r rocks frequently con-
t a i n pore-bridging clay mineral types. Distinction should be made between pores
which are l a r g e spaces surrounded by rock p a r t i c l e s , a n d t h r o a t s which a r e the
narrow p a r t s between two adjacent p a r t i c l e s ( G A O , SHEN & TU 1986).

3.5.1.2. Clay mineralogy

Formation clays have a profound reducing e f f e c t on matrix permeability ( K U -
KAL, BIDDISON, HILL, MONSON & SIMONS 1983; McLEOD 1984). D i f f e r e n t clay mine-
r a l s p r e c i p i t a t e as d i f f e r e n t morphological forms. Kaolinite i s deposited as
d i s c r e t e booklets of clay c r y s t a l s s c a t t e r e d throughout the pore system, a n d
since k a o l i n i t e more commonly occupies intergranular space t h a n i t coats or l i -
nes pore w a l l s , i t i s susceptible t o migration when conditions of f l u i d flow
p r e v a i l . M i g r a t i n g clays adversely a f f e c t permeability by clogging or p a r t i a l l y
bridging and blocking pore t h r o a t s . The most commonly observed form of diagene-
t i c clays i s as pore coatings o r l i n i n g s . Chlorite, i l l i t e a n d smectite a r e a l l
deposited as r e l a t i v e l y continuous l i n i n g s on m a t r i x grain surfaces. Smectite
and i l l i t e tend t o grow outward from the grain surface i n t o the pore space, re-
s u l t i n g in microporosity and d r a s t i c a l l y reduced permeability. Smectite swells
w h e n i n contact w i t h water foreign t o the r e s e r v o i r , thereby rendering permeabi-
l i t y reduction during the stimulation treatment a serious problem.
 261

3.5.1.3. Detrital and authigenic clay minerals

D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between d e t r i t a l c l a y m i n e r a l s having been incorpora-
t e d i n t o the sand d u r i n g d e p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the sedimentary b a s i n below the base
l e v e l o f erosion, and a u t h i g e n i c c l a y m i n e r a l s which o r i g i n a t e d a f t e r deposi-
t i o n o f the sand through e a r l y palaeosol f o r m a t i o n (MADER 1983 c, 1984 b), ear-
l y t o advanced ground-water-table i n f l u e n c e , advanced b u r i a l diagenesis o r even
l a t e renewed t e c t o n i c a l u p l i f t and weathering impact.

D e t r i t a l c l a y s which are o r i g i n a l l y i n s e r t e d i n t o the r e s e r v o i r a t the time

o f d e p o s i t i o n a r e o f t e n l a i d down as h o r i z o n t a l o r s u b h o r i z o n t a l laminae o r l e n -
t i c l e s w i t h i n a sandstone which a c t as d i r e c t i o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y b a r r i e r s l i m i t -
i n g v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y g r e a t l y w h i l e having i n most cases l i t t l e e f f e c t on
h o r i z o n t a l p e r m e a b i l i t y (unless t h e c l a y drapes are p a r a l l e l t o c r o s s - s t r a t i f i -
c a t i o n s t r u c t u r e s where they extend o b l i q u e l y through the r e s e r v o i r and can
a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l y d i s t u r b o r i n h i b i t l a t e r a l f l o w ) . The o r i g i n o f a u t h i g e n i c
c l a y s means f o r m a t i o n o f secondary p o r o s i t y (SCHMIDT & McDONALD 1979) a t the
expense o f p r i m a r y p o r o s i t y . Primary p o r o s i t y r e d u c t i o n c o n t r i b u t e s h e a v i l y t o
the h i g h c a p i l l a r y pressure o f the rock and r e s u l t s i n h i g h water s a t u r a t i o n
and low r e l a t i v e gas p e r m e a b i l i t y . Aspects of c l a y mineralogy and morphology as
w e l l as d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f volume, type and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c l a y m i n e r a l s from
w i r e l i n e l o g g i n g records a r e summarized by FERTL & CHILINGAR (1988). R e l a t i o n -
ships o f R o t l i e g e n d p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y are discussed by FERTL & CAVA-
NAUGH (1973).

3.5.1.4. Other aspects

Morpholopy and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c l a y m i n e r a l s i n o i l - and gas-bearing pay f o r -
mations ( p a r t i a l l y based on scanning e l e c t r o n microscope a n a l y s i s , energy d i s -
p e r s i v e spectrometry, image processing and x-ray d i f f r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s ) a r e a l s o
s t u d i e d by TIMUR, HEMPKINS & WEINBRANDT (1971) ; GAIDA, ROHL & ZIMMERLE (1973) ;
K I E K E & HARTMAN (1973), STALDER (1973), DULLIEN & DHAWAN (1974); HOLUB, MALY,
NOEL & WEINBRANDT (1974); THOMAS, CRDWE & SIMPSON (1976); NEASHAM (1977 b), WIL-
SON & PITTMAN (1977), THOMAS (1978), WARDLAW & CASSAN (1978), K E I G H I N (1979),
PITTMAN (1979), PITTMAN & THOMAS (1979), COULTER & P U R V I S (198D), SCHRANK &
HUNT (1981); SNEIDER, KING, HAWKES & D A V I S (1981); WALLS (1981); CROCKER, DO-
NALDSON & MARCHIN (1983); KUKAL, BIDDISON, HILL, MONSON & SIMONS (1983); HAR-
R I S , HAYNES & EGGER (1984); LEE (1984), ORTIZ & McLANE (1984), RUZYLA (1984),
BACKFISCH & HELING (1985); GARBIS, BROWN & MAURITZ (1985); McLANE & EDGINGTON
(1985); GAD, SHEN & TU (1986); LAUGHREY & HARPER (1986); SCHAIBLE, AKPAN &
AYOUB (1986); G I E S (1987) and KRUEGER (1988).

Pore s t r u c t u r e s and a u t h i g e n i c c l a y m i n e r a l s i n R o t l i e g e n d and Carboniferous

gas r e s e r v o i r s are s t u d i e d by DRONG (1979), CDULTER & PURVIS (1980), JOHN
(1983, 1987), DEURER & MENZ (1984), DIETZEL & HANTELMANN (1985); i n Western USA
t i g h t gas sands by WALLS (1981) and SOEDER & RANDOLPH (1987), and i n o t h e r f o r -
mations by VITTHAL, GUPTA & SHARMA (1987). WILSON (1981) reviews the o r i g i n o f
c l a y s c o n t r o l l i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t i g h t gas sands. RUHOVETS & FERTL (1982) pre-
sent volumes, types and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c l a y m i n e r a l s i n r e s e r v o i r r o c k s on the
base o f w e l l - l o g e v a l u a t i o n . An assessment o f f o r m a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s from stimu-
l a t i o n treatments f o r Appalachian t i g h t gas sands i s performed by CHARLES, HU-
DOCK, UDICK & HALL (1983) and BRANAGAN, CIPOLLA, LEE & WILMER (1985). SPENCER
(1983), FINLEY (1985) ; WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, LORENZ, NORTHROP, MANN &
FROHNE (1985) and JOHN (1987) discuss some g e o l o g i c a l and p e t r o p h y s i c a l aspects
o f t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s . OSTENSEN (1983) ; RANDOLPH, SOEDER & CHDWDIAH (1984)
and SOEDER & RANDOLPH (1987) summarize t h e knowledge on p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i -
t y of t i g h t sands. An overview o f the d i a g e n e t i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f Buntsandstein
r e d beds i s compiled by MADER (1981, 1982, 1983 c ) .
 262

Experimental p e t r o p h y s i c a l m o d e l l i n g o f t i g h t gas sands i s c a r r i e d o u t by

SATTLER, HECKES & CLARK ( 1 9 8 4 ) . CHOWDIAH & SOEDER (1988) p r e s e n t a comparison
o f pore geometry i n h i g h - and l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandstones. DUTTON & FINLEY
(1988) and FRACASSO, DUTTON & FINLEY (1988) g i v e a comprehensive s e d i m e n t o l o g i -
c a l and p e t r o g r a p h i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f a t y p i c a l t i g h t gas sandstone f o r m a t i o n .
O A V I E S & ALMON (1981) s t r e s s t h e r o l e o f d i a g e n e s i s i n s u c c e s s f u l f o r m a t i o n i n -
t e r p r e t a t i o n , w e l l p r o d u c t i o n , r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n and enhanced r e c o v e r y .

3.5.2. Permeabi 1 i ty deterioration

LEONE & SCOTT (1987) summarize t h e mechanisms by which r o c k - f l u i d i n t e r a c -
t i o n s can l e a d t o p e r m e a b i l i t y damage by m i g r a t i o n o f f i n e s . D i s t i n c t i o n has t o
be made between mechanical f i n e s m i g r a t i o n , w a t e r and/or b r i n e s e n s i t i v i t y , and
geochemical t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . P e r m e a b i l i t y l o s s by mechanical f i n e s m i g r a t i o n oc-
c u r s when l o o s e l y a t t a c h e d p a r t i c l e s a r e m o b i l i z e d due t o d r a g f o r c e s e x e r t e d
by t h e f l o w i n g f l u i d s and subsequently c o l l e c t i n p o r e t h r o a t s i n s u f f i c i e n t
q u a n t i t i e s t o cause f l o w p a t h p l u g g i n g . Water and/or c l a y s e n s i t i v i t y l e a d s t o
s w e l l i n g o f c l a y minerals, w i t h the p a r t i c l e s i n the swollen s t a t e r e q u i r i n g
more space than n o r m a l l y and e a s i e r t e n d i n g t o r e l e a s i n g f i n e s . Geochemical
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s comprise d i s s o l u t i o n , p r e c i p i t a t i o n and chemical r e a c t i o n when
f o r e i g n f l u i d s a r e i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r such as d u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o r en-
hanced r e c o v e r y . Some aspects o f c l a y m i n e r a l d i s p e r s i o n and w a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y ,
c l a y m i n e r a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n , c l a y m i n e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
n e g a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n o f p e r m e a b i l i t y changes, and c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e and permea-
b i l i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

3.5.2.1. Clay mineral dispersion and water sensitivity

The most i m p o r t a n t process o f p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n i s c l a y m i n e r a l d i s -
p e r s i o n and m i g r a t i o n i n sandstone r e s e r v o i r s (GRAY & REX 1965). D i s t i n c t i o n
can be made between n a t u r a l p r i m a r y - d e t r i t a l provenance o r s e c o n d a r y - a u t h i g e n i c
o r i g i n o f c l a y m i n e r a l c r y s t a l s which a r e m o b i l i z e d by e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s co-
ming f r o m d r i l l i n g , c o m p l e t i o n , t e s t i n g and t r e a t i n g mechanisms, and t e r t i a r y -
a r t i f i c i a l d e r i v a t i o n , w i t h t h e p a r t i c l e s b e i n g s y n t h e t i c a l l y i n s e r t e d i n t o and
d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r by v a r i o u s a c q u i s i t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n p r o c e s -
ses. The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s focusses on aspects o f c l a y m i n e r a l d i s p e r s i o n con-
t r o l as w e l l as c l a y m i n e r a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n and p e r m e a b i l i t y damage. Comments
a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on w a t e r - vs. o i l - b a s e d s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s f o r t h e c o n t r o l o f
water-sensi t i v e reservoirs.

3.5.2.1.1. Clay mineral dispersion control

Clay m i n e r a l d i s p e r s i o n w i t h i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s can
t a k e p l a c e by h y d r a t i o n o f exchangeable c a t i o n s and p a r t i c l e s u r f a c e s , r e p u l -
s i o n o f i n t e r a c t i n g c l o u d s o f exchangeable c a t i o n s , d e s o r p t i o n o r chemical remo-
Val o f sorbed b i n d i n g agents, n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f p o s i t i v e charges on p a r t i c l e ed-
ges, mechanical shear, and thermal (Brownian) motions (HOLCOMB 1986). O p t i o n s
f o r c l a y c o n t r o l i n damage-potential r e s e r v o i r s a r e l e a v i n g c l a y s alone, r e n d e r
c l a y s e i t h e r t e m p o r a r i l y o r permanently i n a c t i v e , remove c l a y s by d i s s o l u t i o n ,
o r t a k e o f f w a t e r f r o m h y d r a t i n g o r m o b i l i z i n g f o r c e s . KC1 o r NH4C1 b r i n e s
s h o u l d be used f o r temporary c l a y c o n t r o l o n l y .

Organic c a t i o n i c polymers a r e t h e most w i d e l y used c l a y - s t a b i l i z i n g additi-

ves t h a t f o r m monomolecular f i l m s on c l a y s u r f a c e s by c a t i o n exchange, w i t h
t h i s f i l m i n g a l l o w i n g more permanent c l a y c o n t r o l due t o p a r t i c l e b r i d g i n g o v e r
m u l t i p l e c a t i o n i c s i t e s a l o n g polymer c h a i n s . Longer l a s t i n g s t i m u l a t i o n r e -
s u l t s can a l s o be p r o v i d e d by anhydrous low-pH methanol prepads o r breakdown
t r e a t m e n t i n c l u d i n g f i n e s - s u s p e n d i n g s u r f a c t a n t and c l a y c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e t o
leak o f f i n the near-wellbore r e g i o n t o p a r t i a l l y s o l u b i l i z e , shrink, stabilize
 263

and suspend r e l e a s e d f i n e s as w e l l as reduce w a t e r b l o c k ( c f . s e c t i o n

3.11.2.4.2.) o r i m b i b i t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.5.). I n any case, p r e v e n t i n g da-
mage t o a r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n i s always e a s i e r t h a n a t t e m p t i n g t o c o r r e c t da-
mage a l r e a d y caused.

3.5.2.1.2. Clay mineral constellation and permeability damage

The p o r e space o f R o t l i e g e n d sandstones i s o f t e n dominated by f i b r o u s i l l i t e
composed o f needles and l e a v e s w h i c h s t a r t r a d i a l l y f r o m t h e h e m a t i t e and c l a y
p e l l i c l e s and f o r m t h i c k c o a t i n g s around t h e framework g r a i n s i n a more o u t -
wards p o s i t i o n than t h e e a r l i e r s u r f a c e drapes (JOHN 1983, 1987; DIETZEL & HAN-
TELMANN 1985). Mechanical s t r e s s causes i l l i t e needles t o break i n t o p i e c e s ,
y i e l d i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h s i l t - s i z e d g r a i n s a l a r g e p o t e n t i a l o f p e r m e a b i l i t y da-
mage by p l u g g i n g w i t h f i n e s . As a consequence o f temperature, d e p t h and b u r i a l
h i s t o r y , most o f t h e a u t h i g e n i c c l a y m i n e r a l s have been t r a n s f o r m e d t o i l l i t e
i n l a t e r d i a g e n e t i c a l stages, w i t h t h e t o t a l c o n t e n t o f d i s p e r s e d c l a y m i n e r a l s
v a r y i n g i n l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n . P a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s f o r p e r m e a b i l i -
ty d e s t r u c t i o n i s the concentration o f i l l i t e f i b r e s i n the pore throats ( l e a -
v i n g t h e c e n t r e s o f l a r g e pores e i t h e r open o r c l o s i n g them a l s o w i t h a micropo-
r o u s f a b r i c ) and t h u s r e a s o n a b l y p r e s e r v e p o r o s i t y , b u t o b s t r u c t o r p l u g t h e
c o n n e c t i o n s between a d j o i n i n g pores, t h e r e b y d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c i n g t h e i n t e r c o n -
nectedness o f t h e i n t e r s t i t i a l s and t h u s a l s o f l u i d f l u x (JOHN 1983, 1987).

E f f e c t s o f p o r e - b l o c k i n g mechanisms on f o r m a t i o n damage a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d by
WOJTANOWICZ, KRILOV & LANGLINAIS (1987), and MUECKE (1978), GAUTIER & R I C E
(1981), SHARMA & YORTSOS (1986) and PRIISHOLM, NIELSEN & HASLUNO (1987) comment
on f i n e s m i g r a t i o n , b l o c k i n g and c l a y s w e l l i n g as main r e s e r v o i r d e t e r i o r a t i o n
mechanisms. POTTER & DIBBLE (1983) p r e s e n t f o r m a t i o n damage by c o l l o i d p l u g -
g i n g . R e s t r i c t e d p o r e c o n n e c t i o n s a r e a l s o i n d i c a t e d by h i g h c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u -
res i n r e l a t i o n t o t o t a l p o r o s i t y . V e r t i c a l permeability i s p a r t i a l l y very l i m i -
ted, r e s u l t i n g i n d i r e c t i o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p y up t o 80 % ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 2 . 4 . 2 . ) . PALLATT, WILSON & McHARDY (1984) d i s c u s s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
p e r m e a b i l i t y and morphology o f d i a g e n e t i c c l a y m i n e r a l s . Aspects o f m i g r a t i o n
o f f i n e s and c l a y m i n e r a l s i n t h e m a t r i x o f p a r t i a l l y w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e sandsto-
nes a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by GABRIEL & INAMDAR (1983); SHARMA, YORTSOS & HANDY
(1985) and SHARMA & YORTSOS ( 1 9 8 6 ) . COULTER & PURVIS (1980) a n a l y z e c l a y mine-
r a l s i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d o f t h e Dutch N o r t h Sea f o r t h e purpose o f f r a c t u r e f l u i d
c o m p a t i b i l i t y determination.

3.5.2.1.3. Water- vs . oi 1 -based stimulation fluids

Although i l l i t e s are n o t s w e l l i n g clays, they e x h i b i t a c e r t a i n water sensi-
t i v i t y . The p o r e space i s i n f i l l e d w i t h connate w a t e r and i n i t i a l gas s a t u r a -
t i o n , w i t h t h e i l l i t e needles and l e a v e s b e i n g enveloped by connate w a t e r (DEU-
RER & MENZ 1984, DIETZEL & HANTELMANN 1985). D u r i n g l o w - r a t e gas f l o w , t h e con-
n a t e w a t e r does n o t move and t h e r i g i d i l l i t e c r y s t a l s a r e s h e l t e r e d a g a i n s t me-
c h a n i c a l f o r c e s . F l u s h i n g o f t h e p o r e space w i t h a water-based f l u i d , however,
t r a n s m i t s t h e c u r r e n t movement t o t h e connate w a t e r and t h u s o n t o t h e i l l i t e
needles, r e s u l t i n g i n b r e a k i n g - o f f o f t h e r i g i d i l l i t e s t r u c t u r e s and t r a n s p o r t -
i n g t h e d e b r i s w i t h t h e f l u s h i n g f l u i d t h r o u g h t h e p o r e space. I n a d d i t i o n t o
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e m a t r i x framework compoundness, p l u g g i n g o f p o r e t h r o a t s
by t h e i l l i t e p i e c e s may o c c u r .

U s i n g an o i l - b a s e d f l u i d , t h e connate w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n may be decreased t o

t h e i r r e d u c i b l e minimum, b u t t h e w a t e r envelopes s t i l l p r o t e c t t h e c l a y c r y -
s t a l s a g a i n s t t h e c u r r e n t movement i n t h e n o n - w e t t i n g f l u s h i n g f l u i d , and due
t o t h e d i s c r e t e i n t e r f a c e , no a x i a l f o r c e s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h t h e i r r e d u c i -
b l e w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n o n t o t h e i l l i t e needles. T h i s c l a y m i n e r a l o g i c a l c o n s t e l l a -
t i o n i s t h e reason f o r t h e w a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r s i n se-
v e r a l patches of t h e b a s i n (OIETZEL & HANTELMANN 1985; SOMMER 1987, 1988), whe-
 264

r e a s i n o t h e r spots, t h e f o r m a t i o n i s non-water s e n s i t i v e and common water-ba-

sed f l u i d s can be a p p l i e d (KLOSE & KRUMER 1983; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . ) . Water
s e n s i t i v i t y o f R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n gas r e s e r v o i r s due t o c l a y m i n e r a l s
i s a l s o r e p o r t e d by COULTER & P U R V I S ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

3.5.2.2. Clay mineral stabilization

Clay s t a b i l i z i n g agents a c t by permanently h o l d i n g c l a y p a r t i c l e s t o g e t h e r
and p r e v e n t i n g t h e i r movement o r d i s p e r s i o n and subsequent p a r t i c l e p l u g g i n g
(DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1988 d ) . They a r e used t o i n h i b i t p e r m e a b i l i t y damage due
t o f o r e i g n w a t e r i n t r u s i o n i n w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s . C l a y s t a b i l i z e r s can
be a p p l i e d a f t e r m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g p r i o r t o g r a v e l p a c k i n g o r as a spearhead f o r
h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g w i t h water-based f l u i d s . C l a y m i n e r a l s t a b i l i z a -
t i o n i n w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s can u s u a l l y be b e s t achieved by 2 % KC1 s o l u -
t i o n s which a r e used as a s t a n d a r d s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n i n t h e prepad and d i s p l a -
cement stages o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s s i n c e many y e a r s (WATERS 1980;
c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.10.4.2.). KC1-bearing water-based f l u i d s can a l s o be used f o r
s t i m u l a t i o n i f t h e p r o p e r pH-value i s chosen and c a r e f u l l y k e p t c o n s t a n t d u r i n g
t h e t r e a t m e n t (ORTIZ & McLANE 1984). Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on
low- and high-pH s o l u t i o n s as w e l l as methanol prepad f o r i l l i t e p r e c o n d i t i o n -
ing.

3.5.2.2.1. Low- and high-pH solutions

Low-pH ( a b t . 4) KC1-bearing water-based f l u i d s a r e v e r y e f f e c t i v e i n d i r t y
sandstones by removing some o f t h e a u t h i g e n i c c l a y s t r u c t u r e s t h a t c l o g p o r e
t h r o a t s , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e number o f s i t e s f o r p o t e n t i a l w a t e r b l o c k i n g w h i l e
l e a v i n g t h e d e t r i t a l cementing c l a y s i n t a c t . Higher-pH ( a b t . 7 ) s o l u t i o n s , how-
ever, a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y damaging, because a l t h o u g h n o t c a u s i n g s w e l l i n g o r m i g r a -
t i o n o f c l a y p a r t i c l e s , t h e more o r l e s s n e u t r a l f l u i d does n o t have t h e c a p a c i -
t y t o clean-up c l a y - f i l l e d p o r e spaces and may i n f a c t be t r a p p e d i n t h e e x t r e -
mely small c a v i t i e s o f t h e m i c r o p o r o s i t y network. O t h e r aspects o f c l a y s t a b i l i -
z a t i o n w i t h KC1 s o l u t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d by BLACK & HOWER (1965); McLAUGHLIN,
ELPHINGSTONE & HALL (1976); BLACK (1978); BLACK, RIPLEY, BEECROFT & PAMPLIN
(1979) and YOUNG & McLAUGHLIN (1979; c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.10.4.2.).

3.5.2.2.2. Methanol prepad f o r i 1 1 i te precondi t ioning

Another method o f c l a y m i n e r a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n i s p r e c o n d i t i o n i n g o f t h e f r a c -
t u r e w a l l s u r f a c e s w i t h a methanol prepad c o n t a i n i n g a l s o a c e t i c a c i d and s u r -
f a c t a n t a d d i t i v e s which r e a c t s w i t h f i l m y i l l i t e b r i d g i n g t h e p o r e t h r o a t s i n
such a way t h a t t h e i l l i t e r o o t s s t i l l c l i n g t o t h e g r a i n s u r f a c e s , t h e r e b y
h e l p i n g t o m a i n t a i n m a t r i x competence, whereas t h e p o r e space i s l e f t u n o b s t r u c -
t e d a f t e r f l u s h i n g (ORTIZ & McLANE 1984). T h i s p r e c o n d i t i o n i n g r e s u l t s i n e n l a r -
g i n g o f p o r e i n t e r s t i t i a l s and r e d u c i n g o f s u r f a c e t e n s i o n o f t h e i n v a d i n g wa-
t e r , and t h u s a f o l l o w i n g water-based t r e a t m e n t f l u i d i s l e s s l i k e l y t o be t r a p -
ped by t h e m i c r o p o r o s i t y o f t h e a u t h i g e n i c i l l i t e webs. Aspects o f c l a y p r o t e c -
t i o n chemicals i n s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by CALLAWAY, O R T I Z &
HOLCOMB ( 1 9 8 2 ) . F o r m a t i o n damage d u r i n g w a t e r f l o o d i n g and water-based f r a c t u -
r i n g i n h i g h - c l a y - c o n t e n t r e s e r v o i r s i s e v a l u a t e d by O R T I Z & McLANE (1984) and
LEONE & SCOTT (1987), and C I V A N & KNAPP (1987) comment on e f f e c t s o f c l a y swel-
l i n g and f i n e s m i g r a t i o n on f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y .

3.5.2.3. Clay mineral distribution and log interpretation

Problems o f l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t i q h t qas sands a r e assessed by RUHOVETS &
FERTL (1982); KUKAL, BIDDISON, HILL, MONSON & SIMONS (1983); MONSON & SIMONS
(1983), KUKAL (1984); BUSCH, SOBKOWICH, NEILL, SINHA & FERTL (1985); KUKAL &
 265

SIMONS (1985), RAIBLE & GALL (1985), TSAY & FANG (1986) and KUCHUK ( 1 9 8 7 ) . The
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f w i r e l i n e l o g s i n l o w - p o r o s i t y and - p e r m e a b i l i t y t i g h t gas
sandstones i s c o m p l i c a t e d by time-dependent r e s i s t i v i t y changes due t o deep f i l -
t r a t e i n v a s i o n (KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988). C o r r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f d r i l l i n g
f l u i d - f l u s h e d i n t e r v a l s t h a t have h i g h gas s a t u r a t i o n which t r a d i t i o n a l l o g eva-
l u a t i o n would r e a d as w a t e r - b e a r i n g , a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n o f i r r e d u c i b l e w a t e r
s a t u r a t i o n , and p e r m e a b i l i t y c a l c u l a t i o n can be performed w i t h an i n t e g r a t e d
l o g a n a l y s i s system. Some aspects o f p o r o s i t y e v a l u a t i o n and deep f i l t r a t e i n v a -
s i o n i n t i g h t gas sands a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

3.5.2.3.1. Porosity evaluation

P o r o s i t y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t i g h t gas sands f r o m geophysical w e l l l o g s i s com-
p l i c a t e d by s e v e r a l g e o l o g i c a l l y - d e p e n d e n t f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g m a t r i x v a r i a t i o n s ,
i n c o m p l e t e f l u i d i n v a s i o n , complex r e s e r v o i r l i t h o l o g i e s , and f o r m a t i o n c l a y s
(KUKAL, BIDDISON, HILL, MONSON & SIMONS 1983). S p e c i a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s a r e forma-
t i o n c l a y q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , w a t e r r e s i s t i v i t y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n
e v a l u a t i o n . The g e o l o g i c a l l y dependent assessment problems a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e
complex d e p o s i t i o n a l , d i a g e n e t i c a l and s t r u c t u r a l h i s t o r i e s o f t h e t i g h t gas
sands. O t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t i g h t gas sand l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d by
KUKAL (1981) and ROSEPILER ( 1 9 8 1 ) .

3.5.2.3.2. Deep filtrate invasion in tight sandstones

L o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y l o w - p o r o s i t y r o c k s a r e g e n e r a l l y deeply invaded by mud f i l -
t r a t e d u r i n g t h e process o f d r i l l i n g a w e l l , w h i l e more porous and permeable
f o r m a t i o n s have p r i n c i p a l l y s h a l l o w e r i n v a s i o n (KUKAL, B I D D I S O N , HILL, MONSON &
SIMONS 1983). The reason f o r t h i s i s t h a t i n more porous r o c k s which have more
space a v a i l a b l e f o r l i q u i d s , a l e s s e r d e p t h o f f i l t r a t e i n v a s i o n occurs b e f o r e
a mudcake b u i l d s up on t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l w h i c h i s e s s e n t i a l l y h a l t i n g t h e i n v a -
s i o n process. Conversely, i n l e s s porous rocks, t h e same amount o f f i l t r a t e
w i l l e x t e n d f u r t h e r i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n . Most t i g h t gas sands a r e compacted and
t h e s o n i c compaction f a c t o r can be d i s r e g a r d e d , w i t h s h a l l o w o r underpressured
t i g h t gas sands b e i n g r a r e e x c e p t i o n s .

3.5.2.4. Negative orientation of permeability changes

P e r m e a b i l i t y v a r i a t i o n s i n sandstones d u r i n g course o f s t i m u l a t i o n , a c i d i -
z i n g , i n j e c t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n have almost always a n e g a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n r e s u l t -
i n g i n d e t e r i o r a t i o n as a consequence o f t h e combined e f f e c t s o f s w e l l i n g and
r e t e n t i o n o f c l a y p a r t i c l e s (CIVAN & KNAPP 1987). P o s i t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f p e r -
m e a b i l i t y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n g i v i n g r i s e t o enhancement o f t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y a r e
r a t h e r r a r e e x c e p t i o n s . Water-based substances such as b r i n e and s u r f a c t a n t s a l -
t e r l o c a l e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s between t h e porous s o l i d m a t r i x and f l u i d s con-
t a i n e d i n i t s p o r e spaces, g i v i n g r i s e t o s w e l l i n g and e n l a r g i n g o f w a t e r - s e n s i -
t i v e c l a y m i n e r a l s . B e i n g subsequently u n a b l e t o f i t t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l p o s i -
t i o n s , c l a y p a r t i c l e s a l o n g t h e p o r e s u r f a c e a r e c a p t u r e d by t h e shear f o r c e o f
t h e f l o w i n g f l u i d and c a r r i e d downstream, and d u r i n g movement t h r o u g h t h e p o r e
system, some of t h e c l a y f l a k e s a r e i m m o b i l i z e d by a b s o r p t i o n on p o r e w a l l s ,
deep-bed f i l t r a t i o n o r p l u g g i n g o f i n t e r s t i t i a l s and p o r e t h r o a t s .

3.5.2.5. Capi 1 l a w pressure and permeabi 1 i ty relationships

AMMER, SAWYER & DROPHIN (1984) and ERTEKIN, K I N G & SCHWERER (1986) comment
on p r o d u c t i o n and f l o w mechanisms i n t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s . HALE (1986) analyzes
w e l l p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r i e s i n t i g h t gas sands, and KABIR & HASAN (1986) e v a l u a t e
p r e f r a c t u r e t e s t i n g i n t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s . WAROLAW & TAYLOR (1976), WALLS &
AMAEFULE (1985) and WARD & MORROW (1985) r e p o r t on c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e , p o r o s i t y
 266

and p e r m e a b i l i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t i g h t gas sands. C a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e s can be

q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t e s p e c i a l l y i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y low-pressure r e s e r v o i r s and
c o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a d d i t i o n a l b a r r i e r s t o f l o w (AMAEFULE & MASUO 1984). THOMAS &
WARD ( 1 9 7 2 ) and WALLS, NUR & BOURBIE (1982) emphasize t h e e f f e c t o f overburden
p r e s s u r e and w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n on gas p e r m e a b i l i t y , and JENNINGS, CARROLL & R A I B -
LE (1981) s t r e s s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f p e r m e a b i l i t y and c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e . NO-
MAN & ARCHER (1987) d i s c u s s t h e e f f e c t o f p o r e s t r u c t u r e , o n non-Darcy gas f l o w
i n some l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r o c k s . MAZZULLO & MAZZULLO (1985) i n v e s t i g a t e t h e c l a y
m i n e r a l o g y o f some l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s . O t h e r aspects o f t i g h t gas
sands a r e e v a l u a t e d by JONES & OWENS (1980) and HALE, FIRTH, HANSEN, MURPHY- &
WOODCOX (1987).

3.6. Minimum pre-fracturing gas

production rate and poroperm properties
The e x p e r i e n c e o f MHF s t i m u l a t i o n o f b o t h R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s sand-
stones i n t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s has shown t h a t u n l e s s a c e r t a i n minimum p r e - f r a c -
t u r i n g gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e i s p r e s e n t , no economical producer can be achieved
by c a r r y i n g o u t a f r a c t u r e j o b e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e p r e s e n t t i m e o f lowered hydro-
carbon p r i c e s . The consequence o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s t h a t deep t i g h t R o t l i e -
gend and C a r b o n i f e r o u s gas w e l l s which would have been a t once f r a c t u r e d some
y e a r s ago when l o g - and c o r e - d e r i v e d p e t r o p h y s i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and f o r m a t i o n
t e s t e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r r o c k s were s t i l l f a r f r o m
t h e i r p r e s e n t advanced e x p e r i e n c e and when m a j o r l e s s o n s o f success and f a i l u r e
i n c o m p l e t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n had s t i l l t o be l e a r n t , a r e nowadays c a r e f u l l y
e v a l u a t e d i n terms o f e x i s t i n g p r e - f r a c t u r i n g and expected p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g p r o -
duction rates.

I n case o f doubt, i t i s f r e q u e n t l y p r e f e r r e d t o s h u t - i n t h e w e l l s o r t o p e r -
form a g a i n l o n g e r p r o d u c t i o n t e s t s and p r e s s u r e b u i l d - u p measurements r a t h e r
t h a n t o c a r r y o u t t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s s t r a i g h t away, o r even t o c o l l e c t f u r -
t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on r e s e r v o i r c o m p o s i t i o n and b e h a v i o u r by p e r f o r m i n g a s m a l l -
s c a l e o r m i n i a t u r e ( o r even m i c r o - ) t r e a t m e n t p r i o r t o a l a t e r f u l l - s c a l e o r
even jumbo j o b . A more advanced r e s u l t o f t h i s changing c o n c e p t i s t h a t even
w e l l s which f o r m e r l y were d r i l l e d w i t h t h e f i r m pre-spud knowledge t h a t f r a c t u -
r i n g would be i n e v i t a b l e , a r e nowadays o f t e n postponed i n o r d e r t o a w a i t a b e t -
t e r g e n e r a l hydrocarbon p r i c e s c e n a r i o (and i n Europe a l s o a s t r o n g e r US $ e x -
change r a t e s c e n a r i o ) o r a r e even f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g t o t a l l y removed f r o m t h e
d r i l l i n g budget d e s p i t e t h e i r p a r t i a l l y h i g h rank i n a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g s t r a t e -
gy s t u d i e s . Some aspects o f p r e - f r a c t u r i n g economical f e a s i b i l i t y e s t i m a t i o n
and d i f f e r e n c e s between e x p l o r a t i o n and development w e l l s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l -
lows.

3.6.1. Pre- f ract ur i ng economical feas i bi 1 i ty estimation

P r e - f r a c t u r i n g economical f e a s i b i l i t y e s t i m a t i o n can be made a l o n g t h e l i n e s
o f minimum f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y and gas o f f t a k e r a t e , minimum r e s e r v o i r p r o -
p e r t i e s , and s t i m u l a t i o n r e n t a b i l i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .

3.6.1.1. Minimum fracture flow capacity and gas offtake rate

Reasonable e s t i m a t i o n o f economical f e a s i b i l i t y can be made i n t h e R o t l i e -
gend o f Germany FRG w i t h t h e p r o d u c t o f p e r m e a b i l i t y t i m e s n e t t h i c k n e s s where
t h e l o w e r boundary i s a b t . 2 - 5 mdm ( f o r example a r e s e r v o i r o f 0 . 1 md permea-
b i l i t y and 20 - 50 m n e t t h i c k n e s s ; DIETZEL & ERNST 1987; minimum f r a c t u r e f l o w
c a p a c i t i e s i n o t h e r f o r m a t i o n s a r e i n d i c a t e d by ATTEBERRY, TUCKER & R I T Z 1979),
and w i t h t h e p r e - f r a c t u r i n g gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e which has t o be a t l e a s t 800 -
1,500 m3/h a c c o r d i n g t o h i t h e r t o s t i m u l a t i o n and gas w i t h d r a w a l e x p e r i e n c e ,
w i t h these values a p p l y i n g a t l e a s t under t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e p r e s e n t economi-
 267

c a l s c e n a r i o . KLOSE & KRUMER (1983) determined f o r t h e w e l l Sohlingen Z 4 which

was f r a c t u r e d i n 1982 up t o 1 mdm and a b t . 600 m3/h, and LEICHT (1985) c o n c l u -
des t h a t t h e r e s u l t o f a f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t i s o n l y economical i n case o f a
p r e - f r a c t u r i n g gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e o f a t l e a s t s e v e r a l hundreds o f m3/h. I f
e i t h e r v a l u e were s m a l l e r , commercial p r o d u c t i o n cannot be expected even a f t e r
an expensive MHF t r e a t m e n t .

3.6.1.2. Minimum reservoir properties for profitable stimulation

DIETZEL & ERNST (1987) a l s o comment on minimum r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d
f o r p r o f i t a b l e stimulations. R e n t a b i l i t y o f withdrawal from low-permeability
gas r e s e r v o i r s i s m a i n l y determined by t h e increment o f p r o d u c t i o n o b t a i n a b l e
by h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g as w e l l as by t h e i n i t i a l f l o w c a p a c i t y o f t h e
u n t r e a t e d w e l l . A minimum v a l u e o f t h e i n t e r n a l r a t e o f r e t u r n o f 15 % b e f o r e
taxes i s c o n s i d e r e d as p r o f i t a b i l i t y boundary. The l i m i t f o r n o n - s t i m u l a t e d
w e l l s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s e q u i v a l e n t r a d i u s rD = 1 w h i c h spe-
c i f i e s t h e minimum c o m b i n a t i o n o f n e t h e i g h t and p e r m e a b i l i t y r e q u i r e d f o r an
e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e p r o d u c t i o n w i t h o u t s t i m u l a t i o n . The range between r D = 1
and r D = 400 i n a n e t h e i g h t vs. p e r m e a b i l i t y p l o t covers t h e minimum parameter
combination f o r a f r a c t u r e d well, w i t h s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h i n t h i s i n t e r v a l being
necessary and a l s o p r o f i t a b l e i n case o f s u f f i c i e n t f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . Be-
low r D = 400, e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e p r o d u c t i o n i s n o t p o s s i b l e even i f a t e c h -
n i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l and p e r f e c t l y designed h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t -
ment was performed.

3.6.1.3. Stimulation rentability classification

Experience o f p a s t h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s a l l o w s t o c a r r y
o u t a q u i c k - l o o k c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f w e l l s based on t e s t r e s u l t s and l o g e v a l u a -
t i o n i n t o wells rentable without stimulation, wells possibly p r o f i t a b l e a f t e r
MHF t r e a t m e n t , and w e l l s n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e i n any case. Once a s u i t a b l e
model which i s composed a c c o r d i n g t o r e s e r v o i r and economical boundary c o n d i -
t i o n s has been e s t a b l i s h e d f o r a s p e c i f i c r e g i o n , t h e n e t h e i g h t vs. p e r m e a b i l i -
t y c u r v e can be d i r e c t l y used f o r t h e e x p l o r a t i o n r i s k a n a l y s i s (DIETZEL &
ERNST 1987). Boundary c o n d i t i o n s and f e a s i b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s o f gas r e c o v e r y
f r o m deep l a y e r e d t i g h t f o r m a t i o n s a r e a l s o analyzed by JOHN ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

3.6.2. Differences between exploration and development wells

D i s t i n c t i o n has f u r t h e r t o be made between e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s where a l o w e r
p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e would be s t i l l economical due t o t h e p o s s i -
b i l i t y o f w r i t i n g o f f t h e d r i l l i n g c o s t , whereas a development w e l l r e q u i r e s a
h i g h e r p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e , as t h e d r i l l i n g expenses cannot be
w r i t t e n o f f ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 8 . 2 . 1 . ) . The e x p e r i e n c e d u r i n g t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s
has shown t h a t a f i v e - t o s i x - t i m e s ( i n extreme cases a l s o f o u r - t o t e n - t i m e s )
i n c r e a s e o f t h e p r e - f r a c t u r i n g gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e a f t e r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n opera-
t i o n i s t h e upper l i m i t o f e x p e c t a t i o n , w i t h t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s e t t i n g t h e boun-
d a r y o f hope a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f l o w c a p a c i t y o f t h e u n t r e a t e d r e s e r v o i r . I n a d d i -
tion, t h e h i g h e s t p r o d u c t i o n r a t e i s achieved immediately a f t e r s t i m u l a t i o n and
clean-up and l a t e r p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e c l i n e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g o f f t a k e . The degree
o f o r i g i n a l p r o d u c t i o n r a t e improvement as w e l l as t h e amount o f subsequent ca-
p a c i t y d i m i n u t i o n a r e d e c i s i v e f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t e c h n i c a l and economical
success o f t h e o p e r a t i o n (ALBERTSEN 1985).

3.7. Stimulation cost and fractur ins pol icy

The c o n s i d e r a b l e t o i n some cases even almost exaggerated c o s t containment
o f o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n companies f o l l o w i n g t h e m a j o r o i l p r i c e d e c l i n e i n
 268

1986 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . ) and t h e worsening accompanying US $ exchange r a t e

drop ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.3.; w i t h the l i m i t a t i o n s o f c a p i t a l expenditure p a r t i a l -
l y even now s t i l l n o t h a v i n g been l i f t e d again) a l s o i n f l u e n c e s t h e p h i l o s o p h y
o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f o f f s h o r e and onshore e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s ( p a r -
t i c u l a r l y i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea) which underwent c o n s i d e r a b l e r e v i -
s i o n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e changed g e n e r a l economical framework.

E s t i m a t i n g t h e c o s t of a h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t t o be i n
t h e range o f 5 - 20 % (onshore) o r 10 - 40 % ( o f f s h o r e ) o f t h e t o t a l d r i l l i n g
expenses (depending on r e s e r v o i r depth, thickness o f the hydrocarbon-bearing
section, s t i m u l a t i o n j o b d e s i g n and t r e a t m e n t performance), i n f o r m e r y e a r s an
a p p a r e n t l y d r y t i g h t h o l e was much more o f t e n s t i l l s u b j e c t e d t o a f i n a l t r i a l
t o c o n v e r t i t i n t o an economical producer by means o f s t i m u l a t i o n b e f o r e p l u g -
g i n g and abandoning an expensive o f f s h o r e w e l l and p r o b a b l y b u r y i n g hopes i n
s m a l l e r s p o t s o r l a r g e r patches o f t h e f a c i e s b e l t o r hydrocarbon p l a y ( f o r com-
p a r i s o n , a f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t can account f o r 5 - 50 % o f t h e t o t a l w e l l c o s t
i n t h e USA; P A I , G A R B I S & HALL 1983; ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & LEE 1983; VEATCH
1983; GARBIS, BROWN & M A U R I T Z 1985; ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986; c f .
s e c t i o n 2 . 3 . ) . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n focusses on aspects o f f r a c t u r i n g p o l i -
cy, p r i c i n g s c e n a r i o and f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t sequence s t r a t e g y .

3.7.1. Fracturing policy

P a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e t h e o i l p r i c e s e r i o u s l y dropped i n e a r l y 1986 ( c f . sec-
t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) and a t t h e same t i m e t h e US $ exchange r a t e c o l l a p s e d ( c f . sec-
t i o n 2.2.1.3.), however, e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s a r e e s p e c i a l l y o f f s h o r e f r a c t u r e d
o n l y under e x c e p t i o n a l circumstances and a r e much more f r e q u e n t l y t h a n d u r i n g
e a r l i e r y e a r s l e f t w i t h o u t complete d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The more comprehen-
s i v e assessment i s postponed t o a l a t e r e x p l o r a t i o n o r a p p r a i s a l w e l l i n o t h e r
p a r t s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o r even t o t h e development campaign when t h e f e a s i b i l i t y
i s improved by f i r s t d r i l l i n g n o t o n l y one w e l l f r o m one p l a t f o r m l o c a t i o n , b u t
d r i l l i n g a s u i t e o f deviated w e l l s i n a s t a r - o r s p i d e r - l i k e geometrical f a b r i c
f r o m one r i g s i t e t h a t l a t e r becomes t h e p l a c e o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n p l a t f o r m . Some
aspects o f impact o f f r a c t u r i n g b o a t s on s t i m u l a t i o n s t r a t e g y as w e l l as r e s e r -
v o i r depth and s t i m u l a t i o n expenses a r e discussed as f o l l o w s .

3.7.1.1. Impact o f fracturing boats on stimulation strategy

Secondly, a l s o t h e b a s i c f i x e d c o s t f o r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n vessel w h i c h m i g h t
be on c a l l f o r t h e whole s u i t e of w e l l s i s l o w e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h a t i f o r d e r -
i n g t h e b o a t t o come f o r o n l y one f r a c t u r i n g j o b i n an e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l . There
a r e no o p e r a t i o n a l r e s t r i c t i o n s f o r a f r a c t u r i n g s e r v i c e vessel b e i n g on c a l l
o r even on standby, because c u r r e n t l y t h r e e s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t s a r e s h a r i n g t h e
s t i l l v e r y c o m p e t i t i v e and l i m i t e d h y d r a u l i c proppant t r e a t m e n t market i n t h e
N o r t h Sea (FOX 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.5.3., 3.3.1.2. and 3 . 8 . 1 . 2 . ) , w i t h t h u s
w a i t i n g time f o r boat a v a i l a b i l i t y being almost n o t e x i s t i n g . This l a t t e r r e v i -
sed s t i m u l a t i o n s t r a t e g y has been o v e r l a i n i n 1986 by t h e superimposing e f f e c t
o f i n c r e a s e d c a n c e l l a t i o n r a t e s o f f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s due t o t e c h n i c a l r e a -
sons which even d e t e r i o r a t e d t h e a l r e a d y poor g e n e r a l s e t t i n g (MADER 1987; c f .
section 2 . 4 . 2 . 3 . ) .

3.7.1.2. Reservoir depth and stimulation expenses

The d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t between on-
shore Germany FRG and N e t h e r l a n d s and o f f s h o r e B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern N o r t h
Sea r e s u l t f r o m t h e changing r e s e r v o i r d e p t h t h a t g i v e s r i s e t o r e l a t i v e l y l o -
wer d r i l l i n g expenses i n t h e N o r t h Sea t h a n i n Western Europe onshore i f o n l y
comparing r e s e r v o i r d e p t h and n e t c o s t t o r e a c h t h e t a r g e t . On t h e o t h e r hand,
o f f s h o r e d r i l l i n g i s i n t o t a l g e n e r a l l y much more money-consuming t h a n onshore
 269

d r i l l i n g as a consequence o f c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r f i x e d gross r i g r a t e s . The

h i g h c o s t f o r h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i s t h e consequence o f t h i c k pay zo-
nes w h i c h r e q u i r e l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f proppants f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t s . These r e s e r -
v o i r and t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g d i f f e r e n c e s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e economical f e a s i b i -
l i t y o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s and t h u s i n e v i t a b l y i n f l u e n c e t h e f r a c t u r i n g
philosophy.

3.7.2. Pricing scenario

P a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e 1986 c r i s i s b u t s t i l l l a s t i n g a t t h e moment, t h e o f f -
shore d r i l l i n g c o s t s c e n a r i o i s c o n s i d e r a b l y d i s t u r b e d due t o o n l y dumping p r i -
ces t h a t have t o be p a i d f o r d r i l l i n g a w e l l as a consequence o f many unemplo-
yed r gs w a i t i n g f o r j o b s , and a l s o t h e s t i m u l a t i o n expenses a r e l o w e r t h a n be-
f o r e as a r e s u l t o f s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t i o n between t h e s e r v i c e companies i n o r d e r
t o ge as much o p e r a t i o n s as p o s s i b l e t o keep more o r l e s s a c t i v e t h e i n t o t a l
t h r e e f r a c t u r i n g v e s s e l s p r e s e n t l y w o r k i n g i n t h e N o r t h Sea ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1 5 . 3 . ) .

As b o t h d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t have remarkably dropped, t h e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p between b o t h can be expected t o have more o r l e s s remained t h e same. I n
t h e second h a l f o f 1987, extreme p r i c e c u t t i n g has no l o n g e r been necessary, as
t h e p r o d u c t i o n companies c o n v e r t e d f r o m exaggerated c o s t containment t o more
a p p r e c i a t i o n o f maintenance o f a h i g h t e c h n i c a l q u a l i t y l e v e l o f t h e work c a r -
r i e d o u t by t h e s e r v i c e companies and have a r r i v e d a t t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t a
f a i r p r i c i n g o f t h e s e r v i c e companies has t o be accepted i n o r d e r t o l e t them
a l s o s u r v i v e , improve t r e a t m e n t q u a l i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y , and g i v e some r e n t a b i -
l i t y t o a l l t h e t h r e e p u r p o s e - b u i l t s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t s (COOPER & MARSHALL 1984,
OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1984) which have t o share t h e N o r t h Sea market (FOX 1985, OIL-
MAN 1985 b; c f . s e c t i o n 3.8.1.2.). W i t h a l i t t l e more c o n s o l i d a t e d o i l p r i c e
s i t u a t i o n i n t h e second h a l f o f 1987 and an i n c r e a s e d h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g and p a r t i c u l a r l y a c i d f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y ( w h i c h i s t h e most p r o f i t a b l e
s t i m u l a t i o n work f o r t h e s e r v i c e companies), t h e r e i s a l s o no l o n g e r an economi-
c a l base o r r e q u i r e m e n t f o r extreme p r i c e dumping o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s .

3.7.3. Fracturing treatment sequence strategy

D u r i n g course o f f i e l d development campaigns, two d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e t r e a t -
ment sequence s t r a t e g i e s have t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d c o m p r i s i n g s p o t and b a t c h
f r a c t u r i n g which a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n more d e t a i l as f o l l o w s .

3.7.3.1. Spot fracturing

Spot f r a c t u r i n g comprises s e q u e n t i a l d r i l l i n g , t e s t i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n o f
one w e l l a f t e r t h e o t h e r w i t h complete t e r m i n a t i o n o f work a t one l o c a t i o n be-
f o r e moving t o t h e n e x t , t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g t o i n c o r p o r a t e a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n
and e x p e r i e n c e f r o m e a r l i e r o p e r a t i o n s i n t o d e s i g n and e x e c u t i o n o f l a t e r t r e a t -
ments. B a t c h f r a c t u r i n g means f i r s t d r i l l i n g o f a l l t h e w e l l s one a f t e r t h e
o t h e r and t h e n second i n a n o t h e r round p e r f o r a t i n g , s t i m u l a t i n g and p u t t i n g on
stream o f t h e whole sequence o f w e l l s s u c c e s s i v e l y . W h i l e some companies p r e f e r
t h e f i r s t o r t h e second s t r a t e g i c a l concept t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i e l d development
campaign, i t may be e c o n o m i c a l l y more f e a s i b l e t o s t a r t w i t h s p o t f r a c t u r i n g un-
t i l a reasonable l e v e l o f e x p e r i e n c e has been g a i n e d and t h e r e s e r v o i r and i t s
b e h a v i o u r a f t e r s t i m u l a t i o n i s f a i r l y w e l l understood, and t h e n l a t e r s w i t c h
o v e r t o b a t c h f r a c t u r i n g , i n o r d e r t o have t h e s t i m u l a t i o n v e s s e l c o n t i n u o u s l y
o p e r a t e d and t h u s h a v i n g l o w e r g e n e r a l t r e a t m e n t expenses by a v o i d i n g t i m e - and
money-consuming j o u r n e y s o f t h e b o a t f r o m base t o l o c a t i o n and back.
 270

3.7.3.2. Batch fracturing

B a t c h o p e r a t i o n i s t h u s a more mature f r a c t u r i n g s t r a t e g y t h a t s h o u l d be f a -
voured once reasonable knowledge o f r e s e r v o i r b e h a v i o u r and s a t i s f a c t o r y expe-
r i e n c e o f t r e a t m e n t performance have been accumulated. Batch e x e c u t i o n o f j o b s
i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r l a r g e development campaigns where s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r -
m a t i o n has a l r e a d y been g a i n e d d u r i n g a p p r a i s a l w e l l e v a l u a t i o n and e a r l y p r o -
d u c t i o n d r i l l i n g assessment, whereas s p o t f r a c t u r i n g i s i n a d d i t i o n t o i t s sub-
mature stage i n l a r g e f i e l d s t h a t a r e t o be developed t h e most e f f e c t i v e s t r a t e -
gy i n e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l stage as w e l l as f o r development o f s m a l l
f i e l d s w i t h o n l y a c o u p l e o f b o r e h o l e s . Batch c o m p l e t i o n aspects o f g r a v e l pack-
i n g i n o i l w e l l s a r e d i s c u s s e d by HENG ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

The l a r g e f i e l d campaigns o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f R o t l i e g e n d

t i g h t gas sands i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea i n t h e p e r i o d 1987 - 1990 a r e
based on b o t h concepts, and s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n s t r a t e g y i s made ac-
c o r d i n g t o f i e l d development m a t u r i t y stage by d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n . W h i l e
some campaigns a r e c a r r i e d o u t a l o n g t h e s p o t g u i d e l i n e , o t h e r a c t i o n s f o l l o w
the batch strategy.

3.8. Philosophy o f o f f - and onshore exploration well fracturing

I n terms o f s t r a t e g i c a l p l a n n i n g and o p e r a t i o n a l e x e c u t i o n , d i s t i n c t i o n has
t o be made between o f f s h o r e and onshore e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l f r a c t u r i n g c o n c e r n i n g
l o g i s t i c a l approach and economical arrangement o f j o b sequences and f i e l d deve-
1opmen t s .

3.8.1. Philosophy of offshore exploration well fracturing

I n c o n t r a s t t o Germany FRG and N e t h e r l a n d s onshore where t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s
has been f r e q u e n t l y found g a s - b e a r i n g and has o f t e n been f r a c t u r e d d u r i n g t h e
l a s t t e n y e a r s ( c f . f i g . l o ) , t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s i n t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h
Sea has been so f a r met i n most s t r u c t u r e s w a t e r - b e a r i n g ( a s a consequence o f
i t s g r e a t e r r e s e r v o i r d e p t h o f 11,000 - 13,000 f t o r 3,700 - 4,400 m, i n com-
p a r i s o n t o t h e g a s - w a t e r - c o n t a c t which i s o f t e n q u i t e f u r t h e r up i n t h e s t r a t i -
g r a p h i c a l s e c t i o n ) and o n l y i n t h e l a s t y e a r s e x p l o r a t i o n succeeded i n encoun-
t e r i n g more and more g a s - b e a r i n g patches w i t h f a v o u r a b l e c l o s u r e h e i g h t and s u i -
t a b l e p e t r o p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s b e i n g above a l l w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n . The common
s t r a t e g y i n t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s a t t h e moment i s n o t t o i m m e d i a t e l y f r a c t u r e ex-
p l o r a t i o n w e l l s because t i m e i s even i n t h e p r e s e n t l o w - p r i c e s c e n a r i o s t i l l
t o o expensive t o l e t t h e r i g w a i t f o r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t i n c l u d i n g i t s
p r e p a r a t i o n . C a r b o n i f e r o u s development, however, c o u l d be c o n s i d e r a b l y enhanced
by a c o u p l e o f e x p e r i m e n t a l f r a c t u r e j o b s i n a few s e l e c t e d w e l l s i n o r d e r t o
g e t a b e t t e r f e e l i n g f o r t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e r e s e r v o i r and t o improve produc-
t i o n p l a n n i n g . T h i s has p a r t i c u l a r l y been demonstrated by t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t o
g e t t h e p e t r o p h y s i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e C a r b o n i f e r o u s t o a reasonable approach
t o t h e r e a l i t y , w i t h t h e main problem b e i n g t h e w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n o f t h e t i g h t
C a r b o n i f e r o u s r e s e r v o i r sandstones.

The 1986 o i l p r i c e c r i s i s has t r a n s f e r r e d t h i s p o l i c y o f h e s i t a t i o n o f f r a c -

t u r i n g o f e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s a f t e r a d r i l l stem t e s t a l s o t o R o t l i e g e n d items,
w i t h again, however, t h e e x e c u t i o n o f a few s e l e c t e d h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t s i n e v e r y f i e l d b e i n g e s s e n t i a l t o back-up t h e d e c i s i o n o f commercia-
l i t y by g e t t i n g an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e a l c a p a c i t y o f t h e r e s e r v o i r . A spe-
c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n the Rotliegend o f the B r i -
t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea was s t i m u l a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r s i n some w e l l s o f under-
ground gas s t o r a g e f i e l d s i n t h e l a s t y e a r s . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l -
lows on w e l l e v a l u a t i o n and f r a c t u r e d e s i g n time, and s e r v i c e b o a t c a p a c i t y li-
mit.
 271

3.8.1.1. Well evaluation and fracture design time

An i m p o r t a n t aspect o f e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l f r a c t u r i n g r e g a r d l e s s o f an o f f s h o r e
o r onshore s i t u a t i o n i s t h e t i m e t h a t i s needed f o r p r o p e r w e l l e v a l u a t i o n and
f r a c t u r e d e s i g n ( c f . B R I M 1986). A l t h o u g h computer programs e x i s t which can p r o -
v i d e f a s t e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e optimum s o l u t i o n i n terms o f c h o i c e o f p r o p p a n t
t y p e and g r a i n s i z e (CHENG 1984; COBB 1985, 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 2 . ) , design-
i n g o f t h e whole t r e a t m e n t may need t o o much t i m e t o l e t t h e r i g w a i t , and i f
t o o many r a p i d guesses a r e done, t h e r i s k o f u n s a t i s f a c t o r y performance o r even
f a i l u r e o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n i s increased. F r a c t u r i n g o f l a t e r develop-
ment w e l l s has t h e b i g advantage t h a t r e s e r v o i r parameters a r e a l r e a d y more o r
l e s s known f r o m e a r l i e r e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l w e l l s ( a l t h o u g h many s u r p r i -
ses s t i l l may o c c u r ) , b u t t h e m a j o r drawback o f renouncing t o s t i m u l a t e an ex-
p l o r a t i o n w e l l i s always t h e danger t h a t based on i n s u f f i c i e n t r e s e r v o i r t e s t -
i n g w i t h o u t f r a c t u r i n g , d e c i s i o n c o u l d be made t h a t e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e hydro-
carbon c o n t e n t o f t h e encountered s t r u c t u r e i s uncommercial and t h u s t h e p a t c h
never sees development i n t o a f i e l d , w i t h t h e r e b y p r o b a b l y c o n s i d e r a b l e gas r e -
serves b e i n g l o s t t h a t would have more than p a i d o f f t h e i n i t i a l s t i m u l a t i o n
operation.

While many w e l l s w i t h i n a f i e l d which i s s u b j e c t e d t o a l a r g e r h y d r a u l i c

f r a c t u r i n g campaign can be s u c c e s s f u l l y and p r o f i t a b l y s t i m u l a t e d f o l l o w i n g
o n l y one o r a few base p r o p o s a l s and t e s t jobs, i n o t h e r cases more o r l e s s i n -
d i v i d u a l i z e d f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n a c c o r d i n g t o l o c a l circumstances i n
t h e b o r e h o l e s i s r e q u i r e d (MACK & MASON 1985) and much e x p e r i m e n t a l f r a c t u r i n g
i n c l u d i n g submature j o b s and a l s o f a i l u r e s a r e t h e o n l y way t o o p t i m i z e t r e a t -
ment d e s i g n i n t h e f i e l d campaigns and t o achieve t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e o p e r a t i o n
l a y o u t f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r r e s e r v o i r complex.

3.8.1.2. Service boat capacity limit

Service boat capacity i s o f t e n the l i m i t i n g f a c t o r f o r s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t -
ments i n t h e Southern N o r t h Sea (MARTINS 1987). I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f European
o f f s h o r e p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , o n l y platform-mounted equipment was a v a i l a b l e ,
w i t h t r e a t m e n t q u a n t i t i e s h a v i n g been q u i t e l i m i t e d (LOUVIERE 1987). I n t h e e a r -
l y 1980's, t h e o p e r a t i o n s g o t l a r g e r when t h e f i r s t s e l f - c o n t a i n e d s e r v i c e ves-
s e l s were developed t h a t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g r e p r e s e n t e d c o n v e r t e d s u p p l y boats
(COOPER & MARSHALL 1984; c f . s e c t i o n 3.3.1.2.). The s e r v i c e s h i p s i n c l u d e pump-
i n g equipment, f l u i d and p r o p p a n t storage, j o b c o n t r o l and m o n i t o r i n g , and qua-
l i t y supervision laboratory. Stimulation vessels provide g r e a t l y increased ver-
s a t i l i t y i n r a t e s , volumes and designs o f t h e treatments, whereas p l a t f o r m s t i -
m u l a t i o n s were l i m i t e d b o t h i n r a t e and volume due t o space c o n s t r a i n t s (SNOW &
HOUGH 1988).

I n j e c t i o n r a t e s a r e o f t e n l i m i t e d by w e l l c o n f i g u r a t i o n and f r i c t i o n l o s s ,
w i t h t h e main i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s b e i n g r a t e , horsepower and government r e g u l a -
t i o n s . I n t h e m a i n l y h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d t o even o c c a s i o n a l l y almost h o r i z o n t a l
w e l l s , t h e l o n g e r b o r e h o l e s l i m i t r a t e and p r e s s u r e o f f r a c t u r i n g b y s e r v i c e
boats. The t h r e e p u r p o s e - b u i l t s t i m u l a t i o n v e s s e l s (COOPER & MARSHALL 1984, OFF-
SHORE ENGINEER 1984; c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.5.3.) c u r r e n t l y operating i n the North
Sea a r e a l l comparable i n c a p a c i t y o f j o b performance such as pumping power and
m a t e r i a l s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s (FOX 1985, OILMAN 1985 b; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 7 . 1 . 1 . ) ,
w i t h t h e r e f o r e b o a t employment h a v i n g been a c r i t i c a l c o m p e t i t i v e f a c t o r d u r i n g
t h e w o r s t t i m e of t h e c r i s i s f o l l o w i n g t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.3.2.2.). N o r t h Sea s t i m u l a t i o n l o g i s t i c s and r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e o u t l i n e d by
MACADAM ( 1 9 8 4 ) .
 272

3.8.2. Philosophy of onshore exploration well fracturing

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e poor g e n e r a l economical s i t u a t i o n a f t e r t h e m a j o r o i l p r i c e
drop i n e a r l y 1986 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) and t h e p a r a l l e l U S $ exchange r a t e
f a l l ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) , a l s o t h e onshore R o t l i e g e n d e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i -
s a l s t r a t e g y concept i n Germany FRG (and p a r t i a l l y a l s o i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s ) has
been c o n s i d e r a b l y changed. Some aspects o f j o b suspension vs. c o s t w r i t i n g - o f f
and changing aims o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a r e b r i e f l y i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

3.8.2.1. Job suspension vs. cost writing-off

I n c o n t r a s t t o f o r m e r y e a r s where e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l w e l l s had been
d r i l l e d a l s o on such t a r g e t s t h a t were known b e f o r e t o r e q u i r e expensive l a r g e -
s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g i f c o n t a i n i n g gas, such p r o s p e c t s a r e p r e s e n t l y postponed and
o n l y items a r e d r i l l e d where reasonable p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s w i t h o u t s t i m u l a t i o n
c o u l d be expected ( i n c o n t r a s t t o t h i s onshore p o l i c y , t h e development cam-
paigns o f t i g h t gas f i e l d s o f f s h o r e a r e q u i t e another s t o r y ) . Thus a t t h e mo-
ment f r a c t u r e j o b s i n onshore e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s a r e o n l y coming up randomly and
by chance when t h e p r e d i c t e d b e t t e r f a c i e s s i t u a t i o n was n o t encountered a c c o r -
d i n g l y , and when s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t i e s o f gas a r e found t h a t c o u l d o n l y be p r o -
duced a t economical r a t e s a f t e r s t i m u l a t i o n a l s o i n t h e r e v i s e d g e n e r a l f i n a n -
c i a l framework. As a consequence o f p r e s e n t l y s u f f i c i e n t c a p a c i t y , one o f t h e
f i r s t d r i l l i n g program t r i m m i n g and c a n c e l l a t i o n a c t i o n s a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l
p r i c e c o l l a p s e a f f e c t e d development w e l l s i n onshore t i g h t gas f i e l d s , and a l s o
e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l w e l l s i n r e s e r v o i r patches where MHF s t i m u l a t i o n
would be u n d o u b t e d l y i n d i s p e n s i b l y f o r p r o p e r pay zone e v a l u a t i o n have been i n
many cases a t l e a s t suspended and postponed, i f n o t p a r t i a l l y f o r t h e t i m e
b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y d e l e t e d ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.2.1.5. and 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) .

T h i s a d j u s t m e n t t o changed economical f e a s i b i l i t y framework c o n d i t i o n s i s

a l s o r e f l e c t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t i n Germany FRG t h e l a s t MHF s t i m u l a t i o n opera-
t i o n s on R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s have been c a r r i e d
o u t i n 1985 as a c u l m i n a t i o n o f t h e p e r i o d 1977 - 1985 when s e v e r a l dozens o f
w e l l s have been f r a c t u r e d i n t o t a l . A c c o r d i n g t o suspension and c a n c e l l a t i o n o f
d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h , however, n o t
a s i n g l e MHF j o b has been c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e p e r i o d 1986 - 1988, and t h e expec-
t a t i o n s f o r 1989 a r e a l s o n o t v e r y f a v o u r a b l e , w i t h o n l y l i t t l e hope r e m a i n i n g
t h a t t h e f o r m e r h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a c q u i s i t i o n o f R o t l i e g e n d and Car-
b o n i f e r o u s t i g h t gas w i l l be resumed w i t h i n t h e n e x t few y e a r s ( c f . a l s o sec-
t i o n s 2.4.1.1. and 2 . 4 . 2 . ) .

Apart from the o v e r a l l f e a s i b i l i t y , e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s o f t e n c o n f r o n t w i t h

t h e n e c e s s i t y o f f a s t d e c i s i o n o f e i t h e r a t once p l u g g i n g and abandoning t i g h t
r e s e r v o i r s , w r i t i n g o f f t h e w e l l as a f a i l u r e and p r o b a b l y f o r g e t t h e e x p e c t e d
r e s e r v e s i n some spots, o r t r y i n g t o g e t s t i l l a p o s i t i v e r e s u l t by h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g (and t h u s t o c o n f i r m g e o l o g i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g
concept and model), whereas development w e l l s cannot be w r i t t e n - o f f i n case o f
negative r e s u l t ( c f . section 3.6.2.). Thus g i v e n t h e f a c t o f m e e t i n g a p r e -
f r a c t u r i n g g a s - f l o w r a t e t h a t i s s o f a r n o t commercial b u t above a c e r t a i n m i n i -
mum l e v e l which p e r m i t s t o e x p e c t a good p r o d u c i n g c a p a c i t y a f t e r s t i m u l a t i o n ,
t h e w e l l i s sooner o r l a t e r f r a c t u r e d .

3.8.2.2. Changing aims of hydraulic fracturing

The g e n e r a l f r a c t u r i n g p o l i c y i n Western Europe has a l s o changed d u r i n g t h e
l a s t y e a r s . I n t h e p a s t , s t i m u l a t i o n o f R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s sandstones
was done as much as p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o maximize t h e proven gas r e s e r v e s . Now-
adays t h e main purpose o f s t i m u l a t i o n i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e g e n e r a l p o t e n t i a l o f
t h e area and t o double t h e l i f e t i m e of t h e f i e l d s , w i t h demand o f i n c r e a s i n g
t h e proven gas r e s e r v e s b e i n g no l o n g e r s o v i o l e n t T y c h a l l e n g i n g than b e f o r e ,
 273

because most o f t h e h i t h e r t o encountered gas has a l r e a d y been s o l d t h r o u g h

l o n g - t e r m s u p p l y c o n t r a c t s and a l s o t h e market f o r s a l e o f gas i s a t l e a s t i n
p a r t s o f t h e area (and p r o b a b l y o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y ) approaching s a t u r a t i o n due t o
o v e r s u p p l y f r o m v a r i o u s sources and l e s s q u i c k growth and t h u s more s l o w l y r i -
s i n g demand t h a n expected a few y e a r s ago. Unless gas r e q u i r e m e n t w i l l a g a i n be-
come h i g h e r i n t h e n e x t y e a r s due t o a g a i n s l i g h t l y a c c e l e r a t i n g urban and i n -
d u s t r i a l growth, t h e l a t t e r tendency o f t h e gas m a r k e t c o u l d a l s o s e r i o u s l y a f -
f e c t t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g market. Some d i f f e r e n c e s between o f f -
shore and onshore h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d
by ROODHART, K U I P E R & D A V I E S ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

3.9. Imlications o f fracturing philosophy on proppant selection

I n a d d i t i o n , i f a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g j o b iii such e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s i s c a r -
r i e d o u t a t a l l , i t i s g e n e r a l l y o n l y done f o r d e l i v e r y o f i n f o r m a t i o n on which
an e x t e n s i o n d r i l l i n g and f i e l d development concept c o u l d be based on, and t h e
b o r e h o l e i s o f t e n plugged back and abandoned a f t e r temporary p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g
t e s t p r o d u c t i o n t h a t has t h e o n l y task t o determine t h e r e a l w e l l c a p a c i t y .
T h i s statement i s v a l i d u n l e s s t h e b o r e h o l e has an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y f a v o u r a b l e
r e s u l t which may l e a d t o s t r a i g h t c o m p l e t i o n f o r b e i n g l a t e r p u t a t once on
stream when a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e p a t c h by p i p e l i n e o r o t h e r hydrocarbon t r a n s p o r t
f a c i l i t i e s i s made, o r t h e development campaign i s c a r r i e d o u t w i t h i n s t a l l a -
t i o n o f a p r o d u c t i o n and g a t h e r i n g p l a t f o r m ) .

As a consequence o f no p r e v i o u s i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e f i e l d when t h e f i r s t ex-

p l o r a t i o n w e l l i s d r i l l e d , t h e r e i s a l s o o f t e n s t i l l t h e r i s k t h a t t h e produc-
t i o n r a t e i s even uncommercial a f t e r t h e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t and thus t h e bore-
h o l e would have t o be d i s c a r d e d due t o economical reasons, i n c o n t r a s t t o deve-
lopment w e l l s where t h e r i s k i s much l o w e r and t h e b o r e h o l e s a r e l o o k i n g t o -
wards a l o n g p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y f o r p r o b a b l y s e v e r a l decades. The v a r i o u s p o s s i -
b i l i t i e s o f f r a c t u r i n g p h i l o s o p h y a r e summarized as f o l l o w s by commenting on ex-
p l o r a t i o n s t r a t e g y and s t i m u l a t i o n t e s t i n g , f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e and development
concepts, and a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g s t r a t e g y concepts and e x p e r i e n c e .

3.9.1. Exploration strategy and stimulation testing

Concerning p r o p p a n t marketing, many o p e r a t o r s u n f o r t u n a t e l y b e l i e v e t h a t
s h o r t - t e r m t e s t p e r i o d s f o r t h e goal o f a n a l y s i s o f r e a l w e l l c a p a c i t y o n l y r e -
q u i r e p r o p p i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e s w i t h cheap sand t h a t can more o r l e s s reasonab-
l y w i t h s t a n d h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s f o r a c o u p l e o f days t o weeks i n t e m p o r a r i l y meta-
s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , i n s t e a d o f u s i n g expensive i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h - s t r e n g t h
proppants t h a t would be adequate t o t h e c l o s u r e s t r e s s i n t h e pay f o r m a t i o n and
c o u l d a l s o r e s i s t t o i n c r e a s i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s w i t h drawdown o f t h e r e s e r v o i r
p r e s s u r e upon d e p l e t i o n a f t e r l o n g - t e r m gas p r o d u c t i o n d u r i n g up t o 20 y e a r s o r
more. Some aspects o f p r o p p a n t c o s t containment and t a i l - i n p o l i c y as w e l l as
p r o p e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r c a p a c i t y a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

3.9.1.1. Proppant cost containment and tail-in policy

E x c e p t i o n s o f t h i s c o s t - c o n t a i n m e n t p o l i c y a r e i n some cases m i n o r t a i l - i n
q u a n t i t i e s o f s y n t h e t i c h i g h - q u a l i t y proppants i n t h e t e r m i n a l stages o f t h e
treatments i n order t o create b e t t e r support i n the v i c i n i t y o f the borehole
(HOWARD & FAST 1970 a; HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTENDEN 1981; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s
2.4.1.2. and 4 . 2 . 2 . ) . The t a i l - i n s t r a t e g y a s c e r t a i n s p r o p e r p l u g g i n g o f t h e i n -
duced c r a c k by h i g h - q u a l i t y proppants a t l e a s t i n t h e immediate s u r r o u n d i n g s o f
t h e w e l l b o r e where f l o w v e l o c i t y and p r e s s u r e drawdown reaches t h e h i g h e s t va-
lues, and t h e r e f o r e s h o r t - t e r m t e s t p r o d u c t i o n may almost approach r e a l r e s e r -
v o i r c a p a c i t y i f adequate proppant t a i l - i n i s made. I t would, however, c e r t a i n -
l y p r o v i d e a much b e t t e r assessment o f pay c a p a b i l i t y i n terms o f l o n g - t e r m p r o -
 274

d u c t i v i t y i f a f u l l - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g treatment w i t h corresponding proppant d i s -

t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e c r a c k w o u l d be c a r r i e d o u t .

A p a r t f r o m proppants, a l s o f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s can be t a i l o r e d t o meet v i s c o s i -

t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n a wide range o f temperature a p p l i c a t i o n s by p r o p e r use o f
p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y g e l l i n g a g e n t s ( A T T E B E R R Y , TUCKER & R I T Z 1979; L E E & DANE-
SHY 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . ) , and s i m i l a r l y , t a i l o r e d - p u l s e l o a d i n g c a n b e
u s e d f o r m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g o f b o r e h o l e s (SWIFT & KUSUBOV 1981, CUDERMAN 1982;
c f . section 4.2.2.1.3.3.). I n a d d i t i o n t o t a i l - i n setting, s e l e c t i v e proppant
placement w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t successive p a r t s o f t h e f r a c t u r e wing can a l s o be
a c h i e v e d b y d e n s i t y c o n t r o l foam a p p l i c a t i o n (BARBER & T H E M I G 1985; c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.2.3.3.3.) and m u l t i p l e - f l u i d t r e a t m e n t ( L E E & DANESHY 1986).

3.9.1.2. Proper interpretation o f reservoir capacity

The m a i n drawback o f a m o n e y - s a v i n g f r a c t u r i n g l a y o u t i n e x p l o r a t i o n and ap-
p r a i s a l w e l l s w i t h pumping o n l y sand o r r e s t r i c t i n g s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s t o a
l i t t l e t e r m i n a l t a i l - i n ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1.2.3.) i s s i m i l a r t o t h e danger o f t o -
t a l l y r e n o u n c i n g o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n . F a i l u r e o f t h e n a t u r a l sand t o
withstand the closure stress s u f f i c i e n t l y i n i t s metastable nature i n t h e high-
pressure regime d u r i n g t h e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t t e s t i n g p e r i o d , impact o f t h e worse
c o n d u c t i v i t y o f sand w i t h r e s p e c t t o s y n t h e t i c h i g h - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t s ( w h i c h i s
f a l s i f y i n g o r mimicking the r e a l r e s e r v o i r e x p l o i t a b i l i t y ) , improper f r a c t u r i n g
and/or p r o d u c t i o n r e s u l t s o r o t h e r t e c h n i c a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s can e a s i l y l e a d t o
m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r c a p a c i t y and p o t e n t i a l , and based on s u c h i n a d e -
q u a t e i n f o r m a t i o n , assessment c o u l d b e made t h a t t h e d e p o s i t i s u n c o m m e r c i a l
and t h u s t h e s t r i k e w o u l d n e v e r see i t s d e v e l o p m e n t i n t o a f i e l d .

A l t h o u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f h i g h - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t s i n e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i -
s a l w e l l f r a c t u r i n g i s f a r from b e i n g a g u a r a n t e e f o r f a v o u r a b l e r e s u l t s due t o
many g e o l o g i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o o v e r a l l r e s e r v o i r p e r -
formance, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a p o o r f o r m a t i o n w i l l p r o d u c e a t a p p r e c i a b l y
h i g h r a t e s a f t e r s t i m u l a t i o n c a n be m a x i m i z e d b y c h o o s i n g t h e optimum p r o p p i n g
m a t e r i a l . Much money c a n b e l o s t i f based o n f a l s e o r i n s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n
d e c i s i o n i s made t h a t t h e p a t c h i s u n c o m m e r c i a l , and a f o r t u n e c a n be g a i n e d i n
case o f reasonable r e s u l t s from a p r o p e r l y designed t r e a t m e n t .

3.9.2. Field experience and development concepts

I n c o n t r a s t t o e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l where i n many t o i n some a r e a s e v e n
m o s t c a s e s e x c l u s i v e l y sand o r a l i t t l e t a i l - i n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p -
p a n t s f o l l o w i n g a m a i n l o a d o f sand a r e i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e f o r t h e r e a -
son o f s h o r t - t e r m c o s t c o n t a i n m e n t ( a n d in many i n s t a n c e s u n f o r t u n a t e l y a t t h e
expense o f l o n g - t e r m r e s e r v o i r b e h a v i o u r i n f o r m a t i o n ) , d e c i s i o n s f o r t h e m a j o r
d e v e l o p m e n t campaigns i n 1987 - 1990 ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 2 . and 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . )
have been made b y s e v e r a l companies t o go on t h e a b s o l u t e l y s a f e s i d e i n v i e w
o f l o n g - t e r m p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y and t o choose e x c l u s i v e l y i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h
p r o p p a n t s and n o t t o s e l e c t any q u a n t i t i e s o f s a n d f o r t h e d e s i g n o f t h e h y d r a u -
l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on a d v a n t a g e s
o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t i n s e r t i o n and r e t a r d a t i o n o f C a r b o n i f e r o u s
strikes.

3.9.2.1. Advantages o f intermediate-strength proppant insertion

Concerning a l l t h e p o s s i b l e r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e changes d u r i n g r e p e a t e d s h u t -
in and open-up o f w e l l s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 4 . 3 . ) and p r o g r e s s i v e d e p l e t i o n du-
r i n g long f i e l d l i f e ( c f . section 4.12.4.2.), the a d d i t i o n a l investment f o r the
p r o p p a n t w i t h h i c j h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y and s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y p e r f o r m a n c e i s c e r t a i n -
l y p a y i n g o f f v e r y w e l l and i n v i e w o f i m p r o v e d gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s a l s o r e a s o -
 275

n a b l y f a s t . I n terms o f g e t t i n g adequate f i e l d experience, some companies even

a v o i d p r o p p i n g o f f r a c t u r e s i n e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l s w i t h cheap sand and p r e f e r t h e
h i g h e r i n v e s t m e n t f o r t a k i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants i n o r d e r t o c a r r y
o u t a sound f i e l d experiment which g i v e s t h e c o n f i r m a t i o n t h a t t h e d e s i g n o f
t h e o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e l a t e r development stage i s t e c h n i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o be c a r -
r i e d o u t w i t h o u t m a j o r drawbacks and t h e r e s u l t i s s a t i s f a c t o r y .

3.9.2.2. Retardation o f Carboniferous strikes

The g e o l o g i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g disadvantage o f t h e p r e s e n t e x p l o r a t i o n w e l l
f r a c t u r i n g p h i l o s o p h y i s h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t ( w i t h o n l y a few m i n o r ex-
c e p t i o n s ) t h e l a s t c o u p l e o f m a j o r gas s t r i k e s i n t h e Upper C a r b o n i f e r o u s i n
Germany FRG dates back more than f i v e y e a r s (SCHRUDER 1985), a l t h o u g h most o f
t h e h i t h e r t o accomplished s e v e r a l dozens o f MHF s t i m u l a t i o n s i n Germany FRG
have been c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e Upper C a r b o n i f e r o u s and p l e n t y o f e x p l o r a t i o n
w e l l s have been d r i l l e d i n t h e meantime. S t r a i g h t p l u g g i n g and abandoning o f ex-
p l o r a t i o n w e l l s o f a p p a r e n t l y f a i l u r e n a t u r e , however, i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o be
an adequate s t r a t e g y f o r i n c r e a s i n g t i g h t gas r e s e r v e s and b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e complex r e s e r v o i r o r g a n i z a t i o n and a r c h i t e c t u r e , and h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g f o r f i n a l c o n f i r m a t i o n o f s u i t a b i l i t y and p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f w e l l com-
p l e t i o n i s regarded t o be e s s e n t i a l p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e c o m p l i c a t e d C a r b o n i f e -
r o u s pay assemblages. T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p u n d e r l i n e s t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a more ag-
g r e s s i v e f r a c t u r i n g p o l i c y t o t r y t o g e t some e x t e n s i o n o f t h i s p r o d u c i n g h o r i -
zon ( t h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s v a l i d f o r Germany FRG as w e l l as s u r r o u n d i n g c o u n t r i e s
i n b o t h onshore and o f f s h o r e a r e a s ) .

3.9.3. Appraisal drilling strategy concepts and experience

The f o r m e r e x p e c t a t i o n and e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d
and C a r b o n i f e r o u s sandstones i n terms o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g have
been c o n s i d e r a b l y r e v i s e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t y e a r s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Germany FRG.
W h i l e p r e v i o u s l y many l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s t h a t a r e w o r t h f r a c t u r i n g t o
become economical producers were p r e d i c t e d i n b o t h f o r m a t i o n s , i n the R o t l i e -
gend e i t h e r v e r y good o r e x t r e m e l y p o o r p e r m e a b i l i t i e s have been f r e q u e n t l y en-
c o u n t e r e d which e i t h e r d i d n o t r e q u i r e s t i m u l a t i o n o r l e a v e no o t h e r p o s s i b i l i -
t y than t o p l u g t h e w e l l . The C a r b o n i f e r o u s has o f t e n been proven t o be e i t h e r
c o m p l e t e l y t i g h t o r t o be watered.

A d j u s t i n g t o t h e new economical s i t u a t i o n which a c c o r d i n g t o a l l t h e p r e s e n t

f o r e c a s t s w i l l n o t a g a i n l e a d t o a f e a s i b i l i t y s e t t i n g comparable t o t h a t du-
r i n g t h e e a r l y 1980's w i t h i n t h e n e x t few years, t h e gas a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g
s t r a t e g y has a l s o been changed i n v a r i o u s e x t e n t i n many o f f s h o r e and onshore
p a r t s o f Western Europe. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e golden p e r i o d i n t h e e a r l y 1980's
when d u r i n g a t i m e o f p a r t i a l l y e x c e s s i v e l y h i g h o i l p r i c e and o v e r r e a s o n a b l y
s t r o n g US $, b i g p l a n n i n g was made f o r unconventional gas e x p l o r a t i o n and ap-
p r a i s a l i n such f a c i e s b e l t s o f e s p e c i a l l y t h e R o t l i e g e n d B a s i n (Southern Per-
mian Basin; ZIEGLER 1982) where h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g c o u l d a l r e a d y be
i n c l u d e d i n t o t h e economical assessment o f t h e w e l l p r i o r t o i t s spudding,
these h i g h - r i s k and - c o s t i t e m s have now been i n many cases s l i g h t l y t o conside-
r a b l y postponed i n b o t h d r i l l i n g schedules and a p p r a i s a l s t r a t e g y s t u d i e s , and
n e a r - f u t u r e e x p l o r a t i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s on l e s s c r i t i c a l areas i n f a c i e s seams
w i t h b a s i c a l l y higher permeability.

T h i s a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r onshore gas e x p l o r a t i o n i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d i n
Germany FRG where t h e p r e s e n t f o c u s i s on a c q u i s i t i o n o f p e t r o p h y s i c a l l y w e l l -
developed i n t e r v a l s o f t h e Schneverdingen-Sandstein ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.2.1.3.) in
synsedimentary graben systems which do n o t r e q u i r e f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n and
t h a t p e r m i t t o w i t h d r a w l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f gas o v e r l o n g e r p e r i o d s o f t i m e be-
f o r e upon d e p l e t i o n o f t h e h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y Schneverdingen-Sandstein t h e o v e r -
l y i n g l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t i n u o u s l y - e x t e n d i n g Hauptsandstein has t o be prepared
 276

f o r p r o d u c t i o n by l a r g e - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g . The o f f s h o r e p l a n -
n i n g , however, can p a r t i a l l y n o t r e a c t so q u i c k l y , because c o n t r a c t i n g o f p l a t -
forms f o r development d r i l l i n g and p r i o r t o t h a t s e l l i n g o f t h e proven and
p a r t s o f t h e unproven gas r e s e r v e s r e s u l t i n t h e n e c e s s i t y o f keeping more o r
l e s s t h e e s t a b l i s h e d a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g s t r a t e g y concept almost i r r e s p e c t i v e o f
economical d e t e r i o r a t i o n s i n t h e meantime( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.6.2.).

3.10. Horizontal and vertical difference o f fracturing potential

The f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d B a s i n (Southern Permian Basin;
ZIEGLER 1982) i s n o t homogeneous and i s o t r o p i c i n n e i t h e r h o r i z o n t a l n o r v e r t i -
c a l d i r e c t i o n i n t h e g a s - b e a r i n g r e s e r v o i r column. H o r i z o n t a l l y , t h e d i s t r i b u -
t i o n o f pay zone b e l t s s u i t a b l e f o r h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i s c o n t r o l l e d
by t h e sedimentary f a c i e s and t h u s r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y z o n a t i o n w i t h i n t h e d e p o s i -
t i o n a l area, w i t h t h e seam where s t i m u l a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l f o r economical gas
p r o d u c t i o n b e i n g c o n c e n t r a t e d t o t h e boundary between t h e m a r g i n a l a e o l i a n dune
f i e l d ( c f . p l a t e s I 1 and V I I I i n s e c t i o n 3.13.) and b r a i d e d f l u v i a l wadi sys-
tems ( c f . p l a t e s I 1 1 and I V ) and t h e c e n t r a l p l a y a mud f l a t and d e s e r t l a k e
( c f . p l a t e s V I , V I I and I X ) w i t h i n t h e main d e p o s i t i o n a l b a s i n ( W e c h s e l f o l g e
f a c i e s a s s o c i a t i o n ; GRALLA 1988; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 . ) . The succession o f
several r e s e r v o i r storeys i n the gas-bearing formation p i l e ( f o r s t r a t i g r a p h i -
c a l s u b d i v i s i o n o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d s e r i e s c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) r e s u l t s i n super-
i m p o s i t i o n o f s i m i l a r sedimentary and p e t r o p h y s i c a l f a c i e s zones, o r i n case o f
s h i f t i n g d e p o s i t i o n a l f a c i e s b e l t s i n t h e main t r o u g h o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f some
sediments i n subbasins o r s y n d e p o s i t i o n a l t e c t o n i c a l f e a t u r e s such as grabens
g i v e s r i s e t o v e r t i c a l s t a c k i n g o f d i f f e r e n t f a c i e s and r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y zones
and t h u s p e t r o p h y s i c a l l y v a r i a b l e sediments.

D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between p r i m a r y p e t r o p h y s i c a l z o n a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o

p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k s , secondary geochemical z o n a t i o n due t o gas
c o m p o s i t i o n , and t e r t i a r y p o l i t i c a l z o n a t i o n o f R o t l i e g e n d gas r e s e r v o i r s w i t h
f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l as a consequence o f t h e economical and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e sys-
tems i n t h e t e r r i t o r y where t h e gas f i e l d s a r e l o c a t e d . Comments a r e o f f e r e d as
f o l l o w s on p e r m e a b i l i t y which e x h i b i t s m a i n l y a v e r t i c a l z o n a t i o n . and on gas
c o m p o s i t i o n which i n c l u d e s p r e d o m i n a n t l y h o r i z o n t a l v a r i a t i o n s .

3.10.1. Permeabi 1i ty
The R o t l i e g e n d i n Germany FRG i s s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e r e s e r -
v o i r s t o r e y s (BRADEL & DRAXLER 1982, PHILIPP & R E I N I C K E 1982, KLOSE & KRUMER
1983; HEDEMANN, MASCHEK, PAULUS & PLEIN 1984; GRALLA 1988; c f . s e c t i o n
3.2.1.3.) w i t h d i f f e r e n t p r i m a r y p e t r o p h y s i c a l p o t e n t i a l and/or secondary r e s e r -
v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g r e q u i r e m e n t f o r h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . The c o m p o s i t i o n
o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l succession o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t palaeoenvironmental and p e t r o -
p h y s i c a l complexes o f s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l importance i s p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l - d e v e l o p e d
i n t h e Weser-Elbe f a c i e s p r o v i n c e (GRALLA 1988) o r E a s t Hannover a r e a (HEDE-
MANN, MASCHEK, PAULUS & PLEIN 1984).

The l o w e r s e c t i o n (Schneverdingen-Sandstein w i t h i n t h e Schneverdingen-Forma-

t i o n i n Germany FRG o r Lower S l o c h t e r e n - F o r m a t i o n i n the N e t h e r l a n d s and Dutch
N o r t h Sea) and t h e upper p a r t (Wustrow-Sandstein as t h e most p o t e n t i a l Wechsel-
f o l g e pay zone w i t h i n t h e Hannover-Formation i n Germany FRG o r Ten Boer-Forma-
t i o n i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s and Dutch N o r t h Sea; GRALLA, N I E B E R D I N G & SOBOTT 1988)
a r e g e n e r a l l y moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s n o t r e q u i r i n g s t i m u l a -
t i o n , whereas t h e m i d d l e p o r t i o n ( H a u p t s a n d s t e i n w i t h i n t h e Emden-Formation i n
Germany FRG o r Upper S l o c h t e r e n - F o r m a t i o n i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s and D u t c h N o r t h
Sea; Slochteren-Hauptsandstein) i s m a i n l y a l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y t o t i g h t r e s e r v o i r
and u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ( i n t h e l a t t e r h o r i z o n , most o f t h e
NHF o p e r a t i o n s on R o t l i e g e n d have been c a r r i e d o u t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e S o h l i n -
yen f i e l d ; KLOSE & KRDMER 1983). Some p o i n t s o f d e p o s i t i o n a l environment and
 277
g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n g i v i n g r i s e t o t h i s permeability s t r a t i g r a p h y are d i s -
cussed as f o l l o w s . R e l a t i o n s h i p s between sedimentary f a c i e s and h y d r a u l i c prop-
pant f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l are also o u t l i n e d .

3.10.1.1. Depositional environment and grain size distribution

The d i f f e r e n t n e c e s s i t y o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g m a i n l y r e l a t e s t o
t h e sedimentary and p e t r o p h y s i c a l f a c i e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e y s o f t h e gas-
b e a r i n g R o t l i e g e n d column ( t h e d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s i s based on t h e Weser-Elbe
o r E a s t Hannover f a c i e s p r o v i n c e i n Germany FRG where t h e b u l k o f R o t l i e g e n d ex-
p l o r a t i o n , development and f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n o c c u r s ) . The a e o l i a n Schnever-
dingen-Sandstein ( c o n s i s t i n g f r e q u e n t l y o f cross-bedded sands h a v i n g been produ-
ced by m i g r a t i o n o f l a r g e and h i g h dunes; c f . p l a t e II/1-6 i n s e c t i o n 3.13.)
and t h e f l u v i a l Wustrow-Sandstein ( h a v i n g been d e p o s i t e d by s m a l l s h a l l o w b r a i -
ded streams o r sheet f l o o d s ; c f . p l a t e s I 1 1 and I V ) u s u a l l y have s u f f i c i e n t p r i -
mary and/or secondary p o r o s i t y and t h u s a l s o p e r m e a b i l i t y , whereas t h e m a i n l y
d r y t o wet i n t e r d u n e p l a y a sand f l a t ( w i t h i n many cases o n l y s u b o r d i n a t e
amounts o f a e o l i a n dunes, b u t abundant d r y a e o l i a n , damp p l a y a and wet l a c u s -
t r i n e sheet sands; c f . p l a t e s V I I , VIII/1-5 and I X ) H a u p t s a n d s t e i n has f r e q u e n t -
l y poor p e r m e a b i l i t y due t o abundant p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f adhesion o f sand and mud
i n sedimentary a c c r e t i o n , p r i m a r y o r secondary c l a y i n f i l t r a t i o n d u r i n g d e p o s i -
t i o n and/or e a r l y diagenesis, and worse g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n .

D e p o s i t i o n a l environments and d i a g e n e t i c a l h i s t o r y o f R o t l i e g e n d and Bunt-

s a n d s t e i n sediments as a base f o r r e s e r v o i r m o d e l l i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d by PLEIN
(1978), LOTZNER (1981), ROBINSON (1981); DRONG, PLEIN, SANNEMANN, SCHUEPBACH &
ZIMDARS (1982);GLENNIE (1983, 1986), LEE (1984), MADER (1981, 1982, 1983,
1984, 1985, 1988 a ) , MADER & TEYSSEN (1985),MADER & YARDLEY (1985);BIFANI,
GEORGE & LEVER (1987); GRALLA (1988), MADER & CHATALOV (1988), MARTIN & EVANS
(1988) and RICHARDSON, SANGREE & SNEIDER (1988; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 3.2.1.1.).
I n some p a r t s o f a few f i e l d s , however, a l s o t h e H a u p t s a n d s t e i n can be en-
c o u n t e r e d i n a f a c i e s o f s u f f i c i e n t q u a l i t y f o r b e i n g a commercial producer
w i t h o u t s t i m u l a t i o n ( i n case o f l a r g e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f cross-bedded a e o l i a n
dune sands ( c f . p l a t e II/l-6)which r e p r e s e n t t h e h i g h e s t r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y i n
t h e R o t l i e g e n d ) , o r t h e Schneverdingen-Sandstein and t h e Wustrow-Sandstein
m i g h t be o n l y economical pay f o r m a t i o n s a f t e r h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ( i f
t h e f o r m e r c o n t a i n s more a l l u v i a l - f a n b r e c c i a s ( c f . p l a t e 111/5-8)b u i l t up o f
v o l c a n i c r o c k c l a s t s i n s t e a d o f a e o l i a n dune sands as a consequence o f s h i f t i n g
shares and r a t e s o f i n t e r t o n g u i n g o f b o t h f a c i e s a s s o c i a t i o n s i n t h e m a r g i n a l
p o r t i o n s o f graben systems c l o s e r t o t h e boundary f a u l t s , o r i f b o t h a r e more
t i g h t l y cemented i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f s y n d e p o s i t i o n a l graben f a u l t s , above e x t r a -
o r d i n a r i l y t h i c k volcanic lava f l o w p i l e s , o r i n the water-bearing aureole o f
t h e gas f i e l d s ) .

3.10.1.2. Permeabi 1 i ty st rat iqraphy

E f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s under r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s ( a s determined f r o m p r o -
d u c t i o n t e s t s and c o r e measurements) a r e i n t h e Sohlingen f i e l d i n t h e Weser-
Elbe o r E a s t Hannover f a c i e s p r o v i n c e i n t h e Schneverdingen-Sandstein 20 - 50
m i l l i d a r c y , i n t h e Wustrow-Sandstein and o t h e r Wechselfolge sandstones up t o 10
m i l l i d a r c y and i n t h e H a u p t s a n d s t e i n i n t h e b e s t cases 0.5 - 1 m i l l i d a r c y , b u t
f r e q u e n t l y much l o w e r p e r m e a b i l i t y values down t o o n l y 0.5 m i c r o d a r c y o c c u r
(KLOSE & KRUMER 1983; f o r R o t l i e g e n d s t r a t i g r a p h y c f . s e c t i o n 3.2.1.3.). T h i s
permeability d i s t r i b u t i o n i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n c l e a r l y r e f l e c t s the major s i g -
n i f i c a n c e o f t h e H a u p t s a n d s t e i n as t h e t a r g e t o f MHF o p e r a t i o n s , whereas t h e
o t h e r R o t l i e g e n d sandstones can u s u a l l y be p u t on stream w i t h o u t s t i m u l a t i o n
( t h e minimum p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r economical gas p r o d u c t i o n w i t h o u t t r e a t m e n t i s
a b t . 0.5 - 1 m i l l i d a r c y ; LEICHT 1985; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 3.4.1.3. and 3.6.1.2.).
 278

3.10.1.3. Sedimentary facies and proppant fracturing potential

I n Rotliegend a n d Buntsandstein continental red bed sequences in Middle E u -
rope, p o t e n t i a l and/or n eces s i t y of hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g stim ula tion
w i t h the aim o f increasing recoverable reserves a n d / o r offta ke r a t e s of natural
gas a r e influenced by the sedimentary f a c i e s of the re se rvoir rocks as well as
the l a t e r a l c o n t in u i t y of the sand bodies. Distinc tion can ge ne ra lly be made
between a e o l i a n , f l u v i a l and a l l u v i a l - f a n , and l a c u s t r i n e de posits ( c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s of continental depositional f a c i e s types f o r hydrocarbon production a r e g i -
ven by RICHARDSON, SANGREE & SNEIDER 1986). Some aspects of c a l c r e t e palaeosols
are a l s o mentioned, and an o u t l i n e i s a l s o given on l a t e r a l c o n t i n u i t y of r e s e r -
v o i r u n i t s . Detailed sedimentological c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of
a e o l i a n , f l u v i a l and l a c u s t r i n e deposits as well as palaeosols in Rotliegend
and Buntsandstein ( i n cl u d i n g numerous colour photographs) a r e contained i n
MADER (1985 a , 1985 b ) , and a s e l e c t i o n of s t r u c t u r e s a re a l s o presented in pla-
t e s I - XI together w i t h longer explanations t h a t a re p a r t i a l l y independent
from the t e x t ( c f . s ect i o n 3.13.).

3.10.1.3.1. Aeolian sediments

Aeolian dune sands w i t h well-developed c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n (MADER 1985 a ,
1985 b; MADER & YARDLEY 1985; c f . p l a t e 1 1 / 1 4 ) and weak t o moderate dia ge ne ti-
cal cementation ar e the r es er v o i r rocks w i t h the highest permeability i n R o t l i e -
gend a n d Buntsandstein and usually allow production o f gas a t s u f f i c i e n t l y high
r a t e s without n e ces s i t at i n g f r a c t u r i n g treatment. While la rge -sc a le c r o s s - s t r a -
t i f i e d dune sands form extensive sand bodies in both horizontal and v e r t i c a l d i -
r e c t i o n , small-scale cross-bedded dune sands ( c f . p l a t e VIII/1-5) a re not only
lim i t e d in thickness, b u t may a l s o be r e s t r i c t e d in l a t e r a l c o n t i n u i t y and com-
munication between the s u b u n i t s .

Small-scale c r o s s - s t r a t i f i e d aeolian dune sands a re fre que ntly v e r t i c a l l y in-

terbedded and l a t e r a l l y intertonguing w i t h horizontal-laminated aeolian she e t
sands deposited on dry s u b s t r a t e s (MADER & YARDLEY 1985) as well a s playa a n d
playa-lake s a n d and mud l a i d down on damp a n d wet ground w i t h varying influe n-
ces of d e f l a t i o n and adhesion of aeolian sand (MADER 1983 a , 1985 b; c f . p l a t e s
VIII a n d I X ) . Damp t o wet s u r f ace conditions give r i s e to i n t e r c a l a t i o n of mud
laminae and l a y e r s i n t o the sand complexes ( c f . p l a t e III/1-2) which d e t e r i o -
r a t e r e s e r v o i r communication, and a l s o lead t o i n s e r t i o n of fine r-gra ine d sand
which has negative impact on permeability. I n c o n t r a s t t o la rge -sc a le cross-bed-
ded dune sands which usually d o n o t r eq u i re hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g stim ula tion,
small-scale c r o s s - s t r a t i f i e d dune sands in combination w i t h horizontal-lamina-
ted dry aeolian s h eet , damp playa and wet playa-lake sediments (MADER 1983 a ,
1985 b; MADER & YARDLEY 1985) f r eq u en t l y n e c e s s i t a t e r e s e r v o i r treatment by hy-
d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n order t o increase recoverable reserves a n d t o a l -
low t o produce the gas a t economically f e a s i b l e r a t e s .

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of aeolian dune sands ( c f . p l a t e 11/1-6) as the highest-per-

meability gas r e s e r v o i r s i n the Rotliegend of the North Sea i s a l s o outline d by
HAAK & ELEIJAUT (1988), MARTIN & EVANS (1988) and RICHARDSON, S A N G R E E & SNEIDER
(1988). Sedimentary and petrophysical f e a t u r e s of aeolian sandstone r e s e r v o i r s
a re a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d by MADER & YARDLEY (1985),N U R M I (1985) a n d GOGGIN, CHAND-
LER, K O C U R E K & LAKE (1986).

3.10.1.3.2. Fluvial and alluvial-fan deposits

F l u v i a l ( c f . p l a t e IV/3-8)a n d a l l u v i a l - f a n ( c f . p l a t e 111/5-8) de posits a r e
s i m i l a r l y as aeolian dune sands ( c f . p l a t e 11/1-6) i n many cases good t o mode-
r a t e primary r es er v o i r rocks, b u t while the poroperm prope rtie s of dry aeolian
s h e e t , damp playa and wet playa-lake sediments a re already primarily d e t e r i o r a -
 279

t e d by i n s e r t i o n o f mud and f i n e sand, p e r m e a b i l i t y o f f l u v i a l and a l l u v i a l - f a n

d e p o s i t s s u f f e r s i n many cases f r o m secondary d i a g e n e t i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n . W e l l -
s o r t e d f l u v i a l sandstones ( c f . p l a t e I V / 3 - 8 ) and conglomerates ( c f . p l a t e
V/1-4) o r i g i n a t i n g i n s h a l l o w t o m o d e r a t e l y deep b r a i d e d r i v e r channels o r p a r -
t i a l l y even u n c o n f i n e d sheet f l o o d s (MADER 1983 b, 1984 a, 1985 c; MADER & TEYS-
SEN 1985, MADER & CHATALOV 1988) have s u f f i c i e n t l y coarse g r a i n s i z e t o possess
good p r i m a r y p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y . I n t e n s i v e q u a r t z a u t h i g e n e s i s d u r i n g
course o f t h e d i a g e n e t i c a l e v o l u t i o n (MADER 1981, 1982, 1983 c ) , however, g i v e s
r i s e t o f r e q u e n t l y t i g h t cementation o f t h e m a t r i x which l e a d s t o r e q u i r e m e n t
of. h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g f o r l i b e r a t i o n o f t r a p p e d gas a t e c o n o m i c a l l y
feasible rates.

P o o r l y - s o r t e d a l l u v i a l - f a n b r e c c i a s , conglomerates and sandstones ( c f . p l a -

t e s 111/5-8, V I / 4 and V I I / 5 ) have a l r e a d y p r i m a r i l y worse poroperm p r o p e r t i e s
due t o d i s p e r s i o n o f mud and f i n e sand i n t h e m a t r i x as w e l l as o f t e n i r r e g u l a r
shape o f sand and g r a v e l g r a i n s and d i s c o n t i n u o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g r a v e l
clasts, and t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t a l r e a d y p r i m a r i l y l e s s s u i t a b l e pay r o c k s . Se-
condary d i a g e n e t i c a l l i t h i f i c a t i o n i s an i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r f o r f u r -
t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I f such submature t o immature
a l l u v i a l - f a n d e p o s i t s a r e gas-bearing, h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o f f r e -
q u e n t l y l a r g e s c a l e i s t h e o n l y way t o achieve p r o d u c t i o n a t e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a -
s i b l e r a t e s , b u t i n some cases, r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s a r e so poor and/or l a t e r a l
pay c o n t i n u i t y i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o achieve reasonable gas o f f t a k e r a t e s a t
all.

3.10.1.3.3. Lacustrine sediments and calcrete palaeosols

L a c u s t r i n e sediments a r e m a i n l y mudstones and f i n e sandstones (MADER 1983 a;
cf. plates III/1-2, V I , V I I / 1 - 6 and I X ) which i n R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n
f o r m r a t h e r s e a l i n g h o r i z o n s and l a y e r s i n s t e a d o f r e p r e s e n t i n g r e s e r v o i r r o c k s
themselves. I f f i n e - g r a i n e d homogeneous m o n o l i t h i c o r heterogeneous p o l y l i t h i c
l a c u s t r i n e sediments happen t o c o n t a i n gas, economical p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s f r o m
these t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s can o n l y be achieved by h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
s t i m u l a t i o n . R e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y i s m a i n l y c r e a t e d by a l t e r n a t i n g d r y , damp
and w e t c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e s u r f a c e o f temporary l a k e s o f p l a y a t y p e w i t h i n t e r -
t o n g u i n g and succession o f dune and wind r i p p l e m i g r a t i o n , adhesion o f d e f l a t e d
a e o l i a n sand, a q u a t i c r e d e p o s i t i o n o f windblown sand, and s e d i m e n t a t i o n o f f i n e
sand and mud i n t h e s h a l l o w p l a y a l a k e .

C a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l f o r m a t i o n (MADER 1984; c f . p l a t e s X and X I / 8 ) by pedoge-

n i c o v e r p r i n t i n g o f v a r i o u s types o f p r i m a r y sediments u s u a l l y comprises a u t h i -
genesis o f c l a y m i n e r a l s and i r o n o x i d e s i n t h e p o r e space (MADER 1981, 1982,
1983 c ) t o g e t h e r w i t h growth o f carbonate c o n c r e t i o n s e i t h e r as i s o l a t e d nodu-
l e s o r as tubes f o l l o w i n g f o s s i l i z e d r o o t tubes ( c f . p l a t e X/1-5), w i t h i n ma-
t u r e stages o f c a l i c h e f o r m a t i o n a g g r e g a t i o n o f i s o l a t e d c o n c r e t i o n s t o c o n t i -
nuous c r u s t s t a k i n g p l a c e (MADER 1985). O r i g i n o f c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l s may t r a n s -
f o r m even h i g h - q u a l i t y r e s e r v o i r h o r i z o n s i n t o l o w - q u a l i t y pay zones o r even
t i g h t b a r r i e r layers.

3.10.1.3.4. Lateral continuity o f reservoir units

L a t e r a l c o n t i n u i t y o f r e s e r v o i r u n i t s i s an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r c o n t r o l l i n g eco-
nomical success o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s . H y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f
c o n t i n u o u s pay zone sheets p r o v i d e s optimum r e s u l t s and h e l p s t o decrease w e l l
number i n t h e f i e l d by a l l o w i n g t o i n c r e a s e t h e d r a i n a g e area o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
o f f t a k e p o i n t s . F r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o f l e n t i c u l a r formations ( c f . p l a t e s
I I / 7 - 8 and V/3-4) where t h e d i f f e r e n t r e s e r v o i r u n i t s and s u b u n i t s have l i m i t e d
h o r i z o n t a l e x t e n s i o n and s e v e r a l l a t e r a l l y a d j o i n i n g pay zone elements must n o t
be connected, b u t i n many cases a r e separated by mudstone i n t e r v a l s , however,
r e q u i r e s p r o p e r f e a s i b i l i t y m o d e l l i n g and c a l c u l a t i o n p r i o r t o j o b e x e c u t i o n ,
 280

because l a t e r a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y o f g a s - b e a r i n g sedimentary f a c i e s b o d i e s can r e -

s u l t i n access o f o n l y l i m i t e d r e s e r v e s and/or p r o d u c t i o n a t o n l y r e s t r i c t e d r a -
t e s which soon d i m i n i s h a f t e r i n i t i a l peak o f f t a k e .

Drainage o f l e n t i c u l a r pay zones a l s o f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e s c l o s e r w e l l spa-

c i n g w i t h respect t o production from continuous r e s e r v o i r s which i n t u r n a f -
f e c t s t h e d r i l l i n g c o s t budget, and t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e l a r g e r number o f s t i m u l a -
t i o n c a n d i d a t e s c a r e f u l assessment has t o be made whether t h e e f f o r t s pay o f f
o r n o t . A p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n i s c o n n e c t i o n o f i s o l a t e d sand l e n s e s w i t h neighbou-
r i n g s e p a r a t e sand bodies and w i t h t h e w e l l b o r e through a l a r g e - s c a l e c r a c k by
communication f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.10.2.1.).

3.10.2. Gas composition

I n a d d i t i o n t o the primary petrophysical c o n t r o l o f hydraulic proppant f r a c -
t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i n t h e g a s - b e a r i n g R o t l i e g e n d sandstones i n m a i n l y v e r t i c a l d i -
r e c t i o n , a secondary economical i n f l u e n c e i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n
i s g e o c h e m i c a l l y e x e r t e d by t h e gas c o m p o s i t i o n which i n c l u d e s l a r g e r amounts
o f i n e r t n i t r o g e n a p a r t f r o m c o m b u s t i b l e methane i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e gas
f i e l d p r o v i n c e s (PHILIPP & R E I N I C K E 1982) t h a t cannot be used, b u t has t o be se-
p a r a t e d and removed i n p u r i f i c a t i o n p l a n t s . The overview as f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a -
t e s on n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t and impact o f economical systems on g a s - f i e l d opera-
tion.

3.10.2.1. Nitrogen content

L a t e r a l l y , t h e n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t i n c r e a s e s f r o m Sohlingen and Munster i n t h e
west ( a b t . 20 % o r l e s s ) t o Wustrow/Salzwedel i n t h e e a s t (60 - 90 % ) and f i n a l -
l y i n t h e B e r l i n area almost 100 % n i t r o g e n i s encountered ( c f . f i g . 4 ) . F a r -
t h e r t o t h e e a s t , t h e n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t decreases again t o a b t . 60 - 80 % near
t h e western boundary o f Poland and t h e n f u r t h e r along t h e R o t l i e g e n d f a c i e s
b e l t towards t h e e a s t e r n b a s i n m a r g i n a t t h e Pomeranian Swell t o a b t . 20 % .
O t h e r areas o f h i g h n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t ( u p t o more than 60 % ) i n c l u d e t h e German
N o r t h Sea (OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1986 b; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 3 . 4 . ) , whereas o n l y v e r y low
n i t r o g e n shares occur i n Dutch and B r i t i s h N o r t h Sea R o t l i e g e n d f i e l d s (SCHRU-
DER & SCHUNEICH 1986) as w e l l as i n N e t h e r l a n d s onshore ( a b t . 15 % i n G r o n i n -
gen; ROSSUM 1 9 7 5 ) .

To m i n o r amounts ( p a r t i a l l y a b t . 2 - 3 % w i t h i n 100 m), t h e n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t

i s a l s o v e r t i c a l l y i n c r e a s i n g w i t h d e p t h i n t h e western p a r t o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d
f a c i e s b e l t f r o m c e n t r a l N o r t h e r n Germany FRG t o Salzwedel/Wustrow a t t h e GDR-
FRG-boundary, whereas i n Poland around Ostrbw W i e l k o p o l s k i and Szczecin, i n -
c r e a s i n g r e s e r v o i r depth sometimes p r o v i d e s l o w e r n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t s ( c f . f i g .
5 ) . T h e r e f o r e t h e whole l a t e r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t s i n t h e R o t l i e -
gend gas i s p r o b a b l y n o t a s i m p l e b i s y m m e t r i c a l arrangement, b u t i t r a t h e r
seems t h a t Ostrow W i e l k o p o l s k i and s u r r o u n d i n g f i e l d s i n Poland a l r e a d y belong
t o another m a j o r gas p r o v i n c e , w i t h b o t h h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f c o m b u s t i b l e methane i n r e l a t i o n t o i n e r t n i t r o g e n b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d by t h e
s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l and s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e g e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d and
i t s p a l a e o t e c t o n i c a l and palaeogeochemical e v o l u t i o n as w e l l as i t s diagene-
t i c a l and gas m a t u r a t i o n h i s t o r y .

Traces o f h e l i u m and q u i c k s i l v e r f o l l o w t h e n i t r o g e n t r e n d s i n normal and i n -

verse o r i e n t a t i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The n i t r o g e n d e r i v e s f r o m metamorphosis o f
d e e p l y b u r i e d sediments f a r below R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s and has r i s e n
a l o n g m a j o r f a u l t s (PHILIPP & R E I N I C K E 1982; aspects o f f o r m a t i o n o f R o t l i e g e n d
gas d e p o s i t s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by HETZER & KATZUNG 1985).
 281

3.10.2.2. Impact o f economical systems on gas-field operation

Concerning h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l , o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e wes-
t e r n p a r t o f t h e E a s t Hannover area ( e s p e c i a l l y Sohlingen) where t h e n i t r o g e n
c o n t e n t i s c o m p a r a t i v e l y low a r e c e r t a i n l y v e r y f e a s i b l e , whereas around Wus-
t r o w i n t h e e a s t e r n p a r t on Germany FRG t e r r i t o r y , i t would be h a r d l y p o s s i b l e
t o e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f y an expensive MHF t r e a t m e n t w i t h i n a r e s e r v o i r c o n t a i n -
i n g p r e d o m i n a n t l y t o almost e x c l u s i v e l y n i t r o g e n and o n l y s u b o r d i n a t e shares of
hydrocarbons (and i n a d d i t i o n t o t h a t h a v i n g i n t h e meantime a r r i v e d a t an ad-
vanced stage o f gas e x p l o i t a t i o n and r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e d e p l e t i o n a f t e r more
t h a n 20 y e a r s o f p r o d u c t i o n ) .

The Wustrow/Salzwedel complex ( c f . f i g . 4 ) which i s d i v i d e d by t h e FRG/GDR-

boundary i n t o two halves, however, i s an e x c e l l e n t example o f t h e e f f e c t i v i t y
o f a t e r t i a r y p o l i t i c a l z o n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l . On
t h e Germany GDR s i d e i n t h e Salzwedel s u b s t r u c t u r e , t h e s i t u a t i o n i s q u i t e d i f -
f e r e n t f r o m t h a t i n Wustrow on t h e Germany FRG s i d e . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e l a r g e
b e l t o f R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d s i n Germany FRG e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e E a s t Hannover
area, w i t h S o h l i n g e n r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c e n t r e o f t h e r i c h e s t p r o v i n c e and t h e
Munster-Schmarbeck complex b e i n g a n o t h e r pronounced spot, Salzwedel i s t h e o n l y
b i g R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d on GDR t e r r i t o r y and t h e s m a l l s a t e l l i t e s s u r r o u n d i n g
t h e l a r g e p a t c h can d e l i v e r o n l y r e l a t i v e l y m i n o r a d d i t i o n a l q u a n t i t i e s .

T h e r e f o r e any e f f o r t t o i n c r e a s e domestic gas s u p p l y i n Germany GDR has t o

t a k e under c o n s i d e r a t i o n l a r g e - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r
r o c k s i n t h e Salzwedel f i e l d r e g a r d l e s s o f gas composition, economical p a y o u t
and p a r t i a l l y a l s o stage o f gas w i t h d r a w a l , as i n case o f own s e r v i c e f o r t h e
s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s , f i n a n c i n g can be made i n domestic c u r r e n c y which i s
n o n - c o n v e r t i b l e , whereas purchase o f gas abroad has t o be made on t h e b a s i s o f
b a r t e r t r a d e c o m p r i s i n g e x p o r t o f goods f r o m Germany GDR t h a t a r e t h e n l a c k i n g
t h e r e , o r even by i n v e s t m e n t o f r a r e h a r d c u r r e n c y .

3.11. Water sensitivity

Some p a r t s o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d pay s e r i e s a r e e x t r e m e l y w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e as de-
termined by f l o w t e s t s on v a r i e d f l u i d damage o f b o t h m a t r i x and f r a c t u r e con-
d u c t i v i t y (JOHN 1983, DIETZEL & HANTELMANN 1985). S h u t - i n and clean-up under r e -
s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s r e s u l t s i n r e g a i n e d i n i t i a l p e r m e a b i l i t y and f r a c t u r e conduc-
t i v i t y , w i t h much s u p e r i o r r e c o v e r y b e i n g achieved by foamed i n comparison t o
unfoamed f l u i d v e r s i o n s . Foamed o i l - b a s e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e s u i t a b l e c a r -
r i e r s f o r t r e a t m e n t o f such r e s e r v o i r s . A p p l i c a t i o n o f water-based f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d s l e a d s t o complete l o s s o f c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y and severe p r o p p a n t embed-
ment. The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e focusses on g e n e r a l aspects, f e a t u r e s o f foam f r a c -
t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d systems, methanol sys-
tems, and l i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . The d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t
techniques f o r w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n more d e t a i l w i t h i n
t h e c h a p t e r on R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s s t i m u l a t i o n i n Europe because o f
t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n s u c c e s s f u l l y approaching these pay f o r m a t i o n s which o f t e n
s u f f e r f r o m c o n s i d e r a b l e w a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y and t h e r e f o r e a r e f r e q u e n t l y n o t ac-
cessible t o conventional f r a c t u r i n g operations.

3.11.1. General aspects

The g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n s t a r t s w i t h commenting on w a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y d i s t r i -
b u t i o n i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d and t h e n h i g h l i g h t s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f expandable
c l a y m i n e r a l s as one o f t h e more common reasons f o r w a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y o f va-
r i o u s r e s e r v o i r rocks.
 282

3.11.1.1. Water sensitivity distribution in the Rot liegend

The water s e n s i t i v i t y of Rotliegend and p a r t i a l l y a l s o Carboniferous sandsto-
nes i s mainly due t o incorporation of water envelopes around authigenic i l l i t e
needles a n d leaves in the pore space i n t o the c urre nt movement in case o f f l u s h -
i n g with a water-based f l u i d , r e s u l t i n g i n d estruc tion a n d breakage of i l l i t e
c r y s t a l s which leads t o d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of matrix compound, framework c olla pse
a n d plugging of pore t h r o a t s by i l l i t e fragments ( D I E T Z E L & HANTELMANN 1985).
Using an oil-based f l u i d f o r f l u s h i n g , the connate water s a t u r a t i o n i s decrea-
sed t o the i r r e d u c i b l e minimum, b u t due t o the d i s c r e t e i n t e r f a c e between non-
wetting oil-based f l u i d a n d wetting water p e l l i c l e s of the i l l i t e c r y s t a l s , the
c la y mineral needles and leaves do not s u f f e r a xia l forc e s and thus the rock fa -
b r i c remains i n i t s o r i g i n al s t a b l e s i t u a t i o n ( c f . a l s o se c tion 3 . 5 . ) .

I n c o n t r a s t t o wat er - s en s i t i v e Rotliegend s e c t i o n s , the re a r e a l s o patches

where the s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l succession i s n o t water s e n s i t i v e ( K L O S E & KRUMER
1983), i n d i c a t i n g t h a t d i f f er en ces i n clay-mineralogy and diagenesis probably
r e l a t e d t o d i f f e r e n ces in burial h i s t o r y e x i s t in l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n between va-
r io u s p a r t s of the Rotliegend b as i n , with t h i s primary mineralogical zonation
i n an i r r e p l a r a n d l o cal l y - i n f l u en ced manner giving r i s e t o a secondary d i v i -
sion i n t o w a t e r- s en s i t i v e and non-water-sensitive p a r t s of the formation t h a t
induce a t e r t i a r y d i s t i n c t i o n of treatment modes w i t h main emphasis on the me-
d i u m on which f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e based.

Many low-permeability sandstone formations a r e highly s e n s i t i v e t o damage

from increased water s a t u r a t i o n (SLUSSER & RIECKMANN 1976). Such zones a re cha-
r a c t e r i z e d by high i r r e d u c i b l e water s a t u r a t i o n caused by the small pore s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the rock, and by high r et en t i on and slow re le a se of invaded wa-
t e r above the minimum i r r e d u c i b l e value because of the e f f e c t of high c a p i l l a r y
pressure. This may r e s u l t in excessively long cleanup times a f t e r well comple-
tio n or f r a c t u r e s t i mu l at i o n e s p e c i a l l y i f la rge volumes of aqueous f l u i d s a r e
l o s t i n t o the zone.

3.11.1.2. Significance of expandable clay minerals

Water s e n s i t i v i t y of r e s e r v o i r sandstones i s c ha ra c te riz e d by a s h a r p loss
of formation permeability upon co n t act with water t h a t i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y l e s s
s a l i n e than connate water (ECONOMIDES 1986). The most frequent reason of water
s e n s i t i v i t y i s the presence of expandable clay minerals such as montmorillonite
which swell when touching water, thereby pinching off pores a n d blocking flow
channels (SMITH, PAVLICH & SLOVINSKY 1964). Water s e n s i t i v i t y can a l s o occur in
sandstones containing only non-expandable cl ays such as i l l i t e o r k a o l i n i t e a n d
may be caused by changes i n pH a n d s a l i n i t y (MUNGAN 1965). Permeability reduc-
tio n i s mainly provoked by blocking of the pore passages by dispersed c la y mine-
r a l s , cement p a r t i c l e s a n d o t h er f i n e s . Dispersed c la y minerals a r e pre se nt a s
d i s c r e t e , pore-lining and pore-bridging c l a y s , w i t h the d i f f e r e n t c la y morpholo-
g ie s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t i n g sandstone p o r o s ity a n d permeability (NEASHAM 1977,
PITTMAN & THOFIAS 1978).
Many sandstones contain l ar g e amounts of very small, loose s o l i d p a r t i c l e s
t h a t vary widely i n s i z e and chemical composition, with p a r t i c l e w e t t a b i l i t y
and s u r f a c e / i n t e r f a c i a l f o r ces s t r o n g l y influencing p a r t i c l e mobility when m u l -
t i - f l u i d phases a r e p r es en t (MUECKE 1978). Thus water s e n s i t i v i t y i s a very com-
p lic a t e d phenomenon n o t only caused by swelling of expandable c l a y s , b u t dispe r-
s i o n , migration and redeposition of f i n e p a r t i c l e s of various s i z e s a n d chemi-
c a l compositions cr eat i n g the damage. As brines a r e not nearly so damaging t o
sandstone as f r e s h water i s , 1 - 3 % KC1 solutions a r e normally used a s the
base l i q u i d i n f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s (ECONOMIDES 1986). Potassium ions s t a b i l i z e
c la y s a g a i n st water invasion a n d consequently prevent swelling, and a l s o help
n e u t r a l i z i n g the negative charges on the cl ay p a r t i c l e surfa c e which supports
to control d i sp e r s i o n tendencies.
 283

A p a r t f r o m s w e l l i n g and m i g r a t i n g c l a y s , f o r m a t i o n s e n s i t i v i t y problems i n -
c l u d e e m u l s i f y i n g tendencies w i t h f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s , c a p i l l a r y b l o c k s and s k i n
damage caused by f l u i d r e s i d u e (DEYSARKAR, DAWSON & ACHARYA 1987). Water s e n s i -
t i v i t y e f f e c t s o f c l a y m i n e r a l s i n p e t r o l e u m r e s e r v o i r sands a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d
by DODD, CONLEY & BARNES (1955), HEWITT (1963) and GAUTIER & R I C E ( 1 9 8 1 ) .

3.11.2. Foam-fracturing stimulation

W a t e r - s e n s i t i v e c l a y - b e a r i n g p a r t s o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s r e s e r -
v o i r column can a l s o be s u c c e s s f u l l y approached w i t h t h e t e c h n i q u e o f carbon d i -
o x i d e foam f r a c t u r i n g ( d e t a i l s on t h e s u c c e s s f u l European p i l o t t r e a t m e n t i n
t h e Fehndorf f i e l d i n t h e Emsland arealGermany FRG a r e g i v e n by SOMMER 1987,
1988; f u r t h e r aspects on carbon d i o x i d e foam f r a c t u r i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d i n SLAT-
TER, RUCKER & C R I S P 1986; q u e s t i o n s o f dynamic f l u i d l o s s i n foam f r a c t u r i n g
a r e t r e a t e d by K I N G 1977 and H A R R I S 1982; and aspects o f occurrence and a c q u i s i -
t i o n o f carbon d i o x i d e a r e compiled i n TRIELOFF 1983). Foam i s a l o w - v i s c o s i t y ,
p e r f e c t - s u p p o r t medium which p r o v i d e s more r a p i d and complete t r e a t m e n t f l u i d
r e c o v e r y , h e l p s t o c l e a n t h e w e l l w i t h o u t swabbing, and reduces f o r m a t i o n da-
mage by m i n i m i z i n g t h e q u a n t i t y o f aqueous f l u i d which e n t e r s t h e f o r m a t i o n
(PHILLIPS, COUCHMAN & WILKE 1987). Foam i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y e x c e l l e n t medium i n
r e s e r v o i r s w i t h low b o t t o m h o l e p r e s s u r e s such as some s h a l l o w gas sands (BAL-
LARD 1977).

Foam has been used s i n c e more t h a n 20 y e a r s i n o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n i n a l l

phases o f r e c o v e r y i n c l u d i n g d r i l l i n g , a c i d i z i n g and f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n , se-
condary and t e r t i a r y r e c o v e r y , d i v e r t i n g d u r i n g workover, and g r a v e l p a c k i n g
(HARMS, SMITH, K I N G & POSEY 1988). The main f a v o u r a b l e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f
foam a r e low h y d r o s t a t i c head, a b i l i t y t o s u p p o r t f i n e s , low l e a k o f f r a t e s , and
s h e a r - t h i n n i n g r h e o l o g i c a l behaviour, which i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h low l i q u i d con-
t e n t and e n e r g i z e d f l u i d r e t u r n f a c i l i t a t e t h e use o f foam i n w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e
f o r m a t i o n s i n l o w - p r e s s u r e gas zone c o m p l e t i o n and l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r
t r e a t m e n t . Aspects o f p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y and foam s t a b i l i t y , carbon d i -
o x i d e vs. n i t r o g e n as foaming o r e n e r g i z i n g agent, f l o w b e h a v i o u r and foam v i s -
c o s i t y , and f l u i d r e c o v e r y and w e l l cleanup a r e discussed as f o l l o w s .

3.11.2.1. Proppant transport capacity and foam stability

Foam f r a c t u r i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t i n hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n s i n c e
more t h a n 15 y e a r s (HOLCOMB, CALLAWAY & CURRY 1980, 1981; HOLCOMB 1983). Foams
used f o r c a r r y i n g s o l i d p a r t i c l e s a r e a c t u a l l y three-phase systems, w i t h t h e
proppants g r a i n s b e i n g suspended i n t h e g a s - l i q u i d boundary b y s u r f a c e t e n s i o n .
P a r t i c l e s a t t a c h e d t o foam bubbles p r e v e n t bubble coalescence and t h e r e f o r e en-
hance foam s t a b i l i t y . Foam bubbles a r e s t a b i l i z e d a t r e s e r v o i r temperature and
p r e s s u r e c o n d i t i o n s by s u r f a c e t e n s i o n due t o s u r f a c t a n t e f f e c t , v i s c o s i t y due
t o g e l s t a b i l i z e r e f f e c t , and bubble d r a i n a g e c o n t r o l . Foam breakage d u r i n g
w e l l cleanup i s achieved by foam expansion and bubble coalescence as p r e s s u r e
d e c l i n e s , t u r n i n g t h e foam i n t o a m i s t o f l i q u i d d r o p l e t s i n gas which has low
v i s c o s i t y and can no l o n g e r p r o v i d e p r o p p a n t s u p p o r t f o r t h e t h i r d phase b e i n g
t h e proppants. T h i s expansion/coalescence t r e n d dominoes f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e r e -
g i o n through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e .

As t h e m i s t begins t o c l i m b up t h e b o r e h o l e t u b u l a r s , t u r b u l e n c e and compres-

s i o n due t o back p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e choke assembly can t r i g g e r foam r e g e n e r a t i o n
which, i f t a k i n g p l a c e a f t e r foam b r e a k i n g and l e a v i n g p r o p p a n t b e h i n d i n t h e
f r a c t u r e can be an advantage i n m a i n t a i n i n g simultaneous r e c o v e r y o f b o t h gas
and l i q u i d . U s i n g t o o much foaming agents, s t a b i l i z e r o r l i q u i d g e l l i n g agent
can cause o v e r s t a b i l i t y o f t h e foam and m i g h t n o t a l l o w foam expansion and
b u b b l e coalescence t o t a k e p l a c e , t h e r e b y i n h i b i t i n g foam breakage and t h u s
c a u s i n g foam blockage and/or p r o p p a n t flowback. On t h e o t h e r hand, n o t enough
 284

foaming agent can g i v e r i s e t o premature foam i n s t a b i l i t y t h a t can l e a d t o j o b

screenout o r h i g h foam i n e f f i c i e n c y e s p e c i a l l y i n terms o f p r o p p a n t c a r r i a g e .
The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s focusses on impact o f p r o p p a n t a d d i t i o n on foam s t a -
b i l i t y and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , r h e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f foam systems, and
w a l l - b u i l d i n g o f g e l - b e a r i n g foams.

3.11.2.1.1. Imact of proppant addition

on foam stability and fluid viscosity
The p r i m a r y l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e foam f r a c t u r i n g process i s t h e amount o f p r o p -
p a n t s t h a t can be p h y s i c a l l y p l a c e d i n t o t h e foam (JENNINGS & DARDEN 1 9 7 9 ) . I f
2 l b s / g a l sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s d e s i r e d i n an 80 % q u a l i t y foam, 10 l b s / g a l o f
sand have t o be added t o t h e 20 % aqueous phase p r i o r t o d i l u t i o n w i t h n i t r o g e n
gas. Foam i s g e n e r a l l y a p e r f e c t p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t medium w i t h slow s e t t l i n g
r a t e s , w i t h t h e p r o p p a n t e s s e n t i a l l y n o t s e t t l i n g as t h e foam moves down t h e
f r a c t u r e d u r i n g t h e t i m e o f t r e a t m e n t (BLAUER & KOHLHAAS 1 9 7 4 ) . W h i l e c o n v e n t i o -
n a l foam s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s have been f r e q u e n t l y i n c o n s i s t e n t i n p l a c i n g
h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and o f t e n reached a p r e s s u r e l i m i t a t i o n w h i c h p r e -
m a t u r e l y t e r m i n a t e d t h e j o b , t h e c o n s t a n t i n t e r n a l phase t e c h n i q u s has overcome
p r e v i o u s p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n boundaries and has a l l o w e d o p e r a t i o n s t o be pumped
w i t h reduced p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s (HARRIS, KLEBENOW & KUNDERT 1988). Conven-
t i o n a l foam t r e a t m e n t s on e i t h e r carbon d i o x i d e o r n i t r o g e n base when pumped a t
h i g h r a t e s down s m a l l - d i a m e t e r t u b i n g f r e q u e n t l y s u f f e r f r o m c o n s i d e r a b l e i n -
crease o f o p e r a t i o n a l p r e s s u r e as p r o p p a n t i s added u n t i l t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e
p r e s s u r e i s reached as a consequence o f h i g h f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e s .

While p r o p p a n t a d d i t i o n causes no m a j o r changs i n v i s c o u s c h a r a c t e r o f non-

foamed f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s , t h e two-phase s t r u c t u r e d foam f l u i d c o n s i s t i n g o f ga-
seous i n t e r n a l phase and l i q u i d e x t e r n a l phase i s c o n s i d e r a b l y d i s t u r b e d and
p r o p p a n t a d d i t i o n t o h i g h - q u a l i t y foams g i v e s r i s e t o a s i g n i f i c a n t v i s c o s i t y
i n c r e a s e . I n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n a c o n s t a n t - v i s c o s i t y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d , t h e ba-
l a n c e between i n t e r n a l phase vs. e x t e r n a l phase must be k e p t c o n s t a n t . The con-
c e p t of c o n s t a n t i n t e r n a l phase d e s i g n keeps b o t h downstream f l o w r a t e and v i s -
c o s i t y c o n s t a n t by a d d i t i o n o f s o l i d proppant w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g a c o n s t a n t li-
q u i d r a t e b u t d e c r e a s i n g gas f l o w r a t e s u f f i c i e n t l y t o equal a b s o l u t e s o l i d
f l o w r a t e . In c o n v e n t i o n a l foam t r e a t m e n t s , p r o p p a n t i s added t o t h e l i q u i d
phase by b l e n d i n g , and t h e s l u r r y passes then through h i g h - p r e s s u r e pumps t o
t h e w e l l h e a d where n i t r o g e n o r carbon d i o x i d e a r e added t h u s d i l u t i n g p r o p p a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n by s e v e r a l f o l d . By u s i n g c o n s t a n t i n t e r n a l phase design, however,
n i t r o g e n o r carbon d i o x i d e shares a r e decreased as proppant s a t u r a t i o n i s i n -
creased, and t h e r e f o r e t h e d i l u t i o n e f f e c t o f t h e gas i s l e s s and h i g h e r down-
h o l e p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s may be achieved. Pumping p r e s s u r e u s u a l l y r i s e s t o
a maximum by t h e end of t h e pad stage, b u t then s t e a d i l y decreases as added
p r o p p a n t i n c r e a s e s t h e h y d r o s t a t i c w e i g h t o f t h e f l u i d column.

3.11.2.1.2. Rheological characteristics of foam systems

D e s i r a b l e p r o p e r t i e s o f foam f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e h i g h p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t
c a p a b i l i t y , low h y d r o s t a t i c head, low p r e s s u r e drops due t o f r i c t i o n , and no r e -
d u c t i o n of f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y due t o f l u i d i n g r e d i e n t s (BLAUER & KOHLHAAS
1974, CALJIEZEL & NILES 1 9 8 7 ) . Foams have e x t r e m e l y good r h e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s and f l u i d l o s s performance under a f a i r l y wide range o f c o n d i t i o n s (VEATCH
& I;lOSCHOVIDIS 1986). Carbon-dioxide-foam f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a l s o p r o v i d e a l o n g
s u s t a i n e d s o l u t i o n - g a s d r i v e due t o h i g h s o l u b i l i t y of carbon d i o x i d e w i t h r e -
s e r v o i r f l u i d s (DEYSARKAR, DAWSON & ACIiARYA 1987). Carbon d i o x i d e can be com-
m i n g l e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s as an e n e r g i z i n g component o f subor-
d i n a t e q u a n t i t a t i v e share o r used as t h e gaseous phase in f o r m u l a t i n g foams
(GARBIS ?I TAYLOR 1985).
 285

Energized o r foam systems s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d when t h e pay zone i s under-

p r e s s u r e d and f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e c o v e r y i s q u e s t i o n a b l e , i n case t h e f o r m a t i o n
i s s e n s i t i v e t o c o n t a c t by f o r e i g n f l u i d s , and i f a l o w - v i s c o s i t y p e r f e c t - s u p -
p o r t f l u i d i s d e s i r e d t o m i n i m i z e c r a c k h e i g h t growth. NORTON & HOFFMAN (1982)
r e p o r t t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l water- o r o i l - b a s e d f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s may o u t p e r -
f o r m foam s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s o n l y because o f t h e placement o f l a r g e r
amounts o f proppants by t h e f o r m e r f l u i d s i'n t h e f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n . BLAUER,
PHILLIPS & C R A I G (1988) comment on r h e o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s between
foam and emulsion f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s .

3.11.2.1.3. Wall-bui lding of gel-bear ing foams

The types o f foams which a r e used i n many h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s
c o n t a i n g e l i n t h e l i q u i d phase and a r e w a l l - b u i l d i n g f l u i d s (HARRIS 1982)
which a r e c o n s t r u c t i n g g e l l a y e r s on t h e f r a c t u r e faces t h a t c o n t r o l f l u i d l e a k -
o f f . Foams c o n t a i n i n g no g e l i n t h e l i q u i d a r e n o t - w a l l - b u i l d i n g f l u i d s . Foams
c o n t a i n i n g polymers b u i l d i n g f r a c t u r e w a l l drapes i n c l u d e t h e p o t e n t i a l o f da-
mage o f o r i g i n a l m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y . Since e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f i s one po-
t e n t i a l cause o f premature j o b t e r m i n a t i o n and a l s o foam f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s
o c c a s i o n a l l y screen o u t , adequate knowledge o f f l u i d l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t s i s essen-
t i a l f o r p r o p e r s u p e r v i s i o n o f foam f r a c t u r i n g jobs, t o o .

3.11.2.2. Carbon dioxide vs. nitrogen

as foaming or energizing agent
H i g h - q u a l i t y foams were developed i n t o a v i a b l e f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n t o o l
f o r o i l and gas w e l l s i n t h e 1970's (HARRIS, KLEBENOW & KUNDERT 1988). Foam
f l u i d s t y p i c a l l y c o n t a i n i n g a b t . 65 - 80 % n i t r o g e n gas by volume a r e c h a r a c t e -
r i z e d by low damage t o s e n s i t i v e f o r m a t i o n s and r a p i d r e c o v e r y o f t r e a t m e n t
f l u i d . Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n n i t r o g e n foams c o u l d be r i s e n f r o m 2 - 3
l b s / g a l a t t h e b e g i n n i n g t o 5 - 7 l b s / g a l i n t h e e a r l y 1980's due t o b l e n d e r
and pump d e s i g n improvement. H i g h - q u a l i t y carbon d i o x i d e foam f l u i d s were i n t r o -
duced i n 1982. Carbon d i o x i d e had been used i n shares o f 5 - 50 % s i n c e t h e
1950's t o p r o v i d e g a s - a s s i s t e d f l u i d r e c o v e r y . The use o f t y p i c a l l y 65 - 80 %
carbon d i o x i d e caused a s i g n i f i c a n t b o o s t i n v i s c o s i t y f o r c a r r y i n g p r o p p a n t
i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n focusses on f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and
c o m p a t i b i l i t y , f l u i d s o l u b i l i t y and p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t , foam d e n s i t y and r e c o -
v e r a b i l i t y , and r h e o l o g i c a l n a t u r e and t r a n s i t i o n s o f foams and emulsions.

3.11.2.2.1. Fluid viscosity and cornpat i bi 1 i ty

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o t h e r advantages o f n i t r o g e n foam f l u i d s , carbon d i o x i d e
foam p r o v i d e s b e t t e r c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s and lowered i n t e r f a -
c i a l t e n s i o n , and i t s h i g h e r d e n s i t y g i v e s g r e a t e r foam s t a b i l i t y and a l l o w s ge-
n e r a l l y lower pumping p r e s s u r e s d u r i n g j o b e x e c u t i o n (HARRIS, KLEBENOW & KUN-
DERT 1988). The g r e a t e ' r s o l u b i l i t y o f carbon d i o x i d e i n f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s p r o v i -
des gas a s s i s t t o r e s e r v o i r s h a v i n g lower p r e s s u r e s t h u s enhancing f l u i d recove-
ry. As f o r example 70 % carbon d i o x i d e foam t r e a t m e n t s can be pumped down ca-
s i n g a t s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r o p e r a t i o n a l p r e s s u r e s than those needed f o r s i m i l a r
n i t r o g e n foam j o b s , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f carbon d i o x i d e foams a l l o w s t r e a t m e n t s
t o be pumped i n t o deeper and h o t t e r r e s e r v o i r s than i s p r a c t i c a l w i t h n i t r o g e n
foams.

Simple foams c o n t a i n i n g water, n i t r o g e n and s u r f a c t a n t a r e v e r y u n s t a b l e , be-

cause t h e l i q u i d around t h e bubbles i s t h i n and d r a i n s away e a s i l y (ECONOMIDES
1986). I n c r e a s i n g foam s t a b i l i t y can be performed w i t h polymer a d d i t i o n (WEN-
DORFF & AINLEY 1981), c r o s s l i n k i n g o f t h e polymer i n t h e aqueous phase (WAT-
KINS, WENDORFF & AINLEY 1983) which a l s o improves foam r h e o l o g y and f l u i d l o s s
c o n t r o l , and c o m p o s i t i o n a l a l t e r i n g o f t h e foam by exchanging n i t r o g e n a g a i n s t
 286

c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a d e n s e r foam and c o n s e q u e n t l y l o w e r s u r f a c e
t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s . M e t h a n o l n a y be u s e d i n h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in t h e aqueous
phase t o make t h e foam much l e s s damaging and even e a s i e r t o c l e a n u p f r o m wa-
t e r - s e n s i t i v e f o r m a t i o n s (ECONOMIDES 1 9 8 6 ) .

3.11.2.2.2. Fluid solubility and proppant transport

C o n c e r n i n g a p p l i c a t i o n b o t h as m a j o r ( f o a m ) o r m i n o r ( e n e r g i z e r ) component,
c a r b o n d i o x i d e o f f e r s s e v e r a l a d v a n t a g e s o v e r n i t r o g e n , because i t i s more so-
l u b l e i n t r e a t i n g f l u i d s and t h u s l o n g e r s h u t - i n t i m e s may be t o l e r a t e d w i t h o u t
e x c e s s i v e l o s s o f gas e n e r g y , and t h e h i g h e r d e n s i t y p r o v i d e s i n c r e a s e d h y d r o -
s t a t i c p r e s s u r e w h i c h may r e s u l t i n l o w e r s u r f a c e t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s , p r o v i d i n g
t h e a d v a n t a g e i s n o t o f f s e t b y h i c j h e r t u b u l a r f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e s (HARRIS, KLEBE-
NOW & KUNDERT 1 9 8 8 ) . The h i g h e r d e n s i t y o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e a l s o has a p o s i t i v e
i m p a c t on p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y . I n s h a l l o w l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e w e l l s , longer
s h u t - i n times ?re r e q u i r e d w i t h carbon d i o x i d e than w i t h n i t r o g e n i n o r d e r t o
a l l o w i t t o h e a t u p s u f f i c i e n t l y t o v a p o r i z e . Many deep w e l l s have been t r e a t e d
w i t h c a r b o n d i o x i d e foams s i m p l y because t h e p r e s s u r e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e t u b u -
l a r s w o u l d n o t a l l o w t o c a r r y o u t n i t r o g e n foam t r e a t m e n t s . In c o n t r a s t t o i t s
t e c h n i c a l advantages, however, an e c o n o m i c a l and l o g i s t i c a l drawback o f c a r b o n
d i o x i d e i s t h e f a c t t h a t n i t r o g e n i s u s u a l l y s u p p l i e d and pumped b y t h e s e r v i c e
companies p e r f o r m i n g t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s , whereas c a r b o n d i o x i d e i s n o r -
m a l l y d e l i v e r e d b y an o u t s i d e c o n t r a c t o r (GARBIS & TAYLOR 1 9 8 5 ) .

3.11.2.2.3, Foam density and recoverability

Foaming a d d i t i v e s g i v e b e t t e r r e c o v e r a b i l i t y w i t h c a r b o n d i o x i d e t h a n w i t h
n i t r o g e n (NIELL, DOBBS, PRUITT & CRAWFORD 1 9 6 4 ) . C o m p a r a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e
e f f e c t s o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e and n i t r o g e n as e n e r g i z i n g ( c o m m i n g l e d s y s t e m s ) and
f o a m i n g a g e n t s a r e a l s o u n d e r t a k e n b y H A R R I S (1982, 1985, 1 9 8 7 ) ; H A R R I S , REIDEN-
BACH & CHISHOLM ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; REIDENBACH, H A R R I S , LEE & LORD ( 1 9 8 6 ) and YOST, OVER-
BEY, WILKINS & LOCKE ( 1 9 8 8 ) . DOSCHER, OYEKAN & EL-ARAB1 ( 1 9 8 3 ) and WARD ( 1 9 8 4 )
compare t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f n i t r o g e n v s . c a r b o n d i o x i d e f o r o i l d i s p l a c e m e n t i n
h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d r e s e r v o i r s . A n o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n i s e n e r g i z e d f r a c t u r i n g w i t h 50
% c a r b o n d i o x i d e f o r i m p r o v e d h y d r o c a r b o n r e c o v e r y (BLACK & LANGSFORD 1 9 8 1 ) .
A l t h o u g h n i t r o g e n i s more e x p e n s i v e t h a n c a r b o n d i o x i d e , i t i s o f t e n p r e f e r r e d
as g a s i f y i n g a g e n t o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i n o r d e r t o enhance f l u i d r e t u r n d u r i n g
c l i a n u p a s a consequence o f i t s b e t t e r c o n t r o l l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e pH o f
t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d (AHMED, SCHATZ, HOLLAND, JONES & GREENFIELD 1 9 8 2 ) .

3.11.2.2.4. Rheolosical nature and

transition of foams and emulsions
Foam and e m u l s i o n f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e u s e d when i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o r e -
s t r i c t t h e volume o f e i t h e r w a t e r o r s o l i d g e l l i n g m a t e r i a l s pumped i n t o a f o r -
m a t i o n because o f t h e i r h i g h a p p a r e n t v i s c o s i t y , l o w f l u i d l o s s and good p r o p -
p a n t t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y t h a t c a n be a c h i e v e d w i t h t h e m i x t u r e o f two i m m i s c i b l e
f l u i d s arid a s i n a l l q u a n t i t y o f s u r f a c t a n t (BLAUER, PHILLIPS & C R A I G 1 9 8 8 ) . The
mechanics r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s e r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same
f o r b o t h foams and e m u l s i o n s . Foam c o n s i s t s o f d i s c o n t i n u o u s gas b u b b l e s suspen-
ded i n a l i q u i d , whereas an e m u l s i o n i s composed o f s e p a r a t e d r o p l e t s o f l i q u i d
suspended i n a second i m m i s c i b l e l i q u i d . The d e s i r e d f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s a r e a c h i e -
ved when t h e volume o f t h e d i s c o n t i n u o u s phase i s g r e a t e r t h a n a b t . 52 % when
t h e i n d i v i d u a l d r o p l e t s o r bubbles b e g i n t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h each o t h e r d u r i n g
f l o w which gives r i s e t o i n c r e a s i n g v i s c o s i t y .

D i s t i n c t i o n between foam and e m u l s i o n i s v e r y s i m p l e i f t h e a v e r a g e f l u i d

pressure i s l e s s than the c r i t i c a l pressure o f both l i q u i d s w i t h i n t h e f l u i d ,
w i t h foam o r e m u l s i o n b e i n g p r e s e n t if t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i s g r e a t e r o r l e s s t h a n
 287

t h e bubble p o i n t , r e s p e c t i v e l y . W i t h approach o f average f l u i d p r e s s u r e and tem-

p e r a t u r e t o t h e c r i t i c a l p o i n t o f t h e d i s c o n t i n u o u s phase, however, d i s t i n c t i o n
o f foam and emulsion becomes b l u r r e d , and foam can be c o n v e r t e d i n t o emulsion
o r v i c e versa w i t h o u t s u b s t a n t i a l changes i n r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . Above c r i -
t i c a l pressure, d i s c r i m i n a t i o n between foam and emulsion i s o n l y p o s s i b l e by
t h e change o f shape o f t h e d i s c o n t i n u o u s phase d r o p l e t o r b u b b l e f r o m round g l o -
b u l e s t o f a c e t t e d polyhedrons a t t h e passage f r o m emulsion t o foam. L a b o r a t o r y
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n have r e v e a l e d t h a t carbon d i o x i d e w a t e r m i x -
t u r e s w i l l t y p i c a l l y appear as emulsions d u r i n g f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s w i t h no
passage t o foam, whereas n i t r o g e n i s commonly developed as foam. B o t h mate-
r i a l s , however, behave as gases d u r i n g w e l l cleanup.

3.11.2.3. Flow behaviour and foam viscosity

D u r i n g f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s , foam e x i s t s i n an unsteady s t a t e due t o con-
s t a n t changes i n temperature, p r e s s u r e and shear r a t e s which a f f e c t f l o w beha-
v i o u r p r o p e r t i e s and may d r a s t i c a l l y a l t e r foam h y d r a u l i c b e h a v i o u r (CAWIEZEL &
NILES 1987). Foam f l o w i s dynamic because v i s c o s i t y , d e n s i t y and f l o w r a t e v a r y
c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h changing temperature, p r e s s u r e and shear r a t e . Foam as a mix-
t u r e o f gas and l i q u i d i s a v e r y complex f l u i d t h a t can d i s p l a y many c h a r a c t e -
r i s t i c s depending on how t h e foam was generated and m a i n t a i n e d p r i o r t o and du-
r i n g c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . As foam q u a l i t y r i s e s , apparent v i s c o s i t y i n c r e a s e s expo-
n e n t i a l l y and t h e foam becomes more p s e u d o p l a s t i c . Pressure r i s e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y
i n c r e a s e v i s c o s i t y o f foam f l u i d s i n t h e low-shear r a t e range, whereas t h e e f -
f e c t i s l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t i n h i g h e r - s h e a r r a t e ranges. I n c r e a s e s i n temperature
c o n s i d e r a b l y d i m i n u i s h apparent v i s c o s i t y o f t h e foam f l u i d s up t o a c r i t i c a l
temperature a f t e r w h i c h l i t t l e change o c c u r s .

DEYSARKAR, DAWSON & ACHARYA (1987) o u t l i n e t h a t h i g h e r v i s c o s i t i e s o f CO2-

l a d e n f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s can be achieved by a p p l i c a t i o n o f a l c o h o l - b a s e d c a r -
r i e r s which c o n s e q u e n t l y have b e t t e r p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The
h i g h v i s c o s i t y o f such combined and c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s ensures e f f i c i e n t p r o p -
p a n t placement i n t h e f r a c t u r e as w e l l as m i n i m i z a t i o n o f f l u i d l o s s t o t h e f o r -
m a t i o n . R h e o l o g i c a l aspects o f aqueous s t i m u l a t i o n foams a r e o u t l i n e d by HOL-
COMB, CALLAWAY & CURRY (1980 b ) .

3.11.2.4. Fluid recovery and well cleanup

I n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n s , l e a k o f f c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r some foams can be
l o w e r than those o f c r o s s l i n k e d aqueous f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s . The s e t t l i n g r a t e o f
proppants i n foamed c r o s s l i n k e d g e l i s almost two o r d e r s o f magnitude h i g h e r
than i n foamed l i n e a r ( u n c r o s s l i n k e d ) g e l (CRAIGHEAD, H O S S A I N I & FREEMAN 1985).
Foam i s p a r t i c u l a r l y advantageous i n low-pressure f o r m a t i o n s where o n l y 1 i m i t e d
r e s e r v o i r energy i s a v a i l a b l e t o c l e a n up a w e l l a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t . The disadvantage o f t h e r e s t r i c t i o n t o achieve
h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e f i n a l g a s / l i q u i d m i x t u r e has been r e c e n t l y
somewhat a l l e v i a t e d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s (VEATCH & M O S C H O V I D I S 1986;
c f . sectiori 4.3.4.1.4.). Another a l t e r n a t i v e a r e o i l foams which have v e r y low
f l u i d l e a k o f f r a t e s t h a t reduce t h e need t o use f u r t h e r f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s ex-
c e p t f o r n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s (DRISCOLL, BOWEN & ROBERTS 1980; NORTON
& HOFFMAN 1982).

Energized f l u i d s c o n t a i n i n g carbon d i o x i d e and/or n i t r o g e n and n o t r e p r e s e n -

t i n g foams, b u t c o n t a i n i n g a h i g h e r l i q u i d share, c l e a n up more r a p i d l y and
more e f f i c i e n t l y t h a n non-energized f l u i d s (NALL, CAMPBELL & BONEY 1983). U s i n g
energized f l u i d s , t h e t o t a l amount o f l o a d w a t e r t o be r e c o v e r e d i s reduced
w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g t h e i n c r e a s e d proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s which may be t r a n s p o r -
t e d by g e l l e d f l u i d s . The a d d i t i o n a l c o s t i n c u r r e d by e n e r g i z i n g f l u i d s i s a
small compensation o f t h e advantage o f i n c r e a s e d l o a d w a t e r r e c o v e r y e f f i c i e n c y
and t h e reduced amount o f l i q u i d p l a c e d i n t h e f o r m a t i o n . V a r i o u s aspects o f
 2 88
f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e t e n t i o n and w a t e r b l o c k i n g a r e o u t l i n e d a s f o l l o w s

3.11.2.4.1. F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e t e n t ion
Energized f l u i d s a r e a l s o s u i t a b l e s o l u t i o n s f o r s u c c e s s f u l s t i m u l a t i o n of
f o r m a t i o n s t h a t a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by poor load r e c o v e r y due t o high f l u i d r e t e n -
t i o n a s a consequence of abnormally high c a p i l l a r y f o r c e s , u n d e r s a t u r a t e d reser-
v o i r and p r e s e n c e of m i g r a t i n g c l a y p a r t i c l e s (PA1 & GARBIS 1 9 8 3 ) . The a d d i t i o n
of carbon d i o x i d e o r n i t r o g e n g a s p r o v i d e s energy t o enhance f l u i d r e c o v e r y and
d e c r e a s e s the volume of l i q u i d t o be r e c o v e r e d . Foam has a b u i l t - i n g a s l i f t
advantage when t h e well i s opened a f t e r f r a c t u r i n g which i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d e s i -
r a b l e i n low-pressure w e l l s (JENNINGS & DARDEN 1 9 7 9 ) . N i t h l a r g e volumes of
f l u i d used, t h e n i t r o g e n i n t h e l e a d i n g edge of the t r e a t m e n t may d i s s i p a t e
i n t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and t h e f u l l advantage of t h e gas a s s i s t may n o t be e v i -
Gent .

As t h e f u l l p o t e n t i a l of g a s w e l l s could n o t be a t t a i n e d i f t h e aqueous
t r e a t i n g f l u i d i s n o t r e c o v e r e d , e i t h e r w a t e r r e c o v e r y a i d s have t o be u t i l i z e d
o r non-aqueous media have t o be chosen f o r the s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n (McMECHAN
& CONWAY 1 9 8 3 ) . F l u i d recovery a i d a d d i t i v e s i n c r e a s e t h e c o n t a c t a n g l e which
reduces c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e and thus d i m i n i s h e s t h e amount of aqueous f l u i d
which imbibes i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k . F r a c t u r e flow c a p a c i t y i n low-permeabili-
t y r e s e r v o i r s a l s o needs t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r f o r p r o p e r r e t u r n of stimu-
l a t i o n f l u i d than r e q u i r e d f o r optimum gas p r o d u c t i o n . Apparent high f l u i d l o s s
and f l u i d r e t e n t i o n a r e s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t o r s t o s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e r i s k and
t o poor p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n .

3.11.2.4.2. Water b l o c k i n g
Poor gas p r o d u c t i o n from t i g h t r e s e r v o i r r o c k s f o l l o w i n g a w a t e r - b a s e d f r a c -
t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t i s o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d t o w a t e r b l o c k i n g of f r a c t u r e a n d / o r forma-
t i o n ( H O L D I T C H 1979, ABRAMS & VINEGAR 1985; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 5 . ) . \.la-
t e r b l o c k i n g o c c u r s i f the drawdown p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t i n the f o r m a t i o n n e a r the
f r a c t u r e f a c e does n o t exceed the rock c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e s u f f i c i e n t l y f o r g a s
f l o w . blater b l o c k i n g i s g e n e r a l l y n o t a s e r i o u s problem i n most t i g h t pay zones
because drawdown p r e s s u r e and w a t e r n o b i l i t y a r e u s u a l l y high enough f o r e f f i -
c i e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t o f f r a c t u r e f l u i d from the f o r m a t i o n , b u t may develop i f re-
s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s in t h e n e a r f r a c t u r e f a c e r e g i o n a r e low o r i f f l u i d
m o b i l i t i e s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced by f o r m a t i o n damage. T h e b e s t s o l u t i o n f o r
minimizing o r even a v o i d i n g of w a t e r b l o c k i n g i s u t i l i z a t i o n of o n l y p a r t i a l l y
aqueous o r even rion-aqueous s t i m u l a t i o n media such a s foam, e n e r g i z e d f l u i d s ,
n i t r o g e n o r carbon d i o x i d e . Other p o s s i b i l i t i e s of reducing w a t e r b l o c k i n g and
b r i n e i m b i b i t i o n i s d i m i n i s h i n g w a t e r - w e t t i n g of t h e rock s u r f a c e by an a l c o -
h o l / s u r f a c t a n t package which l e a d s t o s u f f i c i e n t lowering of the c a p i l l a r y pres-
sure and i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r m o b i l i t y d u r i n g g a s d i s p l a c e m e n t due to s u r f a c e ten-
sion reduction.

F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e t e n t i o n i s o f t e n caused by d e t r i t a l o r a u t h i g e n i c c l a y
m i n e r a l s . b u t can a l s o be the r e s u l t of abnormally high c a p i l l a r y f o r c e s , under-
s a t u r a t e d c o n d i t i o n of the f o r m a t i o n , and p r e s e n c e of m i g r a t i n g c l a y p a r t i c l e s
(PA1 & GARBIS 1983 b ) . F l u i d r e t e n t i o n problems can be s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced by
employing s a n d s t o n e w a t e r - w e t t i n g s u r f a c t a n t s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h l a r g e volumes
of n i t r o g e n o r carbon d i o x i d e g a s . The a p p l i c a t i o n of u l t r a low s u r f a c e t e n s i o n
f l u o r o s u r f a c t a n t s improves l o a d recovery f i g u r e s , and the a d d i t i o n of g a s p r o -
v i d e s energy t o enhance f l u i d r e c o v e r y and d e c r e a s e s t h e volume of l i q u i d re-
q u i r e d t o s t i m u l a t e , thus r e d u c i n g t h e amount of l i q u i d t o be r e c o v e r e d .
 289

3.11.2.5. Other aspects

V a r i o u s aspects o f foam f r a c t u r i n g w i t h carbon d i o x i d e , n i t r o g e n and o t h e r
media a r e d i s c u s s e d by NEILL, DOBBS, PRUITT & CRAWFORD (1964); BALLARD (1977),
K I N G (1977, 1983, 1985); HOLCDMB, CALLAWAY & CURRY (1980); BLACK & LANGSFORD
(1981), WENDORFF & AINLEY (1981), AINLEY & CHARLES (1982), LILLIES (1982), NOR-
TON & HOFFMAN (1982), SHEA & BUCHER (1982), BULLEN & LILLIES (1983); CRAIGHEAD,
H O S S A I N I & WATKINS (1983); GRUNDMANN 8 LORD (1983); HARRIS, BAILEY & EVERTZ
(1983); H A R R I S , WARNOCK & K I N G (1983); WATKINS, WENDORFF & AINLEY (1983); WEN-
DORFF & EARL (1983); HARRIS, HAYNES & EGGER (1984); HARRIS, BAILEY, EVERTZ &
REEVES (1984); HARRIS & REIDENBACH (1984), ORTIZ & McLANE (1984), WARD (1984),
BARBER & THEMIG (1985); CRAIGHEAO, HOSSAINI & FREEMAN (1985); GARBIS & TAYLOR
(1985), MCLANE & EDGINGTON (1985); WARNOCK, HARRIS & K I N G (1985); FREEMAN, B I L -
DEN & H O S S A I N I (1986); MACK & BAUMGARTNER (1986); REIDENBACH, H A R R I S , LEE &
LORD (1986); CAWIEZEL & NILES (1987); DEYSARKAR, DAWSON & ACHARYA (1987) and
PHILLIPS, COUCHMAN & WILKE ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

Aspects o f w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e hydrophobic o i l - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d
by KOHLHAAS (1982), and w a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y o f sandstones i s e v a l u a t e d by WALDORF
(1965), VELEY (1979), KHILAR & FOGLER (1983), O R T I Z & McLANE (1984) and KHILAR,
FOGLER & AHLUWALIA ( 1 9 8 3 ) . Another method i s c o m b i n a t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i n -
s e r t i o n w i t h HC1 pumping i n w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s (GWINN & McMANUS 1977).

3.11.3. Crosslinked acid systems

Another p o s s i b i l i t y o f t r e a t i n g w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s a r e h i g h - s t r e n g t h
c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d systems w i t h e l e v a t e d temperature s t a b i l i t y (COULTER, H A R R I S &
KLEBENOW 1980; PABLEY & HOLCOMB 1980, 1981, 1982; NORMAN, CONWAY & WILSON 1981;
PABLEY, EWING & CALLAWAY 1982; SMITH, DAWSON & SCOGGINS 1 9 8 3 ) . The low pH o f
t h e a c i d g e l systems m i n i m i z e s c l a y damage by i n h i b i t i o n o f s w e l l i n g , w i t h
c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d systems t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t i n g a reasonable c o m p e t i t i o n t o
foam and e n e r g i z e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s e s p e c i a l l y i n l i g h t o f t h e good p r o p p a n t
t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y . C r o s s l i n k e d a c i d f l u i d s a r e a l s o t h e optimum means f o r com-
b i n e d a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 9 . ) . Both c o n v e n t i o n a l and
delayed c r o s s l i n k i n g o f t h e a c i d a l l o w s c o n s i d e r a b l e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r e d u c i n g
t u b u l a r f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e . F l u i d l o s s c o n t r o l matching o r s u r p a s s i n g t h a t a c h i e -
ved by water-based c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s i n s u r e s deep p e n e t r a t i o n o f l i v e a c i d ,
and an e x t r e m e l y r e t a r d e d r e a c t i o n r a t e p e r m i t s i n many cases t h e c r o s s l i n k e d
a c i d t o be p l a c e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n w i t h l i t t l e o r no decrease i n a c i d
s t r e n g t h ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4.3.4.3. and 4 . 5 . 1 . 2 . ) .

3.11.4. Methanol systems

I n a d d i t i o n t o foam and e n e r g i z e d f l u i d f r a c t u r i n g and c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d sys-
tems, w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s can be s u c c e s s f u l l y approached w i t h low-pH
methanol f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s (CALLAWAY, ORTIZ & HOLCOMB 1982; O R T I Z & McLANE
1984, CREMA & ALM 1985, PICLANE & EDGINGTON 1985). The low-pH methanol systems
t e n d t o dissolve and t o remove a u t h i g e n i c c l a y s i n p w e spaces w i t h o u t a f f e c t -
i n g t h e d e t r i t a l c l a y s w h i c h a r e g e n e r a l l y t h e cementing m a t e r i a l s , t h e r e b y
g r e a t l y i m p r o v i n g communication between f o r m a t i o n and propped f r a c t u r e . High-pH
water-based f l u i d s , a l t h o u g h t h e y can be a d j u s t e d w i t h a d d i t i v e s t o c o n t r o l
c l a y s w e l l i n g and m i g r a t i o n , do n o t have t h e a b i l i t y t o remove t h e a u t h i g e n i c
c l a y s c l u t t e r i n g t h e p o r e t h r o a t s , and a r e a l s o c a u s i n g severe w a t e r b l o c k i n g
as evidenced by r a p i d l y d e c l i n i n g p r o d u c t i o n curves, w h i l e low-pH methanol i s
a l s o b e n e f i c i a l i n removing suspected w a t e r b l o c k s i n t h e immediate w e l l b o r e v i -
c i n i t y by l o w e r i n g s u r f a c e t e n s i o n o f t h e connate water, and can even be used
as p e r f o r a t i n g and breakdown f l u i d .

Methanol i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h foam p r o v i d e s t h e most d i v e r s i f i e d s u i t e o f ad-

vantages c o m p r i s i n g improvement o f f r a c t u r e f a c e p e r m e a b i l i t y , c o n t r o l o f v e r t i -
 290

c a l f r a c t u r e growth, removal o f n a t u r a l w a t e r b l o c k s and more e f f i c i e n t l o a d r e -

c o v e r y . Low-pH methanol can a l s o be an e f f e c t i v e enhancement o f c o n v e n t i o n a l wa-
t e r - b a s e d systems used f o r s t i m u l a t i o n o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s by a p p l i -
c a t i o n as a prepad ahead o f s t a n d a r d high-pH water-based t r e a t m e n t s . Methanol
tends t o s t a b i l i z e t h e f r a c t u r i n g g e l by r e t a r d i n g v i s c o s i t y d e g r a d a t i o n o f g e l
s o l u t i o n s and i s used i n s t i m u l a t i o n s t o b o t h a c c e l e r a t e and i n c r e a s e t r e a t m e n t
f l u i d r e c o v e r y (SATTLER, RAIBLE, GALL & GILL 1988). F i e l d examples o f h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g w i t h methanol systems i n w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e and/or n a t u r a l l y
f r a c t u r e d t i g h t gas sandstones a r e r e p o r t e d by CRAIGHEAD, H O S S A I N I & WATSON
(1983) and BLASIO, BAILEY & BERGTHOLD ( 1 9 8 5 ) . A l c o h o l a d d i t i v e s a r e a l s o a b l e
t o speed up a c i d r e c o v e r y and cleanup i n sandstone m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g (McLEOD &
CDULTER 1966; McLEOD, McGINTY & SMITH 1966).

3.11.5. Liquid carbon dioxide proppant fracturing

Carbon d i o x i d e has been used as an a d d i t i v e i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s
t o a i d t h e r e c o v e r y o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1960's (BLACK & LANGS-
FORD 1982; HARRIS, HAYNES & EGGER 1984). The p r i m a r y chemical advantage o f ad-
d i n g carbon d i o x i d e t o a t r e a t i n g f l u i d comes from i t s s o l u b i l i t y i n b o t h aque-
ous f l u i d s and o i l . D u r i n g i n j e c t i o n , l i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e i s mixed w i t h an
aqueous t r e a t i n g f l u i d and pumped i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e under h i g h p r e s s u r e when
carbon d i o x i d e i s p a r t i a l l y s o l u b l e i n t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d as w e l l as i n f o r -
m a t i o n f l u i d s . F o l l o w i n g i n j e c t i o n , w e l l h e a d p r e s s u r e i s lowered, and carbon
d i o x i d e begins t o come o u t o f s o l u t i o n , f o r m i n g a s o l u t i o n - g a s d r i v e f o r r e c o -
v e r y o f t r e a t i n g and f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s .

Secondary b e n e f i t s o f carbon d i o x i d e d e r i v i n g f r o m i t s s o l u b i l i t y comprise

l o w e r i n g o f i n t e r f a c i a l t e n s i o n o f c a r b o n - d i o x i d e - s a t u r a t e d aqueous f l u i d s t o a
l e v e l s i m i l a r t o t h a t achieved w i t h many s u r f a c t a n t s which i s i m p o r t a n t i n r e d u -
c i n g c a p i l l a r y f o r c e s t h a t can impede p r o d u c t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t f l u i d s imbibed by
t h e pores i n t h e f o r m a t i o n . L i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g was i n t r o -
duced t o t h e i n d u s t r y i n 1981 (LANCASTER 1 9 8 6 ) . A f t e r some g e n e r a l comments on
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , foam d e n s i t y and s o l u t i o n p H - l e v e l , aspects o f p r o p p a n t concen-
t r a t i o n s , staged f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s , f o r m a t i o n damage e l i m i n a t i o n , and pump-
i n g r a t e and b o t t o m h o l e temperature a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

3.11.5.1. Fluid viscosity, foam density and solution pH-level

Water which i s s a t u r a t e d w i t h carbon d i o x i d e forms c a r b o n i c a c i d t h a t accord-
i n g t o t h e low pH i s most s u i t a b l e f o r p r o t e c t i o n o f c l a y - r i c h f o r m a t i o n s , w i t h
a pH o f a b t . 3 . 5 s t i l l n o t b e i n g s o low t h a t d i s s o l u t i o n o f i r o n f r o m i r o n - b e a -
r i n g m i n e r a l s and subsequent p r e c i p i t a t i o n becomes a problem. Concerning i n c r e a -
s i n g o f t h e percentage o f carbon d i o x i d e i n t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d , l i q u i d c a r -
bon d i o x i d e has a l o w e r v i s c o s i t y than water, whereas a f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d must
have enough v i s c o s i t y t o t r a n s p o r t and p l a c e proppants. The use o f a two-phase
s t r u c t u r e d f l u i d w i t h a h i g h i n t e r n a l phase r a t i o such as 70 % q u a l i t y foam p r o -
v i d e s an e x c e l l e n t way o f u s i n g h i g h carbon d i o x i d e percentages. Another impor-
t a n t p r o p e r t y o f f l u i d s e n e r g i z e d w i t h carbon d i o x i d e i s t h e h i g h d e n s i t y o f
t h e foam i n t h e range o f 7 - 8 lbm/gal (840 - 1,080 kg/m3) which g i v e s a hydro-
s t a t i c head a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same as w a t e r i t s e l f and a l l o w s carbon d i o x i d e
foam f l u i d s t o be pumped i n t o deep b o r e h o l e s w i t h o u t e x c e s s i v e w e l l h e a d p r e s -
s u r e s . Carbon d i o x i d e i s i n j e c t e d as a l i q u i d a t t h e s u r f a c e , b u t c o n v e r t s t o a
h i g h - d e n s i t y gas when heated b y t h e f o r m a t i o n downhole. Proppant i s added t o
t h e aqueous phase o f t h e f l u i d p r i o r t o commingling w i t h t h e l i q u i d carbon d i -
oxide.
 291

3.11.5.2. Proppant concentrations

Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e aqueous p o r t i o n o f t h e foam system have t o be
q u i t e high, w i t h f o r example pumping o f a 70 % q u a l i t y carbon d i o x i d e t r e a t i n g
f l u i d c o n t a i n i n g 3 lbm/gal (360 kg/m3) proppants downhole a t 10 b b l / m i n ( 1 . 6
m3/min) r e q u i r i n g t h a t t h e aqueous p o r t i o n c a r r i e s 10 lbm/gal (1,200 kg/m3)
p r o p p a n t s a t 3 b b l / m i n ( 0 . 5 m3/min) p r i o r t o commingling w i t h t h e carbon d i -
o x i d e . V i s c o s i f y i n g agents a r e o f t e n added t o a i d p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t through
b l e n d i n g and pumping equipment a t t h e s u r f a c e as w e l l as t o s t a b i l i z e f l u i d
s t r u c t u r e and c o n t r o l f l u i d l e a k o f f downhole.

A p o s s i b l e disadvantage o f carbon d i o x i d e foam f r a c t u r i n g i s t h e t i m e r e q u i -

r e d t o remove a l l t h e i n j e c t e d carbon d i o x i d e (HARRIS, HAYNES & EGGER 1984).
Small amounts o f carbon d i o x i d e (such as 5 m o l % ) i n t h e produced n a t u r a l gas
may cause c o r r o s i o n problems o r gas purchase o r s e l l i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s i f t h e
c o n t r a c t s e t s a c e i l i n g on t h e carbon d i o x i d e c o n t e n t o f t h e c o m b u s t i b l e gas
( t h e r e i s , however, gas-permeation membrane technology a v a i l a b l e f o r r e d u c i n g
t h e carbon d i o x i d e c o n t e n t o f t h e n a t u r a l gas recovered; RUSSELL & COADY 1982).

3.11.5.3. Staged f r a c t u r i n g treatments

Comparative e v a l u a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t t e c h n i q u e s c o m p r i s i n g staged
f r a c t u r i n g w i t h c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s and p e r f o r a t i o n b a l l s e a l e r s , s e p a r a t e c r o s s -
l i n k e d - g e l s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h sand p l u g s t o achieve zone i s o l a t i o n , and 70 % qua-
l i t y carbon d i o x i d e foam f r a c t u r i n g r e v e a l s t h a t each t e c h n i q u e has advantages
and drawbacks (HARRIS, HAYNES & EGGER 1984). Staged f r a c t u r i n g j o b s a r e t h e
l e a s t expensive ones s i n c e m u l t i p l e i n t e r v a l s can be t r e a t e d w i t h a s i n g l e
horsepower charge, b u t p o s t - f r a c t u r e p r o d u c t i o n l o g s o f t e n i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e
s t i m u l a t i o n l i q u i d was n o t d i v e r t e d t o a l l t h e i n t e n d e d zones. Gel f r a c t u r i n g
j o b s u s i n g sand p l u g s g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t i n t h e c r a c k r e a c h i n g t h e d e s i r e d zone
by r a r e f a i l u r e o f t h e sand blockages, w i t h these o p e r a t i o n s u s u a l l y g i v i n g
r i s e t o h i g h e r - r a t e \4ellS s i n c e a l l t h e zones a r e s t i m u l a t e d .

On t h e o t h e r hand, g e l f r a c t u r i n g j o b s a r e a l s o t h e most expensive comple-

t i o n s s i n c e s e t t i n g and t e s t i n g o f t h e sand p l u g a l o n g w i t h s e p a r a t e s t i m u l a -
t i o n o p e r a t i o n horsepower charges a r e added t o t h e t o t a l c o s t . Carbon d i o x i d e
foam f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s reduce t h e amount of i n j e c t e d w a t e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y ,
s i n c e 70 % o f t h e f l u i d i s carbon d i o x i d e and o n l y 30 % i s w a t e r . Carbon d i -
o x i d e foam f r a c t u r i n g i s most s u i t a b l e f o r s i n g l e - z o n e t r e a t m e n t , because a mul-
t i p l e - i n t e r v a l c o m p l e t i o n w i t h carbon d i o x i d e foam r e q u i r e s pumping o f a sand
p l u g w h i c h would a l l o w a d d i t i o n a l w a t e r e n t r y i n t o t h e zone and d e f e a t t h e main
purpose f o r d o i n g a carbon d i o x i d e foam s t i m u l a t i o n j o b . Staged f r a c t u r i n g w i t h
carbon d i o x i d e foam and b a l l s e a l e r s may s u f f e r f r o m l a c k o f zone coverage.

3.11.5.4. Format i o n damage el iminat i o n

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g w i t h l i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e as t r a n s p o r t i n g
agent e l i m i n a t e s most o f t h e f o r m a t i o n damage n o r m a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s t i m u l a -
t i o n f l u i d s and enables v e r y r a p i d cleanup (LILLIES & K I N G 1982), because a t
s t a b i l i z e d r e s e r v o i r temperature and pressure, t h e l i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e v a p o r i -
zes i n a gas w e l l o r v a p o r i z e s and i s p a r t i a l l y d i s s o l v e d i n t h e r e s e r v o i r
f l u i d s i n an o i l w e l l . L i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e can be t r a n s p o r t e d a t t h e s u r f a c e
a t temperatures between -20 and -40 OF which a r e non-cryogenic, and t h u s i t can
be pumped w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l equipment and i n j e c t e d d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e w e l l as a
l i q u i d . Carbon d i o x i d e i s v e r y s o l u b l e i n crude o i l and g r e a t l y reduces o i l v i s -
c o s i t y , t h e r e b y a i d i n g i n o i l r e c o v e r y (~.lcMECtIAN& CONWAY 1983, however, r e p o r t
an unusual example where l i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e d i d n o t t h i n t h e o i l - b a s e d d r i l -
l i n g mud, b u t i n f a c t i n c r e a s e d i t s v i s c o s i t y t o t h e p o i n t t h a t i t would no l o n -
g e r f l o w ) . L i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e can a l s o be g e l l e d i n o r d e r t o improve i t s v i s -
c o s i t y . The carbon d i o x i d e b o t t o m h o l e temperature i s o f p r i m e importance, be-
 292

cause t h e f r a c t u r e must be c o o l e d below t h e c r i t i c a l temperature o f 88 OF f o r

t h e carbon d i o x i d e t o e x i s t as a l i q u i d and t o generate s u f f i c i e n t c r a c k w i d t h
t o a l l o w p r o p p a n t s t o be i n j e c t e d .

3.11.5.5. Pumping r a t e and bottom-hole temperature

A h i g h pump r a t e i s t h e most e f f e c t i v e parameter i n G e n e r a t i n g low bottom-
h o l e temperatures and e x t e n d i n g e f f e c t i v e l i q u i d p e n e t r a t i o n i n t h e f r a c t u r e .
F r a c t u r i n g down t u b i n g r a t h e r t h a n c a s i n g and i n s u l a t i n g t h e annulus w i t h o i l
r a t h e r t h a n w a t e r a r e a l s o v e r y e f f e c t i v e i n l o w e r i n g b o t t o m - h o l e temperature,
whereas w e l l depth, b o t t o m - h o l e s t a t i c temperature and c a r b o n - d i o x i d e - p a d vo-
lume have a l e s s e r e f f e c t on b o t t o m - h o l e t r e a t i n g temperature. F r a c t u r e l e a k o f f
w i t h carbon d i o x i d e i s p r i m a r i l y c o n t r o l l e d by v i s c o s i t y and expansion when c a r -
bon d i o x i d e e x i s t s i n i t s l i q u i d phase and by v a p o r i z a t i o n expansion when c a r -
bon d i o x i d e i s p r e s e n t i n i t s gaseous phase.

Carbon d i o x i d e has been used s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1960's i n f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n

o f o i l and gas w e l l s . F i r s t carbon d i o x i d e was pumped w i t h o i l - o r water-based
t r e a t i n g f l u i d s i n r a t i o s s u f f i c i e n t t o gas l i f t t h e l i q u i d back t o t h e s u r f a c e
a f t e r t h e j o b . F u r t h e r development l e d t o h i g h e r ' carbon d i o x i d e r a t i o s where
l i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e i s e f f e c t i v e l y p a r t o f t h e f r a c t u r e - g e n e r a t i n g l i q u i d
( c o m p r i s i n g up t o 50 % ) , w i t h t h e p r o p p a n t pumped i n o i l , w a t e r o r methanol. I m -
p o r t a n t improvements were l i q u i d volume r e d u c t i o n and ample gas energy s u p p l i e d
t o recover the l i q u i d from the formation. I n j e c t i n g proppant d i r e c t l y i n t o the
l i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e and u s i n g t h e l a t t e r as t h e s o l e c a r r i e r f l u i d e l i m i n a t e s
t h e r e s i d u a l l i q u i d l e f t i n t h e pay and p r o v i d e s a f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e c o v e r y nie-
chanisro t h a t i s n o t dependent upon r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e . Aspects o f l i q u i d carbon
d i o x i d e f r a c t u r i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by GREENHORN & L I ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

3.12. Other aspects

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p o i n t s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e above s e c t i o n s , o t h e r aspects
such as w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n , gas demand and r e s e r v o i r performance a r e i n f l u e n c i n g
t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l o f R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s gas
r e s e r v o i r s which a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

3.12.1. Water s a t u r a t i o n
F u r t h e r problems o f c o m p l e t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n i n o f f s h o r e and onshore R o t l i e -
gend (and p a r t i a l l y a l s o C a r b o n i f e r o u s ) gas f i e l d s which a f f e c t t h e h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l a r e i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n w i t h d e c l i r i i n g ma-
c r o - o r m i c r o - p o r o s i t i e s between sand g r a i n s o r c l a y m i n e r a l p a r t i c l e s , respec-
tively, t h a t may c r e a t e a b e t t e r r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r w a t e r than f o r gas.
Another drawback i s a h i g h g a s - w a t e r - c o n t a c t which bears t h e danger o f f r a c t u -
r i n g i n t o t h e w a t e r - b e a r i n g s e c t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r column u n l e s s t h e c r a c k
p r o p a g a t i o n can be s u c c e s s f u l l y c o n t a i n e d i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
s h a l l o w s t r u c t u r e s w i t h low c l o s u r e h e i g h t (SIMONSON, ABOU-SAYED & CLIFTON
1978; MARPINSKI, SCHMIDT & NORTHROP 1980; TEUFEL & CLARK 1981, EEKELEN 1982;
W A R P I N S K I , CLARK, SCHMIDT & HUDDLE 1982). C o m p l i c a t i o n s a r e a l s o imposed by t h e
n e c e s s i t y o f f r a c t u r i n 9 o n l y i n some t h i n n e r sands h i g h e r up i n t h e g r o s s pay
i n t e r v a l where s t i m u l a t i o n has t o be postponed u n t i l d e p l e t i o n o f t h i c k e r sands
i n t h e l o w e r p a r t s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r column t h a t can be produced w i t h o u t t r e a t -
ment i s reached ( w i t h these t h i n sandstones i n most cases n o t j u s t i f y i n g t h e
d r i l l i n g o f s e p a r a t e w e l l s , b u t o n l y a l l o w i n g t o w a i t u n t i l successive r e t r e a t
towards t h e t o p o f t h e g a s - b e a r i n g s e c t i o n a r r i v e s a t t h e upper s t o r e y s f o l l o w -
i n g d e p l e t i o n , p l u g g i n g and abandonment o f t h e l o w e r l a y e r s ) .
 293

3.12.2. Gas demand

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e B r i t i s h Southern N o r t h Sea where t h e huge R o t l i e g e n d f r a c -
t u r i n g campaigns i n 1987 - 1990 a r e t h e consequence o f c o n c l u s i o n o f numerous
gas d e l i v e r y c o n t r a c t s i n t h e l a s t y e a r s (and p a r t i a l l y s t i l l i n t h e v e r y near
f u t u r e ) which now have t o be f u l f i l l e d even r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e p r e s e n t l y n o t
v e r y f a v o u r a b l e g e n e r a l economical s i t u a t i o n and even more gas i s needed i n t h e
near f u t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.6.2.), onshore i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s and i n Germany
FRG, h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f R o t l i e g e n d gas w e l l s i s f o r some compa-
n i e s a t t h e moment i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d e t e r i o r a t e d economical f e a s i b i l i t y s i t u a -
t i o n a l s o n o t a t t r a c t i v e due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f p u r i f y i n g , c o n d i -
t i o n i n g and m a r k e t i n g o f a l l t h e gas, a l r e a d y enough e x i s t i n g c a p a c i t i e s t o
meet t h e p r e s e n t l y agreed gas s u p p l y commitments, and some s t a g n a t i o n t o even
s a t u r a t i o n o f t h e gas market where i n c o n t r a s t t o e a r l i e r e x p e c t a t i o n s and f o r e -
c a s t s , t h e growth t a k e s p l a c e l e s s q u i c k l y o r has even a l r e a d y a t l e a s t tempora-
r i l y declined.

The p r e s e n t l y r e t a r d e d demand p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Germany FRG i s t h e r e s u l t o f

t h e gas p r o d u c t i o n , m a r k e t i n g and p u r c h a s i n g p o l i c y o f t h e l a s t y e a r s . W i t h a
domestic s u p p l y o f a b t . 30 - 50 % o f t h e t o t a l demand, Germany FRG has been f o r -
ced s i n c e many y e a r s t o c o n t r a c t c o n s i d e r a b l e gas volumes f r o m f o r e i g n coun-
t r i e s ( t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e gas market i s much b e t t e r t h a n i n t h e o i l m a r k e t
where o n l y a b t . 5 % d e r i v e s f r o m i n l a n d p r o d u c t i o n and t h e r e s t has t o be
bought and i m p o r t e d ) . W i t h r e g a r d t o c o n s i d e r a b l e domestic gas r e s e r v e s , t h e po-
l i c y d u r i n g t h e l a s t y e a r s was n o t t o e x c e s s i v e l y e x p l o i t t h e own resources,
b u t produce o n l y a reasonable amount and l e a v e t h e r e s t o f t h e gas i n t h e
ground as a bank f o r t h e near f u t u r e . T h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s o f gas
have been c o n t r a c t e d f r o m abroad, w i t h t h e spectrum o f d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n a i m i n g
on p o l i t i c a l independence and s u p p l y s a f e t y i n c l u d i n g Netherlands, Norway, Den-
mark, S o v i e t Union and N o r t h A f r i c a ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.6.3.1.). E x p l o r a t i o n and
a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g as w e l l as h y d r a u r i c f r a c t u r i n g , however, i s c o n t i n u i n g t o
be v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r p r o p e r assessment o f t h e p o t e n t i a l r e s e r v e s and succes-
s i v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f more and more p r o b a b l e r e s e r v e s i n t o proven ones, i n o r -
d e r t o a l l o w f o r b e t t e r e v a l u a t i o n o f domestic gas a v a i l a b i l i t y and t h u s more
r e l i a b l e planning o f f u t u r e supply s e c u r i t y .

3.12.3. Reservoir performance

Concerning r e s e r v o i r performance, gas o f f t a k e f r o m R o t l i e g e n d sandstones i s
f r e q u e n t l y a f f e c t e d by sudden w a t e r breakthrough on h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y s t r e a k s ,
p a r t i a l l y a l s o sand c o n t r o l problems, and superimposed e f f e c t s o f simultaneous
gas w i t h d r a w a l f r o m s e v e r a l sandstones w i t h d i f f e r e n t p e r m e a b i l i t y c a p a c i t i e s ,
r e s u l t i n g i n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p r o d u c t i o n p r e s s u r e and w a t e r h i s t o r y (JOHN 1983).
E x p l o i t a t i o n - d e p e n d e n t changes o f thermal s t r e s s , a g g r e s s i v e b r i n e s , cement
c h a n n e l l i n g b e h i n d p i p e s i n d e v i a t e d w e l l s and reasonable p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s
between d e p l e t e d gas-bearing and a d j o i n i n g w a t e r - c o n t a i n i n g s e c t i o n s cause p r o -
blems t o i d e n t i f y w a t e r f l o w b e h i n d t h e c a s i n g . Non-producing t i g h t sandstones
a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by sudden p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e , d i m i n i s h i n g r a t e s , and e x t r e m e l y
long pressure build-up periods w i t h o u t regaining i n i t i a l r e s e r v o i r pressure
a f t e r w i t h d r a w a l o f o n l y small amounts o f gas. Maximum drawdown has t o be a v o i -
ded r e g a r d i n g confinement p r e s s u r e and p o r e - c o l l a p s e c o n d i t i o n s . I n such c o m p l i -
c a t e d patches o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r complex, h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g has t o be v e r y c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d f o r n o t k i l l i n g a r e a s o n a b l y gas-produ-
c i n g w e l l by s u p p o r t i n g w a t e r breakthroughs.
 294

3.13. Sedimentary structures of fluvial, aeolian and lacustrine

deposits in Rotliegend and Buntsandstein illustrating distribu-
tion o f reservoir heterogeneities and natural fractures
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s in o i l - and
g a s - b e a r i n g p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l s i n v a r i o u s g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s have c o n s i d e -
r a b l e i m p a c t o n n e c e s s i t y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h e p a y zones,
p r o p a g a t i o n modes o f t h e i n d u c e d c r a c k s , and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o r o s i t y and p e r -
m e a b i l i t y c o n t r o l l i n g p r i m a r y a c c u m u l a t i o n and s e c o n d a r y l i b e r a t i o n o f h y d r o c a r -
bons. V a r i o u s s e d i m e n t a r y s t r u c t u r e s o f f l u v i a l , a e o l i a n and l a c u s t r i n e depo-
s i t s i n R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n a r e c o m p i l e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n o n 11 p h o t o -
g r a p h i c p l a t e s f o r t h e purpose o f i l l u s t r a t i o n o f d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n s o f
r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s . The numerous f i g u r e s on t h e
p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s t o g e t h e r w i t h d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n s t h a t c a n be e v a l u a t e d
a l s o i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h e m a i n t e x t a r e assembled a t t h e e n d o f t h e t o p i c a l
c h a p t e r o n R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g a s p e c t s in o r d e r t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e c a s e s t u d y o f t e r r e s t r i a l r e d b e d s t i m u -
l a t i o n , t o p r o v i d e t r a n s p a r e n c y o f t h e s e d i m e n t a r y and t e c t o n i c a l f e a t u r e s c o n -
t r o l l i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l and n e c e s s i t y d i s c u s s e d i n t h e m a i n
t e x t , and t o f o r m a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e c a s e s t u d y i n c l u d i n g e c o n o m i c a l and mar-
k e t i n g a s p e c t s t o t h e g e n e r a l t e c h n i c a l o v e r v i e w s and summaries o f h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s .

The sequence o f 11 p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s w i t h i n t o t a l 88 f i g u r e s a l s o r e p r e -
s e n t s an a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e o f f i g u r e d and w r i t t e n i n f o r m a t i o n o n d e p o s i t i o n a l
e n v i r o n m e n t a l e v o l u t i o n o f f l u v i a l , a e o l i a n and l a c u s t r i n e s e d i m e n t s as w e l l as
c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l s i n R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e il-
l u s t r a t i o n base o f 204 and 117 f i g u r e s o n 20 c o l o u r and 16 b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e pho-
t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n MADER (1985 a ) , and 262 f i g u r e s on 32 b l a c k -
a n d - w h i t e p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s i n MADER (1985 b ) . F o l l o w i n g a s h o r t g e n e r a l i n -
t r o d u c t i o n o f the s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e i l l u s t r a t e d f e a t u r e s f o r r e s e r v o i r evalua-
t i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g as w e l l as assessment o f f r a c t u r i n g r e q u i r e m e n t and p r e -
d i c t i o n o f e v o l u t i o n o f c r a c k m o r p h o l o g y and g e o m e t r y , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s t o t h e
p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s f o c u s on a n g u l a r u n c o n f o r m i t i e s and basement f o l d i n g ,
cross-stratification in a e o l i a n dune sands and f l u v i a l c h a n n e l b a r d e p o s i t s ,
g r a v e l a g g l o m e r a t i o n s and mud d r a p e s i n a l l u v i a l - f a n b r e c c i a s and f l u v i a l chan-
n e l s a n d s t o n e s , n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and s e d i m e n t a r y h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s i n f l u v i a l
c h a n n e l and f l o o d p l a i n s a n d s t o n e s and mudstones, g r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n chan-
ges and e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e s i n b r a i d e d - r i v e r c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e s and c o n g l o m e r a -
t e s , s y n s e d i m e n t a r y d e s i c c a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g i n l a c u s t r i n e and f l u v i a l f l o o d p l a i n
mudstones and n a t u r a l p r o p p i n g o f c r a c k s , l a c u s t r i n e and f l o o d p l a i n mud d r a p e s
i n f l u v i a l c h a n n e l and a l l u v i a l p l a y a s a n d s t o n e s , n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and sedimen-
t a r y h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s i n c r o s s - s t r a t i f i e d a e o l i a n dune and s h e e t sands as w e l l
as f l u v i a l c h a n n e l sands, s e d i m e n t a r y and d e f o r m a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of l a c u s t r i n e
mud d r a p e s i n f l u v i a l c h a n n e l , o v e r b a n k and a l l u v i a l p l a y a s a n d s t o n e s , r o o t t u -
b e s and c a r b o n a t e c o n c r e t i o n s i n c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l s , and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e o r i -
g i n and d i s t r i b u t i o n in v a r i o u s r e s e r v o i r r o c k s .

3.13.0. Introduction
The e l e v e n p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s assembled t o g e t h e r w i t h d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n s
i n t h i s s e c t i o n i l l u s t r a t e v a r i o u s aspects o f o r i g i n , d i s t r i b u t i o n , propaga-
t i o n , and p l u g g i n g o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s as w e l l as f o r m a t i o n , m o r p h o l o g i c a l f e a -
t u r e s and f u n c t i o n o f f l o w b a r r i e r s and f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n o b s t a c l e s o f r e s e r -
v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n in s e v e r a l
a r e a s o f c o n t i n e n t a l r e d bed b a s i n s i n E u r o p e .

P l a t e I i n s e c t i o n 3.13.1. f o c u s s e s on t h e i m p a c t o f angular unconformities

 295

and basement f o l d i n g i n c l u d i n g subsequent e r o s i o n a l d e g r a d a t i o n on d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r complex. P l a t e I 1 i n
s e c t i o n 3.13.2. c h a r a c t e r i z e s c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s i n a e o l i a n dune
sands and f l u v i a l channel b a r d e p o s i t s as i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r
r o c k types w i t h t h e b e s t p e t r o p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s i n R o t l i e g e n d and Buntsand-
s t e i n , and sketches a l s o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s p a r a l l e l t o bed-
d i n g p l a n e s . P l a t e 111 i n s e c t i o n 3.13.3. examines d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g r a v e l agglo-
m e r a t i o n s and mud drapes i n a l l u v i a l - f a n b r e c c i a s and f l u v i a l channel sandsto-
nes and t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e g r a i n - s i z e a n i s o t r o p i e s f o r r e s e r v o i r heteroge-
n e i t y and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n . P l a t e I V i n s e c t i o n 3.13.4. analyzes
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and sedimentary h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s due t o g r a i n -
s i z e t r e n d s and bedding s t r u c t u r e s i n f l u v i a l channel and f l o o d p l a i n d e p o s i t s
o f m o d e r a t e l y - b r a i d e d r i v e r systems and t h e i r impact on n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e e x t e n -
s i o n and d e f l e c t i o n . P l a t e V i n s e c t i o n 3.13.5. c o n c e n t r a t e s on changes o f
g r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n f l u v i a l channel d e p o s i t s o f sandy and c o n g l o m e r a t i c
b r a i d e d - r i v e r systems which r e p r e s e n t a l s o i m p o r t a n t pay i n t e r v a l f a c i e s types
i n R o t l i e g e n d and Buntsandstein, and e v a l u a t e s t h e consequences o f t h e g r a i n -
s i z e p a t t e r n s and a l t e r a t i o n s f o r r e s e r v o i r c o n t i n u i t y and h e t e r o g e n e i t y .

P l a t e V I i n s e c t i o n 3.13.6. p r e s e n t s synsedimentary d e s i c c a t i o n s h r i n k a g e
f r a c t u r i n g i n l a c u s t r i n e and f l u v i a l f l o o d p l a i n muddy d e p o s i t s as a source o f
p r i m a r y n a t u r a l c r a c k s i n r e s e r v o i r r o c k s and a d j o i n i n g b a r r i e r s as w e l l as an
example o f n a t u r a l p r o p p i n g o f f r a c t u r e s w i t h h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y sandy m a t e r i a l .
P l a t e V I I i n s e c t i o n 3.13.7. discusses d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a c u s t r i n e mud drapes
and f l u v i a l f l o o d p l a i n mud l a y e r s i n f l u v i a l channel and a l l u v i a l p l a y a sandsto-
nes and t h e i r i m p a c t on r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y by c o m p r i s i n g f l u i d f l o w b a r -
r i e r s and o b s t a c l e s o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n l e a d i n g t o d e f l e c t i o n , stoppage and
a b s o r p t i o n o f e x t e n d i n g c r a c k s . P l a t e V I I I i n s e c t i o n 3.13.8. analyzes d i s t r i b u -
t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n h o r i z o n t a l - l a m i n a t e d and c r o s s - s t r a t i f i e d a e o l i a n
dune and sheet sands as w e l l as f l u v i a l channel sands and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s e d i -
mentary bedding s t r u c t u r e s f o r r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y i n c l u d i n g c h i e f l y hydrau-
l i c communication and c o n t i n u i t y o r i n t e r r u p t i o n o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n . P l a t e
I X i n s e c t i o n 3.13.9. focusses on d i s t r i b u t i o n o f sedimentary and d e f o r m a t i o n a l
f e a t u r e s o f l a c u s t r i n e mud drapes and l e n s e s i n f l u v i a l channel and overbank
sandstones as w e l l as sandy p l a y a d e p o s i t s and examines t h e i r impact on propaga-
t i o n , i n t e r r u p t i o n , d e f l e c t i o n and a b s o r p t i o n o f n a t u r a l and induced f r a c t u r e s
i n sandstones as w e l l as t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and an-
i s o t r o p y i n c l u d i n g above a l l h y d r a u l i c communication problems around t h e f l o w
b a r r i e r s . P l a t e X i n s e c t i o n 3.13.10. i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e importance o f r o o t t u -
bes and carbonate c o n c r e t i o n s i n c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l s f o r d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f p r i -
mary d e p o s i t i o n a l r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s by secondary pedogenic o v e r p r i n t i n g . P l a -
t e X I i n s e c t i o n 3.13.11. g i v e s an overview o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r i n g due t o s e d i -
mentary d e s i c c a t i o n shrinkage, p l a n t r o o t p r o p a g a t i o n i n p a l a e o s o l s , v o l c a n i c
c o o l i n g c o n t r a c t i o n and t e c t o n i c a l e x t e n s i o n , and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l
j o i n t s i n s e l e c t e d r o c k monuments.

The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s a r e each o r g a n i z e d
i n a t h r e e - f o l d manner. The d i v i s i o n s b e g i n w i t h a g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t o r y o v e r -
view o f t h e t o p i c s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f i g u r e s and d i s c u s s e d i n t h e explana-
t i o n s , w i t h t h e general comments a l s o summarizing t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p r e -
sented s t r u c t u r e s f o r p r o p a g a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s . The main
p a r t o f t h e s e c t i o n s c o n s i s t s o f t h e d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e f i g u r e s assem-
b l e d on t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c p l a t e s . The f i n a l d i v i s i o n p r o v i d e s s h o r t i n f o r m a t i o n
on g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s and o u t c r o p l o c a l i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t e d examples i n o r -
d e r t o enable t h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r t o p l u n g e i n t o f u r t h e r d e t a i l s and t o exami-
ne t h e p r o f i l e s i n t h e quoted r o c k monuments and q u a r r i e s i n t h e f i e l d .

3.13.1. Angular unconformities and basement folding

The s t r u c t u r e s f i g u r e d on p l a t e I analyze t h e impact o f a n g u l a r unconformi-
t i e s and basement f o l d i n g i n c l u d i n g subsequent e r o s i o n a l d e g r a d a t i o n on d i s t r i -
 296

b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r complex. F o l -
l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some general aspects, e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s on
p l a t e I a r e g i v e n , and g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s and o u t c r o p l o c a l i t i e s o f t h e p r e -
sented examples a r e quoted.

3.13.1.1. General aspects

Changes o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e frequency and s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n as w e l l as d i r e c -
t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n a t s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l and t e c t o n i c a l u n c o n f o r m i t i e s r e p r e s e n t
special f e a t u r e s o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and a n i s o t r o p y ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) i n f l u e n c i n g p r o p a g a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced f r a c t u r e s . A n g u l a r
u n c o n f o r m i t i e s w i t h changes o f b o t h d i r e c t i o n and a n g l e o f d i p o f t h e sedimen-
t a r y bedding p l a n e s and t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l a y e r s have an i m p o r t a n t impact on
e x t e n s i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s by b e i n g a b l e t o c o n s i d e r a b l y d e f l e c t and r e -
f r a c t p r o p a g a t i n g c r a c k s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 4 . ) . Angular u n c o n f o r m i t i e s a r e t h e
r e s u l t o f compressional f o l d i n g o f an o l d e r g e o l o g i c a l s t o r e y d u r i n g orogene-
s i s , subsequent denudation o f t h e c r e a t e d r e l i e f , and l a t e r c o v e r i n g o f t h e de-
graded remnant o f t h e morphology by sediments o f a younger i n t e r v a l o f t h e geo-
l o g i c a l column.

Unconformities also f r e q u e n t l y separate geological formations w i t h d i f f e r e n t

l i t h o l o g y , g r a i n s i z e , s t a g e of d i a g e n e t i c a l e v o l u t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g mechanical
compaction and chemical c e m e n t a t i o n ) and t h u s a l s o r o c k p r o p e r t i e s , w h i c h c r e a -
t e s an a d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t on t h e p r o p a g a t i o n b e h a v i o u r o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d
f r a c t u r e s c r o s s i n g these b o u n d a r i e s . W h i l e most o f t h e p r e s e n t e d examples a r e
t e c t o n i c a l and s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l u n c o n f o r m i t i e s , sedimentary i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s such
as wedging s t r a t a i n t e r r e s t r i a l sandstones and p a t c h y massive r e e f s i n bedded
marine carbonates generate comparable e f f e c t s o f m a t e r i a l changes w i t h i n t h e li-
t h o l o g i c a l column.

3.13.1.2. Explanations o f illustrations on plate I

1 - 6 : Angular u n c o n f o r m i t y between Lower T r i a s s i c B u n t s a n d s t e i n t e r r e s -
t r i a l r e d beds and Devonian carbonates ( 1 - Z ) , sandstones ( 3 ) and q u a r t z i t e s
( 4 - 6 ) . The s e p a r a t i o n o f two d i f f e r e n t g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s w i t h d i f f e r e n t
d e p o s i t i o n a l environment and d i f f e r e n t stage o f p o s t s e d i m e n t a r y h i s t o r y (com-
p r i s i n g mechanical framework compaction and chemical l i t h i f i c a t i o n by cementa-
t i o n ) r e p r e s e n t s marked boundaries i n t h e l i t h o l o g i c a l r e c o r d which t e s t i f y t o
V a r i s c a n o r o g e n e s i s and subsequent e r o s i o n a l d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e f o l d e d and up-
l i f t e d mountain range i n t o a s u i t e of h i l l o c k s on t h e p r e - T r i a s s i c c o n t i n e n t
s u r f a c e t h a t were p r o g r e s s i v e l y covered d u r i n g d e p o s i t i o n o f B u n t s a n d s t e i n f l u -
v i a l and a e o l i a n sands. The n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems i n b o t h g e o l o g i c a l u n i t s
a r e a l s o o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e and p a t t e r n . W h i l e i n t h e Devonian basement many c l o -
sely-spaced v e r t i c a l j o i n t s and a l s o h o r i z o n t a l bedding p l a n e c r a c k s a r e t h e r e -
s u l t of compressional t e c t o n i c a l d e f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g f o l d i n g as w e l l as normal
and i n v e r s e f a u l t i n g , and p a r t i a l l y a l s o o r i g i n a t e d due t o p r e s s u r e r e l e a s e du-
r i n g subsequent u p l i f t i n g and e r o s i o n a l exhumation ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . ) , the
B u n t s a n d s t e i n cover s t r a t a c o n t a i n a s m a l l e r amount o f more w i d e l y - s p a c e d v e r t i -
c a l j o i n t s and h o r i z o n t a l bedding p l a n e openings which a r e t h e consequence o f
b u r i a l compaction and l i t h i f i c a t i o n s t r e s s as w e l l as e x t e n s i o n a l t e c t o n i c a l de-
f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g normal f a u l t i n g . The main d i f f e r e n c e s between b o t h n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e systems a r e a n g u l a r o r i e n t a t i o n , spacing and s i z e o f t h e v e r t i c a l
j o i n t s and h o r i z o n t a l bedding p l a n e cracks, w i t h t h i s change o f g e o m e t r i c a l r e -
l a t i o n s h i p s b e i n g a b l e t o n o t o n l y cause a change i n d i r e c t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e propagation, b u t probably also r e q u i r i n g higher pressures f o r crossing
o f t h e a n i s o t r o p y p l a n e s and f u r t h e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e induced c r a c k s which
m i g h t be m i s t a k e n f o r i n d i c a t o r s o f screenout f i n i s h i n g o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a t t h e
s u r f a c e as judged f r o m f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e m o n i t o r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 .
and 4 . 2 . 3 . 5 . ) . The v a r i o u s systems o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s o f d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h and
w i d t h a r e n o t o n l y a b l e t o s t o p and/or d e f l e c t e x t e n d i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s ,
 297

Plate I
 298

b u t c a n a l s o g i v e r i s e t o b r a n c h i n g and s t r a n d i n g o f t h e a r t i f i c i a l l y - i n d u c e d
c r a c k s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.3.4.) as w e l l as b a l l o o n i n g and p r o l o n g a t i o n o f n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s by f o l l o w i n g t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g j o i n t f a b r i c .

7 : S i m i l a r l y as s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l and t e c t o n i c a l u n c o n f o r m i t i e s , s e d i m e n t a r y
wedges o f i n t e r c a l a t e d beds c r e a t e changes o f m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s and o r i e n t a -
t i o n o f geometrical f a b r i c w i t h i n l i t h o l o g i c a l complexes (cf. section
4.2.4.3.). The m o s t common i n t e r c a l a t e d wedges and l e n s e s i n c o n t i n e n t a l r e d
bed sequences such as R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n a r e f l u v i a l c h a n n e l i n f i l -
l i n g s w h i c h l a t e r a l l y d i e o u t i n muddy a n d / o r sandy a l l u v i a l o v e r b a n k p l a i n de-
p o s i t s o r a e o l i a n dune sands. The e r o s i o n a l f e a t u r e s a r e t h e r e s u l t o f f l u v i a l
s t r e a m c o u r s e s c u t t i n g t h r o u g h a l l u v i a l f l o o d p l a i n s and a e o l i a n dune f i e l d s as
a consequence o f l a t e r a l m i g r a t i o n and v e r t i c a l i n c i s i o n , and i n f i l l i n g o c c u r -
r e d b y s u b s e q u e n t p l u g g i n g o f t h e w a t e r c o u r s e s w i t h w a n i n g f l o w e n e r g y upon
abandonment o f t h e d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l s , w i t h g r a i n s i z e o f t h e s e d i m e n t s r e f l e c t -
ing c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y and w a t e r d e p t h i n t h e a g g r a d i n g s t r e a m . F l u v i a l c h a n n e l
p l u g s o f sandy a n d / o r c o n g l o m e r a t i c c o m p o s i t i o n a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t l e n t i c u l a r
h y d r o c a r b o n r e s e r v o i r s w h i c h i n c a s e of c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t b e t -
ween i s o l a t e d c h a n n e l and s u r r o u n d i n g and s e p a r a t i n g f l o o d p l a i n o r i n t e r d u n e de-
p o s i t s have t o be c o n n e c t e d t o e a c h o t h e r and t o t h e w e l l b o r e b y c o m m u n i c a t i o n
f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . section 4.10.2.1.).

8 : Patchy massive carbonate r e e f s i n t e r c a l a t e d i n t o w e l l - s t r a t i f i e d c a r -

b o n a t e beds r e p r e s e n t n o d e - l i k e i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s where b e d d i n g i s a l m o s t a b s e n t
and t h e i n t e r n a l g e o m e t r i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s n e a r l y i s o t r o p i c o r c h a o t i c i n con-
t r a s t t o t h e o r g a n i z e d l a y e r i n g and j o i n t p a t t e r n i n t h e a n i s o t r o p i c bedded c a r -
bonate formation. Reefs o r i g i n a t e i n shallow marine water by c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
o r g a n i c components and a c t i v e g r o w t h o f b i o g e n i c c a r b o n a t e s i n i s o l a t e d s p o t s
i n c o n t r a s t t o passive chemical and/or organogenic p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f carbonate
mud o r sand i n t h e d e p r e s s i o n s between t h e g r o w i n g nodes. The dome shape o r i g i -
nates p a r t i a l l y already p r i m a r i l y , b u t i s secondarily accentuated by d i f f e r e n -
t i a l c o m p a c t i o n o f t h e r i g i d node and t h e l e s s c o m p e t e n t l a y e r e d c a r b o n a t e s .
Such m a s s i v e i n t e r s p e r s e d s p o t s a r e n o t o n l y i n t e r r u p t i n g t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e
system and c a n g e n e r a t e f l o w b a r r i e r s w i t h i n t h e u n s t i m u l a t e d r e s e r v o i r , b u t
are a l s o centres o f disturbance o f hydraulic f r a c t u r e propagation which can
even t r i g g e r stoppage o f f u r t h e r e x t e n s i o n o f t h e induced cracks, because t h e
i s o t r o p i c t o c h a o t i c nodes t e n d t o n e i t h e r d e f l e c t n o r r e f r a c t , but rather t o
a b s o r b p r o p a g a t i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s and c a n o n l y be c r o s s e d w i t h h i g h e r p r e s -
sures t h a t d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n a t t h e s u r f a c e m i g h t mimick screenout t e r m i n a t i o n
o f t h e j o b ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . and 4 . 2 . 3 . 5 . ) .

3 . 1 3 . 1 . 3 . Geological format ions and

outcrop localities of presented examples
1 : M i d d l e Buntsandstein o v e r l y i n g M i d d l e Devonian carbonates i n t h e N o r t h -
e a s t e r n H o l y C r o s s M o u n t a i n s ( P o l a n d ) . D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 15 m. Q u a r r y a t
t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e o f t h e S w i s l i n a v a l l e y s o u t h o f DoJy O p a c i e between S t a r a c h o -
w i c e and O s t r o w i e c S w i c t o k r z y s k i ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 100 000, s h e e t Bod-
z e n t y n , Pas 45, SJup 32, r 44 700, h 8 4 8 0 0 ) . 2 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d s t e i n c o v e r i n g
M i d d l e D e v o n i a n c a r b o n a t e s i n t h e W e s t e r n H o l y C r o s s M o u n t a i n s ( P o l a n d ) . Diame-
t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 8 m. Q u a r r y a t t h e n o r t h e r n s i d e o f B o b r z a v a l l e y n o r t h o f
Zagnahsk-ZacheJmie between K i e l c e and Skarzysko-Kamienna. 3 : New Red ( P e r m i a n
R o t l i e g e n d a n d / o r T r i a s s i c ) c o n g l o m e r a t e s and s a n d s t o n e s o v e r l y i n g O l d Red
( D e v o n i a n ) s a n d s t o n e s . D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 1 . 2 m. Shore s e c t i o n i n t h e
K i l k e n n y Bay a t P o r t i s h e a d n e a r B r i s t o l ( E n g l a n d ) . 4 - 6 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d s t e i n
o v e r l y i n g f o l d e d and e r o d e d Lower D e v o n i a n q u a r t z i t e s i n t h e S o u t h e r n S a a r a r e a
(Germany FRG). 4 : D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 1 . 2 m. Rocks a t t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n
s i d e o f t h e Saar v a l l e y n o r t h e a s t o f S t . G a n g o l f e a s t o f D r e i s b a c h ( t o p o g r a p h i -
c a l map 1 : 25 000, s h e e t 6505 M e r z i g , r 4 1 480, h 83 4 5 0 ) . 5 : D i a m e t e r o f f i -
g u r e a b t . 15 m. Q u a r r y a t t h e S a l z m u h l e s o u t h w e s t o f D r e i s b a c h ( s h e e t 6505 M e r -
z i g , r 40 300, h 8 3 0 0 0 ) . 6 : D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 1.1 m. Rock T e u f e l s s c h o r n -
 299

s t e i n a t t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e E i s e n k o p f west o f Saarholzbach ( s h e e t 6405

Freudenburg, r 43 440, h 86 760). 7 : O t t e r Sandstones (Lower T r i a s s i c ) o f
South Devon ( E n g l a n d ) . Diameter o f f i g . a b t . 2 m. Rocks a t t h e shore between
Smallstones P o i n t and Crab Ledge between B u d l e i g h S a l t e r t o n and Sidmouth ( s h e e t
SY 08/18 Sidmouth, between r 09 200, h 83 840 and r 09 600, h 84 780). 8 : T e r -
t i a r y o f t h e Mainz Basin. Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 11 m. Q u a r r y s o u t h e a s t o f Bu-
denheim n o r t h w e s t o f Mainz ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 100 000, sheet C 6314 Mainz,
r 41 700, h 43 200). F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f t h e f i g u r e d s e c t i o n s c f . MADER
(1985 a, 1985 b ) .

3.13.2. Cross-stratification in aeolian dune sands

and f luvial channel bar deposits
The s t r u c t u r e s f i g u r e d on p l a t e I 1 i n t r o d u c e c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s
i n a e o l i a n dune sands and f l u v i a l channel b a r d e p o s i t s which a r e t h e p e t r o p h y s i -
c a l l y best-developed r e s e r v o i r s i n R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n ( c f . s e c t i o n
3.2.1.1.), and i l l u s t r a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e d p a r a l l e l t o bed-
d i n g planes o f v a r i o u s a n g u l a r o r i e n t a t i o n through t h e r e s e r v o i r . F o l l o w i n g d i s -
c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l aspects, e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e I 1
a r e given, and g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s and o u t c r o p l o c a l i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t e d
examples a r e quoted.

3.13.2.1. General aspects

Cross-bedding i n a e o l i a n and f l u v i a l sandstones i s an i m p o r t a n t i n t e r n a l
s t r u c t u r e n o t o n l y g e n e r a t i n g r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y by d i f f e r e n e s o f g r a i n
s i z e between t h e i n c l i n e d l a y e r s , b u t a l s o t r i g g e r i n g i n some cases t h e o r i g i n
o f s p e c i a l g e o m e t r i c a l arrangements o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s p a r a l l e l t o t h e o b l i q u e
l a m i n a t i o n . L a r g e - s c a l e cross-bedded a e o l i a n dune sands a r e t h e b e s t gas r e s e r -
v o i r s i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d o f M i d d l e Europe and i n case o f s u f f i c i e n t p e r m e a b i l i t y
do n o t r e q u i r e s t i m u l a t i o n f o r economical p r o d u c t i o n , whereas s m a l l - s c a l e
c r o s s - l a m i n a t e d and h o r i z o n t a l - s t r a t i f i e d a e o l i a n dune and sheet sands i n combi-
n a t i o n w i t h damp and wet p l a y a sediments and c o n t a i n i n g numerous t h i n l a y e r s o f
d i f f e r e n t g r a i n s i z e which g i v e r i s e t o f l o w i n h i b i t i o n and p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e -
r i o r a t i o n can o n l y be f e a s i b l y e x p l o i t e d f o l l o w i n g massive h y d r a u l i c proppant
f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3.2.1.1. and 3.10.1.). While many r e s e r v o i r s composed
o f t h i c k c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s e t s a r e h i g h - q u a l i t y pay zones due t o medium o r
coarse g r a i n s i z e and l a r g e h o r i z o n t a l e x t e n s i o n o f t h e sand bodies, r e s e r v o i r
communication i s o f t e n n e g a t i v e l y i n f l u e n c e d by f i n e r - g r a i n e d drapes on some i n -
c l i n e d bedding p l a n e s .

L a r g e - s c a l e t a b u l a r c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n g e n e r a l l y t e s t i f i e s t o downwind o r
downcurrent m i g r a t i o n o f a e o l i a n dunes and f l u v i a l sand b a r s w i t h more o r l e s s
s t r a i g h t c r e s t , whereas trough-shaped forms g i v e evidence o f sinuous c r e s t s o f
t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l sand b o d i e s . The o r i g i n o f h i g h s e t s r e f l e c t s s t r o n g winds o r
c u r r e n t s , abundant s u p p l y o f sand, m o d e r a t e l y deep channels o f t h e b r a i d e d r i -
v e r system o r i n f i l l i n g o f depressions on t h e landscape by windblown sand, and
s t a b l e sedimentary and e r o s i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s o v e r some t i m e . The d o m i n a n t l y o b l i -
que i n t e r n a l f a b r i c a l s o has i t s impact on t h e d i r e c t i o n o f p r o p a g a t i o n o f hy-
d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s which c o u l d be a t t e n u a t e d and/or d e f l e c t e d i f t h e
c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n planes a r e accentuated by opening o f b e d d i n g - p a r a l l e l n a t u -
r a l c r a c k s i n more l i t h i f i e d sandstones, whereas t h e l a m i n a t i o n developed i n
more l o o s e sands has i n some cases o n l y n e g l i g i b l e impact on p e n e t r a t i o n o f hy-
draulic fractures.

3.13.2.2. Explanations of illustrations on plate I 1

1 - 3 : M o d e r a t e l y - t o i n t e n s e l y - l i t h i f i e d a e o l i a n ( 1 - 2 ) and f l u v i a l ( 3 )
sandstones w i t h pronounced t a b u l a r cross-bedding a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by w e l l - d e -
 300

v e l o p e d b e d d i n g - p a r a l l e l n a t u r a l c r a c k s o f n a r r o w e r o r w i d e r o p e n i n g . Such f o r -
mations e x h i b i t r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y i n terms o f o r i e n t a t i o n o f d e p o s i t i o n a l
l a m i n a t i o n as w e l l as i n l i g h t o f d i r e c t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u -
r e s . Propagation o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced f r a c t u r e s i s considerably i n f l u e n c e d
b y t h e v a r i o u s g e o m e t r i c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n s o f t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k s y s t e m composed
o f v e r t i c a l j o i n t s , h o r i z o n t a l b e d d i n g p l a n e f r a c t u r e s and o b l i q u e c r o s s - s t r a t i -
f i c a t i o n c r a c k s . In c a s e o f s u f f i c i e n t m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y , large-scale
c r o s s - b e d d e d a e o l i a n dune sands a r e t h e t o p q u a l i t y o f gas r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e
R o t l i e g e n d i n M i d d l e Europe and do n o t r e q u i r e s t i m u l a t i o n f o r a c h i e v e m e n t o f
e c o n o m i c a l o f f t a k e r a t e s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 . and 3 . 1 0 . 1 . ) , w i t h n a t u r a l f r a c -
t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y even i m p r o v i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e h o r i z o n s g i v e n a s u f f i -
c i e n t d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e g a s - w a t e r - c o n t a c t . I f such t h i c k a e o l i a n dune sands,
however, a r e i n t e n s e l y l i t h i f i e d and t h u s m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y i s l a r g e l y d e s t r o -
yed, f e a s i b l e p r o d u c t i o n can o n l y be o b t a i n e d a f t e r m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g w i t h c o n n e c t i o n o f t i g h t m a t r i x and n a t u r a l c r a c k s y s t e m b y a l o n g
synthetic fracture t o the wellbore.

4 : Trough-shaped l a r g e - s c a l e c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s e t s i n a e o l i a n o r f l u -
v i a l s a n d s t o n e s t e s t i f y t o m i g r a t i o n o f s i n u o u s - c r e s t e d w i n d - d r i v e n dunes o r wa-
t e r - m o v e d sand b a r s a t t h e b o t t o m o f s h a l l o w t o m o d e r a t e l y deep b r a i d e d r i v e r
c h a n n e l s . The c u r v a t u r e o f t h e c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n laminae presents another
c o m p l i c a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y e s p e c i a l l y i n terms o f rock mechanical
b e h a v i o u r o f p r o p a g a t i n g h y d r a u l i c a l l y i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s . The t r o u g h - s h a p e d
u n i t s have t h e e f f e c t o f d i v e r g i n g o r c o n v e r g i n g p r o p a g a t i n g f r a c t u r e b u n d l e s
and t h u s s p l i t t i n g o r m e r g i n g o f m a j o r f r a c t u r e b r a n c h e s ( c f . section
4.2.3.4.).

5 - 6 : W h i l e t h e g r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n many l a r g e - s c a l e c r o s s - s t r a t i -
f i c a t i o n s e t s in f l u v i a l and a e o l i a n s a n d s t o n e s i s more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t and
the sediments a r e w e l l - s o r t e d w i t h l i t t l e shares o f f i n e r f r a c t i o n s , o t h e r
u n i t s d i s p l a y c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r n a l h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s w h i c h a r e d e v e l o p e d as t h i n
f i n e - s a n d y a n d / o r muddy d r a p e s on c r o s s - b e d d i n g p l a n e s i n f l u v i a l s a n d s t o n e s
( 5 ) o r f i n e r - g r a i n e d w i n d r i p p l e l a m i n a e i n t e r f e r i n g and i n t e r t o n g u i n g w i t h
c o a r s e r - g r a i n e d g r a i n f l o w and g r a i n f a l l l a m i n a e a t t h e base o f a e o l i a n dunes
( 6 ) . Such g r a i n - s i z e v a r i a t i o n s p r i m a r i l y a f f e c t r e s e r v o i r f l o w p a t t e r n s and
t r i g g e r i n t e r r u p t i o n o f p a y zone c o n t i n u i t y and c o m m u n i c a t i o n , b u t s e c o n d a r i l y
a l s o c r e a t e elements i n f l u e n c i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o f propagation o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y -
i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s . An abundance o f such f i n e r - g r a i n e d l a m i n a e a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l y
deteriorates reservoir permeability i n spite o f high porosity i n the coarser
l a y e r s , and t h e r e f o r e a e o l i a n and p l a y a s e d i m e n t s h a v i n g o r i g i n a t e d u n d e r f r e -
q u e n t l y f l u c t u a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s w i t h changing moistness o f t h e surface a r e the
t o p candidates f o r massive h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n o r d e r t o enable eco-
n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e gas p r o d u c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 0 . 1 . ) .

7 - 8 : I s o l a t e d l e n t i c u l a r f l u v i a l sand b o d i e s o f p r i m a r y - d e p o s i t i o n a l (7)
o r secondary-erosional (8) o r i g i n represent separated r e s e r v o i r u n i t s which are
o n l y v e r y l i m i t e d o r even n o t a t a l l i n c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r p a y zone u n i t s . The
c o m p o s i t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r s o f l e n t i c u l a r o r c h a n n e l i z e d sand b o d i e s n e c e s s i t a t e s
c a r e f u l e c o n o m i c a l e v a l u a t i o n w h e t h e r b o r e h o l e s and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s c a n g e t
access t o s u f f i c i e n t h y d r o c a r b o n volumes t o j u s t i f y t h e enormous c a p i t a l expen-
d i t u r e by reasonably q u i c k payout o f t h e o p e r a t i o n , o r whether t h e drainage r e -
g i o n o f w e l l and f r a c t u r e i s t o o s m a l l t o a c h i e v e a m o r t i z a t i o n o f t h e i n v e s t -
ment f r o m a d d i t i o n a l h y d r o c a r b o n o f f t a k e . Fundamental d i s t i n c t i o n has t h u s t o
be made between l e n t i c u l a r and s h e e t r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y s f o r e c o n o m i c a l l y b a c k -
ing-up t h e investment f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n by a c q u i s i t i n g s u f f i -
c i e n t newly c r e a t e d i n t e r n a l r e s e r v o i r surface i n o r d e r t o e x p l o i t t h e expected
enhanced h y d r o c a r b o n r a t e s . I s o l a t e d l e n t i c u l a r sand b o d i e s t h a t a r e s e p a r a t e d
b y b l a n k e t - t y p e b a r r i e r s a l s o have t o be c o n n e c t e d t o e a c h o t h e r and t o t h e
w e l l b o r e by c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 0 . 2 . 1 . ) i n o r d e r t o a l l o w
economically f e a s i b l e hydrocarbon o f f t a k e r a t e s i n case o f presence o f s u f f i -
c i e n t reserves.
 301

Plate I1
 302

3.13.2.3. Geological formations and

outcrop localities of presented examples
1 : Middle Buntsandstein o f the Vitosha Mountains ( B u l g a r i a ) . Diameter o f f i -
g u r e a b t . 4 m. Road s e c t i o n a t t h e n o r t h e r n s i d e o f t h e r i v e r v a l l e y e a s t o f
Bosnek s o u t h e a s t o f P e r n i k n e a r S o f i a ( c f . MADER & CHATALOV 1 9 8 8 ) . 2 : M i d d l e
Buntsandstein o f t h e Western H o l y Cross Mountains (Poland). Diameter o f f i g u r e
a b t . 4 m. Q u a r r y a t t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e B o b r z a v a l l e y n o r t h o f Ciosowa b e t -
ween K i e l c e and K o n s k i e . 3 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f W e s t e r n E i f e l (Germany
FRG). D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 4 m. Road s e c t i o n s o u t h e a s t o f t h e Immenhof s o u t h -
e a s t o f R o t h ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 25 000, s h e e t 5705 G e r o l s t e i n , r 46 000,
h 67 000). 4 : Upper R o t l i e g e n d of t h e Saar-Nahe S y n c l i n e (Germany FRG). Diame-
t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 12 m. Q u a r r y a t t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n s i d e o f t h e Nahe v a l l e y
n o r t h o f Bad K r e u z n a c h ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 100 000, s h e e t C 6310 Bad K r e u z -
nach, r 1 8 700, h 25 0 0 0 ) . 5 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f U p p e r F r a n c o n i a / N o r t h -
e a s t e r n B a v a r i a (Germany FRG). D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 2.5 m. Sand p i t a t t h e
n o r t h e r n s i d e o f t h e Hasenberg n e a r M o s t h o l z s o u t h w e s t o f H a i g ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l
map 1 : 25 000, s h e e t 5733 Kronach, r 47 740, h 7 1 230. 6 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d -
s t e i n o f t h e S o u t h e r n Saar a r e a (Germany FRG). D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 0 . 2 5 m.
Quarry a t the eastern side o f the Seffersbach v a l l e y south o f B r o t d o r f north-
e z s t o f M e r z i g ( s h e e t 6506 Reimsbach, r 49 000, h 8 0 3 8 0 ) . 7 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d -
s t e i n o f t h e N o r t h e r n Saar a r e a (Germany FRG). D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 1 . 5 m.
Sand p i t a t t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e L i e s c h e r B e r g s o u t h e a s t o f W a s s e r l i e s c h
w e s t o f K o n z e r b r u c k ( s h e e t 6305 S a a r b u r g , r 39 360, h 06 9 3 0 ) . 8 : M i d d l e B u n t -
s a n d s t e i n of Upper F r a n c o n i a / N o r t h e a s t e r n B a v a r i a (Germany FRG). D i a m e t e r o f f i -
g u r e a b t . 0.4 m. Sand p i t a t t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e K r o n a c h e r B e r g a t t h e
n o r t h e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e LeRbach v a l l e y e a s t o f WeiBenbrunn ( s h e e t 5734 W a l l e n -
f e l s , between r 53 960, h 62 730 and r 53 860, h 63 0 0 0 ) . F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s
o f t h e s e c t i o n s f i g u r e d c f . MADER (1985 a, 1985 b ) .

3.13.3. Gravel agglomerations and mud drapes in

a1 luvial-fan breccias and f luvial channel sandstones
The s t r u c t u r e s f i g u r e d on p l a t e 111 i l l u m i n a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g r a v e l ag-
g l o m e r a t i o n s and mud d r a p e s i n a l l u v i a l - f a n b r e c c i a s and f l u v i a l c h a n n e l sand-
stones, and o u t l i n e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e g r a i n - s i z e a n i s o t r o p i e s f o r r e s e r -
v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f
some g e n e r a l a s p e c t s , e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s o n p l a t e 111 a r e g i v e n ,
and g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s and o u t c r o p l o c a l i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t e d examples a r e
quoted.

3.13.3.1. General aspects

T y p i c a l e l e m e n t s o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y i n t e r r e s t r i a l f l u v i a l and a l l u -
v i a l - f a n c h a n n e l s e d i m e n t sequences a r e t h i n mud d r a p e s ( 1 - 2 ) , d e f o r m e d sand
b a l l s and n o d u l e s ( 3 - 4 ) , and t r a i n s and p o c k e t s o f g r a v e l - s i z e d c l a s t s
( 5 - 8 ) . A l l these f e a t u r e s a r e i n t e r r u p t i n g t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f sandstone h o r i -
zons b y c h a n g i n g r o c k m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s on s m a l l - s c a l e and a l s o i n t r o d u c i n g
b a r r i e r s t o f l o w w i t h i n t h e p a y zone. Mudstone i n t e r c a l a t i o n s o f l a t e r a l l y l i m i -
t e d e x t e n s i o n a r e t h e m o s t s e a l i n g f e a t u r e s , whereas g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s may
e v e n i n c r e a s e r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y . The f i g u r e d examples a r e w i d e s p r e a d s t r u c -
t u r e s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n i n M i d d l e E u r o p e .

3.13.3.2. Explanations o f illustrations on plate I11

1 - 2 : T h i n s h e e t - l i k e o r l e n t i c u l a r mud d r a p e s i n t e r r u p t i n g f l u v i a l chan-
n e l s a n d s t o n e s and c o n g l o m e r a t e s o r i g i n a t e b y r a p i d l y f l u c t u a t i n g f l o w c o n d i -
t i o n s d u r i n g c o u r s e o f a g g r a d a t i o n o f s h a l l o w t o m o d e r a t e l y deep b r a i d e d r i v e r
 ~ ~~~

Plate I11
 304

c h a n n e l s o r even u n c o n f i n e d s h e e t f l o o d s i n u n d a t i n g o v e r b a n k f l a t s . D i v e r s i o n
o f c u r r e n t s b y d e f l e c t i o n a r o u n d l a r g e sand b a r s , c u t t i n g - o f f o f some w a t e r c o u r -
ses f r o m t h e a c t i v e s y s t e m and s h e l t e r i n g o f p o o l s in i n t e r - o r i n t r a b a r d e p r e s -
s i o n s d u r i n g l o w water,,level i n t h e d r a i n a g e p a t h s e n a b l e s c o v e r i n g o f sandy
b e d f o r m s w i t h t h i n mudstone d r a p e s i n q u i e t w a t e r a l l o w i n g s u s p e n s i o n s e t t l i n g .
Subsequent r e s u m i n g o f h i g h - e n e r g y f l u v i a l c h a n n e l d e p o s i t i o n w i t h r e t u r n i n g
f l o o d s t a g e r e s u l t s i n b u r i a l o f t h e mud d r a p e s b y s a n d s t o n e b l a n k e t s and l e n -
ses t h e r e b y i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e p r o o f s o f t e m p o r a r y q u i e t c o n d i t i o n s i n t o t h e de-
p o s i t i o n a l record ( c f . section 4.2.4.1.1.). The s h a r p b o u n d a r i e s o f s a n d s t o n e s
and mudstones a r e t h e r e a s o n f o r p r o n o u n c e d r o c k m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t y c o n t r a s t s
w h i c h g i v e r i s e t o a t t e n u a t i o n and d e f l e c t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y p r o p a g a t i n g
f r a c t u r e s e s p e c i a l l y i n case o f g r e a t e r t h i c k n e s s o f t h e mudstone i n t e r v e n t i o n s
( c f . a l s o p l a t e s V I I / 5 - 6 and I X ) .

3 - 4 : Deformed s a n d s t o n e b a l l s and n o d u l e s w i t h i n mudstone sequences o r

b e l o w t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l o r e r o s i o n a l b o u n d a r y between t h i c k e r s a n d s t o n e and mud-
s t o n e l a y e r s r e f l e c t r a p i d l o a d i n g o f s t i l l w e t and p l a s t i c a l l y r e a c t i v e mud-
s t o n e s b y s a n d s t o n e s o f d i f f e r e n t t h i c k n e s s . W h i l e in some c a s e s such as l o o s e
g r a i n f a b r i c o f o v e r l y i n g s a n d s t o n e s and i n t e r n a l o v e r p r e s s u r e o f t h e s t i l l u n -
c o n s o l i d a t e d mudstones, t h e r e a c t i o n t o l o a d i n g i s d i a p i r i c a l i n t r u s i o n o f mud
into t h e o v e r l y i n g sand ( c f . P l a t e I X / 7 ) , a more common consequence i s d o w n s i n k -
i n g o f sand i n t o t h e mud whereby o r i g i n a l l y c o n t i n u o u s l a y e r s a r e d i s s e c t e d
i n t o i s o l a t e d b a l l s and n o d u l e s and a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y deformed b y c o n v o l u t i o n o f
i n t e r n a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . Such b a l l and p i l l o w s t r u c t u r e s u n d e r l i n e t h e r a p i d
changes o f s e d i m e n t a r y c o n d i t i o n s in t h e a l l u v i a l f l o o d p l a i n w i t h o n l y i n s u f f i -
c i e n t t i m e o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n and d e w a t e r i n g o f mudstones h a v i n g been l a i d down
i n l a k e s and ponds due t o q u i c k s u b s e q u e n t l o a d i n g b y s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s o r i g i n a -
t i n g f r o m l a t e r a l c h a n n e l m i g r a t i o n and s h e e t - f l o o d i n u n d a t i o n o f t h e o v e r b a n k
p l a i n . E s p e c i a l l y b i g n o d u l e s and b a l l s a r e p r o m i n e n t c e n t r e s o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e -
r o g e n e i t y w i t h p r o n o u n c e d i m p a c t on p r o p a g a t i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s w h i c h in
case o f e n c o u n t e r i n g such l a r g e d i s t u r b i n g b o d i e s c a n n o t o n l y be a t t e n u a t e d o r
d e f l e c t e d , b u t t h e i r p e n e t r a t i o n c a n a l s o be c o m p l e t e l y s t o p p e d .

5 - 8 : G r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n a l l u v i a l - f a n and f l u v i a l c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e s
a r e r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s w h i c h a r e p a r t i a l l y i n c r e a s i n g p a y zone q u a l i t y
by i n t r o d u c i n g h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y , b u t on t h e o t h e r hand a l s o t r i g g e r inhomo-
g e n e i t y o f f l o w as w e l l as changes i n r o c k m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . As h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g in c o n g l o m e r a t e s r e q u i r e s p a r t i c u l a r l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d s u p e r v i s i o n and
c a r e f u l planning f o r successfully propping cracks crossing gravel c l a s t s o f
various size, c o n g l o m e r a t e s and g r a v e l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s w i t h i r r e g u l a r d i s -
t r i b u t i o n o f c l a s t s may be t h e m o s t c o m p l i c a t e d p a y zones to p r o p e r l y t r e a t b y
hydraulic stimulation. Traversing o f the various gravel concentrations requires
f r e q u e n t l y h i g h e r pressures than necessary f o r c r o s s i n g c l e a n sandstones which
may a t t h e s u r f a c e p a r t i a l l y be i n t e r p r e t e d as i n d i c a t i n g a p p r o a c h i n g o f s c r e e n -
o u t t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e j o b ( c f . sections 4.2.3.2.4. and 4 . 2 . 3 . 5 . ) . This i s
e s p e c i a l l y v a l i d i n l i g h t o f t h e d i f f i c u l t l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l m o d e l l i n g o f
i s o l a t e d g r a v e l e n r i c h m e n t s i n p o c k e t s , l e n s e s , c h a n n e l s and s c o u r h o l e s , in
c o n t r a s t t o r e a s o n a b l e p r e d i c t i o n and assessment o f g r a v e l d i s t r i b u t i o n in
continuous conglomerate horizons.

3.13.3.3. Geological formations and

outcrop localities o f presented examles
1 : Upper B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f t h e V i t o s h a M o u n t a i n s ( B u l g a r i a ) . D i a m e t e r o f f i -
g u r e a b t . 3 m. Road s e c t i o n a t t h e n o r t h e r n s i d e o f t h e r i v e r v a l l e y e a s t o f
Bosnek s o u t h e a s t o f P e r n i k n e a r S o f i a ( c f . MADER & CHATALOV 1988). 2 : M i d d l e
B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f Upper F r a n c o n i a / N o r t h e a s t e r n B a v a r i a (Germany FRG). D i a m e t e r
o f f i g u r e a b t . 1.2 m. Rocks a t t h e w e s t e r n base o f t h e w a l l o f t h e P l a s s e n b u r g
n e a r Kulmbach ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 25 000, s h e e t 5834 Kulmbach, r 6 1 700,
h 52 600). 3 : Upper C a r b o n i f e r o u s o f Wales ( G r e a t B r i t a i n ) . D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e
a b t . 1 m. Rocks a t t h e s h o r e a r o u n d Pembroke. 4 : Upper B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f t h e
 305

N o r t h e r n S o l l i n g (Germany FRG). Diameter of f i g u r e a b t . 1.5 m. Q u a r r y a t t h e

western s i d e o f t h e H e i d b r i n k a t t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e Beverbach v a l l e y
southwest o f Arholzen ( s h e e t 4123 Stadtoldendorf, r 38 760, h 47 490).
5 - 8 : R o t l i e g e n d (Lower Permian; New Red Sandstone) o f South Devon ( E n g l a n d ) .
Diameter o f f i g u r e s a b t . 1.5 m each. 5 + 7 : Rocks a t t h e shore a t Watcombe
Head south o f Maidencombe between Shaldon and Torquay ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map
1 : 50 000, sheet 202 Torbay and South Dartmoor, r 92 720, h 67 6 0 0 ) . 6 : Rocks
a t t h e shore a t Mackerel Cove n o r t h o f Maidencombe between Shaldon and Torquay
( s h e e t 202 Torbay and South Dartmoor, r 92 920, h 69 100). 8 : Rocks a t t h e
shore a t Watcombe Head south o f Maidencombe between Shaldon and Torquay ( s h e e t
202 Torbay and South Dartmoor, r 92 840, h 67 440). F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f t h e
s e c t i o n s f i g u r e d c f . MADER (1985 a, 1985 b ) .

3.13.4. Natural fractures and sedimentary het erogene i t ies

in f luvial channel and floodplain sandstones and mudstones
The f e a t u r e s f i g u r e d on p l a t e I V c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s and sedimentary h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s due t o g r a i n - s i z e t r e n d s and bedding
s t r u c t u r e s i n f l u v i a l channel and f l o o d p l a i n d e p o s i t s o f m o d e r a t e l y - b r a i d e d r i -
v e r systems. F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f g e n e r a l aspects, e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e i l l u -
s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e I V a r e given, and g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s and o u t c r o p l o c a l i -
t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t e d examples a r e quoted.

3.13.4.1. General aspects

N a t u r a l j o i n t i n g and a r t i f i c i a l e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g i n t e r r e s t r i a l r e d sand-
stones o f t h e B u n t s a n d s t e i n i l l u s t r a t e t h e f a b r i c o f c r a c k s i n r e s e r v o i r r o c k s
w i t h f r a c t u r e p o r o s i t y . W h i l e h o r i z o n t a l - s t r a t i f i e d and cross-bedded f l u v i a l
sandstones ( 4 - 7) which a r e t h e most widespread l i t h o f a c i e s t y p e i n t h e Bunt-
s a n d s t e i n g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n w e l l - d e v e l o p e d p l a n e t o s u b h o r i z o n t a l l a y e r bounda-
r y c r a c k s and t o s u b o r d i n a t e amounts a l s o v e r t i c a l j o i n t s , e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g
by q u a r r y b l a s t i n g c r e a t e s s t a r - s h a p e d p a t t e r n s o f m u l t i p l e r a d i a l f r a c t u r e sys-
tems ( 1 ) i n c l u d i n g c e n t r a l r u b b l i z a t i o n o f t h e r o c k m a t r i x a t t h e c o r e o f t h e
f i r e d charge. Reworked f l o o d p l a i n mud c l a s t s i n f l u v i a l channel sandstones a r e
n o t o n l y capable o f a b s o r p t i o n and a t t e n u a t i o n o f p r o p a g a t i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r e s and a l s o l i m i t t h e e x t e n s i o n o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s , b u t a l s o t e n d t o d e f l e c t
t h e network o f r a d i a l f r a c t u r e s generated by e x p l o s i o n .

3.13.4.2. Explanations o f illustrations on plate IV

1 : E x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g o f c l a s t i c r e s e r v o i r s i n o i l and gas w e l l s ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 4.7.3. and 4.8.9.6.) can be s t u d i e d i n s u r f a c e sandstone q u a r r i e s
where b l a s t i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t t o s u p p o r t mechanical b u i l d i n g stone p r o d u c t i o n .
D e t o n a t i o n o f t h e e x p l o s i v e charge g i v e s r i s e t o r a d i a l p r o p a g a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e
f r a c t u r e s i n a sun- o r s t a r - l i k e network w i t h v e r y c l o s e spacing o f t h e i n d i v i -
dual c r a c k s , b u t on t h e o t h e r hand l i m i t e d l a t e r a l e x t e n s i o n o f t h e s e p a r a t e
f r a c t u r e s . C o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e a x i a l p a r t i s d e t e r i o r a t e d by r u b b l i z a t i o n o f
t h e r o c k m a t r i x around t h e d e t o n a t e d charge, and t h e d r a i n a g e area i s r e s t r i c -
t e d as a consequence o f t h e s h o r t r e a c h o f t h e c r a c k s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r away
f r o m t h e c e n t r e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e comparison w i t h s u r f a c e q u a r r y b l a s t i n g , con-
v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g i s most s u i t a b l e f o r b r e a k i n g through f o r m a t i o n
damage b e l t s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e borehole, whereas f o r d r a i n a g e o f l a r g e r p a r t s o f
t h e pay zone, e i t h e r c o n t r o l l e d e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g g i v i n g r i s e t o fewer and
l o n g e r f r a c t u r e s has t o be c a r r i e d o u t , o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g l e a d i n g t o open-
i n g o f o n l y one o r a few e x t e n s i v e c r a c k s has t o be chosen.

2 : Large mud c l a s t s o r i g i n a t e by r e w o r k i n g o f f i n e - g r a i n e d overbank p l a i n

sediments d u r i n g c o u r s e o f sidewards displacement o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f m a j o r and
m i n o r d r a i n a g e channels which i n c i s e i n t o t h e i r substratum, c u t o u t l a r g e mud
 306
c l a s t s from the o l d e r f l o o d b a s i n d e p o s i t s , t r a n s p o r t the m o b i l i z e d b l o c k s f o r a
s h o r t d i s t a n c e by t r a c t i o n on the f l o o r of the w a t e r c o u r s e and then c o v e r t h e
i n t r a f o r m a t i o n a l b o u l d e r s w i t h sand a n d / o r g r a v e l upon waning of c u r r e n t v e l o c i -
t y and thus d i m i n i s h i n g sediment c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y . The mud c l a s t s a r e c e n t r e s
of r e s e r v o i r inhomogeneity both i n terms of p e r m e a b i l i t y and rock p r o p e r t i e s
and t h e r e f o r e have a l s o d e c i s i v e impact on development o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s y s -
tems a s well a s p r o p a g a t i o n of h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced c r a c k s . Reworked mud
c l a s t s of s m a l l e r o r l a r g e r s i z e a r e very common e l e m e n t s i n f l u v i a l s a n d s t o n e
s u c c e s s i o n s and thus have t o be e x p e c t e d i n v a r i a b l e q u a n t i t y i n numerous
hydrocarbon-bearing c o n t i n e n t a l s u c c e s s i o n s ( c f . a l s o p l a t e s V/4, V I I / l and
X/8).

3 - 8 : The most prominent open c r a c k s i n more o r l e s s w e l l - s t r a t i f i e d con-

t i n e n t a l r e d s a n d s t o n e s a r e p l a n e t o s u b h o r i z o n t a l bedding b o u n d a r i e s i n massi-
ve o r p l a t e y r o c k s . P e r f e c t l y h o r i z o n t a l - l a m i n a t e d s a n d s t o n e s ( 4 - 5 ) break
i n t o a t a b u l a r p i l e of numerous s l i c e s of d i f f e r e n t t h i c k n e s s which a r e s e p a r a -
t e d by i n t e r c a l a t e d mudstone l a y e r s . Such t a b u l a r u n i t s w i t h s l i c e - l i k e o r g a n i -
z a t i o n of s a n d s t o n e beds and s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p l a n e c r a c k s a r e q u i t e homogeneous
systems w i t h l i t t l e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s and t h e r e f o r e p r o p a g a t i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r e s e n c o u n t e r a l m o s t always n a t u r a l c r a c k e l e m e n t s of comparable o r i e n t a t i o n ,
w i t h t h u s h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n being g r e a t l y enhanced by o n l y s u b o r d i -
n a t e d e f l e c t i o n and r e s i s t a n c e t o e x t e n s i o n being e x e r t e d by the n a t u r a l f r a c -
t u r e system. C r o s s - s t r a t i f i e d s a n d s t o n e s ( 6 ) mainly d i s p l a y s e l e c t e d c r o s s beds
by open n a t u r a l c r a c k s , whereas the e r o s i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s do n o t show u p so p r o -
minent and a r e sometimes even o b l i t e r a t e d . I n more massive t o c r u d e l y h o r i z o n -
t a l - b e d d e d s a n d s t o n e s ( 3 , 7 - 8 ) , t h e most obvious e l e m e n t s of t h e l i t h o l o g i c a l
r e c o r d g i v i n g r i s e t o opening of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n c r a c k s a r e t h i n mudstone d r a p e s
of l a t e r a l l y c o n t i n u o u s o r r e s t r i c t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n which o r i g i n a t e d a s c o v e r s
of sand b a r s d u r i n g waning-flow s t a g e s a t the end of main f l o o d c y c l e s o r i n
low-water phases s e p a r a t i n g s e v e r a l h i g h - d i s c h a r g e e v e n t s i n s h a l l o w t o modera-
t e l y deep b r a i d e d r i v e r c h a n n e l s o r s h e e t f l o o d overbank i n u n d a t i o n s . The d i s t r i -
b u t i o n of n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n c r o s s - s t r a t i f i e d o r c r u d e l y h o r i z o n t a l - b e d d e d
s a n d s t o n e s c o n t a i n i n g e r o s i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s of i r r e g u l a r o r i e n t a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s
moderate t o c o n s i d e r a b l e inhomogeneity and a n i s o t r o p y which r e s u l t s in major de-
f l e c t i o n , a t t e n u a t i o n and r e s i s t a n c e t o f u r t h e r p e n e t r a t i o n of p r o p a g a t i n g hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 4 . ) . The d i f f i c u l t i e s of f r a c t u r e e x t e n -
s i o n a r e r e f l e c t e d by pressure i n c r e a s e s d u r i n g the t r e a t m e n t which may i n some
c a s e s even be m i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s i n d i c a t i n g premature s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n of
the j o b ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . and 4 . 2 . 3 . 5 . ) .

3.13.4.3. Geological formations and

outcrop localities o f presented examples
1 + 3 : Upper B u n t s a n d s t e i n of t h e Black F o r e s t (Germany FRG). Diameter of
f i g u r e s a b t . 1 . 5 m e a c h . Quarry i n D i e t e r s w e i l e r between F r e u d e n s t a d t and Horb.
2 : Upper B u n t s a n d s t e i n of the Hessian Depression (Germany FRG). Diameter of f i -
g u r e a b t . 3 m. Quarry a t t h e e a s t e r n s i d e of the Elbe v a l l e y n o r t h of Olmuhle
n o r t h n o r t h e a s t of Zuschen ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 25 000, s h e e t 4821 F r i t z l a r ,
r 16 240, h 7 1 7 2 0 ) . 4 - 5 : Middle B u n t s a n d s t e i n of t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n Holy
C r o s s Mountains ( P o l a n d ) . Diameter of f i g u r e s a b t . 1 . 5 m and 1 m, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Quarry east of Stryczowice between Wajnibw and Ostrowiec S w i e t o k r z y s k i
( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 100 000, sheet Bodzentyn, pas 45, s l u p 32, r 50 400,
h 74 7 0 0 ) . 6 : Middle B u n t s a n d s t e i n of the Western Holy Cross Mountains
( P o l a n d ) . Diameter of f i g u r e a b t . 2 m . Q u a r r y s o u t h of Tumlin between K i e l c e
and Konskie. 7 : Upper B u n t s a n d s t e i n of the Northern S o l l i n g (Germany F R G ) .
Diameter of f i g u r e a b t . 2 m . Quarry a t t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n s i d e of t h e Sundern
e a s t of Negenborn n e a r S t a d t o l d e n d o r f ( s h e e t 4123 S t a d t o l d e n d o r f , r 41 370,
h 50 9 6 0 ) . 8 : Cambrian Neksa Sandstone Formation of Bornholm (Denmark).
Diameter of f i g u r e a b t . 1 . 5 m . Quarry n e a r B o d i l s k e r . For f u r t h e r d e t a i l s of
the s e c t i o n s f i g u r e d c f . MADER (1985 a , 1985 b ) .
307
 308

3.13.5. Grain-size distribution changes and erosional surfaces

in braided-river channel sandstones and conglomerates
The p a t t e r n s f i g u r e d on p l a t e V document changes o f g r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n
as w e l l as morphology and r e l i e f o f e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e s i n f l u v i a l channel depo-
s i t s o f sandy and c o n g l o m e r a t i c b r a i d e d - r i v e r systems and t h e i r impact on r e s e r -
v o i r c o n t i n u i t y and h e t e r o g e n e i t y . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f g e n e r a l aspects, ex-
p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e V a r e given, and g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s
and o u t c r o p l o c a l i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t e d examples a r e quoted.

3.13.5.1. General aspects

A p a r t f r o m s m a l l - s c a l e mudstone i n t e r c a l a t i o n s i n t o sandstone beds ( c f .
p l a t e III/l - 2, IV/4 - 8 and IX), prominent examples o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i -
t y a r e s m a l l - s c a l e sandstone i n t e r v e n t i o n s i n t o conglomerate beds ( 1 - 2), chan-
n e l i z e d bodies o f i n t e n s e l y - l i t h i f i e d o r c o a r s e r - c l a s t i c sandstones i n t h e r e -
s e r v o i r complex ( 3 - 4; c f . a l s o p l a t e II/7 - 8 ) , e r o s i o n a l boundaries o f i r r e -
g u l a r shape between beds o r d i f f e r e n t l i t h o l o g y ( 5 - 8; c f . a l s o p l a t e s II/7
and IV/3 + 6 ) and i s o l a t e d g r a v e l t r a i n s i n sandstones (7). Such s m a l l - s c a l e r e -
s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s a r e n o t o n l y i n h i b i t i n g and d e v i a t i n g f l o w o f p o r e so-
l u t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e sedimentary column, b u t a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e changes o f mechani-
c a l p r o p e r t i e s t h e r e b y i n f l u e n c i n g t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced
f r a c t u r e s which s u f f e r f r o m a t t e n u a t i o n and d e f l e c t i o n when c r o s s i n g t h e bounda-
r i e s between a d j o i n i n g r o c k t y p e s o f d i f f e r e n t c o m p o s i t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4.2.3.2.4. and 4.2.4.1.). S m a l l - s c a l e r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s can e a s i l y be
m o d e l l e d i n o u t c r o p s e c t i o n s , b u t t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f reasons f o r a n i s o t r o p i c
mechanical b e h a v i o r f r o m l i m i t e d subsurface i n f o r m a t i o n i s q u i t e d i f f i c u l t . The
p r e s e n t e d examples show t h a t w i t h i n t h e d i s c u s s e d t e r r e s t r i a l environment,
s m a l l - s c a l e r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s comparable t o t h e f i g u r e d t y p e s have t o
be expected anywhere and have t o be accounted f o r by u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e pay f o r -
m a t i o n as a complex mosaic o f v a r i o u s elements.

3.13.5.2. Explanations o f illustrations on plate V

1 - 2 : T h i n sandstone i n t e r b e d d i n g s i n conglomerate sequences r e f l e c t f l u c -
t u a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n sha'llow t o m o d e r a t e l y deep b r a i d e d r i v e r channels where
gravel b a r s m i g r a t e downstream under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s t r o n g c u r r e n t s .
Temporary c u t o f f o f some watercourses f r o m t h e a c t i v e system o r d e f l e c t i o n o f
t h e main w a t e r l o a d around l a r g e g r a v e l b a r s c r e a t e s q u i e t e r c o n d i t i o n s i n
p a r t s o f t h e r u n o f f p a t h s and enables s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n o f l i t t l e sand b a r s o r
sheets on i n a c t i v a t e d g r a v e l b a r s . L i m i t e d l a t e r a l e x t e n t o f t h e environment
s u i t a b l e f o r waning-flow d e p o s i t i o n r e s u l t s i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y l e n t i c u l a r charac-
t e r o f t h e sandstone i n t e r v e n t i o n s i n conglomerate s e c t i o n s . Resuming o f h i g h -
energy s e d i m e n t a t i o n covers t h e sandstone drapes w i t h conglomerate sheets above
a boundary o f d e p o s i t i o n a l o r e r o s i o n a l n a t u r e . Concerning p r o p a g a t i o n o f hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s , sandstone i n t e r c a l a t i o n s i n conglomerate sequences a r e pos-
s i b l e h o r i z o n s of a c c e l e r a t e d f l u i d loss ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.3.1.2. and
4.8.8.3.2.3.) due t o b e t t e r f i l t e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s than t h e f r e q u e n t l y p o o r e r s o r -
t e d conglomerates, and o f p r e f e r e n t i a l p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g due t o d e c r e a s i n g f r a c -
t u r e w i d t h i n t h e o f t e n s t i l l weakly c o n s o l i d a t e d sandstone drapes, t h e r e b y i n -
c r e a s i n g t h e s c r e e n o u t r i s k ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.2.3. and 6.2.4.2.1.).

3 - 4 : Channelized bodies of more i n t e n s e l y l i t h i f i e d sandstone (3) o r i n -

t r a f o r m a t i o n a l r e w o r k i n g conglomerate ( 4 ) i n t h i c k f l u v i a l stream b a r sandsto-
nes r e p r e s e n t i n t e r c a l a t i o n s o f i r r e g u l a r shape and d i f f e r e n t mechanical p r o p e r -
t i e s i n t o an o t h e r w i s e more o r l e s s homogeneous succession. Carbonate cement
(3) and reworked c l a s t s o f p a l a e o s o l s (4) as w e l l as c a n n i b a l i z e d mud fragments
( c f . p l a t e s IV/2 and VII/l) a r e t h e main elements i n these examples w h i c h a r e
q u i t e f r e q u e n t i n R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n r e d bed columns and t h e r e f o r e
309

Plate V
 310

have t o be e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r a l s o i n r e s e r v o i r r o c k s t h a t a r e s u b j e c t e d t o hy-
d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . The l i t h o f a c i e s e l e m e n t s g i v e e v i d e n c e o f e r o s i o -
n a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f p a r t s o f t h e e a r l i e r g e n e r a t e d d e p o s i t s and r e w o r k i n g o f i s o -
l a t e d c l a s t s i n s u b s e q u e n t s e d i m e n t s ( c f . a l s o p l a t e X / 7 ) . Such i n t e r c a l a t i o n s
have an i m p o r t a n t i m p a c t on p r o p a g a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s w h i c h a r e r e q u i -
r i n g h i g h e r p r e s s u r e t o c r o s s t h e m a s s i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n s and m i g h t a l s o be de-
f l e c t e d o r a t t e n u a t e d ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 3 . 4 . and 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) .

5 - 8 : I r r e g u l a r e r o s i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s between d e p o s i t s o f d i f f e r e n t l i t h o l o -
g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n document h i g h - e n e r g y e v e n t s d u r i n g f o r m a t i o n o f t h e r o c k s
w h i c h r e p e a t e d l y t e r m i n a t e d phases o f r a t h e r u n d i s t u r b e d a g g r a d a t i o n o f sedimen-
t a r y s u b e n v i r o n m e n t s . The r e l i e f w i t h p o s i t i v e r e l i c t i c p i l l a r s and n e g a t i v e
s c o u r e d h o l e s i s t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e dynamics o f c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g a l o n g t h e
b o t t o m o f s h a l l o w t o m o d e r a t e l y deep b r a i d e d r i v e r c h a n n e l s a t h i g h f l o o d s t a -
ges when e r o s i o n a l i n c i s i o n i n t o t h e s u b s t r a t u m i s p a r t i c u l a r l y p o w e r f u l . The
i r r e g u l a r shape o f t h e e r o s i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c h a n g i n g l i t h o -
l o g y o f t h e r o c k s a t b o t h s i d e s o f t h e b o r d e r r e p r e s e n t marked d i f f e r e n c e s o f
m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h g i v e r i s e t o c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on t h e p r o p a g a -
tion o f hydraulic fractures crossing such interbeddings (cf. section
4.2.3.4.).

3.13.5.3. Geological formations and

outcrop localities of presented examples
1 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f t h e N o r t h e r n E i f e l (Germany FRG). D i a m e t e r o f f i -
g u r e a b t . 1 . 5 m. Rock monument a t t h e E i s e r n e s K r e u z a t t h e r o a d t o Gemund
northwest o f K a l l ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 25 000, s h e e t 5405 M e c h e r n i c h ,
r 39 440, h 01 0 2 0 ) . 2 : T e r t i a r y ( O l i g o c e n e ) i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o f M a r s e i l l e
( F r a n c e ) . D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 1 . 2 m. Road s e c t i o n a r o u n d t h e h a r b o u r o f M a r -
s e i l l e . 3 - 5 : O t t e r Sandstones ( L o w e r T r i a s s i c ) o f S o u t h Devon ( E n g l a n d ) .
3 : D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 2.5 m. Rocks a t t h e s h o r e between Crab Ledge and
B l a c k Head between B u d l e i g h S a l t e r t o n and Sidmouth ( s h e e t SY 0 8 / 1 8 Sidmouth,
between r 0 8 580, h 82 620 and r 09 200, h 83 8 4 0 ) . 4 : D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t .
1 . 5 m. Rocks a t t h e s h o r e between O t t e r t o n Ledge and Danger P o i n t e a s t o f Bud-
l e i g h S a l t e r t o n ( s h e e t SY 0 8 / 1 8 Sidmouth, between r 07 950, h 8 1 980 and r 0 8
080, h 82 100). 5 : D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 0.7 rn. Rocks a t t h e s h o r e a t Ladrarn
Bay between Ladram Rock and S m a l l s t o n e s P o i n t e a s t o f O t t e r t o n ( s h e e t SY 0 8 / 1 8
Sidmouth, r 09 680, h 85 1 5 0 ) . 6 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f t h e N o r t h e r n Saar
a r e a (Germany FRG). D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 0 . 8 rn. Rocks a t t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f
t h e h i l l s o u t h w e s t o f t h e j u n c t i o n o f r i v e r s Saar and M o s e l l e w e s t o f K o n z e r -
b r u c k ( s h e e t 6305 S a a r b u r g , r 39 680, h 06 8 0 0 ) . 7 : O t t e r Sandstones ( L o w e r
T r i a s s i c ) o f S o u t h Devon ( E n g l a n d ) . D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 0 . 8 m. Rocks a t t h e
s h o r e between Danger P o i n t and B r a n d y Head e a s t o f B u d l e i g h S a l t e r t o n ( s h e e t
SY 0 8 / 1 8 Sidmouth, r 0 8 080, h 82 100 and r 0 8 980, h 83 1 6 0 ) . 8 : C a r b o n i f e -
r o u s F o u n t a i n F o r m a t i o n o f t h e Rocky M o u n t a i n s F r o n t H i l l Range i n C o l o r a d o
(USA). D i a m e t e r o f f i g u r e a b t . 1 m. Rocks a t t h e H o r s e t o o t h r e s e r v o i r n e a r F o r t
C o l l i n s n o r t h o f D e n v e r . F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f t h e s e c t i o n s f i g u r e d c f . MADER
(1985 a , 1985 b ) .

3.13.6. Synsedimentary desiccation fracturing in lacustrine and

f luvial floodplain mudstones and natural propping of cracks
The f e a t u r e s p r e s e n t e d on p l a t e V I document s y n s e d i m e n t a r y d e s i c c a t i o n s h r i n -
kage f r a c t u r i n g i n l a c u s t r i n e ( p l a y a - l a k e ) and f l u v i a l f l o o d p l a i n ( o v e r b a n k
l a k e ) muddy d e p o s i t s as a s o u r c e o f p r i m a r y n a t u r a l c r a c k s i n r e s e r v o i r r o c k s
and a d j o i n i n g b a r r i e r s as w e l l as an example o f n a t u r a l p r o p p i n g o f f r a c t u r e s
w i t h h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y m a t e r i a l . F o l l o w i n g discussion o f general aspects, expla-
n a t i o n s o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s o n p l a t e V I a r e g i v e n , and g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s
and o u t c r o p l o c a l i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t e d examples a r e q u o t e d .
 311

3.13.6.1. General aspects

Mud and sand c r a c k s a r e a s p e c i a l t y p e o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s which o r i g i n a t e
a l r e a d y d u r i n g f o r m a t i o n o f sedimentary r o c k s by s h r i n k a g e o f cohesive d e p o s i t s
as a consequence o f s u b a e r i a l d e s i c c a t i o n o r subaquatic s y n e r e s i s . P r e f e r e n t i a l -
l y muddy d e p o s i t s , b u t a l s o sandy sediments c o n t a i n i n g d i s p e r s e d mud p a r t i c l e s
c r a c k upon d r y i n g and become i n t e r s e c t e d by p o l y g o n a l d e s i c c a t i o n f r a c t u r e s
which s t a y open f o r t h e t i m e o f s u b a e r i a l o r subaquatic exposure. C o n t i n u i n g ag-
g r a d a t i o n o f t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l s u b m i l i e u s l a t e r , however, l e a d s i n most cases t o
n a t u r a l p r o p p i n g o f t h e p o l y g o n a l synsedimentary s h r i n k a g e f r a c t u r e systems
w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y sand, b u t s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o g r a v e l . S i m i l a r l y as s y n t h e t i c
p r o p p i n g o f n a t u r a l j o i n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.8.6.) and h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d
f r a c t u r e s , n a t u r a l p r o p p i n g o f d e p o s i t i o n a l s h r i n k a g e c r a c k s takes almost a l -
ways p l a c e by p l u g g i n g w i t h c o a r s e r g r a i n s i z e s than t h e s u r r o u n d i n g r o c k ma-
t r i x , thereby p r i m a r i l y also c r e a t i n g a considerable c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.2. and 4.6.1.) which enables t h e n a t u r a l l y propped s h r i n k a g e
c r a c k s t o become p r e f e r e n t i a l f l o w channels f o r p o r e s o l u t i o n s d u r i n g e a r l y d i a -
genes is .

I n c o n t r a s t t o p r o p p a n t packages i n h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s , how-
ever, p r o g r e s s i v e b u r i a l d i a g e n e s i s i n t h e sedimentary column c o n t a i n i n g t h e
s y n g e n e t i c n a t u r a l c r a c k i n f i l l i n g s o f t e n l e a d s t o enhanced cementation o f t h e
c o a r s e r m a t e r i a l p l u g g i n g t h e s h r i n k a g e c r a c k s as a consequence o f t h e i r b e t t e r
t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y f o r p o r e s o l u t i o n s and t h e r e f o r e d e s t r u c t i o n o f p o r o s i t y and
p e r m e a b i l i t y , and thus i n advanced p o s t s e d i m e n t a r y h i s t o r y , t h e r o l e o f t h e i n -
f i l l e d n a t u r a l c r a c k systems i s c o n v e r t e d f r o m d r a i n a g e p a t h s t o f l o w b a r r i e r s .
Another e f f e c t comparable t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g i s t h e i n h i b i t i o n o f
c l o s u r e o f t h e c r a c k by t h e p l u g g i n g sand o r g r a v e l . A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s no p r e s -
s u r e necessary t o keep t h e s h r i n k a g e c r a c k s open s h o r t l y a f t e r f o r m a t i o n due t o
c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l upon t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m wet v i a damp
t o d r y s t a t e , t h e p r o p p i n g w i t h sand o r g r a v e l p r e v e n t s c l o s u r e d u r i n g l a t e r bu-
r i a l d i a g e n e s i s by compressive l a t e r a l f o r c e s . The n a t u r a l s h r i n k a g e c r a c k sys-
tems a r e p a l a e o e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n d i c a t o r s o f i n t e r r u p t i o n o f s e d i -
m e n t a t i o n and s u b a e r i a l o r s h a l l o w subaquatic exposure o f d e p o s i t i o n a l s u r f a c e s
where t h e c r a c k s a r e formed. A s most o f t h e p o l y g o n a l n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems
o r i g i n a t e by s u b a e r i a l d e s i c c a t i o n , these sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s a r e a d e c i s i v e
i n d i c a t o r o f a t l e a s t temporary t e r r e s t r i a l c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g f o r m a t i o n o f t h e
s t r a t a and t h e r e f o r e a l l o w a l s o some c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g n o t o n l y t h e palaeo-
environmental s i t u a t i o n , b u t a l s o t h e g e o t e c t o n i c a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e beds.

3.13.6.2. Explanations o f illustrations on plate VI

1 - 3 : D e s i c c a t i o n s h r i n k a g e c r a c k s i n r e c e n t muddy sediments s t a y open due
t o s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s as a consequence o f m a t e r i a l c o n t r a c t i o n
and e x t e n s i o n a l c r a c k i n g . Several f r a c t u r e systems f o r m i n g a p o l y g o n a l network
o r i g i n a t e i n v a r i o u s cases, w i t h f r a c t u r e w i d t h d e c r e a s i n g w i t h s u c c e s s i v e l y
higher order o f the crack patterns. Fracture width o f the oldest, f i r s t - o r d e r
c r a c k network i s m a i n l y a f u n c t i o n o f i n t e n s i t y o f d r y i n g and t h i c k n e s s o f t h e
mud l a y e r , w i t h t h e t h i c k e r t h e mud bed, t h e deeper t h e wedge-shaped s t r a i g h t ,
c u r v e d o r i r r e g u l a r l y sinuous d e s i c c a t i o n c r a c k s can r e a c h downwards i n t o t h e
f i n e - g r a i n e d d e p o s i t s and t h e r e f o r e t h e b r o a d e r t h e opening a t t h e s u r f a c e .
Downwards f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n mud s t r a t a u s u a l l y i s t e r m i n a t e d a t t h e i n t e r -
f a c e t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g sand bed, b u t i n some cases even c o n t i n u e s i n t o t h e sand
l a y e r , a l t h o u g h i n l i m i t e d w i d t h and depth. L a t e r a l p r o p a g a t i o n o f s h r i n k a g e
c r a c k s i s r e s t r i c t e d due t o t h e o r i g i n o f p o l y g o n a l p a t t e r n s as a r e s u l t o f
numerous s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n i t i a t i n g c r a c k s which meet t o f o r m t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
network, g i v i n g r i s e t o a d e n d r i t i c system o f m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s o f d i f f e r e n t
o r d e r . The t y p i c a l p e n t a - and/or hexagonal s h r i n k a g e c r a c k p a t t e r n o r i g i n a t e s
i n b o t h t h i c k ( 1 - 2 ) and t h i n ( 3 ) mud l a y e r s . I n f i l l i n g o f t h e open c r a c k s
 312

w i t h sand d u r i n g subsequently c o n t i n u i n g s e d i m e n t a t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e d e s i c c a -
t i o n e v e n t t e m p o r a r i l y i n t e r r u p t i n g d e p o s i t i o n props t h e f r a c t u r e s w i t h c o a r s e r
m a t e r i a l , b u t d u r i n g compaction, t h e mud l a y e r s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y s e t t l i n g espe-
c i a l l y i f h a v i n g g r e a t e r t h i c k n e s s and t h e r e f o r e t h e sand wedges i n f i l l i n g t h e
n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a r e deformed i n a p l a s t i c manner.

4 - 7 : Plugging o f n a t u r a l shrinkage cracks during continuing deposition

r e p r e s e n t s n a t u r a l p r o p p i n g o f synsedimentary f r a c t u r e s ( c f . a l s o p l a t e XI/7)
w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y c o a r s e r m a t e r i a l t h a n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g r o c k m a t r i x (5 - 6 ) ,
b u t s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o f i n e r g r a i n s i z e s than t h a t o f t h e h o s t r o c k ( 4 ) .
D e s i c c a t i o n f r a c t u r e s i n mud and sand a r e u s u a l l y i n f i l l e d by f i n e t o c o a r s e
sand ( 6 - 7 ) , b u t i n some cases a l s o w i t h f i n e g r a v e l (5), t h e r e b y c r e a t i n g an
o r i g i n a l l y c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t which g i v e s r i s e t o a s i g n i f i c a n t
c o n d u c t i v i t y d i f f e r e n c e f o r p o r e s o l u t i o n s i n e a r l y d i a g e n e s i s . T h i s con-
d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t i s t h e reason f o r t h e f r e q u e n t b l e a c h i n g o f b o t h sand pack-
ages i n t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems ( 6 ) as w e l l as s u r r o u n d i n g h o s t r o c k ma-
t r i x . Advanced b u r i a l d i a g e n e s i s , however, l e a d s t o p r e f e r e n t i a l p e r m e a b i l i t y
d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e sand wedges i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e f i n e r sediments by f r e q u e n t l y
more i n t e n s e cementation i n t h e l a r g e r p o r e spaces o f t h e n a t u r a l l y propped
f r a c t u r e . I n some cases, s y n d e p o s i t i o n a l o r e a r l y p o s t s e d i m e n t a r y mechanical i n -
f i l t r a t i o n and m i g r a t i o n o f c l a y m i n e r a l s i n t h e p o r e space i s a l s o a s i g n i f i -
c a n t f a c t o r o f c o n d u c t i v i t y impairment o f t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k p l u g s s i m i l a r l y as
happening t o p r o p p a n t packages i n h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s by r e d i s t r i b u -
t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e s i d u e s d e r i v i n g f r o m chemical b r e a k i n g and thermal
d e g r a d a t i o n as w e l l as f i l t e r cake a c c u m u l a t i o n on f r a c t u r e w a l l s .

8 : Cooling shrinkage cracks are a special f e a t u r e o f syngenetic f r a c t u r e s

and r e s u l t f r o m a l t e r n a t i n g h e a t i n g and c o o l i n g o f sedimentary b l o c k s i n c o r p o -
r a t e d i n t o v o l c a n i c t u f f s and l a v a a t t h e boundary between v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n
p i p e and d e p o s i t i o n a l bed column. L i t h i f i e d sediments b o r d e r i n g t h e w a l l o f t h e
v o l c a n i c p i p e become d e t r a c t e d by t h e high-energy h o t gas and f l u i d stream and
a r e e i t h e r e j e c t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t e p h r a p a r t i c l e s o r a r e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e ma-
t e r i a l remaining i n the pipe. While e j e c t e d pieces g e n e r a l l y are f i r s t n o t suf-
f i c i e n t l y heated up and second t o o q u i c k l y c o o l e d down f o r e n a b l i n g g e n e r a t i o n
o f s h r i n k a g e cracks, b l o c k s implemented i n t o t h e l a v a o r t u f f s i n t h e p i p e a r e
s l o w l y heated up t o almost m e l t i n g temperatures which r e s u l t s i n expansion o f
t h e m a t r i x , and l a t e r w i t h c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f t h e v o l c a n i c r o c k s c o o l s l o w l y t o
m o d e r a t e l y r a p i d l y down t o f i n a l l y geothermic temperature i n c l u d i n g c o n t r a c t i o n
o f t h e m a t e r i a l , and d u r i n g t h i s process, p o l y g o n a l j o i n t p a t t e r n s c o n s i s t i n g
o f systems o f more o r l e s s v e r t i c a l c r a c k s o r i g i n a t e b o t h i n v o l c a n i c l a v a
( p l a t e XI/5 - 6 ) and d e p o s i t i o n a l x e n o l i t h s . I n c o n t r a s t t o sedimentary mud
l a y e r s where d e s i c c a t i o n c r a c k s f o r m by s h r i n k a g e under s u b a e r i a l e x p o s i t i o n
c h i e f l y as a consequence o f d r y i n g by i n s o l a t i o n , and f r a c t u r e w i d t h and p o l y -
gon diameter a r e m a i n l y a f u n c t i o n o f d e s i c c a t i o n i n t e n s i t y and bed t h i c k n e s s ,
t h e parameters o f c o o l i n g j o i n t systems i n c l u d i n g m a i n l y polygon d i a m e t e r a r e
p r i m a r i l y c o n t r o l l e d by m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s such as chemical c o m p o s i t i o n o f
l a v a o r sedimentary rock, and o n l y s e c o n d a r i l y a l s o by u n i t t h i c k n e s s . W h i l e ge-
n e r a l l y q u i t e small c o o l i n g s h r i n k a g e c r a c k s f o r m i n sedimentary sandstone xeno-
l i t h s as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r h i g h s i l i c a c o n t e n t and a l s o as an e f f e c t o f t h e
small s i z e o f t h e i n c o r p o r a t e d b l o c k s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e l a r g e volume o f t h e
s u r r o u n d i n g v o l c a n i c r o c k m a t r i x , l a r g e r f r a c t u r e systems o r i g i n a t e i n b a s a l t i c
l a v a which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by low s i l i c a shares.

3.13.6.3. Geological format ions and

outcrop localities of presented examples
1 - 3 : Recent i n u n d a t i o n s o f sand p l a i n s w i t h d e p o s i t i o n o f muddy l a y e r s i n
q u i e t w a t e r upon waning o f t h e f l o o d s and p r o g r e s s i v e emergence o f t h e f i n e -
g r a i n e d sediments. 1 - 2 : Diameter o f f i g u r e s a b t . 1 . 5 m and 0.8 m, r e s p e c t i v e -
l y . Q u a r r y a t t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e R o t e r Main v a l l e y s o u t h e a s t o f U n t e r s t e i -
nach between B a y r e u t h and Wei denberg/Northeastern B a v a r i a (Germany FRG) .
 313

Plate V I
 314

3 : Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 1 m. Weser f l o o d p l a i n near H o l z m i n d e n / S o l l i n g (Ger-

many FRG). 4 - 6 : New Red Sandstone ( C a r b o n i f e r o u s t o Permian ( R o t l i e g e n d ) and
T r i a s s i c ) o f South Devon ( E n g l a n d ) . 4 : Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 0.8 m. Rocks a t
t h e shore between Mackerel Cove and Labrador Bay between Torquay and Shaldon
( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 50 000, sheet 202 Torbay and South Dartmoor, between
r 92 900, h 69 100 and r 93 560, h 70 820. 5 - 6 : Diameter o f f i g u r e s a b t .
0.5 m and 0 . 6 m, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Rocks a t t h e shore near H o l l i c o m b e between Paign-
t o n and Torquay ( s h e e t 202 Torbay and South Oartmoor, r 89 950, h 62 300).
7 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f t h e Western H o l y Cross Mountains ( P o l a n d ) . Diameter
o f f i g u r e a b t . 0.4 m. Q u a r r y a t t h e Sosnowica h i l l west o f Kajetanbw between
K i e l c e and Zagnahsk. 8 : T e r t i a r y v o l c a n i c p i p e f i l l i n g c o n t a i n i n g Buntsand-
s t e i n x e n o l i t h s in Western E i f e l (Germany FRG). Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 0 . 8 m.
Q u a r r y a t t h e Arensberg n o r t h e a s t o f Z i l s d o r f ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 25 000,
sheet 5706 H i l l e s h e i m , r 52 120, h 72 720). F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f t h e s e c t i o n s
f i g u r e d c f . MADER (1985 a, 1985 b ) .

3.13.7. Lacustrine and floodplain mud drapes in

fluvial channel and alluvial playa sandstones
The f e a t u r e s p r e s e n t e d on p l a t e V I I document t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a c u s t r i n e
mud drapes and f l u v i a l f l o o d p l a i n mud l a y e r s in f l u v i a l channel and a l l u v i a l
p l a y a sandstones and t h e i r impact on r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and p r o p a g a t i o n o f
n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f g e n e r a l aspects, e x p l a -
n a t i o n s of t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e \I11 a r e given, and g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s
and o u t c r o p l o c a l i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t e d examples a r e quoted.

3.13.7.1. General aspects

V a r i o u s t y p e s o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y a r e c r e a t e d by reworked i n t r a f o r m a -
t i o n a l mud c l a s t s ( l ) , p a t c h i l y d i s t r i b u t e d carbonate cement ( Z ) , t h i n mud d r a -
pes i n t e r c a l a t e d i n t o sandstones and conglomerates ( 5 - 6 as w e l l as p l a t e s
III/l- 2, I V / 4 - 8 and I X ) , b i o t u r b a t i o n by s e d i m e n t - f e e d i n g organisms ( 7 ) a n d
c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l f o r m a t i o n ( 8 as w e l l as p l a t e V). I n a d d i t i o n t o i r r e g u l a r
e r o s i o n a l boundaries ( c f . p l a t e s I / 7 , I V / 6 - 8 and V/3 - 8 ) , c h a n n e l i z e d i n t e r -
v e n t i o n s o f o t h e r d e p o s i t types ( c f . p l a t e s I / 7 , I I / 7 - 8, V/3 - 4 and V111/7),
and i n t e r b e d d i n g o f i s o l a t e d g r a v e l t r a i n s ( c f . p l a t e V/7), t h e mentioned examp-
l e s o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y a r e g e n e r a l l y d e t e r i o r a t i n g pay zone communica-
t i o n , and because o f t h e s m a l l e r d r a i n a g e area w i t h worse hydrocarbon f l o w con-
d i t i o n s , such inhomogeneous sediments f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g i n o r d e r t o achieve economical p r o d u c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 3 . 4 . and
4.2.4.1.).

The f i g u r e d cases a r e common f e a t u r e s i n t e r r e s t r i a l r e d bed sequences o f

R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n i n M i d d l e Europe and have t o be expected t o o c c u r
i n v a r i o u s o t h e r s i m i l a r successions o f a e o l i a n and f l u v i a l o r i g i n w i t h abun-
d a n t l y f l u c t u a t i n g sedimentary c o n d i t i o n s . R e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s do n o t
o n l y have a n e g a t i v e impact on pay zone communication, b u t a l s o tend :a i n -
f l u e n c e t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s by a t t e n u a t i n g and
d e f l e c t i n g t h e p e n e t r a t i n g c r a c k s when c r o s s i n g t h e boundaries o f l i t h o f a c i e s
types w i t h d i f f e r e n t r o c k mechanical p r o p e r t i e s .

3.13.7.2. Explanations o f illustrations on plate VII

1 : Channelized i n t e r c a l a t i o n s o f c o a r s e r l i g h t sandstones c o n t a i n i n g t r a i n s
o f i n t r a f o r m a t i o n a l l y reworked mud c l a s t s i n t o f i n e r dark sandstones a r e common
f e a t u r e s i n b r a i d e d - r i v e r sediments which o r i g i n a t e d i n s h a l l o w t o m o d e r a t e l y
deep watercourses o f an i n t e r w o v e n stream network where c u t o f f o f f l o w p a t h s
and changing w a t e r l e v e l f r e q u e n t l y p r o v i d e d c o n s i d e r a b l e c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y
f l u c t u a t i o n s and p u l s a t i o n s . The secondary w h i t e c o l o u r o f t h e o r i g i n a l l y a l s o
 315

PlateI ' UII

 316

r e d c o a r s e r s a n d s t o n e s i s t h e c l e a r e s t e x p r e s s i o n o f h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y and
therefore p r e f e r e n t i a l pore water f l u x during course o f the diagenetical evolu-
t i o n . B l e a c h i n g o f t h e c o a r s e r l a y e r s , however, i s o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h more
i n t e n s e c e m e n t a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e t h e p r i m a r i l y s u p e r i o r r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y due
t o h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y i s in many c a s e s s e c o n d a r i l y r e v e r s e d and f i n e r - g r a i n e d
s a n d s t o n e s may a c t u a l l y have b e t t e r f l o w c o n d i t i o n s . C o m p l e t e l y i s o l a t e d
c h a n n e l i z e d sand b o d i e s o f f a v o u r a b l e p e t r o p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s c a n be l a t e r a l l y
connected t o comparable l i t h o f a c i e s u n i t s by communication f r a c t u r i n g ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.10.2.1.) i n order t o a l i g n various separated hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r
s e c t i o n s t o one l o n g d r a i n a g e p a t h and t o a l l o w e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e w i t h d r a -
w a l t h r o u g h t h e we1 1b o r e .

2 : P a t c h e s and s p o t s o f c a r b o n a t e cement c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e h i g h l i g h t e d b y
l i g h t c o l o u r i n t h e u s u a l l y d a r k s a n d s t o n e s w i t h o u t c a r b o n a t e cement. The i r r e -
g u l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e p o r e cement i n a more o r l e s s homogeneous d e t r i t a l ma-
t r i x i s a l s o a prominent element o f r e s e r v o i r heterogeneity. P r e d i c t i o n o f c a r -
b o n a t e cement d i s t r i b u t i o n i s f r e q u e n t l y q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d , because c a r b o n a t e
i s i n a d d i t i o n t o i t s p r i m a r y c o n c e n t r a t i o n s u b j e c t t o abundant m o b i l i z a t i o n
and r e p r e c i p i t a t i o n d u r i n g c o u r s e o f t h e w h o l e d i a g e n e t i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f t h e r e -
s e r v o i r r o c k s . C a r b o n a t e cement c h i e f l y i n t r o d u c e s f l o w b a r r i e r s i n t o t h e o t h e r -
w i s e c o m m u n i c a t i n g s e d i m e n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) , whereas d e f l e c t i o n o f p r o -
p a g a t i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i s l e s s p r e v a l e n t as a consequence o f o n l y m i n o r
changes in m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . ) .

3 : T h i n f l u v i a l channel sandstones i n t e r c a l a t e d i n t o t h i c k e r f l u v i a l over-

bank mudstones a r e i s o l a t e d s h e e t r e s e r v o i r s w h i c h o n l y c o n t a i n a t t r a c t i v e h y -
d r o c a r b o n r e s e r v e s i n c a s e o f s u f f i c i e n t l a t e r a l e x t e n s i o n o f t h e sand b o d i e s .
I f m a t r i x and n a t u r a l c r a c k p e r m e a b i l i t y a r e n o t a l l o w i n g e c o n o m i c a l p r o d u c -
tion, s t i m u l a t i o n b y s m a l l - s c a l e o p e r a t i o n s w i t h v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e g r o w t h con-
t a i n m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . ) i s a s u i t a b l e p o s s i b i l i t y o f enhancement o f p r o -
s p e c t i v i t y . V e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e c o n t a i n m e n t in such t h i n r e s e r v o i r s i s no m a j o r
p r o b l e m in c a s e of s u f f i c i e n t t h i c k n e s s o f t h e u n d e r - and o v e r l y i n g mudstone
s e a l s , whereas t h i n n e r mudstone b a r r i e r s b e a r t h e d a n g e r o f u n c o n t r o l l e d f r a c -
t u r e breakthrough t o neighbouring sandstone h o r i z o n s e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e c r i t i c a l
p r e s s u r e and i n j e c t i o n r a t e i s exceeded.

4 : I n f i n e - g r a i n e d r i p p l e - l a m i n a t e d l a c u s t r i n e p l a y a sandstones which were

l a i d down in v e r y s h a l l o w w a t e r c o u r s e s t o a l m o s t u n c o n f i n e d s h e e t f l o o d s w i t h
g e n t l e f l o w c o n d i t i o n s i n a l a r g e i n l a n d playa, n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s are accentua-
t e d b y b l e a c h i n g seams a l o n g t h e v e r t i c a l j o i n t s w h i c h t e s t i f y t o t h e s u p e r i o r
p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e normal c r a c k s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e m a t r i x o f t h e c l a s t i c r e -
s e r v o i r . P r e f e r e n t i a l f l o w o f pore s o l u t i o n s along the n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a l s o
r e s u l t e d i n removal o f t h e r e d c o l o u r i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e cracks, w i t h thus
t h e b l e a c h e d b e l t s i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m a j o r f l o w p a t h s in t h e
s e d i m e n t a r y c o l u m n . The l o n g t h i n n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s u n d e r l i n e d b y t h e d e c o l o u r a -
t i o n seams a r e a l s o i n s t r u c t i v e m o d e l s o f t h e n e t w o r k o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s
surrounded by a b e l t o f f l u i d i n v a s i o n i n t o the m a t r i x o f the r e s e r v o i r rock.

5 - 6 : T h i n mudstone d r a p e s o f s h e e t - l i k e o r l e n t i c u l a r g e o m e t r y i n t e r c a -
l a t e d i n t o t h i c k e r c o n g l o m e r a t e s and s a n d s t o n e s i l l u s t r a t e r a p i d l y f l u c t u a t i n g
s e d i m e n t a r y c o n d i t i o n s in s h a l l o w t o m o d e r a t e l y deep b r a i d e d - r i v e r c h a n n e l s
f r o m h i g h - e n e r g y c u r r e n t s w i t h h i g h v e l o c i t y and c o n s i d e r a b l e e r o s i o n a l and
d e p o s i t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l t o l o w - e n e r g y f l o w o r even q u i e t w a t e r w i t h p o s s i b i l i -
t i e s o f s u s p e n s i o n s e t t l i n g o f mud i n p r o t e c t e d p a t c h e s o f w a t e r c o u r s e s and l a -
k e s . The s h a r p b o u n d a r i e s between t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l u n i t s u n d e r l i n e t h e q u i c k
changes o f p a l a e o e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s and a l s o document p r o n o u n c e d d i f f e r e n -
ces in r o c k m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h have s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on p r o p a g a -
t i n g h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s . C r o s s i n g o f such l i t h o l o g y c o n t r a s t s b y
p e n e t r a t i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i s i n e v i t a b l y l i n k e d w i t h a t t e n u a t i o n and de-
f l e c t i o n o f t h e s y n t h e t i c a l l y i n d u c e d c r a c k s , and h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s n e c e s s a r y t o
p e r m i t f u r t h e r f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n beyond t h e o b s t a c l e s c a n a t t h e s u r f a c e i n e x -
t r e m e c a s e s e v e n m i m i c k submature s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e j o b ( c f . sec-
 317

t i o n s 4.2.2.2.3. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) .

7 : A f t e r d e p o s i t i o n , g r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n and p e r m e a b i l i t y o f f l u v i a l
sandstones and conglomerates can be m o d i f i e d and d e t e r i o r a t e d i n terms o f commu-
n i c a t i o n and f l o w p o s s i b i l i t i e s by sediment-feeding organisms which d i g h o r i z o n -
t a l and v e r t i c a l burrows and tubes i n t o t h e d e p o s i t s exposed a t t h e b o t t o m o f
t h e s h a l l o w w a t e r b o d i e s . B i o g e n i c r e w o r k i n g o f t h e sediment m a t r i x by d w e l l i n g
worms r e s u l t s i n g r a i n - s i z e d i m i n u t i o n , more t i g h t e r p a c k i n g o f t h e framework
of t h e g r a i n s , and i n s e r t i o n o f f i n e - g r a i n e d m a t e r i a l , w i t h a l l these e f f e c t s
h a v i n g n e g a t i v e impact on r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y . As no m a j o r changes i n r o c k mecha-
n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e i n t r o d u c e d , b i o t u r b a t i o n o f f l u v i a l sandstones has ge-
n e r a l l y h a r d l y any i n f l u e n c e on p r o p a g a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s , b u t has i m -
p o r t a n t consequences f o r r e s e r v o i r communication and i n case o f abundant d i s t r i -
b u t i o n can be t h e reason o f r e q u i r e m e n t o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n .

8 : C a l c r e t e pedogenesis w i t h g r o w t h o f n o d u l a r carbonate c o n c r e t i o n s p r e -
d o m i n a n t l y i n overbank mudstones, b u t t o s u b o r d i n a t e amounts a l s o i n f l u v i a l
channel sandstones and r a r e l y even i n a e o l i a n dune sands, i s a common f e a t u r e
o r p o s t s e d i m e n t a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n c o n t i n e n t a l sequences w h i c h o r i g i n a t e d un-
d e r s e m i - a r i d p a l a e o c l i m a t o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . The d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f d i s t r i b u -
t i o n o f pedogenic carbonates which c h i e f l y comprise autochthonous c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f g l a e b u l e s ( c f . a l s o p l a t e X/4 and 6 ) and a g g l o m e r a t i o n o f reworked fragments
o f carbonate c o n c r e t i o n s i n b r e c c i a s ( c f . p l a t e V/3 - 4) r e p r e s e n t s conside-
r a b l e r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y i n p a r t s o f t h e s e r i e s . As a consequence o f t h e
predominant c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f pedogenic carbonate c o n c r e t i o n s i n overbank mudsto-
nes, c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l f o r m a t i o n has f r e q u e n t l y o n l y m i n o r impact on r e s e r v o i r
communication, b u t i s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e propa-
g a t i o n due t o i n t r o d u c t i o n o f changes o f r o c k mechanical p r o p e r t i e s l e a d i n g t o
a t t e n u a t i o n and d e f l e c t i o n o f p e n e t r a t i n g c r a c k s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.4. and
4.2.3.4.).

3.13.7.3. Geological formations and

outcrop localities of presented examples
1 : O l d Red Sandstone (Devonian) o f Wales ( G r e a t B r i t a i n ) . Diameter of f i -
gure a b t . 2.2 m. Rocks a t t h e shore around M i l f o r d Haven. 2 : C a r b o n i f e r o u s
F o u n t a i n F o r m a t i o n o f t h e Rocky Mountains F r o n t H i l l Range i n Colorado (USA).
Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 2.8 m. Rocks a t t h e shore o f t h e H o r s e t o o t h r e s e r v o i r
near F o r t C o l l i n s n o r t h o f Denver. 3 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n
H o l y Cross Mountains ( P o l a n d ) . Oiameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 2.4 m. Rocks and sec-
t i o n s a t t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e Pokrzywinska v a l l e y between Wieloborowice and
Pokrzywnica ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 100 000, sheet Bodzentyn, pas 45, s l u p 32,
between r 41 400, h 80 500 and r 40 800, h 8 1 000). 4 - 5 : Upper R o t l i e g e n d o f
t h e Saar-Nahe S y n c l i n e (Germany FRG). 4 : Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 2 m. Rocks a t
t h e Kahlenberg s o u t h o f Nackenheim ( s h e e t C 6314 Mainz, r 52 800, h 30 600).
5 : Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 1.5 m. Rocks a t t h e western s i d e o f t h e Burgberg i n
t h e T r o l l b a c h v a l l e y e a s t n o r t h e a s t o f Burglayen ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 25 000,
s h e e t 6013 Bingen, r 19 600, h 33 370). 6 : Upper B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f t h e N o r t h e r n
S o l l i n g (Germany FRG). Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 0.6 m. Q u a r r y a t t h e southwes-
t e r n s i d e o f t h e Sundern e a s t o f Negenborn near S t a d t o l d e n d o r f ( s h e e t 4123
S t a d t o l d e n d o r f , r 41 370, h 50 9 6 0 ) . 7 : Lower Permian ( R o t l i e g e n d ) t o Upper
C a r b o n i f e r o u s (New Red Sandstone) o f South Devon (England). Diameter o f f i g u r e
a b t . 1 m. Rocks a t t h e shore near S a l t e r n Cove between P a i g n t o n and Broadsands
( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 50 000, sheet 202 Torbay and South Dartmoor, r 89 450,
h 58 950). 8 : M i d d l e T r i a s s i c o f t h e LodGve B a s i n ( F r a n c e ) . Diameter of f i g u r e
a b t . 1.2 m. Rocks a t t h e w e s t e r n s i d e o f t h e h i l l n o r t h o f La L i e u d e between
Brenas and Octon southwest o f Lodeve. F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f t h e s e c t i o n s
f i g u r e d c f . MAOER (1985 a, 1985 b ) .
 318

3.13.8. Natural fractures and sedimentary heterogeneities in

cross-stratified aeolian dune and sheet sands as well as fluvial
channel sands
The f e a t u r e s p r e s e n t e d on p l a t e V I I I document t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s i n c r o s s - s t r a t i f i e d and h o r i z o n t a l - l a m i n a t e d a e o l i a n dune and s h e e t
sands as w e l l as f l u v i a l c h a n n e l sands and t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s e d i m e n t a r y
bedding s t r u c t u r e s f o r r e s e r v o i r heterogeneity. F o l l o w i n g discussion o f general
a s p e c t s , e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e V I I I a r e g i v e n , and g e o l o g i -
c a l f o r m a t i o n s and o u t c r o p l o c a l i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t e d examples a r e q u o t e d .

3.13.8.1. General aspects

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n t e r r e s t r i a l s e d i m e n t s o f R o t l i e g e n d
and B u n t s a n d s t e i n i n M i d d l e E u r o p e depends p r i m a r i l y o n r o c k t y p e and s e c o n d a r i -
l y a l s o on d e p o s i t i o n a l f a c i e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.8.1.). While f l u v i a l sandstones
a r e f r e q u e n t l y i n t e n s e l y l i t h i f i e d and t h e r e f o r e a r e a l s o o f t e n p r o m i n e n t l y na-
t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d , a e o l i a n s a n d s t o n e s a r e i n many c a s e s o n l y w e a k l y c o n s o l i d a -
t e d and do n o t e x h i b i t w e l l r e c o g n i z a b l e n a t u r a l c r a c k s . L e n g t h and s p a c i n g o f
n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n f l u v i a l sandstones i s a l s o a f u n c t i o n o f t h i c k n e s s o f t h e
s e d i m e n t s . C o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y i s i n t r o d u c e d b y s m a l l - o r me-
dium-scale i n t e r b e d d i n g o f f l u v i a l channel sandstones w i t h a l l u v i a l overbank
mudstones o r a e o l i a n dune and s h e e t sands. A d d i t i o n a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e geo-
m e t r i c a l framework as w e l l as f u r t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a t t e n u a t i o n and d e f l e c -
t i o n o f propagating h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e created by i r r e g u l a r morphology o f
f l u v i a l s a n d s t o n e s due t o e r o s i v e c h a n n e l f o r m s , d e p o s i t i o n a l l e n t i c u l a r o u t l i -
nes and d e f o r m a t i o n a l n o d u l a r shapes.

3.13.8.2. Explanations of illustrations on plate VIII

1 - 2 : Small-scale i n t e r b e d d i n g o f i n t e n s e l y - l i t h i f i e d f l u v i a l sandstones
e x h i b i t i n g w e l l - d e v e l o p e d n a t u r a l f r a c t u r i n g and w e a k l y - c o n s o l i d a t e d aeolian
s a n d s t o n e s showing a l m o s t n o n a t u r a l c r a c k i n g a r e t h e m o s t w i d e s p r e a d f a c i e s a s -
s o c i a t i o n i n t h e M i d d l e Buntsandstein i n e x t e n s i v e p a r t s o f t h e Mid-European
B a s i n . Such a l t e r n a t i n g sequences o f d i f f e r e n t m a t r i x and f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y
r e p r e s e n t q u i t e h e t e r o g e n e o u s r e s e r v o i r s b o t h i n t e r m s o f f l o w i n h i b i t i o n and
hydraulic fracture modification ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.3.4.). A d d i t i o n a l va-
r i a b i l i t i e s a r e t r i g g e r e d b y d i f f e r e n t t h i c k n e s s and s p a c i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
l a y e r s . Comparable i n t e r b e d d e d s u c c e s s i o n s a r e among t h e t o p c a n d i d a t e s f o r mas-
s i v e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y R o t l i e g e n d gas r e -
s e r v o i r s i n o r d e r t o c o n n e c t t h e v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l t h i n l a y e r s o f h i g h p a y qua-
l i t y a c r o s s t h e s e p a r a t i n g t i g h t i n t e r v a l s b y a l a r g e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e as w e l l
as t o e x t e n d t h e d r a i n a g e h o r i z o n t a l l y f a r o u t i n t o t h e p a y zone away f r o m t h e
b o r e h o l e ( v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g ; c f . section 4.10.).
The p r e s e n t e d examples c a n s e r v e as m o d e l s f o r o t h e r t y p e s o f i n t e r b e d d i n g o f
f a c i e s e l e m e n t s o f d i f f e r e n t r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y such as d r y , damp and w e t p l a y a
sediments which a r e a l s o prominent candidates f o r l a r g e - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c prop-
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e gas p r o d u c -
t i o n r a t e s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 . and 3 . 1 0 . 1 . ) .

3 : S m a l l - s c a l e i n t e r b e d d i n g o f l i g h t f l u v i a l c h a n n e l o r s h e e t f l o o d sand-
s t o n e s and d a r k a l l u v i a l o v e r b a n k p l a i n mudstones a l s o r e p r e s e n t a c o n s i d e r a b l y
h e t e r o g e n e o u s p i l e o f c o n t i n e n t a l s e d i m e n t s . The f l u v i a l s a n d s t o n e s o r i g i n a t e d
b y m i g r a t i o n o f b a r s and r i p p l e s a l o n g t h e f l o o r o f s h a l l o w t o m o d e r a t e l y deep
r i v e r c o u r s e s o r a c r o s s i n t e r c h a n n e l f l a t s i n u n d a t e d b y s h e e t f l o o d s and a r e se-
p a r a t e d b y a l l u v i a l t o p s t r a t u m mudstones w h i c h were l a i d down i n s h a l l o w l a k e s
and ponds i n t h e o v e r b a n k f l a t between t h e s t r e a m s . R e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y i s
c r e a t e d b y d i f f e r e n t t h i c k n e s s and s p a c i n g o f s a n d s t o n e s and mudstones as w e l l
as r e s t r i c t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s t o t h e s a n d s t o n e s where s p a c i n g , s i z e and
 319

Plate VIII
 320
opening o f t h e c r a c k s depends on t h i c k n e s s and l i t h i f i c a t i o n o f t h e sandstones.
Such sequences a l s o serve as models f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f
l a r g e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s f o r v e r t i c a l c o n n e c t i o n and commingling o f t h e i n d i v i -
dual l a y e r s w i t h h i g h r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y across t h e s e p a r a t i n g t i g h t b a r r i e r s
and t h e r e f o r e a l l o w i n g o f j o i n t p r o d u c t i o n o f a l o n g sequence i n s t e a d o f d r a i n -
i n g o n l y a l i m i t e d i n t e r v a l ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.10.). I n t e r b e d d e d sequences o f sand-
stones o f d i f f e r e n t o r i g i n and r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y as w e l l as sandstones and mud-
stones a r e q u i t e common i n R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f M i d d l e Europe and
t h e r e f o r e have t o be expected t o o c c u r a l s o i n many g a s - b e a r i n g s e c t i o n s o f t h e
g e o l o g i c a l column.

4 - 5 : I s o l a t e d s m a l l - s c a l e a e o l i a n dune and sheet sands w i t h i n t h i c k e r suc-

c e s s i o n s o f a l l u v i a l - f a n o r f l u v i a l sandstones and conglomerates a r e high-qua-
l i t y r e s e r v o i r s o f l i m i t e d t h i c k n e s s and e x t e n s i o n . As c l e a n a e o l i a n sands a r e
t h e b e s t gas r e s e r v o i r s i n R o t l i e g e n d and B u n t s a n d s t e i n i n M i d d l e Europe ( c f .
s e c t i o n 3.2.1.1.), empllasis o f e x p l o r a t i o n and development o f these f o r m a t i o n s
has t o be p u t on a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h i c k a e o l i a n dune sands ( c f . s e c t i o n s
II/1 - 6 ) i n t h e g a s - b e a r i n g zone. U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e i n t e r t o n g u i n g o f a e o l i a n
dunes and f l u v i a l b r a i d e d - r i v e r channels o r a l l u v i a l - f a n cones, l o b e s and r i v e r -
p l a i n s takes p r e d o m i n a n t l y p l a c e i n more s o u t h e r n f a c i e s zones c l o s e r t o t h e
m a r g i n o f t h e b a s i n w h i c h a r e nowadays near t h e s u r f a c e o r i n s h a l l o w d e p t h and
t h u s do n o t c o n t a i n gas accumulations ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.2.1.2.). T h i n i s o l a t e d aeo-
l i a n dune and sheet sands i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h i n t h i c k e r sequences o f p o o r e r r e s e r -
v o i r q u a l i t y a r e a l s o t y p i c a l f o r Wechselfolge sandstones i n t h e upper p a r t o f
t h e g a s - b e a r i n g R o t l i e g e n d s e c t i o n i n N o r t h w e s t Germany FRG ( c f . s e c t i o n s
3.2.1.3. and 3.10.1.)where t h e y achieve s u f f i c i e n t t h i c k n e s s t o be economical-
l y productive w i t h o u t proppant f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n .

6 - 7 : Channelized f l u v i a l sandstone b o d i e s i n t e r c a l a t e d i n t o a l l u v i a l o v e r -
bank mudstones ( c f . a l s o p l a t e s I/7, II/7 - 8, III/4 and V/3 - 4) a r e document-
i n g l i m i t e d l a t e r a l extension o f h i g h - q u a l i t y r e s e r v o i r f a c i e s w i t h i n continen-
t a l sequences which can be v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r p l a n n i n g o f w e l l spacing and s t i -
m u l a t i o n p a t t e r n s . I n c o n t r a s t t o c o n t i n u o u s s h e e t - t y p e sediments, lenticular
d e p o s i t s i m p l y r e s t r i c t e d r e s e r v o i r communication b o t h p r i o r t o and a f t e r hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.4.1.1.), because w i t h i n a p i l e o f
i s o l a t e d sandstone l e n s e s d i s p e r s e d w i t h i n mudstone successions, a l a r g e v e r t i -
c a l f r a c t u r e cannot connect a l l o f them as a consequence o f l i m i t e d d r a i n a g e
path extension w i t h respect t o the three-dimensional d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the i s o l a -
t e d r e s e r v o i r u n i t s . An improved s o l u t i o n c o u l d be a l t e r e d - s t r e s s network f r a c -
t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.9.4.1.3.)o r m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n a c r o s s - o r
s t a r - l i k e p a t t e r n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . ) i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e s e v e r a l d r a i n a g e ave-
nues which i n t o t a l i n t e r s e c t a l a r g e r number o f i s o l a t e d sand b o d i e s and con-
n e c t them t o t h e w e l l b o r e . Such pay zone columns r e q u i r e c a r e f u l economical eva-
l u a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f achievement o f s u f f i c i e n t p r o d u c t i o n
r a t e s and access t o enough r e s e r v e s t o j u s t i f y expensive t r e a t m e n t s . The i r r e g u -
l a r morphology o f t h e e r o s i o n a l boundaries o f f l u v i a l channels as w e l l as t h e
d e p o s i t i o n a l shape o f o t h e r l e n t i c u l a r sand b o d i e s p r o v i d e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f d i -
vergence o r convergence o f p r o p a g a t i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s , w i t h s p l i t t i n g and
merging o f bundles b e i n g e f f e c t s a d d i t i o n a l t o a t t e n u a t i o n and d e f l e c t i o n ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.2.3.4.).

8 : I n t e r b e d d e d f l u v i a l channel sandstones and a l l u v i a l overbank mudstones

a r e t y p i c a l f o r c o n t i n e n t a l b r a i d p l a i n sequences and a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d n o t o n l y
by changes o f r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x q u a l i t y , b u t a l s o o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e d i s t r i b u -
t i o n . W h i l e sandstones c o n t a i n w e l l - d e v e l o p e d n a t u r a l c r a c k s e s p e c i a l l y i f more
i n t e n s e l y l i t h i f i e d , mudstones a r e t i g h t b a r r i e r s s e a l i n g and s e p a r a t i n g t h e i n -
d i v i d u a l sandstone l a y e r s . Sharp boundaries between sandstones and mudstones as
a consequence o f r a p i d l y changing environmental c o n d i t i o n s f r o m h i g h l y - a g i t a t e d
f l o w i n g w a t e r t o q u i e t s t a n d i n g w a t e r i n f l u v i a l channels, overbank s h e e t f l o o d s
and i n t e r s t r e a m watercourses and l a k e s a r e a l s o marked boundaries o f d i f f e r e n t
r o c k mechanical p r o p e r t i e s i n f l u e n c i n g p r o p a g a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d
fractures.
 32 1

3.13.8.3. Geological formations and

outcrop local it ies of presented examples
1 - 2 : M i d d l e Buntsandstein o f t h e P f a l z e r Wald a t the western margin o f
the Rhinegraben v a l l e y (Germany FRG). Diameter o f f i g u r e s abt. 4 m each. Road
s e c t i o n a t the n o r t h e r n s i d e o f the Eckbach v a l l e y south o f Neuleiningen ( t o p o -
g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 25 000, sheet 6414 Grunstadt-West). 3 : M i d d l e Buntsandstein
o f t h e I s k a r v a l l e y ( B u l g a r i a ) . Diameter o f f i g u r e abt. 8 m. Rocks a t t h e eas-
t e r n s i d e o f t h e I s k a r v a l l e y e a s t o f Zerovo n o r t h o f S o f i a ( c f . MADER & CHATA-
LOV 1988). 4 - 5 : Lower Permian (Rotliegend) t o Upper Carboniferous (New Red
Sandstone) i n South Devon (England). Diameter o f f i g u r e s a b t . 3 m each. Rocks
at Roundham Head e a s t o f Paignton south o f Torbay ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map
1 : 50 000, sheet 202 Torbay and South Dartmoor, r 89 800, h 60 000). 6 : Rot-
l i e g e n d (Lower Permian) o f the I s k a r v a l l e y ( B u l g a r i a ) . Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t .
1.5 m. Rocks a t the road a t the western s i d e o f the I s k a r v a l l e y between Novi
I s k a r and Rebrovo n o r t h o f S o f i a . 7 : M i d d l e Buntsandstein o f the Northeastern
Holy Cross Mountains (Poland). Diameter o f f i g u r e abt. 2 m. Q u a r r y a t t h e south-
western s i d e o f t h e h i l l e a s t o f J a r u g i between Stryczowice and Czerwona Gbra
near Ostrowiec Swietokrzyski ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 100 000, sheet Bodzentyn,
pas 45, szup 32, r 52 700, h 74 200). 8 : Upper Buntsandstein o f t h e I s k a r
v a l l e y ( B u l g a r i a ) . Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 5 m. Rocks a t t h e western s i d e o f
the I s k a r v a l l e y west and northwest o f Zerovo n o r t h o f S o f i a ( c f . MADER & CHA-
TALOV 1988). F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f t h e s e c t i o n s f i g u r e d c f . MADER (1985 a,
1985 b ) .
3.13.9. Sedimentary and deformational features of lacustrine mud
drapes in f luvial channel, overbank and alluvial playa sandstone
The p a t t e r n s f i g u r e d on p l a t e I X document the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a c u s t r i n e mud
drapes and lenses i n f l u v i a l channel and overbank sandstone sediments as w e l l
as sandy p l a y a deposits, and t h e i r impact on propagation o f n a t u r a l and hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r e s i n sandstones as w e l l as t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r r e s e r v o i r hetero-
g e n e i t y and a n i s o t r o p y . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f general aspects, e x p l a n a t i o n s
o f the i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e I X are given, and g e o l o g i c a l formations and o u t -
crop l o c a l i t i e s o f the presented examples are quoted.

3.13.9.1. General aspects

Small-scale mudstone i n t e r c a l a t i o n s i n t o sandstone beds are prominent examp-
l e s o f r e s e r v o i r heterogeneity r e s u l t i n g i n f l o w i n h i b i t i o n and r e s t r i c t i o n i n
several d i r e c t i o n s and scales of t h e pay zone complex. P r i m a r y - d e p o s i t i o n a l
t h i n mud drapes o f s i n g u l a r , double o r m u l t i p l e n a t u r e as w e l l as secondary-ero-
s i o n a l mud remnants and/or deformational mud lumps and domes i n t e r r u p t the con-
tinuous sandstone package and r e p r e s e n t f l o w b a r r i e r s f o r hydrocarbons and wa-
t e r as w e l l as inhomogeneities f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e propagation ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.3.4. and 4.2.4.1.). Primary-sedimentary mud drapes are i m p o r t a n t t o o l s f o r
palaeoenvironmental m o d e l l i n g of the r e s e r v o i r complex by i n d i c a t i n g the f u l l
spectrum o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f hydrodynamic c o n d i t i o n s being developed. Mud
l a y e r s and lenses s e p a r a t i n g f l u v i a l channel sandstones ( c f . a l s o p l a t e s
I I I / 1 - 2, I V / 4 t 8 and V I I / 5 - 6 ) g e n e r a l l y i n d i c a t e f l u c t u a t i n g water l e v e l
d u r i n g course o f p u l s a t o r y f l o o d s i n t e r r u p t e d by waning phases and low-water
stages i n the shallow t o moderately-deep b r a i d e d - r i v e r system, and r e f l e c t tem-
p o r a r y q u i e t c o n d i t i o n s a l l o w i n g mud s e t t l i n g between p e r i o d s o f high-energy
c u r r e n t s and m i g r a t i o n o f sand and g r a v e l bars downstream.

Sharp lower and upper boundaries o f mud drapes t o a d j o i n i n g sandstone beds

t e s t i f y t o r a p i d l y changing energy l e v e l o f d e p o s i t i o n w i t h c u t t i n g o f f o f some
 322

p a r t s o f t h e c h a n n e l n e t w o r k f r o m t h e a c t i v e p a t t e r n and p r o t e c t i o n o f some
p o o l s and ponds i n i n t e r b a r and i n t r a b a r d e p r e s s i o n s b y d e f l e c t i o n o f c u r r e n t s
a r o u n d t h e sand b o d i e s . I n t e r c a l a t i o n o f sand s t r e a k s i n t o t h e mud l a y e r s and
lenses g i v e s evidence o f c l o s e coexistence o f d e p o s i t i o n a l subenvironments w i t h
d i f f e r e n t t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y and m a t e r i a l s u p p l y , w i t h h i g h e r - e n e r g y p u l s e s o f
f l o o d w a t e r d e l i v e r i n g m i n o r amounts o f sand a l s o t o s i t e s o f mud s e t t l i n g i n
q u i e t water.

3.13.9.2. Explanations o f illustrations on plate IX

1, 4, 5 : T h i n n e r o r t h i c k e r mud d r a p e s w i t h o r w i t h o u t sand i n t e r c a l a t i o n s
s e p a r a t i n g m a s s i v e o r w e l l - s t r a t i f i e d s a n d s t o n e complexes o f f l u v i a l c h a n n e l
o r i g i n r e p r e s e n t i n t e r m i t t e n t w a n i n g - f l o w d e p o s i t s and t e s t i f y t o t e m p o r a l l y
and s p a t i a l l y c h a n g i n g s e d i m e n t a r y c o n d i t i o n s . C o n c e r n i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o f such
r e s e r v o i r s , mud d r a p e s o f d i f f e r e n t t h i c k n e s s a c t as b a r r i e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.4.1.) and c a n p r o v i d e some c o n t a i n m e n t o f f r a c t u r e g r o w t h i n t h i n r e s e r -
v o i r s p r o v i d e d t r e a t m e n t i s p e r f o r m e d a t l o w p r e s s u r e r a t e s and m o d e r a t e cumula-
t i v e f l u i d volumes ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) . R e s e r v o i r s u b d i v i s i o n b y mud d r a p e s
i n t o several subunits therefore gives r i s e t o f r a c t u r e narrowing crossing the
i n t e r c a l a t e d b a r r i e r s o r e v e n f r a c t u r e s p l i t t i n g i n c a s e o f c o n t a i n m e n t o f sepa-
r a t e f r a c t u r e b r a n c h e s w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e y s and s u b s t o r e y s ( c f . s e c -
t i o n 4.2.3.4.). I n t e r m s o f r o c k mechanics, mud d r a p e s d e f l e c t p r o p a g a t i n g h y -
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s b y c h a n g i n g d i r e c t i o n and w i d t h o f t h e p e n e t r a t i n g c r a c k ,
w i t h t h i c k e r mud l a y e r s e v e n b e i n g a b l e t o a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y s t o p f r a c t u r e e x -
t e n s i o n i n t h e w o r s t c a s e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 4 . 3 . ) . I n c o n t r a s t t o r e s e r v o i r de-
t e r i o r a t i o n b y f r e q u e n t l y more i n t e n s e d i a g e n e t i c a l c e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e sand-
s t o n e a r o u n d t h e i n t e r b e d d e d mudstone and a l s o d e c r e a s i n g g r a i n s i z e o f t h e
s a n d s t o n e when a p p r o a c h i n g t h e mudstone, t h e t h i n mud d r a p e s p r o v i d e e x c e l l e n t
t o o l s f o r d e t a i l e d s u b d i v i s i o n o f t h e p a y zone column i n t o s u b u n i t s and p r o p e r
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a y e r s i n gamma-ray l o g s f o r d e p t h and s t r a t i -
g r a p h i c a l c o n t r o l a t l e a s t i n c a s e o f l a t e r a l l y c o n t i n u o u s e x t e n s i o n o f t h e mud
d r a p e s beyond s i n g l e o r d o u b l e w e l l s p a c i n g .

2 - 3 : Mud d r a p e s b e i n g i n t e r c a l a t e d i n t o sand sequences do n o t have t o be

d e v e l o p e d as e v e n s h e e t s o r l e n s e s o f c o n s t a n t t h i c k n e s s , b u t c a n a l s o e x h i b i t
i r r e g u l a r g e o m e t r y as a consequence o f c o v e r i n g p r i m a r y d e p o s i t i o n a l o r secon-
d a r y e r o s i o n a l r e l i e f s h a v i n g been g e n e r a t e d i n t h e u n d e r l y i n g s a n d s t o n e p r i o r
t o mud bed a g g r a d a t i o n , o r as a r e s u l t o f s e c o n d a r y e r o s i o n a l m o d i f i c a t i o n o f
t h e mudstone a f t e r i t s d e p o s i t i o n . W h i l e e r o s i o n a l s c u l p t u r i n g o f o r i g i n a l l y
c o n t i n u o u s mud l a y e r s b r e a k s them i n t o i s o l a t e d lumps and r e m n a n t s w h i c h have
o n l y l i t t l e i m p a c t on r e s e r v o i r c o m m u n i c a t i o n and f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n due t o
t h e i r l i m i t e d l a t e r a l e x t e n s i o n and a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e d i s c r e t e e r o s i o -
n a l r e l i c t s o f mudstones do n o t d i s t u r b f l u i d f l o w and f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n , c o -
v e r i n g o f p r i m a r y s e d i m e n t a r y o r s e c o n d a r y e r o s i o n a l r e l i e f s b y mud d r a p e s
w h i c h a r e a d j u s t i n g t o t h e e a r l i e r m o r p h o l o g y and o t h e r w i s e f o r m c o n t i n u o u s
beds s i m i l a r l y as t h o s e o v e r l y i n g d e p o s i t i o n a l s a n d s t o n e s u r f a c e s g i v e s r i s e t o
c o m p a r a b l e p e r s i s t e n t mud d r a p e s t h a t a r e e f f e c t i v e e l e m e n t s o f r e s e r v o i r s u b d i -
v i s i o n and f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n d e t e r i o r a t i o n .

6 : I s o l a t e d sand l o a d s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n a mudstone bed s e p a r a t i n g t h i c k e r

c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e s r e f l e c t p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n o f sand as a consequence o f sub-
s i d e n c e i n t o n o t y e t c o n s o l i d a t e d mudstones w h i c h had k e p t w a t e r - s a t u r a t e d and
s o f t d u r i n g s h o r t i n t e r r u p t i o n s o f high-energy f l u v i a l sedimentation. I n con-
t r a s t t o l o n g e r b r e a k s o f d e p o s i t i o n w i t h d e s i c c a t i o n o f mud f l a t s and o r i g i n
o f polygonal shrinkage cracks, s h o r t episodes o f q u i e t water c o n d i t i o n s t h a t
a r e soon a g a i n r e p l a c e d b y a g i t a t e d c u r r e n t s e n a b l e p l a s t i c r e a c t i o n o f t h e mud-
s t o n e once l o a d e d a g a i n b y sand w h i c h s i n k s i n t o t h e s o f t mudstones and d e f o r m s
there t o discrete load balls.

7 : A n o t h e r form of p l a s t i c r e a c t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o a c t i v i t y o f t h e mudstones
t h e i r s e l v e s . W h i l e l o a d i n g of s t i l l w a t e r - s a t u r a t e d mudstones b y t h i n n e r sand-
Plate IX
 324

stone beds u s u a l l y r e s u l t s i n downsinking o f t h e sand i n t o t h e mud, t h e r e v e r s e

i s developed f o r t h i c k e r sandstone l a y e r s t o p p i n g s t i l l u n c o n s o l i d a t e d mudstone
u n i t s . Upon l o a d i n g , t h e p l a s t i c mud i n t r u d e s l i k e d i a p i r s i n t o t h e l o o s e l y
packed, f r e s h l y d e p o s i t e d f l u v i a l channel sand i n a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n as s a l t
p l u g s and domes ( c f . f i g s . 3 and 11) a r e formed f o r t h e reason o f s t r e s s equa-
l i z a t i o n . B o t h downsinking o f sand i n t o mud and upwards i n j e c t i o n o f mud i n t o
sand do n o t c o m p l e t e l y i n t e r r u p t t h e l a t e r a l e x t e n s i o n o f t h e mud l a y e r s , w i t h
some t h i n remnants almost r e m a i n i n g everywhere, b u t t h i n n i n g o f mud beds a t
some patches i n o r d e r t o compensate t h i c k e n i n g a t o t h e r s p o t s g i v e s r i s e t o wea-
k e n i n g b a r r i e r c h a r a c t e r o f t h e mud drapes and t h u s p r o v i d e s e a s i e r f r a c t u r e
p r o p a g a t i o n w i t h l e s s growth c o n t r o l . D i a p i r i c i n t r u s i o n o f u n s t a b l e mud i n t o
t h e o v e r l y i n g f r e s h l y d e p o s i t e d and p r o b a b l y s t i l l w e t f l u v i a l channel o r s h e e t -
f l o o d sand documents t h e range o f t h e spectrum o f a l l u v i a l sedimentary and de-
f o r m a t i o n a l processes and i s i n marked c o n t r a s t t o reworked c a n n i b a l i z e d mud
c l a s t s t h a t a r e c a r v e d o u t o f a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y c o n s o l i d a t e d mud t h a t can even
f o r m e r o s i o n a l remnants w i t h overhanging o r oversteepened e r o s i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s
( c f . p l a t e s IV/2 and V I I / l ) .

8 : Mud drapes s e p a r a t i n g sand h o r i z o n s can be o f s i n g u l a r o r d o u b l e t o mul-

t i p l e t y p e a c c o r d i n g t o d e p o s i t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s and t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n l a t e -
r a l d i r e c t i o n . Mud seams a r e s p l i t up i n t o s e v e r a l branches by i n t e r c a l a t i o n o f
i s o l a t e d l e n t i c u l a r sand bodies and condense t o a p p a r e n t l y c o n t i n u o u s c o v e r s i n
p l a c e s where i n t e r v e n i n g sand l e n s e s a r e absent. The l a t e r a l c o e x i s t e n c e o f
b o t h cases u n d e r l i n e s t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f r e s e r v o i r c o m p o s i t i o n and h i g h l i g h t s
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f even s m a l l - s c a l e r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s on f r a c t u r e propaga-
t i o n and p e n e t r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) .

3 . 1 3 . 9 . 3 . Geological formations and

outcrop localities o f presented examples
1 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n H o l y Cross Mountains ( P o l a n d ) .
Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 1 . 2 m. Q u a r r y a t t h e southwestern s i d e o f t h e h i l l e a s t
o f J a r u g i between S t r y c z o w i c e and Czerwona Gbra n e a r O s t r o w i e c S w i e t o k r z y s k i
( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 100 000, sheet Bodzentyn, pas 45, s l u p 32, r 52 700,
h 74 2 0 0 ) . 2 - 6 : O t t e r Sandstones (Lower T r i a s s i c ) i n t h e New Red Sandstone
o f South Devon (England). Diameter o f f i g u r e s a b t . 1 m each. 2, 5, 6 : Rocks a t
t h e shore between Smallstones P o i n t and Crab Ledge between B u d l e i g h S a l t e r t o n
and Sidmouth ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 25 000, sheet SY 08/18 Sidmouth, between r
09 200, h 83 840 and r 09 600, h 84 780). 3 : Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 0 . 7 m.
Rocks a t t h e shore between Hern Rock and B i g P i c k e t Rock e a s t n o r t h e a s t o f O t t e r -
t o n and southwest o f Sidmouth ( s h e e t SY 08/18 Sidmouth, between r 09 800, h 85
260 and r 10 320, h 85 780). 4 : Diameter o f f i g . a b t . 1 . 5 m. Rocks a t t h e
shore n e a r Windgate west o f Sidmouth ( s h e e t SY 08/18 Sidmouth, r 10 720, h 86
450). 7 - 8 : M i d d l e B u n t s a n d s t e i n o f Upper F r a n c o n i a / N o r t h e a s t e r n B a v a r i a (Ger-
many FRG). Diameter o f f i g u r e s a b t . 0 . 9 m and 0.6 m, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Sand p i t a t
t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n s i d e o f t h e Kammberg s o u t h o f t h e B i r k a c h e r Graben west o f
Gundelsdorf ( s h e e t 5733 Kronach, 7 : r 52 100, h 71 390; 8 : r 51 960, h 71
360). F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f t h e s e c t i o n s f i g u r e d c f . MADER (1985 a, 1985 b ) .

3 . 1 3 . 1 0 . Root tubes and carbonate

concretions in calcrete palaeosols
The f e a t u r e s f i g u r e d on p l a t e X document t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r o o t tubes and
carbonate c o n c r e t i o n s i n c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l s f o r d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f p r i m a r y depo-
s i t i o n a l r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s by secondary pedogenic o v e r p r i n t i n g . F o l l o w i n g
d i s c u s s i o n o f g e n e r a l aspects, e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e X a r e
given, and g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s and o u t c r o p l o c a l i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t e d examp-
l e s a r e quoted.
 325

3.13.10.1. General aspects

Calcrete palaeosol formation in terrestrial red beds by growth of carbonate
nodules (cf. MADER 1984), rooting of plants and conversion of parts of the red
colour of the sediments into blue and violet by hematite authigenesis in the
pore space in addition to the primary hematite pellicles surrounding the detri-
tal grains (cf. MADER 1983 c) is an abundant type o f early diagenetic transfor-
mation of continental deposits. Neoformation of clay minerals in the pore
space, pedoturbation by plant roots and concentration of additional iron oxides
give rise to diminution of porosity and permeability, with therefore pedogenic
overprinting resulting in deterioration of reservoir quality and increasing the
potential or even necessity of hydraulic fracture stimulation in order to
achieve economically feasible gas production rates.
Calcrete palaeosol formation is quite comnon in parts of Rotliegend and espe-
cially Buntsandstein in Middle Europe, although predominantly occurring in the
more marginal facies zones in more southern parts of the basin which are now-
adays at the surface or in shallow depth and do not contain gas accumulations
(cf. section 3.2.1.2.). As calcrete palaeosols are widespread in comparable ter-
restrial sandstone and mudstone sequences throughout the world (cf. MADER 1985
a, 1985 b) which frequently include gas enrichments, the understanding of the
pedogenic transformation as an important process of reservoir deterioration as-
sists proper planning and design of stimulation treatments.

3.13.10.2. Explanations of illustrations on plate X

1 - 3 : Vertical carbonate root tubes intersecting horizontal-stratified,
cross-bedded or massive red sandstones represent the lower part of thick palaeo-
sol profiles where only deeply reaching roots of plants are present, but the
other characteristical transformations such as clay mineral authigenesis and
hematite neoformation giving rise to the typical blue-violet colour have not ta-
ken place (cf. MADER 1983 c). The fossilized roots are emphasized by infilling
and surrounding with carbonate as a consequence of the concentration gradient
exerted by the organic matter after deposition. Additional carbonate pre-
cipitations occur as sheets lining bedding plane cracks and dispersed spherical
nodules in the rock matrix. The abundance of root tubes and concretions in some
horizons introduces considerable reservoir heterogeneity with respect to clean
red sandstones and also increases the resistance of the sediments against
propagation of hydraulically induced fractures which require higher pressure
(cf. section 6.2.4.2.1.) to cross the zone containing sometimes a nearly
chaotic arrangement of carbonate enrichments in a sandy matrix. Additional com-
plications in terms of reservoir communication and fracture penetration are
sometimes generated by interbedding of the root tube horizons with sandstones
containing abundant carbonate cement ( 3 ) and partially representing reworking
horizons of palaeosols including numerous tiny fragments deriving from erosio-
nal destruction of pedogenic carbonate concretions in a sandy-carbonatic matrix
(cf. plate V/3 - 4 ) . In terms of drainage of migrating solutions, the root tube
channel networks and assemblages in calcrete palaeosols have comparable morpho-
logy and function to rows of perforation tunnels that are infilled with packing
gravel in mechanical sand control (cf. section 5.6.1.).
4 + 6 : In contrast to carbonate enrichments in red sandstones which repre-
sent reservoir quality deterioration, carbonate concentrations in fluvial over-
bank or lacustrine playa mudstones are only altering the rock mechanical pro-
perties of the sequence and have therefore pronounced impact on propagation of
hydraulically induced cracks. In some cases, carbonate is filling a polyedrical
network of natural cracks which originated during pedogenesis as a consequence
of pedoturbation and subaerial exposition (6), thereby delineating a system of
natural fractures which otherwise would have completely healed and vanished in
the mudstone matrix. Sandstone beds which are intercalated into or are over-
 326

l y i n g t h e p e d o g e n i c a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d mudstones
o x i d e removal a f t e r d e p o s i t i o n due t o c i r c u
w e l l as due t o p r e f e r e n t i a l p o r e w a t e r f l u x a
The s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r a t t e n u a t i o n and d e f l e c
t u r e s i s c o n t r o l l e d by amount and g e o m e t r i c a l
c r e t i o n s i n as w e l l as t h i c k n e s s o f t h e
t h i c k n e s s o f i n t e r c a l a t e d sandstone beds.
a r e f r e q u e n t l y bleached by i r o n
a t i o n o f a g g r e s s i v e s o i l f l u i d s as
ong t h e h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y l a y e r s .
i o n o f propagating h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e c a r b o n a t e con-
p a l a e o s o l p r o f i l e o r f r e q u e n c y and

5 : Large r o o t tubes o f h o r i z o n t a l , v e r t i c a l and o b l i q u e d i r e c t i o n a l o r i e n -

t a t i o n i n t h e p a l a e o s o l w i t h r e s p e c t t o bedding p l a n e s and pedogenic base l e v e l
a r e t h e most p r o m i n e n t p r o d u c t s o f s o i l f o r m a t i o n and document t h e g r o w t h o f
p l a n t s i n p l a c e . L i m i t e d amounts o f r o o t tubes i n r e d sandstones w i t h o u t a l t e -
r a t i o n o f sediment c o l o u r t o b l u e - v i o l e t u n d e r l i n e t h e p o s i t i o n i n t h e l o w e r
p a r t o f t h e p a l a e o s o l and t e s t i f y a l s o t o r e s t r i c t e d palaeoenvironmental and pa-
l a e o e c o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s which d i d n o t f a v o u r t h e widespread c o l o n i z a t i o n o f
t h e c o n t i n e n t a l p l a i n w i t h p l a n t s . T h i c k l o n g r o o t tubes a r e v e r y p r o m i n e n t e l e -
ments o f r o c k mechanical p r o p e r t y h e t e r o g e n e i t y which a r e a b l e t o a t t e n u a t e and
t o d e f l e c t p r o p a g a t i n g h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced f r a c t u r e s , whereas t h e i r e f f e c t on
r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n and t h u s impact on i n c r e a s i n g s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n -
t i a l and n e c e s s i t y a r e n e g l i g i b l e i f t h e i n d i v i d u a l r o o t tubes a r e spaced s u f f i -
c i e n t l y f a r away f r o m t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s .

7 + 8 : Flow b a r r i e r s and r o c k mechanical p r o p e r t y d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s a r e i n t r o -

duced i n sandstone sequences b y i n t e r c a l a t i o n o f c a r b o n a t e b r e c c i a s ( c f . a l s o
p l a t e s V/3 - 4) r e p r e s e n t i n g r e w o r k i n g h o r i z o n s o f c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l s o v e r -
l y i n g degraded remnants o f pedogenic p r o f i l e s which have been c u t down by e r o -
s i o n ( 7 ) . R e s e r v o i r inhomogeneity i s a l s o t r i g g e r e d by l a y e r s o f reworked mud
c l a s t s d e r i v i n g f r o m i n t r a f o r m a t i o n a l r e m o b i l i z a t i o n by e r o s i v e c u r r e n t s ( c f .
a l s o p l a t e s I V / 2 and V I I / l ) , w i t h p r i m a r i l y c o n t i n u o u s mudstone beds h a v i n g
been s e c o n d a r i l y c u t i n t o p i e c e s and i n t e g r a t e d i n t o f l u v i a l channel sands ( 8 ) .
The t y p i c a l carbonate r e w o r k i n g b r e c c i a s a r e i n some f o r m a t i o n s t h e o n l y p r e -
served i n d i c a t i o n s o f c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l o r i g i n i f p o s t s e d i m e n t a r y e r o s i o n a l
condensation o f t h e sequence was so s t r o n g t h a t many overbank mudstones and c a l -
C r e t e p a l a e o s o l s have been c o m p l e t e l y removed f r o m t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l r e c o r d and
o n l y reworked fragments have been p r e s e r v e d i n f l u v i a l channel sandstones and
conglomerates as g h o s t - l i k e remnants o f f o r m e r l y p r e s e n t f a c i e s elements t h a t
have undergone complete d e s t r u c t i o n , and a s i m i l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e a p p l i e s f o r t h e
i s o l a t e d mud c l a s t s ( c f . MADER 1984).

3.13.10.3. Geological format ions and

outcrop localities of presented examples
1 - 3 : O t t e r Sandstones (Lower T r i a s s i c ) o f South Oevon ( E n g l a n d ) . Diameter
o f f i g u r e s a b t . 4 m each. Rocks a t t h e shore between Crab Ledge and B l a c k Head
between B u d l e i g h S a l t e r t o n and Sidmouth ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 25 000, s h e e t
SY 08/18 Sidmouth, between r 08 580, h 82 620 and r 09 200, h 83 8 4 0 ) .
4 : M i d d l e T r i a s s i c o f t h e Lodeve B a s i n ( F r a n c e ) . Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t .
3.5 m. 5 : O t t e r Sandstones (Lower T r i a s s i c ) of South Devon (England). Diameter
o f f i g u r e a b t . 1 . 5 m. Rocks a t t h e shore between Hern Rock and B i g P i c k e t Rock
between B u d l e i g h S a l t e r t o n and Sidmouth ( s h e e t SY 08/18 Sidmouth, r 10 240,
h 85 7 0 0 ) . 6 : M i d d l e T r i a s s i c o f t h e Lodeve B a s i n ( F r a n c e ) . Diameter o f f i g u r e
a b t . 1 . 2 m. Rocks a t t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e h i l l near Le G a s i e l a s n o r t h o f La
Lieude southwest o f Octon ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map 1 : 50 000, sheet 989 Lodeve,
r 675 310, h 148 800). 7 : O t t e r Sandstones ( M i d d l e T r i a s s i c ) o f South Devon
( E n g l a n d ) . Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 2.5 m. Rocks a t t h e shore between Crab Ledge
and B l a c k Head between B u d l e i g h S a l t e r t o n and Sidmouth ( t o p o g r a p h i c a l map
1 : 25 000, sheet SY 08/18 Sidmouth, between r 08 580, h 82 620 and r 09 200,
h 83 8 4 0 ) . 8 : O l d Red Sandstone o f N o r t h e a s t N o r t h u m b e r s h i r e (England).
Diameter o f f i g u r e a b t . 2 m. Rocks a t t h e shore a t Cove Harbour n e a r Cock-
b u r n s p a t h . F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f t h e s e c t i o n s f i g u r e d c f . MADER (1985 a, 1985
b).
 327

Plate X
 328

3.13.11. Natural fracture origin and

distribution in various reservoir rocks
The f e a t u r e s f i q u r e d on p l a t e X I document n a t u r 1 f r a c t u r i n g due t o sedime
t a r y d e s i c c a t i o n shrinkage, p l a n t r o o t p r o p a g a t i o n i n p a l a e o s o l s , v o l c a n i c coo
l i n a c o n t r a c t i o n and t e c t o n i c a l e x t e n s i o n . and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l . i o i n S
i n ;elected r o c k monuments. F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s 6 i o n o f g e n e r a l aspects, e x p l a n a -
t i o n s o f t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p l a t e X I a r e g i v e n , and g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s and
o u t c r o p l o c a l i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t e d examples a r e quoted.

3.13.11.1. General aspects

J o i n t s and f a u l t s a r e t h e main elements o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system i n va-
r i o u s r o c k t y p e s o f sedimentary and v o l c a n i c o r i g i n . The d i f f e r e n t elements
t h a t a r e developed i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l r o c k s f o r m a g e o m e t r i c a l f a b r i c i n terms
o f frequency, s i z e and d i r e c t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n which i n f l u e n c e s t h e p r o p a g a t i o n
o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s t h r o u g h r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e subsur-
f a c e . Outcrop s t u d i e s e n a b l e v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f pay zone compo-
s i t i o n b o t h i n terms o f d e p o s i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s and d e f o r m a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s such
as c r a c k s .

3.13.11.2. Explanations of illustrations on plate XI

1 - 2 : B u n t s a n d s t e i n and R o t l i e g e n d r o c k monuments i n t h e landscape o f E i -
f e l and P f a l z as w e l l as o t h e r areas a r e t h e r e s u l t o f e r o s i o n a l s c u l p t u r i n g o f
sandstone f o r m a t i o n s due t o t h e i r m a t r i x cementation and j o i n t f a b r i c . V e r t i c a l
w a l l s a r e t h e consequence o f t h e predominance o f normal c r a c k s i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e
r o c k s which d e r i v e f r o m s i m p l e e x t e n s i o n a l t e c t o n i c s . I n t e r b e d d i n g o f l a y e r s o f
weaker and s t r o n g e r l i t h i f i c a t i o n ( w h i c h p a r t i a l l y c o r r e l a t e w i t h d e p o s i t i o n a l
f a c i e s ) g i v e s r i s e t o o r i g i n o f t a b l e - o r mushroom-shaped r o c k monuments w h i c h
are very prominent expressions o f the d i r e c t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of the n a t u r a l
fractures.

3 : S l i d i n g f a u l t s of p a r t i a l l y s y n g e n e t i c o r i g i n i n v o l c a n i c t u f f beds il-
l u s t r a t e c o m p l i c a t e d morphology n o t o n l y i n c l u d i n g s t r a i g h t even planes, b u t
a l s o c o m p r i s i n g c u r v e d and i r r e g u l a r s u r f a c e s . The p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e f a u l t s i s
s i m i l a r l y as t h a t o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s c o n t r o l l e d by m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y d i f f e -
rences between a d j o i n i n g l a y e r s o f t h e r o c k column, w i t h l i t h o l o g i c a l c o n t r a s t s
between n e i g h b o u r i n g beds r e s u l t i n g i n d e f l e c t i o n and m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e pene-
t r a t i n g c r a c k ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.4. and 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . ) . W h i l e some p a r t s o f t h e
f a u l t are i n f i l l e d w i t h fine-grained sediment d e b r i s which i s moved a l o n g
and/or across t h e f a u l t plane, o t h e r s e c t i o n s s t a y open. The d i f f e r e n t s t a t u s
o f n a t u r a l p l u g g i n g o r p r o p p i n g o f f a u l t s g i v e s evidence o f complex c o n d u c t i v i -
t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s p r o p a g a t i n g t h r o u g h heterogeneous r o c k
piles.

4 : N a t u r a l c r a c k s w i t h o r i g i n a l wide opening i n sandstones and/or carbona-

t e s a r e i n many cases s e c o n d a r i l y i n f i l l e d w i t h l o o s e sediment d e b r i s r e s u l t i n g
f r o m d e s t r u c t i o n o f g r a i n b i n d i n g a l o n g movement p l a n e s . A l t h o u g h such p l u g g i n g
o r p r o p p i n g has i n many cases t h e adverse e f f e c t o f c o n s i d e r a b l y d e s t r o y i n g t h e
p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e open f l o w channels i n t h e n a t u r a l cracks, the i n f i l l i n g s
w i t h l o o s e sand can remain p r e f e r e n t i a l d r a i n a g e p a t h s i f n o t t o o much l i t h i -
f i e d i n l a t e r d i a g e n e t i c a l e v o l u t i o n and if b e i n g s u f f i c i e n t l y c o a r s e - g r a i n e d .
The p r e s e n t example r e f l e c t s t h e u n d e r l i n i n g o f t h e weaker cohesion and p a r t i a l -
l y a l s o more f a v o u r a b l e g r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n by t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f n e s t
burrows o f r e c e n t s o l i t a r y bees w i t h i n t h e c r a c k p l u g g i n g i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e i r
r a r i t y t o absence i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g intensely-cemented m a t r i x ( c f . MADER 1980,
1984 c, 1985 d ) . I n terms o f c o n d u c t i v i t y , t h e d i g g i n g o f t u n n e l s and h o l e s
 329

Plate XI
 330

i n t o t h e s l i g h t l y cohesive sand i n f i l l i n g t h e crack by t h e s o l i t a r y bees r e p r e -

sents organogenic a m e l i o r a t i o n of d r a i n a g e c o n d i t i o n s by i n c r e a s i n g p o r o s i t y
and p e r m e a b i l i t y beyond t h e n a t u r a l boundaries. A s i m i l a r e f f e c t can be a c h i e -
ved i n p r o p p i n g o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s by i n t e r m i x i n g s o l u b l e o r degradable
l a r g e g r a i n s i n t o t h e p r o p p a n t package ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.4. and 4 . 3 . 3 . 2 . ) ,
w i t h t h u s a s u i t e o f open patches o r i g i n a t i n g by d i s s o l u t i o n o r decomposition
o f t h e u n s t a b l e a d d i t i v e s a f t e r placement o f t h e proppants i n t h e c r a c k .

5 - 6 : V o l c a n i c l a v a s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p o l y g o n a l columnar j o i n t p a t t e r n
o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m c o o l i n g o f t h e f l o w s and p i p e i n f i l l i n g s and s h r i n k a g e c r a c k -
i n g o f t h e m a t r i x upon c o n t r a c t i o n d u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e n a t u r a l
c o o l i n g f r a c t u r e system o f v o l c a n i c r o c k s seems t o be a v e r y homogeneous c r a c k
network, h e t e r o g e n e i t y i s i n t r o d u c e d by v a r y i n g column d i a m e t e r as a conse-
quence o f f l o w t h i c k n e s s , c u r r e n t z o n a t i o n , p i p e d i a m e t e r and morphology o f
p i p e w a l l . W h i l e t h e columnar j o i n t s a r e almost p a r a l l e l t o each o t h e r i n e x t e n -
s i v e l a v a f l o w s of l i m i t e d t h i c k n e s s , p i p e i n f i l l i n g s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a r a -
d i a l - s y m m e t r i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f d i v e r g i n g o r c o n v e r g i n g columns, w i t h t h e i n d i -
v i d u a l columns a l l d e v e l o p i n g normal t o t h e c o o l i n g s u r f a c e . I n t h i c k e r l a v a
f l o w s , t h e l o w e r and upper p a r t a r e h i g h l i g h t e d by l a r g e r column d i a m e t e r ( 5 ) ,
whereas the m i d d l e s e c t i o n e x h i b i t s s m a l l e r column d i a m e t e r accompanied by some
c u r v a t u r e s i n p a r t s o f t h e c r a c k system ( 6 ) . Columnar j o i n t i n g o f v o l c a n i c l a -
vas as a consequence o f c o o l i n g s h r i n k a g e i s one o f t h e most n a r r o w l y - s p a c e d
and more r e g u l a r l y developed n a t u r a l c r a c k systems and would be a v e r y s u i t a b l e
s u p p o r t f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s and t h e i r e f f e c t i v i t y once t h e v o l c a n i c r o c k s
are happening t o be gas-bearing.

7 : I n f i l l i n g o f d e s i c c a t i o n c r a c k s i n f i n e sandstones and mudstones by me-

dium t o coarse sand r e p r e s e n t s p l u g g i n g o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s w i t h c o a r s e r
g r a i n s i z e s t h a n those b u i l d i n g up t h e s u r r o u n d i n g h o s t r o c k ( c f . a l s o p l a t e
V I / 5 - 7 ) . The g r a i n s i z e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c o a r s e r c r a c k i n f i l l i n g and
t h e f i n e r f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x c r e a t e s s i m i l a r l y as i n s y n t h e t i c p r o p p i n g o f hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r e s a c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.2. and 4 . 6 . 1 . )
which g i v e s r i s e t o predominant d r a i n a g e o f p o r e s o l u t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e n a t u r a l -
l y propped d e s i c c a t i o n c r a c k d u r i n g course o f e a r l y d i a g e n e s i s and b u r i a l . I n
l a t e r stages o f p o s t s e d i m e n t a r y e v o l u t i o n w i t h advanced subsidence, preferen-
t i a l cementation o f t h e most permeable elements f r e q u e n t l y t u r n s t h e s i g n i f i -
cance o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e p l u g s f r o m f l o w channels t o c o m m u n i c a t i o n - i n h i b i t -
ing barriers.

8 : F o s s i l i z e d v e r t i c a l r o o t tubes i n c a l c r e t e p a l a e o s o l s i n t h e Upper
B u n t s a n d s t e i n a r e another element o r r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y i n t e r r e s t r i a l r e d
bed sandstones ( c f . a l s o p l a t e X / 1 - 5 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e s u r r o u n d i n g f o r m a t i o n
rock m a t r i x has t o a l a r g e e x t e n t n o t y e t been m o d i f i e d i n submature p a l a e o -
sols, the concentration o f blue t o v i o l e t spots t e s t i f i e s t o i r o n oxide authige-
n e s i s t o g e t h e r w i t h c l a y m i n e r a l neoformation ( c f . MAOER 1983 c ) , and t h e pedo-
t u r b a t i o n i n and around t h e r o o t tubes a l s o g i v e s r i s e t o t h e i r i n f i l l i n g w i t h
l e s s permeable m a t e r i a l . T h e r e f o r e f o s s i l i z e d r o o t tubes i n submature p a l a e o -
s o l s a r e pronounced f l o w b a r r i e r s and i n case o f o c c u r r i n g as l a r g e bundles,
t h e y can even a c t as elements d e f l e c t i n g and/or a t t e n u a t i n g m i g r a t i n g h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e s . P r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e o f r o o t s as a consequence o f p l a n t growth and
enlargement o f r o o t tubes i n l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n g i v e s r i s e t o spe-
c i a l types o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n t h e p a l a e o s o l h o r i z o n s . Concerning d r a i n a g e
o f m i g r a t i n g s o l u t i o n s , t h e r o o t tube channel systems have comparable morpho-
l o g y and f u n c t i o n t o rows o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s t h a t a r e i n f i l l e d w i t h p a c k i n g
g r a v e l i n mechanical sand c o n t r o l ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.6.1.).

3.13.11.3. Geological formations and

outcrop localities of presented examples
 331

r 08 620, h 51 630). 2 : Middle Buntsandstein of the Northern Saar area (Germa-

ny F R G ) . A l t f e l s rock monument a t the southern s i d e of the Pinschbach valley
southeast of Kastel ( s h e e t 6405 Freudenburg, r 41 430, h 91 780). 3 : Qua-
ternary volcanic t u f f s of Western Eifel (Germany FRG). Diameter of f i g . a b t .
4 m. Quarry a t the northern s i d e of the Goldberg northwest of Ormont south of
Hallschlag (topographical map 1 : 100 000, sheet C 5902 Prum, r 32 900,
h 77 900). 4 : Middle J u r a s s i c of the Deister Foreland (Germany F R G ) . Diameter
of f i g u r e a b t . 0.6 m. Quarry a t the southern s i d e of the Stemmer Berg northeast
of Stemmen near Hannover (topographical map 1 : 25 000, sheet 3623 Gehrden,
r 36 040, h 01 850). 5 - 6 : Quaternary b a s a l t i c lavas of Western Eifel (Germa-
ny F R G ) . Diameter of f i g u r e s abt. 8 m each. 5 : Quarry a t the eastern s i d e of
the Ruderbusch north of Oberbettingen ( s h e e t 5705 Gerolstein, r 44 500,
h 73 000). 6 : Quarry a t the southern s i d e of the Ruderbusch north of Oberbet-
tingen ( s h e e t 5705 Gerolstein, r 44 680, h 73 160). 7 : Old Red Sandstone (Devo-
nian) of Wales (Great B r i t a i n ) . Diameter of f i g u r e a b t . 0.6 m. Rocks a t the
shore around Milford Haven. 8 : Middle Buntsandstein of the Southern Saar area
(Germany F R G ) . Diameter of f i g u r e a b t . 4 m. Quarry between S t . Ingbert and Neun-
kirchen. For f u r t h e r d e t a i l s of the sections figured c f . MAOER (1985 a, 1985
b).
The New Red Sandstone (Permian Rotliegend and T r i a s s i c Buntsandstein) of
South Devon (England) represents a p a r t i c u l a r l y pronounced example of d i v e r s i f i -
cation of intertonguing of d i f f e r e n t depositional environments in time and
space during course of the evolution of f l u v i a l s t y l e ( c f . tab. 1 0 ) . The New
Red Sandstone incorporates an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y well-developed red bed succession
with almost continuous environmental t r a n s i t i o n between Permian Rotliegend and
T r i a s s i c Buntsandstein. General d i s t i n c t i o n can be made between f l u v i a l braid-
plain, f l u v i a l floodplain and playa lake, a l l u v i a l - f a n , aeolian and palaeosol
f a c i e s associations which have d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n and significance in the
various s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t s . Aeolian sandstones form a broader o r narrower b e l t
in f r o n t of the a l l u v i a l - f a n chain seaming the erosional source area and pro-
grade o r r e t r e a t as a consequence of extension o r contraction of the marginal
fan lobe row o r the axial t o d i s t a l braidplain.
The New Red Sandstone comprising Permian Rotliegend and T r i a s s i c Buntsand-
s t e i n c o n s i s t s of three magnacycles t h a t in turn c o n s i s t of various megacycles
and submegacycles. The f i r s t magnacycle comprising the Lower Permian originated
in very a r i d t o a r i d climate and was characterized by predominantly ephemeral
flow. Alluvial-fan complexes fringing the borders of the highlands were very
widespread. With the exception of r i v e r s reworking aeolian dunes, a f l u v i a l
braidplain and floodplain system was not developed. The dunes formed moderately
t o very extensive aeolian sand seas, and c a l c r e t e palaeosols could not be gene-
rated as a consequence of the dry and hot climate. The second magnacycle inclu-
des the Upper Permian which originated in a r i d t o semi-arid climate under condi-
t i o n s of more perennial flow. I n c o n t r a s t t o the Lower Permian, no a l l u v i a l - f a n
chains existed any more, b u t a f l u v i a l braidplain and floodplain t o playa lake
system was developed. Dunes were r e s t r i c t e d t o small to moderately extensive
aeolian bedform f i e l d s . Moderate amounts of c a l c r e t e palaeosols formed predomi-
nantly in subaqueous o r ground milieu, and Brockelbank reworking breccias of
c a l c r e t e palaeosols are unknown. The t h i r d magnacycle comprising the Lower
T r i a s s i c Buntsandstein was l a i d down in a r i d and semi-arid to a r i d climate u n -
der conditions of more perennial than ephemeral flow. An extensive f l u v i a l
braidplain and floodplain t o playa lake system was developed, whereas a l l u v i a l -
fan lobes were no longer b u i l t . Moderately extensive aeolian dune f i e l d s e x i s -
ted in the desiccated p a r t s o f the f l u v i a l braidplain. Large amounts of c a l -
Crete palaeosols of mainly subaerial type originated under favourable c l i m a t i c
conditions, a n d numerous Brockelbank reworking breccias t e s t i f y t o abundant de-
s t r u c t i o n of autochthonous pedogenic carbonates by migrating r i v e r channels and
redeposition of the fragments t o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c reworking horizons ( c f . MADER
1985 b).
STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY OF THE NEW RED SANDSTONE (PERMIAN AND TRIASSIC) IN SOUTH DEVON (ENGLAND)
SS T R A T I G R A P H Y S E D I M E N T O L O G Y

Egi ~~~~~~I IGPI EL ? PRGXI I IREWO~ IREWORKED

~ F L U V I A L BRAIDPLAIN FLU- p ~ A ~AAL L U V I A L - F A N A E O L I A N PALAEOSOL
VIAL
SYSTEM :k",:b';, smnv FLOOD- LAKE YEDIAL ~ I S A SITU
~ IN ~ IN SITU
PLAIN
UPPER
TRIASSIC

LOWER
TRIASSIC

UPPER

w
PERMIAN w
N

LOWER

PERMIAN

Tab. 10

Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the New Red Sandstone (Permian Rotliegend and Triassic Buntsandstein) in South Devon
(England). Stratigraphic subdivision and lithofacies log are not in scale to the thickness of the sequences. The New Red
Sandstone in South Devon is an extraordinarily well-developed example of continental red bed facies complexes in Rotlie-
gend and Buntsandstein and is characterized by an intertonguing of different sedimentary environments in time and space.
 333

4 . H y d r a u l i c P r o p p a n t F r a c t u r i n g

4.0.Summary a n d a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n Europe has so f a r been m a i n l y performed i n

deep t i g h t g a s - b e a r i n g R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s sandstones i n Germany FRG
and N e t h e r l a n d s onshore as w e l l as i n t h e B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea
o f f s h o r e . O t h e r h i t h e r t o a p p l i c a t i o n s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l pack-
i n g comprise p r e d o m i n a n t l y o i l - b e a r i n g Cretaceous c h a l k s and J u r a s s i c sandsto-
nes i n t h e Norwegian and B r i t i s h N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea, Cretaceous sandstones i n
Germany FRG and Netherlands, and T e r t i a r y sandstones i n Yugoslavia, Hungary,
A u s t r i a , Czechoslovakia and I t a l y . P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f u r t h e r p r o m o t i o n o f hydrau-
l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n Europe i n c l u d i n g approach o f va-
r i o u s m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s i n o r d e r t o achieve a d d i t i o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f hydro-
carbon o u t p u t f o r compensation o f d e c l i n i n g p r o d u c t i o n f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l depo-
s i t s i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e a r e o u t l i n e d by d i s c u s s i n g v a r i o u s t e c h n o l o g i c a l ways
o f enhancing t h e s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l i n Europe. The d i s c u s s i o n o f v a r i o u s
t e c h n o l o g i c a l aspects i n c l u d e s containment of f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n t h i n sand-
stones, p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n and c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement, t a r g e t s o f unconven-
t i o n a l gas s t i m u l a t i o n , h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f carbonate rocks, h i g h -
p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g , geothermal f r a c t u r i n g , m i n i f r a c t u r i n g and
other small-scale f r a c t u r i n g , o i l - r e s e r v o i r fracturing, communication f r a c t u -
r i n g , f r a c t u r i n g o f d e v i a t e d w e l l s , f r a c t u r e damage, and a g g r e s s i v e f r a c t u r i n g
d e s i g n . Containment o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n t h i n sheet sandstones w i t h i n
sandwich-type mudstone-sandstone-interbeddings w i l l become i n c r e a s i n g l y impor-
t a n t f o r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f o i l - and gas-bearing sandstones i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f
Western and E a s t e r n Europe. I m p o r t a n t aspects o f containment o f f r a c t u r e propa-
g a t i o n a r e s i n g u l a r vs. m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g and d i v e r t i n g techniques, f r a c t u r e
morphology and s t r e s s s t a t e , simultaneous e x t e n s i o n o f m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s i n
v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s , t r e a t m e n t parameter adjustment, l i m i t e d - e n t r y
fracturing, i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t and d i s t r i b u t i o n , and s e l e c t i v e p r o p p a n t
placement by d i v e r t i n g and f l u i d d e n s i t y c o n t r o l . F r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i s cha-
r a c t e r i z e d along the l i n e s o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s v a r i a t i o n s w i t h r e s e r v o i r l i t h o l o -
gy, pay e l a s t i c i t y vs. p l a s t i c i t y , impact o f weakness p l a n e s and i n t e r f a c e s ,
shear s l i p p a g e and t e n s i l e f a i l u r e , i n f l u e n c e o f g e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s ,
and r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i y and a n i s o t r o p y . Proppant s a t u r a t i o n enhancement o f
f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s by s u c c e s s i v e achievement o f f i n a l l y u l t r a - h i g h c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s a l l o w s t o i n c r e a s e f r a c t u r e w i d t h and t o o p t i m i z e t a i l - i n p o l i c i e s by
u s i n g d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s i n v a r i o u s q u a n t i t a t i v e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s i n t h e sequence o f s t e p s o f t h e t r e a t m e n t . Proppant s a t u r a t i o n and conduc-
t i v i t y improvement i s sketched a l o n g t h e p o i n t s o f p r o p p a n t embedment and c r u s h -
i n g vs. f r a c t u r e w i d t h and number o f p r o p p a n t l a y e r s , p r o p p a n t p i l l a r i n g and
banking, f r a c t u r e w i d t h vs. p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g , proppant t r a n s p o r t and f r a c t u r e
damage, f l u i d breakdown and r e s i d u e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and c a r r i a g e
a b i l i t y , impact o f c o n v e n t i o n a l and delayed f l u i d c r o s s l i n k i n g , f l u i d h e a t capa-
c i t y and r e s e r v o i r temperature, and f l u i d l e a k o f f containment. U l t r a h i g h f r a c -
t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y can be achieved by e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y l a r g e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s
as w e l l as by m i x i n g o f round and a n g u l a r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s . The main t a r g e t s o f
u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas s t i m u l a t i o n a r e t i g h t gas sandstones, geopressured r e s e r -
v o i r s c o n t a i n i n g methane t h a t i s d i s s o l v e d i n b r i n e , c o a l seams, s h a l e s and
high-temperature r e s e r v o i r rocks. Hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f n o t o n l y
sandstones, b u t a l s o o f carbonate r o c k s i s a m a j o r f i e l d o f p o s s i b l e s t i m u l a -
t i o n a c t i v i t y improvement i n Europe where t h e p o l i c y of enhancing t h e c o n d u c t i -
v i t y c o n t r a s t between f r a c t u r e and f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d l e s s o f r e s e r v o i r l i t h o l o g y
i s s t i l l much l e s s common t h a n i n t h e USA, and t h e same a p p l i e s f o r high-permea-
b i l i t y pay f r a c t u r i n g where t h e l a r g e s u i t e o f d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y p e s and
g r a i n s i z e s a l l o w s a wide spectrum o f v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y g r a d i e n t
between f r a c t u r e and f o r m a t i o n i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e l a t t e r .
H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f carbonate r o c k s i s o u t l i n e d by commenting on
enhancement o f d r a i n a g e p a t h and c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t , and advantages and draw-
 334

backs o f f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g . Combined p r o p p a n t and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i s i l l u m i n a -

t e d by f o c u s s i n g on c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement by a c i d o p t i m i z a t i o n , enllanc_.,ient
o f a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e , open vs. propped f r a c t u r e s , and a c i o f l u i d - l o s s
c o n t r o l . Chalk i s a s p e c i a l t y p e o f carbonate r e s e r v o i r where sometimes combina-
t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s t h e o n l y p o s s i b i l i -
t y o f e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e s t i m u l a t i o n f o r p r o f i t a b l e o i l and gas w i t h d r a w a l .
P a r t i c u l a r c h a l k f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e s a r e t i p -:reenout, i n t e r f a c e , whisper
and d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g . I n a d d i t i o n t o p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y
o f some sandstone r e s e r v o i r s can be a l s o s u c c e s s f u l l y i n c r e a s e d by h y d r o f l u o r i c
a c i d f r a c t u r i n g and/or m a t r i x t r e a t m e n t s , p a r t i a l l y i n combinAtion w i t h conven-
t i o n a l f r a c t u r i n g i f proppants t h a t a r e n o t a t t a c k e d by t h e h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d
a r e s e l e c t e d . I m p o r t a n t aspects o f sandstone a c i d i z i n g a r e a c i d r e a c t i o n , a c i d
p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e , a c i d t y p e s and d i s s o l u t i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s , and a c i d i z i n g
t a r g e t s . S i m i l a r l y as f o r carbonate f r a c t u r i n g , t h e most i m p o r t a n t goal o f mode-
r a t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandstone h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n i s achievement o f
s u f f i c i e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x and propped f r a c t u r e .
Geothermal f r a c t u r i n g i s a s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n where
a l s o communication f r a c t u r i n g f r o m one source w e l l t o another t a r g e t w e l l i n
l i n e w i t h the geostress f i e l d provides considerable p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f u t u r e pro-
m o t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t . A s a consequence o f e x t r e m e l y h i g h r e s e r v o i r tem-
p e r a t u r e s , w a t e r i s t h e most a b u n d a n t l y used f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i n geothermal s t i -
m u l a t i o n . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on e x p l o s i v e non-proppant v s . h y d r a u l i c
proppant f r a c t u r i n g , stem-induced e x p l o s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n , n u c l e a r f r a c t u r i n g ,
and c r a c k system enlargement by h e a t e x t r a c t i o n . M i n i f r a c t u r i n g (mHF) and r e l a -
ted small-scale f r a c t u r i n g w i t h l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s o f propping m a t e r i a l s plug-
g i n g s h o r t f r a c t u r e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e w e l l b o r e i s an i m p o r t a n t t o o l f o r
t h e stepwise approach o f many m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s , w i t h some o f t h e main a p p l i -
c a t i o n s b e i n g sandwich-type sandstone sheets, u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f l a s e r y sandsto-
nes, s o f t c h a l k s , carbonate s h e l l l a y e r s and i s o l a t e d sandstone l e n s e s and chan-
n e l s i n mudstone sequences, l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y patches and s t r i n g s i n high-permea-
b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s o f any l i t h o l o g y , and a l s o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l way o f b r e a k i n g
t h r o u g h f o r m a t i o n damage around t h e b o r e h o l e . D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made b e t -
ween m i n i f r a c t u r i n g , m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g and MHF s t i m u l a t i o n , w i t h a t r a n s i t i o n a l
i t e m between t h e l a t t e r b e i n g t h e mini-massive f r a c t u r e . O t h e r t a r g e t s o f m i n i -
f r a c t u r i n g a r e a r t i f i c i a l enhancement o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s , i n c r e a s e o f t h e s u r -
f a c e around t h e w e l l b o r e f o r uptake o f i n j e c t i o n f l u i d s and gases, c o m b i n a t i o n
o f n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s , r e f r a c t u r i n g o f w e l l s where o l d e r c r a c k s
have c o l l a p s e d due t o c l o s u r e by c r u s h i n g o f t h e f o r m e r l y i n s e r t e d sand, combi-
n a t i o n o f a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , and c u t t i n g s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t o f MHF ope-
r a t i o n s by a mHF t r e a t m e n t b e i n g t h e f i r s t small s t e p b e f o r e t h e second b i g one
( t h e MHF j o b ) , w i t h t h e l a t t e r b e i n g no l o n g e r necessary i n case o f a s u f f i -
c i e n t r e s u l t o f t h e f o r m e r . The o u t l i n e i n c l u d e s d i s c u s s i o n o f p r e - f r a c t u r e
p r e s s u r e breakdown t e s t and f r a c t u r e parameter d e t e r m i n a t i o n , c a l i b r a t i o n expe-
r i m e n t s and i n - s i t u s t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n , p r o p p a n t vs. non-proppant m i n i f r a c t u -
r i n g , f o r m a t i o n damage around t h e w e l l b o r e , and mHF vs. MHF. H o r i z o n t a l w e l l
d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n i s sketched a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f improved n a t u r a l f r a c -
t u r e i n t e r s e c t i o n , d i s t a n c e f r o m f l u i d c o n t a c t s , r e d u c t i o n o f coning, s e l e c t i o n
o f d r a i n a g e and i n j e c t i o n d i r e c t i o n , s i n g l e - vs. m u l t i p l e - l a y e r r e s e r v o i r s , pay
t h i c k n e s s and p e r m e a b i l i t y . One o f t h e most common combinations o f h o r i z o n t a l
w e l l s and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s m u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r i n g o f h i g h l y - i n c l i -
ned b o r e h o l e s . Uptake c a p a c i t y enhancement o f o i l - f i e l d w a t e r - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s
has t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between c o n t r o l l e d and a c c i d e n t a l f r a c t u r i n g . Combination
o f n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s i s i l l u s t r a t e d a l o n g t h e p o i n t s o f f r a c t u r e
i n t e r f e r e n c e and s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n , i n t e r f r a c t u r e commmunication, f r a c t u r e d i v e r -
gence, temporary n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e damage, d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g , and p r o p p a n t
plugging o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s . Refracturing o r late-stage o r i g i n a l f r a c t u r i n g
o f o l d w e l l s i n advanced d e p l e t i o n h i s t o r y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a l o n g t h e i t e m s o f
c a n d i d a t e w e l l choice, m o b i l i z a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s , p r o p -
p a n t s e l e c t i o n , f r a d t u r e r e o p e n i n g and p r o p p a n t placement d u r i n g r e f r a c t u r i n g ,
and c o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c and e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g . Combination o f a c i d and
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p r o p p a n t d i s s o l u t i o n , and t r e a t m e n t
schedule and a c i d improvement. F r a c t u r e l e n g t h and h e i g h t o p t i m i z a t i o n a r e s k e t -
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ched a l o n g t h e l i n e s r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y and w e l l s p a c i n g vs. f r a c t u r e

l e n g t h , f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y vs. f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y vs.
p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n , and n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e o p t i m i z a t i o n . S p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s
o f h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n i n o i l r e s e r v o i r s i s c o m b i n a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l and v e r -
t i c a l f r a c t u r i n g i n s t e a m - d r i v e o p e r a t i o n s where f o r m a t i o n h e a t i n g t r i g g e r s
changing g e o s t r e s s regime by thermal pay expansion. Steam-drive e f f e c t s on f r a c -
t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by commenting on s t r e s s i n v e r s i o n , c y c l i c f r a c -
t u r e c o l l a p s e and opening, f r a c t u r e c r e a t i o n and management, and changes o f
f r a c t u r e azimuth o r i e n t a t i o n . O t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f changing s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n
a r e a l t e r e d s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g , and r e s e r v o i r temperature and f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t
r e d u c t i o n d u r i n g c o l d w a t e r i n j e c t i o n i n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a t e r - f l o o d p r o j e c t s . Com-
m u n i c a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g has p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g t o con-
t a i n d i r e c t i o n a l s i d e t r a c k i n g expenses by c o n n e c t i n g t h e b o r e h o l e w i t h prospec-
t i v e r e s e r v o i r f a c i e s i n case o f marked basement topography and r a p i d l y chan-
g i n g f a c i e s b e l t s , w i t h c a u t i o n h a v i n g t o be e x e r c i s e d t o a v o i d f r a c t u r e i n t e r -
f e r e n c e between n e i g h b o u r i n g w e l l s . I n t i g h t gas sandstones o f l e n t i c u l a r i n -
s t e a d o f b l a n k e t type, c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e s e p a r a t e sand bodies w i t h t h e i r n e i g h -
bours and t o t h e w e l l b o r e by communication f r a c t u r i n g i s t h e o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y
f o r s u c c e s s f u l and f e a s i b l e a c q u i s i t i o n o f gas r e s e r v e s i n many e c o n o m i c a l l y
m a r g i n a l cases. The p a r t i c u l a r advantages o f h i g h - q u a l i t y s y n t h e t i c proppants
f o r enhancing t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f s h a l l o w o i l r e s e r v o i r s even below t h e c r i t i -
c a l c l o s u r e s t r e s s f o r n a t u r a l sand a r e based on t h e much b e t t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y
and t h u s f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y p r o v i d e d by t h e premium m a t e r i a l . The main draw-
backs o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n i n d e v i a t e d w e l l s a r e mismatch o f
w e l l b o r e a x i s and i n - s i t u p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n , and l i m i t e d communication
i n t e r v a l between f r a c t u r e p l a n e and w e l l b o r e s e c t i o n . O t h e r e f f e c t s i n d e v i a -
t e d - w e l l f r a c t u r i n g a r e p r o p p a n t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and f l u i d l a y e r i n g , and hydro-
carbon p r o d u c t i o n and f l o w regimes. I n terms o f f r a c t u r e and b o r e h o l e geometry,
t h e s i t u a t i o n o f h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s c r o s s i n g g e n t l y i n c l i n e d pays i s compa-
r a b l e t o t h a t o f v e r t i c a l boreholes t r a v e r s i n g steeply dipping r e s e r v o i r s . Frac-
t u r e damage a f t e r t h e placement o f t h e proppants i n t h e c r a c k can o c c u r by s e t t -
l i n g , flowback and c r u s h i n g o f proppants i n case o f t o o r a p i d p r e s s u r e drawdown
d u r i n g c l e a n - u p and e a r l y p r o d u c t i o n . Proppant s e t t l i n g aspects a r e d i s c u s s e d
a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f p o s t - f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e , p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and bank-
i n g , c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , s l u r r y c o n s i s t e n c y and p r o p p a n t c l u s t e r i n g . Prop-
p a n t flowback i s sketched by commenting on f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e and p r o p p a n t t r a p -
p i n g , p r o p p a n t flowback c o n t r o l and d i m i n u t i o n , e f f e c t s o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and
c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e on w e l l cleanup, p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e , and r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p -
p a n t t a i l - i n . Proppant c r u s h i n g i s o u t l i n e d by i l l u m i n a t i n g p r o p p a n t shock l o a d -
i n g , p r e s s u r e drawdown and hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s , p r o d u c t i o n c y c l i n g by
repeated w e l l shut-in, and c o m b i n a t i o n o f proppant embedment and c r u s h i n g . I n
view o f t h e n e c e s s i t y t o i n c r e a s e t h e r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s o f p a r t i c u l a r l y gas
i n b o t h Western and E a s t e r n Europe i n t h e coming years, recommendation i s made
t h a t an a g g r e s s i v e f r a c t u r i n g d e s i g n which approaches t h e boundaries o f t e c h n i -
c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s and i n e v i t a b l y i n c l u d e s t h e r i s k o f some f a i l u r e s s h o u l d be
c a r r i e d o u t , i n o r d e r t o c o n t i n u e p r o g r e s s and n o t l a g b e h i n d b y s t i c k i n g t o
c o n v e n t i o n a l o r c o n s e r v a t i v e schemes, w i t h o u t , however, p r o v o k i n g a s c r e e n o u t
i n e v e r y t r e a t m e n t . C o n c l u s i o n i s made t h a t p r o v i d e d an a g a i n b e t t e r g e n e r a l
economical framework o f a h i g h e r o i l p r i c e and p a r t i a l l y a l s o a s t r o n g e r US $,
b o t h Western and E a s t e r n Europe w i l l be growing s t i m u l a t i o n markets w i t h i n c r e a -
s i n g demand o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n c l u d i n g promo-
t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t s i n m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e near f u t u r e .

4.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................................ 356

4.1.1. P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f expanding t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
market i n t h e near f u t u r e ................................... 356
4.1.2. O u t l i n e o f t h e t e c h n i c a l r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t ........... 356

4.2. Containment o f f r a c t u r e propagation i n t h i n sandstones .............. 357

4.2.1. A r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of p o t e n t i a l r e s e r v o i r s .................. 358
4.2.2. T e c h n i c a l aspects o f f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n ................... 358
4.2.2.1. S i n g u l a r v s . m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g and d i v e r t i n g
 336

techniques ........................................ 359

4.2.2.1.1. D i v e r t i n g a g e n t p e r f o r m a n c e _ . _ . _ _ _359 _.._
4.2.2.1.1.1. Advantaqes and drawbacks
o f b a l l - s e a l e r s . . . . . . . . . 360
4.2.2. 1.1.2. I n j e c t i o n r a t e vs. t r e a t -
ment s t a g i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
4.2.2 1.1.3. F l o a t i n g and s i n k i n g b a l l
b a l l s e a l e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
4.2.2 1.1.4. T r e a t m e n t sequence i n
mu1 t i s t a g e r e s e r v o i r s . . . 361
4.2.2 1.1.5. I n s e r t i o n and r e m o v a l o f
b l o c k i n g m a t e r i a l s . . . . . . 361
4.2.2 1 . 1 . 6 . Wax-based o e l l e t s . . . . . . . 362
4.2.2.1.2. D i v e r i n g a g e n t s e l e c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
4.2.2.1.3. M u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g a s p e c t s . . . . . . . . . . 362
4.2.2..1.3.1. F r a c t u r e . m o r p h o l o g y . . . . 363
4.2.2.1.3.2. F r a c t u r e number and
s t r e s s s t a t e .......... . 364
4.2.2.1.3.3. T a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g . 364
4.2.2.1.3.3.1. Intermed
ate stra n
r a t e s . . . 364
4.2.2.1.3.3.2. Multiple
radial
c r a c k s . . . 365
4.2.2.1.3.3.3. Other
a s p e c t s . . 365
4.2.2.1.3.4. C o n t r o l l e d vs. conventio-
n a l e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g 366
4.2.2.1.3.5. Simultaneous propagation
o f m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s . . . 367
4.2.2.1.3.6. O t h e r t e c h n i q u e s and e f -
f e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
4.2.2.2. L i m i t e d - e n t r y f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
4.2.2.2.1. Simultaneous f l u i d e n t r y i n t o m u l t i p l e
zones ................................. 369
4.2.2.2.2. P r e s s u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . 369
4.2.2.2.2.1. F l u i d volume and p e r f o r a -
t i o n number . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
4.2.2.2.2.2. S h e a r d e g r a d a t i o n and
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y . . . . . . . . . 370
4.2.2.2.3. I n f l u e n c e o f s c r e e n o u t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
4.2.2.2.4. F l u i d d i s t r i b u t i o n and p e r f o r a t i o n a r -
rangement ............................. 371
4.2.2.3. F r a c t u r e containment by treatment parameter a d j u s t -
ment .............................................. 371
4.2.2.3.1 Factors influencing fracture contain-
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
4.2.2.3.1.1. Fracture orientation
changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
4.2.2.3.1.2. F r a c t u r e geometry v a r i a -
t i o n s ................... 373
4.2.2.3.1.3. C o n f i n i n g s t r e s s c o n t r a s t 373
4.2.2.3.1.4. R e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n and
s t r e s s c o n t r a s t m a g n i t u d e 373
4.2.2.3.1.5. P o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e
f r a c t u r e c o n t a i n m e n t . . . . 374
4.2.2.3.1.6. Fracture growth termina-
t i o n a t i n t e r f a c e s . . . . . . 374
4.2.2.3.2 I n j e c t i o n r a t e s ....................... 374
4.2.2.3.2.1. D e c r e a s i n g pumping r a t e
and t o t a l j o b s i z e . . . . . . 375
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4.2.2.3.2.2. Pressure growth and

screenout t e r m i n a t i o n ... 375
4.2.2.3.2.3. F r a c t u r e h e i g h t and f l u i d
d i s t r i b u t i o n ........_... 376
4.2.2.3.2.4. Tubular enlargement and
horseDower d i m i n u t i o n ... 376
4.2.2.3.3. F l u i d p r o p e r t i e s ...................... 377
4.2.2.3.3.1. Proppant d e n s i t y and
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y ......... 377
4.2.2.3.3.2. Foam and enerqized f l u i d s 377
4.2.2.3.3.3. Densi t y - c o n t r o l l e d f 1 u i d s 378
4.2.2.3.4. Propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t vs. r e s e r v o i r
thickness ............................. 378
4.2.2.3.5. P e r f o r a t i o n i n t e r v a l s e l e c t i o n ........ 378
4.2.2.4. F r a c t u r e containment by buoyant and s e t t l i n g d i v e r -
t e r s and o t h e r b l o c k i n g a d d i t i v e s ................. 379
4.2.2.4.1. General aspects ....................... 379
4.2.2.4.2. Buoyant d i v e r t e r s ..................... 379
4.2.2.4.3. S e t t l i n g d i v e r t e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
4.2.2.4.4. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and d i v e r t e r d e n s i t y .. 380
4.2.2.4.5. Other b l o c k i n g a d d i t i v e s .............. 381
4.2.2.4.6. Pressure d i v e r s i o n .................... 382
4.2.2.5. M u l t i p l e - z o n e f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
4.2.2.5.1. General aspects ....................... 382
4.2.2.5.2. Continuous survey and m o d e l l i n g ....... 382
4.2.2.5.3. V e r t i c a l f r a c t u r a b i l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s ... 383
4.2.2.5.3.1. F r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n and
movement ................ 383
4.2.2.5.3.2. I n - s i t u stress differen-
ces w i t h f a c i e s type . . . . 384
4.2.2.6. S e l e c t i v e proppant placement ...................... 384
4.2.2.6.1. Accidental proppant f a l l o u t and banking 385
4.2.2.6.2. C o n t r o l l e d proppant placement by f l u i d
d e n s i t y r e g u l a t i o n .................... 385
4.2.2.6.3. Proppant s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and zonation . . 386
4.2.2.6.4. F l u i d d e n s i t y c o n t r o l and proppant d i s -
t r i b u t i o n ............................. 386
4.2.2.7. Special phenomena i n coal seams ................... 387
4.2.2.8. Other aspects ..................................... 387
4.2.3. F r a c t u r e propagation ........................................ 388
4.2.3.1. Terminology and nomenclature ...................... 388
4.2.3.2. F a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g f r a c t u r e propagation .......... 389
4.2.3.2.1. I n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t and o t h e r i n -
f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s ..................... 389
4.2.3.2.2. H o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s and f r a c -
t u r e geometry ......................... 390
4.2.3.2.2.1. Stress v a r i a t i o n s w i t h
l i t h o l o g y ............... 390
4.2.3.2.2.2. Natural fracture d i s t r i -
b u t i o n i n v a r i o u s rocks . 391
4.2.3.2.2.3. I n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s 391
4.2.3.2.2.4. F r a c t u r e i n s t a b i l i t y and
movement ................ 391
4.2.3.2.3. R e s e r v o i r e l a s t i c i t y vs. p l a s t i c i t y ... 392
4.2.3.2.3.1. Distribution of plastici-
t y zones i n the r e s e r v o i r 392
4.2.3.2.3.2. P l a s t i c i t y vs. n o n - l i n e a r
e l a s t i c i t y .............. 393
4.2.3.2.3.3. P l a s t i c i t y e f f e c t s on hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g ...... 393
4.2.3.2.4. F r a c t u r e propagation across weakness
planes ................................ 394
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4.2.3.2.5. P r e m a t u r e s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n . . . . . . . 394
4.2.3.2.5.1. Gel d e g r a d a t i o n . . . . . . 395
4.2.3.2.5.2. Insufficient fracture
width ....... 395
4.2.3.2.5.3. I m p a c t of 100 mes
l e a d - i n s t a g e s .......... 396
4.2.3.2.6. S t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s and c o n t a i n m e n t 396
4.2.3.2.6.1. F l u i d breakthrough vs .
i n j e c t i o n pressure .. 396
4.2.3.2.6.2. P r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g vs .
barrier stability 397
4.2.3.2.6.3. O t h e r a s p e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . 397
4.2.3.3. Shear s l i p p a g e and t e n s i l e f a i l u r e . . . . . . . . . 397
4.2.3.3.1. J o i n t d e f o r m a t i o n p r i n c i p l e s . . . . . . . . . . 397
4.2.3.3.2. I n f l u e n c e o f f l u i d v i s c o s i t y . . . . . . . . . . 398
4.2.3.4. Influence o f geological discontinuities ....... 398
4.2.3.4.1. F r a c t u r e b r a n c h i n g .................... 399
4.2.3.4.1.1. F r a c t u r e s t r a n d i n g and
m e a n d e r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
4.2.3.4.1.2. Factors influencing crack
b r a n c h i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
4.2.3.4.2. I m p a c t o f f a u l t s and j o i n t s . . . . . . . . . . . 400
4.2.3.4.3. I n t e r a c t i o n between h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s
and g e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s . . . . . . . . 400
4.2.3.4.4. Shear s l i p p a g e vs . t e n s i l e f a i l u r e .... 400
4.2.3.4.5. Consequences f o r f r a c t u r e m o r p h o l o g y . . 4 0 1
4.2.3.5. F r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n and p r e s s u r e e v o l u t i o n . . . . . . . 401
4.2.3.6. F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e o f r e q u i r e d s e a l t h i c k n e s s . . . . . . . 402
4.2.4. R e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and a n i s o t r o p y ...................... 402
4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . S e d i m e n t o l o q i c a l a s p e c t s .............. ....... 402
4.2.4.1.1. - I n t e r - and i n t r a - s a n d b o d y g e o m e t r y ... 403
4.2.4.1.1.1. Sand body c o u p i i n g and
s e p a r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
4.2.4.1.1.2. Reservoir heterogeneity
and t r e a t m e n t s i z e . . . . . . 403
4.2.4.1.1.3. R o l e o f mud d r a p e s . . . . . . 404
4.2.4.1.2. M a t r i x and f r a c t u r e a n i s o t r o p y . . . . . . . . 404
4.2.4.1.2.1. Blanket vs . l e n t i c u l a r
sand b o d i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
4.2.4.1.2.2. I n t e r f e r e n c e and p u l s e
t e s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
4.2.4.1.2.3. T r a c e r a n a l y s i s . . . . . . . . . 405
4.2.4.1.2.4. Impact o f t h e n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s y s t e m . . . . . . . . . 405
4.2.4.1.2.5. O t h e r a s p e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . 406
4.2.4.2 P e t r o p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s ............................. 406
4.2.4.2.1. P e r m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
4.2.4.2.2. I n t e r s e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s y s t e m 407
4.2.4.3 Rock m e c h a n i c a l a s p e c t s ........................... 408
4.2.4.3.1. F r a c t u r e extension across m a t e r i a l d i s -
c o n t i n u i t i e s .......................... 408
4.2.4.3.1.1. Fracture deflection a t
b o u n d i n g p l a n e s . . . . . . . . . 408
4.2.4.3.1.2. Material property d i f f e -
r e n c e s .................. 409
4.2.4.3.1.3. I n t e r f a c e s h e a r s t r e n g t h 409
4.2.4.3.2. O t h e r f e a t u r e s ........................ 409
4.2.5. C o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g . . . . . . 410
4.2.6. E c o n o m i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e ..................................... 411

4.3. Proppant saturation and conductivity improvement .................... 412

4.3.1. General aspects ............................................. 412
 339

4.3.1.1. Types o f p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n ................... 412

4.3.1.2. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i g h proppant s a t u r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . 412
4.3.2. o f p r o p p a n t t y p e ..................................
S e l e c t i o nI 413
4.3.2.1. Proppant d e n s i t y and c o n c e n t r a t i o n ................ 413
4.3.2.2. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants . . . 413
4.3.2.3. B e n e f i t s o f h i g h sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r i o r t o syn-
t h e t i c p r o p p a n t i n v e n t i o n ......................... 414
4.3.3. Proppant embedment and f r a c t u r e w i d t h ....................... 414
4.3.3.1. M u l t i l a y e r f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g ...................... 415
4.3.3.1.1. General aspects ....................... 415
4.3.3.1.2. Crushing and embedment r e d u c t i o n ...... 415
4.3.3.1.2.1. General aspects ......... 416
4.3.3.1.2.2. S o f t sands .............. 416
4.3.3.1.2.3. Hard sandstones ......... 417
4.3.3.1.3. C o n d u c t i v i t y enhancement .............. 417
4.3.3.2. Proppant p i l l a r i n g ................................ 418
4.3.3.2.1. Open f l o w channels between d i s c r e t e
p r o p p a n t patches ...................... 418
4.3.3.2.2. D i s c o n t i n u o u s p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n ... 419
4.3.3.2.3. F l u i d d e n s i t y c o n t r o l and s e l e c t i v e
p r o p p a n t l o a d ......................... 419
4.3.3.3. F r a c t u r e w i d t h vs . non-Darcy f l o w ................. 420
4.3.3.3.1. Proppant t y p e and g r a i n s i z e . . . . . . . . . . 420
4.3.3.3.2. Shearing o f polymer f l u i d s ............ 421
4.3.3.3.3. H i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s ................. 421
4.3.3.3.4. Secondary f r a c t u r e n a r r o w i n g .......... 422
4.3.3.4. F r a c t u r e w i d t h vs . p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g .............. 422
4.3.3.4.1. Minimum f r a c t u r e w i d t h f o r p r o p p a n t i n -
f i l l i n g ............................... 422
4.3.3.4.2. F r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
4.3.3.5. Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n schedules .................. 423
4.3.3.5.1. Ramping vs . s t a i r - s t e p p e d schedules ... 423
4.3.3.5.2. M i c r o p r o c e s s o r c o n t r o l and automation . 423
4.3.3.5.3. B l e n d i n g equipment t y p e vs . t r e a t m e n t
s i z e .................................. 424
4.3.3.5.3.1. Continuous-mix f r a c t u r i n g 424
4.3.3.5.3.2. Batch-mix f r a c t u r i n g .... 424
4.3.4. Proppant t r a n s p o r t and f r a c t u r e damage ...................... 425
4.3.4.1. F l u i d breakdown and r e s i d u e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ......... 425
4.3.4.1.1. General aspects ....................... 426
4.3.4.1.2. F l u i d breakdown ....................... 426
4.3.4.1.3. Residue c o n c e n t r a t i o n ................. 427
4.3.4.1.3.1. F i l t e r cake t h i c k n e s s ... 427
4.3.4.1.3.2. Polymer and b r e a k e r con-
c e n t r a t i o n .............. 428
4.3.4.1.3.3. Residues p l u g g i n g m a t r i x
and p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y 429
4.3.4.1.4. Gel f i l t e r cake on f r a c t u r e w a l l ...... 429
4.3.4.1.4.1. Gel f i l t e r cake t h i c k n e s s
vs . proppant g r a i n diarne-
t e r ..................... 429
4.3.4.1.4.2. Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n
vs . f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y 430
4.3.4.1.5. P o s s i b i l i t i e s of f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i m -
provement ............................. 430
4.3.4.1.5.1. U t i l i z a t i o n o f foam . . . . . 430
4.3.4.1.5.2. F l u i d e f f i c i e n c y vs . r e -
sidue deposition ........ 431
4.3.4.2. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and t r a n s p o r t a b i l i t y ............. 431
4.3.4.2.1. Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n and v e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r e growth ....................... 432
4.3.4.2.1.1. H i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s ... 432
 340

4.3.4.2.1.2. L o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s .... 432

4.3.4.2.1.3. Shearing o f g e l l e d f l u i d s 433
4.3.4.2.1.4. O t h e r aspects . . . . . . . . . . . 433
4.3.4.2.2. Proppant d e n s i t y l f l u i d v i s c o s i t y r e l a -
t i o n s h i p and f l u i d volume p e r r e s e r v o i r
t h i c k n e s s u n i t ........................ 433
4.3.4.2.2.1. Friction loss i n tubular
goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
4.3.4.2.2.2. Gel d e g r a d a t i o n . . . . . . . . . 434
4.3.4.2.2.3. F l u i d viscosity modifica-
t i o n .................... 434
4.3.4.2.2.4. F r a c t u r e h e i g h t vs. w i d t h 434
4.3.4.2.3. Overpressure c a l i b r a t e d s t i m u l a t i o n de-
s i g n .................................. 435
4.3.4.2.3.1. Conventional underestima-
t i o n o f n e t f r a c t u r e pro-
p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e . . . . . . . 435
4.3.4.2.3.2. Reasons f o r e l e v a t e d n e t
f r a c t u r e propagation
p r e s s u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
4.3.4.2.3.3. Scale dependency o f appa-
r e n t f r a c t u r e toughness . 436
4.3.4.2.3.4. H i g h e r p r o p p a n t volumes
and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s pumped
w i t h overpressure c a l i -
b r a t e d f r a c t u r e d e s i g n .. 436
4.3.4.3. Impact o f delayed c r o s s l i n k i n g .................... 437
4.3.4.3.1. C r o s s l i n k i n g t y p e s ............_....._.437
4.3.4.3.1.1. General b e n e f i t o f c r o s s -
l i n k i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
4.3.4.3.1.2. Conventional and delayed
c r o s s l i n k i n g ............ 438
4.3.4.3.1.3. V i s c o s i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s . 438
4.3.4.3.1.4. Continuous v s . b a t c h m i x -
i n g ..................... 439
4.3.4.3.1.5. Delayed c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c -
t u r i n g f l u i d s vs. d u a l -
v i s c o s i t y gravel packing
f l u i d s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
4.3.4.3.1.6. M i x i n g o f delayed and r a -
p i d c r o s s l i n k i n g agents . 440
4.3.4.3.2. C r o s s l i n k i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e and p e r f o r -
mance ................................. 440
4.3.4.3.2.1. F r i c t i o n pressure lower-
i n g ..................... 440
4.3.4.3.2.2. Screenout r a t e r e d u c t i o n 441
4.3.4.3.2.3. F r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e vs.
f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth . . . 441
4.3.4.3.2.4. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and p r o p -
p a n t suspension improve-
ment .................... 442
4.3.4.3.2.5. F r a c t u r e c l o s u r e and
b r e a k e r a c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . 442
4.3.4.3.3. Improvement o f p r o p p a n t placement . . . . . 443
4.3.4.3.3.1. Proppant t r a n s p o r t capa-
c i t y and f l u i d - l o s s a d d i -
t i v e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
4.3.4.3.3.2. F r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n vs.
f l u i d c r o s s l i n k i n g ...... 444
4.3.4.3.4. Enhanced f l u i d s t a b i l i t y and t r a n s p o r t
c a p a c i t y .............................. 444
4.3.4.3.4.1. A c i d g e l l i n g and c r o s s -
 341

l i n k i n g ................. 444
4.3.4.3.4.2. Rheological d i f f e r e n c e s
o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d stage 445
4.3.4.3.4.3. Impact o f shear d u r i n g
m i x i n g and pumping ...... 446
4.3.4.4. F l u i d heat c a p a c i t y and r e s e r v o i r temperature ..... 446
4.3.4.4.1. General aspects ....................... 446
4.3.4.4.1.1. Temperature s e n s i t i v i t y
of fracturing f l u i d vis-
c o s i t y .................. 447
4.3.4.4.1.2. Temperature d i f f e r e n c e
between f o r m a t i o n and
stimulation f l u i d s ...... 447
4.3.4.4.2. Heat blockage and f o r m a t i o n c o o l i n g ... 447
4.3.4.4.2.1. F l u i d rheology and prop-
pant g r a i n s i z e ......... 447
4.3.4.4.2.2. Enlargement o f pre-pad
and pad s i z e ............ 448
4.3.4.4.2.3. Changing temperature and
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y ......... 449
4.3.4.4.3. Primary and secondary g e l l a n t s ........ 449
4.3.4.4.4. F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y improvement 450
4.3.4.5. F l u i d v i s c o e l a s t i c i t y ............................. 450
4.3.4.6. F l u i d l e a k o f f containment ......................... 451
4.3.4.6.0. Types and impact o f f l u i d l o s s ........ 451
4.3.4.6.1. P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f l u i d l o s s c o n t r o l ... 452
4.3.4.6.1.1. General aspects ......... 452
4.3.4.6.1.2. Drawbacks o f h i g h f l u i d
l e a k o f f r a t e s ........... 452
4.3.4.6.1.3. S o l i d p a r t i c l e s i z e vs.
pore t h r o a t diameter .... 453
4.3.4.6.1.4. F l u i d uptake s a t u r a t i o n
by pre-pad and pad stages 453
4.3.4.6.1.5. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y vs. l e a k -
o f f ..................... 454
4.3.4.6.2. N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and p a r t i c u l a t e addi-
t i v e s ................................. 454
4.3.4.6.2.1. Liquid fluid-loss additi-
ves ..................... 455
4.3.4.6.2.2. Solid fluid-loss additi-
ves ..................... 455
4.3.4.6.2.3. Foams and r e s i n s ........ 457
4.3.4.6.2.4. Impact o f f r a c t u r e geome-
t r y and morphology ...... 457
4.3.4.6.3. Mushroom-type f r a c t u r e s and f l u i d e f f i -
ciency ................................ 458
4.3.4.6.4. Combined f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e
and gel breaker ....................... 458
4.3.4.6.4.1. Proppant p e r m e a b i l i t y r e -
tainment due t o secondary
f i l t e r cake d i s s o l u t i o n . 458
4.3.4.6.4.2. Polyester concentration
and f i l t e r cake resorp-
t i o n .................... 459
4.3.4.6.4.3. Degradable p o l y e s t e r vs.
100 mesh sand ........... 459
4.3.5. U l t r a - h i g h f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y achievement ................ 460
4.3.5.1. E x t r a o r d i n a r i l y l a r g e proppant g r a i n s i z e s ........ 460
4.3.5.1.1. Advantages ............................ 460
4.3.5.1.2. Drawbacks ............................. 461
4.3.5.2. M i x i n g o f round and angular proppant g r a i n s ....... 461
4.3.6. Uniform vs. changing f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y .................. 462
 342

4.4. Targets o f unconventional gas stimulation ........................... 463

4.4.1. Tiqht qas sandstones ........................................ 463
4.4.1.7. T i g h t g a s s a n d body morphology and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g .............................. 464
4.4.1.2. D i s t r i b u t i o n of important t i g h t gas sand formations
and b a s i n s ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
4.4.1.3. I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t i g h t g a s s a n d s and c o a l seams 465
4.4.1.4. O v e r h y d r o s t a t i c r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e ................ 465
4.4.2 G e o p r e s s u r e d r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
4.4.2.1. Geotectonical s e t t i n g ... .. ... 466
4.4.2.2. Poroperm p r o p e r t i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
4.4.2.3. Ball-out treatments 467
4 . 4 . 2 . 4 . Other s o u r c e 468
4.4.3 Coal seams . . . . . _ . . . _ . 468
4.4.3.1. General a s p e c t s . . . 468
4.4.3.1.1. I m p o r t a n c e o f the c l e a t s y s t e m f o r g a s
469
4.4.3.1.2. S i g n i f i c a n c e of hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g in
deep unmineable c o a l seams f o r g a s ex-
p l o i t a t i o n ...................... 469
4.4.3.1.3. Aims and p u r p o s e s o f c o a l f r a c t u r i n g . . 470
4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . 4 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of important coal b a s i n s
and g a s reserves ...................... 470
4 . 4 . 3 . 2 . C l e a t geometry .... 471
4 . 4 . 3 . 3 . S p e c i a l mechanical 471
4 . 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 . T r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e s and c o a l c h i p 472
4.4.3.3.2. Impact o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e g e o m e t r y . 472
4.4.3.4. F r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n t y p e s o f c o a l seams . . . . . . . . 473
4.4.3.4.1. Fluid viscosity .... 473
4.4.3.4.1.1. Gel- vs. w a t e r - b a s e d s t i -
m u l a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
4.4.3.4.1.2. P r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g and
r o l l i n g in water fractu-
r i n g .................... 474
4.4.3.4.2 Mu1 t i p l e i n t e r v a l f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . 474
4.4.3.4.2.1. Reservoir depth of coal
seams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
4.4.3.4.2.2. L i m i t e d - e n t r y s t i m u l a t i o n 474
4.4.3.4.3 F r a c t u r i n g s t r a t e g i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
4.4.3.4.3.1. G e n e r a l a s p e c t s _ . . . . . . . . 475
4.4.3.4.3.2. Single vertical fractures
intersecting several t h i n
c o a l seams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
4.4.3.4.3.3. Complex m u l t i p l e f r a c t u -
res c o n t a i n e d i n a s i n g l e
t h i c k c o a l seam . . . . . . . . . 476
4.4.3.4.3.4. Injection rates, fluid
l o s s and t r e a t m e n t p r e s -
sure .................... 476
4.4.3.4.4 F r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n and
t r e a t m e n t pressure i n c r e a s e . . . . . . . . . . . 477
4.4.3.5. F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y m a x i m i z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
4.4.3.6. Vertical hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g vs. horizontal d r i l -
ling .............................................. 478
4.4.3.7. R e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e ................................ 478
4.4.3.8. R e l a t i o n s h i p s between c o a l seam and bounding s t r a t a 478
4.4.3.8.1. S a n d s t o n e s ............................ 479
4.4.3.8.2. Shales ................................ 479
4.4.3.8.3. F r a c t u r e h e i g h t c o n t a i n m e n t and e l e v a -
t e d t r e a t i n o< ,o r e s s u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
4.4.4, Shales ...................................................... 480
 343

4.4.4.1. R e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s and p r o d u c t i o n mechanisms . . . . 480

4.4.4.1.1. Gas d r a i n a g e through n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s 480
4.4.4.1.2. S i g n i f i c a n c e f o r gas i n d u s t r y and r e -
serve p o t e n t i a l ....................... 481
4.4.4.1.3. Impact o f h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g and hy-
d r a u l i c t r e a t i n g ...................... 481
4.4.4.2. Non-proppant f r a c t u r i n g ........................... 482
4.4.4.2.1. N i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
4.4.4.2.1.1. Advantages o f n i t r o g e n
gas f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . 482
4.4.4.2.1.2. W e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y damage
removal and r e s e r v o i r
breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
4.4.4.2.2. Carbon d i o x i d e and foam f r a c t u r i n g .... 483
4.4.4.2.2.1. E f f e c t i v i t y o f carbon d i -
o x i d e vs. n i t r o g e n t r e a t -
i n g ..................... 483
4.4.4.2.2.2. Foam f r a c t u r i n g and t a i -
l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g . . . . . 483
4.4.4.2.2.3. Auto-propping o f c r a c k s
c r e a t e d by gas f r a c t u r i n g 483
4.4.4.3. Proppant f r a c t u r i n g ............................... 484
4.4.4.3.1. Proppant placement and f l u i d r e t r i e v a l 484
4.4.4.3.1.1. Comparative s u p e r i o r i t y
o f proppant f r a c t u r i n g . . 484
4.4.4.3.1.2. Combination o f gas and
foam proppant f r a c t u r i n g 485
4.4.4.3.2. V e r t i c a l vs. h o r i z o n t a l h o l e d r i l l i n g
and f r a c t u r i n g ........................ 485
4.4.4.4. E f f e c t i v i t y o f proppant v s . n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g ... 486
4.4.4.4.1. General aspects ....................... 486
4.4.4.4.2. L i q u i d r e t e n t i o n and w e l l cleanup . . . . . 487
4.4.4.4.3. F e a s i b i l i t y o f MHF t r e a t m e n t s . . . . . . . . . 487
4.4.4.4.3.1. R e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e . . . . . . 487
4.4.4.4.3.2. Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n . . 488
4.4.4.5. S p e c i a l f e a t u r e s o f s h a l e qas r e s e r v o i r s .......... 488
4.4.4.6. E x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g .............................. 489
4.4.5 High-temperature r e s e r v o i r s ................................. 489
4.4.5.1. F l u i d s t a b i l i t y adjustment t o e l e v a t e d pay tempera-
t u r e .............................................. 489
4.4.5.2. Heat t r a n s f e r i n f r a c t u r e s and temperature s t a b i l i -
t y o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s .......................... 490
4.4.5.3. F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e q u i r e m e n t i n h o t environment ... 490
4.4.5.4. F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e q u i r e m e n t i n c o l d environment . . 491
4.4.6 Gas condensate r e s e r v o i r s ................................... 491

4.5. Hydraulic proppant fracturing o f carbonate rocks .................... 492

4.5.1. E x t e n s i o n o f d r a i n a g e p a t h and c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t . . . . . . . . 492
4.5.1.1. Advantages and drawbacks o f f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g ..... 493
4.5.1.1.1. M a t r i x a c i d i z i n g vs. f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . 493
4.5.1.1.1.1. Removal o f f o r m a t i o n da-
mage .................... 493
4.5.1.1.1.2. Auto-propping o f rugged
fracture walls after et-
ching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
4.5.1.1.1.3. F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y vs.
fracture length ......... 495
4.5.1.1.1.4. Double f r a c t u r i n g i n r e -
servoirs with hairline
cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
4.5.1.1.2. C o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between r e s e r -
v o i r m a t r i x and propped f r a c t u r e . . . . . . 496
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4.5.1.1.2.1. Fracture flow capacity

c o n t r a s t ................ 496
4.5.1.1.2.2. P e r m e a b i l i t y and conduc-
t i v i t y c o n t r a s t . . . . . . . . . 496
4.5.1.1.3. Carbonate s c a l e f o r m a t i o n and f l u i d
l o s s .................................. 496
4.5.1.1.3.1. Scale p r e c i p i t a t i o n p r e -
v e n t i o n ................. 497
4.5.1.1.3.2. C o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t i o n . . . . 497
4.5.1.1.4. I r o n s e q u e s t e r i n g and complexing . . . . . . 498
4.5.1.1.4.1. Sources o f i r o n i n a c i d i -
z i n g and f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . 498
4.5.1.1.4.2. Compatibility o f iron-se-
q u e s t e r i n g and complexing
agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
4.5.1.2. C o n d u c t i v i t y improvement by a c i d o p t i m i z a t i o n . . . . . 499
4.5.1.2.1. A c i d s t r e n g t h ......................... 499
4.5.1.2.2. A c i d f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l ............... 499
4.5.1.2.3. A c i d c r o s s l i n k i n g ..................... 500
4.5.1.2.4. A c i d g e l l i n g .......................... 500
4.5.1.2.5. A c i d h e a t i n g .......................... 501
4.5.1.3. Enhancement o f a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e . . . . . . . . . . 501
4.5.1.3.1. A c i d i n j e c t i o n and r e a c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . 501
4.5.1.3.1.1. A c i d c h a n n e l i z a t i o n . . . . . 501
4.5.1.3.1.2. F l u i d property modifica-
t i o n .................... 502
4.5.1.3.2. A c i d r e t a r d a t i o n ...................... 502
4.5.1.3.2.1. S l o w l y r e a c t i n g a c i d s and
s o l i d a d d i t i v e s . . . . . . . . . 503
4.5.1.3.2.2. A c i d e m u l s i f i c a t i o n . . . . . 503
4.5.1.3.2.3. A c i d g e l l i n g and f i l t e r
cakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
4.5.1.3.2.4. A c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n and
f r i c t i o n l o s s . . . . . . . . . . . 504
4.5.1.4. A c i d foaming .............. .................. 504
4.5.1.5. Open vs . propped f r a c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
4.5.1.5.1. Drawbacks o f a u t o - p r o p p i n g o f a c i d i z e d
f r a c t u r e w a l l s ........................ 505
4.5.1.5.2. Significance o f proppant i n f i l l i n g o f
t h e f r a c t u r e .......................... 506
4.5.1.6. A c i d f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l ........................... 506
4.5.1.6.1. A c i d r e a c t i o n s d u r i n g f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . 506
4.5.1.6.2. A l t e r n a t i n g a c i d and g e l l e d w a t e r s t a -
ges ................................... 507
4.5.1.6.3. Wormhole growth and a c i d f l u i d l o s s ... 507
4.5.1.6.3.1. Wormhole p e n e t r a t i o n and
a c i d c h a n n e l l i n g . . . . . . . . 508
4.5.1.6.3.2. F l u i d invasion pattern
and f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y
development . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
4.5.1.6.4. P o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r improving a c i d f l u i d -
l o s s c o n t r o l .......................... 508
4.5.2. Combination o f n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
4.5.3. P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n i n Europe ...................... 509
4.5.4. Chalk s t i m u l a t i o n ...................................... . 509
4.5.4.1. P e t r o p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and p r o d u c t i v e n e s s . . . . . . . 510
4.5.4.1.1. General aspects ....................... 510
4.5.4.1.2. S t r a t i g r a p h y .......................... 511
4.5.4.1.2.1. Hod, Tor and E k o f i s k f o r -
mations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
4.5.4.1.2.2. F r a c t u r e s t r a t i g r a p h y ... 511
4.5.4.1.3. Petrography and p e t r o p h y s l c s . . . . . . . . . . 512
 345

4.5.4.1.3.1. Autochthonous and a l l o c h -

thonous c h a l k ........... 512
4.5.4.1.3.2. F r a c t u r e c l o s u r e ........ 512
4.5.4.1.4. N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e t y p e s ................ 512
4.5.4.1.4.1. Healed and t e c t o n i c f r a c -
t u r e s ................... 513
4.5.4.1.4.2. Stylolite-associated
f r a c t u r e s ............... 513
4.5.4.1.4.3. Chalk s t i m u l a t i o n t a r g e t s 513
4.5.4.1.5. P r i m a r y c h a l k p r o p e r t i e s and s t i m u l a -
t i o n response ......................... 514
4.5.4.1.6. P r i m a r y c h a l k p r o p e r t i e s and secondary
f i e l d subsidence ...................... 514
4.5.4.1.6.1. R e s e r v o i r compaction and
f i e l d subsidence ........ 515
4.5.4.1.6.2. Permi an sandstone vs .
Cretaceous c h a l k s u b s i -
dence ................... 515
4.5.4.1.6.3. Subsidence r a t e s i n d i f -
f e r e n t c h a l k f i e l d s ..... 516
4.5.4.2. Combination o f a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ....... 516
4.5.4.2.1. Viscous f i n g e r i n g a c i d i z i n g and worm-
h o l e growth ........................... 516
4.5.4.2.1.1. Whisper f r a c t u r i n g ...... 517
4.5.4.2.1.2. Viscosity contrast requi-
r e d f o r f i n g e r i n g ....... 517
4.5.4.2.1.3. Density d i f f e r e n c e r e q u i -
r e d f o r f i n g e r i n g ....... 518
4.5.4.2.2. F r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n c o n t r o l .......... 518
4.5.4.2.2.1. S h o r t wide f r a c t u r e s and
h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n 518
4.5.4.2.2.2. Impact o f s t i m u l a t i o n
b o a t s on a c i d vs . p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ......... 519
4.5.4.2.3. Comparative e f f e c t i v i t y o f p r o p p a n t and
a c i d f r a c t u r i n g ....................... 519
4.5.4.2.3.1. Longevity o f created
f r a c t u r e ................ 519
4.5.4.2.3.2. F o r m a t i o n breakdown and
c l o s e d f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g 519
4.5.4.3. Combination o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l
p a c k i n g ........................................... 520
4.5.4.3.1. General aspects ....................... 520
4.5.4.3.2. Up-and-under s t i m u l a t i o n vs . combined
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g 521
4.5.4.3.3. Design and purpose o f c h a l k g r a v e l
p a c k i n g ............................... 521
4.5.4.3.4. W e l l b o r e c l e a n o u t e f f e c t i v i t y ......... 522
4.5.4.4. S p e c i a l c h a l k f r a c t u r i n g techniques ............... 522
4.5.4.4.1. T i p s c r e e n o u t f r a c t u r i n g .............. 522
4.5.4.4.2. I n t e r f a c e f r a c t u r i n g .................. 522
4.5.4.4.3. D e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g .................. 523
4.5.4.4.3.1. General aspects ......... 523
4.5.4.4.3.2. Combination o f d e n d r i t i c
n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g .............. 523
4.5.4.4.3.3. R e f r a c t u r i n g aspects .... 524
4.5.4.4.4. O t h e r aspects o f c h a l k f r a c t u r i n g ..... 524
4.5.4.5. Water i m b i b i t i o n and o i l r e c o v e r y ................. 525
4.5.4.5.1. Water f l o o d i n g ........................ 525
4.5.4.5.2. Water f r a c t u r i n g ...................... 526
4.5.4.5.3. Foam f r a c t u r i n g ....................... 526
 346

4.5.4.6. H o r i z o n t a l w e l l d r i l l i n g .......................... 526

4.5.5. Sandstone a c i d i z i n g ......................
4.5.5.1. Acid reaction ..................
4.5.5.1.1. Partial matrix disintegration .
4.5.5.1.2. S e p a r a t i o n o f c o n n a t e w a t e r and
p r e f l u s h .............................. 528
4.5.5.2. Acidizing targets ......
4.5.5.2.1. C l a y and i r o
4.5.5.2.2. Carbonate m i
4.5.5.3. Acid penetration distanc
4.5.5.3.1. Type o f f o r m a t i o n damage
4.5.5.3.2. Acid concent
4.5.5.3.3. Low- and h i g h - p H a c i d s . . . .
4.5.5.3.4. Water b l o c k i n g ........................ 530
4.5.5.4. A c i d t y p e s and d i s s o l u t i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s . . . . . . . . . . 530
4.5.5.4.1. G e n e r a l a s p e c t s ....................... 530
4.5.5.4.2. C l a y m i n e r a l type vs. a c i d i z i n g t r e a t -
ment ... .... ..... 531
4.5.5.4.3. Delayed r e a c t i o n and i n - s i t u a c i d
g e n e r a t i o n ............................ 532
4.5.5.4.4. Selective acid stimulation o f injection
w e l l s ................................. 532

4.6. High-permeability reservoir fracturing .............................. 533

4.6.1. Fracture-formation conductivity contrast ..... 533
4.6.1.1. R e s e r v o i r t y p e s .................... 533
4.6.1.2. F r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y ............................ 534
4.6.2. P r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
4.6.3. P r o p p a n t / f l u i d s l u r r y m i x i n g t y p e s .......................... 534
4.6.3.1. B a t c h - m i x p r e p a r a t i o n ............................. 534
4.6.3.2. C o n t i n u o u s - m i x b l e n d i n g ........................... 535
4.6.3.3. S p e c i a l d e s i g n f o r w a t e r f l o o d o p e r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . 535
4.6.4. F r a c t u r e d e s i g n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ........................
4.6.4.1. F r a c t u r e w i d t h and l e n g t h ......................... 536
4.6.4.2. H i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and g r a i n s i z e . . . . . . . 536

4.7. Geothermal fracturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

4.7.1. Geological aspects o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r s 537
4.7.1.1. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f geothermal r e s e r v o 537
4.7.1.2. Permeability evolution ........... 537
4.7.2. Geothermal r e s e r v o i r d i s t r i b u t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n 538
4.7.2.1. G e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f European geo
r e s e r v o i r s .............................. 538
4.7.2.2. Worldwide geothermal energy e x p l o i 539
4.7.3. E x p l o s i v e and n o n - p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ....................... 539
4.7.3.1. G e n e r a l a s p e c t s ................................... 539
4.7.3.1.1. F o r m a t i o n damage removal i n v a r i o u s r e -
s e r v o i r types ......................... 540
4.7.3.1.2. S h o r t f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n and r e s e .
rock r u b b l i z a t i o n ............... 540
4.7.3.2. C o n v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g and r e c e n t
vations .... . 541
4.7.3.3. Stem-induced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
4.7.3.3.1. Controlled o r i g i n o f limited multiple
f r a c t u r e system ....................... 542
4.7.3.3.2. V e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n regard-
less o f geostress s t a t e .... 542
4.7.3.3.3. L i m i t a t i o n s and p o s s i b i l i t i e
vement ................................ 542
4.7.3.3.4. Proppant i n s e r t i o n i n t o explosion-gene-
r a t e d f r a c t u r e s ....................... 543
4.7.3.4. Nuclear f r a c t u r i n g . . . . ..... 543
 347

4.7.3.4.1. P r i n c i p l e s ............................ 543

4.7.3.4.2. A p p l i c a t i o n s .......................... 544
4.7.3.5. Water f r a c t u r i n g .................................. 544
4.7.4. Proppant f r a c t u r i n g ......................................... 545
4.7.4.1. Proppant aspects .................................. 545
4.7.4.1.1. High-temperature p r o p p a n t performance . 545
4.7.4.1.2. F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e ...................... 546
4.7.4.2. F l u i d aspects ..................................... 546
4.7.4.2.1. Fluid viscosity sensitivity ........... 546
4.7.4.2.2. Fluid viscosity stabilization ......... 547
4.7.4.3. Treatment aspects ................................. 547
4.7.5. Communication f r a c t u r i n g .................................... 547
4.7.5.1. Connection o f i n j e c t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s ...... 548
4.7.5.2. Connection o f w e l l s and l a r g e - s c a l e n a t u r a l f r a c t u -
r e s ............................................... 548
4.7.6. F r a c t u r e system enlargement by h e a t e x t r a c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
4.7.7. Shear s t i m u l a t i o n vs . t e n s i l e f r a c t u r i n g .................... 549
4.7.7.1. O r i g i n o f shear s l i p p a g e .......................... 549
4.7.7.2. D i l a t i o n b e h a v i o u r ................................ 550
4.7.7.3. J o i n t d e f o r m a t i o n spectrum ........................ 550
4.7.7.4. D e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s ................... 551

4.8. M i n i f r a c t u r i n g and other small-scale f r a c t u r i n g ..................... 552

4.8.1. M i n i f r a c t u r e . m i c r o f r a c t u r e and MHF d e f i n i t i o n and p r i n c i p l e s 552
4.8.1.1. M i n i f r a c t u r e and m i c r o f r a c t u r e .................... 552
4.8.1.2. Massive f r a c t u r e .................................. 553
4.8.1.2.1. Proppant q u a n t i t i e s and f r a c t u r e wing
l e n g t h s ............................... 553
4.8.1.2.2. A p p l i c a t i o n s i n t i g h t gas sand s t i m u l a -
t i o n .................................. 553
4.8.1.3. M i n i - m a s s i v e f r a c t u r e ............................. 554
4.8.1.3.1. D i l a t a n c y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g ..... 554
4.8.1.3.2. Design o f mini-massive f r a c t u r i n g ..... 554
4.8.2. P r e - f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e breakdown t e s t and f r a c t u r e parameter
d e t e r m i n a t i o n ............................................... 555
4.8.2.1. M i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n experiments .............. 555
4.8.2.1.1. D i m i n u t i o n o f screenout r a t e s . . . . . . . . . 555
4.8.2.1.2. F l u i d - l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n .. 556
4.8.2.2. M i c r o f r a c t u r e breakdown procedures ................ 556
4.8.2.3. Pressure a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n i n p u t d a t a c o l l e c t i o n 557
4.8.2.3.1. M i n i f r a c t u r e s t e s t and e v a l u a t i o n t y p e s 557
4.8.2.3.1.1. S t e p - r a t e t e s t .......... 557
4.8.2.3.1.2. Pump-in/flow-back t e s t .. 558
4.8.2.3.1.3. Pump-in/shut-in t e s t . . . . 559
4.8.2.3.2. I n - s i t u s t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . 559
4.8.2.3.3. C l o s u r e s t r e s s vs . f l u i d t y p e ......... 560
4.8.2.3.4. Premature screenout t e r m i n a t i o n r e c o g -
n i t i o n ................................ 560
4.8.2.3.5. F l u i d s and mechanics t e s t i n g . . . . . . . . . . 561
4.8.2.4. S i z e and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m i n i f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . 561
4.8.2.4.1. General aspects ....................... 561
4.8.2.4.2. Proppant q u a n t i t i e s and f r a c t u r e wing
l e n g t h s ............................... 562
4.8.2.5. Proppant vs . non-proppant m i n i f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . 562
4.8.2.5.1. E f f e c t i v i t y d i f f e r e n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
4.8.2.5.2. Comparative assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
4.8.2.5.3. S h o r t p r e c i s e propped m i n i f r a c t u r e s ... 564
4.8.2.5.3.1. Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n
and d i s t r i b u t i o n . . . . . . . . 564
4.8.2.5.3.2. ImDact o f batch-mix f r a c -
t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
4.8.2.6. M o d i f i e d m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g and m i n i f r a c t u r i n g a n a l y -
 348

s i s f o r o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d f r a c t u r e d e s i g n . . . 564
4.8.2.6.1. L a y o u t and p u r p o s e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l m i -
c r o f r a c t u r e s and m i n i f r a c t u r e s . . . . . . . . 565
4.8.2.6.2. M o d i f i e d m i c r o f r a c t u r e s and m i n i f r a c -
t u r e p r o c e d u r e s ....................... 565
4.8.2.6.2.1. Reopening, p r o p a g a t i o n ,
s h u t - i n and f l o w b a c k c y c -
l e s ..................... 566
4.8.2.6.2.2. Global vs. l o c a l p r e s s u r e
d e c l i n e match . . . . . . . . . . . 566
4.8.2.6.3. D e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s f o r optimum m i c r o -
and m i n i f r a c t u r e .. ................ 567
4.8.2.6.3.1. Test d r a t e s and v i s -
c o s i t i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
4.8.2.6.3.2. S h u t - i n t i m e and f l o w b a c k
r a t e .................... 567
4.8.3. F o r m a t i o n damage a r o u n d t h e w e l l b o r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.3.1. O r i g i n o f f o r m a t i o n damage ........................ 568
4.8.3.1.1. Formation exposure d u r i n g w e l l opera-
t i o n .................................. 568
4.8.3.1.2. F l u i d l o s s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r . . . . . . . . . 569
4.8.3.2. Types o f f o r m a t i o n damage ......................... 569
4.8.3.3. F o r m a t i o n damage b r e a k t h r o u g h b y m i n i f r a c t u r i n g . . . 570
4.8.3.3.1. Small p r o p p a n t v o l s f o r plugging of
short cracks ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
4.8.3.3.2. Damage h a l o b r e a k a by s h o r t high-con-
d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
4.8.3.4. F o r m a t i o n damage removal b y a c i d i z i n g . . . . . . . . . 571
4.8.4. F i e l d e x p e r i m e n t s and mHF v s . MHF ........................... 571
4.8.4.1. F r a c t u r i n g expenses v s . e f f e c t i v i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
4.8.4.2. F l u i d l e a k o f f v s . w a t e r b l o c k i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
4.8.4.3. O t h e r a s p e c t s ..................................... 572
4.8.5. P i l o t s t i m u l a t i o n o f m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s .................... 573
4.8.5.1. A r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . . 573
4.8.5.2. A p p l i c a t i o n o f resin-coated proppants i n unstable
p a y zones ......................................... 573
4.8.5.2.1. P r o p p a n t wedge s t a b i l i z a t i o n and embed-
ment p r e v e n t i o n ....................... 574
4.8.5.2.2. T a i l - i n propping f o r flowback i n h i b i -
tion ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
4.8.5.3. T i p screenout f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
4.8.5.3.1. P r i n c i p l e s .. , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
4.8.5.3.2. A p p l i c a t i o n s .......................... 575
4.8.5.4. D i r t y s a n d s t o n e s t i m u l a t i o n ....................... 575
4.8.6. H o r i z o n t a l w e l l o r d r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g and f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . 575
4.8.6.1. H o r i z o n t a l h o l e d r i l l i n g .......................... 576
4.8.6.1.0. H i s t o r i c a l develop atus o f
horizontal wells . . . . . . . . . . . 576
4.8.6.1.1. M a i n t a r g e t s o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s . . . . . . 576
4.8.6.1.2. H o r i z o n t a l w e l l s v s . d r a i n h o l e s . . . . . . . 577
4.8.6.1.2.1. Radius f o r b o r e h o l e t r a -
j e c t o r y t u r n i n g . . . . . . . . . 577
4.8.6.1.2.2. Drainhole d r i l l i n g appli-
c a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
4.8.6.1.3. H o r i z o n t a l w e l l s vs. extended-reach
d r i l l i n g .............................. 578
4.8.6.1.3.1. Horizontal displacement
and t o t a l a c c e s s i b l e a r e a 578
4.8.6.1.3.2. Extended- v s . l i m i t e d -
r e a c h d r i l l i n g . . . . . . . . . . 578
4.8.6.1.4. I n v e r t e d d r i l l i n g ..................... 579
4.8.6.1.5. S i g n i f i c a n c e f o r r e s e r v o i r d r a i n a g e . . . 579
 349

4.8.6.1.5.1. Communication p a t h b e t -
ween we1 1 b o r e t r a j e c t o r y
and r e s e r v o i r . . . . . . . . . . . 579
4.8.6.1.5.2. Improved n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e
i n t e r s e c t i o n ............ 580
4.8.6.1.5.3. Choke e f f e c t on v e r t i c a l
fractures ............... 580
4.8.6.1.5.4. D i s t a n c e f r o m f l u i d con-
tacts ................... 581
4.8.6.1.5.5. Reduction o f coning . . . . . 581
4.8.6.1.5.6. S e l e c t i o n o f d r a i n a g e and
injection direction ..... 582
4.8.6.1.5.7. R e s e r v o i r geometry and
n a t u r a l crack d i s t r i b u -
t i o n .................... 582
4.8.6.1.5.8. Wellbore i n s t a b i l i t y . . . . 582
4.8.6.1 6. H o r i z o n t a l h o l e c o m p l e t i o n and s t i m u l a -
t i o n .................................. 583
4.8.6.1 7 . O t h e r aspects ......................... 583
4.8.6.2. H o r i z o n a1 h o l e f r a c t u r i n g ........................ 584
4.8.6.2 1. H o r i z o n t a l h o l e d r i l l i n q v s . f r a c t u r i n q 584
4.8.6.2.1.1. A l t e r n a t i c e o r combina-
t i o n ....................
~

584
4.8.6.2.1.2. T i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r d r a i -
nage .................... 585
4.8.6.2.1.3. I d e n t i c a l exposed s u r f a -
ces i n c o a l seams ....... 585
4.8.6.2.1.4. S i n g l e - vs. m u l t i p l e -
l a y e r r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . . 586
4.8.6.2.1.5. Orientation t o natural
f r a c t u r e s and p e r m e a b i l i -
t y a n i s o t r o p i e s ......... 587
4.8.6.2.2 Horizontal hole d r i l l i n g i n combination
w i t h f r a c t u r i n g ....................... 587
4.8.6.2.2.1. R e s e r v o i r t h i c k n e s s and
p e r m e a b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
4.8.6.2.2.2. Wellbore angle buildup
technology and s l a n t h o l e 588
4.8.6.2.3 P r e p e r f o r a t e d l i n e r c o m p l e t i o n and
p r o p p a n t requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
4.8.6.2.4 Mu1 t i p l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r i n g o f
h i g h l y i n c l i n e d b o r e h o l e s ............. 588
4.8.6.2.4.1. Sets o f p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e
p l a n e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
4.8.6.2.4.2. Natural f r a c t u r e i n t e r -
s e c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
4.8.6.2.4.3. M u l t i p l e - vs. l i m i t e d - e n -
t r y f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . 590
4.8.6.2.4.4. F r a c t u r e morphology and
o r i e n t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
4.8.6.2.4.5. Influence o f i n j e c t i o n
r a t e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
4.8.7. Uptake c a p a c i t y enhancement o f i n j e c t i o n w e l l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
4.8.7.1. O i l - f i e l d w a t e r - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
4.8.7.1.1. C o n t r o l 1ed r a c t u r i n g ................. 592
4.8.7.1.1.1 General aspects . . . . . . . . . 592
4.8.7.1.1.2 Proppant s i z e and r e s e r -
v o i r p r e s s u r e . . . . . . . . . . . 593
4.8.7.1.1.3 Decreasing i n - s i t u s t r e s s
by c o l d w a t e r i n j e c t i o n . 593
4.8.7.1.1.4 Sweep e f f i c i e n c y vs. i n -
j e c t i v i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
 350

4.8.7.1.2. Accidental f r a c t u r i n g . .
4 . 8 . 7 . 1 . 2 . 1 . Fluid brea
sweep e f f i c i e n c y . . . . . . . . 595
4 . 8 . 7 . 1 . 2 . 2 . Open cracks above f r a c -
ture pressure a n d non-
proppant hydraulic stimu-
l a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
4 . 8 . 7 . 1 . 2 . 3 . Other aspects . . . . . . .
4 . 8 . 7 . 2 . Waste-liquid disposal wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . 8 . 7 . 2 . 1 . Safe removal of waste l i q u i d s by under-
ground disposal ....................... 596
4 . 8 . 7 . 2 . 2 . P r o p p a n t v s . non-proppant disposal
f r a c t u r i n g ............................ 596
4.8.8. Combination of n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s . .
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . F r act u r e i n t er f er en ce a n d superimposition . . . . . . . . . 597
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 1 . Di s t r i b u t i o n of n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s . . . . . 598
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 1 . 1 . S t r e s s diffe re nc e s a n d
depositional environment 598
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 1 . 2 . Reservoir permeability
and communication . . . . . . . 598
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 2 . Generation of natural f r
4.8.8.1.2.1. Impact of r e s e r v o i r hete-
rogenei t i e s . . .
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 2 . 2 . Fra c ture s
thickness
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 2 . 3 . Fra c ture m
a n d s t r e s s s e n s i t i v i t y . . 599
4.8.8.1.3. I n t er act i o n between natural and hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r e s ......................
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 3 . 1 . General aspects . . . . . .
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 3 . 2 . O rie nta tion of na tura l
a n d hydraulic f r a c t u r e s . 601
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 3 . 3 . Relationship between a n -
c i e n t a n d actual s t r e s s
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 4 . I n t e r f r a c t u r e communication
4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 4 . 1 . Permeabil
4.8.8.1.4.2. Stress se n siti
4 . 8 . 8 . 2 . F r act u r e divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . Temporary natural f r a c t u r e damage .
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . I n t e r a c t i o n s between na
a n d s t i mu l ation f l u i d s
4.8.8.3.1.1. Natural c
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 2 . Dual f l u i d leakoff . . . . . . 605
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 3 . Ca pilla ry forc e s . 606
4.8.8.3.1.4. Impact of breaker s 607
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 5 . Water blocking . . . . . . . . . . 607
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . Fluid l o s s ............................ 607
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 1 . Breakdown f r a c t u r i n g p r o -
cedures . . . . . . . . . 608
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 2 . Ca pilla ry pressure a n d
surfa c e tension . . . . . . . . . 609
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . Dual leakoff behaviour . . 609
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 3 . Limited f r a c t u r e interconnectedness . . . 612
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 4 . Elevated treatment pressure . . . . . . . . . . . 612
4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 5 . S t r e s s - s e n s i t i v i t y behaviour a n d aspe-
r i t y shearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
4 . 8 . 8 . 4 . Dendritic f r a c t u r i n g technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
4 . 8 . 8 . 4 . 1 . Connection of natural a n d hydrau i c
f r a c t u r e s ...................... . . . . . . 614
4 . 8 . 8 . 4 . 1 . 1 . Diverting sta ge s . . . . . . . 614
4 . 8 . 8 . 4 . 1 . 2 . Reverse-f 1 ow p u l se stimu-
 351

l a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
4.8.8.4.2. Shear s l i p p a g e vs . t e n s i l e f a i l u r e . . . . 615
4.8.8.5. T a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g ............................ 616
4.8.8.6. Proppant p l u g g i n g o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
4.8.8.6.1. P r o d u c t i o n a c c e l e r a t i o n by p r o p p i n g o f
n a t u r a l c r a c k s ........................ 616
4.8.8.6.2. F r e s h r e s e r v o i r volume a c q u i s i t i o n and
r e c o v e r y enhancement by a r t i f i c i a l
f r a c t u r i n g ............................ 617
4.8.8.6.3. N a t u r a l p r o p p i n g o f sedimentary s h r i n -
kage c r a c k s ........................... 618
4.8.8.7. O t h e r aspects ..................................... 618
4.8.9. L a t e - s t a g e r e f r a c t u r i n g o f o l d w e l l s ........................ 619
4.8.9.0. General r e f r a c t u r i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
4.8.9.1. R e f r a c t u r i n g c a n d i d a t e w e l l c h o i c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
4.8.9.1.1. Well performance a f t e r o r i g i n a l s t i m u -
l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t ...................... 620
4.8.9.1.1.1. General aspects . . . . . . . . . 620
4.8.9.1.1.2. Success vs . f a i l u r e o f
o r i g i n a l f r a c t u r e j o b ... 621
4.8.9.1.2. Comparable approach o f r e f r a c t u r i n g
c a n d i d a t e s e l e c t i o n and m i n i f r a c t u r e
c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t e v a l u a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . 621
4.8.9.2. A r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l r e s e r v o i r s ........ 622
4.8.9.3. M o b i l i z a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s . . . 622
4.8.9.3.1. A m e l i o r a t e d f e a s i b i l i t y due t o w e l l
a m o r t i z a t i o n .......................... 622
4.8.9.3.2. P r o d u c t i o n d e c l i n e o f f s e t t i n g . . . . . . . . . 623
4.8.9.3.3. E a s i e r t e c h n i c a l t r e a t m e n t performance
by presence o f weakness p l a n e . . . . . . . . . 623
4.8.9.3.4. Recovery enhancement independent f r o m
r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
4.8.9.3.5. Reservoir types s u i t a b l e f o r r e f r a c t u -
r i n g .................................. 624
4.8.9.4 Proppant s e l e c t i o n f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g ............... 624
4.8.9.4.1. S y n t h e t i c proppants vs . n a t u r a l sand . . 625
4.8.9.4.2. R e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e vs . p r o p p a n t concen-
t r a t i o n ............................... 625
4.8.9.5 F r a c t u r e r e o p e n i n g and proppant placement d u r i n g
r e f r a c t u r i n g ...................................... 626
4.8.9.5.1. I n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e w i d t h and p r o p p a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n ......................... 626
4.8.9.5.1.1. Arrangement o f p r i m a r y
and secondary p r o p p a n t
l o a d .................... 626
4.8.9.5.1.2. Refracturing treatment
s i z e .................... 627
4.8.9.5.1.3. P r e s s u r e and s t r e s s d i s -
t r i b u t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
4.8.9.5.1.4. P e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l con-
f i g u r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
4.8.9.5.2. P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r e i n j e c t i o n complica-
t i o n s ................................. 627
4.8.9.6 . Combination o f h y d r a u l i c and e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g . 628
4.8.10. Combination o f a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
4.8.10.1. Proppant d i s s o l u t i o n .............................. 629
4.8.10.2. Treatment schedule and a c i d improvement . . . . . . . . . . . 629
4.8.10.2.1. J o i n t o r separated o p e r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . 629
4.8.10.2.2. A c i d g e l l i n g and c r o s s l i n k i n g . . . . . . . . . 630
4.8.10.2.3. Succession o f stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
4.8.10.3. S p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s .............................. 630
4.8.11. F r a c t u r e l e n g t h and h e i g h t o p t i m i z a t i o n ..................... 631
 352

4 . 8 . 1 1 . 1 . R e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y and w e l l s p a c i n g v s . f r a c -
ture l e n g t h ....................................... 631
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 1 . 1 . Long and s h o r t f r a c t u r e s i n low- and
h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s . . . . . . . . . . 631
4.8.11.1.1.1. Reservoir permeability
and f r a c t u r e l e n g t h . . . . 632
4.8.11.1.1.2. N e a r - w e l l b o r e damage
zone b y p a s s . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
4.8.11.1.1.3. Fracture flow capacity
and l e n g t h o p t i m i z a t i o n 632
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 . R e s e r v o i r and f r a c t u r e p a r a m e t e r s vs.
economical a s p e c t s ...........
4.8.11.1.2.1. Fracture penetr
n e t pay t h i c k n e s s ..
4.8.11.1.2.2. Other a s p e c t s . . . . . . . . . . 6 3 3
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 1 . 3 . P r e s s u r e d e c l i n e and f l u i d f l o w p a t t e r n 634
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 1 . 4 . F r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n v s . r e s e r v o i r s h a p e 634
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 2 . F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y vs. f r a c t u r e l e n g t h . . . . . . . . . 635
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . Impact o f p r o p p a n t t y p e . . . . .
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 2 . 2 . F r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y o p t i m i z a t i o n . . . 636
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 2 . 3 . F r a c t u r e p r o d u c t i v i t y and f l u i d f l o w
p a t t e r n ............................... 636
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 2 . 4 . A c c e l e r a t i o n v s . u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y en-
enhancement ........................... 637
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 2 . 5 . C r e a t e d , propped and e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e
l e n g t h ................................ 637
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 3 . F r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y vs. p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n . . 637
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 4 . Net p r e s e n t v a l u e o p t i m i z a t i o n .................... 638
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 5 . F i e l d examples .................................... 639
4.8.11.6, Fracture height . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639

4.9. Oil-reservoir fracturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.9.1. General a s p e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.1.1. Gas- vs. o i l - r e s e r v o i
4.9.1.2. Proppant a p p l i c a t i o n
4.9.2. Conductivity c o n t r a s t ............. .............
4.9.2.1. P r o p p a n t t y p e ........... .............
4.9.2.2. Proppant g r a i n s i z e .......
4.9.3. Economical f e a s i b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.3.1. Synthetic proppants v s . n a t
4.9.3.2. F r a c t u r e d e s i g n and p l u g g i n g ...................... 643
4.9.4. S t e a m - d r i v e e f f e c t s on f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
4 . 9 . 4 . 1 . Changing g e o s t r e s s regime by t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r e x -
pansion ........................................... 644
4.9.4.1.1. S t r e s s i n v e r s i o n due t o a n i s
s e r v o i r expansion . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.4.1.2. C y c l i c f r a c t u r e c o l l a p s e and
4.9.4.1.2.1. Water f l a s h i n g . . . . . . . . . . 645
4.9.4.1.2.2. Thermal r e s e r v o i r expan-
d p l a s t i c i t y chan-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
4.9.4.1.2.3. Steam i n j e c t i v i t y impro-
vement by r e s e r v o i r f r a c -
turing .................. 646
4.9.4.1.2.4. I n t e r w e l l communication
and f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e 646
4.9.4.1.2.5. Gravity drainage through
fractures ............... 647
4.9.4.1.2.6. Other aspects ........... 647
4.9.4.1.3. Other p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f c h a n g i n g s t r e s s
d i r e c t i o n ............................. 641
4.9.4.1.3.1. Altered-stress fracturing 647
 353

4.9.4.1.3.2. S t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l vs .
s t r e s s c o n t r o l .......... 650
4.9.4.2. Combination o f h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r i n g . 651
4.9.4.2.1. F r a c t u r e c r e a t i o n ..................... 651
4.9.4.2.1.1. Thermal r e s e r v o i r expan-
s i o n and i n c r e a s i n g c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s ............. 651
4.9.4.2.1.2. H o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s and
h o r i z o n t a l vs . v e r t i c a l
w e l l s ................... 651
4.9.4.2.1.3. M u l t i p l e h o r i z o n t a l and
v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e propa-
g a t i o n .................. 652
4.9.4.2.1.4. Combination o f h y d r a u l i c
and e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g 653
4.9.4.2.2. F r a c t u r e management ................... 653
4.9.4.2.3. F r a c t u r e d e t e r m i n a t i o n ................ 654
4.9.4.2.3.1. F r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t vs .
overburden s t r e s s g r a -
d i e n t ................... 654
4.9.4.2.3.2. R e s e r v o i r expansion and
changing i n - s i t u s t r e s s . 655
4.9.4.3. Changes o f f r a c t u r e azimuth o r i e n t a t i o n ........... 655
4.9.4.3.1. On-trend and o f f - t r e n d w e l l p a t t e r n s .. 656
4.9.4.3.2. Staggered steam i n j e c t i o n i n t o o f f -
t r e n d w e l l p a i r s ...................... 656
4.9.4.3.3. Mechanisms o f f r a c t u r e azimuth o r i e n t a -
t i o n changes .......................... 656
4.9.5. C o l d w a t e r i n j e c t i o n e f f e c t s on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g ........ 657
4.9.5.1. I n - s i t u s t r e s s and f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e r e d u c t i o n .... 657
4.9.5.2. R e s e r v o i r temperature and f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t reduc-
t i o n .............................................. 658
4.9.5.3. F o r m a t i o n p a r t i n g and s t r e s s r e d u c t i o n a t f r a c t u r e
t i p ............................................... 658
4.9.5.4. P r i m a r y and secondary f r a c t u r e s ................... 659
4.9.5.5. R e s e r v o i r pressure, i n j e c t i v i t y and f r a c t u r e l e n g t h 659

4.10. Comnunication fracturing ............................................ 659

4.10.1. C o n v e n t i o n a l s t o r e y - w i s e f r a c t u r i n g ......................... 660
4.10.1.1. Repeated s t e p w i s e f r a c t u r i n g i n R o t l i e g e n d and Car-
b o n i f e r o u s o f Germany FRG ......................... 660
4.10.1.2. Commingling o f s e p a r a t e l a y e r s a f t e r i n d i v i d u a l
f r a c t u r i n g ........................................ 660
4.10.1.3. M u l t i l a y e r r e s e r v o i r s w i t h and w i t h o u t c r o s s f l o w .. 661
4.10.1.4. Connection o f s e p a r a t e l a y e r s by j o i n t f r a c t u r i n g . 661
4.10.2. A p p l i c a t i o n in p r o d u c t i o n d r i l l i n g .......................... 662
4.10.2.1. Connection o f i s o l a t e d sand bodies ................ 662
4.10.2.1.1. Magnitude o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t .. 662
.
4.10.2.1.2. F r a c t u r e azimuth vs l e n s a x i s o r i e n t a -
t i o n .................................. 663
4.10.2.1.3. Sand body s i z e and spacing ............ 663
4.10.2.2. Connection o f s e p a r a t e d r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y s ......... 663
4.10.3. I n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n arrangement ........................ 664
4.10.3.1. P e r f o r a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n and s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n . . . . . . 664
4.10.3.2. Angular d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p e r f o r a t i o n s .............. 665
4.10.3.3. P e r f o r a t i o n breakdown ............................. 665
4.10.4. A p p l i c a t i o n i n a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g ........................... 665
4.10.5. F r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e ....................................... 666
4.10.5.1. O i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s ............................ 666
4.10.5.1.1. F r a c t u r e l e n g t h and w e l l d r a i n a g e r a -
d i u s .................................. 667
4.10.5.1.2. F r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n p r e d i c t i o n and i n -
 354

t e r f e r e n c e avoidance
4.10.5.1.3. L e n t i c u l a r t i g h t gas
4.10.5.1.4. Steam-drive o p e r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
4.10.5.2. Geothermal r e s e r v o i r s ............................. 668

4.11. Fracturing o f deviated wells . ...... ..... 668

4.11.1. Fracture propagation a .................... 668
4.11.1.1. Wellbore a x i s n o t p a r a l l e l t o i n - s i t u p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n .................................. 669
4.11.1.2. L i m i t e d communication i n t e r v a l between f r a c t u r e
p l a n e and w e l l b o r e s e c t i o n ........................ 669
4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 . Drawbacks i n o p e r a t i o n and performance 670
4.11.1.2.1.1. Wellbore i n s t a b i l i t y . . . . 670
4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 2 . Fracture height determi-
n a t i o n by w e l l l o g g i n g .. 670
4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 . Comparable s i t u a t i o n i n v e r t i c a l w e l l s
traversing steeply dipping reservoirs . 671
4 . 1 1 . 2 . Proppant s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and f l u i d l a y e r i n g . . . . . .... 671
4 . 1 1 . 3 . Hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n and f l o w regimes ..................... 671
4 . 1 1 . 3 . 1 . R e d u c t i o n o f l o n g - t e r m w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y by chan-
g i n g f l o w p a t t e r n .......................... ...... 671
4 . 1 1 . 3 . 1 . 1 . Flow i n t e r v a l types i n v e r t i c a l e l l s . 672
4 . 1 1 . 3 . 1 . 2 . Flow i n t e r v a l t y p e s i n h o r i z o n t a w e l l s 672
4 . 1 1 . 3 . 2 . Non-Darcy f l o w and s k i n f a c t o r _............ . . . . . . 672
4 . 1 1 . 4 . Improvements o f f r a c t u r e e f f e c t i v i t y i n d e v i a t e d w e l l s . . . . . . 673

4 . 1 2 . Fracture damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673

4 . 1 2 . 1 . General aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
4 . 1 2 . 1 . 1 . F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y vs. f o r m a t i o n permeabi ity
damaae ..................................... . . . . . . 674
4.12:l. 1.1. C o n t r a s t magnitude ....
4.12.1.1.2. Relative significance ..........
4 . 1 2 . 1 . 1 . 3 . Breaker t y p e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n . . . . . . . . 675
4 . 1 2 . 1 . 2 . Proppant c r u s h i n g and embedment vs. c l o s u r e s t r e s s 675
4 . 1 2 . 2 . Proppant s e t t l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 1 . P o s t - f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . Proppant t r a n s p o r t and banking . . . . . . . . 676
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . Proppant s e t t l i n g ..................... 677
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . Clustered proppant trans-
p o r t and h i n d e r e d s e t t -
l i n g .................... 677
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 2 . F o r c e d f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e . 678
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . W e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y and
t a i l - i n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 4 . O t h e r aspects ........... 6 7 9
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 . Proppant banking and f o r m a t i o n g r a i n
s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n ..................... 679
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 1 . F i n i n g - and c o a r s e n i n g -
upwards g r a i n - s i z e se-
quences ................. 679
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 . Hydrocarbon d i s t r i b u t i o n
i n granulometrical cyclo-
thems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . F r a c t u r e c l o s u r e and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y . . 680
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 2 . 4 . O t h e r aspects ....................... .. 680
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 3 . C a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y ........................ . . 681
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 3 . 1 . C r o s s l i n k i n g types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 8 1
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 3 . 2 . Proppant t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y . . . . . . . . . . 681
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 3 . 3 . F l u i d r h e o l o g y s t a b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 4 . Pad and c a r r i e r f l u i d volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 5 . S l u r r y c o n s i s t e n c y and p r o p p a n t c l u s t e r i n g . . . . . .. 682
4 . 1 2 . 2 . 5 . 1 . Proppant c l u s t e r i n g and f l u i d v i s c o s t Y
 355

v a r i a t i o n ............................. 683
4.12.2.5.2. S l u r r y s e d i m e n t a t i o n and p r o p p a n t c l u s -
t e r f o r m a t i o n ......................... 683
4.12.3. P r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k ........................................... 683
4 . 1 2 . 3 . 1 . W e l l c l e a n u D ......... ............................. 684
4 . 1 2 . 3 . 1 . 1 . F r a c t u r e c o s u r e and p r o p p a n t t r a p p i n g 684
4 . 1 2 . 3 . 1 . 1 1. P r e s s u r e d e p l e t i o n and
f l u i d l e a k o f f ........... 684
4.12.3.1.1 2 . Pressure d e c l i n e a s s i s -
tance by c o n t r o l l e d f l u i d
p r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
4 . 1 2 . 3 . 1 . 2 . P r o p p a n t f owback c o n t r o l and d i m i n u -
t i o n ..... ............................ 685
4.12.3.1.2.1. F l u i d f l o w v e l o c i t y and
p r e s s u r e d r o p ........... 685
4.12.3.1.2.2. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and w e l l
c l e a n u p ................. 686
4 . 1 2 . 3 . 1 . 3 . E f f e c t s . o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and c a p i l -
l a r y p r e s s u r e o n w e l l c l e a n u p ......... 686
4.12.3.1.3.1. Dimensionless f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
4.12.3.1.3.2. C a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e . . . . . . 687
4.12.3.2. P r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e ............................... 687
4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . R e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t t a i l - i n ..................... 688
4.12.3.3.1. F r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n f a i l u r e by prop-
p a n t f l o w b a c k ......................... 688
4.12.3.3.2. Package s t a b i l i t y improvement b y r e s i n -
c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s ...................... 689
4.12.3.3.2.1. P r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k c o n t r o l 689
4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . 2 . 2 . T a i l - i n l e n g t h and a d d i -
t i o n a l gravel packing
s t a b i l i z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . 689
4.12.3.4. Foam and e n e r g i z e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s .............. 690
4 . 1 2 . 3 . 5 . S h u t - i n t i m e a d j u s t m e n t ........................... 691
4.12.4. P r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g ........................................... 691
4 . 1 2 . 4 . 1 . P r o p p a n t shock l o a d i n g ............................ 691
4 . 1 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . B o t t o m h o l e f l o w i n g p r e s s u r e and choke
s i z e .................................. 691
4 . 1 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . S t r e s s c o r r o s i o n c r a c k i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
4.12.4.2. P r e s s u r e drawdown and h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s 692
4.12.4.2.1. Careful slow s t a r t i n g o f w e l l produc-
t i o n a f t e r hydraulic fracturing o r gra-
v e l p a c k i n g ........................... 692
4 . 1 2 . 4 . 2 . 2 . E f f e c t o f c r u s h i n g on c o n d u c t i v i t y o f
sand and b a u x i t e ...................... 693
4.12.4.2.3. F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y degradation vs .
r e s i d u a l p r e s e r v a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
4.12.4.2.4. P r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g and c l o s u r e s t r e s s
r e s i s t i v i t y i n t e r v a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
4.12.4.3. P r o d u c t i o n c y c l i n g b y r e p e a t e d w e l l s h u t - i n . . . . . . . 694
4.12.4.3.1. Irrecoverable fracture conductivity di-
m i n u t i o n .............................. 695
4 . 1 2 . 4 . 3 . 2 . C o m b i n a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t embedment and
c r u s h i n g .............................. 695
4 . 1 2 . 4 . 3 . 3 . I m p a c t o f s h u t - i n t i m e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
4.12.5. F l u i d a s p e c t s ............................................... 696

4.13. Aggressive f r a c t u r i n g design ........................................ 696

4.13.1. P r o g r e s s i n s t e a d o f r o u t i n e ................................. 697
4.13.2. R i s k y a p p r o a c h o f m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s ....................... 697
4.14. C o n c l u s i o n .......................................................... 698
 356

4.1. Introduction
As a consequence o f t h e p o i n t s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g e c o n o m i c a l l y - o r i e n -
ted chapters, the r e l a t i v e l y retarded s i t u a t i o n i n the hydraulic proppant f r a c -
t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g scenery i n Europe and o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l markets
( w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e USA where a c t i v i t y i s g e n e r a l l y on a h i g h e r l e v e l ) a f t e r
t h e o i l p r i c e drop i n 1986 ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ; p a r t i a l l y l a s t i n g u n t i l
1987 and s t i l l n o t f u l l y r e c o v e r e d i n 1988 i n some areas, a l s o as a consequence
o f i t s a c c e n t u a t i o n by t h e accompanying and f o l l o w i n g US $ exchange r a t e c o l l a p -
se up t o i t s h i s t o r i c a l minimum l e v e l ; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) s h o u l d be t a k e n by
b o t h s e r v i c e and p r o p p a n t companies as a c h a l l e n g i n g o p p o r t u n i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d
t h e l e s s o n and n o t t o r e p e a t t h e m i s t a k e s o f t h e p a s t , b u t t o l a y now p a t i e n t l y
t h e necessary groundwork i n h i t h e r t o i n s u f f i c i e n t l y a t t e n d e d markets f o r n e a r -
f u t u r e development o r even booming by h e l p i n g t o i n t r o d u c e and t o promote va-
r i o u s t e c h n o l o g i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s ( i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o sound m a r k e t i n g concepts)
o f enhancing t h e g e n e r a l s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l and t h u s a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e
l i n e o i l and gas s u p p l y . A f t e r b r i e f l y s k e t c h i n g and c h a r a c t e r i z i n g p o s s i b i l i -
t i e s o f expanding t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g market i n t h e near f u t u r e ,
an o u t l i n e o f t h e t e c h n i c a l r e v i e w i s g i v e n .

4.1.1. Possibilities o f expanding the hydraulic

proppant fracturing market i n the near future
A c c o r d i n g t o my g e o l o g i c a l , r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g , t e c h n i c a l and m a r k e t i n g
e x p e r i e n c e , a s u i t e o f more o r l e s s u n c o n v e n t i o n a l methods o f performance o r i m -
p r o v a l o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g e x i s t i n economical-
l y and t e c h n i c a l l y more o r l e s s mature s t a t u s prepared f o r e x e c u t i o n w h i c h p a r -
t i a l l y a r e a l r e a d y more o r l e s s f a m i l i a r i n t h e USA, b u t have s t i l l n o t reached
common sense o r widespread a p p l i c a t i o n i n Europe and p r o b a b l y a l s o o t h e r i n t e r -
n a t i o n a l m a r k e t s . O t h e r methods a r e s t i l l i n t h e s t a t u s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l prepa-
r a t i o n , enhancement and p e r f e c t i v a t i o n and need i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e m a r k e t by
p i l o t o p e r a t i o n s s u p p o r t e d by t r i g g e r i n g a t t r a c t i v e i n n o v a t i v e o f f e r s . Both
groups o f techniques c o u l d i n c l u d e v e r y soon some q u i t e s u i t a b l e concepts o f
s t i m u l a t i o n o f h i t h e r t o m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s when i n c r e a s i n g demand and d e c l i -
n i n g s u p p l y i n t h e near f u t u r e i s a l s o i n Europe and o t h e r areas o u t s i d e o f t h e
USA more and more a c c e n t u a t i n g t h e f o r c e o f enhancement o f domestic p r o d u c t i o n
w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o u n t r i e s ( t h i s a p p l i e s e s p e c i a l l y f o r E a s t e r n Europe i n
l i g h t o f t h e p r e s e n t economical, p o l i t i c a l and f i n a n c i a l framework; c f . s e c t i o n
2.4.4.).
Many o f t h e concepts and t e c h n o l o g i e s d i s c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p t e r , however,
s t i l l r e q u i r e some homework b e f o r e t h e i r widespread f i e l d u t i l i z a t i o n i n va-
r i o u s r e s e r v o i r types, and success i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r o p e r a t i o n s needs improved
u n d e r s t a n d i n g , s k i l l e d s e l e c t i o n and c a r e f u l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . The main s t r a t e -
g i e s o f market expansion aim on p r o g r e s s i v e replacement o f n a t u r a l sand by syn-
t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s i n a p p l i c a t i o n s near t h e boundary o f p h y s i c a l and chemical s t a -
b i l i t y o f sand and f o r t h e reason o f a c h i e v i n g h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y , and on hy-
d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o f troublesome r e s e r v o i r s f o r which a s u i t a b l e and success-
f u l concept has n o t y e t been found i n t h e p a s t , b u t can be o f f e r e d when u t i l i -
z i n g a l l t h e b e n e f i t s which a r e p r o v i d e d by t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f man-made h i g h -
qua1 it y p r o p p a n t s .

4.1.2. Outline of the technical review and status report

A few p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t t e c h n o l o g i c a l aspects o f n e a r - f u t u r e enhance-
ment o f o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n by approaching m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s by h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o r by c a r r y i n g o u t u n c o n v e n t i o n a l s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s i n Eu-
rope and o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l markets ( a s f a r as r e c o g n i z e d f r o m my view) compri-
se containment o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n t h i n sandstones, p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n
 357

and c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement, t a r g e t s o f unconventional gas s t i m u l a t i o n , hydrau-

l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f carbonate rocks, h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u -
r i n g , geothermal f r a c t u r i n g , m i n i f r a c t u r i n g and o t h e r s m a l l - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g ,
o i l - r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g , and communication f r a c t u r i n g . These methods and tech-
niques are proposed f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n by the a r e a l s p e c i a l i s t s and are b r i e f l y
presented i n summarizing o u t l i n e and commented as f o l l o w s i n c l u d i n g d i s c u s s i o n
o f the most s i g n i f i c a n t l i t e r a t u r e (numerous references on general and s p e c i f i c
t e c h n i c a l and r e s e r v o i r engineering aspects are compiled i n b o t h main l i s t and
s u b j e c t key c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n chapter 7;-aspects o f p r o d u c t i o n geology and asso-
c i a t e d r e s e r v o i r engineering are summarized by DICKEY 1981, DIKKERS 1985 and
NORTH 1985).

Factors i n f l u e n c i n g o r t r i g g e r i n g f r a c t u r e damage are a l s o reported, and as

a general c o n c l u s i o n an aggressive f r a c t u r i n g design i s recommended i n o r d e r
n o t t o g e t stuck w i t h c o n s e r v a t i v e and conventional techniques, b u t t o m a i n t a i n
progress by c a r r y i n g o u t unconventional and c h a l l e n g i n g i n n o v a t i v e methods des-
p i t e o f i n c l u d i n g some r i s k o f drawbacks o r even i n t e r m i t t e n t f a i l u r e s i n margi-
nal a p p l i c a t i o n s o r p i l o t operations. The account does n o t aim on any complete-
ness, b u t focusses on s u b j e c t s which due t o my own assessment according t o my
experience i n the market need p r e f e r e n t i a l a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g t h e coming years
f o r improving e s p e c i a l l y the European s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l and t o enhance the
f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y i n t h i s scene.

4.2. Containment o f fracture propagation i n t h i n sandstones

While f r a c t u r e operations w i t h i n t h i c k sandstone r e s e r v o i r columns s u f f i -
c i e n t l y f a r away from gas-water-contact and bounding mudstones are p a r t i c u l a r l y
t a k i n g p l a c e i n g r e a t e r depth where danger o f breakthrough t o t h e ground-water
s t o r e y i s no t o p i c f o r environmental d i s c u s s i o n and the t h r e a t o f connection t o
water-bearing sandstones w i t h i n o r below t h e pay column i s a l s o g e n e r a l l y no
i t e m o f worrying, treatment o f t h i n sandstone r e s e r v o i r s w i t h i n sandwich-type
a l t e r n a t i n g sandstone-mudstone successions w i t h p a r t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t f l u i d con-
t e n t o f t h e v a r i o u s sandstone horizons c r e a t e s problems o f containment o f f r a c -
t u r e propagation i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n i n o r d e r n o t t o achieve unwanted d e t e r i o -
r a t i o n s o f t h e e f f e c t o f the f r a c t u r e jobs (DANESHY 1978; SIMONSON, ABOU-SAYED
& CLIFTON 1978; ROSEPILER 1979; WARPINSKI, SCHMIDT & NORTHROP 1980; PRATS 1981,
TEUFEL & CLARK 1981, EEKELEN 1982; WARPINSKI, CLARK, SCHMIDT E HUDDLE 1982; SET-
TAR1 1983, WARPINSKI & TEUFEL 1984).

Precise c o n t r o l o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth and p r e v e n t i o n o f p e n e t r a t i o n o f

t h e crack through the bounding b a r r i e r s i s e s s e n t i a l f o r a v o i d i n g unwanted e f -
f e c t s such as water o r gas coning and breakthrough a f t e r t h e treatment and thus
d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f the r e s u l t o f the operation, and f o r securing o p t i m i z a t i o n o f
the area d r a i n e d by the f r a c t u r e (BEN NACEUR & TOUBOUL 1987). Undesirable zones
o f f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n n o t o n l y comprise gas caps and water bottoms o f o i l r e s e r -
v o i r s , b u t g e n e r a l l y i n c l u d e a l l unproductive l a y e r s a d j o i n i n g t o the p r o s p e c t i -
ve i n t e r v a l , w i t h f r a c t u r e containment aiming on maximization o f crack propaga-
t i o n w i t h i n the h o r i z o n o f i n t e r e s t and m i n i m i z a t i o n o f excessive upwards and
downwards growth. The i n t r u s i o n o f a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e from the pay zone i n t o
the horizons l y i n g above and below i s a s e r i o u s concern i n crack design, becau-
se i f the h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i s n o t contained w i t h i n the producing f o r m a t i o n
and progagates i n b o t h v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n s , f a i l u r e o f t h e s t i m u l a -
t i o n treatment can occur due t o s u b s t a n t i a l l o s s o f f l u i d and proppants which
are used up and wasted f o r s t i m u l a t i n g the unproductive l a y e r s a d j o i n i n g the r e -
s e r v o i r (NGUYEN & LARSON 1983, ACHARYA & K I M 1987). F i e l d experience has shown
t h a t the most common cause of poor f r a c t u r e treatment response i s excessive
f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth (HOLDITCH, ROBINSON & WHITEHEAD 1986), because o u t - o f -
c o n t r o l f r a c t u r i n g r e s u l t s i n s h o r t e r f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s than d e s i r e d (GREGOR-
CZYK, PAULS, HOLTMYER, CHISHOLM & VENDITTO 1984).

Massive hydraulic proppant fracturing has been h i s t o r i c a l l y developed by

 358

t r i a l a n d e r r o r and i t s r e s u l t s a r e uncertain in many s i t u a t i o n s (TEUFEL &

CLARK 1981; c f . s ect i o n s 1 . 1 . 1 . and 4 . 8 . 1 . 2 . ) . While some of these la rge -sc a le
s t im u l a t i o n e f f o r t s have been s u cces s f u l , o t h e r s have turned o u t t o be extreme-
l y disappointing f a i l u r e s mainly f o r the reason of lack of improved understand-
i n g of f r a c t u r e propagation and containment. The economical s i g n i f i c a n c e of
f r a c t u r e extension control i s t h a t i f the crack i s not confined within the p r o -
ducing sandstone a n d propagates in b o t h v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n s in a n
e l l i p t i c a l shape, then t h er e i s an e f f e c t i v e wasting of expensive stim ula tion
f l u i d s a n d proppants which a r e consumed t o f r a c t u r e a n d t o support barren hori-
zons next t o the r es er v o i r complex, r es p ect i v ely. The o u t l i n e a s follows concen-
t r a t e s on a r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of p o t en t i al r e s e r v o i r s , technical aspects of f r a c -
t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n, f r a c t u r e propagation, r es ervoir heterogeneity and anisotropy
( in c l u d i n g sedimentological, petrophysical and rock mechanical a s p e c t s ) , combi-
nation of hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g a n d gravel packing, a n d economical s i g n i f i c a n c e .

4.2.1. Areal distribution of potential reservoirs

T h i n s i n g l e o r mu l t i p l e, bundle- or sandwich-type sandstone horizons within
mudstone sequences ( c f . p l a t e s IV/4 - 8 , VII/1 - 6, V I I I and I X ) with d i f f e r e n t
thicknesses of both sandstone l a y e r s and mudstone i n t e r v a l s v e r t i c a l l y separa-
t i n g adjoining sandstone s h eet s o f l a t e r a l l y more or l e s s continuous type a n d
subordinately a l s o overlapping or juxtaposed lenses of various degree of i n t e r -
connectedness a r e in Europe p a r t i c u l a r l y present i n the upper p a r t of the Rot-
liegend gas-bearing sandstone succession (Hannover-Formation or Ten Boer-Forma-
tio n sandstones; Wechselfolge f a c i e s as s o ci at ion; BRADEL & DRAXLER 1982, PHI-
L I P P & R E I N I C K E 1982, KLOSE & KROMER 1983; HEDEMANN, MASCHEK, PAULUS & P L E I N
1984; GRALLA 1988; c f . s ect i o n 3 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) in the B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern
North Sea a s well as i n Netherlands and Germany FRG onshore, Germany GDR and Po-
land; i n the J u r a s s i c o i l - b ear i n g sandstone succession i n the B r i t i s h a n d Norwe-
g i a n Northern North Sea, in some Palaeozoic and Mesozoic oil- and gas-bearing
s e c t i o n s in the B a l t i c Sea offshore Poland a n d USSR, in Mesozoic a n d Cenozoic
o i l - a n d gas-bearing sandstones onshore a n d offshore (Black Sea) in Bulgaria,
i n Cretaceous a n d p a r t i a l l y a l s o J u r a s s i c shallow oil-be a ring sandstones a n d
carbonates in the northwestern p a r t of Germany FRG ( p a r t i a l l y extending across
the boundary t o Netherlands), in T e r t i a r y t o T r i a s s i c moderately-deep o i l - b e a r -
ing sandstones i n the southern p a r t of Germany FRG, and in T e r t i a r y o i l - and
gas-bearing sandstones in the Vienna Basin i n Austria ( c f . KREUTZER 1985, 1986;
B R K U E R 1987) and adjoining Czechoslovakia ( c f . THON 1985) a n d t o minor amounts
a l s o i n the A d r i a t i c Basin in I t a l y and Yugoslavia offshore ( c f . DRAGICEVIC, MA-
RINOVIC, STANKOVIC, BATUSIC & N I K O L I C 1983; IBRAHIMPASIC 1983) a s well a s on-
shore i n Hungary a n d Yugoslavia ( c f . t ab s . 5 - 9 ) . Some unstable Cretaceous
shallow gas-bearing sandstones of limited thickness a re a l s o present i n Mozambi-
que i n A f r i c a .

4.2.2. Technical aspects o f fracturing operation

While in p a r t s of the mentioned formations as well as i n othe r comparable re -
s e r v o i r s in various p a r t s of the w o r l d already f r a c t u r i n g jobs w i t h lim ite d ver-
t i c a l propagation ( a n d i n many cases consequently a l s o r e s t r i c t e d horizontal ex-
tension, r e s u l t i n g i n consumption of only low to moderate q u a n t i t i e s of p r o p -
ping m a t e r i a l s ) have been s u cces s f u l l y c a r r i e d out, much optimization could
s t i l l be done by enhancing p r o p p a n t choice in terms of both type a n d gra in
s i z e , amelioration of t a i l - i n o p er at i o n s , accentuation of the permeability con-
t r a s t between r e s e r v o i r sandstone a n d proppant package by s h i f t i n g t o l a r g e r
p r o p p a n t grain s i z e s a n d varying the r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t i e s of d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s
in stepwise treatments, a n d improvement of f r a c t u r e width by pumping of higher
proppant concentrations per f l u i d u n i t . Aspects of singula r vs. m ultiple f r a c t u -
ring and d i v e r t i ng techniques, limited-entry f r a c t u r i n g technique, f r a c t u r e con-
tainment i n layered r e s e r v o i r s by treatment parameter adjustment a s well as by
buoyant a n d s e t t l i n g d i v e r t e r s a n d blocking a d d i t i v e s , multiple-zone f r a c t u r e
 359

m i g r a t i o n concept, s e l e c t i v e p r o p p a n t placement, and s p e c i a l phenomena in coal

seams a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.2.2.1. Singular vs. multiple fracturing

and diverting techniques
H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g can be performed i n e i t h e r s i n g u l a r o r m u l t i p -
l e manner depending on r e s e r v o i r p i l e c o m p o s i t i o n and c o m p l e t i o n t y p e i n c l u d i n g
commingling o f s e v e r a l separate l a y e r s o r n o t . S i n g u l a r s t o r e y - w i s e f r a c t u r i n g
w i t h f i r s t s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h e l o w e r zone and f o l l o w i n g i t s i s o l a t i o n and up-
wards movement second t r e a t i n g o f an upper h o r i z o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.1.1., 3.3.
and 4.10.1.) has t o be c a r r i e d o u t i f t h e s p e c i f i c r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e
d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d types (HOEL 1988) o r d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t types t o r e n -
d e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l j o b s t e c h n i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l and/or e c o n o m i c a l l y p r o f i t a b l e .
I f t h e same f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and t h e same p r o p p a n t t y p e can be a p p l i e d f o r s t i -
m u l a t i o n o f s e v e r a l v e r t i c a l l y successive l e v e l s o f t h e p r o s p e c t i v e complex,
m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g r e p r e s e n t i n g j o i n t t r e a t i n g o f a l l t h e zones i s t h e ade-
quate s o l u t i o n p r o v i d e d t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s a r e i n a comparable range t o a l l o w
more o r l e s s simultaneous opening o f t h e f r a c t u r e s i n a l l t h e t a r g e t e d sec-
tions.

CLARK (1987) compares t u b i n g vs. c a s i n g as t r e a t i n g medium and e v a l u a t e s ca-

sing preparation f o r l a t e r f r a c t u r i n g stimulation. I f the operation i s p e r f o r -
med through t h e casing, t h e w e l l must be k i l l e d a f t e r f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d cleanup
i n o r d e r t o i n s t a l l t h e t u b i n g (WEBSTER 1977), w i t h w e l l k i l l i n g always i n c l u -
d i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e r i s k o f crack damage (SLUSSER & RIECKMANN 1976). An a l t e r n a -
t i v e t o w e l l k i l l i n g f o r t u b i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e f r a c t u r i n g down t u -
b i n g and/or annulus a t reduced i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and w i t h h i g h f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e .
The most i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s a r e d i v e r t i n g agent performance and s e l e c t i o n as
w e l l as m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g aspects.

4.2.2.1.1. Diverting agent performance

I n terms o f o p e r a t i o n s , t h e f r a c t u r e s can be c a r r i e d o u t s e p a r a t e l y w i t h i n
e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l sandstone h o r i z o n o f t h e sandwich-type i n t e r b e d d i n g by s e a l i n g
w i t h b r i d g e p l u g and packer ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.1.1., 3.3. and 4 . 1 0 . 1 ) , o r pumping
may i n t h e e a r l y stage o f t h e t r e a t m e n t i n c l u d e t h e whole s e c t i o n o f s e v e r a l
v e r t i c a l l y successive sandstone l a y e r s ( w i t h t h e i n j e c t i o n p o i n t s b e i n g f i x e d
by t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l s ) , and i n t h e l a t e stage o f t h e j o b , b a l l s a r e drop-
ped o r b a f f l e s a r e s e t t o c e r t a i n l e v e l s t o c o n t r o l f r a c t u r e confinement t o d i s -
t i n c t r e s e r v o i r segments and t o s e p a r a t e t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o d u c t i o n h o r i z o n s by
c l o s i n g c e r t a i n p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l s ( t h i s method has so f a r p a r t i c u l a r l y been
a p p l i e d f o r f r a c t u r i n g o f w a t e r i n j e c t i o n w e l l s ; CLARK 1968; BALE 1984; c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 8 . 7 . ) . I n many cases, b a l l s e a l e r d r o p p i n g a t a r a t e o f one b a l l p e r b a r -
r e l o f f l u i d s a t i s f a c t o r i l y h e l p s t o o b t a i n u n i f o r m r e s e r v o i r breakdown (BLA-
SiO, BAILEY & BERGTHOLD 1985), and n o r m a l l y 50 % excess b a l l s e a l e r s a r e spaced
e v e n l y i n t h e f l u i d t o achieve a b a l l o u t and t o ensure t h a t a l l t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s a r e opened (PA1 & G A R B I S 1983 b ) .

B a l l s e a l e r s can be used i n b o t h p r o p p a n t and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i n o r d e r t o d i -

v e r t t h e t r e a t m e n t t o t h e n e x t zone between each stage (WEBSTER 1 9 7 7 ) . ROBIN-
SON, HOLDITCH & LEE (1983) recommend a p p l i c a t i o n o f b a l l s e a l e r s t w i c e as much
as p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s a r e s h o t . GWINN & McMANUS (1977) r e p o r t m u l t i p l e - z o n e com-
p l e t i o n s u s i n g b a l l s and b a f f l e s where up t o f i v e h o r i z o n s can be s t i m u l a t e d i n
one c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n . U t i l i z i n g t h e b a l l and b a f f l e technique, t h e l o w e r -
most zone i s p e r f o r a t e d and f r a c t u r e d , and i s t h e n a l l o w e d t o f l o w back immedia-
t e l y . The n e x t zone i s p e r f o r a t e d as soon as flowback p e r m i t s e n t r y o f t h e p e r -
f o r a t i n g s t r i p i n t o t h e w e l l . A f t e r t h i s zone i s p e r f o r a t e d , t h e p r o p e r l y - s i z e d
b a l l i s pumped down w i t h breakdown a c i d and a l l o w e d t o s e a t on t h e b a f f l e r i n g
below t h e zone t o be n e x t s t i m u l a t e d . Each successive zone i s t r e a t e d i n a s i m i -
 360

l a r manner u s i n g l a r g e r - d i a m e t e r f r a c t u r i n g b a l l s and b a f f l e s . The immediate

flowback a f t e r each stage i s g e n e r a l l y s t r o n g enough t o u n s e a t and produce back
the f r a c t u r i n g b a l l s .

The c o n v e n t i o n a l o r m o d i f i e d l i m i t e d - e n t r y t e c h n i q u e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . )
using b a l l sealers o f f e r s the best p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f d i v e r t i n g s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t -
ments o f new w e l l c o m p l e t i o n s (HARRISON 1971). S i n g l e - s t a g e m u l t i p l e - z o n e s t i m u -
l a t i o n i s a l s o d i s c u s s e d by EASON ( 1 9 8 5 ) . S e l e c t i v e f r a c t u r i n g w i t h s e a l i n g
b a l l s as d i v e r t i n g m a t e r i a l s i s a d j u s t i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f zones w i t h d i f f e -
r e n t f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e c a p a c i t y and i n c r e a s i n g t h e coverage o f propped f r a c t u r e
w i t h i n a l o n g p e r f o r a t i o n i n t e r v a l ( L I & ZHU 1986). The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s
focusses on advantages and drawbacks o f b a l l s e a l e r s , i n j e c t i o n r a t e vs. t r e a t -
ment s t a g i n g , f l o a t i n g and s i n k i n g b a l l s e a l e r s , t r e a t m e n t sequence i n m u l t i -
l a y e r r e s e r v o i r s , and i n s e r t i o n and removal o f b l o c k i n g m a t e r i a l s . Some com-
ments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on wax-based p e l l e t s .

4.2.2.1.1.1. Advantages and drawbacks o f ball sealers

M u l t i s t a g e f r a c t u r i n g w i t h d r o p p i n g b a l l d i v e r t e r s and s e a l e r s between i n d i -
v i d u a l stages i s e s p e c i a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r l o n g c o m p l e t i o n i n t e r v a l s w i t h c o n s i d e -
r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s between gross and n e t t h i c k n e s s r e s u l t i n g i n v a r i o u s t h i n t a r -
g e t h o r i z o n s i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h i n a t h i c k r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y complex (PEARCE
1979). I n many cases, however, d i v e r t i n g w i t h b a l l s e a l e r s i s n o t e f f e c t i v e due
t o washing-out o f p e r f o r a t i o n s w i t h proppants such t h a t b a l l s do n o t s u f f i c i e n t -
l y seal o f f pressure, and a l s o as a consequence o f f r e q u e n t c o v e r i n g o f t h e pay
zones w i t h p r o p p a n t s a l r e a d y b e f o r e b a l l d i v e r t e r s can be s e t .

Staged t r e a t m e n t s u s i n g b a l l s e a l e r s as w e l l as temporary sand, g e l o r mecha-

n i c a l p l u g s a r e a l s o i m p r a c t i c a l i f o n l y t h i n mudstone i n t e r v a l s s e p a r a t e t h e
successive sandstone s t o r e y s and i n case o f h i g h p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s between
t h e i n d i v i d u a l t a r g e t zones (BUNOY 1981). On t h e o t h e r hand, s e a l i n g b a l l s a r e
p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e f o r complete p l u g g i n g o f f o f t h i n r e s e r v o i r l a y e r s sepa-
r a t e d by p r e f e r e n t i a l l y t h i c k e r b a r r i e r s . A t l e a s t 200 f t o f r a t h o l e c o n t a i n i n g
c l e a n f l u i d i s r e q u i r e d f o r p e r f o r m i n g a s u c c e s s f u l m u l t i s t a g e d i v e r s i o n . I n ad-
d i t i o n , u n l e s s a r e s e r v o i r i s e x t r e m e l y homogeneous, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f r a c t u -
r i n g s e v e r a l pay zones t o g e t h e r which a r e separated by mudstone breaks i s r e -
mote due t o s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e v a r i o u s l a y e r s (PEARCE 1979; c f . sec-
t i o n s 6 . 2 . 5 . and 6 . 3 . 6 . ) .

4.2.2.1.1.2. Injection rate vs. treatment staging

I n j e c t i o n r a t e a f f e c t s f r a c t u r e h e i g h t and f l u i d d i s t r i b u t i o n and i s v e r y
c r i t i c a l t o t h e o v e r a l l success o f t h e t r e a t m e n t (PAI, GARBIS & HALL 1983). Whe-
r e i n t e r v a l y i e l d o f t u b i n g and/or c a s i n g l i m i t s i n j e c t i o n r a t e , t h e o p e r a t i o n
s h o u l d be staged u s i n g b a l l s e a l e r s . A t s u i t a b l e pumping r a t e s , n a t u r a l pressu-
r e d i v e r s i o n o f t h e t r e a t i n g f l u i d can a l s o be achieved (NALL, CAMPBELL & BONEY
1983). M u l t i p l e - s t a g e j o b s can a l s o be performed w i t h a m o d i f i e d l i m i t e d - e n t r y
b a f f l e and b a l l arrangement, w i t h d r o p p i n g o f b a l l s e a l e r s c l o s i n g t h e b a f f l e s
above t h e lower f o r m a t i o n and i s o l a t i n g t h e upper f o r m a t i o n f o r s t i m u l a t i o n ,
and subsequent opening of t h e w e l l p e r m i t t i n g t h e b a l l s e a l e r s t o f l o w o u t , t h e -
r e b y g u a r a n t e i n g f l u i d c l e a n u p f r o m b o t h t r e a t e d zones s i m u l t a n e o u s l y (BLACK,
RIPLEY, BEECROFT & PAMPLIN 1979). ERBSTOESSER (1980) comments on improved b a l l
s e a l e r d i v e r s i o n . W h i l e s e t t l i n g heavy b a l l s e a l e r s r e q u i r e h i g h e r i n j e c t i o n r a -
t e s f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y performance, buoyant b a l l s e a l e r s a r e o p e r a t i o n a l l y d i f f i -
c u l t i n h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d boreholes, because t h e y t e n d t o become s t u c k downhole
and f l o w back a t l a t e r t i m e s i n t h e l i f e o f t h e w e l l t h e r e b y c a u s i n g problems
w i t h t h e s u r f a c e equipment (SNOW & HOUGH 1988).
 361

4.2.2.1.1.3. Floating and sinking ball sealers

S i m i l a r l y as buoyant and s e t t l i n g d i v e r t i n g m a t e r i a l s f o r f r a c t u r e t o p and
bottom p l u g g i n g and growth l i m i t a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.4.), f l o a t i n g and s i n k -
i n g b a l l s e a l e r s can be a p p l i e d f o r f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t d i v e r s i o n (McLEOD
1984). S i n k i n g b a l l s e a l e r s u s u a l l y r e q u i r e 200 X excess and a h i g h pumping
r a t e . F l o a t i n g o r n e u t r a l - d e n s i t y b a l l s e a l e r s have a s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y m a t c h i n g
t h a t o f t h e f l u i d , and t h e r e f o r e b e t t e r b a l l a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e as compared t o
s i n k i n g s e a l e r s . On t h e o t h e r hand, s u r f a c e equipment has t o be m o d i f i e d t o
c a t c h t h e f l o a t i n g b a l l s e a l e r s d u r i n g flowback (GABRIEL & ERBSTOESSER 1984).
I n terms o f a c i d i z i n g , b a l l s e a l e r s a r e r e s t r i c t e d i n use and s h o u l d n o t be ap-
p l i e d i n l o n g i n t e r v a l s w i t h h i g h p e r f o r a t i o n d e n s i t y , l o w - r a t e t r e a t m e n t s and
g r a v e l - p a c k e d w e l l s (McLEOD 1984). An a l t e r n a t i v e t o b a l l s e a l e r s a r e r e t r i e -
v a b l e c o i l e d - t u b i n g i n f l a t a b l e packers and b r i d g e p l u g s which can be used f o r
s e l e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s by i s o l a t i n g a zone f r o m a f r a c t u r i n g j o b u t i -
l i z i n g e i t h e r a packer t o s t i m u l a t e a l o w e r zone o r a p l u g t o t r e a t an upper
zone (WALSH & HOLDER 1988).

4.2.2.1.1.4. Treatment sequence in mu1 t i layer reservoirs

W h i l e i n most cases s e q u e n t i a l s t o r e y - w i s e f r a c t u r i n g w i t h a s s i s t a n c e o f
b a l l s e a l e r s has t o be c a r r i e d o u t f r o m b o t t o m t o t o p o f t h e borehole, o c c a s i o -
n a l l y an i n v e r t e d procedure w i t h s t e p w i s e s t i m u l a t i o n f r o m t o p t o b o t t o m can be
performed i f t h e d i f f e r e n t h o r i z o n s t o be t r e a t e d a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d i f f e -
r e n t r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n stage (SNOW & HOUGH 1988). The l e s s d e p l e t e d zones a r e
p r e f e r e n t i a l l y stimulated f i r s t . I f the l e s s depleted l a y e r i s lower i n the pro-
spective section, i t i s t r e a t e d and a p l u g i s s e t across those p e r f o r a t i o n s
w h i l e t h e upper segment i s s h o t and s t i m u l a t e d . I f t h e l e s s d e p l e t e d zone i s
h i g h e r i n t h e sequence, i t i s p e r f o r a t e d and t r e a t e d f i r s t , and once t h e l o w e r
i n t e r v a l i s opened and s t i m u l a t e d , b a l l s e a l e r s a r e pumped t o d i v e r t away f r o m
the p r e v i o u s l y t r e a t e d horizon.

4.2.2.1.1.5. Insertion and removal o f blocking materials

O t h e r t e c h n i q u e s f o r simultaneous f r a c t u r i n g o f s e v e r a l l a y e r s i n b o r e h o l e s
w i t h l o n g hydrocarbon-bearing s e c t i o n s i n c l u d e d i v e r s i o n o f t h e f l u i d t o t h e
d i f f e r e n t zones where t r e a t i n g packers a r e used o r s o l i d chemicals as d i v e r t i n g
agents a r e added t o t h e f l u i d s . Simultaneous i n j e c t i o n i n t o s e v e r a l s e l e c t e d
pay zone l a y e r s can a l s o be performed by p i n - p o i n t sand f r a c t u r i n g (MURPHY &
JUCH 1960; l i m i t e d - e n t r y f r a c t u r i n g ; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) . Extremely viscous
g e l s can be a p p l i e d a l o n e and can be t a i l o r e d t o be almost s o l i d a t b o t t o m h o l e
c o n d i t i o n s and y e t w i l l r e v e r t t o a l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d a f t e r a c o n t r o l l e d pe-
r i o d o f t i m e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . ) . I n case o f o p e r a t i o n t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t e d ca-
s i n g , h i g h - s t r e n g t h rubber-covered p l a s t i c b a l l s a r e used t o s e a l t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s t a k i n g f l u i d and d i v e r t t h e f l u i d t o o t h e r p e r f o r a t i o n s (WATERS 1980).

I n terms o f d i v e r t i n g agents, one m a j o r d i f f i c u l t y encountered w i t h any

b l o c k i n g m a t e r i a l i s removing i t f r o m t h e permeable zone a f t e r t r e a t m e n t (HARRI-
SON 1971). The p e r f e c t b l o c k i n g m a t e r i a l i s one t h a t l a s t s l o n g enough t o d i -
v e r t f l u i d d u r i n g an o p e r a t i o n and then becomes i n e f f e c t i v e w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o
be d i s s o l v e d by c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r agents o r by i n t e r n a l breakage ( t h e same ap-
p l i e s f o r f l u i d - l o s s additives; c f . section 4.3.4.6.4.). The optimum i s a
d i v e r t i n g agent t h a t s t a y s i n t a c t o n l y f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e t r e a t m e n t , w i t h
a s o l i d m a t e r i a l degrading i m m e d i a t e l y b e i n g most d e s i r a b l e , whereas d i v e r t i n g
agents depending on v i s c o s i t y a l o n e do n o t appear t o o f f e r p o s i t i v e b l o c k i n g
because o f t h e v a r i a t i o n and i n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f g e l s and emulsions. HUCKABEE
(1988) r e p o r t s u t i l i z a t i o n o f r o c k s a l t as d i v e r t i n g agent f o r a c i d s t i -
m u l a t i o n s i n carbonate r e s e r v o i r s , w i t h t h e w a t e r - s o l u b l e r o c k s a l t p a r t i c l e s
b e i n g one o f t h e most s u i t a b l e d i v e r t i n g m a t e r i a l s due t o t h e i r subsequent
u n h i n d e r e d vanishment once t h e f o r m a t i o n s t a r t s t o f l o w o r p e r f o r a t i o n washing
 362

i s c a r r i e d o u t ( r o c k s a l t has a l s o e x c e l l e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i -
t i v e f o r t e m p o r a r y h a i r l i n e c r a c k p l u g g i n g f o l l o w e d b y d i s s o l u t i o n and t h u s
e l i m i n a t i o n o f any b l o c k i n g e f f e c t s ; c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . ) .

4.2.2.1.1.6.Wax-based pel lets

An e f f i c i e n t d i v e r t e r u s e d s e v e r a l decades ago a r e wax-based p e l l e t s w h i c h
i m p r o v e m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e p a t t e r n s i n s i n g l e o p e r a t i o n and p e r m i t b e t t e r con-
t r o l o f a c i d i z i n g ( O I L GAS JOURNAL 1965) so t h a t i t w o r k s o v e r t h e e n t i r e f a c e
o f t h e exposed w e l l b o r e . The wax-based beads f u n c t i o n as t e m p o r a r y s e a l i n g
a g e n t s w h i c h p l u g any o p e n i n g i n t h e w e l l b o r e t h r o u g h w h i c h f l u i d s p a s s . Wax-ba-
sed p e l l e t s b l o c k h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s as soon as t h e y a r e c r e a t e d and propped,
t h e r e b y p e r m i t t i n g t o s t i m u l a t e w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r complex s e v e r a l o t h e r t i -
mes d u r i n g t h e same o p e r a t i o n . I n a c i d i z i n g , wax-based beads p l u g any g e n e r a t e d
holes, thereby preventing the a c i d from being drained o f f i n t o the formation a t
a s i n g l e p o i n t and f o r c i n g i t t o a t t a c k o t h e r a r e a s o f t h e b o r e h o l e as w e l l .

4.2.2.1.2. Diverting agent selection

S e l e c t i o n o f d i v e r t i n g t e c h n i q u e and t r e a t m e n t method f o r s i m u l t a n e o u s m u l t i -
p l e f r a c t u r i n g o f s e v e r a l sand s t r i n g e r s w i t h i n one i n t e r v a l depends on t h e
s e a l i n g n a t u r e o f s e p a r a t i n g mudstones (PARKER, ADAMS & LIANKUI 1 9 8 6 ) . I f t h e
e n c l o s i n g mudstones a c t as b a r r i e r s t o v e r t i c a l c r a c k g r o w t h , l i m i t e d - e n t r y p e r -
f o r a t i n g and f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e s a r e s u i t a b l e f o r j o i n t s t i m u l a t i o n o f a
b u n d l e of sand s t r i n g e r s . I f t h e b o u n d i n g mudstone, however, does n o t f o r m a
b a r r i e r t o upward c r a c k e x t e n s i o n , f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i s g o v e r n e d b y pumping r a t e
and j o b volume ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) , and c l u s t e r p e r f o r a t i o n s i n a c e n t r a l
a r e a combined w i t h h i g h - r a t e l a r g e - q u a n t i t y t r e a t m e n t s may be b e s t f o r s y n c h r o -
nous s t i m u l a t i o n o f s e v e r a l sand s t r i n g e r s . C l u s t e r p e r f o r a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g may
r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l p e r f o r a t i o n s a f t e r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o com-
mingle production from the v a r i o u s horizons ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.10.1.1. and
4.10.3.).

W h i l e t r a d i t i o n a l l y p e r f o r a t i o n breakdown p r i o r t o s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s
was p e r f o r m e d b y b a l l and c u p s e a l e r s , t e m p o r a r y b l o c k i n g a g e n t s , o t h e r d i v e r t -
i n g means (HARRISON 1 9 7 1 g i v e s a h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w o f d i v e r t i n g a g e n t s ) , and
h i g h f l u i d i n j e c t i o n r a t e s , SCOTT ( 1 9 8 6 ) p r e s e n t s p r e c i s i o n p e r f o r a t i o n b r e a k -
down b y u s i n g a h o o k - w a l l s t r a d d l e p a c k e r t h a t i s o p e r a t e d w i t h m i n i m a l p r e s -
s u r e and pumping r a t e t o h e l p p r e v e n t c r a c k e x t e n s i o n o r p r o l o n g a t i o n i n t o un-
w a n t e d gas- o r w a t e r - b e a r i n g zones o r h o r i z o n s . M u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g w i t h i n one
w e l l can i n c l u d e c r e a t i o n o f a s i n g l e f r a c t u r e each i n e v e r y p a y h o r i z o n o r c a n
c o m p r i s e f o r m a t i o n o f s e v e r a l c r a c k s w i t h i n one r e s e r v o i r l e v e l . I n t h e l a t t e r
case, t h e m u l t i p l e s y s t e m c o n s i s t s o f p r i m a r y and a u x i l i a r y f r a c t u r e s w i t h
u s u a l l y f o u r - t o e i g h t - w i n g r a d i a l f r a c t u r e s (CHOO & WU 1987; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s
4.2.2.1.3. and 4 . 7 . 3 . ) . I n c h a l k f r a c t u r i n g , c r o s s l i n k e d p o l y m e r s a r e o c c a s i o -
n a l l y u t i l i z e d as d i v e r t i n g a g e n t s ( H I L L , CLEMENT & WARD 1977; c f . s e c t i o n
4.5.4.).

4.2.2.1.3.Multiple fracturing aspects

A very important question o f multiple fracturing operations i s formation
breakdown and a s c e r t a i n m e n t t h a t a l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s w i l l a c c e p t f l u i d , w h i c h
i s b e s t e n s u r e d b y b r e a k i n g down each zone s e p a r a t e l y (MARPLE, RULEY, WORLEY &
FREEMAN 1 9 8 7 ) . F r a c t u r i n g o f e a c h zone i n d e p e n d e n t l y enhances t h e q u a l i t y o f
t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t w i t h i n e a c h l a y e r and d e c r e a s e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e . Comments a r e o f f e r e d on f r a c t u r e m o r p h o l o g y , f r a c t u r e number
and s t r e s s s t a t e , t a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g , c o n t r o l l e d v s . c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i v e
f r a c t u r i n g , s i m u l t a n e o u s p r o p a g a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s , and o t h e r t e c h n i -
aues and e f f e c t s .
 363

4.2.2.1.3.1. Fracture morphology

Mineback experiments by p h y s i c a l e x c a v a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s and obser-
v a t i o n o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o geological d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s reveal t h a t the w i -
d e l y h e l d assumption o f i d e a l smooth p l a n a r s i n g u l a r p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s o f con-
s t a n t h e i g h t i s p r o b a b l y u n t e n a b l e i n many r e s e r v o i r s (WARPINSKI & TEUFEL
1984). M u l t i p l e s t r a n d i n g by o f f s e t t i n g ( c f . p l a t e I V / 6 ) , c r a c k meandering ( c f .
p l a t e X I / 3 ) , en-echelon f r a c t u r i n g , l a r g e - s c a l e s u r f a c e roughness and waviness,
and o v e r l a p p i n g s t r a n d i n g a r e common m o r p h o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s o f f r a c t u r e s . Some
comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on f r a c t u r e s t r a n d i n g and o f f s e t t i n g as w e l l as
f r a c t u r e roughness, waviness and w i d t h v a r i a t i o n .

4.2.2.1.3.1.1.Fracture stranding and offsetting

M u l t i p l e s t r a n d i n g i s predominant i n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s , w i t h hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s b e i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y o f f s e t when t h e y c r o s s t h e j o i n t s (WARPIN-
S K I , SCHMIDT & NORTHROP 1980; WARPINSKI 1983 a; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . ) . Three
t y p e s of i n t e r a c t i o n s between h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s and p r e e x i s t i n g j o i n t s occur.
The h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s e i t h e r c r o s s t h e j o i n t , a r e a r r e s t e d by opening and d i -
l a t i n g t h e c r a c k ( c f . p l a t e s V I / l - 7 and X I / 3 + 7 ) as i n d i c a t e d by f l u i d f l o w
along t h e j o i n t , o r a r e stopped by shear s l i p p a g e o f t h e c r a c k w i t h no d i l a t i o n
and f l u i d f l o w a l o n g t h e j o i n t ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 4 . ) .

Roughness o f f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e depends on r o c k t y p e and d i m i n i s h e s w i t h i n -

c r e a s i n g c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s (BIOT, MEDLIN & MASSE 1984). The e f f e c t o f v a r i a b i l i -
t y o f f r a c t u r e shape, p a t h and s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s i s an i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e d r o p
a l o n g t h e l e n g t h o f t h e crack compared w i t h t h a t o f t h e i d e a l case (WARPINSKI
1983 a ) , w i t h t h e main elements p r o v o k i n g l a r g e r p r e s s u r e d r o p b e i n g t o r t u o s i t y
o f f r a c t u r e path, m u l t i p l e c r a c k s t r a n d s , sharp t u r n s o r c o r n e r s o f t h e f l o w
p a t h o r i g i n a t i n g a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f n a t u r a l j o i n t s and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s ,
and r o c k p r o p e r t y v a r i a t i o n s . F r i c t i o n f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f l o w i n hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y 2 - 3 times g r e a t e r than p r e d i c t e d by v i s c o u s theo-
ry as a r e s u l t o f s u r f a c e roughness, c r a c k o f f s e t t i n g and m u l t i p l e s t r a n d i n g ,
w i t h t h e l a t t e r e f f e c t o c c u r r i n g r e g a r d l e s s o f r o c k t y p e and s t r e s s . E x t e n s i v e
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e c o n t o r t i n g t a k e s p l a c e a t n a t u r a l j o i n t s and i n c l u s i o n s (WAR-
P I N S K I 1983 a; c f . p l a t e I V / 1 - 2 ) .

4.2.2.1.3.1.2. Fracture roughness, waviness and width variation

Other f e a t u r e s a r e f r a c t u r e waviness ( c f . p l a t e X I / 3 ) and w i d t h v a r i a b i l i t y .
O f f s e t s o f t h e h y d r a u l i c c r a c k happen a t e v e r y p o i n t where a n a t u r a l j o i n t i s
i n t e r s e c t e d . F r a c t u r e w i d t h v a r i a t i o n o r l a r g e - s c a l e f r a c t u r e roughness have
pronounced e f f e c t s on c r a c k shape, p a t h and s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s , w i t h t h e main f e a -
t u r e b e i n g i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e drop along t h e l e n g t h o f t h e f r a c t u r e as compa-
r e d t o t h e i d e a l case. Sharp t u r n s such as a t f r a c t u r e o f f s e t s ( c f . p l a t e X I / 3 )
can have s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on p r e s s u r e l o s s e s i n high-Reynolds number t r e a t -
ments c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h f l o w r a t e , low v i s c o s i t y o r small h e i g h t .

SMITH, ROSENBERG & BOWEN (1982) document s m a l l - s c a l e d e v i a t i o n s o f i d e a l l y

s t r a i g h t v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e wings on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e w e l l b o r e as r e v e a l e d by
o p t i c a l t e l e v i s i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.9.3.). Such d e v i a t i o n s i n c l u d e s l i g h t
jogs, b i f u r c a t i o n s and s p a l l i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e edges, and a r e presumably r e l a -
t e d t o t h e dynamic n a t u r e o f t h e breakdown phenomenon which i s p r o b a b l y i n c l u -
ding f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n a t m u l t i p l e p o i n t s i n the wellbore.
 364

4.2.2.1.3.2.Fracture number and stress state

In a r e s e r v o i r complex c o n s i s t i n g o f v a r i o u s s a n d s t o n e s t o r e y s s e p a r a t e d b y
mudstone b a r r i e r s , s i n g l e f r a c t u r e s a r e c r e a t e d i n c a s e o f p r e s e n c e o f a s i n g l e
g r a d i e n t s h i f t , whereas m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l c r a c k s c o n t a i n e d i n
e a c h l a y e r a r e g e n e r a t e d i n c a s e o f s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t g r a d i e n t s h i f t s b e i n g deve-
l o p e d (BUNDY 1 9 8 1 ) . H i g h e r t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e s t h a n u s u a l c a n be caused b y v i s -
cous f l o w t h r o u g h a complex m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s y s t e m i n s t e a d o f a s i n g u l a r p l a -
n a r f r a c t u r e (MEDLIN & FITCH 1983, WARPINSKI & TEUFEL 1984) as w e l l as b y a
l a y e r o f r e l a t i v e l y small cracks around a l a r g e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e t h a t t r i g -
g e r s s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e o f a p p a r e n t f r a c t u r e e n e r g y w i t h c r a c k g r o w t h and
thus i n c r e a s e o f o p e r a t i o n a l p r e s s u r e s (SHLYAPOBERSKY 1985; c f . s e c t i o n
4.3.4.2.3.). E f f e c t s o f s t r e s s s t a t e on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d
b y ZOBACK, ZOBACK & SEEBURGER ( 1 9 8 1 ) .

When a f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t e s f r o m a l o w - s t r e s s zone i n t o a h i g h e r - s t r e s s zone,

a c r a c k g e o m e t r y w i t h l a r g e r w i d t h s i s c r e a t e d i n t h e l o w - s t r e s s zone (SMITH,
ROSENBERG & BOWEN 1 9 8 2 ) . F o r a f r a c t u r e i n a homogeneous f o r m a t i o n , t h e w i d t h /
p r e s s u r e s l o p e i s g r e a t e r f o r p o i n t s n e a r t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c r a c k . M o d u l u s va-
r i a t i o n s and b a r r i e r c h a r a c t e r s o f r o c k l a y e r s a d j o i n i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r c a n t r i g -
g e r f r a c t u r e w i d t h v a r i a t i o n s . O p t i c a l t e l e v i s i o n i n s p e c t i o n i n some examples
r e v e a l s a v e r y w i d e f r a c t u r e i n t h e u p p e r p a r t o f t h e p a y i n t e r v a l and a n a r -
r o w e r c r a c k t h r o u g h t h e s h a l e s and l o w e r p a y s e c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . 3 . ) .
Sharp f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e s o v e r t h e b o t t o m o f t h e r e s e r v o i r a r e a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y
t h e consequence o f a h i g h - m o d u l u s l a y e r b e l o w . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e r e l a t i o n -
ships, actual crack widths over the r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l are probably smaller
t h a n t h e measured w i d t h s due t o s D a l l i n q and e r o s i o n o f f r a c t u r e e d q e s . A s o e c t s
o f f r a c t u r e w i d t h a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y PERKINS & KERN ( 1 9 6 1 ) and iEDL1N &'MAS-
SE ( 1 9 8 4 ) .

4.2.2.1.3.3.Tailored pulse loading

M u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e generation by t a i l o r e d pulse l o a d i n g i s a combination o f
t h e e f f e c t s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and e x p l o s i v e w e l l s h o o t i n g (SWIFT & KUSU-
BOV 1981; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 7 . 3 . ) . T a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e
f o r n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . section 4.8.8.5.). I d e a l l y , t h e optimum
s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e i s t o p r o d u c e maximum s u r f a c e a r e a f o r t h e l e a s t amount
o f e n e r g y expended. C o n s i d e r i n g t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and e x -
p l o s i v e s h o o t i n g , i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t a t e c h n i q u e f o r i n i t i a t i n g and s u s t a i n i n g
m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s i n a w e l l b o r e w i t h m i n i m a l damage i m p a r t e d t o t h e b o r e h o l e
w a l l p r o v i d e s an a t t r a c t i v e means f o r m a x i m i z i n g p e r m e a b l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f a
w e l l t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g m e d i a . Some p o i n t s o f i n t e r m e d i a t e s t r a i n r a t e s and m u l -
t i p l e r a d i a l c r a c k s a r e t o u c h e d as f o l l o w s .

4.2.2.1.3.3.1. Intermediate strain rates

T a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g a t i n t e r m e d i a t e s t r a i n r a t e s can c r e a t e m u l t i p l e f r a c -
t u r e s w i t h o u t damaging t h e w e l l b o r e r e g i o n (WARPINSKI, SCHMIDT, COOPER, WALLING
& NORTHROP 1979; SCHMIDT, WARPINSKI & COOPER 1 9 8 0 ) . The d e g r e e o f m u l t i p l e f r a c -
t u r i n g i s q u i t e s e n s i t i v e t o b o r e h o l e c o n d i t i o n s as w e l l as t o l o a d i n g r a t e and
appears t o be s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t r a n s i e n t p o r e - p r e s s u r e e f f e c t s . F r a c t u r e
threshold-breakdown pressure increases p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y w i t h l o a d i n g r a t e , w i t h
t h i s dependence b e i n g a t t r i b u t e d t o t r a n s i e n t w a t e r i n t r u s i o n a r o u n d t h e b o r e -
h o l e . M u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g b y t a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g c o u p l e s d e f o r m a t i o n and f a i -
l u r e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e r o c k t o f l u i d d i f f u s i o n through t h e permeable r o c k m a t r i x
and f l u i d f l o w i n t h e c r a c k s (SWIFT & KUSUBOV 1 9 8 1 ) .

T a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g i s an i n t e r m e d i a t e s t r a i n r a t e r o c k f r a c t u r i n g p r o -
c e s s g e n e r a t i n g m u l t i p l e c r a c k n e t w o r k s w h i c h have a h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y o f i n -
t e r s e c t i n g f a r - f i e l d n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s t h a n c r a c k s c r e a t e d b y e x p l o s i v e o r con-
 365

v e n t i o n a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (STOLLER 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 7 . 3 . ) . As a conse-

quence o f t h e c o n t r o l by t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s s t a t e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n , a s i n g u l a r
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e tends t o p a r a l l e l t h e dominant t r e n d o f t h e e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e system, t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i t s i n t e r s e c t i o n ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . ) . C o u p l i n g o f t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i n t o t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k and
j o i n t system i s t h u s dependent upon spacing o f t h e m i n o r o r o r t h o g o n a l f r a c t u r e
t r e n d and e x t e n t t o which t h e l a t t e r i s connected t o t h e dominant n a t u r a l f r a c -
t u r e trend ( c f . section 4.2.4.3.).

The m e r i t s o f a m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e network depend upon c r e a t i o n o f c r a c k s o f

s u f f i c i e n t l e n g t h t o s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n f l u e n c e p r o d u c t i o n and l o n g - t e r m maintenan-
c e o f c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . Mechanisms which can m a i n t a i n c o n d u c t i v i t y
o f a m u l t i p l e c r a c k network d e s p i t e t h e l a c k o f i n s e r t e d p r o p p a n t s a r e channel-
l i n g and gouging on t h e f r a c t u r e surfaces, and t r a n s l a t i o n o f one f r a c t u r e s u r -
f a c e r e l a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r when n o t o r i e n t e d i n t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c -
t i o n s , w i t h s h e a r i n g s t r e s s i n f l u e n c e on o f f - a x i s c r a c k s b e i n g v e r y i m p o r t a n t .
I f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y can t h u s be m a i n t a i n e d even under h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s -
ses, p r o d u c t i v i t y enhancement r e s u l t s through a s y n e r g i s t i c c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n -
creases o f e f f e c t i v e r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y and e f f e c t i v e w e l l b o r e r a d i u s .

4.2.2.1.3.3.2.Multiple radial cracks

ZUBER, LEE & GATENS (1987) o u t l i n e t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f m u l t i p l e r a d i a l f r a c t u -
r e s c r e a t e d by t a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g i n Devonian s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.4.4.6.). The c o n t r o l l e d d e t o n a t i o n o f e x p l o s i v e s i n t h e w e l l b o r e p r e f e -
r e n t i a l l y by i n s e r t i o n o f t h e charge i n t o n a t u r a l c r a c k s o r i n t o a h y d r a u l i c a l -
l y - i n d u c e d m i n i f r a c t u r e generates a t a i l o r e d p u l s e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.9.6.). The
main r e q u i r e m e n t s and b e n e f i t s o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e a r e t h a t peak r a d i a l s t r e s s o f
t h e p u l s e i s below f l o w s t r e s s and above t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f t h e r e s e r v o i r
rock, i n i t i a l l o a d i n g r a t e i s l a r g e enough t o t r i g g e r t h e o r i g i n o f f r a c t u r e s ,
and d u r a t i o n o f p u l s e and generated gases f r o m t h e e x p l o s i o n a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o
extend the cracks f o r s i g n i f i c a n t distances. M u l t i p l e r a d i a l f r a c t u r i n g created
by t a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g has t u r n e d o u t t o be e c o n o m i c a l l y much more a t t r a c -
t i v e than standard explosive f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . section 4.7.3.), b u t i s o f i n f e -
r i o r s i g n i f i c a n c e compared t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g which i s a l s o i n t h e Devo-
n i a n s h a l e t h e most e f f e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 4 . 6 . ) . Cau-
t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d c o n c e r n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n o f induced f r a c t u r e s w i t h r e -
s p e c t t o t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k system w h i c h c r e a t e s an a n i s o t r o p i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y
d i s t r i b u t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.4.2.) i n t h e s h a l e r e s e r v o i r s and r e s u l t s i n t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t a w e l l w i t h an induced f r a c t u r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e n a t u r a l
c r a c k t r e n d p e r f o r m s much more f a v o u r a b l y t h a n a w e l l w i t h an induced f r a c t u r e
para1 l e l t o t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k t r e n d .

T a i l o r e d pulse loading i s a l s o a successful technique f o r m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g

breakdown f o r m i n i m i z a t i o n o f n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r damage (BRANAGAN &
WILMER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . 2 . ) . T a i l o r e d p u l s e e x p l o s i v e breakdown procedu-
r e s e n t a i l t h e use o f a r e l a t i v e l y slow b u r n i n g p r o p e l l a n t designed t o generate
a m u l t i p l e s e t o f f r a c t u r e s r a d i a t i n g l i k e spokes f r o m t h e p e r f o r a t e d w e l l b o r e .
I n o r d e r t o c r e a t e t h e c o r r e c t environment f o r t h e t a i l o r e d p u l s e e x p l o s i v e t o
p r o p e r l y i n i t i a t e m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s , a f l u i d w i t h a d e n s i t y about t h a t o f wa-
t e r b u t c o n s i d e r a b l y i n excess o f most a v a i l a b l e gases i s r e q u i r e d as a tamping
medium i n t h e casing, w i t h l i q u i d carbon d i o x i d e b e i n g an i d e a l w e l l b o r e tamp-
i n g f l u i d . T a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g i s a l s o a s u i t a b l e technology f o r c o m b i n a t i o n
o f h y d r a u l i c and e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 9 . 6 . ) .

4.2.2.1.3.3.3.Other aspects
A s u i t e o f f a c t o r s c o n t r o l s o r i g i n o f m u l t i p l e c r a c k s by t a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d -
i n g (SWIFT & KUSUBOV 1981). T h r e s h o l d breakdown p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s p r o p o r t i o n a -
t e l y w i t h l o a d i n g r a t e , and t h e o n s e t l o a d i n g r a t e f o r m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g de-
 366

c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r c o n t e n t . Crack number i n c r e a s e s w i t h l o a d i n g r a t e
above t h e o n s e t l o a d i n g r a t e . I f f l u i d i n t r u s i o n i s p r e v e n t e d , o n l y a f e w f r a c -
t u r e s o c c u r r e g a r d l e s s o f l o a d i n g r a t e and c o n f i n e m e n t c o n d i t i o n s . The m u l t i p l e
f r a c t u r i n g process a t i n t e r m e d i a t e l o a d i n g r a t e s i s governed b y f l u i d d i f f u s i o n
through t h e porous s o l i d coupled t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l deformation o f the s o l i d .
The mechanism r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g a p p e a r s t o b e t h e e f f e c t o f
t r a n s i e n t pore pressure buildup i n the near v i c i n i t y o f the wellbore r e s u l t i n g
f r o m t h e d i f f u s i v e i n t r u s i o n o f t h e b o r e h o l e f l u i d . B r i t t l e f r a c t u r i n g f o r un-
d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i g h - e n e r g y g a s s t i m u l a t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d b y KRUGMAN ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

Aspects o f m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g by t a i l o r e d pulse loading, p r o p e l l a n t s o r

o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y WARPINSKI, SCHMIDT, COOPER, WALLING &
NORTHROP ( 1 9 7 9 ) ; SCHMIDT, WARPINSKI & COOPER ( 1 9 8 0 ) ; SWIFT & KUSUBOV (1980,
1 9 8 1 ) ; AHMED, SCHATZ, HOLLAND, JONES & GREENFIELD ( 1 9 8 2 ) ; CUDERMAN ( 1 9 8 2 ) ;
McHUGH & KEOUGH ( 1 9 8 2 ) , HINN ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; KEOUGH, CURRAN & McHUGH ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; CUDERMAN &
NORTHROP ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; FOURNEY, HOLLOWAY & S I M H A ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; HANSON, SCHMIDT, COOLEY &
SCHATZ ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; AHMED, NEWBERRY & CANNON ( 1 9 8 5 ) ; STOLLER ( 1 9 8 5 ) and WATSON, BEN-
SON & F I L L 0 ( 1 9 8 6 ) . STRUBHAR, FITCH & GLENN ( 1 9 7 4 ) o u t l i n e m u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r i n g i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l b o r e s as a means t o enhance d r a i n a g e e f f e c t i -
v i t y o f i n c l i n e d boreholes ( c f . section 4.8.6.).

4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 4 . Control led vs . conventional explosive fracturing

In c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g , f i r i n g o f a c h a r g e i n t h e w e l l b o r e ge-
n e r a l l y c r e a t e s a l a r g e number o f f r a c t u r e s o f s h o r t e x t e n t (SWIFT & KUSUBOV
1 9 8 1 ) . The r a t e o f p r e s s u r i z a t i o n i s v e r y h i g h w h i c h c a u s e s c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s -
ses i n t h e w e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y t o be much h i g h e r t h a n t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s s t a t e .
T h i s s t r e s s e n v i r o n m e n t c a n cause c o m p a c t i o n o r p u l v e r i z a t i o n o f a f i n i t e zone
a r o u n d t h e w e l l b o r e t o such a d e g r e e t h a t p e r m e a b i l i t y i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a -
sed (SMITH, BASS & TYLER 1 9 7 8 ) . Thus e v e n t h o u g h t h e i n d u c e d m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s
may i n t e r s e c t w i t h many o f t h e n a t u r a l p r e e x i s t i n g c r a c k s ( c f . p l a t e I V / l ) , t h e
damage i m p a r t e d t o t h e w e l l b o r e w a l l b y c o m p a c t i o n o r p u l v e r i z a t i o n h i n d e r s p e r -
meable communication t o t h e surrounding media. Decoupling t h e e x p l o s i v e charge
f r o m t h e w a l l c a n l o w e r t h e a p p l i e d s t r e s s and l e s s e n t h e amount o f damage t o
t h e w a l l r e g i o n , b u t t h e s h o r t d u r a t i o n o f t h e e x p l o s i v e i m p u l s e does n o t a l l o w
f r a c t u r e g r o w t h t o l o n g d i s t a n c e s (SWIFT & KUSUBOV 1981; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 7 . 3 . ) .

T a i l o r e d p u l s e loading i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t o c r e a t e m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s o f maxi-
mum l e n g t h b y c o n t r o l l i n g t h e i n c r e a s e r a t e and t h e r e f o r e p r e v e n t i n g f o r m a t i o n
o f a p r e s s u r e s t r e s s cage w h i c h i s common i n s t a n d a r d e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g
(FOURNEY, HOLLOWAY & SIMHA 1 9 8 4 ) . When d e t o n a t i n g o r d i n a r y e x p l o s i v e s , t h e p r e s -
s u r e r i s e r a t e s w i t h i n t h e b o r e h o l e a r e t o o r a p i d and c r e a t e a s t r e s s cage b y
p l a s t i c deformation o f t h e r o c k i n t h e w e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y . A f t e r t h e passage o f
o u t g o i n g s t r e s s waves, t h e e x p l o s i v e l o a d i n g r e s u l t s i n a c o m p r e s s i v e r e s i d u a l
s t r e s s w h i c h p r e v e n t s t h e h i g h - p r e s s u r e gases f r o m e n t e r i n g t h e n e w l y - f o r m e d
f r a c t u r e s , t h e r e b y l e a d i n g t o much s h o r t e r f r a c t u r e s t h a n d e s i r e d and a l s o i n h i -
b i t i n g t h e f r e e f l o w o f gas o r o i l back i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e . T a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d -
i n g b y p r o p e l l a n t s (SCHMIDT, WARPINSKI & COOPER 1980) o r stemming (FOURNEY, BAR-
KER & HOLLOWAY 1981; FOURNEY, HOLLOWAY & SIMHA 1984; YOUNG, BARKER & CLARK
1 9 8 4 ) , however, c a n s u c c e s s f u l l y c r e a t e s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s .

W h i l e p r o p e l l a n t a p p l i c a t i o n i s q u i t e e x p e n s i v e and t h e r a t e o f d e f l a g r a t i o n
o f p r o p e l l a n t s depends s t r o n g l y o n c o n f i n e m e n t and t h e r e f o r e o n p r e s s u r e , stem-
induced f r a c t u r i n g works w i t h highly-decoupled conventional e x p l o s i v e charges
t h a t a r e l o c a t e d a t t h e b o t t o m o f a b o r e h o l e t h a t has been d r i l l e d t o a d e p t h
beyond t h e pay zone. The w e l l i s c l o s e d o f f w i t h a p a c k e r o r p e d a l b a s k e t l o c a -
t e d a t t h e t o p o f t h e p a y zone, and s e v e r a l m e t r e s o f c r u s h e d g r a v e l a r e u s e d
t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e stemming column w i l l b r i d g e i n t h e h o l e when t h e e x p l o s i v e
d e t o n a t e s . Upon f i r i n g , a i r shock and d e t o n a t i o n p r o d u c t s p r o p a g a t e upwards i n
t h e b o r e h o l e and when t h e y r e a c h t h e stemming, shock r e f l e c t i n g c r e a t e s a seve-
r a l - f o l d p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e o f f a v o u r a b l e m a g n i t u d e and r a t e . The absence o f
 367

s t r e s s cage and f i n e p a r t i c l e s p l u g g i n g t h e c r a c k s w i t h r e s p e c t t o a charge-

area s i t u a t i o n p r e v e n t s q u i c k a r r e s t o f t h e generated m u l t i p l e r a d i a l f r a c t u r e
system which i s d r i v e n f o r l o n g e r d i s t a n c e s by t h e i n c r e a s e d p u l s e d u r a t i o n .
O t h e r aspects o f stem-induced t a i l o r e d - p u l s e f r a c t u r i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d i n sec-
t i o n 4.7.3.3.

4.2.2.1.3.5.Simu 1 taneous propagat ion o f mu 1 t iple fractures

Concerning simultaneous p r o p a g a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s , d i s t i n c t i o n has
t o be made between v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s from which t h e v a r i o u s c r a c k s
emanate e i t h e r i n t o s e p a r a t e l a y e r s o f t h e p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l and b e i n g con-
t a i n e d more o r l e s s w i t h i n each s t o r e y , o r i n t o t h e same l a y e r l i k e a sequence
o f s l i c e s and b e i n g as a whole s e r i e s c o n f i n e d w i t h i n t h i s h o r i z o n .

4.2.2.1.3.5.1. Vertical wells

BEN NACEUR & ROEGIERS (1988) comment on m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n s i m u l -
t a n e o u s l y f r o m one v e r t i c a l w e l l b o r e i n t o d i f f e r e n t v e r t i c a l l y successive p r o -
d u c t i v e l a y e r s of t h e r e s e r v o i r complex. Simultaneous growth o f f r a c t u r e s can
occur w i t h v e r t i c a l o r h o r i z o n t a l c r a c k s e x t e n d i n g f r o m d i f f e r e n t p e r f o r a t i o n
s e t s . I n t h e f i r s t case, t h e f r a c t u r e s a r e c o l l i n e a r , whereas t h e y a r e a p p r o x i -
mated by p a r a l l e l c r a c k s i n t h e second one, a l t h o u g h t h e f r a c t u r e s may a c t u a l l y
tend t o move away f r o m each o t h e r . Due t o e l a s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e w i d t h s f o r
two v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s f o r a g i v e n p r e s s u r e a r e l a r g e r than t h a t f o r a s i n g l e
c r a c k . M u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o more e l l i p t i c a l , w i t h maximum w i d t h
o f t h e upper f r a c t u r e b e i n g reached above t h e c e n t e r o f t h e c r a c k . Since w i d t h
i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o f r a c t u r e l e n g t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.3.3.), t h e r e i s an asympto-
t i c tendency o f w i d t h r a t i o , and a l s o merging o f f r a c t u r e s o c c u r s . F o r v e r t i c a l
c r a c k s o f d i f f e r e n t s i z e s , t h i s e f f e c t depends on t h e r e l a t i v e s i z e s o f t h e
fractures, w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n o f crack w i d t h p r o f i l e being l a r g e r f o r a f r a c t u r e
t h a t i s i n f l u e n c e d by a l a r g e r c r a c k s i z e .

4.2.2.1.3.5.2. Horizontal wells

H o r i z o n t a l w e l l s can be e f f e c t i v e l y s t i m u l a t e d by c r e a t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f
p a r a l l e l v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t o connect t h e d i f f e r e n t s t r a t a ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
4.8.6.2.2.). I n t e r a c t i o n between s e v e r a l c r a c k s r e s u l t s i n s m a l l e r f r a c t u r e
w i d t h s . D u r i n g a f i r s t phase, o n l y one f r a c t u r e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c r a c k w i t h t h e
lower c l o s u r e s t r e s s can propagate u n t i l a boundary s t r e s s l e v e l i s reached.
The second f r a c t u r e s t a r t s p r o p a g a t i n g w i t h t h e same p r e s s u r e as t h e f i r s t one,
and t h e p r e s s u r e tends a s y m p t o t i c a l l y t o t h e lower c u r v e . The i n j e c t i o n r a t e i n
t h e f i r s t c r a c k i s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g c o n s t a n t and then s t a r t s d e c l i n i n g r a p i d l y
t o one-half value. I n t e r a c t i o n o f m u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s i n both v e r t i c a l
and h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s r e s u l t s i n s h o r t e r e x t e n s i o n o f t h e c r a c k s w i t h r e s p e c t t o
l e n g t h w h i c h c o u l d be achieved by s i n g u l a r f r a c t u r e s .

M o d e l l i n g simultaneous p r o p a g a t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c -
t u r e s t h u s r e v e a l s t h a t t h e e l a s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n between c o l l i n e a r c r a c k s g i v e s
r i s e t o l a r g e r f r a c t u r e w i d t h s o r l o w e r apparent s t i f f n e s s e s , whereas f o r p a r a l -
l e l cracks, t h e r e s u l t s a r e r e v e r s e , and t h e r e f o r e i n d i v i d u a l f r a c t u r e s a r e i n -
v a r i a b l y s h o r t e r i n t h e f i r s t case. I n a s e r i e s o f f r a c t u r e s o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m
d i f f e r e n t i n t e r v a l s , t h e v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l c r a c k s grow i n d e p e n d e n t l y f r o m each
o t h e r and even a r e n o t knowing t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i r neighbours. Q u a l i t a t i v e
e s t i m a t e s o f f r a c t u r e geometries can be made c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o i n c r e m e n t a l i n -
j e c t i o n pressures, and t h e knowledge o f s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g w i t h i n
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n i n t e r v a l s i s e s s e n t i a l f o r an a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e
sizes.

YOST, OVERBEY, WILKINS & LOCKE (1988) d e s c r i b e simultaneous p r o p a g a t i o n o f

 368

m u l t i p l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s t r a v e r s e d by a h o r i z o n t a l
b o r e h o l e . M u l t i p l e h y d r a u l i c c r a c k s can be induced f r o m a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e
d u r i n g a s i n g l e pumping event, b u t f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i s s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d
by t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k system. Low i n j e c t i o n r a t e s d u r i n g a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
o p e r a t i o n a l l o w e x t e n s i o n o f n a t u r a l j o i n t s w i t h a low-angle r e l a t i o n s h i p t o
t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s o r i e n t a t i o n , whereas h i g h e r i n j e c t i o n r a t e s g e n e r a l l y r e -
s u l t i n i n d u c i n g f r a c t u r e s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s t r e s s f i e l d . WANNER, CHESNUT &
COX (1979) p o i n t o u t t h a t i n t h i c k gross r e s e r v o i r s e c t i o n s where numerous t h i n
sands a r e d i s t r i b u t e d which f o r m o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l n e t pay i n d i c a t e d
by l o g s , t h e key t o s u c c e s s f u l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f these t h i n sands l i e s i n t h e use
o f r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l d i s c r e t e f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s f o r each sand r a t h e r t h a n mas-
s i v e f r a c t u r i n g o f a t h i c k gross s e c t i o n ( c f . a l s o KNUTSON & WARD 1977).

4.2.2.1.3.6. Other techniques and e f f e c t s

FREDRICKSON & BROADDUS (1976) and BARBER & THEMIG (1985) i n t r o d u c e t h e con-
c e p t o f s e l e c t i v e placement o f f l u i d s i n a f r a c t u r e by c o n t r o l l i n g d e n s i t y and
v i s c o s i t y ( c f . section 4.2.2.6.4.), w i t h separate loading o f the i n d i v i d u a l sta-
ges w i t h d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y p e s and/or g r a i n s i z e s r e p r e s e n t i n g a d i v i d e d
t r e a t m e n t schedule and r e s u l t i n g i n p l a c i n g o f d i s t i n c t h o r i z o n t a l segments o f
t h e whole p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y b e i n g i d e a l l y head a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p , main body
i n t h e m i d d l e s e c t i o n o f t h e wedge, and t a i l a t t h e c r a c k mouth, o r v e r t i c a l l y
d i s c r e t e l o t s a t top, m i d d l e and b o t t o m o f t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s
2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . 3 . and 4 . 3 . 3 . 2 . ) . HANNAH, HARRINGTON & ANDERSON (1977) d e s c r i b e p o s s i b i -
l i t i e s o f l o c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s f l u i d schedule segments i n t h e f r a c t u r e a f t e r
pumping w h i c h p r o v i d e s u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n f o r p l a n n i n g o f g e l l i n g agent and
b r e a k e r l o a d i n g t i m e t a b l e s as w e l l as p r o p p a n t placement.

Case s t u d i e s o f i n t e r a c t i o n between g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , t r e a t m e n t charac-

t e r i s t i c s and p r o d u c t i o n a r e r e p o r t e d by McLENNAN, R O E G I E R S & MARX ( 1 9 8 3 ) . A
c o n t i n u o u s m u l t i s t a g e f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e i s o u t l i n e d by WEBSTER, G O I N S & BER-
R Y ( 1 9 7 0 ) . MURPHY & JUCH (1960) p r e s e n t p i n - p o i n t sand f r a c t u r i n g as a method
o f simultaneous i n j e c t i o n i n t o s e l e c t e d sands. O t h e r f e a t u r e s o f m u l t i p l e - f r a c -
t u r e d w e l l s a r e o u t l i n e d by WILLIAMS, N I E T O , GRAHAM & LEIBACH (1973); CHOO & WU
(1987); SMITH, MILLER & HAGA (1987) and SULLIVAN, LEE & HOLDITCH (1987; c f .
also section 2.4.1.2.). KULAR, CHHINA & BEST (1988) r e p o r t m u l t i p l e h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n o i l sands. AL-TAMIMI & EL-MZEIN (1987) comment on s t i m u -
l a t i o n techniques o f t i g h t m u l t i l a y e r e d carbonates. Aspects o f s i n g l e - s t a g e m u l -
t i p l e - z o n e s t i m u l a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d by EASON ( 1 9 8 5 ) . Design o f f r a c t u r i n g
t r e a t m e n t s i n m u l t i l a y e r e d f o r m a t i o n s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d by BEN NACEUR & ROEGIERS
(1988).

4.2.2.2. L imi ted-en t r y f rac t ur-i ng technique

M u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g i s commonly p e r m i t t e d by t h e l i m i t e d - e n t r y s t i m u l a t i o n
technique where t h e number o f p e r f o r a t i o n s i n a c o m p l e t i o n i n t e r v a l i s l i m i t e d
f o r p r o m o t i o n o f development o f p e r f o r a t i o n f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e d u r i n g a s t i m u l a -
t i o n o p e r a t i o n (LAGRONE & RASMUSSEN 1963, HOWARD & FAST 1970, SMALL 1985, CRA-
MER 1 9 8 7 ) . The l i m i t e d - e n t r y t e c h n i q u e comprises a c c o m p l i s h i n g o f t r e a t i n g seve-
r a l i n t e r v a l s i n a t h i c k pay s e c t i o n w i t h a s i n g l e - s t a g e o p e r a t i o n by l i m i t i n g
number o f p e r f o r a t i o n s and p r o v i d i n g an i n j e c t i o n r a t e h i g h enough t o assure
t h a t a l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s w i l l be t a k i n g f l u i d (LAGRONE & RASMUSSEN 1963). The
pumping r a t e i s chosen such t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n a l p r e s s u r e drop across t h e p e r f o -
r a t i o n s w i l l i n c r e a s e p r e s s u r e i n t h e w e l l b o r e t o a v a l u e above t h e f o r m a t i o n
breakdown p r e s s u r e o f each zone p e r f o r a t e d , w i t h t h i s concept b e i n g an e f f e c -
t i v e and t h u s w i d e l y a p p l i e d d i v e r t i n g t e c h n i q u e . L i m i t e d - e n t r y f r a c t u r i n g has
o r i g i n a l l y been i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e as p i n - p o i n t sand f r a c t u r i n g (MUR-
PHY & JUCH 1960).

Limited-entry perforation d e s i g n may be d e p i c t e d as t h e a b i l i t y o f a s e t o f

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p e r f o r a t i o n s t o pass a f i n i t e volume o f l i q u i d a t a g i v e n d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e
(EASON 1 9 8 5 ) . Each p e r f o r a t i o n a c t s as a choke d i v e r t i n g f l u i d t o each s u c c e s s i -
ve one. W i t h i n c r e a s i n g i n j e c t i o n r a t e , a l l p e r f o r a t i o n s w i l l e v e n t u a l l y t a k e
up f l u i d a t maximum c a p a c i t y i f a s u f f i c i e n t p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l i s h o l d
across t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . The f o l l o w i n g overview p r e s e n t s some aspects o f s i m u l -
taneous f l u i d e n t r y i n t o m u l t i p l e zones, p r e s s u r e d r o p across t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s ,
i n f l u e n c e o f screenouts, and f l u i d d i s t r i b u t i o n and p e r f o r a t i o n arrangement.

4.2.2.2.1. Simultaneous fluid entry into multiple zones

The c h o k i n g e f f e c t r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e l i m i t e d - e n t r y o p e r a t i o n c r e a t e s excess
p r e s s u r e i n t h e casing, a l l o w i n g t h e simultaneous e n t r y o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i n -
t o m u l t i p l e zones o f v a r y i n g i n - s i t u s t r e s s s t a t e s . Having been r e s t r i c t e d t o
a c i d f r a c t u r i n g and s m a l l - s c a l e p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n e a r l i e r
years, l i m i t e d - e n t r y techniques have r e c e n t l y a l s o been i n t r o d u c e d t o MHF s t i m u -
l a t i o n s (CRAMER 1987). P a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e r e s e r v o i r s w i t h two poro-
s i t y zones w h i c h a r e s e p a r a t e d by a t i g h t b a r r i e r (BEGNAUD & CLAIBORNE 1985)
where h y d r a u l i c communication between t h e two pay i n t e r v a l s o c c u r s r o u t i n e l y ,
a l t h o u g h proppant remains i s o l a t e d i n t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l due t o an appa-
r e n t w i d t h r e d u c t i o n i n t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i n g t h e bounding
i nt e r b e d .

When b o t h zones a r e t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y , t h e a d j a c e n t u n p e r f o r a t e d pay zone

a c t s as a permeable f l u i d s i n k and t h u s proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i t h a s s o c i a t e d
s c r e e n o u t r i s k s w i l l o c c u r . I n case o f simultaneous s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h l i m i t e d -
e n t r y techniques, however, t h i s l e a k o f f source w i l l be e l i m i n a t e d and l e s s t o -
t a l f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d w i l l be needed t o d i s p l a c e a g i v e n volume o f p r o p p a n t . I n -
t e r z o n a l r a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s d i c t a t e d by c o u p l i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n and f o r m a t i o n
f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n p r e s s u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (CRAMER 1987). M a t e r i a l changes a t
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and i n t h e f r a c t u r e s can cause i n j e c t i o n r a t e and thus t r e a t -
ment volume r e d i s t r i b u t i o n among zones which l e a v e some s e c t i o n s o f t h e r e s e r -
v o i r complex u n d e r s t i m u l a t e d and i n c e r t a i n circumstances can c o n t r i b u t e t o a
w e l l screenout. L i m i t e d - e n t r y p e r f o r a t i o n enables m u l t i p l e - z o n e c o m p l e t i o n and
h e l p s t o c o n t r o l e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth (HOOVER & ADAMS 1988).

4.2.2.2.2. Pressure drop across the perforations

L i m i t e d - e n t r y f r a c t u r i n g d e s i g n f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e s t h e use o f a minimum p e r -
f o r a t i o n p r e s s u r e drop (BUNDY 1981). Many s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s designed t o t r e a t
l a r g e i n t e r v a l s f a i l because t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i s n o t p r o p e r l y d i s t r i b u t e d
o v e r t h e e n t i r e completed i n t e r v a l and when a p a r t i c u l a r zone o f t h e completed
s e c t i o n does n o t r e c e i v e enough f l u i d , i t screens o u t e a r l y i n t h e j o b , because
t h e necessary f r a c t u r e w i d t h has n o t been c r e a t e d ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and
6.2.4.2.1.). The minimum p r e s s u r e d r o p across t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s f o r c e s t h e f r a c -
t u r i n g f l u i d i n t o a l l the perforations.

O t h e r l i m i t e d - e n t r y t r e a t m e n t s f a i l because c r a c k d e s i g n assumes t h a t a
s i n g l e f r a c t u r e w i l l be generated across t h e e n t i r e completed i n t e r v a l , whereas
i n r e a l i t y a m u l t i f r a c t u r e system o r i g i n a t e s c o n s i s t i n g o f independent c r a c k s
w i t h i n the i n d i v i d u a l horizons i f s u f f i c i e n t l y t h i c k b a r r i e r s separate the sto-
reys, w i t h each f r a c t u r e h a v i n g t o r e c e i v e enough f l u i d i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t p r e -
mature s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e j o b ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.2.3.). The more i n d e -
pendent c r a c k s o r i g i n a t e across t h e completed segment, t h e more a c c u r a t e f l u i d
d i s t r i b u t i o n has t o be f o r t h e purpose o f a v o i d i n g screenout f a i l u r e . Some com-
ments on f l u i d volume and p e r f o r a t i o n number as w e l l as shear d e g r a d a t i o n and
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s .
 370

4.2.2.2.2.1.Fluid volume and perforation number

The a m o u n t of f l u i d t h a t i s required f o r each zone i s determined by i t s
h e i g h t , and the required number of p er f o r at i o ns f o r each inte rva l can be calcu-
l a t e d once the optimum pressure drop across the pe rfora tions has been e s t a b l i -
shed. Maximizing pressure drop ensures t h a t f l u i d i s dive rte d t o a l l the perfo-
r a t i o n s . Pressure d r o p across the p er f o r at i ons i s constant throughout the com-
p le t e d i n t e r v a l o n l y when formation t r e a t i n g pressure (being f r a c t u r e gra die nt
times depth) i s constant across the s e c t i o n . I n case of v a r y i n g f r a c t u r e gra-
d i e n t s , d i s t r i b u t i o n and number of p er f o r at i o ns have t o be adjusted i n orde r to
compensate d i f f e r e n t t r e a t i n g pressures in various zones. Minimum pe rfora tion
pressure drops have t o be used i f the f r a c t u r i n g r a t e i s lim ite d by tubing a n d
pressure r e s t r i c t i o n s . P r ef r act u r i n g i n j e c t i v i t y t e s t i n g and b a l l o u t a re pe rfor-
med t o a s c e r t a i n t h a t a l l the p er f o r at i o n s a r e broken down and w ill take f l u i d .

4.2.2.2.2.2.Shear degradation and fluid viscosity

As shear degradation of f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s ( c f . se c tions 4.3.3.3. and
4 . 3 . 4 . 2 . ) usually takes p r e f e r e n t i a l l y place a t the p e r f o r a t i o n s , highly limi-
ted-entry f r a c t u r e treatments a r e ch ar act er iz e d by lower f l u i d v i s c o s i t i e s
which provide deeper proppant p en et r at i o n within a long crack with l e s s height
growth, a n d thus connect more n et pay t o the wellbore ( H O E L 1988). Low-viscosi-
t y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s having undergone shear a t the pe rfora tions in limited-en-
t r y c o n s t e l l a t i o n s , however, a r e not able t o generate s u f f i c i e n t width t o t r a n s -
p o r t l a r g e r amounts of proppants. On the othe r h a n d , i f a higher v i s c o s i t y
f l u i d were pumped in an attempt t o car r y l ar g e p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s , l a r g e r f r a c -
tu r e widths could be obtained which a r e causing more height growth o u t of zone
and l e s s p r o p p a n t p en et r at i o n of the cen t r al re se rvoir se c tion. The g r e a t e s t be-
n e f i t of l i m i t e d - en t r y f r a c t u r i n g i s thus improved proppant pe ne tra tion which
compensates f o r the f a c t t h a t t h i s goal i s achieved a t the expense of high prop-
p a n t concentration.

4.2.2.2.3. Influence o f screenouts

Designing e f f e c t i v e limited-entry treatments requires a blending of engineer-
ing d i s c i p l i n e s i n a s y n t h es i s of conventional f r a c t u r e modelling w i t h knowlege
of the pressure l o s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t the pe rfora tions. While screenouts can
be d e s i r a b l e i n c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s ( c f . SMITH, M I L L E R & HAGA 1987), they have
to be s t r i c t l y avoided i n limited-entry a p p l i c a t i o n s , because the d i f f e r e n t i a l
pressure a t the offending zone wi l l decrease and cause a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
treatment volume i n t o t h e o t h er horizons, with the r e s u l t a n t r a t e loss a c c e le ra -
tin g the screenout process i n t h a t i n t er v al (CRAMER 1987). The remaining t r e a t -
ment volume w i l l then be d i s t r i b u t e d among the open horizons, a n d the p a d volu-
mes i n these zones may be i n s u f f i c i e n t t o develop f r a c t u r e area and e s t a b l i s h
leakoff control f o r the additional l o a d , w i t h t o t a l treatment screenout being
able t o occur. A l l horizons need t o be f a i r l y sim ila r i n leakoff c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s f o r the l i m i t ed - en t r y technique t o be v i a ble . I f one inte rva l h a s r e l a t i v e -
l y h i g h leakoff c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the overall treatment staging needed t o pre-
vent a screenout may leave the o t h er horizons inadequately stim ula te d, with the
possible occurrence of d i l u t e d proppant co n centra tions.

Other aspects of candidate screening ar e high s t r e s s diffe re nc e s between the

individual s t o r e y s o f the r e s e r v o i r complex ( c f . se c tions 4 . 2 . 2 . 5 . 3 . a n d
4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 2 . ) which lead t o g r e a t d i f f er en ces i n proppant e n t r y per pe rfora tion
between the zones. I n a large-magnitude treatment, a runaway condition may oc-
cur i n which i n j e c t i o n ceases i n the h i g h er - stre sse d horizon due t o the i n a b i l i -
t y t o m a i n t a i n s u f f i c i e n t pressure drop across pe rfora tions. Even in completion
i n t e r v a l s c h a r a c t er i zed by small d i f f er en ces i n instantaneous shut-in pre ssure ,
p e r f o r a t i o n erosion wi l l ev en t u al l y outrun the a b i l i t y t o compensate the inc re a -
sing t r e a t i n g r a t e . Screenout f a i l u r e s ( c f . s e c tions 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 5 . and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . )
 371

a r e f r e q u e n t l y provoked by t h e s p i k e s i n s t a i r s t e p p r o p p a n t schedules, w i t h
smooth ramping schedules b r i n g i n g i n h i g h e r proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t o t h e
f r a c t u r e w i t h l e s s screenout r i s k ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 5 . ) .

4.2.2.2.4. F l u i d d i s t r i b u t i o n and p e r f o r a t i o n arrangement

L i m i t e d e n t r y p e r m i t s t h e f r a c t u r e t o be p l a c e d i n a l l d e s i r a b l e p a r t s o f a
r e s e r v o i r and g i v e s maximum c o n t r o l o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s a t each f r a c t u r e
p o i n t (AHMED, NEWBERRY & CANNON 1985). I n essence, 1 i m i t e d e n t r y p r o v i d e s f o r
equal d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t r e a t i n g f l u i d s through a l l p e r f o r a t i o n s by l i m i t i n g num-
b e r and s i z e o f p e r f o r a t i o n s , and by c o n t r o l l i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e
across t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . C o r r e c t l y a p p l i e d under t h e p r o p e r w e l l c o n d i t i o n s , li-
m i t e d - e n t r y can be e x t r e m e l y e f f e c t i v e . Aspects o f p s e u d o l i m i t e d - e n t r y f r a c t u -
r i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d by MATHIAS ( 1 9 7 0 ) . A p p l i c a t i o n o f b a l l s e a l e r s and d i v e r t e r s
r e p r e s e n t s m o d i f i e d l i m i t e d e n t r y t e c h n i q u e (BLACK, RIPLEY, BEECROFT & PAMPLIN
1979; P A I , GARBIS & HALL 1983; c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . and 4 . 2 . 2 . 4 . ) .

L i m i t e d - e n t r y t e c h n i q u e o f t e n a s c e r t a i n s t h a t t h e number o f open p e r f o r a -
t i o n s matches t r e a t i n g r a t e which can be achieved (CONWAY & H A R R I S 1982). I f
t o o many p e r f o r a t i o n s e x i s t o v e r a l a r g e i n t e r v a l i n a m u l t i p l e - e n t r y design,
then t o o many o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s may serve o n l y as f l u i d t h i e f zones which can
cause t o o s h o r t f r a c t u r e l e n g t h due t o p r e s s u r e d i s s i p a t i o n o r can even provoke
premature s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, i f o n l y a few o f t h e p e r f o -
r a t i o n s t h a t have been s h o t a r e open, then h i g h t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s may r e s u l t
which i n t u r n can g i v e r i s e t o screenout f a i l u r e o r non-optimum p r o p p a n t p l a c e -
ment. L i m i t e d - e n t r y p e r f o r a t i n g i s o f t e n combined w i t h s e p a r a t e a c i d b a l l - o u t
i n o r d e r t o open t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s (WEBSTER 1977).

Another a p p l i c a t i o n o f l i m i t e d - e n t r y techniques i n a manner comparable t o

t h a t i n h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s i n s t e a m - f l o o d enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y
t o c o n t a i n steam o v e r r i d e and t o m i n i m i z e t h e o r i g i n o f o i l pockets o r b l i n d
s p o t s from i n s u f f i c i e n t v e r t i c a l conformance o f t h e i n j e c t e d steam (HUANG &
HIGHT 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 4 . ) . Limited-entry fracturing i s a s i g n i f i c a n t
means o f v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e growth r e s t r i c t i o n due t o t h e g e n e r a l tendency o f
t h e c r a c k t o propagate upwards as a consequence o f decreasing c l o s u r e s t r e s s
( i n - s i t u s t r e s s v a r i e s w i t h depth; CLIFTON & ABOU-SAYED 1983) w i t h d e c l i n i n g
overburden, w i t h f r a c t u r e h e i g h t c o n t r o l t h u s commonly b e i n g performed by o n l y
p e r f o r a t i n g t h e l o w e r p o r t i o n o f t h e i n t e r v a l t o be t r e a t e d (LAMBERT, DOLAN &
GALLUS 1983; P A I , G A R B I S & HALL 1983). Aspects o f l i m i t e d - e n t r y f r a c t u r i n g tech-
n i q u e a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by ODEH (1976), I C H A R A & RAGHAVAN (1981), CHANCELLOR &
JOHNSON (1988) and ZHOU, 9 1 & X I A O (1988).

4.2.2.3. Fracture containment by treatment parameter adjustment

The dominant f a c t o r f o r a r r e s t i n g o r a t l e a s t r e s t r i c t i n g v e r t i c a l growth o f
f r a c t u r e s i s t h e i n - s i t u minimum h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s c o n t r a s t between pay zone
and b a r r i e r (WARPINSKI, SCHMIDT & NORTHROP 1980; TEUFEL & CLARK 1981, NGUYEN &
LARSON 1983; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.5.3. and 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 2 . ) . I f shear s t r e n g t h o f t h e
i n t e r f a c e i s small r e l a t i v e t o t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and minimum h o r i z o n t a l compres-
s i v e s t r e s s o f t h e boundary l a y e r , v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s may t u r n i n t o i n t e r f a c i a l
f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.4.2.) and t h u s containment i s achieved (TEUFEL &
CLARK 1981), a l t h o u g h t h i s e f f e c t may be o n l y temporary, because a f t e r t h e f r a c -
t u r e i s l a t e r a l l y d i s p l a c e d a t t h e i n t e r f a c e , i t can s t i l l grow i n t o t h e bound-
i n g l a y e r i f t h e f r i c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e i n t e r f a c e change (HANSON, SHAFFER
& ANDERSON 1980).

Shales a r e no a b s o l u t e b a r r i e r s t o f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n , b u t a r e o n l y e f f i -
c i e n t i n c o n t a i n i n g c r a c k s i f a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l s t r e s s c o n t r a s t i s n o t under-
passed (AHMED 1988; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.5.3. and 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 2 . ) . Weakly-bonded i n -
t e r f a c e s a t s h a l l o w d e p t h may s t o p f r a c t u r e growth (DANESHY 1978), and a l s o
 372

s t r e s s d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s such as f a u l t s may t e r m i n a t e f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n (ROE-

G I E R S & WILES 1981; ROEGIERS, McLENNAN & MURPHY 1982; McLENNAN, ROEGIERS & MARX
1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . ) . C a l c u l a t i o n o f v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e containment i n
l a y e r e d f o r m a t i o n s i s e v a l u a t e d by FUNG, VIJAYAKUMAR & CORMACK ( 1 9 8 7 ) . F o l l o w -
i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g f r a c t u r e containment, emphasis i s
p u t on i n j e c t i o n r a t e s , f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s , propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t vs. r e s e r v o i r
t h i c k n e s s , and p e r f o r a t i o n i n t e r v a l s e l e c t i o n .

4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 1 . Factors influencing fracture containment

C o n t r a s t i n m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s and p o r e p r e s s u r e g e n e r a l l y has o n l y seconda-
ry e f f e c t s on f r a c t u r e containment, w i t h e l a s t i c modulus b e i n g more i n f l u e n t i a l
than t h e o t h e r m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s , b u t b e i n g o n l y a b l e t o reduce t h e w i d t h o f
t h e o u t - o f - z o n e f r a c t u r e segment and n o t t o s t o p i t s ungoverned h e i g h t propaga-
t i o n (EEKELEN 1982, NGUYEN & LARSON 1983). I f t h e f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e i s h i g h
enough, t h e c r a c k can propagate across any b a r r i e r (HUNT, RAYMOND, HASKETT & P I -
R I E 1981; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . ) , w i t h t h e r e f o r e p r e s s u r e c o n t r o l p l a y i n g a
c h i e f r o l e in f r a c t u r e c o n t a i n m e n t a t t e m p t s . H i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s a r e necessary
t o c a r r y t h e proppant i n t h e f r a c t u r i n g g e l and t o reduce t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a
premature s c r e e n o u t d u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n (PA1 & G A R B I S 1983; c f . section
6.2.4.2.1.).

I n order t o contain a f r a c t u r e w i t h i n the formation o f i n t e r e s t o r t o minimi-

ze i t s v e r t i c a l h e i g h t growth, t h e excess p r e s s u r e w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e must be
m i n i m i z e d (HOLDITCH, ROBINSON, WHITEHEAD & ELY 1988). The excess p r e s s u r e i s a l -
most e n t i r e l y dependent on t h e f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e drop down t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.3.4.2.2.) which i n t u r n i s a f u n c t i o n o f g e l v i s c o s i t y , i n j e c t i o n
r a t e , and f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between f l u i d and f r a c t u r e w a l l , w i t h g e l v i s c o -
s i t y and f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t h a v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e on f r i c t i o n p r e s -
sure drop ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 2 . ) . The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s i l l u s t r a t e s f r a c t u r e
o r i e n t a t i o n changes, f r a c t u r e geometry v a r i a t i o n s , c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s c o n t r a s t ,
r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n and s t r e s s c o n t r a s t magnitude, p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e f r a c -
t u r e containment, and f r a c t u r e growth t e r m i n a t i o n a t i n t e r f a c e s .

4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 1 . 1 . Fracture orientation changes

S p e c i a l i n f l u e n c e s o f screenouts a r e changes o f f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n f r o m ho-
r i z o n t a l t o v e r t i c a l i n s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y s (SCHRAUFNAGEL & LAMBERT
1988). M u l t i p l e c o a l seam f r a c t u r i n g i n a s t r e s s l e v e l where h o r i z o n t a l r a t h e r
than v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s a r e more l i k e l y t o o r i g i n a t e can be performed by t h e li-
m i t e d - e n t r y s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e which p r o v i d e s f o r m u l t i p l e h o r i z o n t a l l y i n d u -
ced f r a c t u r e s and/or complex f r a c t u r e s w i t h b o t h h o r i z o n t a l and i n c l i n e d compo-
nents ( a s p e c t s o f composed f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n s 4.4.3.4.3.
and 4 . 9 . 4 . 2 . ) . P e r f o r a t i o n s serve as p r e s s u r e chokes t h a t c o n t r o l t h e r a t e o f
f l u i d i n j e c t i o n i n t o each t a r g e t e d zone. The l i m i t e d - e n t r y t e c h n i q u e r e q u i r e s
maintenance o f a p r e d e t e r m i n e d w e l l b o r e p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h o u t t h e o p e r a t i o n . P e r -
f o r a t i o n d i a m e t e r grows due t o p r o p p a n t a b r a s i o n which causes p r e s s u r e reduc-
t i o n s . S i g n i f i c a n t p r e s s u r e drops can i n d i c a t e screenout o f s e v e r a l p e r f o r a -
t i o n s and i n i t i a t i o n o f a v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e f o l l o w i n g t e r m i n a t i o n o f propaga-
t i o n o f the e a r l i e r h o r i z o n t a l crack, Synthetic a l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g i n -
s t e a d o f n a t u r a l c r a c k o r i e n t a t i o n changes p r o f i t s f r o m a r t i f i c i a l l y - i n d u c e d
c o n d i t i o n s f o r a1 t e r a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.9.4.1.3.1.).

When t h e c r i t i c a l t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e i s reached and t h e f r a c t u r e b r e a k s o u t

o f zone, t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s h i g h e s t i n t h e near w e l l b o r e area (ROSE
1988). T h e r e f o r e u n c o n t r o l l e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth can o n l y o c c u r a t t h e
crack t i p where no p r o p p a n t s l u r r y i s p r e s e n t , w i t h t h i s c o n d i t i o n t y p i c a l l y r e -
s u l t i n g i n a sudden l o s s o f pad volume and t i p screenout. Experimental model-
l i n g o f the stress gradient a f f e c t i n g the height o f v e r t i c a l hydraulic f r a c t u -
 373

r e s i s c a r r i e d o u t by THIERCELIN & LEMANCZYK (1983).

4.2.2.3.1.2. Fracture geometry v a r i a t i o n s

F r a c t u r e geometry can a l s o be i n f l u e n c e d by t r e a t m e n t parameters such as
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and d e n s i t y , p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n , pumping r a t e , and p e r f o r a -
t i o n placement (NGUYEN & LARSON 1983). By v a r y i n g f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s , p r o p p a n t sa-
t u r a t i o n and/or i n j e c t i o n r a t e , f r i c t i o n a l p r e s s u r e drop a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e f a -
ces can be k e p t below t h e minimum h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e between c o n f i -
n i n g zone and pay h o r i z o n . D e t e c t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b l e o n s e t o f u n d e s i r a b l e
growth of f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i s p o s s i b l e f r o m t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s which may a l l o w
t o u n d e r t a k e c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n s d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n (NOLTE & SMITH 1 9 8 1 ) . Ex-
c e s s i v e p r e s s u r e caused by t h e f l u i d f l o w i n g down t h e f r a c t u r e can overcome t h e
confining stresses i n adjacent rock layers, r e s u l t i n g i n excessive f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t growth as w e l l as u n c o n t r o l l e d h o r i z o n t a l c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n (HOLDITCH,
ROBINSON & WHITEHEAD 1986).

4.2.2.3.1.3. Confining s t r e s s contrast

The main f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g v e r t i c a l h e i g h t growth o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s
a r e c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s c o n t r a s t , e l a s t i c s t i f f n e s s c o n t r a s t , f r a c t u r e toughness,
and i n f l u e n c e o f s e t t l e d proppant bank o r buoyant p r o p p a n t f o r downward o r up-
ward c r a c k e x t e n s i o n (SETTARI 1985). C o n f i n i n g s t r e s s c o n t r a s t i s t h e s t r o n g e s t
containment mechanism, whereas s t i f f n e s s c o n t r a s t cannot c o m p l e t e l y a r r e s t
h e i g h t growth. F r a c t u r e toughness i s i m p o r t a n t o n l y f o r c r a c k s c r e a t e d w i t h
l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s o r a f t e r f l u i d breakdown. A p r o p p a n t bank a t t h e f r a c t u r e
b o t t o m o r buoyant proppants c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e c r a c k t o p can be an e f f e c t i v e
b a r r i e r t o v e r t i c a l p r o p a g a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.4.), and l o c a l temperature
changes a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p a r e n o t l i k e l y t o i n c r e a s e h e i g h t growth r a t e se-
r i o u s l y ( a summary o f f r a c t u r e containment mechanisms i s g i v e n by SNEDDON &
LOWENGRUB 1969).

I n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s between sandstones and. mudstones ( c f . s e c t i o n

4.2.3.2.2.1.) can i n some cases be s u f f i c i e n t t o c o n t a i n t h e f r a c t u r e s i f t h e y
a r e l a r g e enough ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.5.3. and 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 2 . ) . Smaller i n - s i t u
s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s can e f f e c t i v e l y l i m i t f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i f a s s i s t e d by
h i g h e r p r e s s u r e drops i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n due t o small c r a c k w i d t h o r i n e f f i -
c i e n c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n across m u l t i p l e complex beds con-
t a i n i n g s e p a r a t i n g mudstone drapes where c r a c k e x t e n s i o n energy i s p r o g r e s s i v e -
l y d i m i n i s h e d (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, CIPOLLA, LOREN2 & THORNE 1988).
F r a c t u r e containment by t r e a t m e n t parameter adjustment i s g e n e r a l l y known as
c o n t r o l l e d process zone f r a c t u r i n g i n c l u d i n g o p t i m i z a t i o n o f i n j e c t i o n r a t e s ,
pressure, f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s and o t h e r f a c t o r s i n o r d e r t o t a i l o r t h e c r a c k (AH-
MED, STRAWN, WILSON & SCHATZ 1983). E f f e c t s o f s t r e s s s t a t e on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r e s a r e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d by ZOBACK, ZOBACK & SEEBURGER ( 1 9 8 1 ) .

4.2.2.3.1.4. Reservoir d e p l e t i o n and s t r e s s contrast magnitude

D e p l e t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r p o r e p r e s s u r e w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e hydrocarbon e x p l o r a -
t i o n l e a d s t o i n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t between pay zone and a d j a c e n t s h a l e s
and t h e r e f o r e c r e a t e s a more e f f e c t i v e boundary f o r c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n (HUEBIN-
GER, WEBSTER, CHISHOLM, VENDITTO & HUNT 1988). W i t h a h i g h e r c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s
contrast, f r a c t u r e s can be b e t t e r r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e c o r e o f t h e p r o s p e c t i v e i n -
t e r v a l , and t h e r e s u l t i n g r e d u c t i o n o f c r a c k h e i g h t a l l o w s t o s u b s t a n t i a l l y de-
crease b o t h t o t a l proppant q u a n t i t y and p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n (case s t u d i e s r e -
veal t h a t p r o p p a n t volume can be d i m i n i s h e d by up t o 40 % ) . T h i s i s t h e reason
why r e f r a c t u r i n g ( o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y l a t e - s t a g e i n f i l l - w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n ; c f . sec-
t i o n 4.8.9.) i s f r e q u e n t l y c o m p a r a t i v e l y cheaper t h a n o r i g i n a l o r e a r l y - s t a g e
t r e a t m e n t s and i s o f t e n s t i l l economical even w i t h d e c l i n i n g p r o d u c t i o n and f a l -
 374

l i n g o i l price.

4.2.2.3.1.5.Posit ive and negative fracture conta i nment

D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e f r a c t u r e c o n t a i n -
ment c o n d i t i o n s (WARPINSKI, CLARK, SCHMIDT & HUDDLE 1 9 8 2 ) . I n f o r m a t i o n s w i t h
p o s i t i v e containment conditions, f r a c t u r e growth out-of-zone i s not anticipa-
t e d , and l o n g d e e p l y p e n e t r a t i n g f r a c t u r e s can be e f f e c t i v e l y u s e d t o d e v e l o p
t h e r e s o u r c e and have a h i g h e c o n o m i c a l p a y - o f f . I n reservoirs w i t h negative
c o n t a i n m e n t c o n d i t i o n s , however, e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t g r o w t h c a n o n l y be
prevented by renouncing from large-scale treatments which would waste f l u i d s
and p r o p p a n t s i n a d j o i n i n g n o n - p r o s p e c t i v e f o r m a t i o n s , and b y l i m i t a t i o n t o
s m a l l - s c a l e o p e r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g i n o n l y l o w e r w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y improvement,
because t h e o n l y o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e i s t o r e j e c t w e l l and r e s e r v o i r h o r i z o n as
unfeasible.

4.2.2.3.1.6. Fracture growth termination at interfaces

F r a c t u r e c o n t a i n m e n t may be a c h i e v e d b y t e r m i n a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e g r o w t h a t a
d i s c r e t e , weak o r unbounded i n t e r f a c e (ANDERSON 1979, TEUFEL 1979, TEUFEL &
CLARK 1981) o r r e s t r i c t i o n i n t h e b o u n d i n g l a y e r t o w h i c h t h e c r a c k p r o p a g a t e s
and where e x t e n s i v e g r o w t h does n o t t a k e p l a c e (WARPINSKI, CLARK, SCHMIDT &
HUDDLE 1982; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . ) . I f t h e f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t e s i n t o a r e g i o n ha-
v i n g an a d v e r s e s t r e s s g r a d i e n t , c o n t i n u e d p r o p a g a t i o n r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r s t r e s -
ses on t h e f r a c t u r e t h u s s e l f - l i m i t i n g g r o w t h (SIMONSON, ABOU-SAYED & CLIFTON
1 9 7 8 ) . A n o t h e r mechanism o f f r a c t u r e r e s t r i c t i o n i s p r o p a g a t i o n i n t o a h i g h e r
modulus r e g i o n where t h e d e c r e a s e d w i d t h r e s u l t s i n i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e d r o p i n
the crack which might i n h i b i t extensive growth i n t o t h a t r e g i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e
l o w e r modulus zone. H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g c a n be done t h r o u g h t u b i n g i n c a s e o f
smaller treatments i n order t o avoid k i l l i n g o f the w e l l a f t e r termination o f
t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b and because t u b i n g s t r e n g t h i s much g r e a t e r t h a n c a s i n g
s t r e n g t h (WEIMER, SONNENBERG & YOUNG 1 9 8 6 ) .

4.2.2.3.2. Injection rates

Containment o f f r a c t u r e s i n t h i n sandstones i s i n p r a c t i c e g e n e r a l l y reached
by r e d u c e d pumping r a t e s when i n a s t a b l e s y s t e m t h e c r a c k i s j u s t r u n n i n g
a l o n g t h e s a n d s t o n e l a y e r and i s c o n d u c t e d b y t h e b o u n d i n g t i g h t r o c k h o r i z o n
( f o l l o w i n g the l e a s t resistance f o r i t s propagation), w i t h t h e mudstone s e a l
forming a t i g h t b a r r i e r t h a t i s l i m i t i n g v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e extension unless the
c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s t r e s s o f t h e b o u n d i n g mudstones t o c o n f i n e t h e c r a c k i s e x -
ceeded ( c f . a l s o CONWAY, McGOWEN, GUNDERSON & K I N G 1985; BEN NACEUR & TOUBOUL
1 9 8 7 ) . A d v e r s e c o n t a i n m e n t c o n d i t i o n s b e i n g s m a l l s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s between ad-
j o i n i n g l a y e r s a r e overcome b y f r a c t u r e h e i g h t c o n t r o l w i t h s m a l l i n j e c t i o n r a -
t e s and/or low f l u i d v i s c o s i t i e s i n o r d e r t o a v o i d exceeding t h e c r i t i c a l pres-
s u r e t h a t w o u l d l e a d t o p r o p a g a t i o n o u t o f zone e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g f r a c t u r e i n i -
tiation.

A l t h o u g h i n j e c t i n g a t a h i g h e r r a t e y i e l d s a more e f f e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t , i t i s
o f t e n n e c e s s a r y t o keep t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p r e s s u r e s b e l o w f o r m a t i o n c r i t i c a l p r e s -
s u r e d u r i n g t h e j o b i n o r d e r t o m a x i m i z e l a t e r a l g r o w t h and t o c o n t r o l v e r t i c a l
p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e (MENG & BROWN 1 9 8 7 ) . F o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e m a x i -
mum a l l o w a b l e pumping r a t e , p i p e f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e , shear degradation o f t h e
f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d , and s u r f a c e t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e have a l s o t o be c o n s i d e r e d . The
d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s f o c u s s e s o n d e c r e a s i n g pumping r a t e and t o t a l j o b s i z e ,
p r e s s u r e g r o w t h and s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n , f r a c t u r e h e i g h t and f l u i d d i s t r i b u -
t i o n , and t u b u l a r e n l a r g e m e n t and horsepower d i m i n u t i o n .
 375

4.2.2.3.2.1. Decreasing pumping rate and total job size

Another p o s s i b i l i t y t o m i n i m i z e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e growth i s t o l i m i t t h e s i -
ze of t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t along w i t h r e s t r i c t e d pumping r a t e s (BARBER &
THEMIG 1985). F r a c t u r e containment c o n t r o l by decreasing pumping r a t e and f l u i d
v i s c o s i t y l e a d s i n many cases a u t o m a t i c a l l y t o a s m a l l e r t o t a l j o b s i z e , as t h e
reduced r a t e causes i n c r e a s i n g f l u i d l o s s which i s l i m i t i n g c u m u l a t i v e f l u i d
q u a n t i t y by i n c r e a s i n g s c r e e n o u t r i s k . An a l t e r n a t i v e c o m b i n a t i o n i s i n c r e a s i n g
f l u i d d e n s i t y , and l o w e r i n g pumping r a t e s o r r e d u c i n g f l u i d p r e s s u r e (SIMONSON,
ABOU-SAYED & CLIFTON 1978; K O Z I K , BAILEY & HOLDITCH 1979). Decreasing pumping
r a t e s and n e v e r t h e l e s s m a i n t a i n i n g adequate proppant placement t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g
t h e number o f uneconomical s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s can be b e s t achieved by u t i l i z i n g a
l o w e r - d e n s i t y proppant, w i t h t h e r e f o r e i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y a l u m i -
na s i l i c a t e proppants b e i n g o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e (CUTLER, JONES, SWAN-
SON & CARROLL 1981) f o r a s s i s t i n g v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e containment i n t h i n r e s e r -
v o i r s . I n some s p e c i a l cases, pay c o n d i t i o n s and s t a b i l i t y o f t h e boundaries
can n e c e s s i t a t e t o reduce t r e a t m e n t s i z e and pumping r a t e s so s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o
achieve t h e goal o f t h e crack s t a y i n g i n zone t h a t proppant f r a c t u r i n g i s below
t h e minimum economical f e a s i b i l i t y volume and cannot compete w i t h a c i d f r a c t u -
r i n g and m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g i n carbonates (HUCKABEE 1988).

The v i s c o s i t y range o f e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s makes m i n i m i z i n g f l u i d v i s -

c o s i t y a much more e f f e c t i v e method o f c o n t r o l l i n g p r e s s u r e than l o w e r i n g pump-
i n g r a t e (NOLTE 1982). Decreasing o f s p e c i f i c proppant g r a v i t y has t h e advanta-
ge t h a t i d e n t i c a l p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t t o t h a t c u r r e n t l y a c h i e v a b l e can t a k e p l a -
ce i n l o w e r - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s , o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y h i g h e r p r o p p a n t volumes can be
pumped i n a g i v e n amount o f a h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d (CUTLER, ENNISS,
JONES & SWANSON 1985; t h e same a p p l i e s f o r t r a n s p o r t and s e t t l i n g o f g r a v e l i n
sand c o n t r o l c a r r i e r f l u i d s ; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 3 . ) . Another p o s s i b i l i t y o f adapta-
t i o n i s a p p l i c a t i o n o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants a t l o w e r c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s and i n narrower f r a c t u r e s i n s t e a d o f h i g h e r n a t u r a l sand s a t u r a t i o n s i n
b r o a d e r c r a c k s , because narrower f r a c t u r e s a r e s l o w e r p r o p a g a t i n g i n v e r t i c a l
d i r e c t i o n and can t h e r e f o r e be b e t t e r c o n t r o l l e d than w i d e r c r a c k s ( L I & ZHU
1986). T h i s procedure i s backed up by t h e f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e t h a t i n many cases,
f r a c t u r e s propped w i t h l o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f b a u x i t e have b e t t e r c o n d u c t i v i -
t i e s t h a n c r a c k s propped w i t h h i g h e r s a t u r a t i o n s o f sand.

Boundary zones s t o p p i n g f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n and i n h i b i t i n g f u r t h e r c r a c k e x -

t e n s i o n can be r e g i o n s o f i n c r e a s e d f o r m a t i o n s t r e s s , w i t h t h e h i g h - s t r e s s b a r -
r i e r s h a r p l y c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h t h e l o w - s t r e s s r e s e r v o i r , o r can be r e p r e s e n t e d
by t h e p o i n t a t which f l u i d l e a k o f f becomes equal t o pumping r a t e i n permeable
columns and t h u s a l s o f u r t h e r f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i s n o t p o s s i b l e (HUNT, R A Y -
MOND, HASKETT & P I R I E 1987). D i f f i c u l t i e s i n c r a c k containment by t r e a t i n g p a r a -
meter a d j u s t m e n t can o c c u r i n d e p l e t e d r e s e r v o i r s where f a i r l y severe v e r t i c a l
growth and/or l e a k o f f can e a s i l y o c c u r (BEGNAUD & CLAIBORNE 1985). E f f e c t s o f
t r e a t m e n t parameters on f r a c t u r e geometry a r e a l s o discussed by DANESHY (1971
b) .

4.2.2.3.2.2. Pressure growth and screenout termination

Pressure g r o w t h c o m p r i s i n g a b n o r m a l l y l a r g e i n c r e a s e s i n t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e
i s m a i n l y caused by f r a c t u r e b r a n c h i n g and i s a f u n c t i o n o f pumping r a t e and
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y (MEDLIN & FITCH 1983). T h i n f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s pumped a t h i g h r a -
t e s generate smooth p r e s s u r e c u r v e s which r i s e p a r a b o l i c a l l y w i t h t i m e t o f i r s t
o r d e r , whereas t h i c k g e l s pumped a t low r a t e s c r e a t e e r r a t i c p r e s s u r e c u r v e s
t h a t t e n d t o r i s e more o r l e s s l i n e a r l y w i t h t i m e and show f r e q u e n t l y sharp i r -
r e g u l a r i t i e s w i t h a b r u p t i n c r e a s e s and d e c l i n e s . The b e g i n n i n g o f screenout ap-
pears as a sudden sharp r i s e i n t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e on t h e r e c o r d r e g a r d l e s s o f
f l u i d t y p e and pumping r a t e ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) .

The s c r e e n o u t i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e amount o f p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e r a t h e r than

 376

t h e magnitude o f t h e p r e s s u r e i t s e l f . Whi e p r e s s u r e growth c o u l d be avoided o r

g r e a t l y reduced by pumping t h i n f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a t low r a t e s , t h i s approach
i s i m p r a c t i c a l due t o l a c k i n g p r o p p a n t r a n s p o r t c a p a b i l i t y . T h i n f l u i d s must
be pumped a t h i g h r a t e s t o c a r r y proppants a t p r a c t i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , w i t h
these h i g h r a t e s then i n t u r n a g a i n n c r e a s i n g s c r e e n o u t r i s k . A two-stage
t r e a t m e n t i s t h e oDtimum s o l u t i o n o f these Droblems. The f i r s t staqe comDrises
pumping o f a t h i n f l u i d a t low r a t e s w i t h o u t proppants i n o r d e r t o g e n e r a t e a
l a r g e f r a c t u r e . A f t e r cleanup, t h e second stage i n c l u d e s pumping o f a c o n v e n t i o -
n a l t h i c k g e l t r e a t m e n t w i t h h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n which s i m p l y reopens t h e
e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e and t h u s a p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e i s n o t expected.

4.2.2.3.2.3. Fracture height and fluid distribution

I n j e c t i o n r a t e a f f e c t s f r a c t u r e h e i g h t and f l u i d d i s t r i b u t i o n and i s v e r y
c r i t i c a l t o t h e o v e r a l l success o f t h e t r e a t m e n t (PAI, GARBIS & HALL 1983).
Where i n t e r v a l y i e l d o f t u b i n g and/or c a s i n g l i m i t s i n j e c t i o n r a t e , t h e opera-
t i o n s h o u l d be staged u s i n g b a l l s e a l e r s . I t c o u l d be f a v o u r a b l e f o r t h e j o b
procedure t o s t a r t a t h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and low p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and
t h e n l a t e r t a p e r i n g i n j e c t i o n r a t e and i n c r e a s i n g p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n (GIDLEY,
M U T T I , NIERODE, KEHN & MUECKE 1979; MATTHEWS, MILLER & SCHLOTTMAN 1 9 8 2 ) . The
high i n i t i a l i n j e c t i o n r a t e allows f o r the m a j o r i t y o f the u l t i m a t e f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t t o be c r e a t e d w h i l e pad and l o w - p r o p p a n t - c o n c e n t r a t i o n s l u r r i e s a r e pum-
ped, t h e r e b y e s t a b l i s h i n g l e a k o f f c o n t r o l o v e r t h e e n t i r e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t w h i l e
t h e pad i s b e i n g i n s e r t e d and t h u s r e d u c i n g s c r e e n o u t r i s k (PAI, G A R B I S & HALL
1 9 8 3 ) . D i m i n i s h i n g i n j e c t i o n r a t e d u r i n g l a t e r t r e a t m e n t stages decreases t h e
chances o f f u r t h e r f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth and a l s o p r e v e n t s equipment o v e r l o a d
d u r i n g h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n pumping. On t h e o t h e r hand, however, h i g h i n -
j e c t i o n r a t e s a r e necessary t o c a r r y t h e proppants i n t h e g e l and t o reduce t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y o f a premature s c r e e n o u t d u r i n g f r a c t u r i n g (PA1 & G A R B I S 1983),
w i t h t h u s a sound compromise f o r s a t i s f y i n g a l l t h e purposes h a v i n g t o be
found.

AHMED, STRAWN, SCHMIDT, O'SHEA & VEGHTE (1983) comment on s t i m u l a t i n g t i g h t

sands i n t h e presence o f weak s t r e s s b a r r i e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . ) by modi-
f i e d h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e s . The e f f e c t o f bounding f o r m a t i o n s on v e r -
t i c a l p r o p a g a t i o n o f a h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e can be i g n o r e d f o r s h o r t
cracks, b u t i s v e r y p r o m i n e n t and o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e f o r l o n g f r a c t u r e s
(KOZIK, BAILEY & HOLDITCH 1979; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) . The t i m e l a g between f r a c -
t u r e t i p a r r i v a l ( w i d t h response) and f l u i d a r r i v a l ( p r e s s u r e response) p r o v i -
des an e s t i m a t e o f f l u i d l a g (WARPINSKI 1983 a ) .

4.2.2.3.2.4. Tubular enlargement and horsepower diminution

Decreasing i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and c o n s e q u e n t l y d i m i n i s h i n g h y d r a u l i c horsepower
r e q u i r e d f o r t h e e x e c u t i o n o f t h e t r e a t m e n t can a l s o be achieved by a h i g h e r -
s t r e n g t h c a s i n g t h r o u g h which a l a r g e r t u b i n g can be r u n (GARBIS, BROWN & MAU-
R I T Z 1 9 8 5 ) . R e d u c t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c horsepower by t h e l a r g e r t u b i n g s h o u l d o f f -
s e t t h e e x t r a expenses f o r t h e l a r g e r t u b u l a r goods ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . ) .
A p a r t f r o m s u c c e s s f u l s t i m u l a t i o n o f a t h i c k r e s e r v o i r zone i n a c o s t - e f f e c t i v e
manner, another b e n e f i t o f t h e l a r g e r t u b i n g / c a s i n g program i s l o w e r s u r f a c e
t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e d u r i n g t h e f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n w h i c h r e s u l t s i n s a f e r on-
s i t e conditions.

F r a c t u r e h e i g h t containment can a l s o be achieved by c r e a t i n g an a r t i f i c i a l

b a r r i e r w i t h a d d i t i v e s (NGUYEN & LARSON 1983), w i t h c a u t i o n , however, h a v i n g t o
be e x e r c i s e d by p r e v e n t i n g t h e c r a c k t o grow t h r o u g h t h e b a r r i e r (LUISKUTTY,
TOMUTSA & PALMER 1986) by exceeding t h e boundary s t r e s s beyond t h e f r a c t u r i n g
g r a d i e n t o f t h e a d j o i n i n g beds w i t h h i g h e r e l a s t i c i t y moduls. F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e
o f the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f natural b a r r i e r s t o contain v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e height
growth i s r e p o r t e d by HOLDITCH, ROBINSON, WHITEHEAD & ELY ( 1 9 8 7 ) . L a b o r a t o r y e x -
 377

p e r i m e n t s on f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n and l i m i t i n g e f f e c t s a r e c a r r i e d o u t by MEO-
LIN & MASSE ( 1 9 8 4 ) .

4.2.2.3.3. Fluid properties

F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s a l s o have an i n f l u e n c e on p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and
v a r i a b l e c r a c k h e i g h t b e h a v i o u r (MORALES & ABOU-SAYED 1985, BEN NACEUR & TOU-
BOUL 1987). V e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n o u t of c o n t r o l occurs when l a r g e r f l u i d
i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and/or h i g h e r - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s a r e used ( L i & ZHU 1986). Crack
a r r e s t o r r e t a r d a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n can be achieved by a l t e r i n g t h e
v i s c o u s p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e i n j e c t e d f l u i d w i t h i n p a r t s o f t h e c r a c k (CLEARY
1980, SETTARI 1985). W h i l e h e a t t r a n s f e r e f f e c t s near t h e f r a c t u r e t i p w i l l ge-
n e r a l l y i n c r e a s e l e a k o f f due t o f l u i d d e g r a d a t i o n and w i l l n o t s e l e c t i v e l y a f -
f e c t t h e p r o p a g a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.4.), a much g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l i s p r o v i -
ded by t h e i n j e c t i o n o f l i g h t o r heavy p r o p p a n t s (BRAUNLICH 1967, NGUYEN & LAR-
SON 1983). SMITH, MILLER & HAGA (1987) propose a comparable t i p s c r e e n o u t t e c h -
n i q u e f o r s o f t f o r m a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e f r a c t u r e opening a t t h e w e l l -
b o r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.4.1.). Some comments on proppant d e n s i t y and f l u i d v i s -
c o s i t y , foam and e n e r g i z e d f l u i d s , and d e n s i t y - c o n t r o l l e d f l u i d s a r e o f f e r e d as
follows.

4.2.2.3.3.1. Proppant density and fluid viscosity

Heavy p a r t i c l e s f a l l i n g a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f r a c t u r e i n c r e a s e package v i s c o -
s i t y , o r e q u i v a l e n t l y v e r t i c a l t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y i s decreased by presence o f con-
c e n t r a t e d packages. S e l e c t e d p r o p p i n g agents t h a t have a d e n s i t y l o w e r t h a n t h e
t r e a t i n g f l u i d w i l l r i s e t o t h e f r a c t u r e t o p through buoyancy and e v e n t u a l l y de-
crease c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n (BEN NACEUR & TOUBOUL 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 4 . ) .
When b o t h upward and downward growth o f t h e f r a c t u r e has t o be c o n t r o l l e d , t h e
combined use o f heavy s e t t l i n g and l i g h t buoyant p a r t i c l e s i s r e q u i r e d . The cha-
r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f such b i - d i s p e r s e s l u r r i e s as w e l l as s e t t l i n g
and r i s i n g r a t e d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m those a p p l y i n g f o r mono-disperse sys-
tems due t o t h e presence o f s t r e a m i n g columns i n t h e s l u r r y (BATCHELOR & RENS-
BURG 1986, BEN NACEUR & TOUBOUL 1987).

V e r t i c a l p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e can be l i m i t e d by r e d u c i n g f l u i d p r e s -
s u r e which i s much b e t t e r achieved by m i n i m i z i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y t h a n by l o w e r -
i n g pumping r a t e s (SIMONSON, ABOU-SAYEO & CLIFTON 1978). Lower f l u i d v i s c o s i -
t i e s a r e p o s s i b l e t o be a p p l i e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h l i g h t e r proppants, w i t h a l -
most i d e n t i c a l t r a n s p o r t c o n d i t i o n s b e i n g p r o v i d e d f o r l i g h t p r o p p a n t s by low-
v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s and f o r heavy p r o p p a n t s by h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s ( t h e same ap-
p l i e s f o r placement o f g r a v e l by s a n d - c o n t r o l c a r r i e r f l u i d s ; c f . section
5 . 3 . 3 . ) . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e d u c i n g f l u i d p r e s s u r e by f l u i d v i s c o s i t y f o r f r a c -
t u r e containment by v a r i a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t w e i g h t i s t h e g r e a t e s t advantage o f
l o w - d e n s i t y i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & CARROLL
1983).

4.2.2.3.3.2. Foam and energized fluids

M i n i m i z a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth can a l s o be achieved by a p p l i c a t i o n
o f l o w - v i s c o s i t y p e r f e c t - s u p p o r t f l u i d s such as systems w i t h carbon d i o x i d e o r
n i t r o g e n as m a j o r (foam) o r m i n o r ( e n e r g i z e r ) component (GARBIS & TAYLOR 1985).
E n e r g i z e d and foam systems g i v e enhanced f l u i d r e c o v e r y and t h e r e f o r e b e t t e r
c o n t r o l o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n and p r o p p a n t placement. The main advantages o f
t h e use o f carbon d i o x i d e i n f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s a r e f a s t e r and i n -
creased l o a d r e c o v e r y , b u f f e r i n g o f aqueous f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s t o a pH o f a b t .
3.5 t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g c l a y - s w e l l i n g i n w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s , and r e p l a -
cement o f some o f t h e w a t e r i n t h e o p e r a t i o n , t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e l i q u i d volume
t h a t has t o be r e c o v e r e d ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . 2 . ) . Carbon d i o x i d e o r n i t r o g e n
 378

foam systems c a n a l s o be u s e d f o r s e l e c t i v e p r o p p a n t p l a c e m e n t (BARBER & THEMIG

1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 4 . 2 . ) .

4.2.2.3.3.3, Densi ty-control led fluids

MISAK, ATTEBERRY, VENDITTO & FREDRICKSON ( 1 9 7 8 a, 1978 b ) p r e s e n t d e n s i t y -
c o n t r o l l e d f r a c t u r i n g i n c l u d i n g i n s e r t i o n o f a h i g h e r - d e n s i t y pad f o l l o w e d b y
l o w e r - d e n s i t y p r o p p a n t - c a r r y i n g t r e a t i n g f l u i d s . The h i g h e r - d e n s i t y p a d o c c u -
p i e s t h e l o w e r p o r t i o n o f t h e c r a c k and a c t s as a c u s h i o n f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g l o -
w e r - d e n s i t y p r o p p a n t - t r a n s p o r t i n g f l u i d s w h i c h s l i d e above t h e heavy p a d and
move t h e p r o p p a n t o n l y i n t o t h e u p p e r p a r t o f t h e f r a c t u r e . As t h e l o w e r s e c -
t i o n o f t h e c r a c k r e c e i v e s no p r o p p a n t due t o s e t t l i n g i n h i b i t i o n a t t h e i n t e r -
f a c e o f t h e two f l u i d systems w i t h d i f f e r e n t s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e
w i t h f a l l i n g p r e s s u r e l e a v e s o n l y t h e u p p e r segment o f t h e c r a c k p r o p p e d ( c f .
a l s o section 4.2.2.6.4.).

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t i s t o e x c l u d e f r a c t u r e g r o w t h i n t o t h e
l o w e r w a t e r - p r o d u c i n g i n t e r v a l o f t h e g a s - b e a r i n g p a y f o r m a t i o n due t o i t s c l o -
se p o s i t i o n t o t h e g a s - w a t e r - c o n t a c t i n a d o w n s t r u c t u r a l s i t u a t i o n , o r i f c r e a -
t i o n o f t h e c r a c k c a n n o t be p r e v e n t e d , t h e d e n s i t y - c o n t r o l l e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d
sequence aims on e x c l u s i o n o f p r o p p i n g o f t h e l o w e r s e c t i o n o f t h e c r a c k , t h e r e -
b y p r o v o k i n g i t s c l o s u r e and r e h e a l i n g a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e j o b and t h u s
g u a r a n t e i n g t h a t gas e x p l o i t a t i o n f r o m t h e p r o p p e d u p p e r s e c t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u -
r e w i l l n o t be d i s t u r b e d b y w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n f r o m t h e l o w e r i n t e r v a l . Comments
on v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n c o n t a i n m e n t by c o n t r o l l i n g s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d
d e n s i t y as w e l l as pumping r a t e s and p r e s s u r e a r e a l s o g i v e n b y KOZIK, BAILEY &
HOLDITCH ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

4.2.2.3.4. Propped fracture height vs. reservoir thickness

D i s t i n c t i o n has g e n e r a l l y t o be made between p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t and r e -
s e r v o i r thickness, w i t h v e r t i c a l propagation o f t h e crack o u t of c o n t r o l i n
t h i c k f o r m a t i o n s and s m a l l - s i z e j o b s b e i n g much l e s s s e r i o u s t h a n t h a t o c c u r -
r i n g i n l a r g e - s i z e t r e a t m e n t s i n t h i n p a y zones ( L I & ZHU 1 9 8 6 ) . F r a c t u r e
h e i g h t p r o p a g a t e s v e r t i c a l l y o u t o f i n t e r v a l when l a r g e r i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and
h i g h e r - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s a r e used. When p a y t h i c k n e s s does n o t e x c e e d 30 % o f
t h e p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t , t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n i s n o t g o i n g t o have an
a c t u a l response, and t h e r e f o r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n - s i t u
s t r e s s i s i m p o r t a n t f o r c o n t r o l l i n g f r a c t u r e h e i g h t and e n h a n c i n g s t i m u l a t i o n
result.

D i f f e r e n c e s i n l i t h o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s have d e c i s i v e i m p a c t o n d i f -
ferences i n f r a c t u r e pressure capacity ( n e t pressure i n the f r a c t u r e ) i n d i f f e -
r e n t r e s e r v o i r s w h i c h r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s between
b o t h t r e a t e d zone and b a r r i e r l a y e r . S e l e c t i o n o f t h e r i g h t p e r f o r a t i o n i n t e r -
v a l c a n advance t o t h e k e y e l e m e n t o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t c o n t a i n m e n t u n d e r c e r t a i n
fracture-pressure capacities according t o the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n - s i t u stress i n
t h e zones.

4.2.2.3.5. Perf orat ion interval select ion

P e r f o r a t i o n i n t e r v a l choice i s also important f o r l i m i t i n g v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e
g r o w t h , w i t h p e r f o r a t i n g o n l y t h e l o w e r p o r t i o n o f t h e s e c t i o n t o be t r e a t e d
g u a r a n t e i n g upwards d e c l i n i n g h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e t r a n s m i s s i o n , because t h e f r a c -
t u r e s a r e g e n e r a l l y p r o p a g a t i n g upwards i n t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f d e c r e a s i n g o v e r -
b u r d e n s t r e s s (LAMBERT, DOLAN & GALLUS 1983; PAI, GARBIS & HALL 1983; c f . s e c -
t i o n 4.2.2.5.3.1.). On t h e o t h e r hand, HUCKABEE ( 1 9 8 8 ) p r e s e n t s an e x a m p l e o f
f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n p o t e n t i a l t o w a r d t h e b o t t o m o f t h e r e s e r v o i r complex, w i t h
s t i m u l a t i o n operations consequently being i n i t i a t e d i n the upper p o r t i o n o f t h e
 379

r e s e r v o i r . P r e f e r e n t i a l downward g r o w t h o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i s a l s o r e p o r t e d
by WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, CIPOLLA, LORENZ & THORNE 1988).

4.2.2.4. Fracture containment by buoyant and settling diverters

and other blocking additives
A p a r t f r o m t r e a t m e n t parameter adjustment, v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e containment can
be achieved by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of buoyant and s e t t l i n g d i v e r t e r s and o t h e r
b l o c k i n g a d d i t i v e s i n o r d e r t o l i m i t o r s t o p v e r t i c a l h e i g h t growth o f t h e p r o -
p a g a t i n g f r a c t u r e . Some p o i n t s o f f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and d i v e r t e r d e n s i t y as w e l l
as p r e s s u r e d i v e r s i o n a r e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.2.2.4.1. General aspects

When a f r a c t u r e i s i n i t i a t e d i n a p r o d u c t i v e i n t e r v a l , i t w i l l grow i n a v e r -
t i c a l r a d i a l p a t t e r n u n t i l i t encounters r e s i s t a n c e t o t h i s growth mode. Such
boundaries t o p r o p a g a t i o n a r e n o r m a l l y b a r r i e r r o c k s o r s t r a t a t h a t c o n t a i n
h i g h e r s t r e s s and n o r m a l l y a r e tougher and l e s s permeable than t h e p r o d u c t i v e
r o c k ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.5.3. and 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 2 . ) . I f such b a r r i e r s e x i s t above and
below t h e p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l , v e r t i c a l growth o f t h e crack w i l l be r e s t r a i n e d
a t these boundaries and t h e f r a c t u r e w i l l t h e n c o n t i n u e t o grow outward i n t o
t h e hydrocarbon-bearing f o r m a t i o n , t h e r e b y changing i t s shape f r o m i d e a l l y c i r -
c u l a r t o r e a l l y e l l i p t i c a l . These c o n d i t i o n s p r o v i d e e f f i c i e n t use o f f r a c t u -
r i n g f l u i d i n c r e a t i n g a deeply p e n e t r a t i n g f r a c t u r e . I f t h e b a r r i e r r o c k s a r e
t o o weak t o w i t h s t a n d t h e p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o propagate t h e f r a c t u r e , t h e boun-
d a r i e s w i l l r u p t u r e and v e r t i c a l growth w i l l c o n t i n u e i n downwards and/or up-
wards d i r e c t i o n , and s t i m u l a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y i s v e r y poor, because much o f t h e
f r a c t u r e area i s o u t s i d e o f t h e e c o n o m i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e i n t e r v a l and l a t e r a l pe-
n e t r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e hydrocarbon-bearing s e c t i o n i s s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d due t o
waste i n o v e r - and/or u n d e r l y i n g b a r r e n zones.

I n a d d i t i o n t o b a r r e n r o c k s above and below, an o i l - b e a r i n g s e c t i o n f o r exam-

p l e m i g h t c o n t a i n w a t e r i n t h e b o t t o m o f t h e zone and/or a gas cap a t i t s t o p .
O i l p r o d u c t i o n c o u l d be c o n s i d e r a b l y d e t e r i o r a t e d i n case o f f r a c t u r e b r e a k -
t h r o u g h f r o m t h e o i l - b e a r i n g p a r t t o t h e w a t e r - and/or g a s - c o n t a i n i n g segments
o f t h e sequence. As o f f t a k e i n c r e a s e s a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o f r a c t u r e area i n
o r c r a c k p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l i n t e r v a l , containment o f t h e f r a c t u r e i n
t h e p r o d u c t i v e zone n o t o n l y i n c r e a s e s f r a c t u r i n g e f f i c i e n c y , b u t a l s o p r o v i d e s
g r e a t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n i n c r e a s e s (DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1987).

I n s t e a d o f r e d u c i n g pumping r a t e s and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y which a l s o l e a d t o c u t

back o f t h e o v e r a l l s i z e o f t h e t r e a t m e n t and t h u s d i m i n u i s h f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a -
t i o n i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , c r a c k containment can be achieved by c r e a t i n g a r t i f i c i a l
upper and l o w e r p r o p a g a t i o n b a r r i e r s by i n s e r t i n g l i g h t buoyant and heavy s e t t -
l i n g proppants a c t i n g as d i v e r t e r s and c o n t r o l l i n g upwards and downwards e x t e n -
s i o n o f t h e crack, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The whole system a c t s as an e f f e c t i v e synthe-
t i c b r a c k e t o f t o p and bottom o f t h e i n t e r v a l t o be f r a c t u r e d ( b r a c k e t s t i m u l a -
t i o n ; DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1986, 1987).

4.2.2.4.2. Buoyant diverters

F r a c t u r e h e i g h t containment towards t h e t o p o f t h e f o r m a t i o n can be achieved
by c r e a t i n g an a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r w i t h a l i g h t s o l i d a d d i t i v e (NGUYEN & LARSON
1983). A n o n r e a c t i v e buoyant d i v e r t e r i s used t o c o n t r o l upward p r o p a g a t i o n o f
t h e f r a c t u r e d u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t which o f f e r s an u n i q u e s o l u t i o n o f p r e v e n t i n g
e x c e s s i v e c r a c k h e i g h t growth independent o f f o r m a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s and g e o l o g i -
c a l s t r e s s environment. The buoyant d i v e r t e r i s pumped as a s l u r r y b e f o r e t h e
p r o p p a n t stages o f a f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t and accumulates i n t h e uppermost p o r -
t i o n o f t h e newly c r e a t e d crack, f o r m i n g a compact wedge-shaped l o w - p e r m e a b i l i -
 380

ty f l o w block.

S i n c e t h i s a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r does n o t a l l o w f l u i d p r e s s u r e t o r e a c h t h e up-
p e r b o u n d i n g l a y e r , t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e c a n be i n c r e a s e d w i t h o u t t h e r i s k o f ha-
v i n g upward f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n . The p a r t i c l e s o f t h e b u o y a n t d i v e r t e r m u s t b e
s m a l l enough s o t h a t o n l y n e g l i g i b l e m e c h a n i c a l damage o c c u r s d u r i n g t h e pump-
i n g operation, and m u s t be l a r g e enough so t h a t t h e d i v e r t e r w i l l n o t be c a r -
r i e d i n t o t h e p r o p p a n t bed b y p r o d u c t i o n f l u i d s and r e d u c e t h e a v a i l a b l e f r a c t u -
re c o n d u c t i v i t y by invasion o f the i n t e r p r o p p a n t p o r o s i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n
1.4.11.2.1.). The r i s i n g r a t e o f t h e d i v e r t e r d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c a r r i e r
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y . I n o r d e r t o be e f f e c t i v e , t h e b u o y a n t d i v e r t e r has t o b e i n t r o -
duced i n t h e p r e p a d s t a g e f o r r a p i d d e p o s i t i o n o f t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e
b l o c k i n g a d d i t i v e n e a r t h e w e l l b o r e , as f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i s g r e a t e s t i n t h e imme-
d i a t e s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e b o r e h o l e , because t h e h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e i n t h e v e r y
v i c i n i t y o f t h e w e l l b o r e i s g r e a t e r t h a n a t any o t h e r p o i n t a l o n g t h e l e n g t h o f
the fracture.

GABRIEL & ERBSTOESSER ( 1 9 8 4 ) i n t r o d u c e b u o y a n t b a l l s e a l e r s t h a t p r o v i d e i m -

proved diversion possibilities (ERBSTOESSER 1980; cf. also section
4.2.2.1.1.3.). L i g h t w e i g h t b u o y a n t p r o p p a n t s i n a p r e p a d m i g r a t e upwards t h e r e -
b y c r e a t i n g a h i g h - p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t i n t h e f r a c t u r e w h i c h c o n s e q u e n t l y encou-
r a g e s l a t e r a l f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n (McLENNAN, R O E G I E R S & MARX 1 9 8 3 ) . A s p e c t s o f
f r a c t u r e p a c k i n g w i t h l i g h t w e i g h t a d d i t i v e s w h i c h f l o a t and c r e a t e a p e r m e a b i l i -
t y b a r r i e r and t h e r e b y r e d u c e upwards c r a c k m i g r a t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y AH-
MED, STRAWN, WILSON & SCHATZ ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

4.2.2.4.3. Sett 1ins diverters

Inversely, downward g r o w t h o f t h e f r a c t u r e can be l i m i t e d b y heavy s o l i d ad-
d i t i v e s w h i c h f a l l o u t of t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and p l u g t h e l o w e r t i p o f t h e
crack wing, t h e r e b y r e t a r d i n g o r t e r m i n a t i n g i t s p r o p a g a t i o n . The c o m b i n a t i o n
o f l i g h t b u o y a n t d i v e r t e r s a t t h e t o p and heavy s e t t l i n g d i v e r t e r s a t t h e b o t -
tom o f t h e f r a c t u r e a c t s as a d u a l b r a c k e t i n g d e v i c e w h i c h e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l s
v e r t i c a l h e i g h t e x t e n s i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e . The s i m u l t a n e o u s a p p l i c a t i o n o f b o t h
components i s p o s s i b l e by d e n s i t y - c o n t r o l f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 3 . 3 . ) . Li-
m i t i n g f r a c t u r e h e i g h t t o w i t h i n o n l y t h e p a y zone r e s u l t s i n d i v e r s i o n f r o m
b a r r e n zones, b o t t o m w a t e r o r gas cap, t h e r e b y g i v i n g r i s e t o i m p r o v e d c r a c k e f -
f i c i e n c y , deeper p e n e t r a t i n g f r a c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e t a r g e t horizons, improved
p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h u s c o n s i s t e n t l y b e t t e r s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s (DOWELL
SCHLUMBERGER 1986, 1 9 8 7 ) .

The method w o r k s p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l if b e i n g combined w i t h f l u i d - v i s c o s i t y

c o n t r o l . A p a r t f r o m d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s y n t h e t i c heavy p r o p p a n t s and o t h e r mate-
r i a l s , a l s o 100 mesh sand has been s u c c e s s f u l l y u s e d as s e t t l i n g d i v e r t e r f o r
p l u g g i n g o f t h e l o w e r f r a c t u r e t i p i n o r d e r t o l i m i t downwards f r a c t u r e e x t e n -
s i o n (HODGES & PAOLI 1982; c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . Similar-
l y as b u o y a n t and s e t t l i n g d i v e r t e r and p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l s i n t h e h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e , f l o a t i n g and s i n k i n g b a l l s e a l e r s c a n be a p p l i e d f o r s t i m u l a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t d i v e r s i o n i n t h e b o r e h o l e (McLEOD 1984; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 3 . ) .

4.2.2.4.4. Fluid viscosity and diverter density

F i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n examples o f upwards and downwards l i m i t a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t g r o w t h b y l i g h t b u o y a n t and heavy s e t t l i n g p r o p p a n t s a r e r e p o r t e d b y NOL-
TE ( 1 9 8 8 b ) . B r i d g i n g o f t h e l i g h t b u o y a n t m a t e r i a l a t t h e e n t r y o f t h e mud-
s t o n e b a r r i e r and p e r f o r m i n g a t i g h t f l o w b l o c k i s a c h i e v e d b y a m i x t u r e o f s i -
l i c a f l o u r as w e l l as 100 mesh, 20/40 mesh and 1 0 / 2 0 mesh sand, r e p r e s e n t i n g a
c o m b i n a t i o n where v i r t u a l l y n o p e r m e a b i l i t y i s l e f t i f i t i s p r o p e r l y s e t i n
p l a c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.11.2.1.4.). As s u b s e q u e n t f l u i d c a n n o t p e n e t r a t e t h e
f l o w o b s t a c l e , s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n caused b y h e i g h t g r o w t h i s e l i m i n a t e d , and
 381

v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n i s a l s o a r r e s t e d because t h e p l u g does n o t a l l o w
t h e a c t i v e f l u i d p r e s s u r e i n t h e main p o r t i o n o f t h e c r a c k t o r e a c h t h e h e i g h t
extremities.

Improvement o f t h e process i s achieved by low f l u i d l o s s and low v i s c o s i t y

of t h e pad i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n a l r e a d y b e f o r e
t h e buoyant m a t e r i a l f o r m i n g t h e f l o w b l o c k i s p l a c e d . The subsequent p l u g - c a r -
r y i n g stage s h o u l d have r e l a t i v e l y h i g h v i s c o s i t y w i t h an i n c r e a s e d i n j e c t i o n
r a t e t o enhance c r a c k h e i g h t growth a g a i n f o r t h e purpose o f a m e l i o r a t i n g v e r t i -
c a l f l o w and f a c i l i t a t i n g placement and b r i d g i n g o f t h e l i g h t f l o w b l o c k mate-
r i a l i n t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e bounding mudstones. The f o l l o w i n g p r o p p a n t - t r a n s -
p o r t i n g f l u i d s s h o u l d have minimum v i s c o s i t y needed t o move t h e p a r t i c l e s and
should be i n s e r t e d a t l o w e r pumping r a t e s i n o r d e r t o reduce subsequent pressu-
r e s , w i t h p r e s s u r e government b e i n g r e q u i r e d t o c o n t r o l f r a c t u r e w i d t h i n t h e
flow b a r r i e r region w i t h o u t unseating the plug.

The i n d i c a t e d changes i n f l u i d v i s c o s i t y do n o t o n l y m i n i m i z e u l t i m a t e f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t , b u t a l s o enhance f l u i d displacement down and a l o n g t h e c r a c k
through m o b i l i t y analogy. The h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y o f t h e p l u g - c a r r y i n g stage w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h e pad p r o v i d e s a f a v o u r a b l e m o b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n f o r d i s p l a c i n g t h e
pad down t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h o u t b r e a k t h r o u g h o f f l o w - b l o c k i n g m a t e r i a l . The lower
v i s c o s i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t - t r a n s p o r t i n g f l u i d r e l a t i v e t o t h e p l u g stage g i v e s
an u n f a v o u r a b l e m o b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n f o r d i s p l a c i n g t h e buoyant d i v e r t e r down t h e
c r a c k and enhances p r o p p a n t b r e a k t h r o u g h which maximizes t h e amount o f f l o w
b l o c k m a t e r i a l b e i n g d i s p l a c e d v e r t i c a l l y i n t o t h e s h a l e s and m i n i m i z e s t h e
q u a n t i t y o f i t moved towards t h e l a t e r a l f r a c t u r e t i p . SETTARI (1985) a l s o con-
c l u d e s t h a t a proppant bank a t t h e f r a c t u r e bottom o r buoyant proppants concen-
t r a t e d a t t h e f r a c t u r e t o p can p r o v i d e e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r s t o v e r t i c a l c r a c k p r o -
pagation.

4.2.2.4.5. Other blocking additives

A p a r t f r o m t h e c o n c e p t o f buoyant d i v e r t e r s (NGUYEN & LARSON 1983), v a r i o u s
o t h e r a d d i t i v e s and methods have been proposed i n o r d e r t o l i m i t v e r t i c a l f r a c -
t u r e e x t e n s i o n and t o keep t h e c r a c k w i t h i n t h e zone o f i n t e r e s t . HANSON &
LYONS (1964) p r e s e n t c r e a t i o n o f a semipermeable proppant s l u g i n o r d e r t o c l o -
se o f f t h e p a t h s o f l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e i n t h e f r a c t u r e by a l t e r n a t i n g i n c r e a s i n g
and d e c r e a s i n g i n j e c t i o n r a t e a n d / o r proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e p e a t e d l y . The
b l o c k i n g concept o f HANSON (1964) i s based on i n c l u d i n g p l a s t i c a l l y deformable
s o l i d s i n t o t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d which have d e n s i t i e s equal t o o r d i f f e r e n t
f r o m those o f t h e c a r r i e r . PRATER (1968) suggests simultaneous a c t i o n o f two o r
more f l u i d s o f d i f f e r e n t d e n s i t i e s along w i t h a p r o p p a n t t h a t matches t h e d e n s i -
t y o f one f l u i d , w i t h d e n s i t y c h o i c e depending on whether downward o r upward
f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i s t o be c o n t r o l l e d .

Downward c r a c k growth can a l s o be r e s t r i c t e d by p r o p e r l y p l a c i n g a heavy

proppant i n t o t h e b o t t o m o f a newly c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e which l e a d s t o subsequent
d i v e r s i o n o f t h e f l o w o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d upward and l a t e r a l l y (BRAUNLICH
1967). 100 mesh sand can a l s o be s u c c e s s f u l l y used as b r i d g i n g agent t o c o n t r o l
t h e downward c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n (HOOGES & PAOLI 1982; c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 .
and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . NOLTE (1982) r e p o r t s achievement of f r a c t u r e h e i g h t c o n t r o l
by pumping a m i x t u r e o f v a r i o u s sand g r a i n s i z e s i n a h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d imme-
d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e prepad b e f o r e t h e p r o p p a n t - l a d e n s l u r r y i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o
t h e crack, w i t h t h e sand m i x t u r e b e i n g designed t o b r i d g e i n t h e v e r t i c a l t i p s
o f t h e f r a c t u r e t o f o r m a f l o w b l o c k and d i s c o u r a g e t h e c r a c k f r o m growing f u r -
t h e r v e r t i c a l l y . Aspects o f a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r s f o r f r a c t u r e h e i g h t g r o w t h l i m i -
t a t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by LI & ZHU (1986). DOERLER & PROUVOST (1987) comment
on t h e performance o f d i v e r t i n g agents and m o d e l l i n g o f r e s u l t a n t zone i n j e c t i -
vity.
 382

4.2.2.4.6. Pressure diversion

Another p o s s i b i l i t y o f f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t d i v e r s i o n comprises e x p l o i t a t i o n
o f t h e p r e s s u r e growth phenomenon which i n c l u d e s a b n o r m a l l y l a r g e i n c r e a s e s i n
o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e and i s a f u n c t i o n o f pumping r a t e and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y (MED-
LIN & FITCH 1983). T h i n s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s pumped a t h i g h r a t e s c r e a t e smooth
p r e s s u r e curves t h a t r i s e p a r a b o l i c a l l y w i t h t i m e t o f i r s t o r d e r , whereas t h i c k
g e l s pumped a t low r a t e s r e s u l t i n e r r a t i c p r e s s u r e curves which t e n d t o r i s e
more o r l e s s l i n e a r l y w i t h t i m e and show f r e q u e n t l y sharp i r r e g u l a r i t i e s w i t h
a b r u p t i n c r e a s e s and d e c l i n e s . The p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e l e a d i n g i n most cases t o
s c r e e n o u t ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) can be used as a method o f f l u i d d i v e r s i o n ,
because t h e p r e s s u r e d i v e r s i o n scheme d i r e c t s t h e l a r g e s t f r a c t i o n s o f t h e
t r e a t m e n t t o t h e b e t t e r r e s e r v o i r zones.

The p r e s s u r e d i v e r s i o n t e c h n i q u e p r o v i d e s a means o f f r a c t u r i n g v e r y l o n g in-

t e r v a l s c o n t a i n i n g many p r o d u c t i v e zones i n a s i n g l e t r e a t m e n t . A f t e r p e r f o r a -
t i o n and breakdown o f each zone by b a l l s e a l e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . ) , fluid
i s d i v e r t e d f r o m h o r i z o n t o h o r i z o n d u r i n g t h e main s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n i n ac-
cordance w i t h t h e n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e s i n t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e . I n i t i a l l y , c r a c k p r o -
p a g a t i o n b e g i n s i n t h e zone w i t h t h e l o w e s t f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t . A f t e r some i n c r e -
ment o f p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e i n t h i s l e v e l , f l u i d d i v e r s i o n b e g i n s t o t h e i n t e r v a l
o f n e x t h i g h e s t f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t , w i t h t h i s d i v e r t i n g process c o n t i n u i n g u n t i l
a l l s t o r e y s r e c e i v e f l u i d i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t s . Under
i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e j o b c o u l d be c o n t i n u e d u n t i l f i n a l s c r e e n o u t s t a r t s a t ma-
ximum o p e r a t i o n a l p r e s s u r e and each zone c o n t a i n s t h e l a r g e s t p r a c t i c a l f r a c -
t u r e . Proppant t r a n s p o r t problems, however, m i g h t p r e v e n t t h i s i d e a l c o n d i t i o n
f r o m b e i n g achieved. Proppant f i l l u p i n t h e w e l l b o r e has t o be a v o i d e d by u s i n g
a crosslinked gel w i t h near-perfect t r a n s p o r t properties (cf. section
4.3.4.3.). Another p o t e n t i a l problem i n proppant b r i d g i n g o f f r a c t u r e s b e f o r e
t h e i r w i d t h becomes g r e a t enough t o a l l o w p r o p p a n t movement.

4.2.2.5. Multiple-zone fracture migration

AHMED, NEWBERRY & CANNON (1985) i n t r o d u c e t h e f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n c o n c e p t as
a technique f o r o p t i m i z a t i o n o f multiple-zone v e r t i c a l hydraulic s t i m u l a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t s . A f t e r o u t l i n i n g o f some general aspects and commenting on c o n t i -
nuous survey and m o d e l l i n g , examples o f a p p l i c a t i o n i n r e s e r v o i r complexes w i t h
v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r a b i l i t y differences are i l l u s t r a t e d .

4.2.2.5.1. General aspects

Conventional methods o f d e s i g n i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o f w e l l s w i t h m u l t i p l e pay zo
nes i n c l u d e l i m i t e d e n t r y , s t a g i n g ( w i t h t h e use o f d i v e r t i n g agents and b a l
s e a l e r s ) and p a c k i n g - o f f s t o r e y s ( i n c l u d i n g b r i d g e p l u g s and sand plugbacks
and a r e based on t h e assumption t h a t a l l h o r i z o n s open up and t h e f r a c t u r e s a1
propagate i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n (AHMED, SCHATZ, HOLLAND, JONES & GREENFIELD
1982; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . ) . A l l t h e p r e v i o u s m u l t i p l e - z o n e t r e a t m e n t t e c h n i -
ques, however, s u f f e r f r o m l a c k o f c a p a b i l i t y o f q u a n t i t a t i v e l y p r e d i c t i n g t h e
c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n each i n t e r v a l , m a i n l y as a consequence o f
m i s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y f o r p r e d i c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n (CLIFTON & ABOU-SAYED
1981; CLEARY, KAVVADAS & LAM 1983; AHMED, THOMPSON, KELKAR, VEGHTE & HATHAWAY
1984), and t h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f r e l i a b l e and c o n t i n u o u s f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t p r e s -
sure and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s d a t a has h i t h e r t o h i n d e r e d t h e commercial deve-
lopment o f a f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n p r e d i c t i v e t o o l ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 5 . ) .

4.2.2.5.2. Continuous survey and modelling

The mu1 t i p l e - z o n e f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n model (AHMED, NEWBERRY & CANNON 1985)
p r o v i d e s a c o n t i n u o u s survey a l o n g t h e p r o s p e c t i v e column. P r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e
 383

c r a c k commences w i t h t h e i n t e r v a l s a v e r a g i n g t h e l e a s t f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t pressu-
r e , and o t h e r h o r i z o n s p r e f e r e n t i a l l y open up and propagate as t h e w e l l b o r e
pumping p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s . P o s t s t i m u l a t i o n p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y surveys o f t e n r e -
veal t h a t s m a l l e r f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s a r e t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h pay zones e x h i -
b i t i n g t h e h i g h e s t f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t pressure, l e a d i n g t o i n e f f i c i e n t deple-
t i o n , whereas l o w - s t r e s s e d i n t e r v a l s g i v e r i s e t o h i g h c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y which
i s o f t e n more t h a n i s r e q u i r e d t o d r a i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g r e s e r v o i r , and t r e a t -
ments i n i t i a t e d i n s t r u c t u r a l l y deep l o w - s t r e s s e d s t o r e y s may e a s i l y m i g r a t e
i n t o a nearby a q u i f e r . H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n f r o m one o r s e v e r a l
p o i n t s depends on comparison o f f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t p r e s s u r e and r o c k mechanical
p r o p e r t i e s between source and s u r r o u n d i n g p o i n t s . As t h e c r a c k grows, t h e hydro-
s t a t i c f l u i d g r a d i e n t begins t o a f f e c t t h e p r e s s u r e a t e v e r y p o i n t on t h e f r a c -
t u r e t i p which i n t u r n a f f e c t s f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n .

I f p r e s s u r e p o t e n t i a l w i t h i n t h e c r a c k t i p s and s t r e s s p o t e n t i a l w i t h i n t h e
s u r r o u n d i n g r o c k can be d e f i n e d , p r e d i c t i o n of f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n w i t h i n c r e a -
s i n g t r e a t m e n t volume and p r e s s u r e w i t h i n t h e crack i s p o s s i b l e . F r a c t u r e propa-
g a t i o n a t v a r i o u s m u l t i p l e s t o r e y s can t h e r e f o r e be c o n t r o l l e d by maneuvering
t h e p r e s s u r e a t i n t e r v a l face, by s e l e c t i v e l y p o s i t i o n i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , and
by u s i n g necessary s t a g i n g and p a c k o f f r e q u i r e m e n t s . The m u l t i p l e - z o n e f r a c t u -
r i n g p r o g n o s i s t e c h n i q u e (AHMED, NEWBERRY & CANNON 1985) combines s o n i c wave-
f o r m a n a l y s i s w i t h b u l k volume e v a l u a t i o n and l i n e a r f r a c t u r e mechanics w i t h
t r e a t m e n t f l u i d d e n s i t y i n o r d e r t o y i e l d an a c c u r a t e f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t p r e s -
s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n and around t h e hydrocarbon-bearing i n t e r v a l s and t o p r o -
duce an e x a c t p r e d i c t i o n o f crack m i g r a t i o n b e h a v i o u r i n r e l a t i o n t o bottomhole
treatment pressure ( c f . also section 6.2.5.). Fracture height migrates a t the
w e l l b o r e w i t h i n c r e a s e s i n t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e above t h e average f r a c t u r e g r a -
d i e n t p r e s s u r e o f t h e p e r f o r a t e d zone. F r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t i s a f u n c t i o n
p r i m a r i l y o f overburden s t r e s s g r a d i e n t , pore p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t , and r a t i o o f
h o r i z o n t a l t o v e r t i c a l s t r e s s (EATON 1969).

4.2.2.5.3. Vertical f racturabi 1 ity differences

I f d i f f e r e n c e s i n f r a c t u r a b i l i t y e x i s t between s e v e r a l zones, such as f o r
example i f t h e l o w e r and m i d d l e s e c t i o n s open up s i m u l t a n e o u s l y whereas t h e up-
p e r l e v e l breaks down a t a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e and t h u s l a g s behind, and t h e upper
l a y e r has upwards f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n tendency, t h e m i d d l e i n t e r v a l has s t r o n g
b a r r i e r s a t b o t h s i d e s , and t h e l o w e r h o r i z o n e x h i b i t s downward f r a c t u r e m i g r a -
t i o n t r e n d , adjustments o f p e r f o r a t i o n arrangement have t o be c a r r i e d o u t i f
a l l t h e t h r e e zones a r e t o be s t i m u l a t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I n c r e a s i n g p e r f o r a t i o n
s i z e and d e n s i t y i n t h e upper l e v e l has t h e consequence t h a t i t undergoes one
l e s s n e t p r e s s u r e step, and p l a c i n g p e r f o r a t i o n s on t h e b o t t o m p a r t o f t h e t o p
l a y e r and on t h e upper p a r t o f t h e base h o r i z o n i n h i b i t s f r a c t u r e g r o w t h away
from the hydrocarbon-bearing i n t e r v a l .

i f s u f f i c i e n t p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s cannot be c r e a t e d by p l a c i n g fewer p e r f o -
r a t i o n s i n t h e t o p h o r i z o n and i n c r e m e n t a l p e r f o r a t i o n s i n t h e b o t t o m s e c t i o n ,
then each p o r t i o n s h o u l d be t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e s u f f i c i e n t l y
l o n g f r a c t u r e s i n b o t h zones. Excessive f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e s have t o be avoided,
because t h i s may l e a d t o f l u i d l o s s i n t o boundary l i t h o l o g i e s between t h e pay
sand i n t e r v a l s which can t r i g g e r premature screenout f a i l u r e o f t h e j o b ( c f .
section 6.2.4.2.1.). Some comments on f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n and movement as w e l l
as i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h f a c i e s t y p e a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s .

4.2.2.5.3.1. Fracture orientation and movement

The m u l t i p l e - z o n e f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n concept ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 5 . ) o n l y ap-
p l i e s t o v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n . H o r i z o n t a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g cannot
be modelled, b u t a b s o l u t e values o f f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t p r e s s u r e s p e r m i t t o d i s -
c e r n i f a pay zone i s amenable t o c r e a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s . The t r a n s -
 384
v e r s e l y e l a s t i c a l model used t o c a l c u l a t e i n - s i t u s t r e s s f r o m e l a s t i c a l p r o p e r -
t i e s does n o t i n c l u d e any l o c a l t e c t o n i c a l e f f e c t s . A l t h o u g h most t e c t o n i c a l e f -
f e c t s between s e v e r a l i n t e r v a l s cancel o u t d u r i n g computation, s c a l i n g by d i -
r e c t measurement t h r o u g h m i n i f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i s recommended i n o r d e r t o
improve t h e m u l t i p l e - z o n e c r a c k m i g r a t i o n m o d e l l i n g .

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s u s u a l l y move upwards due t o i n c r e a s i n g overburden s t r e s -

ses w i t h depth, a l t h o u g h i n many i n s t a n c e s , t h e c r a c k s have shown a preponderan-
ce o f downwards p r o p a g a t i o n ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4.2.2.3.5.). F r a c t u r e h e i g h t i s
g e n e r a l l y r e l a t e d t o competence, t h i c k n e s s and hardness o f t h e b a r r i e r and i s
a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by t h e cement bond (PAI, G A R B I S & HALL 1983). B L I N T E N & A Z I Z
(1985) comment on s t i m u l a t i o n o f v e r y l o n g gross i n t e r v a l s .

4.2.2.5.3.2. I n - s i t u s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h f a c i e s type
The reason f o r v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r a b i l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h some r e s e r v o i r zones
opening up e a r l i e r than o t h e r s and r e s t r i c t i o n s o f c o n n e c t i v i t y o f superimposed
pay s e c t i o n s through i n t e r v e n i n g b a r r i e r h o r i z o n s a r e d i f f e r e n c e s o f i n - s i t u
s t r e s s e s w i t h d e p o s i t i o n a l environment and l i t h o l o g y (NORTHROP 1988; c f . sec-
t i o n 4.2.2.3.1.3. and 4.2.3.2.2.). Large c o n t r a s t s o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s magnitude
between r e s e r v o i r and b a r r e n r o c k s i m p l y a s t r o n g tendency f o r f r a c t u r e c o n t a i n -
ment and v e r y h i g h p r e s s u r e s a r e r e q u i r e d t o break t h r o u g h n o n - r e s e r v o i r l i t h o -
l o g i e s . W h i l e t h e h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s i n mudstones a r e e s s e n t i a l l y i s o t r o p i c
and on average s l i g h t l y below t h e overburden value, h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s i n sand-
stones and s i l t s t o n e s a r e a n i s o t r o p i c and have a f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t o r i e n t a t i o n
r e f l e c t i n g a c l o c k w i s e r o t a t i o n o f t h e maximum h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n w i t h
depth as a consequence o f s t r e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e l a r g e t o p o g r a p h i c r e l i e f
superimposed on t h e r e g i o n a l s t r e s s f i e l d o f t h e b a s i n (CLARK 1983; c f . a l s o
s e c t i o n 4.2.3.2.2.1.).

As a r e s u l t o f d i f f e r e n t i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s i n d i f f e r e n t l i t h o l o g i e s , hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r e s do n o t e a s i l y break o u t o f a l o w - s t r e s s sandstone, t r a v e r s e t h e
h i g h - s t r e s s c o n f i n i n g r o c k s and i n t e r s e c t a n o t h e r sandstone (NORTHROP 1988).
T h e r e f o r e i n t e r s e c t i o n , p r o p p i n g and d r a i n a g e o f a l a r g e number o f remote and
i s o l a t e d r e s e r v o i r u n i t s such as sandstone lenses and r i b b o n s which a r e n o t con-
n e c t e d t o t h e w e l l b o r e a r e n o t f e a s i b l e i n t h e presence o f l a r g e s t r e s s con-
t r a s t s , b u t w i l l o n l y pay o f f i n case o f s m a l l s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s . G R I (1988) r e -
p o r t s dense carbonates a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h t i g h t gas sandstones, w i t h t h e carbona-
t e s b e i n g e f f i c i e n t b a r r i e r s t o v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e growth due t o t h e i r h i g h e r
i n - s i t u stress.

4 . 2 . 2 . 6 . S e l e c t i v e proppan t p lacernent
BARBER & THEMIG (1985) p r e s e n t v a r i o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f o p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e
r e s u l t s o f f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s by e f f e c t i v e l y l i m i t i n g downward f r a c t u r e
growth i n t o t h e w a t e r - b e a r i n g s e c t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r . Many d e p o s i t i o n a l sand
bodies a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by f i n i n g - u p w a r d s g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e
environmental cyclothems ( c f . p l a t e s III/l - 2, IV/5, V/1 - 4, VII/3 and
I X / 1 - 4 ) which r e f l e c t d e c r e a s i n g energy d u r i n g course o f a g g r a d a t i o n o f t h e
m i l i e u f e a t u r e s ( s u c h as f o r example f l u v i a l channel and overbank f a c i e s sequen-
ces) t h a t g i v e s r i s e t o d e c r e a s i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y f r o m b o t t o m t o t o p o f t h e s e d i -
mentary package. D i a g e n e t i c a l cementation and m i n e r a l a u t h i g e n e s i s o f t e n p r e -
f e r s t h e f i n e r - g r a i n e d upper p o r t i o n s o f t h e pay which c o n s e q u e n t l y become
q u i t e t i g h t i n c o n t r a s t t o the coarser-grained lower p a r t s o f the r e s e r v o i r
t h a t a r e l e f t w i t h b e t t e r p e r m e a b i l i t i e s due t o weaker p o s t d e p o s i t i o n a l l i t h i f i -
c a t i o n . Subsequent f l u i d s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a f t e r hydrocarbon i m m i g r a t i o n f r e q u e n t -
l y r e s u l t s i n an o i l - w a t e r - c o n t a c t c r o s s i n g t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l sand body and sepa-
r a t i n g o i l i n t h e upper l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y s e c t i o n f r o m w a t e r i n t h e l o w e r h i g h -
p e r m e a b i l i t y s t o r e y o f t h e p r o s p e c t i v e column.
 385

I n case o f l a c k o f competent i n t r a f o r m a t i o n a l b a r r i e r s t o p r e v e n t downward

growth o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s o u t o f t h e upper t i g h t o i l - p r o d u c i n g i n t e r v a l i n -
t o the lower permeable water-producing section, attempts have t o be made t o de-
s i g n the s t i m u l a t i o n treatment f o r m i n i m i z a t i o n o f downwards crack propagation
i n o r d e r t o maximize e f f e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n o f the upper t i g h t r e s e r v o i r zone.
This can be performed by l i m i t i n g pumping r a t e s and c o n t r o l l i n g j o b s i z e , and
by s e l e c t i v e proppant placement by d e n s i t y - c o n t r o l foam f r a c t u r i n g . I n an un-
bounded pay, h i g h pumping r a t e s w i l l g e n e r a l l y promote f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth,
because the f r i c t i o n pressure c r e a t e d w i t h i n the f r a c t u r e from t h e w e l l b o r e t o
the f r a c t u r e t i p w i l l r i s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g r a t e (EEKELEN 1982).

Therefore l o w - r a t e s t i m u l a t i o n operations o f r e s t r i c t e d s i z e are a s i g n i f i -

c a n t means o f l i m i t i n g v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e extension, provided the pumping r a t e s
are n o t t o o low, because t h i s would provoke premature screenout t e r m i n a t i o n o f
the j o b ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.2.3., 4.2.3.2.5. and 6.2.4.2.1.). The use o f low-
v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s i s a l s o e f f e c t i v e i n r e s t r i c t i n g v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e propaga-
t i o n , b u t a t the same time the proppant t r a n s p o r t c a p a b i l i t i e s are severely a f -
f e c t e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.3.3.). Aspects o f a c c i d e n t a l proppant f a l l o u t and
banking, c o n t r o l l e d placement by f l u i d d e n s i t y r e g u l a t i o n , proppant s t r a t i f i c a -
t i o n and zonation, and f l u i d d e n s i t y c o n t r o l and proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n are d i s -
cussed as f o l l o w s .

4.2.2.6.1. Accidental proppant fallout and banking

I n s u f f i c i e n t c a r r i e r a b i l i t y o f l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s may r e s u l t i n proppant
f a l l o u t d u r i n g pumping and b e f o r e c l o s u r e takes place, g i v i n g r i s e t o proppant
banking i n the lower p a r t o f the f r a c t u r e d segment o f the r e s e r v o i r (BARBER &
THEMIG 1985). While a c c i d e n t a l proppant banking a t the bottom o f the crack as a
consequence o f proppant s e t t l i n g i n the s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d p r i o r t o c l o s u r e o f
the f r a c t u r e i s one type o f s e l e c t i v e proppant placement and may be d e s i r a b l e
i n coarsening-upwards sedimentary sand bodies t h a t are f u l l y o i l - b e a r i n g i n o r -
der t o prop e f f e c t i v e l y the lower p o r t i o n o f the h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t -
i n g the t i g h t lower i n t e r v a l o f the r e s e r v o i r i n case o f absence o f an o i l - w a -
t e r - c o n t a c t w i t h i n the pay zone, i t i s d e t r i m e n t a l t o the r e s u l t o f s t i m u l a t i o n
treatments i n fining-upwards sequences i f proppant banking p r o v i d e s p r e f e r e n -
t i a l support o f the f r a c t u r e w a l l s i n t h e lower water-bearing s e c t i o n o f r e s e r -
voirs with f l u i d stratification.

Therefore the b e n e f i t o f proppant banking depends on sedimentological compo-

s i t i o n and/or d i a g e n e t i c a l h i s t o r y o f the p r o s p e c t i v e column, and the d e p o s i t i o -
n a l environment g i v i n g r i s e t o the s p e c i f i c t r e n d o f g r a i n - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n de-
c i d e s together w i t h f l u i d immigration and displacement h i s t o r y whether proppant
banking i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s w i l l be favourable o r d e t r i m e n t a l f o r the r e s u l t
o f the s t i m u l a t i o n j o b and the enhancement o f o i l p r o d u c t i o n (aspects o f prop-
pant banking are a l s o discussed i n s e c t i o n s 4.3.3.2. and 4.12.2.2.).

4.2.2.6.2. Control led proppant placement

by fluid density regulation
F l u i d d e n s i t y c o n t r o l g i v i n g r i s e t o s e l e c t i v e proppant placement i s a
v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e t o more conventional types o f h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n i f f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t propagation cannot be s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n t r o l l e d by pumping r a t e , j o b
s i z e and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y (BARBER & THEMIG 1985). F l u i d s w i t h c e r t a i n d e n s i t y
d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y tend t o o v e r r i d e o r u n d e r r i d e a
preceding f l u i d i n the f r a c t u r e depending on whether i t i s l i g h t e r o r heavier,
r e s p e c t i v e l y (FREDRICKSON & BRDADDUS 1976). F l u i d v i s c o s i t i e s a l s o have an e f -
f e c t i n c o n t r o l l i n g d e n s i t y separation, w i t h the h i g h e r the d e n s i t y and v i s c o -
s i t y d i f f e r e n c e s between both f l u i d s , the more pronounced the d e n s i t y separa-
t i o n e f f e c t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.3.3. and 4.2.2.6.4.).
 386

Proper v i s c o s i t y modelling o f both successive f l u i d s i s a c r i t i c a l p a r t o f

t h e o p e r a t i o n (BARBER & THEMIG 1 9 8 5 ) . I f t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e p r e f l u s h i s t o o
low, i t w i l l be swept away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e a r e a and q u i t e p o s s i b l y r e m a i n
ahead o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d . The p r e f l u s h m u s t have enough v i s c o s i t y t o p r o -
v i d e some r e s i s t a n c e t o movement w i t h i n t h e c r a c k s t o a l l o w t h e f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d t o o v e r r i d e the p r e f l u s h i n o r d e r t o achieve the d e s i r e d d e n s i t y e f f e c t .
I f t h e p r e f l u s h i s t o o v i s c o u s , however, i t becomes i m m o b i l e t o some e x t e n t ,
and i n s t e a d o f o v e r r i d i n g , v i s c o u s f i n g e r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) takes
p l a c e i n w h i c h t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d moves t h r o u g h t h e p r e f l u s h i n s e v e r a l p a t h s
o r channels i n s t e a d o f t h e d e s i r e d s i n g l e continuous f l u i d f r o n t .

4.2.2.6.3. Proppant st rat if icat ion and zonation

F l u i d d e n s i t y c o n t r o l a l l o w s s e l e c t i v e placement o f t h e proppants i n t h e up-
p e r o r lower p o r t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e i n t h e cases o f o v e r r i d i n g o r u n d e r r i d i n g
r e g a r d l e s s o f where t h e l o w e r o r u p p e r bounds o f h e i g h t g r o w t h may be, r e s p e c t i -
v e l y ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.3.3. and 4 . 2 . 2 . 6 . 4 . ) . The u s e o f foam i n t h i s p r o c e s s
p r o v i d e s e x c e l l e n t p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and t h u s e l i m i n a t e s m o s t o f t h e c o n c e r n s
a b o u t p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g t o p r e m a t u r e u n c o n t r o l l e d banks d u r i n g pumping and be-
f o r e f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e , The u s e o f n i t r o g e n i n foam g i v e s t h e d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e
w i t h p o t a s s i u m c h l o r i d e w a t e r and w o u l d e l i m i n a t e t h e need f o r u s i n g w e i g h t e d
s a l t w a t e r b r i n e s o l u t i o n s as i s u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d i n p e r f o r m i n g d e n s i t y c o n t r o l
treatments.

BARBER & T H E M I G ( 1 9 8 5 ) document s i g n i f i c a n t improvement o f f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a -

t i o n s i n f l u i d - s t r a t i f i e d f i n i n g - u p w a r d s sand-body r e s e r v o i r s b y f l u i d d e n s i t y
c o n t r o l , w i t h o v e r r i d i n g p e r m i t t i n g s e l e c t i v e proppant placement i n t h e upper
t i g h t o i l - b e a r i n g p o r t i o n o f t h e p a y zone w h i l e t h e l o w e r segment o f t h e c r a c k
plane i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e lower permeable water-bearing i n t e r v a l o f t h e prospec-
t i v e column i s l e f t u n p r o p p e d and t h u s w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n c a n be m i n i m i z e d ( c f .
a l s o MISAK, ATTEBERRY, VENDITTO & FREDRICKSON 1978 b ) b y a l l o w i n g t h e l o w e r p o r -
t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e t o r e h e a l once c l o s u r e s t r e s s becomes e f f e c t i v e a f t e r t h e
end o f t h e h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t . S e l e c t i v e p r o p p a n t p l a c e m e n t i n t h e u p p e r r e s e r -
v o i r p o r t i o n b y o v e r r i d i n g c r e a t e d b y pumping o f a h i g h - d e n s i t y p a d f o l l o w e d b y
lower-density proppant-bearing f l u i d s allows t o i n h i b i t connection t o the lower
w a t e r - b e a r i n g s e c t i o n o f t h e p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l (MISAK, ATTEBERRY, VENDITTO &
FREDRICKSON 1978 b ) .

4.2.2.6.4.Fluid density control and proppant distribution

I n a s i m i l a r way as a p p l y i n g f o r l a y e r i n g o f p r o p p a n t - s u p p o r t e d and u n p l u g -
ged s e c t i o n s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , a l s o h o r i z o n t a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t p r o p -
p a n t t y p e s c a n be a c h i e v e d b y i n s e r t i n g two s u c c e s s i v e p r o p p a n t - l a d e n f l u i d s o f
d i f f e r e n t v i s c o s i t y i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e , r e s u l t i n g i n placement o f a proppant o f
d i f f e r e n t type and/or g r a i n s i z e i n t h e upper p o r t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h r e -
s p e c t t o t h e l o w e r segment o f t h e c r a c k , t h e r e b y p e r m i t t i n g s e l e c t i v e o p t i m i z a -
t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e - f o r m a t i o n c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t i n r e s e r v o i r s w i t h pronoun-
c e d g r a i n s i z e d i f f e r e n c e s between v e r t i c a l l y s u c c e s s i v e u n i t s o r s t o r e y s ( c f .
also section 4.2.2.3.3.).

F l u i d d e n s i t y c o n t r o l , however, c a n o n l y g i v e r i s e t o d i f f e r e n t v e r t i c a l i n -
t e r v a l s w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e and v e r t i c a l p r o p p a n t z o n i n g , whereas p l a c e m e n t o f
h o r i z o n t a l l y d i f f e r i n g proppant types and/or g r a i n s i z e s r e s u l t i n g i n l a t e r a l
coexistence o f proppant p i l l a r s ( c f . section 4.3.3.2.) o f d i f f e r e n t composition
has t o be a c h i e v e d by pumping a l t e r n a t i n g l o t s o f f l u i d s w i t h more o r l e s s s i m i -
l a r v i s c o s i t y t o a v o i d o v e r - o r u n d e r r u n n i n g , and b e i n g s a t u r a t e d w i t h o r w i t h -
o u t p r o p p a n t s i f c r e a t i o n o f d i s c r e t e p r o p p a n t p i l l a r s s e p a r a t e d b y open c o -
lumns i s d e s i r e d , o r c o n t a i n i n g s u c c e s s i v e l o t s o f p r o p p a n t s o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e
and/or g r a i n s i z e i n case h o r i z o n t a l zoning o f proppants i n t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h
t a i l a n d / o r head b e i n g o f d i f f e r e n t c o m p o s i t i o n t h a n t h e m a i n body i s w a n t e d .
 387

S e l e c t i v e p r o p p a n t placement, however, has t o t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t

v a r y i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e f r a c t u r e f r o m w e l l b o r e t o t i p can s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f -
f e c t p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s (BENNETT, ROSATO & REYNOLDS 1981) e i t h e r i n p o s i t i v e o r
n e g a t i v e d i r e c t i o n depending on g e o m e t r i c a l arrangement o f t y p e and g r a i n s i z e
o f proppants and e f f e c t o f p o s s i b l e v o i d spaces between t h e i n d i v i d u a l d i s c r e t e
proppant l o t s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o determine p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u -
t i o n schedules i n such a way t h a t achievement o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n d u c t i v i t y
p r o f i l e i n t h e f r a c t u r e i s assured (VEATCH & M O S C H O V I D I S 1986).

4.2.2.7. Special phenomena i n coal seams

I n c o a l seam gas r e s e r v o i r s , h i g h t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e s may l e a d t o u n c o n f i n e d
v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e growth i n case o f absence o f s u f f i c i e n t s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s i n
t h e f o r m a t i o n s bounding t h e c o a l o r f o r t h i n c o a l seams (JONES, BELL, MORALES &
SCHRAUFNAGEL 1987). Modulus c o n t r a s t s may p l a y an i n d i r e c t , b u t i m p o r t a n t r o l e
i n a f f e c t i n g f r a c t u r e containment. F r a c t u r e - t i p p l u g g i n g w i t h c o a l f i n e s p r e -
vents u n c o n t a i n e d v e r t i c a l growth o f f r a c t u r e s i n c o a l seams by q u i c k l y s e a l i n g
off o f narrow c r a c k s c r e a t e d i n high-modulus bounding f o r m a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.4.3.3.).

Coal seams i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h sandstones and shales can a c t as t h i e f zones f o r

f r a c t u r i n g s l u r r y when h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o f a sandstone i s attempted, be-
cause t h e minimum h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s w i t h i n t h e c o a l i s l e s s t h a n w i t h i n sandsto-
nes and s h a l e s (DESPAX, CHARLEZ, CLINKEMAILLE & ECONOMIDES 1987). As c o a l a l s o
has a low e l a s t i c modulus, c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e seam w i t h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s would
l e a d t o p r e f e r e n t i a l f r a c t u r i n g o f t h e c o a l r a t h e r t h a n t h e sandstone, t h u s s e t -
t i n g t h e proppant o u t o f t h e pay zone and r e s u l t i n g i n f a i l u r e o f t h e s t i m u l a -
t i o n job ( c f . section 4.4.3.4.).

T h e r e f o r e containment a n a l y s i s i n such complex i n t e r b e d d e d r e s e r v o i r sequen-

ces has t o i n c l u d e i n - s i t u s t r e s s measurements by m i n i f r a c t u r e s i n a l l r e l e v a n t
l a y e r s c o m p r i s i n g sandstone, s h a l e and c o a l . I n o r d e r f o r a f r a c t u r e t o s t a y
c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t o r i n an e f f o r t t o m i n i m i z e t h e v e r -
t i c a l h e i g h t growth, t h e e x c e s s i v e p r e s s u r e w i t h i n t h e c r a c k has t o be m i n i m i -
zed. Excess p r e s s u r e i s almost e n t i r e l y dependant on f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e d r o p
down t h e f r a c t u r e which i n t u r n i s a f u n c t i o n o f g e l v i s c o s i t y , i n j e c t i o n r a t e ,
and f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between f l u i d and f r a c t u r e w a l l (HOLDITCH, ROBINSON,
WHITEHEAD & ELY 1987).

4.2.2.8. Other aspects

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f t h i n s h e e t - t y p e o i l - b e a r i n g sandstones i s
a l s o r e p o r t e d by KOHLHAAS ( 1 9 8 2 ) . KELKAR, THOMPSON, HOLLAND, STRAWN, VEGHTE &
HATHAWAY (1985) comment on h y d r a u l i c c r a c k h e i g h t e x t e n s i o n c o n t r o l u s i n g p e r -
m e a b i l i t y b a r r i e r s and d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f g e o l o g i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g parameters
f o r f r a c t u r e design.

Another i m p o r t a n t parameter a f f e c t i n g h e i g h t growth and p r o p a g a t i o n o f hy-

d r a u l i c a l l y induced c r a c k s i s f r a c t u r e toughness (THIERCELIN, JEFFREY & BEN NA-
CEUR 1987; WANG & CLIFTON 1989). I n f l u e n c e s on f r a c t u r e toughness a r e e x e r t e d
by l a r g e - s c a l e h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s , c o n f i n i n g pkessure and p o r e p r e s s u r e . Bounding
l a y e r s w i t h h i g h e r c r a c k toughness t h a n t h a t o f t h e pay i n t e r v a l can a c t t o e f -
f e c t i v e ? y c o n t a i n a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e between them, and a pay zone w i t h h i g h e r
crack toughness than bounding l a y e r s can l e a d t o f r a c t u r e g r o w t h i n t h e l i m i t -
i n g beds a t t h e expense o f p r o p a g a t i o n i n t h e r e s e r v o i r ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
4.3.4.2.3.).

Aspects o f f r a c t u r i n g i n l a y e r e d r e s e r v o i r s where more o r l e s s containment

o f c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by CAMACHO, RAGHAVAN & REY-
 388

NOLDS ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; SCHULTE ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; BENNETT, CAMACHO, REYNOLDS & RAGHAVAN ( 1 9 8 5 ) ; BEN

NACEUR & TOUBOUL ( 1 9 8 7 ) and BOUTECA ( 1 9 8 7 ) . ABOU-SAYED, S I N H A & CLIFTON ( 1 9 8 4 )
and ABOU-SAYED, CLIFTON, DOUGHERTY & MORALES ( 1 9 8 4 ) comment o n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
i n - s i t u r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s on t h e g e o m e t r y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s . A q u a n t i t a -
t i v e a n a l y s i s o f f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l c r a c k g r o w t h i s p e r -
f o r m e d b y SETTARI ( 1 9 8 5 ) . P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n t h r o u g h an i n -
t e r f a c e a r e e v a l u a t e d b y BIOT, MEDLIN & MASSE (1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . ) .

4.2.3, Fracture propagat ion

While i n t h i c k sandstones t h a t a r e o n l y p e r f o r a t e d along p a r t s o f t h e i r
t h i c k n e s s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l i m i t e d - e n t r y t e c h n i q u e (LAGRONE & RASMUSSEN 1963,
HOWARD & FAST 1970, SMALL 1985, CRAMER 1987) t h e f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t e s r a d i a l l y
t h r o u g h t h e w h o l e r e s e r v o i r t h i c k n e s s t o t h e b o u n d i n g mudstones and t h e n c o n t i -
nues a l o n g t h e s e a l i n g h o r i z o n s i n l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n , t h i n s a n d s t o n e s a r e o f t e n
p e r f o r a t e d a l o n g a l m o s t t h e w h o l e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l i n t e r v a l and t h e f r a c t u r e i s
thus n e a r l y instantaneously propagating i n l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n along the g u i d i n g
b a r r i e r . P a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h i n sandstones, however, t h e d a n g e r o f u n c o n t r o l l e d
v e r t i c a l c r a c k g r o w t h and b r e a k t h r o u g h t o a d j o i n i n g beds becomes g r e a t e r w i t h
i n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e l e n g t h d e p e n d i n g on d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t a b i l i t y b e h a v i u r and
s t r e s s s t a t u s o f t h e s u p e r i m p o s e d f o r m a t i o n s (KLOSE & KRUMER 1983) and a l s o o n
t h e h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s t h a t ' have' t o be a p p l i e d t o ' c r e a t e l o n g e r f r a c t u r e s beyond
a c e r t a i n boundary l e n g t h .

When t h e s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r a t t h e t i p r e a c h e s i t s c r i t i c a l v a ue, t h e
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e becomes u n s t a b l e and b e g i n s t o move t o w a r d s t h e d r e c t i o n
where t h e s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r has t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e (LU & YEN 1985 . A f t e r
r e f e r r i n q t o t e r m i n o l o q y and n o m e n c l a t u r e , v a r i o u s f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n q racture
p r o p a g a t i o n a r e b r i e f l y r e v i e w e d as f o l l o w s . An o u t l i n e o f t h e t w o d i f f e r e n t
p r o c e s s e s o f s h e a r s l i p p a g e and t e n s i l e f a i l u r e o f r o c k s c r e a t i n g open j o i n t s
i s g i v e n , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f g e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i s s k e t c h e d , comments a r e
o f f e r e d on f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n and p r e s s u r e e v o l u t i o n , and a f i e l d example o f
r e q u i r e d seal thickness f o r successful containment o f a large-scale f r a c t u r e i s
reported.

4.2.3.1. Terminology and nomenclature

C o n c e r n i n g t e r m i n o l o g y and n o m e n c l a t u r e , t h e p r e s s u r e n e c e s s a r y t o p r o p a g a t e
a f r a c t u r e i s t h e minimum c r a c k e x t e n s i o n p r e s s u r e w h i c h i s r e q u i r e d a t t h e t i p
t o keep t h e f r a c t u r e open (WHITEHEAD, HUNT & HOLDITCH 1 9 8 7 ) . D u r i n g i n j e c t i o n
o f f l u i d , t h e p r e s s u r e a t t h e w e l l b o r e i s t h e e x t e n s i o n p r e s s u r e p l u s any e x -
c e s s p r e s s u r e i n t h e f r a c t u r e p l u s p r e s s u r e l o s s e s due t o f r i c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n s . A f t e r shut-down o f pumping, t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s s h u t - i n p r e s s u r e a t
t h e w e l l b o r e i s e q u a l t o t h e l e a s t p r i n c i p a l h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s p l u s any e x c e s s
p r e s s u r e i n t h e f r a c t u r e . As t h e e x c e s s p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e s due t o f l u i d l e a k -
o f f , t h e crack w i l l c l o s e a t the i n - s i t u s t r e s s which i s t h e r e s u l t a n t pressu-
r e . The m o s t common synonyms f o r i n - s i t u s t r e s s a r e l e a s t p r i n c i p a l h o r i z o n t a l
stress ( c f . section 1.2.1.1.), minimum p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s , f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e
pressure, closure stress, l e a s t c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s and f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t . The
r e s u l t a n t p r e s s u r e can be d e t e r m i n e d b y p u m p - i n / f l o w - b a c k t e s t s , m i n i f r a c t u r i n g
and i n - s i t u s t r e s s t e s t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . ) , w i t h a l l o f t h e s e t e s t s b e i n g
a b l e t o be p e r f o r m e d i n b o t h open and p e r f o r a t e d c a s e d h o l e .

F r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n c o n c e r n i s a l s o a m a t t e r o f t r e a t m e n t s c a l e and r e s e r -
v o i r t h i c k n e s s , w i t h v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e g r o w t h i n a t h i c k f o r m a t i o n and a s m a l l -
s i z e j o b n o t b e i n g so s e r i o u s as t h a t o c c u r r i n g i n a l a r g e - s i z e j o b i n a t h i n
f o r m a t i o n ( L I & ZHU 1 9 8 6 ) .
 389

4.2.3.2. Factors c o n t r o l l i n g f r a c t u r e propagation

Most f r a c t u r e s are o r i e n t e d more o r l e s s i n a v e r t i c a l plane and propagate
outward i n opposite d i r e c t i o n s from a w e l l b o r e (VEATCH 1983). The f r a c t u r e s are
t y p i c a l l y extending e i t h e r i n a r a d i a l f a s h i o n t o form penny-shaped cracks, o r
propagate predominantly i n l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n along n a t u r a l f o r m a t i o n i n t e r f a c e s
and l e s s f r e q u e n t l y i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n across bedding planes. Local s t r e s s
f i e l d s and v a r i a t i o n s i n stresses between adjacent r e s e r v o i r s have dominant e f -
f e c t s i n c o n t r o l l i n g f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n and v e r t i c a l growth tendency, whereas
r e g i o n a l stresses may a f f e c t the azimuthal t r e n d o f the crack. The p r i n c i p a l
sources o f f r a c t u r e containment are h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s v a r i a t i o n s w i t h depth and
p l a s t i c i t y o f bounding shale l a y e r s (MEDLIN & FITCH 1983). The o u t l i n e as f o l -
lows comments on i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t and o t h e r i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s , horizon-
t a l s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s and f r a c t u r e geometry, r e s e r v o i r e l a s t i c i t y and p l a s t i c i -
ty, f r a c t u r e propagation across weakness planes, premature screenout termina-
t i o n , and s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s and containment.

4.2.3.2.1. I n - s i t u stress contrast and other influencing f a c t o r s

F r a c t u r e propagation i s m a i n l y c o n t r o l l e d by i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s b e t -
ween the i n d i v i d u a l rock l a y e r s (WHITEHEAD, HUNT & HOLDITCH 1987), w i t h common-
l y r e s e r v o i r sandstones and b a r r i e r mudstones being l o w - s t r e s s and h i g h - s t r e s s
rocks, r e s p e c t i v e l y (NOLTE 1988 a, 1988 b; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.3.1.3. and
4.2.3.2.2.). Accurate p r e d i c t i o n o f the magnitude o f v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e growth
i s imperative f o r proper design o f f r a c t u r e length, w i d t h and h e i g h t . Apart
from f r a c t u r e propagation upwards o r downwards o u t o f t h e zone o f i n t e r e s t , f u r -
t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n s and drawbacks can be m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e closures, extreme per-
f o r a t i o n damage and communication w i t h o t h e r sets o f p e r f o r a t i o n s through t h e
crack o r behind the p i p e . F r a c t u r e containment depends m a i n l y on i n - s i t u s t r e s s
c o n t r a s t s between f o r m a t i o n and a d j o i n i n g b a r r i e r s (SIMONSON, ABOU-SAYED & CLIF-
TON 1978; EEKELEN 1982, MENG & BROWN 1987), b u t a l s o on rock s t i f f n e s s and pay-
zone thickness (BOUTECA 1987). Thus the e f f i c i e n c y o f a s t r e s s b a r r i e r has t o
be considered t o g e t h e r w i t h e l a s t i c modulus o f the rock and r e s e r v o i r t h i c k -
ness.

F u r t h e r parameters a f f e c t i n g v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e propagation are i n - s i t u

s t r e s s g r a d i e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.3.1.), e l a s t i c o r p l a s t i c r e s e r v o i r rock be-
h a v i o u r ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.3.2.3.), toughness and d u c t i l i t y d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.2.4.3.), n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.8.), leakoff o f fractu-
r i n g f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.6.) and h e a t - t r a n s f e r p r o p e r t i e s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.3.4.4.), as w e l l as v a r i a t i o n s o f i n - s i t u stresses e x i s t i n g i n d i f f e r e n t
l a y e r s o f t h e g e o l o g i c a l column ( c l o s u r e s t r e s s p r o f i l e ) , r e l a t i v e bed t h i c k -
ness o f the formations i n the v i c i n i t y o f the f r a c t u r e , bonding between t h e
rocks, f l u i d pressure g r a d i e n t s i n the f r a c t u r e , and pore pressure v a r i a t i o n s
from one r e s e r v o i r s e c t i o n t o t h e o t h e r (VEATCH 1983). When a p r o s p e c t i v e zone
c o n t a i n s e x c e l l e n t b a r r i e r s t o f r a c t u r e growth and w e l l engineered s t i m u l a t i o n
treatments a r e performed, e x p e c t a t i o n can be made t o achieve e f f e c t i v e crack
lengths t h a t a r e reasonably c l o s e t o the designed f r a c t u r e l e n g t h (ROBINSON,
HOLDITCH ti LEE 1983).

Other f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l f r a c t u r e growth i n a d d i t i o n

t o i n - s i t u c o n d i t i o n s are r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and f l o w r a t e s o f the s t i m u l a -
t i o n f l u i d , proppant placement and temperature p r o f i l e s . The most e f f e c t i v e me-
chanism o f f r a c t u r e containment r e s u l t s from s u i t a b l e combination o f v i s c o s i t y
and i n j e c t i o n r a t e o f the f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and s t a g i n g o f heavy proppant (BEN
NACEUR & TOUBOUL 1987). Aspects o f h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s , reservoir
e l a s t i c i t y vs. p l a s t i c i t y , f r a c t u r e propagation across weakness planes, and pre-
mature screenout t e r m i n a t i o n are o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .
 390

4.2.3.2.2. Horizontal stress differences and fracture geometry

Containment o f t h e f r a c t u r e i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n by t h e o v e r - and u n d e r l y -
i n g t i g h t beds i s o n l y guaranteed i f t h e h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s below and above
t h e t a r g e t h o r i z o n a r e s t i l l d u r i n g e x e c u t i o n o f t h e j o b and s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n by
t h e t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e g r e a t e r than i n t h e r e s e r v o i r t o be s t i m u l a t e d , w i t h
o t h e r w i s e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f u n d e s i r e d c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n i n penny shape e x i s t -
i n g (LEICHT 1985). The bounding mudstones a r e capable o f s t o p p i n g f r a c t u r e p r o -
p a g a t i o n i n t h e sandstone and t o conduct f u r t h e r c r a c k e x t e n s i o n a l o n g t h e i n -
t e r f a c e ( c f . section 4.2.2.3.5.) between b o t h d i f f e r e n t l i t h o f a c i e s o n l y i f
t h e r e a r e a l s o reasonable d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e l a s t i c i t y modul (KLOSE & KROMER
1983 r e p o r t f o r R o t l i e g e n d mudstones an a b t . seven t i m e s g r e a t e r e l a s t i c i t y mo-
d u l than i n t h e u n d e r l y i n g sandstone t h a t was f r a c t u r e d ; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 3 . 2 . ) .
R e s e r v o i r s bounded by weak b a r r i e r s which have n o t enough s t r e s s t o c o n f i n e an
induced f r a c t u r e i n t h e pay zone a t h i g h e r s t r e s s e s can o n l y be t r e a t e d by smal-
l e r jobs i n v o l v i n g lower pressures t h a t are s t i l l guaranteing f r a c t u r e termina-
t i o n a t weak o r unbonded i n t e r f a c e s a t low c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s e s (AHMED, STRAWN,
WILSON & SCHATZ 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 4 . ) .

I n case o f s u i t a b l e p r e s s u r e l e v e l s , h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s can grow v e r t i c a l l y

as much as 20 f t even when v e r y low i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and t o t a l pumped volumes
a r e used (WHITEHEAD, HUNT & HOLDITCH 1987). Given i n s u f f i c i e n t s t r e s s c o n t r a s t
between t h e n e t pay zones and t h e r o c k l a y e r s above and below ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 1 . 3 . and 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 1 . ) can be a g r e a t problem t o achieve t h e goal o f c r e a -
t i n g l o n g c o n d u c t i v e c r a c k s due t o e x c e s s i v e v e r t i c a l h e i g h t growth as a conse-
quence o f l a c k i n g f r a c t u r e containment (HOLDITCH, ROBINSON, WHITEHEAD & ELY
1987). The e f f e c t o f t h e b o r e h o l e t o t h e s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r a t t h e f r a c -
t u r e t i p i s n e g l i g i b l e when c r a c k l e n g t h i s l a r g e r than t h e r a d i u s o f t h e w e l l
which i s t h e case i n almost a l l t h e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s ( B O W I E
1956, YEW & L I 1987). Some aspects o f s t r e s s v a r i a t i o n s w i t h l i t h o l o g y , n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n v a r i o u s rocks, i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s , and f r a c t u r e
i n s t a b i l i t y and movement a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.2.3.2.2.1. Stress variations with 1 ithology

H o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a y e r s o f t h e g e o l o g i -
c a l column a r e i n r e s e r v o i r s e c t i o n s p a r t i c u l a r l y pronounced between sandsto-
nes, carbonates and mudstones (BRITT & LARSEN 1986). As carbonates have h i g h e r
c l o s u r e s t r e s s than sandstones i n comparable r e s e r v o i r depth, s e l e c t i v e f r a c t u -
r i n g o f a carbonate h o r i z o n w i t h i n an i n t e r b e d d e d sequence has t o i n c l u d e p r o -
p e r s h u t - o f f o f t h e sandstones above and below t h e carbonate, because o t h e r w i s e
once communication f r o m t h e carbonate t o t h e sandstone would be e s t a b l i s h e d ,
o n l y n e g l i g i b l e f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n would o c c u r i n t h e carbonate zone, and v i r -
t u a l l y maximum c r a c k l e n g t h which c o u l d be expected i n t h e carbonate i n t e r v a l
would be t h e l e n g t h a l r e a d y achieved a t t h e t i m e o f communication w i t h t h e sand-
stone bed . On t h e o t h e r hand, dense carbonates a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h t i g h t gas sand-
stones a r e e f f e c t i v e b a r r i e r s t o v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e growth due t o t h e i r c o n s i d e -
r a b l y h i g h e r i n - s i t u s t r e s s (GRI 1988). A p a r t f r o m l i t h o l o g y , s t r e s s l e v e l i s
p a r t i a l l y a l s o depending on d e p o s i t i o n a l environment (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN & WIL-
MER 1985; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.3.1.3. and 4.2.3.2.1.).

Shales and impermeable carbonates have h i g h e r h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s than i n t e r -

bedded permeable sandstones p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e drawdown i n
t h e l a t t e r (LABUDOVIC 1981). I n - s i t u s t r e s s can be determined by b o t h open-hole
and cased-hole s t r e s s t e s t i n g . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s may a r i s e f r o m f r a c -
t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n o u t o f t h e zone o f i n t e r e s t , m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e , f r a c t u -
r e growth around t h e packer, extreme p e r f o r a t i o n damage, communication w i t h
o t h e r s e t s o f p e r f o r a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e f r a c t u r e o r b e h i n d p i p e , o r equipment
m a l f u n c t i o n s r e q u i r i n g s u r f a c e r a t h e r than downhole s h u t - i n s . YEW & C H I O U
(1983) d i s c u s s e f f e c t s o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s and l a y e r p r o p e r t i e s on h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e containment, and EEKELEN (1981) e v a l u a t e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between ho-
 391

r i z o n t a l s t r e s s and depth i n sedimentary b a s i n s .

4.2.3.2.2.2. Natural fracture distribution in various rocks

S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s , s i z e and d i s t r i b u -
t i o n o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r complex depends on d i f f e r e n c e s o f
i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i t h o l o g i e s , w i t h main d i s t i n c t i o n b e i n g
made between l o w - s t r e s s h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandstones and h i g h - s t r e s s low-permea-
b i l i t y mudstones (NORTHROP 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . ) . F r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g
sandstone b o d i e s t e r m i n a t e a t mudstone c o n t a c t s b o t h a t i n t e r - and i n t r a r e s e r -
v o i r boundaries o r l i t h o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s . T h e r e f o r e t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e
system i s heterogeneously d i s t r i b u t e d through non-communicating l a y e r s (BRANA-
GAN, LEE, CIPOLLA & WILMER 1988).

The d e n s i t y o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h i c k n e s s ,
w i t h t h e t h i n n e s t l a y e r b e i n g t h e most c o n d u c t i v e due t o narrow j o i n t spacing,
b u t on t h e o t h e r hand n o t c o n t a i n i n g t h e b u l k o f p r o d u c i b l e gas which i s concen-
t r a t e d i n t h i c k e r beds t h a t a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y l e s s c o n d u c t i v e as a consequence
o f wide c r a c k spacing. I n t h e absence o f m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e m i -
nimum h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s between pay zone and a d j a c e n t l a y e r s con-
t r o l t h e degree o f v e r t i c a l m i g r a t i o n o f a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e (BEGNAUD & CLAI-
BORNE 1985). LERCHE & NARR (1984) e s t i m a t e subsurface c r a c k d e n s i t y i n c o r e and
d i s c u s s e f f e c t s o f v a r i a b l e f r a c t u r e spacing, and YEW & LODDE (1983) analyze
p r o p a g a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d c r a c k s i n a l a y e r e d medium.

4.2.3.2.2.3. In-situ stress contrasts

Concerning t h e e f f e c t o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s
( c f . section 4.2.2.3.1.), h i g h - s t r e s s r e g i o n s above and below t h e c r a c k e d zone
r e s u l t i n a n e a r l y rectangular-shaped f r a c t u r e f o r l o w - v i s c o s i t y low-flow-rate
t e s t s , whereas h i g h e r v i s c o s i t i e s and f l o w r a t e s t h a t induce h i g h e r f r a c t u r e
p r e s s u r e s r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r h e i g h t s and a l e s s r e c t a n g u l a r shape (WARPINSKI
1983 a ) . The p r e s s u r e near t h e t i p o f t h e c r a c k i s t h e p o r e p r e s s u r e and n o t
t h e minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s v a l u e . B I O T , MASSE & MEDLIN (1986) o u t l i n e t h a t f r a c -
t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i s i n most r e s e r v o i r s c o n t r o l l e d m a i n l y by t h e e l a s t i c a l e n e r -
gy r e q u i r e d t o f o r c e a p a r t t h e c r a c k f a c e s and n o t by s u r f a c e energy e f f e c t s a t
t h e t i p . S t r e s s c o n t r a s t s i n t h e o r d e r o f 300 - 400 p s i a r e g e n e r a l l y s u f f i -
c i e n t t o r e s t r i c t f r a c t u r e growth i n t o t h e h i g h e r s t r e s s r e g i o n (AHMED, STRAWN,
WILSON & SCHATZ 1983), whereas underpassing o f t h e minimum c r i t i c a l s t r e s s con-
t r a s t has t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e a d j o i n i n g l a y e r s a r e no a b s o l u t e b a r r i e r s t o f r a c -
t u r e growth (AHMED 1988).

M a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y i n t e r f a c e s a l o n e have l i t t l e e f f e c t on containment o f hy-

d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.3.2.4.), and i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s have t h e domi-
n a n t i n f l u e n c e on c r a c k b e h a v i o u r and d i r e c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e growth (TEUFEL &
CLARK 1981). Crack containment i s most l i k e l y t o o c c u r as a r e s u l t o f an i n -
crease o f minimum h o r i z o n t a l compressive s t r e s s which takes p l a c e a t t h e t r a n s -
i t i o n f r o m h i g h shear modulus i n t o low shear modulus r o c k s . I n h i b i t i o n o f v e r t i -
c a l f r a c t u r e growth i s a l s o t r i g g e r e d by weak i n t e r f a c i a l shear s t r e n g t h o f t h e
d i f f e r e n t l a y e r s . LU & YEW (1985) d i s c u s s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y
f a c t o r a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p s which depends n o t o n l y on t h e r e l a t i v e moduli o f
t h e l a y e r s b u t a l s o on t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f t h e c r a c k s t o t h e l a y e r i n t e r -
f a c e as w e l l as t h e i r r e l a t i v e s i z e .

4.2.3.2.2.4. Frac t ur e i ns t ab i 1 i t y and movement

I n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g design, two c r i t e r i a a p p l y i n many cases c o m p r i s i n g
i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e c r a c k which begins t o move when t h e s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r
a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p reaches t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e which i s regarded as a m a t e r i a l
 392

p r o p e r t y o f t h e medium, o r m i g r a t i o n o f t h e c r a c k i n t o t h e d i r e c t i o n a t which
t h e s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r has t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e (LU & YEW 1985). Upward o r
downward movement o f t h e f r a c t u r e can be decided m e r e l y by comparing t h e r e l a -
t i v e magnitude o f t h e c a l c u l a t e d s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r a t t h e c r a c k t i p s . Ma-
t e r i a l i n t e r f a c e s o r d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s have v e r y small e f f e c t s on t h e s t r e s s i n -
t e n s i t y f a c t o r when t h e f r a c t u r e i s s i t u a t e d f a r f r o m t h e bounding p l a n e s . The
r e l a t i v e magnitude o f t h e s t r e s s i n t e n s i t y f a c t o r a t t h e c r a c k t i p s can be used
t o i n d i c a t e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e movement. F r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t i s a
f u n c t i o n o f overburden s t r e s s g r a d i e n t , p o r e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t , and r a t i o o f ho-
r i z o n t a l t o v e r t i c a l s t r e s s (EATON 1969).

4.2.3.2.3. Reservoir elasticity vs. plasticity

Fracture propagation modelling i s u n r e a l i s t i c i f r e s e r v o i r rocks are t r e a t e d
as i d e a l l y e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s as done by a l l o f t h e commonly used t h e o r i e s , and
o n l y becomes reasonable i f p l a s t i c i t y and s u r f a c e energy o f t h e f o r m a t i o n s a r e
i n c l u d e d i n t h e approach (MEDLIN & MASSE 1986). F r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n s a r e f r e -
q u e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t i n b r i t t l e sandstone o r l i m e s t o n e i n t e r v a l s t h a t a r e boun-
ded by s o f t s h a l e s which a r e l i k e l y t o be v e r y p l a s t i c . As c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n i n
p l a s t i c mudstones would r e q u i r e much h i g h e r p r o p a g a t i n g p r e s s u r e s t h a n i n o t h e r
l a y e r s , i t can be i n f e r r e d t h a t a f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t e d i n a b r i t t l e l a y e r w i t h
p l a s t i c s h a l e boundaries would t e n d t o be c o n f i n e d t h e r e by p r o p a g a t i n g p r e s s u -
r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e g a r d l e s s o f o t h e r e f f e c t s . Based on t h e e l a s t i c i t y concept,
s u r f a c e energy and shear modulus d i f f e r e n c e s c o u l d a l s o l e a d t o f r a c t u r e c o n f i -
nement i n a l a y e r between d i s s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s (BIOT, MEDLIN & MASSE 1 9 8 3 ) .

Rock f a i l u r e i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o c c u r s a t t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e i n d u -
ced c r a c k (SLUSSER & RIECKMANN 1976). I f e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n and b r i t t l e f a i l u -
r e t a k e place, f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n r e q u i r e s e s s e n t i a l l y no i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e
a t t h e c r a c k t i p s . W i t h i n c r e a s i n g r o c k p l a s t i c i t y , t h e f o r m a t i o n tends t o b a l -
l o o n b e f o r e b r e a k i n g a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p , t h u s r e q u i r i n g h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s t o ex-
t e n d t h e c r a c k . The i n c r e a s e i n a p p l i e d p r e s s u r e causes an i n c r e a s e i n f r a c t u r e
w i d t h and by m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a s h o r t e r c r a c k l e n g t h . An i n -
crease i n i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e t o g e t h e r w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n i n -
stantaneous s h u t - i n p r e s s u r e d u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t may i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e forma-
t i o n i s behaving i n a p l a s t i c manner. Comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on d i s t r i -
b u t i o n o f p l a s t i c i t y zones i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , p l a s t i c i t y vs. n o n - l i n e a r e l a s t i c i -
t y , and p l a s t i c i t y e f f e c t s on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g .

4.2.3.2.3.1. Distribution o f plasticity zones in the reservoir

Zones o f p l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r a r e o f t e n heterogeneously d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h i c k r e -
s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l s (MEDLIN & MASSE 1986). W h i l e many p r o s p e c t i v e r o c k s behave
l i k e b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s even a t t h e h i g h e s t c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s e s o f p r a c t i c a l i n -
t e r e s t , o t h e r pay f o r m a t i o n s a r e b r i t t l e a t low c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s , b u t p l a s t i c
t o some degree a t h i g h c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s e s w h i c h a r e t y p i c a l o f deeper w e l l s . Re-
s u l t s o f t e n s i l e s t r e s s / s t r a i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s show t h a t p l a s t i c i t y e f f e c t s i n
s h a l e s a r e l i k e l y t o be more i m p o r t a n t i n c o n t r o l l i n g f r a c t u r e h e i g h t t h a n
o t h e r f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g f a r - f i e l d s t r e s s (MEDLIN & MASSE 1986). F o r m a t i o n p l a s -
t i c i t y i s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t , as t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s con-
t r o l l i n g f r a c t u r e containment a r e p l a s t i c i t y o f bounding s h a l e l a y e r s and h o r i -
zontal s t r e s s v a r i a t i o n s w i t h d e p t h (MEDLIN & FITCH 1983; c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 1 . ) . D u c t i l i t y i n r e s e r v o i r r o c k s may a l s o l e a d t o a b n o r m a l l y h i g h
t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s i n l a r g e o p e r a t i o n s . L a b o r a t o r y experiments a r e c a r r i e d o u t
by MEDLIN & MASSE (1984), and o t h e r aspects o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n a r e c o n t r i -
b u t e d by B I O T , MASSE & MEOLIN ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

P l a s t i c i t y depends on t h e r e l a t i v e magnitudes o f s u r f a c e energy and energy

d i s s i p a t e d i n p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k (MEDLIN & MASSE 1986).
P l a s t i c i t y g e n e r a l l y shows up i n f r a c t u r i n g r e c o r d s as abnormal t r e a t i n g pressu-
 393

r e s and r e s u l t s i n c r a c k s which a r e s h o r t e r and w i d e r than normal f o r p u r e l y

b r i t t l e b e h a v i o u r . As energy s p e n t i n p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n ahead o f t h e f r a c t u r e
t i p i n c r e a s e s i n p r o p o r t i o n t o c r a c k l e n g t h , p l a s t i c i t y e f f e c t s which m i g h t be
n e g l i g i b l e i n small t r e a t m e n t s c o u l d become s i g n i f i c a n t i n v e r y l a r g e o r massi-
ve h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s . P l a s t i c zones, however, u s u a l l y do n o t com-
p r i s e whole r e s e r v o i r l a y e r s and s t o r e y s , b u t a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by n o n - u n i f o r m
p a t c h y d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e p r o s p e c t i v e f o r m a t i o n . P l a s t i c i t y must g e n e r a l l y
be more o r l e s s c o n t i n u o u s l y d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t an i n t e r v a l t o be f r a c t u r e d
t o have s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s , because p l a s t i c zones o f li-
m i t e d e x t e n t w i t h i n such h o r i z o n s a r e expected t o have o n l y l i t t l e e f f e c t s i n c e
f r a c t u r e s s i m p l y propagate around them.

P l a s t i c i t y i n s h a l e s p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n c o n t r o l l i n g f r a c t u r e h e i g h t .
F r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s a r e f r e q u e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t i n b r i t t l e sandstone o r carbona-
t e i n t e r v a l s bounded by s o f t s h a l e s which a r e l i k e l y t o be v e r y p l a s t i c . F r a c t u -
r e s i n i t i a t e d i n b r i t t l e sandstones o r carbonates w i t h p l a s t i c s h a l e boundaries
t e n d t o be c o n f i n e d t h e r e by p r o p a g a t i n g p r e s s u r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e g a r d l e s s o f
other effects.

4.2.3.2.3.2. Plasticity vs. non-linear elasticity

T y p i c a l r e s e r v o i r r o c k s may d i s p l a y a wide v a r i e t y o f b e h a v i o u r . Many behave
l i k e b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s even a t t h e h i g h e s t c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s e s o f p r a c t i c a l i n t e -
r e s t , w h i l e o t h e r s a r e b r i t t l e a t low c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s b u t p l a s t i c t o some de-
g r e e a t h i g h e r c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s e s t y p i c a l o f deeper w e l l s . A few pay zones show
sound degree of p l a s t i c i t y even a t modest c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s . D i s t i n c t i o n has t o
be made between p l a s t i c i t y and n o n - l i n e a r e l a s t i c i t y which can be done by h y s t e -
r e s i s curves t h a t d e f i n e t h e amount o f r e c o v e r a b l e s t r a i n . H y s t e r e s i s r e s u l t s
show t h a t s t r a i n beyond a w e l l - d e f i n e d y i e l d p o i n t u s u a l l y r e p r e s e n t s p l a s t i c
d e f o r m a t i o n . Gradual bending o v e r t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e i s g e n e r a l l y due t o
n o n - l i n e a r e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n w i t h r e c o v e r a b l e s t r a i n . Most o f t h e r o c k mate-
r i a l s showing s i g n i f i c a n t bending o f t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s d i s p l a y conside-
r a b l e creep a t f i x e d e l o n g a t i o n .

L i m i t i n g v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e h e i g h t s t r i c t l y t o t h e pay zone l e a d s t o more e f -

f i c i e n t and more p r o d u c t i v e c r a c k s which a l s o o f t e n e x t e n d deeper i n t o t h e f o r -
m a t i o n . B o t h upwards and downwards growth o f t h e f r a c t u r e can be r e a s o n a b l y con-
t r o l l e d i n o r d e r t o channel t h e c r a c k as designed i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e pay
zone (DDWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1986). Shales w i t h f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t s g r e a t e r than
1.0 p s i / f t do n o t behave e l a s t i c a l l y and processes such as c r e e p and p o s s i b l y
f r a c t u r i n g a r e t h e dominant mechanisms c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s t r e s s s t a t e (WARPINSKI,
BRANAGAN & WILMER 1985). I f sandstones and s i l t s t o n e s h a v i n g much l o w e r s t r e s -
ses w i t h f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t s o f 0.8 - 0.9 p s i / f t a r e interbedded, c r a c k c o n t a i n -
ment can be e x p e c t e d due t o i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s .

4.2.3.2.3.3. Plasticity effects on hydraulic f ractur ins

H i g h degrees o f p l a s t i c i t y o f f o r m a t i o n r o c k s have t h r e e main e f f e c t s on hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (SLUSSER & RIECKMANN 1976) c o m p r i s i n g c r e a t i o n o f w i d e r
c r a c k s t h a n p r e d i c t e d b y c o n v e n t i o n a l designs based on b r i t t l e r o c k f a i l u r e , es-
t a b l i s h m e n t o f s h o r t e r f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , and r e q u i r i n g i n c r e a s i n g s u r f a c e t r e a t -
i n g p r e s s u r e a t c o n s t a n t i n j e c t i o n r a t e d u r i n g t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b . Wider
c r a c k s a r e a b e n e f i c i a l r e s u l t , because t h e y i n c r e a s e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y es-
p e c i a l l y i n t h e c r i t i c a l area near t h e w e l l b o r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y by r e d u c i n g t h e
magnitude o f f r a c t u r e damage by p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g and embedment ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.3.3.1.1.). The e x t r a w i d t h o b t a i n e d i n more p l a s t i c f o r m a t i o n s can be v e r y i m -
p o r t a n t i n m a i n t a i n i n g l o n g - t e r m p r o d u c t i o n improvements w h i c h o t h e r w i s e c o u l d
be l o s t by f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e .

On t h e o t h e r hand, s h o r t e r f r a c t u r e l e n g t h i s a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t o f r e s e r -
 394

v o i r p l a s t i c i t y . P r o d u c t i v i t y improvements o b t a i n e d b y f r a c t u r i n g i n c r e a s e gene-
r a l l y w i t h p r o p p e d c r a c k l e n g t h p r o v i d e d t h e c r a c k has a d e q u a t e c o n d u c t i v i t y . A
s h o r t e r f r a c t u r e l e n g t h f o r a g i v e n s i z e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n , however, may r e -
s u l t i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s p r o d u c t i o n improvement and c o u l d t u r n t h e a n t i c i p a -
t e d s u c c e s s f u l j o b i n t o an u n e x p e c t e d e c o n o m i c a l f a i l u r e . I n c r e a s i n g t r e a t i n g
p r e s s u r e s a r e a l s o an u n f a v o u r a b l e drawback, because h i g h e r b o t t o m - h o l e i n j e c -
t i o n p r e s s u r e s r e q u i r e d f o r f r a c t u r i n g o f t h e more p l a s t i c f o r m a t i o n s w i l l a l s o
r e q u i r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y h i g h e r s u r f a c e i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e . As a r e s u l t , i n j e c -
t i o n r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s f o r deep t i g h t gas f r a c t u r i n g may be l i m i t e d b y t h e sa-
f e t y p r e s s u r e r a t i n g s on w e l l h e a d and t u b u l a r goods.

4.2.3.2.4. Fracture propagation across weakness planes

DANESHY ( 1 9 7 4 ) i n v e s t i g a t e s h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n t h e p r e s e n c e
o f weakness p l a n e s . L a r g e m a t e r i a l f l a w s a r e u n a b l e t o d r a s t i c a l l y change c r a c k
orientation. Even i f t h e f r a c t u r e does n o t e n c i r c l e f o r m a t i o n d e f e c t s and o v e r -
r i d e s t h e i r p o s s i b l e e f f e c t , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f m a t e r i a l f l a w s i s l o c a l and i n -
s i g n i f i c a n t on t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t . D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be
made between o p e n i n g , s l i d i n g and t e a r i n g mode o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n (IRWIN
1 9 5 7 ) . H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e u s u a l l y i n d u c e d b y t h e o p e n i n g mode, p o s s e s s a
volume and a r e c r e a t e d b y normal s t r e s s e s and m a t e r i a l t e n s i l e f a i l u r e , whereas
s l i d i n g - and t e a r i n g - m o d e f r a c t u r e s o r i g i n a t e b y s h e a r s t r e s s e s and have n o v o -
lume. S m a l l - and medium-scale open o r c l o s e d m a t e r i a l f l a w s c a n b e e a s i l y c r o s -
sed by p r o p a g a t i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s , w i t h t h e a d v a n t a g e o f weakness e x i s t e n -
ce being a r e d u c t i o n i n e f f e c t i v e rock surface energy t h a t consequently decrea-
ses t h e e n e r g y n e c e s s a r y f o r c r a c k e x t e n s i o n .

A l t h o u g h t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e c a n n o t d i r e c t l y c r o s s n a t u r a l j o i n t s due t o
m a t e r i a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y , i t c a n e n c i r c l e t h e f l a w and t h u s m a i n t a i n i t s c o n t i n u i -
t y i f i t s d i m e n s i o n s a r e much l a r g e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e d e f e c t . I f t h e p l a n e o f
weakness i s so l a r g e t h a t i t c a n n o t be e n c i r c l e d b y t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e , the
c r a c k may i n t e r s e c t t h e f l a w and m a i n t a i n i t s o r i g i n a l d i r e c t i o n , o r t h e h y d r a u -
l i c f r a c t u r e may r e o r i e n t i t s e l f and p r o p a g a t e a l o n g t h e weakness p l a n e . Once
t h e h y d r a u l i c c r a c k has e s t a b l i s h e d i t s o r i e n t a t i o n , i t i s u n l i k e l y f o r i t t o
u n d e r g o d r a s t i c a l r e o r i e n t a t i o n , because i t t a k e s l e s s f l u i d p r e s s u r e t o c o n t i -
nue t h e f r a c t u r e i n t h e same p l a n e t h a n t o s t a r t a new one i n a s u b s t a n t i a l l y
d i f f e r e n t direction. I n severely naturally fractured reservoirs w i t h very high
j o i n t permeabilities, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o predict hydraulic crack propagation
due t o t h e m u t u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t h e many f l a w s , b u t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p does
n o t s e r i o u s l y j e o p a r d i z e t h e v a l i d i t y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n model-
ling, since intensively naturally jointed formations are highly productive with-
o u t r e q u i r i n g h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n f o r h y d r o c a r b o n o f f t a k e enhancement (DANE-
SHY 1974; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . ) .

AHMED, STRAWN, SCHMIDT, O'SHEA & VEGHTE ( 1 9 8 3 ) comment on s t i m u l a t i n g t i g h t

sands i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f weak s t r e s s b a r r i e r s b y m o d i f i e d h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
t e c h n i q u e s . Weak i n t e r f a c e s and i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s a r e t h e m o s t l i k e l y
f a c t o r s t o c o n t a i n a p r o p a g a t i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e (WARPINSKI, CLARK, SCHMIDT
& HUDDLE 1982; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.3.1. and 4 . 2 . 2 . 5 . 3 . ) . W h i l e weak i n t e r f a c e s
a r e p r o b a b l y e f f e c t i v e o n l y a t shallow depths, i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s a r e
the predominant c o n t r o l i n g r e a t e r depths ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.3.2.2.3.). Differen-
ces i n e l a s t i c m o d u l i between s u c c e s s i v e l a y e r s may r e s u l t i n s t r e s s d i f f e r e n -
ces t h a t e i t h e r enhance o r d e t e r i o r a t e c r a c k g r o w t h i n t o t h e b o u n d i n g n o n - r e s e r -
v o i r s t r a t a . F r a c t u r e c o n t a i n m e n t may o f t e n o c c u r a t m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y i n t e r f a -
c e s because t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r i s a h i g h e r s t r e s s r e g i o n .

4.2.3.2.5. Premature screenout termination

Premature screenout t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n j o b i n t e r r u p t s
f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n a t an u n e x p e c t e d and n o t d e s i g n e d p o i n t and i s g e n e r a l l y
 395

an unwanted drawback by b e i n g an e a r l y f a i l u r e n o t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e t r e a t -
ment p l a n . Screenout o r i g i n a t e s by f r a c t u r i n g m a t e r i a l becoming s t u c k i n t h e
c r a c k by p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g and/or f l u i d s t i c k i n g due t o e x c e s s i v e c a r r i e r v i s c o -
s i t y o r s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n . F r a c t u r e blockage by proppant b r i d g i n g t a k e s p l a c e
i f c r a c k w i d t h i s s m a l l e r than a t l e a s t 2 . 5 t o 3 t i m e s t h e proppant g r a i n diame-
t e r (BEN NACEUR 1987; c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.11.2.1. and 4.8.8.3.2.3.). Fluid stick-
i n g o r i g i n a t e s f r o m development o f f r i c t i o n between p a r t i c l e s and f r a c t u r e
w a l l s i f t h e proppant s l u r r y i s s u b j e c t e d t o s u f f i c i e n t f l u i d l o s s t o a l l o w t h e
suspended p r o p p a n t g r a i n s t o come i n t o c o n t a c t , w i t h t h e r e s u l t a n t s o l i d mass
o f c l u s t e r e d proppants becoming immobile and f o r m i n g an o b s t a c l e i n t h e c r a c k .
A c c e l e r a t e d s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n by leakage i n t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and f i s s u r e s
i s a v e r y s e r i o u s reason l e a d i n g t o s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.2.3.,
4.2.3.5.3. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s focusses on aspects o f g e l
degradation, i n s u f f i c i e n t f r a c t u r e w i d t h , and impact o f 100 mesh sand l e a d - i n
stages.

4.2.3 2.5.1. Gel degradation

The s t r u c t u r e o f most f r a c t u r i n g g e l s tends t o degrade and l o s e i t s proppant
t r a n s p o r t and suspension a b i l i t y t o some degree w i t h b o t h i n c r e a s i n g temperatu-
r e and t i m e (POULSEN & LEE 1984). A l t h o u g h some g e l s r e q u i r e e l e v a t e d temperatu-
r e s t o a t t a i n t h e i r maximum degree o f c r o s s l i n k i n g , these f l u i d s a l s o degrade
w i t h s u f f i c i e n t temperature and t i m e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.). Since f l u i d tempera-
t u r e and r e s i d e n c e t i m e i n t h e f r a c t u r e b o t h i n c r e a s e w i t h d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e
wellbore, i t f o l l o w s t h a t the c l o s e r the f l u i d i s t o the crack t i p , the less
p r o p p a n t - c a r r y i n g a b i l i t y i t has. T h e r e f o r e f r e q u e n t l y p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g and
b l o c k i n g t a k e s p l a c e a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p p r o v o k i n g premature o r submature
screenout t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e j-o b (. c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.2.3.. 4.2.3 5.3. and
6.2.4.2.1.).

4.2.3.2.5.2. Insufficient fracture width

O t h e r causes i n c l u d e i n s u f f i c i e n t f l u i d volume and v i s c o s i t y mode l i n g as
w e l l as u n s a t i s f a c t o r y f r a c t u r e opening, w i t h t h e c r e a t e d w i d t h n o t r e a c h i n g
t h e designed v a l u e . F r a c t u r e s p r o p a g a t i n g f r o m l o w - s t r e s s sandstone r e s e r v o i r s
i n t o t h e a d j o i n i n g h i g h - s t r e s s mudstone boundaries s u f f e r f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e r e l a t i v e c r a c k w i d t h i s v e r y narrow i n t h e mudstone s e c t i o n and t h e r e f o r e
t o p and b o t t o m screenout can o c c u r . On t h e o t h e r hand, p r o p e r f r a c t u r e t r e a t -
ment p l a n n i n g and o p e r a t i o n can implement s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n i q u e s f o r v e r t i c a l
growth containment and l a t e r a l e x t e n s i o n l i m i t i n g by crack blockage w i t h l i g h t
buoyant proppants a t t h e t o p o r heavy s e t t l i n g proppants a t t h e b o t t o m ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.2.2.4.) and t i p p l u g g i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.4.3.), respectively, represent-
i n g a r t i f i c i a l and c o n t r o l l e d s c r e e n o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n s o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n
i n a determined d i r e c t i o n . Premature a c c i d e n t a l s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n i s a l s o
caused by f a i l u r e t o use a p r o p e r l y v i s c o s i f i e d base f l u i d w i t h adequate l e a k -
o f f and foam s t a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e s p e c i a l l y i n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r -
v o i r s (SATTLER, RAIBLE, GALL & GILL 1988).

I n case o f a p r o p e r l y executed s t i m u l a t i o n j o b , unexpected s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a -

t i o n g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e optimum t r e a t m e n t s i z e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e s e r -
v o i r and i s t h e r e f o r e a p o s i t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n b e i n g a r e a l i s t i c i n d i c a t o r o f na-
t u r a l pay zone geometry l i m i t a t i o n s and t h e i r impact on h y d r a u l i c p e r m e a b i l i t y
enhancement. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , however, t h e u s e f u l aspect o f screenouts i s o f t e n
o b l i t e r a t e d by j o b f a i l u r e due t o poor o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l o r a p p l i c a t i o n o f i n -
s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a n f l u i d s , w i t h these drawbacks b e i n g the i n s e r t i o n p o i n t o f ma-
j o r e f f o r t s o f i m p r o v i n g s t i m u l a t i o n performance.
 396

4.2.3.2.5.3. Impact of 100 mesh sand lead-in stages

I n composed t r e a t m e n t s c o n s i s t i n g o f 100 mesh l e a d - i n stage and 20/40 mesh
main l o t o f proppants, r a d i c a l i n c r e a s e s i n p r e s s u r e s l o p e t e s t i f y t o b e g i n n i n g
o f b r i d g i n g i n t h e reduced w i d t h p o r t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e i n t h e l o w e r and upper
b a r r i e r s (BEGNAUD & CLAIBORNE 1 9 8 5 ) . B r i d g i n g i s due t o r e d u c t i o n i n w i d t h r e l a -
t e d t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n r o c k p r o p e r t i e s and h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s between pay
zone and b a r r i e r s , w i t h n a t u r a l j o i n t s w i t h i n t h e pay zone t e n d i n g t o s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y reduce f r a c t u r e w i d t h w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r due t o l e a k o f f . B r i d g i n g
leads t o c o n t r o l l e d h e i g h t growth w i t h c r a c k e x t e n s i o n o c c u r r i n g w i t h a concur-
r e n t i n c r e a s e i n n e t p r e s s u r e w h i c h i s c o n c e p t u a l l y due t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n f r a c -
t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e along t h e c r a c k f a c e .

When the s m a l l spacer pad o f c r o s s l i n k e d g e l r u n ahead o f t h e 100 mesh stage

l e a k e d o f f , t h e 100 mesh stage dehydrates a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p t h e r e b y p r o v o k i n g
a screenout ( a s p e c t s o f 100 mesh sand l e a d - i n stages a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n sec-
t i o n s 1.4.11.2.1. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . Premature s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n can be
avoided by moving t h e 100 mesh stage f u r t h e r back i n t h e pad. Screenout f a i l u r e
can a l s o be due t o opening o f secondary f r a c t u r e s ( c f . a l s o NOLTE & SMITH 1981;
c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . The e f f e c t o f a l l e g e d b r i d g i n g d i m i n i s h e s p r o p p a n t con-
c e n t r a t i o n i n b a r r i e r and r e s e r v o i r t h u s s e v e r e l y r e d u c i n g e f f e c t i v e c o n d u c t i v i -
t y t h r o u g h t h e b a r r i e r i f indeed any m i g h t e x i s t (BEGNAUD & CLAIBORNE 1985).

4.2.3.2.6. Stress differences and containment

F r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n under s t r e s s containment i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by two asymp-
t o t i c r e g i o n s (THIERCELIN, BEN NACEUR & LEMANCZYK 1 9 8 5 ) . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
p r o p a g a t i o n , c r a c k shape e v o l u t i o n i s c l o s e t o r a d i a l e x t e n s i o n and t h e f r a c t u -
r e i s n o t c o n t a i n e d . A f t e r a g i v e n time, good c r a c k containment i s achieved by
decreasing h e i g h t growth and i n t u r n i n c r e a s i n g l e n g t h e x t e n s i o n , e s p e c i a l l y
when f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i s almost c o n s t a n t f o r 50 % o f c r a c k l e n g t h . The t i p o f
t h e e x t e n d i n g f r a c t u r e i s f r e q u e n t l y o f e l l i p t i c a l shape a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l e a d -
i n g edge concept ( S E T T A R I & CLEARY 1986). F r a c t u r e h e i g h t near t h e w e l l b o r e i s
o f t e n somewhat s m a l l e r than t h a t f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e borehole, which i s r e l a -
t e d t o t h e s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n near t h e w e l l b o r e t h a t i s always a c t i v e near
t h e v e r t i c a l end o f t h e c r a c k (THIERCELIN, BEN NACEUR & LEMANCZYK 1985).

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s u s u a l l y t e n d t o move upwards due t o i n c r e a s i n g o v e r b u r -

den s t r e s s w i t h d e p t h t h a t l i m i t s downwards crack p r o p a g a t i o n , a l t h o u g h i n many
i n s t a n c e s , f r a c t u r e s have shown a preponderance o f downwards growth (LAMBERT,
DOLAN & GALLUS 1983; P A I , G A R B I S & HALL 1983). F r a c t u r e h e i g h t i s g e n e r a l l y r e -
l a t e d t o competence, t h i c k n e s s and hardness o f t h e mudstone b a r r i e r , and i s
a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by t h e n a t u r e o f t h e cement bond. Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as
f o l l o w s on f l u i d b r e a k t h r o u g h v s . i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e and p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g vs.
barrier stability.

4.2.3.2.6.1. Fluid breakthrough vs. injection pressure

BEGNAUD & CLAIBORNE (1985) r e p o r t examples o f f l u i d b r e a k t h r o u g h f r o m one ho-
r i z o n through t h e bounding seal i n t o another r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y as a consequence
o f h i g h i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s d u r i n g f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . F l u i d communication
e x i s t e d d u r i n g course o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b , b u t n o t a f t e r t h e f r a c t u r i n g j o b
due t o l a c k o f proppant s u p p o r t o f t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e crack r u n n i n g t h r o u g h t h e
s e p a r a t i n g b a r r i e r . The b r e a k t h r o u g h can be c o n f i r m e d by p o s t - f r a c t u r e gamma-
r a y h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) which r e v e a l s t h a t v a r y i n g amounts
o f proppants r e f l e c t i n g l e s s e r r a d i a t i o n i n t e n s i t y l e v e l s were t r a n s p o r t e d
through t h e b a r r i e r i n t o t h e o t h e r pay zone l e v e l . The e f f e c t o f a l l e g e d b r i d g -
i n g d i m i n i s h e s proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n b a r r i e r and r e s e r v o i r , t h e r e b y s e r i o u s -
l y r e d u c i n g e f f e c t i v e c o n d u c t i v i t y through t h e b a r r i e r .
 397

4.2.3.2.6.2. Proppant bridging vs. barrier stability

I n terms o f p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g vs. b a r r i e r s t a b i l i t y , some bounding s e a l s a r e
o n l y m a r g i n a l l y e f f e c t i v e i n f r a c t u r e h e i g h t containment u n l e s s p r o p p a n t b r i d g -
i n g p r e v e n t s c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e f r o m r e a c h i n g t h e f r a c t u r e t i p (BEGNAUD
& CLAIBORNE 1985). I n case o f complete b a r r i e r breakthrough, p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g
m i g h t a l s o p r e v e n t c r a c k growth i n t o t h e lower s t r e s s pay zone on t h e o p p o s i t e
s i d e o f t h e boundary s e a l . E a r l y p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g improves containment and
helps t o prevent f r a c t u r e propagation through the b a r r i e r i n t o the adjacent re-
s e r v o i r s t o r e y . I f t h e c r a c k has n o t c o m p l e t e l y grown through t h e b a r r i e r a t
t h e t i m e t h e p r o p p a n t i s i n t r o d u c e d , then b r i d g i n g i n t h e reduced w i d t h may p r e -
v e n t f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e f r o m r e a c h i n g t h e c r a c k e d edge i n t h e boun-
d a r y seal t h u s i n h i b i t i n g e x t e n s i o n i n t o t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l .
Regardless o f t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g , i t seems t h a t two a d j o i n i n g
pay i n t e r v a l s separated by a b a r r i e r can u s u a l l y n o t be e f f e c t i v e l y propped
w i t h a f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i n g f r o m o n l y one o f them.

4.2.3.2.6.3. Other aspects

Experimental approaches o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n m o d e l l i n g a r e a l s o c a r r i e d
o u t by TEUFEL & CLARK (1981); HANSON, ANDERSON, SHAFFER & THORSON (1982); WAR-
P I N S K I , CLARK, SCHMIDT & HUDDLE (1982); AHMED, WILSON & STRAWN (1983); PAPADD-
POULOS, NARENDRAN & CLEARY (1983) and MEDLIN & MASSE (1984). F r a c t u r e h e i g h t o r
w i d t h depending on l e n g t h p r o p a g a t i o n models a r e presented, compared and/or d i s -
cussed by PALMER & CARROLL (1982, 1983); CLEARY, KECK & MEAR (1983); ABOU-
SAYED, CLIFTON, DOUGHERTY & MORALES (1984); PALMER & LUISKUTTY (1985) and
CROCKETT, OKUSU & CLEARY (1986). Aspects o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n a r e a l s o d i s -
cussed by BARENBLATT (1962), DUNLAP (1963), HOWARD & FAST (1970 b ) ; ABE, MURA &
KEER (1976) ; DANESHY (1976), CLEARY (1978), T R A V I S (1981) ; CLEARY, NARENDRAN,
SETTARI & WONG (1982); BARREE (1983), SETTARI (1985); THIERCELIN, BEN NACEUR &
LEMANCZYK (1985) and EL RABAA ( 1 9 8 7 ) . RODRIGUEZ, HORNE & CINCD-LEY (1984) r e -
p o r t p a r t i a l l y penetrating fractures.

4.2.3.3. Shear slippage and tensile failure

F r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n and opening o f j o i n t s i s c o n t r o l l e d by two d i f f e r e n t
r o c k mechanical processes c o m p r i s i n g shear s l i p p a g e and t e n s i l e f a i l u r e (MURPHY
& FEHLER 1986; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.4.4. and 6 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) . I n t e r a c t i v e c o u p l i n g
o f f l u i d dynamics w i t h r o c k s t r e s s e s and d e f o r m a t i o n s r e v e a l s two t y p e s o f s t i -
m u l a t i o n p a t t e r n s . I n t h e f i r s t case, low f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e t o shear s l i p -
page and l a r g e maximum d i l a t a n c y t o shear s l i p p a g e g i v e s r i s e t o c r e a t i o n o f
o n l y a s i n g l e j o i n t which i s i n agreement w i t h t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g t h e o r y t h a t a s i n g l e c r a c k opens a t a p r e s s u r e equal t o t h e minimum
e a r t h s t r e s s (DANESHY 1973 a ) . I n t h e second case c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o h i g h shear
r e s i s t a n c e o r s m a l l d i l a t a n c y , however, m u l t i p l y j o i n t s t i m u l a t i o n o c c u r s .
Shear s l i p p a g e a l o n g t h e c r a c k s i s accompanied by s h e a r - s t r e s s drops, and t h e
i n t e r a c t i o n o f these s t r e s s drops w i t h t h e a c t i n g e a r t h s t r e s s e s r e s u l t s i n
opening o f j o i n t s more p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e maximum s t r e s s , t h u s f o r m i n g a den-
d r i t i c o r branched p a t t e r n (MURPHY & FEHLER 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 7 . 3 . ) . Com-
ments on j o i n t d e f o r m a t i o n p r i n c i p l e s and i n f l u e n c e o f f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a r e o f f e -
r e d as f o l l o w s .

4.2.3.3.1. Joint deformation principles

J o i n t opening o r d i l a t i o n b e h a v i o u r f o r shear s l i p p a g e and s e p a r a t i o n by t e n -
s i l e f a i l u r e i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . With r i s i n g f l u i d pressure, d i l a t i o n i s f i r s t
small and s i m p l y r e s u l t s f r o m d e c r e a s i n g e f f e c t i v e c l o s u r e s t r e s s . A t h i g h e r
pressures, shear s l i p p a g e o f j o i n t s u r f a c e s occurs u n t i l one l a r g e roughness as-
 398
p e r i t y l i e s a t o p another and f u r t h e r slippage would a l l o w the l a r g e s t a s p e r i t y
to s l i d e over a n d down the o t h e r , with t h i s being a n a t u r a l l i m i t t o shear d i l a -
t i o n which i s maximally i n the o r d er of a f r a c t i o n of a m illim e te r (BARTON, BAN-
DIS & BAKHTAR 1985). Further increasing j o i n t pressure leads t o se pa ra tion of
the crack w a l l s , w i t h d i l a t i o n being t y p i c a l l y in the range of tens of m i l l i m e -
t e r s (PERKINS & K E R N 1961, DANESHY 1973 a ) , thereby being many times t h a t of
shear d i l a t i o n .

I n a n actual hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g operation, the e n t i r e spectrum of j o i n t de-

formation comprising shear slippage and t e n s i l e separation occurs ( M U R P H Y & FEH-
LER 1986). Near the i n j ect i o n well where the flow passage area i s l i m i t e d ,
f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s and pressure g r ad i en t s ar e l a rge a n d t e n s i l e f a i l u r e of the
rock gives r i s e t o crack s ep ar at i o n . Near the t i p s of the j o i n t s f a r away from
the i n j e c t i o n w e l l , however, pressures a n d v e l o c i t i e s of the f l u i d a re much re-
duced, a n d shear slippage takes place.

4.2.3.3.2. Influence of fluid viscosity

D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between low- a n d high-viscosity f l u i d s . High-vis-
c o s i t y f l u i d s a r e t y p i c a l l y used i n hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r stim ula tion a n d a re
in j e c t e d a t high r a t e s . Therefore j o i n t s e pa ra tion i s dominant, a n d i f only a
few n a t u r a l cracks ar e present a s f r eq u en t l y happens t o be the case i n petro-
leum-bearing formations, actual f r a c t u r i n g with c re a tion of new j o i n t planes by
t e n s i l e f a i l u r e of i n t a c t rock occurs. Geothermal h o t dry rock r e s e r v o i r s , how-
e v e r , a r e o f t e n i n t en s el y n a t u r a l l y j o i n t ed , a n d high downhole temperatures ren-
der most of the v i s co s i f y i n g agents of f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s use le ss. Thus water i s
used i n geothermal f r a c t u r i n g and t h i s low-viscosity f l u i d gives r i s e t o domina-
t i n g shear slippage by moving and separation of already pre -e xisting cracks
without opening of new f r a c t u r e s by actual rupturing of the rock ( c f . se c tion
4.7.6.).

4.2.3.4. Inf hence of geological discontinuities

The widely held assumption t h a t the hydraulic f r a c t u r e s a re ideal planar fe a -
tu r e s of usually constant height i s probably untenable i n many r e s e r v o i r s becau-
se of geological d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s (WARPINSKI & TEUFEL 1984). Geological d i s c o n t i -
n u i t i e s such a s j o i n t s ( c f . p l a t e s I / l - 6 , IV/4 - 8 , VII/3 - 4, VIII/1 - 2 and
XI/4 - 6), f a u l t s ( c f . p l a t e XI/3), bedding planes ( c f . p l a t e s 11, I I I / 1 - 2,
IV, V I I , V I I I a n d IX) a n d s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s a re u b i q u i t o u s f e a t u r e s whose e f f e c t
on propagation of hydraulic f r a c t u r e s depends on a n c i l l a r y treatment and such
r e s e r v o i r parameters as operating pressure, i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s , o r i e n t a t i o n of
d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , a n d permeability.

Geological d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s influence the overall geometry a n d e f f e c t i v e n e s s

of the hydraulic f r a c t u r e by stopping v e r t i c a l propagation due t o containing ac-
tion of i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n , material property v a r i a t i o n s , bounding
shale p l a s t i c i t y , a n d cohesionless o r unbonded i n t e r f a c e s ( c f . a l s o ANDERSON
1981); a r r e s t i n g l a t e r a l propagation across f a u l t s ( c f . p l a t e XI/3) and sand
lens boundaries ( c f . p l a t e s II/7 - 8, V I I / l , V I I I / 7 a n d IX/8) where s t r e s s e s
may i n c r e a se , reducing t o t a l length by f l u i d le a koff, and f a c i l i t a t i n g o r i g i n
of m u l t i p l e p a r a l l e l - f r a c t u r e systems, hindering p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t a n d place-
ment because of non-planarity of the s i n g u l ar f r a c t u r e or multiple crack sys-
tem, a n d inducing additional height growth from higher t r e a t i n g pre ssure s. The
result may range from n e g l i g i b l e t o cat as t r o phic depending on the values of t h e
a n c i l l a r y parameters. The most important aspects a r e f r a c t u r e branching, impact
of f a u l t s and j o i n t s , i n t e r a c t i o n between hydraulic f r a c t u r e s a n d geological
d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , shear slippage vs. t e n s i l e f a i l u r e , and consequences f o r f r a c -
tu r e morphology which ar e s h o r t l y i l l u s t r a t e d as follows.
 399

4.2.3.4.1. Fracture branching

P h y s i c a l e x c a v a t i o n o f r o c k s i n o r d e r t o observe t h e f r a c t u r e d i r e c t l y by m i -
neback (TEUFEL & WARPINSKI 1983, WARPINSKI & TEUFEL 1984) documents t h a t t h e
i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n has t h e o v e r r i d i n g i n f l u e n c e on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e
p r o p a g a t i o n and containment ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4..2.2.3.1. and 4.2.3.2.2.).
F r a c t u r e containment f r o m a h i g h - s t r e s s r e g i o n i s a f i r s t - o r d e r e f f e c t , whereas
i n t e r f a c e s , modulus o r s t r e n g t h changes, f l u i d p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s , and most
bedding planes have o n l y second-order e f f e c t s on h e i g h t growth. A f t e r a s h o r t
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e s t r a n d i n g and meandering, some f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g
crack branching are o u t l i n e d .

4.2.3.4.1.1. Fracture stranding and meandering

The h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i n t h e mineback s e c t i o n s a r e f r e q u e n t l y observed t o
d i v e r g e c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m t h e usual p i c t u r e o f a p l a n a r f e a t u r e , w i t h m u l t i p l e
s t r a n d i n g , f r a c t u r e meandering ( c f . p l a t e XI/3), sharp t u r n s and c o r n e r s , and
l a r g e - s c a l e roughness and i r r e g u l a r morphology o f f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s b e i n g com-
mon occurrences. I n t h e v i c i n i t y o f g e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , there i s f r e -
q u e n t l y n o t h i n g t h a t can be c a l l e d a p l a n a r f r a c t u r e , and t h e c r a c k complex can
be b e t t e r d e s c r i b e d as a zone o f m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g which i n extreme cases a t -
t a i n s 15 - 30 f t (5 - 10 m) w i d t h . F r a c t u r e b r a n c h i n g t h e r e f o r e i s a t l e a s t i n
some r e s e r v o i r s a common phenomenon. Mineback v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and hy-
d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s i s a l s o c a r r i e d o u t by LAYNE & BYRER (1986).

Pressure growth c o m p r i s i n g a b n o r m a l l y l a r g e i n c r e a s e s i n t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e
l e a d s t o premature s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.2.3., 4.2.3.2.5.
and 6.2.4.2.1.) and t h e r e f o r e has adverse i n f l u e n c e s on f r a c t u r e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
(MEDLIN & FITCH 1983). The most i m p o r t a n t reason f o r p r e s s u r e growth i s f r a c -
t u r e b r a n c h i n g a t r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s o r n a t u r a l cracks, w i t h t h e m o s t
prominent response t o p r e s s u r e growth b e i n g a l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n e f f e c t i v e f r a c -
t u r e w i d t h . F r a c t u r e b r a n c h i n g i s c o n s i d e r a b l y a l t e r i n g t h e normal mechanics o f
c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n . F r a c t u r e growth no l o n g e r c o n s i s t s o f a s i m p l e opening o f
t h e c r a c k f a c e s a g a i n s t t h e minimum e a r t h s t r e s s , b u t s l i p m o t i o n i s i n t r o d u c e d
a l o n g many o f t h e branch faces which generates f r i c t i o n t h a t i n c r e a s e s t h e ener-
gy needed t o s u s t a i n c r a c k growth.

4.2.3.4.1.2. Factors influencing crack branching

As t h e a d d i t i o n a l energy must be s u p p l i e d by a r i s e i n f l u i d p r e s s u r e w i t h i n
t h e branched c r a c k network, f r a c t u r e b r a n c h i n g leads t o a n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e i n
t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e . Once t h e i n i t i a l s i n g u l a r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e has branched r e -
p e a t e d l y t o f o r m a l a r g e network o f small f r a c t u r e s , a t some d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e
w e l l b o r e t h e d e n s i t y o f branched c r a c k s i s l a r g e enough t o approach a more o r
l e s s homogeneous system when viewed on a l a r g e r s c a l e . Under such c o n d i t i o n s ,
f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n v i r t u a l l y ceases because o f t h e e x c e s s i v e f r i c t i o n a s s o c i a -
t e d w i t h t h e many branch crack faces, w i t h c o n t i n u e d f l u i d i n j e c t i o n then r e -
s u l t i n g i n b a l l o o n i n g o f t h e main f r a c t u r e w i t h a severe p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e .

F r a c t u r e b r a n c h i n g i s a f u n c t i o n o f pumping r a t e , w i t h low i n j e c t i o n r a t e s
m i n i m i z i n g o r even t o t a l l y suppressing c r a c k s p l i t t i n g . Extremely h i g h p r o p u l -
s i o n r a t e s such as o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.7.3.)
on t h e o t h e r hand g i v e r i s e t o immediate p r o p a g a t i o n o f a complex network o f
branched s m a l l c r a c k s and may c o m p l e t e l y i n h i b i t f o r m a t i o n o f a s i n g u l a r main
f r a c t u r e stem. Pressure growth produces o n l y l i t t l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n
and i n d i c a t e s t h a t crack h e i g h t seems t o be c o n t r o l l e d more by p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r -
v a l l e n g t h t h a n by p r e s s u r e b e h a v i o u r . F r a c t u r e s g e n e r a l l y appear t o remain
w e l l contained w i t h i n perforated i n t e r v a l s i n s p i t e o f l a r g e pressure increa-
ses.
 400

4.2.3.4.2. Impact of faults and joints

I n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e g i o n s , m u l t i p l e s t r a n d i n g o f t h e c r a c k s i s predomi-
nant, w i t h s i n g u l a r c r a c k s o n l y seldom h a v i n g been observed. F r a c t u r e s a r e
u s u a l l y o f f s e t a t j o i n t s where sometimes two o r t h r e e f r a c t u r e branches a r e i n i -
t i a t e d when c r o s s i n g t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k s and becoming o f f s e t . Some o f t h e f r a c t u -
r e strands d i e o u t i n a s h o r t distance, w h i l e others p e r s i s t f o r long distances
and d i v i d e and coalesce many times a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e l e n g t h . E v o l u t i o n , scale
and t o t a l e f f e c t o f t h e m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e zone depends t o a l a r g e degree on t h e
a n c i l l a r y parameters.

F a u l t s a l s o e x h i b i t a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on f r a c t u r e geometry and morpho-

l o g y . F r a c t u r e s o f t e n t e r m i n a t e near f a u l t s , and i n case t h e y propagate across
t h e f a u l t , t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n s f r e q u e n t y change, which can be i n v a r i a b l y a t t r i b u -
t e d t o a change i n s t r e s s e s across t h e f a u l t and n o t t o t h e f a u l t p l a n e i t s e l f .
Concerning t h e impact o f bedding o r p a r t i n g planes, two e f f e c t s a c t i n c o n c e r t .
There i s s u f f i c i e n t f r i c t i o n on t h e p a r t i n g p l a n e t o a l l o w t h e f r a c t u r e t o r e -
i n i t i a t e on t h e o t h e r s i d e , b u t n o t enough t r a n s m i t t e d s t r e s s t o a l l o w i t t o
propagate e a s i l y i n t h e h i g h e r s t r e s s l a y e r above. Thus t h e two f a c t o r s o f bed-
d i n g p l a n e and s t r e s s c o n t r a s t t o g e t h e r p r o v i d e an e x c e l l e n t containment f e a t u -
re.

A l t h o u g h g e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s may c o n s i d e r a b l y a l t e r f r a c t u r e geome-
t r y , t h e i r e f f e c t on proppant t r a n s p o r t may even be more severe. F o r c i n g sand
through such f e a t u r e s as narrow m u l t i s t r a n d f r a c t u r e s o r o f f s e t s w i l l be much
more d i f f i c u l t than t h r o u g h a w i d e r s i n g u l a r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e . The conse-
quence w i l l c e r t a i n l y be h i g h e r f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e s and q u i t e o f t e n s c r e e n o u t
can o c c u r . When l o c a l s m a l l screenouts s t a r t t o t a k e p l a c e i n some branches o f
t h e c r a c k system, t h e i n c r e a s i n g frequency o f these e v e n t s can u l t i m a t e l y p r o -
voke a complete screenout o f t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e complex.

4.2.3.4.3. Interact ion between hydraulic fractures

and geological discontinuities
Three t y p e s o f i n t e r a c t i o n s between h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s and p r e - e x i s t i n g
j o i n t s as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f g e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s have been r e c o g n i z e d
i n l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s . The h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s e i t h e r c r o s s t h e j o i n t , a r e
a r r e s t e d by opening and d i l a t i n g t h e j o i n t as i n d i c a t e d by f l u i d f l o w a l o n g t h e
crack, o r a r e stopped by shear s l i p p a g e o f t h e j o i n t w i t h no d i l a t i o n and f l u i d
f l o w along t h e c r a c k . The d i f f e r e n t types o f i n t e r a c t i o n s a r e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e
h o r i z o n t a l d i f f e r e n t i a l s t r e s s and t h e a n g l e o f approach o f t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r e t o t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g j o i n t . The h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s c r o s s t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g
j o i n t s o n l y a t h i g h h o r i z o n t a l d i f f e r e n t i a l s t r e s s and a t angles o f approach of
60 degrees o r g r e a t e r , do n o t c r o s s t h e j o i n t s a t low h o r i z o n t a l d i f f e r e n t i a l
s t r e s s and low angles o f approach p r i m a r i l y because t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e i n t h e
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i s s u f f i c i e n t t o open and d i v e r t f l u i d a l o n g t h e j o i n t s , and
a r e a r r e s t e d by shear s l i p p a g e o f t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g j o i n t w i t h no opening and d i -
v e r t i n g o f f l u i d a l o n g t h e j o i n t o n l y a t h i g h d i f f e r e n t i a l s t r e s s and low
angles o f approach ( c f . a l s o BLANTON 1 9 8 2 ) .

4.2.3.4.4. Shear slippage vs. tensile failure

A complete a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f g e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s on f r a c t u -
r e p r o p a g a t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t because o f a h i e r a r c h y o f mechanisms a v a i l a b l e t o
p e r t u r b t h e f r a c t u r e (WARPINSKI & TEUFEL 1984). C o n s i d e r i n g o n l y l e a k o f f , t h e
i n i t i a l loss mechanism i s a r e s u l t o f p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e j o i n t s , f a u l t s o r bed-
d i n g p l a n e s . W i t h i n c r e a s i n g f l u i d p r e s s u r e i n t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k s , shear s l i p -
page may occur, which may i n c r e a s e p e r m e a b i l i t y and g i v e r i s e t o a s e l f - e n h a n -
c i n g process, and when f l u i d p r e s s u r e becomes g r e a t enough t o d i l a t e t h e
 401

j o i n t s , t h e r e s u l t w i l l p r o b a b l y be c a t a s t r o p h i c l e a k o f f . The s i t u a t i o n f o r mul-
t i p l e zones o f f r a c t u r i n g i s even more complex. Good j o i n t p e r m e a b i l i t y may
l e a d t o s u f f i c i e n t f l u i d and p r e s s u r e i n t h e j o i n t t o a l l o w f l a w s t o a c t i v a t e
and f o r m a m u l t i s t r a n d system. I n a d d i t i o n , shear s l i p p a g e - i f o c c u r r i n g - may
enhance t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y , a l l o w more f l u i d t o e n t e r t h e s u b s i d i a r y s t r a n d s and
t r i g g e r the o r i g i n o f a wider i n t e r v a l o f f r a c t u r i n g .

I f t h e p r e s s u r e becomes l a r g e enough t o d i l a t e t h e j o i n t s , an e x t r e m e l y wide

zone o f f r a c t u r i n g i s p o s s i b l e , and a d d i t i o n a l l y these e f f e c t s may o c c u r as t h e
f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t s t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y , o r a t much l a t e r t i m e s as f l u i d l e a k s
o f f i n t o t h e j o i n t system. Thus t h e a c t u a l r e s u l t s s t r o n g l y depend on t h e a n c i l -
l a r y parameters of c r a c k p e r m e a b i l i t y , f r i c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s , i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s ,
j o i n t spacing and o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s t r e s s f i e l d , t r e a t m e n t p r e s -
s u r e and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y . I n a l l cases where t h e f r a c t u r e t i p i s b l u n t e d by a
j o i n t , t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k w i l l d i l a t e because t h e t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e i s g r e a t e r
than t h e maximum s t r e s s , w i t h t h i s p r o b a b l y b e i n g t h e main reason f o r t h e o r i -
g i n o f a zone o f m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g .

4.2.3.4.5. Consequences for fracture morphology

G e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s can t h e r e f o r e be t h e cause o f many adverse e f -
f e c t s d u r i n g a f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t . When t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between i n - s i t u s t r e s -
ses a r e small, g e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s t h a t a r e f a v o u r a b l y o r i e n t e d t o b l u n t
t h e c r a c k w i l l a l s o p r o b a b l y be d i l a t e d , g i v i n g r i s e t o a w i d e zone o f f r a c t u -
r i n g w i t h many p a r a l l e l s t r a n d s p r o p a g a t i n g s i d e by s i d e . When t h e d i f f e r e n c e s
between i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s a r e l a r g e , j o i n t d i l a t i o n i s n o t expected, b u t shear
s l i p p a g e o v e r an e x t e n s i v e area i s p o s s i b l e , l e a d i n g t o enhanced l e a k o f f , which
i n a d d i t i o n may a l s o be s u f f i c i e n t t o cause some f u r t h e r secondary f r a c t u r i n g
by a c t i v a t i n g f l a w s i t e s a l o n g t h e c r a c k .

The presence o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s s t a b i l i z e s t h e j o i n t s i n such a way t h a t

once a f r a c t u r e crosses a j o i n t , d i l a t i o n o r shear s l i p p a g e becomes more d i f f i -
c u l t even though t h e i n c r e a s e d p o r e p r e s s u r e r e s u l t i n g f r o m l e a k o f f may be
q u i t e l a r g e . Thus f r a c t u r e b r a n c h i n g i s p r o b a b l y a c r a c k - t i p phenomenon, and
j o i n t s a l o n g t h e c r a c k l e n g t h a r e expected t o s t a r t opening up when some t h r e s -
h o l d p r e s s u r e i s reached a f t e r t h e f r a c t u r e has passed. These e f f e c t s more o r
l e s s a p p l y f o r b o t h v e r t i c a l c r a c k systems and h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e s o f weakness.

4.2.3.5. Fracture propagat ion and pressure evolution

F r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e m o n i t o r i n g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a v a l u a b l e means f o r de-
t e r m i n a t i o n o f c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n i n p r e d o m i n a n t l y q u a l i t a t i v e manner (NOLTE
1988 a, 1988 b ) . The most i m p o r t a n t t o o l i s t h e l o g - l o g p l o t o f n e t p r e s s u r e
vs. t i m e o r p r e f e r a b l y vs. i n j e c t e d volume i f pumping r a t e v a r i e s . R e s t r i c t e d
h e i g h t growth and u n l i m i t e d l a t e r a l p r o p a g a t i o n a r e r e f l e c t e d by a s t r a i g h t
l i n e w i t h a small p o s i t i v e s l o p e i n t h i s c r o s s p l o t . N e a r l y c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e a t
c o n s t a n t i n j e c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s t e s t i f i e s t o a c c e l e r a t e d f l u i d l o s s t o opening na-
t u r a l f i s s u r e s o r s t a b l e h e i g h t growth a t moderate r a t e s . I n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e
on a p p r o x i m a t e l y u n i t s l o p e r e f l e c t s r e s t r i c t e d f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n , w i t h t h e li-
m i t a t i o n o f c r a c k p e n e t r a t i o n b e i n g caused by p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g o r e x c e s s i v e
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y due t o s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n , w i t h b o t h e f f e c t s l e a d i n g u l t i m a t e l y
t o premature s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.2.3.,
4.2.3.2.5. and 6.2.4.2.1.). Decreasing p r e s s u r e w i t h o u t changing i n j e c t i o n con-
d i t i o n s i n d i c a t e s u n s t a b l e h e i g h t growth o f runaway n a t u r e r e s u l t i n g f r o m v e r t i -
c a l f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n i n t o a n o t h e r l o w - s t r e s s zone a f t e r c r o s s i n g o f t h e h i g h -
stress b a r r i e r interval.

F r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e m o d e l l i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r h e i g h t growth
analysis through formations w i t h v a r i a b l e h o r i z o n t a l stress i n d i f f e r e n t sto-
r e y s . H o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s i n mudstones a r e g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r t h a n i n sandstones.
 402

As f r a c t u r e s t i f f n e s s i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o i n i t i a l zone h e i g h t ( w h i c h
i n i d e a l c a s e s r e p r e s e n t s g r o s s t h i c k n e s s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l t o be f r a c -
t u r e d ) and n e t p r e s s u r e i s a l s o a p p r o x i m a t e l y dependent i n t h e same manner, n e t
p r e s s u r e i s h i g h e r i n s m a l l e r h o r i z o n s t h a n t h a t i n l a r g e r s e c t i o n s . The r e s u l -
t a n t height o f the smaller i n t e r v a l i s generally greater than t h a t o f the l a r -
g e r s e c t i o n , whereas t h e a v e r a g e w i d t h o f t h e s m a l l e r zone i s u s u a l l y l e s s t h a n
t h a t o f t h e l a r g e r segment. As a consequence o f n e g l i g i b l e f l u i d loss i n bound-
i n g mudstones, f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n f o r s m a l l e r sandstone i n t e r v a l s i s p r i n c i -
p a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t f o r l o n g e r r e s e r v o i r zones w i t h t h e same volume o f i n -
jected f l u i d .

4.2.3.6. Field experience o f required seal thickness

I n t e r m s o f n e c e s s a r y o r r e q u i r e d minimum s e a l t h i c k n e s s t o a c h i e v e s a f e
f r a c t u r e c o n t a i n m e n t , i n t h e MHF o p e r a t i o n i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d t i g h t gas s a n d s t o -
n e s i n t h e w e l l S o h l i n g e n Z 4 where a b t . 550 t o f b a u x i t e p r o p p a n t s were i n j e c -
t e d i n t o a f r a c t u r e w i t h a b t . 115 m ( 3 8 0 f t ) h e i g h t and a b t . 250 m ( 8 0 0 f t )
length, t h e 1 0 m ( 3 0 f t . ) t h i c k b o u n d i n g mudstone above and t h e 40 m ( 1 3 0 f t )
t h i c k f a n g l o m e r a t e b e l o w t h e f r a c t u r e d sandstone, r e s p e c t i v e l y , have p r o v e n t o
have been s u f f i c i e n t f o r c o n t a i n i n g and l o n g i t u d i n a l l y c o n d u c t i n g e v e n such a
l a r g e - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e (KLOSE & KROMER 1983, BLEAKLEY 1984; c f . a l s o
s e c t i o n s 2.4.1.1. and 3 . 3 . 2 . ) .

4.2.4. Reservoir heterogeneity and anisotropy

F r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y d i s t u r b e d b y l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l r e s e r -
v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and a n i s o t r o p y . W h i l e i n t e r n a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s o f s a n d s t o n e
complexes such as b o u n d a r i e s between i n d i v i d u a l s e p a r a t e d o r amalgamated sand-
s t o n e b o d i e s l i k e c h a n n e l s ( c f . p l a t e s I / 7 , V/3 - 4, V I I / 1 and V111/6), lenses
( c f . p l a t e s I I / 7 - 8 ) and b a r s ( c f . p l a t e III/l- 2 ) , o n l a p ( c f . p l a t e I / 1 - 6 )
and o f f l a p f e a t u r e s , e r o s i o n a l c o n t a c t s and u n c o n f o r m i t i e s may b e o f o n l y m i n o r
s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e e x t e n s i o n of l a r g e f r a c t u r e s i n t h i c k sandstone s e r i e s ,
t h e y a r e q u i t e s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t i n g f l u i d f l o w (WEBER 1982) as w e l l as f r a c t u r e
propagation i n t h i n sheet sandstone l a y e r s . R e s e r v o i r geometry m o d e l l i n g t h e r e -
f o r e has t o e v a l u a t e p r i o r t o t h e t r e a t m e n t w h e t h e r t h e t a r g e t s h e e t s a n d s t o n e
i s more o r l e s s homogeneous and i s o t r o p i c , o r w h e t h e r i t i s o n l y an a p p a r e n t
s h e e t body c o n s i s t i n g o f more o r l e s s d i s t i n c t e l e m e n t s t h a t a r e o n l y o v e r l a p -
p i n g o r m e r g i n g t o f o r m a s e m i c o n t i n u o u s d r a p e ( c f . MADER & YARDLEY 1 9 8 5 ) .

I n o r d e r t o i m p r o v e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n o l o g y and t r e a t m e n t e f f i c i e n -
c y , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e o p e r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s and t h u s g e t
enhanced knowledge o f g e o m e t r y and f a c i e s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r when hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t (HOLDITCH, ROBINSON & WHITEHEAD 1987; HOL-
DITCH, ROBINSON, WHITEHEAD & ELY 1 9 8 7 ) . V a r i o u s s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l , p e t r o p h y s i c a l
and r o c k m e c h a n i c a l a s p e c t s a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s , and numerous d e p o s i t i o n a l
and t e c t o n i c a l f e a t u r e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d on p l a t e s I - X I ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 3 . ) .

4.2.4.1. Sedimentological aspects

Depending on how p r o n o u n c e d t h e i n t e r u n i t b o u n d a r i e s a r e d e v e l o p e d , t h e f r a c -
t u r e s may be c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l d e p o s i t i o n a l sequences o r s a n d s t o n e b o -
d i e s and p r o p a g a t i o n a c r o s s t h e b o u n d a r y may be o n l y p o s s i b l e i n c a s e of a p p l i -
c a t i o n o f h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s and pumping r a t e s w h i c h a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e s t h e
r i s k o f p e r f o r a t i n g a l s o t h e s e a l i n g mudstone h o r i z o n . I n t r a s h e e t h e t e r o g e n e i -
t i e s ( c f . p l a t e s III/l- 2, I V / 4 - 8 ) , V / 1 - 2, V I I / 3 - 6 and I X / 1 - 8 ) a r e
a l s o i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n between s e v e r a l w e l l s i n t e r m s o f w a t e r
f l o o d i n g , c h e m i c a l i n j e c t i o n o r steam d r i v e , and i n c a s e o f c l e a r s e p a r a t i o n o f
i s o l a t e d s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s ( c f . p l a t e s I I / 7 - 8, I V / 4 - 5, V/4 and V I I / l ) , p r o -
b a b l y i n t e r b a r o r transchannel communication f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
 403

4.10.) is a s u i t a b l e s o l u t i o n , i f t e c h n i c a l l y p o s s i b l e under t h e g i v e n c i r c u m -
stances.

The presence o f mud l a y e r s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t parameter and s t r e s s c o n t r a s t

may cause problems such as s c r e e n o u t c o n d i t i o n s as t h e pad volume i s spent f o r
f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n i n weak s e c t i o n s and s u b d i v i s i o n o f t h e pay i n t e r v a l con-
c e r n i n g l o n g - t e r m p o s t - f r a c t u r e r e s e r v o i r performance p r e d i c t i o n as a consequen-
ce o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n c l o s u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s between sandstones and mudstones
(JOHN 1983). Aspects o f i n t e r - and i n t r a - s a n d body geometry as w e l l as m a t r i x
and f r a c t u r e a n i s o t r o p y a r e b r i e f l y sketched as f o l l o w s .

4.2.4.1.1. I n t e r - and intra-sand body geometry

Many s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l mechanisms and f e a t u r e s o f sand b o d i e s ( c f . MADER 1985
a, 1985 b ) have n o t o n l y more o r l e s s pronounced i n f l u e n c e s on f l u i d f l o w i n r e -
s e r v o i r s (WEBER 1982), b u t have a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t impact on f r a c t u r e propaga-
t i o n . I m p o r t a n t sandstone body aspects f o r optimum f r a c t u r e p l a n n i n g r e s p e c t i n g
p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f d e f l e c t i o n o f s m a l l e r c r a c k s i n t h i n n e r sandstones by i n t e r n a l
a n i s o t r o p i e s a r e p r i m a r y - d e p o s i t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and secondary-erosional r e -
w o r k i n g and p r e s e r v a t i o n o f sand as w e l l as s e p a r a t i o n and comparison o f sheet-
t y p e and non-sheet t y p e sands such as l e n t i c u l a r ( c f . p l a t e I I / 7 - 8) and chan-
n e l i z e d ( c f . p l a t e s I / 7 , V/3 - 4, V I I / l and V I I I / 6 ) u n i t s i n terms o f i n t e r -
and i n t r a - s a n d body geometry. Sheet sands a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a c o n t i n u o u s d i s -
t r i b u t i o n i n c o n s t a n t o r v a r i a b l e t h i c k n e s s across l a r g e r areas, whereas non-
sheet sands a r e l i m i t e d t o s m a l l e r patches w i t h more r a p i d l y changing t h i c k -
ness. Some aspects o f sand body c o u p l i n g and s e p a r a t i o n , r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i -
t y and t r e a t m e n t s i z e , and r o l e o f mud drapes a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.2.4.1.1.1. Sand body coupling and separation

The most s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e s o f i n t e r - s a n d body geometry f a b r i c s a r e v e r t i -
cal amalgamation t o m u l t i s t o r e y superimposed complexes ( c f . p l a t e s I/7,
I I / 1 - 5, III/l,I V / 7 - 8, V / 1 - 5, V I I / 1 - 2 and X I / 1 - 2 ) , h o r i z o n t a l o v e r l a p -
p i n g t o m u l t i p h a s e drapes, and v e r t i c a l and/or h o r i z o n t a l s e p a r a t i o n o f i s o l a -
t e d sand b o d i e s b y muddy i n t e r v e n t i o n s ( c f . p l a t e s I I I / Z , I V / 4 - 5, V I I / 3 - 6,
V I I I / 8 and I X / 1 - 8 ) and f i n e r - g r a i n e d sandy i n t e r c a l a t i o n s . I m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e -
r i s t i c s o f i n t r a - s a n d body o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e uniphase c y c l i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n ( c f .
p l a t e s I I I / 1 - 2, I V / 4 - 5 and V I / 5 - 8 ) , m u l t i p h a s e m i c r o c y c l i c a l s t r u c t u r e
and i n t e r b e d d i n g o f d i v i d i n g mudstone l a y e r s and l e n s e s ( c f . p l a t e s IV/8,
V / 1 - 4, V I I / 5 - 6 and I X / 1 - 8 ) .

W h i l e b a r r i e r s f o r r e s e r v o i r communication and f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n sheet

sands almost e x c l u s i v e l y d e r i v e f r o m i n t r a - s a n d body aspects, c o n s i d e r a b l e con-
t r o l o f r e s e r v o i r d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h u s f r a c t u r e e f f e c t i v i t y i n non-sheet sands
i s e x e r t e d by i n t e r - s a n d body f e a t u r e s which a r e accentuated by t h e i n t r a - s a n d
body geometry. On a l a r g e r s c a l e , many sedimentary p i l e s a r e heterogeneous due
t o the i n t e r f o r m a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e comprising i d e a l l y a n t i c l i n e s w i t h primary-
condensed o r s e c o n d a r y - f a u l t e d sequences, and i n t r a f o r m a t i o n a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f a
s u i t e o f sand b o d i e s w i t h v e r t i c a l s e p a r a t i o n and l a t e r a l i s o l a t i o n by l i m i t e d
ex t e n s i o n .

4.2.4.1.1.2. Reservoir heterogeneity and treatment s i z e

W h i l e such elements o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y as s t a t e d above may be o n l y
o f s u b o r d i n a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e MHF s t i m u l a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.1.1.) o f
t h i c k sandstones where i n t r a - and i n t e r - s a n d body b a r r i e r s o f f l u i d f l o w a r e
crossed by f r a c t u r i n g due t o t h e h i g h p r e s s u r e s a p p l i e d , t h e aforementioned e l e -
ments o f pay a n i s o t r o p y c o u l d be d e c i s i v e f o r success o r f a i l u r e o f mHF t r e a t -
ments ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.1.) where p r e s s u r e s and volumes a r e much l o w e r and t h u s
 404

t h e p r o p a g a t i n g f r a c t u r e c o u l d be d e f l e c t e d , s p l i t i n t o s e v e r a l branches o r
even a l r e a d y be c o m p l e t e l y stopped by m i n o r l i t h o f a c i e s f e a t u r e s as enumerated
above.

4.2.4.1.1.3. Role o f mud drapes

P o i n t - b a r sand bodies o r i g i n a t i n g i n meandering-channel r i v e r systems probab-
l y r e p r e s e n t t h e r e s e r v o i r t y p e w i t h s t r o n g e s t i n t e r n a l h e t e r o g e n e i t y i n terms
o f sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s and p e t r o p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . Comparative e v a l u a t i o n
o f meandering-channel p o i n t b a r s and b r a i d e d - r i v e r mid-channel b a r s (XUE 1986)
r e v e a l s a much l o w e r o i l d i s p l a c e m e n t e f f i c i e n c y i n t h e former. Semicommunica-
t i o n i n t h e p o i n t - b a r sand body i s m a i n l y due t o mud drapes on l a t e r a l a c c r e -
t i o n s u r f a c e s which d i v i d e t h e r e s e r v o i r i n t o o b l i q u e s l i c e - s h a p e d s u b u n i t s .
The development o f c h u t e b a r s on t o p o f p o i n t b a r s p r o v i d e s f u r t h e r complica-
t i o n . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n t r a - and i n t e r - s a n d b o d y mud drapes ( c f . p l a t e s
I I I / 1 - 2, I V / 4 - 8 , V I I / 5 - 6 and IX/1 - 8 ) i n gas r e s e r v o i r s i s a l s o emphasi-
zed by HAAK & ELEWAUT (1988). The o c c a s i o n a l presence o f mud drapes on t o p o f
sands causes d i s t u r b a n c e s i n v e r t i c a l f l o w paths, w i t h t h e s e v e r i t y o f d i s t u r -
bance depending on t h e number o f mud drapes and t h e i r h o r i z o n t a l e x t e n t w h i c h
i s expressed i n terms o f t o r t u o s i t y . Aspects o f s m a l l - s c a l e h o r i z o n t a l and v e r -
t i c a l f l o w b a r r i e r s and h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s i n r e s e r v o i r r o c k s on t h e s c a l e o f mud
drapes a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by WEBER, PUSCH & MOLLER (1987) and SILVA, NIKO,
BERGH & S A N C E V I C (1988).

4.2.4.1.2. Matrix and fracture anisotropy

Aspects o f s t i m u l a t i o n and e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n heteroge-
neous r e s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by OTERO, SAEZ & RUSINEK (1987). The s i g n i -
f i c a n c e o f r e s e r v o i r a n i s o t r o p y f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems
and t h e performance o f s t i m u l a t i o n i n n a t u r a l l y c r a c k e d r e s e r v o i r s i s summari-
zed by NELSON (1986), and f u r t h e r p o i n t s o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system a n i s o t r o p y
a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by BRANAGAN, CIPOLLA, LEE & YAN (1987). The d i s c u s s i o n a s f o l -
lows p r e s e n t s aspects o f b l a n k e t v s . l e n t i c u l a r sand bodies, i n t e r f e r e n c e and
p u l s e t e s t i n g , t r a c e r a n a l y s i s , and impact o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system.

4.2.4.1.2.1. Blanket vs. lenticular sand bodies

HODGES & KNUTSON (1981) comment on channel c o n t i n u i t y and d i r e c t i v i t y and a s -
s o c i a t e d f l o w a n i s o t r o p y e f f e c t s i n t i g h t gas sands. Continuous b l a n k e t sands
p r o v i d e a more e x t e n s i v e d r a i n a g e area t h a n narrow lens-shaped sand bodies, and
i n l e n t i c u l a r sands ( c f . p l a t e s I I / 7 - 8 ) , t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f f r a c t u r e t r e a t -
ments i s r e l a t e d t o shape and s i z e o f t h e sand body, f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n and
w e l l b o r e p o s i t i o n i n t h e sand body ( c f . a l s o GAUTIER & R I C E 1981). MEEHAN,
HORNE & A Z I Z (1988) o u t l i n e e f f e c t s o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and f r a c t u r e a z i -
muth on o p t i m i z a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and w e l l spacing. I n c o m p l i c a t e d h e t e r o -
geneous non-continuous r e s e r v o i r s , t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f w i d e l y v a r y i n g p e r m e a b i l i -
t i e s and d i f f e r e n t l e n s s i z e s seem t o c o n t r o l w e l l response p a r t i a l l y even more
than s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s (CHARLES, HUDOCK, U O I C K & HALL 1983).

L e n t i c u l a r non-continuous o r semi-communicated f o r m a t i o n s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by EVANS & CARROLL (1981), PETERSON & KOHOUT (1983), LORENZ (1985); SATTLER,
RAIBLE & GALL (1985); XUE (1986); BRANAGAN, CIPOLLA, LEE & YAN (1987), EVANS &
UBANI (1987) and UBANI & RAY (1988). Blanket-geometry t i g h t gas sands and t h e i r
l a t e r a l v a r i a b i l i t y a r e reviewed by FINLEY & O'SHEA (1983), LORENZ (1983), FIN-
LEY (1986) and GELLAND, TAYLOR, TESSMAN & LARNER (1986). TYLER & FINLEY (1988)
comment on r e s e r v o i r a r c h i t e c t u r e i n heterogeneous pay complexes. MARTIN, EVANS
& RAPER (1988) document p r e d i c t i o n and m o d e l l i n g o f sand-body c o n n e c t i v i t y . AN-
DERSON (1982) u t i l i z e s r e p e a t f o r m a t i o n t e s t e r and d i p m e t e r f o r d e f i n i t i o n o f
r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and a n i s o t r o p y .
 405

4.2.4.1.2.2. I n t e r f e r e n c e and pulse t e s t ins

BENSON & L A 1 ( 1 9 8 6 ) analyze i n t e r f e r e n c e d a t a i n a h i g h l y heterogeneous n a t u -
r a l l y f r a c t u r e d geothermal r e s e r v o i r . WILSON ( 1 9 5 6 ) p r e s e n t s some aspects o f
s a n d - o i l f r a c t u r i n g i n l o n g heterogeneous sand s e c t i o n s . BENNETT, ROSATO & REY-
NOLDS ( 1 9 8 1 ) and DUSSAN & SHARMA ( 1 9 8 7 ) d i s c u s s v a r i o u s p o i n t s and f e a t u r e s o f
f r a c t u r e h e t e r o g e n e i t y and a n i s o t r o p y . I m p r o v i n g performance p r e d i c t i o n by more
a c c u r a t e h e t e r o g e n e i t y assessment i s i l l u m i n a t e d by JENSEN & CURRIE ( 1 9 8 8 ) , and
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c r i t i c a l h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s on p r o d u c t i o n performance o f d i f f e -
r e n t r e s e r v o i r u n i t s i s i l l u s t r a t e d by HONARPOUR, TOMUTSA, CARROLL, SZPAKIE-
WICZ, SHARMA & T I L L M A N (1988). H o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l p u l s e and i n t e r f e r e n c e
t e s t i n g i n m u l t i l a y e r e d r e s e r v o i r s w i t h s p e c i a l emphasis on t h e r o l e o f non-com-
m u n i c a t i n g l a y e r s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d by BANDYOPADHYAY (1981), CHU & RAGHAVAN
(1981); H U T F I L Z , COCKERHAM & McINTOSH ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; DAKE ( 1 9 8 2 ) , CHEN & LESCARBOURA
( 1 9 8 3 ) , PRATS ( 1 9 8 3 ) , OGBE & BRIGHAM ( 1 9 8 4 a, 1984 b ) , SMITH & BROWN ( 1 9 8 4 ) ,
ROEST ( 1 9 8 6 ) , WIJESINGHE & KECECIOGLU (1986 b ) ; BRANAGAN, L E E & WILMER (1988);
GRABOWSKI, LOCKE, SARADJI, F E I L E R & YOST ( 1 9 8 8 ) ; OPDAL & KOSSACK ( 1 9 8 8 ) and
SAMPSON & MARCOU ( 1 9 8 8 ) . NAJURIETA, ROBLES & EDWARDS ( 1 9 8 6 ) p r e s e n t i n t e r f e r e n -
ce t e s t i n g f o r p r e d i c t i o n o f e a r l y w a t e r breakthrough i n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e -
s e r v o i r s , and SANDAL & RAMEY ( 1 9 7 8 ) comment on i n t e r f e r e n c e t e s t i n g w i t h w e l l -
b o r e s t o r a g e and s k i n e f f e c t a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n w e l l . SWIFT & BROWN ( 1 9 7 6 ) r e -
view i n t e r f e r e n c e t e s t i n g f o r r e s e r v o i r d e f i n i t i o n . O t h e r aspects o f i n t e r f e r e n -
ce t e s t i n g i n n a t u r a l l y and h y d r a u l i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d w e l l s a r e d i s c u s s e d by LES-
CARBOURA, WALTHER & WILSON ( 1 9 7 5 ) and RAMEY ( 1 9 7 5 b ) .

KAMAL ( 1 9 8 2 ) and KAMAL & HEGEMAN ( 1 9 8 8 ) r e v i e w mu1 t i p l e - w e l l i n t e r f e r e n c e

and p u l s e t e s t i n g i n homogeneous i s o t r o p i c r e s e r v o i r s , homogeneous r e s e r v o i r s
w i t h v e r t i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d w e l l s , n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d and m u l t i l a y e r e d r e s e r -
v o i r s w i t h d o u b l e - p o r o s i t y behaviour, and heterogeneous r e s e r v o i r s . STEWART,
GUPTA & WESTAWAY ( 1 9 8 4 ) i n t e r p r e t i n t e r f e r e n c e t e s t s i n r e s e r v o i r s w i t h s e a l i n g
and p a r t i a l l y communicating f a u l t s . L a c k i n g i n t e r f e r e n c e may be due t o w a t e r
b l o c k e f f e c t s around t h e o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l s o r i t may i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e i s no
o r poor c o n n e c t i o n between t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l w e l l s
e i t h e r because o f s h a l e breaks o r l i m i t e d n a t u r e o f f r a c t u r e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d n e s s
(WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, LORENZ, NORTHROP, MANN & FROHNE 1 9 8 5 ) .

4.2.4.1.2.3. Tracer a n a l y s i s
ROBINSON, TESTER & BROWN ( 1 9 8 4 ) d i s c u s s r e s e r v o i r a n a l y s i s and s i z i n g by i n -
e r t and c h e m i c a l l y r e a c t i n g t r a c e r s . WAGNER ( 1 9 7 7 ) r e v i e w s t r a c e r a p p l i c a t i o n
f o r d i a g n o s i n g i n t e r w e l l r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s . D'HOOGE, SHEELY & W I L L I A M S
( 1 9 8 7 ) comment on i n t e r w e l l t r a c e r a n a l y s i s o f m u l t i p a y d i s c o n t i n u o u s r e s e r -
v o i r s w i t h up t o f o u r t r a c e r s f o r m o n i t o r i n g o f d i f f e r e n t i a l f l u i d movement,
and o t h e r aspects o f t r a c e r and p r e s s u r e t e s t a n a l y s i s f o r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f
a r e a l l y heterogeneous r e s e r v o i r s a r e covered by MISHRA, BRIGHAM & ORR ( 1 9 8 8 ) .
McLENNAN, ROEGIERS & MARX (1983) r e p o r t p o i n t s c o n c e r n i n g i n t e r a c t i o n between
g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , t r e a t m e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and p r o d u c t i o n . T A R I Q , ICHARA
& AYESTARAN ( 1 9 8 5 ) and ICHARA & CANNON ( 1 9 8 7 ) i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t o f p e r f o r a -
t i o n l e n g t h , d e n s i t y and phasing a n g l e v a r i a t i o n s on t h e performance o f h e t e r o -
geneous r e s e r v o i r s t h a t a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s h a l e - l a m i n a t i o n and cross-bed-
d i n g . L I G H T ( 1 9 8 3 ) o u t l i n e s t h e e f f e c t of l a t e r a l a n i s o t r o p y on f l o o d p a t t e r n
dimensions and o r i e n t a t i o n . O t h e r aspects o f t r a c e r t e s t i n g i n heterogeneous
f o r m a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d by SEETHARAM & DEANS ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

4.2.4.1.2.4. Inpact o f the n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system

GRINGARTEN ( 1 9 8 8 ) analyzes w e l l t e s t s i n f i s s u r e d and m u l t i l a y e r e d r e s e r -
v o i r s w i t h h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t s between i n d i v i d u a l beds. J A L A L I - Y A Z D I &
 406

ERSHAGHI ( 1 9 8 7 ) comment o n h e t e r o g e n e o u s n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s . BLASIN-

GAME & LEE ( 1 9 8 6 ) r e p o r t on some homogeneous r e s e r v o i r s . H e t e r o g e n e i t y a s p e c t s
o f m u l t i - l a y e r e d r e s e r v o i r s a r e d i s c u s s e d b y EHLIG-ECONOMIDES & JOSEPH ( 1 9 8 5 ) ;
TANG, L I U & J I A N G ( 1 9 8 6 ) and HATZIGNATIOU, OGBE, DEHGHANI & ECONOMIDES ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
CLEARY ( 1 9 7 8 b ) g i v e s an o u t l i n e o f p r i m a r y f a c t o r s g o v e r n i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r e s i n h e t e r o g e n e o u s s t r a t i f i e d f o r m a t i o n s . SMITH, SAWYER & ESPOSITO ( 1 9 8 1 ) e x -
p l a i n t h e e f f e c t o f a n i s o t r o p y and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n o n p r o d u c t i o n
d e c l i n e c u r v e s f o r l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas r e s e r v o i r s . G e o l o g i c a l and p e t r o p h y s i -
c a l f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g e x c e s s p r e s s u r e s i n i s o l a t e d sand l e n s e s w i t h i n s h a l e s
t h a t a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y l i m i t e d r e s e r v o i r c o n n e c t i o n a r e e v a l u a t e d b y OZKAYA
(1987).

NORTHROP ( 1 9 8 8 ) p r o v i d e s a d e t a i l e d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f a h e t e r o g e n e o u s and
anisotropic n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r t h a t i s subjected t o hydraulic f r a c t u -
r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n . A s y n e r g i s t i c approach i n c l u d i n g v a r i o u s techniques i s neces-
s a r y t o a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e t h e p a y s e c t i o n g e o m e t r y . The d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n -
ment c o n t r o l s r e s e r v o i r m o r p h o l o g y , s i z e , i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e and n a t u r a l f r a c t u -
r i n g . W h i l e i n m a r i n e b l a n k e t s a n d s t o n e s t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e f r a c t u r e p l a n e has
no i n f l u e n c e , t h e a n g l e between f r a c t u r e p l a n e and c h a n n e l d i r e c t i o n i s v e r y i m -
p o r t a n t i n f l u v i a l l e n t i c u l a r o r r i b b o n s a n d s t o n e s and c a n r e s u l t i n w e l l o v e r
an o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e a r e a o f i n t e r s e c t e d p a y ( c f . a l s o sec-
t i o n 4.10.2.).

4.2.4.1.2.5. Other aspects

McELROY ( 1 9 8 2 ) comments o n t h e e f f e c t o f l a t e r a l a n i s o t r o p y o n f l o o d p a t t e r n
d i m e n s i o n s and o r i e n t a t i o n . ABBASZADEH-DEHGHANI & BRIGHAM ( 1 9 8 4 ) employ w e l l -
t o - w e l l t r a c e r f l o w f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a y h e t e r o g e n e i t y . ZUBER, LEE & GATENS
( 1 9 8 7 ) document p e r m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p y i n D e v o n i a n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s w h i c h
i s c r e a t e d b y t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system, w i t h t h i s t y p e o f p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r -
val heterogeneity causing hydraulic o r explosive f r a c t u r e s ( c f . section 4.4.4.)
r u n n i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e t r e n d b e i n g more e f f i c i e n t t h a n
those being p a r a l l e l t o i t . Reservoir heterogeneity by n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e aniso-
t r o p y i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e f l e c t e d b y t h e absence o f p r e s s u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e b e t -
ween c l o s e l y - s p a c e d n e i g h b o u r i n g w e l l s (LORENZ & FINLEY 1 9 8 7 ) .

I n t e r m s o f m a t r i x h e t e r o g e n e i t y , t h e success o f f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t de-
pends on d i s t i n c t i o n o f t h e m a j o r r e s e r v o i r r o c k t y p e s and s e l e c t i v e i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n o f f l u i d c o m p a t i b i l i t y i n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e f a i l u r e c a u s e s due t o e x c e s s i -
ve f l u i d s e n s i t i v i t y (SIMON, KAUL & CULBERTSON 1 9 7 7 ) . The d e g r e e o f f l u i d s e n s i -
t i v i t y i s g e n e r a l l y r e l a t e d t o r o c k t y p e , p e r m e a b i l i t y and p o r o s i t y , w i t h t h e
h i g h e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y c l e a n e r sandstones b e i n g r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e t o t h e
t r e a t m e n t f l u i d used. N a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s can be r e g a r d e d as d o u b l e -
p o r o s i t y m e d i a c o n s i s t i n g o f i s o t r o p i c h e t e r o g e n e o u s p r i m a r y r o c k m a t r i x and
a n i s o t r o p i c h e t e r o g e n e o u s s e c o n d a r y f r a c t u r e s y s t e m (NAKORNTHAP & EVANS 1 9 8 6 ) .
O t h e r f e a t u r e s o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y a r e d i s c u s s e d b y KAMAL ( 1 9 7 7 ) , LAM-
BERT ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; ARYA, HEWETT, LARSON & LAKE ( 1 9 8 5 ) and LEE & OKUYIGA ( 1 9 8 6 ) . H I R A -
S A K I , MORROW & WILLHITE ( 1 9 8 4 ) e s t i m a t e r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y f r o m w a t e r f l o o d
performance.

4.2.4.2. Petrophysical aspects

As a consequence o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s and s c a l e s o f s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l d i s -
c o n t i n u i t i e s and a n i s o t r o p i e s i n r e s e r v o i r r o c k s , many p a y f o r m a t i o n s a l s o e x h i -
b i t h e t e r o g e n e o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n of p e t r o p h y s i c a l p a r a m e t e r s , w i t h p e r m e a b i l i t y
b e i n g most a f f e c t e d by d e p o s i t i o n a l inhomogeneities. P e r m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p y i n
v e r t i c a l and/or h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n i s the r e s u l t o f predominantly g r a i n s i z e
d i f f e r e n c e s r e f l e c t i n g e n e r g y f l u c t u a t i o n s d u r i n g s e d i m e n t a t i o n o f t h e sand i n
v a r i o u s e n v i r o n m e n t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s and m a i n t e n a n c e o f e n e r g y i n t i m e
and space. A p a r t f r o m i t s d e p o s i t i o n a l provenance, p e r m e a b i l i t y h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s
 407

can a l s o o r i g i n a t e d u r i n g d i a g e n e t i c a l h i s t o r y by d i f f e r e n t i a l m o b i l i z a t i o n
and/or p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f framework g r a i n s and/or cements. Aspects o f p e r m e a b i l i -
t y a n i s o t r o p y as w e l l as i n t e r s e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems a r e b r i e f l y
c h a r a c t e r i z e d as f o l l o w s .

4.2.4.2.1. Permeabi 1ity anisotropy

P e t r o p h y s i c a l r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s c o m p r i s i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y and c o n d u c t i -
v i t y a n i s o t r o p y can be t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l l y diagnosed and m o n i t o r e d by i n t e r w e l l
t r a c e r o r i n t e r f e r e n c e t e s t i n g (WAGNER & BACKER 1 9 7 4 , WAGNER 1 9 7 7 , ABBASZADEH-
DEHGHANI & BRIGHAM 1982, HAGOORT 1982; OHNO, NANBA & HORNE 1985; H E I S L E R 1986;
ONURI, REYNOLDS & RAGHAVAN 1 9 8 6 ) . D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p e t r o p h y s i c a l r e s e r v o i r h e t e -
r o g e n e i t i e s and r e s u l t i n g f l o w p a t t e r n a n i s o t r o p y has an i m p o r t a n t impact n o t
o n l y f o r f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n m o d e l l i n g , b u t a l s o f o r o p t i m i z a t i o n o f sweep e f -
f i c i e n c y o f w a t e r - , steam- and c h e m i c a l - f l o o d i n g enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y (OHNO,
NANBA & HORNE 1 9 8 5 ) . I n t e r f e r e n c e and t r a c e r t e s t i n g should n o t be regarded as
b e i n g c o m p e t i t i v e techniques, b u t b o t h methods s h o u l d be a p p l i e d i n a complemen-
t a r y sense i n o r d e r t o achieve o p t i m i z a t i o n o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i n t e r n a l r e s e r -
v o i r s t r u c t u r e (MISHRA & RAMEY 1985, BRIGHAM & ABBASZADEH-DEHGHANI 1986). JOHN-
SON & KROL ( 1 9 8 4 ) , MARTIN & COOPER ( 1 9 8 4 ) and STALKUP & EVANS ( 1 9 8 6 ) g i v e an
overview o f p e r m e a b i l i t y v a r i a t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t d e p o s i t i o n a l environments.
EVANS (1988) documents t h e i n f l u e n c e of common sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s and diage-
n e s i s on p e r m e a b i l i t y h e t e r o g e n e i t y and a n i s o t r o p y i n s e l e c t e d sandstones.

REVIERE & WU ( 1 9 8 6 ) o u t l i n e p o r o s i t y s t r i n g e r i z a t i o n g i v i n g r i s e t o extreme-

ly e r r a t i c pay c o n t i n u i t y t h a t h e a v i l y d e t e r i o r a t e s t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f w a t e r -
f l o o d i n g . Aspects o f heterogeneous r e s e r v o i r c o m p o s i t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by
KNUTSON, HOOGES & RIGHTER ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; BEGG, CARTER & ORANFIELD ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; RAVENNA, GAL-
L I , MATHIEU, MONTADERT & RUDXIBWICZ ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; SHARMA, HONARPOUR, SZPAKIEWICZ &
SCHATZINGER ( 1 9 8 7 ) and TYLER ( 1 9 8 7 ) . ROSE ( 1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 3 ) , B A L L & P I T T S ( 1 9 8 3 ) and
PEACEMAN ( 1 9 8 3 ) comment on p e r m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p y i n t i g h t f o r m a t i o n s which i s
m a i n l y based on t h e f a c t t h a t v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y i s s m a l l e r than h o r i z o n t a l
p e r m e a b i l i t y (GIGER, R E I S S & JOURDAN 1984; GIGER 1985, 1 9 8 7 ; JOSH1 1986; KAR-
CHER, GIGER & COMBE 1 9 8 6 ; KOSSACK & OPDAL ( 1 9 8 8 ) ; KUCHUK, BRICE, THAMBYNAYAGAM,
SHERRARD & GOODE 1 9 8 8 ) . LEUNG ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; TAHA, H I L L & SEPEHRNOORI ( 1 9 8 6 ) and HOUSE-
WORTH ( 1 9 8 8 ) r e p o r t v a r i a b l e d i r e c t i o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t i e s i n a n i s o t r o p i c and h e t e -
rogeneous r e s e r v o i r s .

TANG, HENG & J I A N G ( 1 9 8 6 ) p r e s e n t c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f w a t e r f l o o d e f f e c t i v i t y i n

heterogeneous sand-body arrangements w i t h pronounced i n t e r - and i n t r a - l a y e r p e r -
m e a b i l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s . HORIE, FIROOZABADI & ISHIMOTO ( 1 9 8 8 ) o u t l i n e c a p i l l a r y
c o n t i n u i t y i n f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s . LEWIS ( 1 9 8 8 ) documents a h i e r a r c h i c a l c l a s -
s i f i c a t i o n o f p e r m e a b i l i t y h e t e r o g e n e i t y c o m p r i s i n g seven o r d e r s and emphasizes
t h e need o f l i n k i n g o f o u t c r o p and c o r e s t u d i e s f o r more a c c u r a t e three-dimen-
s i o n a l p r e d i c t i o n o f i n t e r - w e 1 1 h e t e r o g e n e i t y , w i t h t h e s p e c i a l r e q u i r e m e n t be-
i n g q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y developed i n d i f f e r e n t d e p o s i t i o -
n a l environments. JONES ( 1 9 8 7 ) u t i l i z e s t h e non-Darcy f l o w c o e f f i c i e n t f o r r e -
s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . MARTIN & COOPER ( 1 9 8 4 ) document permea-
b i l i t y b a r r i e r d i s t r i b u t i o n m o d e l l i n g i n s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l l y complex r e s e r v o i r s .

4.2.4.2.2. Intersection o f natural fracture systems

LORENZ, BRANAGAN, WARPINSKI & SATTLER ( 1 9 8 6 ) d e s c r i b e a system c o n s i s t i n g o f
s u b p a r a l l e l u n i d i r e c t i o n a l n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s o r i g i n a t i n g under c o n d i t i o n s o f
h i g h p o r e p r e s s u r e s and r e l a t i v e l y low d i f f e r e n t i a l h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s ( c f . a l s o
s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . ) . P e r m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p y i s m a i n l y c r e a t e d by t h e heterogene-
ous f r a c t u r e system a l l o w i n g o n l y m a r g i n a l f r a c t u r e i n t e r - and cross-connec-
t i o n s , w i t h t h u s o r t h o g o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y b e i n g a b t . 1 - 2 o r d e r s o f magnitude
lower than p r i m a r y - d i r e c t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t i e s . A l t h o u g h f r a c t u r e s o f any s c a l e
and opening may i n c r e a s e gross r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y by more than an o r d e r o f
 408

magnitude o v e r m a t r i x values, t h e enhanced pay d r a i n a g e w i l l be h i g h l y a n i s o t r o -

p i c due t o t h e heterogeneous f r a c t u r e geometry f a b r i c . Aspects o f r e s e r v o i r he-
t e r o g e n e i t y r e l a t e d t o p e r m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p y a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d by WARPINSKI,
BRANAGAN, SATTLER, LORENZ, NORTHROP & FROHNE (1985) and LORENZ & FINLEY (1987),
w i t h emphasis b e i n g p u t on d e p o s i t i o n a l environment c o n t r o l l i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s o f t h e m a t r i x rock and sedimentary r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y as w e l l as f r a c -
t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y system.

4.2.4.3. Rock mechanical aspects

I n homogeneous f o r m a t i o n s where no s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s can be assu-
med between r e s e r v o i r zones s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f p e r m e a b i l i t y v a r i a t i o n s ,
f r a c t u r e growth i s r a d i a l and t h e f r a c t u r e i s always p r o p a g a t i n g i n t o t h e
l a y e r s a d j o i n i n g t h e pay zone, w i t h p e n e t r a t i o n depth b e i n g determined by d i f f e -
rences i n s t i f f n e s s and h o r i z o n t a l i n - s i t u s t r e s s between r e s e r v o i r and n e i g h -
b o u r i n g beds ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.3.1.3., 4.2.2.5.3. and 4.2.3.2.2.; particular-
l y i n c h a l k f o r m a t i o n s ; EEKELEN 1982, HARTLEY & BOSMA 1985). A b e t t e r f r a c t u r e
containment i n such homogeneous and p o o r l y s t a b i l i z e d f o r m a t i o n s can o n l y be
achieved d u r i n g t h e advanced stage o f d e p l e t i o n when d i f f e r e n t r e s e r v o i r p r e s -
sure regimes may have developed i n t h e v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l h o r i z o n s and t h u s
c r e a t e d a secondary s t r e s s z o n a t i o n i n a p r i m a r i l y almost i s o t r o p i c f o r m a t i o n
in terms o f s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n and f r a c t u r e growth. I n - s i t u s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s
a r e more e f f e c t i v e f o r c r a c k containment than s t i f f n e s s c o n t r a s t s (CLEARY 1979,
CLIFTON & ABOU-SAYED 1979; WARPINSKI, SCHMIDT & NORTHROP 1980). R e s e r v o i r h e t e -
r o g e n e i t y can c o n s i d e r a b l y i n f l u e n c e t h e success o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g (WATERS 1980 r e p o r t s good r e s u l t s i n c o n t i n u o u s pay h o r i z o n s , b u t l e s s f a -
v o u r a b l e performance i n d i s c o n t i n u o u s o r l e n t i c u l a r f o r m a t i o n s ) . V a r i o u s p o i n t s
o f f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n across m a t e r i a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s and o t h e r f e a t u r e s a r e
o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.2.4.3.1. Fracture extension across material discont Inuit ies

RUMMEL, HEUSER, MULLER & OTTO (1986, 1987) document by f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n
m o d e l l i n g based on l a b o r a t o r y experiments t h a t m a t e r i a l inhomogeneities, a n i s o -
t r o p y and d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s have c o n s i d e r a b l e impact on d i r e c t i o n and v e l o c i t y o f
c r a c k e x t e n s i o n ( t h e same a p p l i e s f o r p r e - e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s ; BLANTON
1982; w i t h f r a c t u r e c o n n e c t i v i t y h a v i n g an i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e ; WIJESINGHE
1985, WIJESINGHE & KECECIOGLU 1986; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 7 . ) . An o u t l i n e i s g i -
ven on f r a c t u r e d e f l e c t i o n a t bounding planes, m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y d i f f e r e n c e s ,
and i n t e r f a c e shear s t r e n g t h as f o l l o w s .

4.2.4.3.1.1. Fracture deflection at bounding planes

L i t h o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s can slow down o r speed up f r a c t u r e growth o r
can change t h e d i r e c t i o n o f c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n by d e f l e c t i o n , depending on t h e
e l a s t i c a l and f r a c t u r e - m e c h a n i c a l c o n t r a s t o f t h e r o c k u n i t s on b o t h s i d e s o f
t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y . H i g h e l a s t i c i t y moduli and s t r e s s i n h o m o g e n e i t i e s i n f r o n t
o f the propagating f r a c t u r e r e s u l t i n lowering o f the stress i n t e n s i t y a t the
c r a c k t i p and t h e r e f o r e slow down f r a c t u r e growth.

D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s which are i n c l i n e d w i t h respect t o the d i r e c t i o n o f o r i g i n a l

f r a c t u r e propagation lead t o d e f l e c t i o n o f the crack i n t o another d i r e c t i o n
(JEFFREY, VANDAMME & ROEGIERS 1987 comment on mechanical i n t e r a c t i o n s i n b r a n -
ched o r s u b p a r a l l e l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s ) . The o r i e n t a t i o n o f r a d i a l l y e x t e n d i n g
c r a c k s i s h i g h l y s e n s i b l e a g a i n s t changes o f t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n s , w i t h t h e f r a c t u r e always p r o p a g a t i n g i n t h e p l a n e w h i c h i s
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l e a s t main h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s . I n case o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l
d i f f e r e n c e s i n m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s between a d j o i n i n g r o c k types, i t was pos-
s i b l e t o e x t e n d t h e c r a c k across t h e boundary p l a n e by a p p l i c a t i o n o f h i g h - v i s -
 409

c o s i t y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s and/or h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s .

4.2.4.3.1.2. M a t e r i a l property d i f f e r e n c e s
The r o c k mechanical r e s u l t s show t h a t containment o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n by
boundary h o r i z o n s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s can be suc-
c e s s f u l l y achieved i n case o f c o n t r o l l e d pumping r a t e s and a d j u s t e d t r e a t m e n t
design. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n f r o m t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i s c o n f i r m e d by
t h e examples o f f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.3.) where t h e goal o f con-
t a i n i n g f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n t o t h i n r e s e r v o i r h o r i z o n s has been s u c c e s s f u l l y r e a -
ched ( c f . KOHLHAAS 1982; CONWAY, McGOWEN, GUNDERSON & K I N G 1985). BIOT, MEDLIN
& MASSE (1983) p o i n t o u t t h a t based on t h e e l a s t i c i t y concept, s u r f a c e energy
and shear modulus d i f f e r e n c e s c o u l d a l s o l e a d t o f r a c t u r e confinement i n a
l a y e r between d i s s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s . I n c o r p o r a t i n g p l a s t i c i t y and s u r f a c e energy
i n t o f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n m o d e l l i n g , MEDLIN & MASSE (1986) conclude t h a t p l a s t i -
c i t y e f f e c t s i n s h a l e s a r e more i m p o r t a n t i n c o n t r o l l i n g f r a c t u r e h e i g h t than
any o t h e r phenomena ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . A f r a c t u r e generated i n a b r i t t l e
sandstone o r l i m e s t o n e l a y e r bounded by p l a s t i c shales i s l i k e l y t o be c o n t a i -
ned because o f p r o p a g a t i n g p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s between p l a s t i c and b r i t t l e ho-
r i z o n s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.5.3. and 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 2 . ) .

F r a c t u r e s can propagate a c r o s s r o c k i n t e r f a c e s w i t h o u t s l i p because o f f r i c -

t i o n (TEUFEL 1979) i f t h e p r e s s u r e between t h e r o c k s exceeds a v a l u e approxima-
t e l y equal t o t h e i r t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h . I n terms o f v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s , t h i s im-
p l i e s t h a t s l i p does n o t o c c u r a t t o p o r b o t t o m o f t h e c r a c k even f o r p e r f e c t l y
f l a t and unbounded beds, i f t h e e f f e c t i v e v e r t i c a l p r e s s u r e ( o v e r b u r d e n minus
p o r e p r e s s u r e ) exceeds t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f t h e r o c k . F o r normal g r a d i e n t s ,
s l i p does t h u s n o t occur i n competent r o c k s i n depths below a b t . 1,750 f t . o r
i f t h e overburden p r e s s u r e exceeds t h e p o r e p r e s s u r e by more than t h e t e n s i l e
s t r e n g t h , whereas i n s h a l l o w e r depth, s l i p may t a k e p l a c e and r e s u l t i n decrea-
sing pressure t o extend a f r a c t u r e .

4.2.4.3.1.3. I n t e r f a c e shear strength

TEUFEL & CLARK (1981) document t h a t f r a c t u r e g r o w t h i n l a y e r e d r o c k i s con-
t r o l l e d by d i f f e r e n c e s i n mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e f o r m a t i o n s on e i t h e r
s i d e o f t h e i n t e r f a c e between two l i t h o l o g i e s o f d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s l e v e l , chan-
ges i n h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s s t a t e across t h e i n t e r f a c e , and shear s t r e n g t h o f t h e
i n t e r f a c e . Containment can o c c u r whenever shear s t r e n g t h o f t h e l a y e r i n t e r f a c e
i s s u f f i c i e n t l y weak r e l a t i v e t o t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and minimum h o r i z o n t a l com-
p r e s s i v e s t r e s s o f t h e bounding l a y e r , w i t h t h e f r a c t u r e then more e a s i l y beco-
ming an i n t e r f a c i a l f r a c t u r e than e x t e n d i n g across t h e i n t e r f a c e i n t o t h e bound-
i n g l a y e r ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 4 . 2 . ) . A low shear s t r e n g t h i n t e r f a c e can o c c u r a t
low overburden s t r e s s e s due t o t h e f r i c t i o n a l e f f e c t o f t h e a p p l i e d s t r e s s on
t h e i n t e r f a c e , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e overburden s t r e s s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y g r e a t e r than
t h e h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s t o produce a v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e .

Differences i n e l a s t i c a l properties o f the formations i n a d i l i t h o l o g i c a l

l a y e r e d r o c k sequence i s t h e dominant f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s
s t a t e w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l l a y e r s , w i t h a p o s s i b l e compressional i n c r e a s e i n h o r i -
z o n t a l s t r e s s g o i n g f r o m h i g h shear modulus t o low shear modulus l a y e r s . Con-
t a i n m e n t and p r o p a g a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e s a r e g e n e r a l l y two competing mechanisms a t
l i t h o l o g i c a l boundaries s e p a r a t i n g r o c k s w i t h d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s l e v e l .

4.2.4.3.2. Other features

Rock mechanical e-xperiments on f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n l a y e r e d r o c k s a r e
a l s o c a r r i e d o u t by TEUFEL & CLARK (1981), BLANTON (1982) and SHAFFER, THORPE,
INGRAFFEA & HEUSE ( 1 9 8 4 ) . LUISKUTTY, TOMUTSA & PALMER (1986) p r e s e n t a semiana-
 410

l y t i c a l model o f h y d r a u l i c c r a c k g r o w t h t h r o u g h weak b a r r i e r s . EL RABAA ( 1 9 8 7 )

r e p o r t s f e a t u r e s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f s t r e s s va-
r i a t i o n s . MOSCHOVIDIS ( 1 9 8 7 ) comments o n m i n i f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s c a r r i e d o u t
a t t h e i n t e r f a c e o f two f o r m a t i o n s , and BIOT, MEDLIN & MASSE ( 1 9 8 6 ) e v a l u a t e
c r a c k p e n e t r a t i o n t h r o u g h an i n t e r f a c e . LAM & CLEARY ( 1 9 8 4 ) o u t l i n e s l i p p a g e
and r e i n i t i a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a t f r i c t i o n a l i n t e r f a c e s . JOHN ( 1 9 8 7 )
r e p o r t s a s p e c t s o f g a s r e c o v e r y f r o m deep t i g h t f o r m a t i o n s i n l i g h t o f n o n l i -
n e a r e l a s t i c a l d e f o r m a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . THIERCELIN, JEFFREY & BEN NACEUR
( 1 9 8 7 ) and WANG & CLIFTON ( 1 9 8 9 ) o u t l i n e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s o n
crack geometry.

Rock m e c h a n i c a l a s p e c t s o f N o r t h Sea r e s e r v o i r s a r e e v a l u a t e d b y HOLT, ING-

SOY & MIKKELSEN ( 1 9 8 7 ) . EVANS ( 1 9 8 3 ) and EVANS & HOLZHAUSEN ( 1 9 8 3 ) comment o n
d e v e l o p m e n t o f s h a l l o w h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s as examined t h r o u g h t h e s u r f a c e de-
f o r m a t i o n f i e l d . LABUDOVIC ( 1 9 8 4 ) r e v i e w s t h e e f f e c t o f P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o o n f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t . LERCHE & NARR ( 1 9 8 6 ) d i s c u s s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f e s t i m a t i n g s u b s u r -
f a c e c r a c k d e n s i t y f r o m c o r e e v a l u a t i o n s . M e c h a n i c a l a s p e c t s of f r a c t u r e e x t e n -
s i o n a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d b y HARRISON, McGUIRE & KIESCHNICK ( 1 9 5 4 ) ; HUBBERT & WIL-
L I S (19571, HOWARD & FAST ( 1 9 7 0 a, 1970 b ) and DANESHY ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

4.2.5. Combination of hydraulic fracturing and gravel packing

W i t h i n many s h a l l o w s a n d s t o n e s and c a r b o n a t e s h e l l l a y e r s , the question o f
f r a c t u r e c o n t a i n m e n t i s accompanied b y t h e p r o b l e m o f i n s u f f i c i e n t r e s e r v o i r
rock s t a b i l i t y t h a t requires o f t e n gravel packing i n a d d i t i o n t o hydraulic s t i -
mulation o r a p p l i c a t i o n o f resin-coated proppants ( c f . section 1.2.6.) i n order
t o c r e a t e a s t a b l e m a s s i v e m u l t i l a y e r d r a i n a g e wedge w i t h i n t h e l o o s e f o r m a t i o n
by c e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s a t t h e i r c o n t a c t s due t o m e l t i n g and g l u e -
i n g o f t h e r e s i n f i l m s c o a t i n g t h e p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e s and t o m i n i m i z e o r e v e n
a v o i d embedment o f p r o p p a n t s i n t h e s o f t f o r m a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 4 . 3 . and
5 . 3 . 3 . ) . Many c o n v e n t i o n a l f r a c t u r i n g j o b s c a r r i e d o u t so f a r i n such h o r i z o n s
f a i l e d because o f t o o much p r o p p a n t embedment i n t h e s o f t r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . ) , f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e due t o p l a s t i c m o b i l i t y o f p o o r l y c o n s o l i d a t e d
o r o v e r p r e s s u r e d , i n t e r c a l a t e d o r a d j o i n i n g mudstones ( c f . p l a t e I X / 7 ) , o r sand
c o n t r o l p r o b l e m s i n t h e w e l l s . The c o m b i n a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s o f t sands and c h a l k s a v e r y s u i t a b l e means f o r
a v o i d i n g p r o p p a n t and f o r m a t i o n f l o w b a c k i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e a f t e r h y d r a u l i c s t i -
m u l a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 3 . and 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . ) . Combined h y d r a u -
l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g t r e a t m e n t s o f u n c o n s o l i d a t e d p a y zones a r e
u s u a l l y p e r f o r m e d i n d e p t h r a n g e s u p t o 5,000 f t (1,700 m), b u t i n some c a s e s
a l s o f o r m a t i o n s i n g r e a t e r d e p t h a r e t r e a t e d i n t h i s manner.

Once r e s i n - c o a t e d m a t e r i a l s become n e c e s s a r y f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a n d / o r
g r a v e l p a c k i n g (SINCLAIR & GRAHAM 1977, 1978; CONSTIEN & MAYER 1978, SAUNDERS &
McKENZIE 1979, KANAT 1980; UNDERDOWN, DAY & SPARLIN 1980; POPE, WILES & PIERCE
1 9 8 7 ) , p r o p p a n t p r i c e i s a l w a y s a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r due t o t h e more e x p e n s i v e ma-
t e r i a l , and m a r k e t i n g a c t i v i t y h a s t o t a k e n o t i c e o f t h e need o f s p e c i a l i n t r o -
d u c t o r y o f f e r s f o r promoting p i l o t treatments. Main t a r g e t s f o r t h e approJch i n
t h i s c o n t e x t a r e m a r g i n a l c h a l k s , s h e l l - d e b r i s and s a n d - s t r e a k interLL.:,:iions
i n t o mudstones i n many o f t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s and g e o g r a -
p h i c a l a r e a s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 1 . and 5 . 5 . 4 . ) t h a t a r e m e c h a n i c a l l y o r c h e m i c a l -
l y i n s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b l e t o a l l o w c o n v e n t i o n a l s t i m u l a t i o n , and l o o s e p u r e o r
muddy sands a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h mudstones i n a s a n d w i c h - t y p e manner. A s p e c t s o f
c o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y
POOLLEN & MALONE ( 1 9 5 9 ) , SPARLIN & COPELAND ( 1 9 7 2 ) and SOLUM (1986; c f . sec-
t i o n s 4 . 5 . 4 . 3 . and 5 . 3 . 3 . ) .
 411

4.2.6. Economical significance

While many s p e c i f i c t e c h n o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s o f t h e most s u i t a b l e methods and
m a t e r i a l s have s t i l l t o be s o l v e d by f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s , I am r e a l i -
z i n g i n h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g ( p a r t i a l l y i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h g r a v e l
p a c k i n g ) o f r e s e r v o i r s o f l i m i t e d t h i c k n e s s and changing s t a b i l i t y c o n s i d e r a b l e
p o t e n t i a l o f e x t e n s i o n o f b o t h r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n and hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a -
t i o n markets i n b o t h Western and E a s t e r n Europe a c c o r d i n g t o my e x p e r i e n c e , as
most o f these h o r i z o n s become i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t d u r i n g t h e n e x t y e a r s when
p r o d u c t i o n f r o m o t h e r pay zones w h i c h a r e easy t o handle i n view o f r e s e r v o i r
and t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g i s d e c l i n i n g more and more, and t h e mentioned h o r i -
zons where p r o d u c t i o n was c a r r i e d o u t so f a r i n reduced r a t e s p a r t i a l l y f a r be-
low t h e r e a l c a p a c i t y o r was even c o m p l e t e l y suspended due t o t h e d i s c u s s e d
problems w i l l have t o c o n t r i b u t e i n i n c r e a s i n g amounts i n o r d e r t o d e l a y and
slow down t h e g e n e r a l d e c l i n e o f annual c u m u l a t i v e domestic o i l (and p a r t i a l l y
a l s o gas) p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o u n t r i e s .

A s i m i l a r conclusion w i l l apply i n the nearer o r f a r t h e r f u t u r e also t o the

m a j o r R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s g a s - b e a r i n g sandstones when new d i s c o v e r i e s
by e x p l o r a t i o n r e a c h t h e stage t o be no l o n g e r a b l e t o keep pace w i t h t h e s t i l l
i n c r e a s i n g demand o f gas, and then t h e m i s s i n g q u a n t i t i e s have t o d e r i v e a l s o
i n these m a j o r f o r m a t i o n s i n g r e a t e r amounts f r o m s t i m u l a t i o n o f h i t h e r t o uncon-
v e n t i o n a l t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s ( t h i s b e i n g more o r l e s s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e i n
some areas p r e s e n t l y suspended e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g s t r a t e g y con-
cept).

I n such b i g o p e r a t i o n s i n b o t h Europe and USA where t h e MHF expenses can ac-

c o u n t f o r up t o h a l f o f t h e t o t a l w e l l c o s t s , t h e importance o f f r a c t u r e s t i m u -
l a t i o n can even be equal t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f development d r i l l i n g f o r i n -
c r e a s i n g r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s and a h i g h degree o f r e s o l u t i o n i n f r a c t u r e de-
s i g n i s e c o n o m i c a l l y v e r y v i a b l e (VEATCH 1983).
 412

4.3. Proppant s a t u r a t i o n and c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement

Advances i n t e c h n o l o g y and e q u i p m e n t a l l o w e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s an i m p o r t a n t
breakthrough i n f r a c t u r i n g treatment e f f e c t i v i t y by successively increasing
proppant concentration per f l u i d u n i t . While conventional f r a c t u r i n g stimula-
t i o n a l s o includes progressive stepwise increase o f proppant s a t u r a t i o n during
c o u r s e o f t h e j o b , t h e d e c i s i v e i n n o v a t i o n i n t h e l a s t y e a r s was t h e a c h i e v e -
ment o f u l t r a - h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e f i n a l s t a g e s o f t h e o p e r a -
t i o n . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e t r e n d i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s t o employ h i g h e r i n -
j e c t i o n r a t e s , l o n g e r pumping t i m e , h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , and more e f -
f i c i e n t f l u i d s (SHAH 1 9 8 4 ) . A f t e r d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l a s p e c t s , comments
a r e g i v e n as f o l l o w s on s e l e c t i o n o f p r o p p a n t t y p e , p r o p p a n t embedment and f r a c -
t u r e w i d t h , p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and f r a c t u r e damage, u l t r a - h i g h f r a c t u r e conduc-
t i v i t y a c h i e v e m e n t , and u n i f o r m v s . c h a n g i n g f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y .

4.3.1. General aspects

H i s t o r i c a l l y , s t i m u l a t i o n d e s i g n has r e p e a t e d l y changed a c c o r d i n g t o p r o -
gress i n the technological e v o l u t i o n o f hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g . I n e a r l i e r years,
p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s u p t o a b t . 1 . 5 l b s / g a l were used. W i t h i m p r o v i n g e q u i p -
ment c a p a c i t y , s t e p w i s e advance was made v i a s a t u r a t i o n s o f a b t . 3 - 5 l b s / g a l
u n t i l r e c e n t l y i t has become p o s s i b l e t o h a n d l e e v e n u l t r a - h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
u p t o 15 - 20 l b s / g a l o r e v e n more, and a l s o t h e p r e s e n t t e c h n i c a l b a r r i e r s a r e
c h a l l e n g e d (GREGORCZYK, PAULS, HOLTMYER, VENDITTO & CHISHOLM 1984; MARPLE, RU-
LEY, WORLEY & FREEMAN 1987; s i m i l a r improvements have been a c h i e v e d f o r p a c k i n g
g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n m e c h a n i c a l sand c o n t r o l ; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 1 . ) . The w o r l d
r e c o r d o f t h e h i g h e s t sand s a t u r a t i o n i n a h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
t r e a t m e n t i s 26 l b s / g a l w h i c h was pumped i n Caddo P a r i s h i n L o u i s i a n a / U S A i n
1981 (FRACFAX 1988 k ) . F o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p r o p p a n t
concentration, the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i g h proppant s a t u r a t i o n i s outlined.

4.3.1.1. Types o f proppant concentration

Two t y p e s o f p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n have t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n u l t r a - h i g h sand
c o n c e n t r a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s (USC j o b s ; SHAH, SMITH & OONALDSON 1 9 8 3 ) . Sand concen-
t r a t i o n on t h e s u r f a c e i s e x p r e s s e d i n pounds o f sand added t o a g a l l o n o f
c l e a n f l u i d ( l b s / g a l ) , whereas sand s a t u r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e c r a c k i s r e f e r r e d t o
as pounds o f sand p e r s q u a r e f o o t o f f r a c t u r e a r e a ( l b s / f t 2 ) . I n most o f t h e
c o n v e n t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t s c o n d u c t e d w i t h p r o p p a n t - s u s p e n d i n g f l u i d s , s u r f a c e sand
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s v a r y from 0.5 t o 4 l b s / g a l which t r a n s l a t e s t o l e s s than 2
lbs/ft2 (10 kg/m2) i n t h e f r a c t u r e downhole, whereas u l t r a - h i g h s a t u r a t i o n s o f
20 l b s / g a l a t t h e s u r f a c e r e s u l t i n p l a c e m e n t o f 7 l b s / f t 2 ( 3 5 kg/m2) downhole.
The c u r r e n t i n d u s t r y s t a n d a r d r a n g e s more o r l e s s between 8 and 15 l b s / g a l f o r
m o s t p a r t s of t h e t r e a t m e n t , and e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y h i g h s a t u r a t i o n s o f 15 - 25
l b s / g a l a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y r e a c h e d in t h e t e r m i n a l s t a g e s o f t h e j o b s .

4 . 3 . 1 . 2 . Significance o f h i g h proppant s a t u r a t i o n
The method o f p r o g r e s s i v e l y r i s i n g p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e j o b
w i t h f i n a l l y r e a c h i n g u l t r a - h i g h s a t u r a t i o n s (COULTER & WELLS 1972, DOMSELAAR &
V I S S E R 1974, SCHOLS & VISSER 1974, WATERS 1980; SHAH, SMITH & DONALDSON 1983;
GREGORCZYK, PAULS, HOLTMYER, VENDITTO & CHISHOLM 1984; DUNANO & SOUCEMARIANADIN
1985; PAULS, VENDITTO, CHISHOLM, HOLTMYER & GREGORCZYK 1985) i n t h e t e r m i n a l
p a r t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t a l l o w s b e t t e r i n f i l l i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e s and t h e r e f o r e
p e r m i t s a l s o t o i n c r e a s e c r a c k w i d t h t h u s i m p r o v i n g f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y , and
t o optimize t a i l - i n p o l i c i e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1.2.3.) by using d i f f e r e n t prop-
p a n t t y p e s and g r a i n s i z e s i n t h e sequence o f s t e p s o f t h e p r o c e d u r e . I m p r o v a l
o f t h e r e s u l t o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b by i n c r e a s i n g p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s i s con-
s i d e r e d t o be one o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o o l s o f p r o m o t i o n and e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a -
 413

s i b l e o p e r a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f deep t i g h t R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e -
r o u s gas w e l l s i n Europe w i t h i n t h e n e x t y e a r s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.1. and 3 . 3 . ) .
The more complete f r a c t u r e f i l l u p by h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s l e a d s t o grea-
t e r s u s t a i n e d f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y and h i g h e r proppant c r u s h i n g r e s i s t a n c e
( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.4.) which u l t i m a t e l y g i v e r i s e t o a p o t e n t i a l l y h i g h e r s u s t a i -
ned p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e a f t e r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n (ILSENG & CORTEZ 1985).

4.3.2. Selection of proppant type

U l t r a - h i g h proppant concentrations i n the f l u i d together w i t h increasing
f r a c t u r e w i d t h sometimes even a l l o w t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a l i g h t e r and t h u s chea-
p e r p r o p p a n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . ) , as some c r u s h i n g o f g r a i n s i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be
n e g l i g i b l e and t o be compensated by t h e h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n where t h e i n d i -
v i d u a l g r a i n s a r e much b e t t e r s u p p o r t i n g each o t h e r i n a w i d e r f r a c t u r e and c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s i s d i s t r i b u t e d on more g r a i n s p e r area u n i t t h a n i n case o f l o w e r
p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and n a r r o w e r f r a c t u r e s . U l t r a - h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n
i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e method f o r enhancing f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y and d i m i -
n i s h i n g e f f e c t s o f p r o p p a n t embedment w i t h i n s o f t f o r m a t i o n s . Proppant d e n s i t y
and c o n c e n t r a t i o n , s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants, and bene-
f i t s o f h i g h sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n s p r i o r t o s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t i n v e n t i o n a r e d i s -
cussed as f o l l o w s .

4.3.2.1. Proppant density and concentration

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y p r o p p a n t s i s e s p e c i a l l y
a t t r a c t i v e , as w i t h l o w e r s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and t h u s b u l k w e i g h t , more p r o p p i n g
m a t e r i a l i n terms o f volume c o u l d be pumped p e r f l u i d u n i t than i n case o f hea-
v i e r proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.7. and 1 . 4 . 1 2 . 5 . ) . I f c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s t o o
h i g h t o a l l o w t h e usage o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y proppants, t h e
h i g h - w e i g h t p r o p p a n t t y p e w i t h t h e l o w e s t d e n s i t y would c e r t a i n l y have an ad-
vantage o f c h o i c e i f i t s p r i c e i s n o t t o o h i g h and thus beyond c o n s i d e r a t i o n
( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.3. and 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) .

P r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e has shown so f a r t h a t sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n s up t o 16 l b s /

g a l f l u i d can be handled w i t h o u t any problems and sand s a t u r a t i o n s o f 8 - 12
l b s / g a l a r e f a i r l y common i n modern t r e a t m e n t s . Concerning i n t e r m e d i a t e - and
h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants, c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h i g h e r than 6 - 8 l b s / g a l a r e u s u a l l y
n o t needed because o f t h e b e t t e r f l o w c a p a c i t y o f t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y s y n t h e t i c
proppants and t h e n e g l i g i b i l i t y t o even absence o f embedment i n deeper forma-
t i o n s where man-made p r o p p a n t s a r e r e q u i r e d i n c o n t r a s t t o s e r i o u s embedment
problems i n s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r s where n a t u r a l sand i s s t i l l f r e q u e n t l y pumped as
a m a t t e r o f c o s t containment. R i s i n g proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n , however, always
has t o t a k e i n t o account t h e p r i n c i p a l l y i n c r e a s i n g r i s k o f s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e
by e a s i e r b r i d g i n g and s t i c k i n g o f t h e s a t u r a t e d s l u r r y i n t h e c r a c k as a conse-
quence o f i n c r e a s i n g f r i c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) .

4.3.2.2. Sign if icance o f i ntermediate-st rength proppant s

I n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants can be a p p l i e d up t o c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s o f
12,000 - 13,000 p s i w i t h s a t i s f a c t o r y performance ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 2 . ) . A s most
r e s e r v o i r s do n o t e x h i b i t such h i g h pressures, t h e r e i s n o t v e r y much r e q u i r e -
ment f o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s such as s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e t o j u s t i f y t h e c o s t
premium. A much b e t t e r s o l u t i o n f o r improvement o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s
t h u s i n c r e a s i n g proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n s t e a d o f s e l e c t i n g h i g h - s t r e n g t h prop-
pants f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h ones. P r o g r e s s i v e proppant s a t u r a t i o n g i v e s
r i s e t o a g r a d u a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i n c r e a s e and l e t s t h e f r a c t u r e respond l i k e ha-
v i n g a h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y w i t h l e s s t o t a l proppant m a t e r i a l .

Economical and t e c h n i c a l improvement i n c l u d e two o p t i o n s c o m p r i s i n g applica-

 414

t i o n o f e i t h e r l e s s proppants t o g e t t h e same c o n d u c t i v i t y o r u s i n g t h e same

amount o f proppants t o achieve a b e t t e r r e s u l t when comparing t h e performance
o f two d i f f e r e n t proppant q u a l i t y t y p e s . I n h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , even a p r o p -
p a n t t y p e o f i n f e r i o r q u a l i t y can p e r f o r m b e t t e r than a s u p e r i o r p r o p p a n t t y p e
i n low s a t u r a t i o n s , and t h e r e f o r e most o f t h e hydrocarbon-bearing p r o s p e c t i v e
i n t e r v a l s can be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y f r a c t u r e d w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h low- o r
h i g h - d e n s i t y proppants, w i t h t h e l i g h t alumina s i l i c a t e m a t e r i a l h a v i n g t h e
g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l due t o i t s s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y comparable t o sand b u t much
h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y which i s even i n c r e a s e d i n m u l t i l a y e r pack-
ages ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 2 . ) .

4.3.2.3. B e n e f i t s o f high sand concentration

P r i o r t o s y n t h e t i c Proppant i n v e n t i o n
P r i o r t o i n v e n t i o n and market i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h -
s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants f o r deep gas r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n
1 . 2 . ) , reasonable r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t package a g a i n s t h i g h c l o s u r e
s t r e s s e s has been achieved by pumping h i g h t o e x c e s s i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f n a t u -
r a l sand (HOLDITCH & ELY 1973). The advantage o f sand m u l t i l a y e r i n g w i t h r e -
s p e c t t o p a r t i a l o r complete m o n o l a y e r i n g has proven t o be q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t a t
l e a s t t o l i m i t e d c l o s u r e s t r e s s l e v e l s o f a b t . 6,000 p s i , and t h e r e f o r e h i g h
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f n a t u r a l sand have t e m p o r a r i l y been even a c o s t a l t e r n a t i v e t o
s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e (CALLANAN, CIPOLLA & LEWIS 1983). On t h e o t h e r hand, however,
pumping r a t e s and f l u i d v i s c o s i t i e s necessary t o i n j e c t h i g h sand s a t u r a t i o n s
a r e sometimes d e t r i m e n t a l by c a u s i n g a l a r g e p r e s s u r e drop a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e
and p r o m o t i n g e x c e s s i v e h e i g h t growth i n t o u n p r o d u c t i v e zones (NOLTE 1982; c f .
section 4.2.2.3.).

Aspects o f h i g h proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and l a r g e t o t a l p r o p p a n t l o a d s i n

h i g h - and low-temperature a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d by SANDY, W I G G I N S & VENDIT-
TO (1986), and f u r t h e r examples o f h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g a r e c o n t r i b u t e d by SEIDEL & STAHL ( 1 9 7 2 ) , HOLDITCH & ELY (1973), CROSS &
SHELDON (1977) ; COULTER, MATTHEWS, SEGLEM & SMITH (1980) ; PETZET (1982), WAT-
K I N S (1982); H A R R I S , REIDENBACH & CHISHOLM (1986) and ROSE ( 1 9 8 8 ) . DEHLINGER,
BROWNE & BUNDRANT (1954) comment on optimum sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n w e l l t r e a t -
ments. Proppant p a c k i n g f e a t u r e s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o e v a l u a t e d by
ALDERMAN & WENDORFF ( 1 9 6 9 ) .

I n terms o f proppant t y p e and s a t u r a t i o n , f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e i n moderate- t o

h i g h - d e p t h o i l r e s e r v o i r s i n China has shown t h a t i n v a r i o u s cases, f r a c t u r e s
propped w i t h l o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f b a u x i t e have b e t t e r c o n d u c t i v i t i e s t h a n
c r a c k s propped w i t h h i g h e r s a t u r a t i o n s o f sand ( L I & ZHU 1 9 8 6 ) .

4.3.3. Proppant embedment and f r a c t u r e width

Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h f r a c t u r e w i d t h is an e x t r e m e l y impor-
t a n t f r a c t u r e d e s i g n parameter i n t r e a t i n g b o t h h a r d and s o f t r o c k s . P a r t i a l mo-
n o l a y e r ( s i n g l e l a y e r ) p r o p p i n g (DARIN & H U I T T 1960) t h e o r e t i c a l l y p r o v i d e s ma-
ximum f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y , b u t i s n o t p r a c t i c a l due t o embedment and c r u s h -
i n g i n s o f t and h a r d f o r m a t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y (CLARK 1983). Thus under most con-
d i t i o n s , p a r t i a l monolayer p r o p p i n g i s n o t s u i t a b l e , because i t i s v e r y d i f f i -
c u l t t o achieve t h e d e s i r e d placement geometry (HOLDITCH 1984). Aspects o f m u l -
t i l a y e r f r a c t u r e propping, p r o p p a n t p i l l a r i n g , f r a c t u r e w i d t h v s . non-Darcy
f l o w , f r a c t u r e w i d t h vs. p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g , and p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n schedu-
l e s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .
 415

4.3.3.1. Mult i l a y e r f r a c t u r e propping

M u l t i p l e l a y e r f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g i s b e n e f i c i a l i n s o f t r o c k s because o n l y
t h e o u t e r p r o p p a n t l a y e r s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o embedment, and i n h a r d f o r m a t i o n s ,
t h e i n c r e a s e d number of p a r t i c l e s r e s u l t s i n a g r e a t e r amount o f c o n t a c t p o i n t s
t h a t a c t s t o m i n i m i z e f r a c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n due t o c l o s u r e - s t r e s s induced prop-
p a n t c r u s h i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.2.1.1. and 4.12.4.). W h i l e embedment improves r e -
t e n t i o n o f p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y a t h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s because t h e s t r e s s
i s spread o v e r a l a r g e r p o r t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e , i t a l s o a l l o w s p a r t i a l f r a c -
t u r e c l o s u r e t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g c r a c k w i d t h and c o n d u c t i v i t y (MONTGOMERY & STEAN-
SON 1985). Embedment depends on d i a m e t e r and number o f proppant g r a i n s p e r u n i t
a r e a o f t h e f r a c t u r e which matches p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and i s a l s o v e r y sen-
s i t i v e t o f o r m a t i o n hardness (HOWARD & FAST 1970). Proppant embedment i s o f t e n
combined w i t h f i n e s m i g r a t i o n (SHAH, SMITH & DONALDSON 1983). F o r m a t i o n
s t r e n g t h which i s a c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r on embedment can be determined by t h e me-
c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s l o g (ANDERSON e t a l . 1975; c f . s e c t i o n s 6.2.1.10.7. and
6.3.6.).

4.3.3.1.1. General aspects

Aspects o f embedment o r engulfment o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants i n t o low-per-
m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r r o c k s a r e d i s c u s s e d by VOLK, RAIBLE, CARROLL & SPEARS
(1981), and HUITT & McGLOTHLIN (1958) and McGLOTHLIN & HUITT (1966) comment on
r e l a t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n r o c k s t r e n g t h t o p r o p p i n g agent s t r e n g t h . ROODHART, K U I -
PER & D A V I E S (1986) o u t l i n e p r o p p a n t r o c k impairment. F r a c t u r e w i d t h i s d i r e c t -
l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o g e l v i s c o s i t y and i n j e c t i o n r a t e o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d
(BARBY & BARBEE 1987), and i n c r e a s i n g p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n g i v e s r i s e t o h i g h e r
g e l v i s c o s i t i e s t h e r e b y t r i g g e r i n g t h e o r i g i n o f w i d e r f r a c t u r e s . O p e r a t i n g con-
d i t i o n s which cause h i g h p r e s s u r e drop a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e such as h i g h i n j e c -
t i o n r a t e s and v i s c o u s f l u i d s r e s u l t i n r e l a t i v e l y wide cracks, whereas conver-
s e l y t r e a t m e n t parameters c a u s i n g low p r e s s u r e drop a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e such as
low i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and t h i n f l u i d s g i v e r i s e t o r e l a t i v e l y narrow c r a c k s (PER-
K I N S & KERN 1961, BARBY & BARBEE 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.3.). Pay zone t h i c k -
ness has no e f f e c t on p r e s s u r e o r w i d t h o f h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s , w h i l e p r e s s u r e
drop a l o n g r e s t r i c t e d v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s i s l a r g e f o r t h i n zones b u t s m a l l f o r
t h i c k i n t e r v a l s . On t h e o t h e r hand, c r a c k w i d t h a t t h e w e l l b o r e i s n e a r l y i n d e -
pendent o f v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e h e i g h t ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.2.2.). R e s e r v o i r d e p t h has
g e n e r a l l y l i t t l e e f f e c t on f r a c t u r e w i d t h e x c e p t o f v a r y i n g r o c k p r o p e r t i e s t o
which f r a c t u r e w i d t h i s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e .

High p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o a v o i d embedment a r e a l s o recommen-

ded f o r geopressured r e s e r v o i r s (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & LEE 1983; c f . s e c t i o n
4.4.2.). I n h a r d r e s e r v o i r r o c k s o f c o n t i n u o u s sand body d i s t r i b u t i o n , p r o p p a n t
embedment does n o t occur, b u t impairment o f c o n d u c t i v i t y i s caused b y r e s e r v o i r
f o r m a t i o n c r e e p a t t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l . I n h a r d sandstone pay complexes where i s o -
l a t e d sandstone l e n s e s a r e separated by mudstones ( c f . p l a t e s II/7 - 8, 111/4,
V I I / 3 + 6, V I I I / 7 - 8 and IX/l), proppant embedment i n t o i n t e r v e n i n g s h a l e s may
be a problem. A much l a r g e r f r a c t u r e w i d t h than expected i n p r o p p a n t embedment
t e s t i n g i n d i c a t e s occurrence o f p r o p p a n t s t a c k i n g (VOLK, RAIBLE, CARROLL &
SPEARS 1981). The most i m p o r t a n t aims o f m u l t i l a y e r f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g a r e c r u s h -
i n g and embedment r e d u c t i o n as w e l l as c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement which a r e i l l u -
s t r a t e d below, w i t h emphasis b e i n g p u t on t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o p e r t i e s o f s o f t and
h a r d r e s e r v o i r r o c k s and t h e i r d i f f e r e n t r e a c t i o n t o mono- and m u l t i l a y e r f r a c -
t u r e propping.

4.3.3.1.2. Crushing and embedment reduction

W h i l e some t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s w i t h p e r m e a b i l i t i e s o f a b t . 0.001 - 0.05 md can
s t i l l be s u f f i c i e n t l y d r a i n e d w i t h crushed proppants o r sand because t h e f r a g -
ments s t i l l p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.6.1. and
 416

4 . 1 2 . 4 . ) , s e r i o u s c o n d u c t i v i t y impairment i s generated i n t h e p r o p p a n t package

o f f r a c t u r e s i n moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n s by c r u s h i n g and embed-
ment (HOLDITCH & LEE 1 9 7 9 ) . A b e t t e r d e s i g n s o l u t i o n aiming on h i g h e r p r o p p a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n p e r u n i t area o f t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l i s t h e r e f o r e a m u l t i p l e - l a y e r
pack c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e s c o n s e q u e n t l y i n f i l l i n g a w i d e r f r a c -
t u r e . A f t e r d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l aspects, s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s i n s o f t
sands and h a r d sandstones a r e o u t l i n e d .

4.3.3.1.2.1. General aspects

F r a c t u r e p o r o s i t y decreases as l o a d i s a p p l i e d because p r o p p a n t g r a i n s c r u s h
and embed i n t o t h e r o c k m a t r i x (WENDORFF 1982). W h i l e i n competent r o c k s , p r o p -
p a n t p o r o s i t y i s u s u a l l y reduced by c r u s h i n g , p r o p p a n t embedment c o u p l e d w i t h
r 3 - 7 p a n t c r u s h i n g r e s u l t s i n v e r y low f r a c t u r e p o r o s i t y i n s o f t f o r m a t i o n s . I n
i i i o > t propped c r a c k s , however, b o t h embedment and crushing occur ( c f . section
4 . 1 2 . 4 . 3 . 2 . ) and t h e r e s u l t i n g p o r o s i t y i s a measure o f t h e combined e f f e c t .

High p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s p l u g g i n g w i d e r f r a c t u r e s a r e b e n e f i c i a l i n s o f t
r o c k s because o n l y t h e o u t e r p r o p p a n t l a y e r s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o embedment and t h e
i n n e r l a y e r s remain u n a f f e c t e d , and i n h a r d r o c k s due t o a g r e a t e r number o f
c o n t a c t p o i n t s o f t h e i n c r e a s e d amount o f p a r t i c l e s m i n i m i z i n g f r a c t u r e f l o w ca-
p a c i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n by g r a i n c r u s h i n g i n h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s regimes which
i s l i m i t e d t o p a r t s o f t h e o u t e r l a y e r s . C o n d u c t i v i t y o f f r a c t u r e s i n f i l l e d by
p r o p p a n t m u l t i l a y e r s i s much l e s s depending on r e s e r v o i r r o c k hardness t h a n
t h a t o f those plugged by p r o p p a n t monolayers o r even p a r t i a l monolayers (DARIN
& H U I T T 1960, COOKE 1973). Wide f r a c t u r e s and h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s r e -
s u l t i n g i n a m u l t i l a y e r package a r e a l s o t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n f o r s t i m u l a t i o n o f
s o f t t i g h t c h a l k f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e N o r t h Sea (HARTLEY & BOSMA 1985; TANSOE,
K I N G & HOLMAN 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . ) .

A p a r t f r o m monolayers s u f f e r i n g f r o m embedment and c r u s h i n g i n s o f t and h a r d

r o c k s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o t h e r f a c t o r s t e n d i n g t o reduce f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y a r e
g e l r e s i d u e and f i n e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m i n c o m p l e t e c l e a n - u p o f b r o k e n c r o s s l i n k e d
s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 . ) and improper s i e v i n g and s c r e e n i n g o f
the p r o p p i n g agent, r e s p e c t i v e l y (CLARK 1 9 8 3 ) . Rocks w i t h low embedment p r e s -
sure a r e s o f t , w i t h proppants t e n d i n g t o embed i n these t y p e o f f o r m a t i o n s
which r e s u l t s i n a h e a l i n g e f f e c t o f t h e f r a c t u r e , and r o c k s w i t h h i g h embed-
ment p r e s s u r e a r e h a r d and n o t s u s c e p t i b l e t o p r o p p a n t embedment, b u t r a t h e r
s u b j e c t e d t o p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g . These two d i f f e r e n t f o r m a t i o n t y p e s a r e charac-
t e r i z e d i n more d e t a i l as f o l l o w s .

4.3.3.1.2.2. Soft sands

M u l t i l a y e r h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y p r o p p i n g o f f r a c t u r e s even p e r m i t s h y d r a u l i c
s t i m u l a t i o n o f u n c o n s o l i d a t e d d i r t y sands ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 5 . 4 . ) which cannot
be t r e a t e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s due t o i n s t a n t a n e o u s t o t a l f r a c t u r e c l o -
s u r e as a consequence o f complete embedment o r e n g u l f m e n t o f p r o p p a n t mono-
l a y e r s i n t o t h e s o f t r o c k m a t r i x (LAMBERT, DOLAN & GALLUS 1 9 8 3 ) . Heterogeneous
l o o s e sands w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e movement o f f o r m a t i o n f i n e s i m p a i r i n g hydrocarbon
f l o w can be s u c c e s s f u l l y s t i m u l a t e d by r e d u c t i o n o f f l u i d f l o w v e l o c i t y a t and
w i t h i n t h e r o c k f a c e t h r o u g h e f f e c t i v e w e l l b o r e enlargement by f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u -
r i n g w i t h m a x i m i z i n g p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n and m i n i m i z i n g p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e .
H i g h e r c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y p r o v i d e s e x c e l l e n t p r o p p a n t suspension and p e r -
m i t s t o use v e r y h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y small pad v o l u -
mes. Proppant s a t u r a t i o n m a x i m i z a t i o n can a l s o be o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h l i m i t i n g
f r a c t u r e growth by o n l y p e r f o r a t i n g t h e lower p o r t i o n o f t h e i n t e r v a l t o be
t r e a t e d ( a s t h e f r a c t u r e i s p r o p a g a t i n g i n upwards d i r e c t i o n due t o d e c r e a s i n g
overburden and c l o s u r e s t r e s s ; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 1 . ) . Proppant packages i n f i l -
l i n g w i d e r f r a c t u r e s a r e l e s s s u b j e c t e d t o p l u g g i n g by f i n e s m i g r a t i o n and prop-
p a n t embedment (SHAH, SMITH & DONALDSON 1983).
 417

100 mesh o r 70/140 mesh g r a i n s i z e as a l e a d - i n proppant and f l u i d - l o s s

agent a l l o w s h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y t i p packing o f secondary h a i r l i n e f r a c t u r e s
which do n o t accept l a r g e r proppant g r a i n s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.11.2.1. and
4.8.8.3.2.3.). Flow c a p a c i t y o p t i m i z a t i o n near the w e l l b o r e can be achieved
w i t h 8/16 o r 10/20 mesh t a i l - i n f o l l o w i n g conventional pumping o f 20/40 mesh
proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1.2.3.). The m u l t i l a y e r proppant package w i t h h i g h
proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n p e r f r a c t u r e w a l l area u n i t guarantees t h a t a high-con-
d u c t i v i t y flow channel s t i l l remains open a f t e r considerable proppant embedment
i n t o the weak f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x and i s the o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y o f s t i m u l a t i n g s o f t
unconsolidated sands. I n case o f proper a p p l i c a t i o n , h y d r a u l i c m u l t i l a y e r prop-
pant f r a c t u r i n g i s much s u p e r i o r t o gravel packing i n such types o f r e s e r v o i r s ,
because g r a v e l packing cannot s u f f i c i e n t l y minimize f o r m a t i o n f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s
t o stop m i g r a t i o n o f f i n e p a r t i c l e s w i t h i n more d i s t a l s e c t i o n s o f the r e s e r -
v o i r and o n l y p r o v i d e s i n h i b i t i o n o f f i n e s movement i n the proximal pay zone
seam around the borehole ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.3.5.). The general p o s s i b i l i t y o f hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f s o f t unconsolidated sands i s f r e q u e n t l y h i g h l i g h t e d by
considerable losses o f s o l i d s - l a d e n d r i l l i n g mud ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.11.2.) when pe-
n e t r a t i n g such horizons (LAMBERT, DOLAN & GALLUS 1983).

S o f t formations r e q u i r e a large-diameter proppant which r e s i s t s t o embedment

i n t o the r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x , and medium- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay zones need a
l a r g e - s i z e proppant i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e adequate f l o w c a p a c i t y (CLARK 1983).

4.3.3.1.2.3. Hard sandstones

Crushing r e d u c t i o n independent from proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n can a l s o be achie-
ved by replacement o f n a t u r a l sand by i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants
i n hard sandstone r e s e r v o i r s i n b o t h deep and shallow w e l l s (PEARCE 1983; c f .
sections 2.3.6. and 2.4.2.4.). Proppant monolayers i n hard sandstones n o t per-
m i t t i n g embedment s u f f e r from c r u s h i n g p r i m a r i l y by p o i n t - t o - p o i n t l o a d i n g o f
i n d i v i d u a l sand g r a i n s which are t o o b r i t t l e t o deform. I n c r e a s i n g sand concen-
t r a t i o n i n shallow pay zones where pumping has t o be done w i t h low i n j e c t i o n r a -
t e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.3.) bears t h e danger o f premature screenout t e r m i n a t i o n ,
b u t r e d u c t i o n o f c r u s h i n g can be e f f e c t i v e l y performed by u t i l i z i n g a h i g h e r -
s t r e n g t h proppant p a r t i c u l a r l y when proppant placement i s c a r r i e d o u t i n p i l -
l a r s o r columns w h i l e t h e f r a c t u r e i s h o l d open by h y d r a u l i c pressure (PUGH &
SEGLEM 1977, PEARCE 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.3.2.). H i g h - q u a l i t y proppants i n mul-
t i l a y e r packages together w i t h increased c o n c e n t r a t i o n are thus e f f e c t i v e me-
thods o f t r e a t i n g b o t h very s o f t and very hard r e s e r v o i r rocks regardless o f
t h e i r s t r u c t u r a l depth.

Hard rocks u s u a l l y have h i g h c l o s u r e stresses associated w i t h them and there-

f o r e r e q u i r e a h i g h compressive s t r e n g t h proppant (CLARK 1983; c f . s e c t i o n
1.2.1.1.). Since embedment i s n o t the major problem i n these formations, a
s m a l l - s i z e d proppant can be u t i l i z e d which a l s o a l l o w s an increased pack concen-
t r a t i o n t h a t tends t o c o u n t e r a c t the h i g h c l o s u r e stresses a l s o i n l e s s wide
f r a c t u r e s , because hard sandstones are u s u a l l y l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y rocks which do
n o t r e q u i r e l a r g e f l o w c a p a c i t i e s w i t h i n t h e cracks and are b e s t t r e a t e d w i t h
long narrow highly-packed f r a c t u r e s ( c f . a l s o VOLK, RAIBLE, CARROLL & SPEARS
1981). The assumption o f n e g l i g i b l e embedment and proppant p e r m e a b i l i t y indepen-
dent o f proppant s a t u r a t i o n i s o n l y v a l i d f o r proppant m u l t i l a y e r s and hard r e -
s e r v o i r rocks (CALLANAN, CIPOLLA & LEWIS 1983).

4.3.3.1.3. Conductivity enhancement

As f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s d e f i n e d as crack w i d t h times proppant package
p e r m e a b i l i t y , wider f r a c t u r e s i n f i l l e d by proppant m u l t i l a y e r s are a s i g n i f i -
cant means of i n c r e a s i n g crack f l o w c a p a c i t y beyond the t e c h n i c a l and economi-
c a l boundaries o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h improvement (COOKE 1973). Proppant m u l t i -
 418

l a y e r s o r i g i n a t e when s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d v i s c o s i t y i s low enough t o a l l o w t h e

proppants t o s e t t l e t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e v e r t i c a l c r a c k d u r i n g f l u i d i n j e c t i o n ,
as w e l l as when f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y i s h i g h enough t o suspend t h e p r o p -
p a n t i n case o f s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and s a t i s f a c t o r i l y
wide f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 2 . ) .

S p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s comprise h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s i n v e r y s m a l l s t i m u -
l a t i o n j o b s which a r e p l a c e d c l o s e t o t h e w e l l b o r e i n o r d e r t o overcome forma-
t i o n damage o r t o s u c c e s s f u l l y t r e a t u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s w i t h h i g h p r e s s u -
r e drawdown ( i n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e i n s e r t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s has
a l s o proven t o be u s e f u l ; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . ) . S h o r t h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c -
t u r e s which a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by m u l t i l a y e r p r o p p i n g a r e a common means o f s t i -
m u l a t i n g m o d e r a t e - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandstone o i l r e s e r v o i r s f o r b o t h o i l p r o d u c t i o n
and w a t e r i n j e c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1. and 4.6.), w i t h t h e necessary h i g h con-
d u c t i v i t y b e i n g achieved by b o t h h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n and g r a i n s i z e o f t h e p r o p -
p a n t s (BRITT 1985, B R I T T & BENNETT 1985, BRITT & LARSEN 1986), and have a l s o
s i g n i f i c a n t a p p l i c a t i o n i n c h a l k o i l pay zones ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.5. and
4.5.4.).

Aspects o f c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t enhancement by m u l t i l a y e r p r o p p i n g o f w i d e r
f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by MARPLE, RULEY, WORLEY & FREEMAN ( 1 9 8 7 ) , w i t h
t h e p a r t i c u l a r advantages o f h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e
b e i n g more complete c r a c k f i l l u p , h i g h e r f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y , l e s s proppant
c r u s h i n g and improved proppant pack t o l e r a n c e t o f i n e s . High p r o p p a n t s a t u r a -
t i o n s r e q u i r e s e l e c t i o n o f a f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d which w i l l have maximum v i s c o s i t y
and proppant t r a n s p o r t p r o p e r t i e s once o u t s i d e t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 3 . 4 . 2 . ) , and i t i s a l s o i m p e r a t i v e t h a t f l u i d l o s s w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e i s
h e l d a t a minimum ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . ) .

4.3.3.2. Proppant p i 1laring

Another concept o f f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y improvement i s p r o p p a n t p i l l a r i n g
which comprises p r o p p a n t i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e crack i n such a way t h a t no con-
t i n u o u s s h e e t - t y p e wedge i s formed, b u t open f l o w channels remain between d i s -
c r e t e patches o r p i l l a r s which p r o v i d e even h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y t h a n t h e h i g h -
p e r m e a b i l i t y p r o p p a n t package (TINSLEY & WILLIAMS 1975; FAST, HOLMAN & COLVIN
1977; c f . f i g s . 7 and 1 2 ) i f t h e i r subsequent c l o s u r e due t o h i g h r e s e r v o i r
s t r e s s can be p r e v e n t e d . Some aspects o f open f l o w channels between d i s c r e t e
p r o p p a n t patches, d i s c o n t i n u o u s p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n , and f l u i d d e n s i t y con-
t r o l and s e l e c t i v e p r o p p a n t l o a d a r e summarized as f o l l o w s .

4.3.3.2.1. Open flow channels between d i s c r e t e proppant patches

The p r o p p a n t p i l l a r s have t o be spaced s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e t o each o t h e r i n
o r d e r t o a v o i d f r a c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n by p a r t i a l c l o s u r e o f open channels b e t -
ween t h e s u p p o r t i n g p r o p p a n t patches (TINSLEY & WILLIAMS 1 9 7 5 ) . I n c o m b i n a t i o n
w i t h m u l t i l a y e r p r o p p i n g , t h e t e c h n i q u e o f p i l l a r p r o p p i n g ( c f . f i g s . 7 and 12)
c e r t a i n l y i s a v e r y e f f e c t i v e means t o maximize f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y i f p r o -
p e r l y designed and performed. Proppant p i l l a r i n g has t h e advantage o f c r e a t i n g
l e s s d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e s due t o a l t e r n a t i n g pumping o f f l u i d
s l u g s w i t h and w i t h o u t p r o p p a n t l o a d ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 5 . and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) .
FAST, HOLMAN & COLVIN (1977) b e l i e v e t h a t proppant p i l l a r i n g g i v e s r e s u l t s a t
l e a s t comparable - i f n o t s u p e r i o r - t o those o f t o t a l l y p r o p p a n t packed f r a c t u -
r e s , because t h e open c r a c k p o r t i o n s have an enormous f l o w c a p a c i t y w i t h r e -
s p e c t t o t h e p r o p p a n t bed o r pack (TINSLEY & WILLIAMS 1 9 7 5 ) . Proppant p i l l a r i n g
can under these c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t e c h n i c a l l y a c c e p t a b l e performance advance t o
an i m p o r t a n t means o f s t i m u l a t i o n expense containment by l o w e r i n g o f p r o p p a n t
c o s t due t o r e q u i r e m e n t of s m a l l e r t o t a l p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s than would be ne-
cessary f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n t i n u o u s p l u g g i n g o f t h e c r a c k .
 419

P a r t i a l m o n o l a y e r i n g o f p r o p p a n t s has been more s u c c e s s f u l i n t r e a t m e n t s

where i n s o l u b l e p a r t i c l e s a r e i n j e c t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e p r o p p a n t and t h e m i x t u r e
i s d e p o s i t e d as a m u l t i l a y e r (SINCLAIR 1980). Subsequent d i s s o l u t i o n o f these
a d d i t i o n a l p a r t i c l e s t h e o r e t i c a l l y l e a v e s o n l y t h e p r o p p a n t monolayer, b u t r e -
s u l t s f r o m these t r e a t m e n t s can a l s o be e x p l a i n e d by o t h e r mechanisms, such as
t h a t a m u l t i l a y e r e d proppant package i s p l a c e d w i t h an open f r a c t u r e channel
l e f t above i t . Such a g e o m e t r i c a l arrangement i n h o r i z o n t a l d i v i s i o n o f p r o p -
p a n t package and open f l o w channel r e p r e s e n t s p r o p p a n t banking ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.12.2.2.), whereas t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n matches p r o p p a n t
p i l l a r i n g ( c f . f i g s . 7 and 1 2 ) . Proppant banking can be t e c h n i c a l l y achieved by
g r a d u a l l y r e d u c i n g t h e pumping r a t e near t h e end o f t h e t r e a t m e n t i n o r d e r t o
screen t h e b o r e h o l e o u t and l e a v e t h e f r a c t u r e w e l l - p r o p p e d n e a r t h e mouth and
c l o s e t o t h e b o t t o m w i t h an open h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y channel towards t h e t o p
(CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VETTER 1981), whereas p r o p p a n t p i l l a r i n g i s t r i g -
gered by pumping a l t e r n a t i n g l o t s o f f l u i d w i t h and w i t h o u t p r o p p a n t l o a d ( c f .
also section 4.2.2.6.).

4.3.3.2.2. Discontinuous proppant distribution

The performance o f n o n - u n i f o r m p r o p p a n t p a c k i n g w i t h open f l o w channels b e t -
ween i s o l a t e d p r o p p a n t i s l a n d s i s u n d e r l i n e d by s t i l l f a v o u r a b l e r e s u l t s i n
many o l d w e l l s where f o r m e r l y t e c h n i c a l l y poor t r e a t m e n t s had been c a r r i e d o u t
and c o n t i n u o u s proppant placement c o u l d n o t be achieved (TINSLEY & WILLIAMS
1975; c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.9.). The t r a n s i t i o n f r o m c o n t i n u o u s t o d i s c r e t e p r o p p a n t
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e f r a c t u r e can be c o n t r o l l e d by proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n . As
p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o n v e c t i o n c e l l s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.2.),
h i g h e r proppant s a t u r a t i o n s f l a t t e n and dampen o u t t h e c o n v e c t i o n c e l l s i n t h e
f l u i d i f s u f f i c i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s reached w i t h o n l y l i t t l e amounts o f low-sa-
t u r a t e d f l u i d l e f t i n between.

T r a n s i t i o n a l stages between u n i f o r m and n o n - u n i f o r m p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n

a r e proppant banks a t t h e lower s i d e o f t h e f r a c t u r e and i s o l a t e d p r o p p a n t p a t -
ches i n t h e upper p a r t o f t h e c r a c k w i t h open f l o w channels i n between, w i t h
some p r o p p a n t p i l l a r s g o i n g up f r o m t h e p r o p p a n t bank zone i n t o t h e p r o p p a n t
s p o t zone. I n some cases, a l s o h o r i z o n t a l proppant banking w i t h e n r i c h m e n t o f
proppants t o a l a y e r i n t h e l o w e r p a r t and an open f l o w channel i n t h e upper
s e c t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e i s a p r o f i t a b l e s o l u t i o n , because upon banking t h e prop-
p a n t s s e t t l e i n t h e c r e a t e d w i d t h i n s t e a d o f t h e f r a c t u r e c l o s i n g on a l e s s con-
c e n t r a t e d and narrower pack as p l a c e d by p e r f e c t - s u p p o r t f l u i d s (HDEL 1988; c f .
f i g s . 7 and 1 2 ) .

4.3.3.2.3. Fluid density control and selective proppant load

Proppant banking can a l s o be r e a l i z e d by f l u i d d e n s i t y c o n t r o l w i t h o v e r - o r
u n d e r r i d i n g o f two successive f l u i d s o f d i f f e r e n t s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y and v i s c o s i -
t y (BARBER & THEMIG 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.6.), r e s u l t i n g i n s e l e c t i v e prop-
p a n t placement i n bank-type d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e upper o r l o w e r i n t e r v a l o f t h e
f r a c t u r e i n case o f pumping f l u i d s w i t h and w i t h o u t p r o p p a n t load, o r i n s t r a -
t i f i c a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t proppant t y p e s and/or g r a i n s i z e s i n t h e upper and l o -
wer r e s e r v o i r segments i n case o f i n j e c t i n g two f l u i d s charged w i t h d i f f e r e n t
p r o p p a n t loads, r e s p e c t i v e l y ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 4 . ) . MALLINGER, R I X E & HOWARD
(1964) comment on p r o p p i n g agent spacers i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e w e l l p r o d u c t i v i -
ty.

The importance o f s e l e c t i v e p r o p p a n t placement w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e i s h i g h -

l i g h t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y v a r y i n g f r o m w e l l b o r e t o t i p ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.3.6.) can s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s (BENNETT, ROSATO &
REYNOLDS 1 9 8 1 ) . I t i s t h e r e f o r e d e c i s i v e t o determine p r o p p a n t placement and
s c h e d u l i n g programs f o r a t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n i n o r d e r t o assure t h a t t h e a p p r o p r i -
a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e f r a c t u r e i s achieved (VEATCH & MOSCHOVI-
 420

D I S 1986). Aspects o f p r o p p a n t p i l l a r i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by PEARCE ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

G e n e r a t i o n o f non-continuous p r o p p a n t p i l l a r s by u s i n g spacer f l u i d s between

proppant slugs requires t h a t the proppant-carrying f l u i d i s capable o f p e r f e c t -
l y t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e p r o p p a n t s d u r i n g d u r a t i o n o f pumping, t h e spacer volumes
f i n g e r t h r o u g h t h e p r o p p a n t - l a d e n f l u i d t o l e a v e channels t h r o u g h o u t t h e f r a c -
t u r e , and t h e volume o f p r o p p a n t - l a d e n f l u i d and spacer f l u i d s l u g s a r e such
t h a t t h e p i l l a r s a r e c l o s e enough t o g e t h e r t o a s c e r t a i n almost complete c l o s u r e
o f t h e v o i d channels when t h e w e l l i s p l a c e d on p r o d u c t i o n (PUGH, McDANIEL &
SEGLEM 1977). The main economical b e n e f i t o f pumping a l t e r n a t i n g volumes o f v i s -
cous p r o p p a n t - l a d e n f l u i d and t h i n spacer f l u i d i s s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n o f
t r e a t m e n t c o s t s due t o l o w e r p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o c o n t i n u o u s
fracture i n f i l l i n g .

4.3.3.3. Fracture width vs. non-Darcy flow

Another advantage o f m u l t i l a y e r p r o p p i n g o f f r a c t u r e s i n comparison t o mono-
l a y e r o r even p a r t i a l monolayer s u p p o r t i s t h a t t h e w i d e r t h e f r a c t u r e and t h e
l a r g e r t h e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s , t h e b e t t e r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f Darcy f l o w . I n n a r -
row f r a c t u r e s propped by monolayers o r p a r t i a l monolayers c o n s i s t i n g o f s m a l l
p r o p p a n t g r a i n s , t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e f l u i d f l o w i n g i n t h e f r a c t u r e may i n c r e a s e
so much t h a t t u r b u l e n c e s o r i n e r t i a l e f f e c t s o r i g i n a t e w h i c h g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e
t h e f l o w r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e f r a c t u r e under c o n d i t i o n s o f non-Darcy f l o w (COOKE
1973, COOKE & GIDLEY 1979; c f . s e c t i o n 4.11.3.2.) and t h u s reduce gas w e l l p r o -
d u c t i v i t y f o r l o w - c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u r e s by c r e a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e l o s -
ses i n t h e c r a c k which decrease t h e f l o w i n g bottomhole p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o
w i t h d r a w a t a d e s i r e d f l o w r a t e i f t h e w e l l i s produced a g a i n s t a c o n s t a n t back
p r e s s u r e . The i n e r t i a l f o r c e s a r e caused by t h e t o r t u o s i t y o f t h e f l o w p a t h as
w e l l as by a c c e l e r a t i o n and d e c e l e r a t i o n o f f l u i d as i t f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e p o r e
t h r o a t s i n a porous medium.

I n e r t i a l gas f l o w i n a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f f e c t i n g t h e
shape o f t h e p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p c u r v e (HOLDITCH & MORSE 1976) s i n c e i n e r t i a l f l o w
e f f e c t s do n o t always q u i c k l y d i s s i p a t e when t h e w e l l i s s h u t i n . F r a c t u r e con-
d u c t i v i t y can be c o n s i d e r a b l y a f f e c t e d by t h e d e v i a t i o n f r o m Darcy f l o w a t h i g h
c u r r e n t r a t e s (COOKE 1973), w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e drop p r o v o k i n g a reduc-
t i o n o f e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y by more than a f a c t o r o f 3 (DAVIES &
K U I P E R 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 0 . 4 . ) . Under such c o n d i t i o n s , Forchheimer's equa-
t i o n r a t h e r t h a n Darcy's law has t o be used f o r c o r r e c t p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t e s t i -
m a t i o n near t h e w e l l b o r e and c o n s e q u e n t l y f l o w b e h a v i o u r o f t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y
f r a c t u r e d w e l l f o r h i g h - v e l o c i t y environments (EZEUDEMBAH & DRANCHUK 1982, PE-
REZ & KELKAR 1988; PURSELL, HOLDITCH & BLAKELEY 1 9 8 8 ) . Some aspects o f p r o p p a n t
t y p e and g r a i n s i z e , s h e a r i n g o f polymer f l u i d s , h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s and se-
condary f r a c t u r e n a r r o w i n g a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.3.3.3.1. Proppant type and g r a i n s i z e

Turbulences l e a d i n g t o non-Darcy f l o w a r e a l s o c r e a t e d by s m a l l - t o m i c r o -
s c a l e h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s such as crushed g r a i n s i n t h e p r o p p a n t package ( c f . sec-
t i o n 1.4.10.), w i t h crushed l a r g e r g r a i n s b e i n g more heterogeneous t h a n i n t a c t
packs o f i n i t i a l l y s m a l l g r a i n s . Gas and l o w - v i s c o s i t y o i l a r e most s i g n i f i c a n t -
l y a f f e c t e d i n l i n e a r f l o w by t u r b u l e n c e s a t h i g h c u r r e n t r a t e s . I n case o f n a r -
row f r a c t u r e s , non-Darcy f l o w e f f e c t s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t and n e g l i g i b l e i n f r a c -
t u r e and f o r m a t i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y (WATTENBERGER & RAMEY 1969; R E I N I C K E , B R I N K -
MANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1 9 8 5 ) .

Non-Oarcy f l o w i n h i b i t i o n o f hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n i s t h e more s e r i o u s , t h e

poorer i s proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y , w i t h h i g h - q u a l i t y synthetic proppants o f l a r -
g e r g r a i n s i z e g i v i n g r i s e t o much l e s s non-Darcy f l o w d i s t u r b a n c e t h a n n a t u r a l
sand (CALLANAN, CIPOLLA & LEWIS 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 0 . ) . B o t h p r o p p a n t t y p e
 42 1

and g r a i n s i z e a r e independently and j o i n t l y a f f e c t i n g f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y da-

mage by non-Darcy flow, w i t h h i g h e r proppant q u a l i t y and l a r g e r proppant g r a i n
s i z e decreasing the heterogeneity e f f e c t s o f non-Darcy f l o w considerably. Con-
versely, any proppant-pack c o n d u c t i v i t y damage increases the non-Darcy f l o w f a c -
t o r , w i t h g r e a t e r increases being recorded f o r h i g h e r degrees o f damage (DAVIES
& KUIPER 1988).

PURSELL, HOLDITCH & BLAKELEY (1988), however, conclude from i n e r t i a l f l o w

s t u d i e s t h a t the non-Darcy f l o w c o e f f i c i e n t depends on i n i t i a l proppant mesh
s i z e and i s independent o f proppant type, w i t h g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n being
the most i m p o r t a n t c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r . P e r m e a b i l i t i e s c a l c u l a t e d from the Forch-
heimer equation e x h i b i t the same t r e n d o f decreasing p e r m e a b i l i t y w i t h i n c r e a -
s i n g pore pressure as t h e Klinkenberg r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r Darcy f l o w . Non-Darcy
c u r r e n t i n porous media i s c o n t r o l l e d by pore s t r u c t u r e (NOMAN & ARCHER 1987),
w i t h i n e r t i a l f l o w e f f e c t s being m a i n l y i n f l u e n c e d by c u r v a t u r e o f streamlines,
expansion and c o n t r a c t i o n losses, t h r o a t t o pore c o o r d i n a t i o n number, heteroge-
n e i t i e s and s u r f a c e roughness (PURSELL, HOLDITCH & BLAKELEY 1988). The i n e r t i a l
f l o w c o e f f i c i e n t increases w i t h r i s i n g pore pressure. Other aspects o f non-Dar-
c y f l o w i n proppant packages are discussed by EVANS & EVANS (1986).

4.3.3.3.2. Shearing of polymer fluids

Uncomplexed polymer s o l u t i o n s are f r e q u e n t l y i n t u r b u l e n t o r t r a n s i t i o n a l
f l o w when c r o s s l i n k i n g r e a c t i o n s take p l a c e (GARDNER & EIKERTS 1982). The l e v e l
o f turbulence o r w a l l shear s t r e s s can be expected t o have s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t
upon apparent g e l v i s c o s i t y . Polymer systems are a f f e c t e d by h i g h shear d u r i n g
the c r o s s l i n k i n g r e a c t i o n as w e l l as by l e v e l and d u r a t i o n o f pumping. The a b i -
l i t y o f a g e l t o g a i n v i s c o s i t y a f t e r a p e r i o d o f h i g h shear f l o w i s s t r o n g l y
a f f e c t e d by l e v e l and d u r a t i o n o f h i g h shear f l o w . Proppant a d d i t i o n t o a g e l
increases s l u r r y v i s c o s i t y a t a constant value over t h a t p r e d i c t e d f o r s i m i l a r
proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n Newtonian f l u i d s . Approximation o f apparent v i s c o s i -
t y of a g e l as i t e n t e r s the f r a c t u r e a t the w e l l b o r e r e q u i r e s e s t i m a t i o n o f
the combined e f f e c t s of shear and proppant on gel v i s c o s i t y . The e f f e c t s o f tem-
p e r a t u r e and o f l o n g p e r i o d s o f low shear r a t e on gel v i s c o s i t y a f t e r m i x i n g
and f l o w i n g a t h i g h r a t e s are needed t o b e t t e r c h a r a c t e r i z e g e l s w h i l e being i n
the fracture.

E f f e c t s o f pore s t r u c t u r e on non-Darcy gas f l o w are r e p o r t e d by NOMAN & AR-

CHER (1987), and o t h e r aspects o f non-Darcy gas f l o w are discussed by RIECKMANN
(1970), WONG (1970), JONES (1972, 1987), GEERTSMA (1974), RAMEY (1975), HOL-
DITCH & MORSE (1976); JONES, BLOUNT & GLAZE (1976); HOLDITCH & LEE (1979), GUP-
PY (1980); GUPPY, CINCO-LEY & RAMEY (1980); K A D I & BROWN (1980); ALLAM, C R I C H -
LOW & SOLIMAN (1981); K A D I & BOUTEMY (1981), UBANI & EVANS (1982); CALLANAN, C I -
POLLA & LEWIS (1983); EVANS, HUDSON & GREENLEE (1985); NOMAN, SHRIMANKER & AR-
CHER (1985) ; EVANS & EVANS (1986), NGUYEN (1986); SALDANA, BRIGHAM & RAMEY
(1986); SCHMIDT, CAUDLE & MILLER (1986); LEE, LOGAN & TEK (1987); MALONEY, GALL
& RAIBLE (1987) ; FRAIM & LEE (1988) and PEREZ & KELKAR (1988). Non-Darcy f l o w
i s p a r t i c u l a r l y o r i g i n a t i n g i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.11.3.2.)
and i n case o f secondary f r a c t u r e narrowing which are b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l -
lows.

4.3.3.3.3. High 1y-deviat ed we1 1 s

Non-Darcy f l o w i s a p a r t i c u l a r problem i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s (MARTINS
1987). Flow has b o t h viscous and i n e r t i a l components. Consequences o f non-Darcy
f l o w are l a r g e r e d u c t i o n i n e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y (up t o 5 - 20 times
lower than normal), and w e l l performance i s very s e n s i t i v e t o poor c r a c k / w e l l -
bore communication as a consequence o f l i m i t e d p e r f o r a t i o n i n t e r v a l s i n h i g h l y -
i n c l i n e d boreholes. F r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y of a h y d r a u l i c a l l y s t i m u l a t e d gas
w e l l can be s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced by non-Darcy gas f l o w a t h i g h v e l o c i t y (HOL-
 422

D I T C H & MORSE 1976). Excess p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s can be caused by e i t h e r t u r b u -

l e n c e o r i n e r t i a l r e s i s t a n c e o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e two, and non-Darcy gas
f l o w can a l s o g i v e r i s e t o i n c r e a s i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s which provokes r e d u c t i o n
o f f r a c t u r e permeability ( c f . also section 4.11.3.2.).

4.3.3.3.4. Secondary fracture narrowing

Non-Darcy flow can a l s o o r i g i n a t e i n p r i m a r i l y s u f f i c i e n t l y wide f r a c t u r e s
i f t h e y a r e s e c o n d a r i l y narrowed by g e l f i l t e r cake d e p o s i t i o n on the fracture
w a l l s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.10.3.5. and 4.3.4.1.4.) as t h e f l u i d f i l t r a t e l e a k s o f f
i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n and subsequent embedment o f t h e o u t e r p r o p p a n t
l a y e r s o f a m u l t i l a y e r package i n t o t h e s o f t f i l t e r cake o c c u r s (ROODHART, K U I -
PER & D A V I E S 1986; McDANIEL 1987, 1988; MUCH & PENNY 1987, PARKER & McDANIEL
1987, McDANIEL & PARKER 1988). A p a r t f r o m decreasing e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e w i d t h ,
an a d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t t r i g g e r i n g non-Oarcy f l o w i s p a r t i a l p l u g g i n g o f t h e p o r e
space o f t h e p r o p p a n t package by f i n e s d e r i v i n g f r o m f o r m a t i o n c o l l a p s e , p r o p -
p a n t c r u s h i n g and p r e c i p i t a t i o n f r o m f l u i d s (RDODHART, KUIPER & D A V I E S 1986;
c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 4 . ) . W i t h d e c r e a s i n g Darcy p e r m e a b i l i t y due t o t h e damaging e f -
f e c t s , t h e non-Darcy f l o w o r Beta f a c t o r i s c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y i n c r e a s i n g .

COOKE (1973) was t h e f i r s t t o q u a n t i f y t h e e f f e c t s o f non-Darcy f l o w i n p r o p -

p a n t packages under s t r e s s . When no t u r b u l e n c e i s p r e s e n t , t h e Beta f a c t o r i s
z e r o and s i m p l e Darcy c o n d i t i o n s f o r l a m i n a r f l o w e x i s t .

4.3.3.4. Fracture width vs. proppant bridging

I n o r d e r t o accept proppants, f r a c t u r e w i d t h must be a t l e a s t i n t h e range
o f 2.5 t i m e s t h e p r o p p a n t d i a m e t e r , w i t h t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t b e i n g f u l f i l l e d by
most o f t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced f r a c t u r e s f o r s t a n d a r d p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s
( 1 6 / 2 0 and 20/40), w h i l e 100 mesh m i c r o p r o p p a n t f i t s i n t o h a i r l i n e c r a c k s and
f i s s u r e s (THOMPSON 1977; c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.11.2.1. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . POULSEN &
SOLIMAN (1987) o u t l i n e t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e has t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y wide t o p r e v e n t
b r i d g i n g o f proppants between t h e c r a c k w a l l s which would r e s u l t i n s c r e e n o u t
f a i l u r e o f t h e j o b . Some aspects o f minimum f r a c t u r e w i d t h f o r p r o p p a n t i n f i l -
l i n g and f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e drop a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.3.3.4.1. Minimum fracture width for proppant infilling

F o r t h e s e l e c t e d c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e l e n g t h ( w h i c h has t o be a b t . 10 % l o n g e r
than t h e d e s i r e d propped c r a c k l e n g t h in o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e t h e p o s s i b i l t y o f a
screenout a t the f r a c t u r e t i p ; c f . section 4.8.11.), crack w i d t h a t the desired
propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h a t t h e t i m e o f j o b c o m p l e t i o n has t o exceed 2 5 t i m e s
t h e diameter o f t h e p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e s f o r a l l o w i n g unhindered passage o f t h e
proppants t h r o u g h o u t t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) .
Crack w i d t h has a l s o t o be enough f o r a t t a i n i n g t h e r e q u i r e d f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i -
v i t y a t t h e w e l l b o r e u s i n g a reasonable p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e s l u r r y .
The amount o f chosen p r o p p a n t p e r area o f f r a c t u r e f a c e d i v i d e d by t h e maximum
a l l o w e d p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n i n t h e s l u r r y e s t a b l i s h e s t h e l o w e r bound o f t h e
f r a c t u r e w i d t h w h i c h i n terms o f geometry c a l c u l a t i o n s l e a d s t o a l o w e r bound
i n c r a c k l e n g t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) . Aspects o f s i n g l e - and m u l t i p l e - p a r t i c l e
b r i d g i n g i n f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by LOEPPKE, GLOWKA & WRIGHT ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.3.3.4.2. Friction pressure drop

F r a c t u r e w i d t h i s e s s e n t i a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by f r i c t i o n a l p r e s s u r e drop i n t h e
c r a c k (PERKINS & KERN 1961). O p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h a t l e a d t o h i g h p r e s s u r e
d r o p r e s u l t i n r e l a t i v e l y wide cracks, whereas s m a l l p r e s s u r e drops produce
t h i n c r a c k s . Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n changes a r e sometimes necessary d u r i n g
 423

course o f s t i m u l a t i o n treatments i n o r d e r t o accommodate proppant b r i d g i n g o r

i f bottomhole t r e a t i n g pressure i s lower than c l o s i n g pressure (GREENFIELD & AH-
MED 1983; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.3.5. and 6.2.4.3.). D i m i n i s h i n g proppant s a t u r a t i o n
t o avoid b r i d g i n g i s a l s o an important means o f screenout f a i l u r e prevention,
because lower proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n p e r m i t s the f l u i d f l o w r a t e t o increase
and thus keeps the f r a c t u r e open t o r e c e i v e f u r t h e r proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4.2.3.2.5. and 6.2.4.2.1.).

4.3.3.5, Proppant concent rat ion schedules

Achievement o f a continuous f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n r e q u i r e s suc-
c e s s i v e l y changing proppant s a t u r a t i o n throughout the treatment (POULSEN & SOLI-
MAN 1987) which can be performed by c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e computer-controlled
blenders. D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between s t a i r - s t e p p e d and ramping proppant
s t a g i n g schedules (CHURCH & PETERS 1987, HANDKE 1987). Some comments on micro-
processor c o n t r o l and automation as w e l l as on b l e n d i n g equipment type vs.
treatment s i z e are a l s o o f f e r e d .

4.3.3.5.1. Ramping vs . stai r-stepped schedules

I n s t a i r - s t e p arrangements, the proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n increment between
each treatment stage i s l a r g e and abrupt and i s n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o being con-
s t a n t and f l u e n t throughout the f r a c t u r e operation, every stage o f the assem-
blage t y p i c a l l y has a d i f f e r e n t s l u r r y volume, and the general shape o f the sys-
tem i s c u r v i l i n e a r w i t h time. I n ramping organizations, the proppant s a t u r a t i o n
increment between each j o b stage i s u s u a l l y small and continuous and i s r i g i d l y
maintained a t a constant value throughout the f r a c t u r i n g job, every stage o f
the schedule has an equal t o t a l s l u r r y volume except o f the f i r s t and l a s t s t a -
ges which have t o t a l f l u i d volumes each e x a c t l y 50 % the s i z e o f the o t h e r ramp
stages, and the general shape o f the a s s o c i a t i o n i s l i n e a r i n c r e a s i n g o r decrea-
s i n g w i t h time (CHURCH & PETERS 1987, HANDKE 1987, POULSEN & SOLIMAN 1987).

Ramping proppant schedules have the advantage t h a t by c o n t i n u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g

proppant apportionment r a t e s i n small increments throughout t h e treatment, more
c o n t r o l over pressure c o n s i d e r a t i o n s can be achieved, and the e f f e c t s o f exces-
s i v e f l u i d v i s c o s i t i e s i n the f r a c t u r e can be e l i m i n a t e d (CHURCH & PETERS 1987;
c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.3.3.). The spikes i n s t a i r s t e p schedules are f r e q u e n t l y the
reason o f premature screenout f a i l u r e o f the j o b ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and
6.2.4.2.1.), w i t h smooth ramping schedules b r i n g i n g i n much h i g h e r proppant
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i t h l e s s screenout r i s k (HOOVER & ADAMS 1988).

4.3.3.5.2. Microprocessor control and automation

The d i f f e r e n t step changes i n proppant s a t u r a t i o n between stages o f a f r a c t u -
r i n g o p e r a t i o n can be performed a u t o m a t i c a l l y and q u i c k l y w i t h a blender r e t r o -
f i t t e d w i t h a m i c r o p r o c e s s o r - c o n t r o l l e d proppant d e l i v e r y system, w i t h the pro-
b a b i l i t y o f overshooting a new proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s e t p o i n t a l s o being dras-
t i c a l l y reduced. The c a p a b i l i t i e s o f f i e l d - p r o v e n f r a c t u r i n g blenders are o n l y
enhanced and n o t r e s t r i c t e d once r e t r o f i t t e d w i t h a microprocessor-supervised
proppant d e l i v e r y system. Mixed proppant s a t u r a t i o n schedules c o n s i s t i n g o f an
i n i t i a l s t a i r - s t e p p a t t e r n f o l l o w e d by a t a i l - i n o f ramping f e a t u r e a r e a l s o
p o s s i b l e and have i n f i e l d t e s t s been proven t o r u n very smooth w i t h o u t s e t -
p o i n t overshooting (HANDKE 1987, POULSEN & SOLIMAN 1987). Proppant concentra-
t i o n can be metered w i t h r a d i o a c t i v e densimeters (MARPLE, RULEY, WORLEY & FREE-
MAN 1987). Ramp-controlled blenders w i t h automatic proppant c o n t r o l systems can
be d i r e c t l y implemented i n new equipment and can be r e t r o f i t t e d i n o l d e r equip-
ment. The a b i l i t y of computer-interfaced b l e n d i n g equipment f a c i l i t a t e s h i g h
proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s pumped i n s h o r t stages a t h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s (CLEARY
1988, HOOVER & ADAMS 1988) as w e l l as h i g h s a t u r a t i o n s o f l a r g e r proppant s i z e s
 424

i n s h o r t e r f l u i d stages ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 3 . ) .

Pumping h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s downhole can l e a d t o excess of p r o p p a n t

t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y o f t h e b l e n d e r (PAI, GARBIS & HALL 1983). I n such cases, t h e
j o b can be d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e banks w i t h t h r e e b l e n d e r s i n a m u l t i p l e bank sys-
tem, w i t h a l l t h e b l e n d e r s pumping i n p a r a l l e l . Standby b l e n d e r s s h o u l d be r i g -
ged up i n l i n e and s h o u l d be c l o s e t o a p r o p p a n t source so t h a t minimum change-
o v e r t i m e i s r e q u i r e d and t h e j o b may c o n t i n u e as p e r schedule i n case o f b l e n -
d e r f a i l u r e . Microprocessor-controlled b l e n d e r s a l l o w i n g i n t e r a c t i o n f r o m t h e
computer van and a u t o m a t i c p r o p p a n t a d d i t i o n t h r o u g h c o m p u t e r - i n t e r f a c e d d e n s i -
tometers a r e a l s o d e s c r i b e d by HOOVER & ADAMS ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.3.3.5.3. Blending equipment type vs. treatment size

Conventional c o n t i n u o u s - m i x b l e n d i n g equipment g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e s h a n d l i n g
o f l a r g e volumes o f f l u i d and p r o p p a n t and enable i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f massive hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g treatments i n low-permeability reservoirs, b u t i s p o o r l y s u i -
t e d t o p r e p a r e and d i s p l a c e small p r e c i s e volumes o f s l u r r y w i t h t h e aim o f
achievement o f h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n wide f r a c t u r e s i n moderate- t o
h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay zones (CRAMER & SONGER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.4.4.1. and
4.6.1.). Some aspects o f continuous-mix and batch-mix f r a c t u r i n g a r e b r i e f l y
o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.3.3.5.3.1. Continuous-mix fracturing

Conventional continuous-mix t r e a t m e n t s s u f f e r f r e q u e n t l y f r o m e x c e s s i v e f r a c -
t u r e growth as a consequence o f l a r g e s l u r r y volumes used, w i t h t h e n o n l y a
s m a l l p o r t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e c o n t r i b u t i n g t o w e l l b o r e t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y and t h e
danger o f a c c e l e r a t e d w a t e r breakthrough, h i n d e r e d v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l sweep
e f f i c i e n c y i n w a t e r f l o o d e d pay zones, and c h a n n e l l i n g i n t o v e r t i c a l l y a d j a c e n t
r e s e r v o i r s e x i s t i n g (CRAMER & SONGER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) . The r e l a t i v e -
l y modest p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n t i n u o u s - m i x o p e r a t i o n s
l e a d t o c o r r e s p o n d i n g s m a l l c r a c k w i d t h w h i c h i m p l i e s low f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y
t h a t i s f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t e d by g e l r e s i d u e and o t h e r p r o p p a n t pack damage p r o -
blems ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 . ) . Conventional f r a c t u r i n g equipment i s p o o r l y s u i -
t e d t o mix and d i s c h a r g e s m a l l p r e c i s e volumes o f s l u r r y w i t h h i g h p r o p p a n t sa-
t u r a t i o n . Non-uniform p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n occurs i n t h e o f t e n - u s e d high-capa-
c i t y volumer b l e n d e r t u b apparatus, i r r e g u l a r p r o p p a n t a d d i t i o n takes p l a c e due
t o f l u c t u a t i n g t r e a t m e n t r a t e , and inhomogeneous p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e
f r a c t u r e can r e s u l t i n l o w - c o n d u c t i v i t y b o t t l e n e c k s and j o b s c r e e n o u t due t o
proppant s l u g g i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) .

On t h e o t h e r hand, continuous-mix t e c h n o l o g y p r o v i d e s a d d i t i o n a l f l e x i b i l i t y
t o f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s e s p e c i a l l y i n case o f v e r y l a r g e j o b s (CONSTIEN, BRAN-
NON & BANNISTER 1988). F l u i d v i s c o s i t y can be r a i s e d o r lowered t o accommodate
apparent v i s c o s i t y i n c r e a s e s caused by p r o p p a n t and r a p i d changes i n p r o p p a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n and polymer s a t u r a t i o n can be a d j u s t e d i n response t o downhole
p r e s s u r e changes, w i t h t h i s f l e x i b i l i t y economizing m a t e r i a l s and i n c r e a s i n g
j o b c o n t r o l ( c f . section 6.2.4.3.). F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s are normally prepared
u s i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b a t c h and continuous-mix processes. B a t c h m i x i n g con-
s i s t s o f f o r m u l a t i n g s e v e r a l components o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i n l a r g e t a n k s
p r i o r t o t h e t r e a t m e n t , and once t h e o p e r a t i o n s t a r t s , t h e r e m a i n i n g components
such as c r o s s l i n k i n g agents, degradants and proppants a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y metered
i n t o t h e f l u i d stream t o produce t h e f i n a l f l u i d c o m p o s i t i o n .

4.3.3.5.3.2. Batch-mix fracturing

I n batch-mix f r a c t u r i n g , h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s can be p r e - b l e n d e d
w i t h g e l l e d l i q u i d i n t h e i n v e n t o r y compartments and s l u r r y d e n s i t y can be v e r i -
 425

f i e d before t h e s t a r t o f the treatment. T h i s assures placement o f an u n i f o r m

proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the f r a c t u r e , because proppant s a t u r a t i o n s a t the s u r -
f a c e w i l l n o t be a f f e c t e d by o p e r a t i o n r a t e f l u c t u a t i o n s (CRAMER & SONGER
1988). Therefore incremental improvements i n w e l l b o r e t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y can i n
many cases be achieved due t o c r e a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t b e t -
ween r e s e r v o i r and f r a c t u r e . Small p r e c i s e s l u r r y volumes w i t h h i g h proppant
concentrations are p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e -
s e r v o i r s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1. and 4.6.1.) and s u c c e s s f u l l y l i m i t v e r t i c a l and
l a t e r a l f r a c t u r e extension, a v o i d n e g a t i v e consequences o f i n t e r z o n a l communica-
t i o n and w a t e r f l o o d sweep i n e f f i c i e n c y , and s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduce screenout p r o -
blems by achievement o f u n i f o r m proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n and the use o f a h i g h
padlslurry ratio.

I n most batch-mix f r a c t u r i n g operations, a l a r g e percentage o f the treatment

volume c o n s i s t s o f pad f l u i d (up t o 65 - 80 % ) i n s u r i n g l e a k o f f c o n t r o l and s u f -
f i c i e n t f r a c t u r e w i d t h f o r passage o f the concentrated proppant s l u r r y ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.3.4.6.1.). Case s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t even i f coarse h i g h e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y
proppants (8/12 o r 12/20 mesh) are used, longer narrowly propped f r a c t u r e s crea-
ted by conventional continuous-mix b l e n d i n g are l e s s p r o d u c t i v e and l e s s conduc-
t i v e than s h o r t e r wider propped cracks generated by batch-mix f r a c t u r i n g . Batch
m i x i n g a l s o has t o be c a r r i e d o u t f o r continuous pumping o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y
c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g g e l s (FREE, FREDERICK & THOMPSON 1975). Aspects o f
batch-mix and continuous-mix f r a c t u r i n g are a l s o discussed by EVANS & WILLIAMS
(1985) and OLSEN & DEBONIS (1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.3.1.4.).

4.3.4. Proppant transport and fracture damage

I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n m u l t i p l e proppant layers, i t i s necessary t o choose a
f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d which provides s u f f i c i e n t v i s c o s i t y t o c r e a t e wide f r a c t u r e s
and t o c a r r y the amount o f proppant necessary t o pack the l a r g e crack. Selec-
t i o n o f a f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i s n o t o n l y a t e c h n i c a l l y , b u t a l s o an economically
c r i t i c a l p a r t o f the s t i m u l a t i o n treatment design, because f l u i d and a d d i t i v e s
(proppants) may t o g e t h e r r e p r e s e n t more than 50 % o f the t o t a l c o s t o f the ope-
r a t i o n (HOLDITCH 1984). The s e l e c t e d f l u i d should have h i g h enough v i s c o s i t y t o
t r a n s p o r t h i g h proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s through the p i p e w i t h o u t s e t t l i n g ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.12.2.) and y e t avoid excessive p i p e f r i c t i o n pressure, and once the
proppant-laden f l u i d i s i n the f r a c t u r e , s u f f i c i e n t v i s c o s i t y o f the f l u i d i s
r e q u i r e d t o keep the proppants i n t o t a l suspension i n o r d e r t o a v o i d s e t t l i n g
and banking which would d e t e r i o r a t e c o n d u c t i v i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the crack
(SHAH, SMITH & DONALDSON 1983).

The i d e a l f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d keeps the proppant p a r t i c l e s completely i n suspen-

s i o n d u r i n g b o t h pumping o p e r a t i o n and crack c l o s u r e sequence, thereby minimi-
z i n g proppant s e t t l i n g (CLARK 1983). The f o l l o w i n g account g i v e s a b r i e f summa-
r y o f aspects o f breakdown and r e s i d u e concentration, v i s c o s i t y and t r a n s p o r t
a b i l i t y , impact o f delaying, heat c a p a c i t y and r e s e r v o i r temperature, v i s c o e l a s -
ticity, and l e a k o f f containment o f p r e f e r e n t i a l l y c r o s s l i n k e d fracturing
f 1u i d s .

4.3.4.1. F l u i d breakdown and residue concentration

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g mechanics c o n s i s t s o f transmission o f energy from s u r f a -
ce pumps v i a a s t i m u l a t i o n g e l t o the f o r m a t i o n t o be t r e a t e d (PAI, GARBIS &
HALL 1983). I m p o r t a n t parameters f o r treatment f l u i d s e l e c t i o n a r e s u f f i c i e n t
v i s c o s i t y t o t r a n s p o r t the proppants downhole, f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s , low tubu-
l a r f r i c t i o n pressure, f r a c t u r e and f o r m a t i o n f l u i d c o m p a t i b i l i t y , non-damaging
nature, ease o f recovery a f t e r the job, reasonable p r i c e and o p e r a t i o n a l safe-
ty.
 426

4.3.4.1.1. General aspects

The h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g process t y p i c a l l y c o n s i s t s o f b l e n d i n g s p e c i a l che-
m i c a l s t o generate t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d , m i x i n g i t w i t h proppants,
and pumping t h e s l u r r y i n t o t h e pay zone a t s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h r a t e s and pressu-
r e s such t h a t t h e f l u i d h y d r a u l i c a l l y wedges and e x t e n d s a f r a c t u r e w i t h i n t h e
f o r m a t i o n where t h e p r o p p a n t s a r e c a r r i e d up t o t h e extreme t i p s o f t h e c r a c k ,
t h e r e b y c r e a t i n g a d r a i n a g e avenue o r superhighway f o r o i l and gas t o f l o w e a s i -
l y f r o m d i s t a l p o r t i o n s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e (VEATCH 1983; c f .
s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . ) . F l u i d p r o p e r t i e s s t r o n g l y govern f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n beha-
v i o u r as w e l l as d i s t r i b u t i o n and placement o f p r o p p a n t s . R a p i d f l u i d l e a k o f f
g i v e s r i s e t o low e f f i c i e n c y i n h y d r a u l i c wedging and e x t e n d i n g o f t h e f r a c -
t u r e , and may a l s o l e a v e an u n d e s i r a b l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a t e r e s i d u e i n
t h e crack t h a t c o u l d reduce c o n d u c t i v i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.3.1.2. and
4.8.8.3.2.3.). E f f e c t i v e f l u i d v i s c o s i t y c o n t r o l s i n t e r n a l f r a c t u r i n g pressure
and p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

D e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s f o r most h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t s i n -
c l u d e low f l u i d l o s s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e designed p e n e t r a t i o n w i t h minimum
f l u i d volumes, s u f f i c i e n t e f f e c t i v e v i s c o s i t y t o c r e a t e t h e necessary f r a c t u r e
w i d t h as w e l l as t o t r a n s p o r t and d i s t r i b u t e t h e proppants i n t h e f r a c t u r e as
r e q u i r e d , no e x c e s s i v e f r i c t i o n i n t h e crack, good temperature s t a b i l i t y f o r
the p a r t i c u l a r r e s e r v o i r t o be t r e a t e d , good shear s t a b i l i t y , minimal damaging
e f f e c t s on f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y , minimal p l u g g i n g e f f e c t s on f r a c t u r e conduc-
tivity, low f r i c t i o n - l o s s b e h a v i o u r i n t h e p i p e , w e t t a b i l i t y t o l e a v e f o r m a t i o n
and p r o p p a n t package water-wet (DERBY & SMITH 1979; GARBIS, BROWN & MAURITZ
1985), low pH t o p r e v e n t c l a y s w e l l i n g , minimum i n s o l u b l e r e s i d u e l e a v i n g , good
p o s t - t r e a t m e n t b r e a k i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s h o r t b r e a k i n g time, good p o s t - o p e -
r a t i o n c l e a n - u p and flowback behaviour, and low c o s t . W h i l e some f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d s e x h i b i t a Newtonian f l o w b e h a v i o u r , o t h e r s a r e non-Newtonian b u t essen-
t i a l l y behave as power- aw f l u i d s , and t h e c r o s s l i n k e d polymers commonly used
f o r MHF t r e a t m e n t s a r e ver complex non-power-law f l u i d s . Many Newtonian f l u i d s
degrade w i t h time, and e l e v a t e d temperature and/or shear a c c e l e r a t e degrada-
tion.

T r a n s p o r t o f proppants n h i g h e r s a t u r a t i o n s by t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d s i s accom-
p l i s h e d by i n c r e a s i n g t h e v i s c o s i t y by adding w a t e r - s o l u b l e polymers t o t h e wa-
t e r phase and c r o s s l i n k i n q them w i t h a metal i o n t h e r e b y f o r m i n q c h e l a t e comple-
xes ' (COOKE 1975; AHMED, J\BOU-SAYED & JONES 1979; ALMOND & BLANo 1984, K I M & ' LO-
SACANO 1985, ACHARYA 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . ) . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n f o -
cusses on some aspects o f f l u i d breakdown, r e s i d u e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , g e l f i l t e r
cake on f r a c t u r e w a l l , and p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d improvement.

4.3.4.1.2. Fluid breakdown

V i s c o s i t y and thus t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y o f t h e c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d v a r i e s w i t h
polymer and c r o s s l i n k e r t y p e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n , f l u i d temperature, and method
o f f l u i d placement (VEATCH 1983, ALMOND & BLAND 1 9 8 4 ) . Upon c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e
t r e a t m e n t , removal o f t h e g e l l e d f l u i d t o a l l o w i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n r a t e i s
achieved by breakdown o f t h e h i g h - v i s c o s i t y c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s t o l o w - v i s c o s i t y
s o l u t i o n s t h r o u g h thermal d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e polymer a t r e s e r v o i r temperature
and/or a d d i t i o n o f chemical b r e a k e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.4.2.2. and 4 . 1 2 . 2 . 3 . ) .
Some o f t h e broken g e l s , however, l e a v e u n s o l u b l e r e s i d u e s i n f r a c t u r e and f o r -
m a t i o n which may cause c o n s i d e r a b l e f l o w impairment due t o s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c -
t i o n o f p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y o r c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y by b l o c k i n g o r r e s t r i c t i n g
p o r e spaces. The most s u i t a b l e f r a c t u r i n g c a r r i e r f l u i d s a r e t h u s polymers
which a f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e t r e a t m e n t degrade t h e r m a l l y o r break c h e m i c a l l y
w i t h o u t l e a v i n g any r e s i d u e .

Experimental work c a r r i e d o u t w i t h sand has shown t h a t sand p e r m e a b i l i t y i s

c o n t i n u o u s l y decreased w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 2 . ) , b u t
 427

beyond 4,500 p s i t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y change i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h polymer c o n c e n t r a -

t i o n and c l o s u r e s t r e s s v a r i a t i o n s , w i t h t h i s d i v e r g e n t b e h a v i o u r p o s s i b l y
b e i n g r e l a t e d t o t h e b i l i n e a r i t y o f sand p o r o s i t y w i t h r i s i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s .
A l t e r n a t i v e s t o c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s a r e d i s c u s s e d by CLARK, HALVACI, GHAELI &
PARKS (1985), and ROODHART & D A V I E S (1987) r e p o r t on t h e r e v i v a l o f polymer
emulsions as f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s .

While thermal f l u i d breakdown may be s a t i s f a c t o r y i n h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e r e s e r -

v o i r s , thermal d e g r a d a t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i s i n s u f f i c i e n t i n low-tempera-
t u r e r e s e r v o i r s where o n l y chemical b r e a k e r s can decompose t h e f l u i d s .

4.3.4.1.3. Residue concentration

F r a c t u r e d e s i g n w i t h h i g h e r p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s t h u s has t o i n c l u d e assess-
ment o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage by c r o s s l i n k e d g e l r e s i d u e which v a r i e s
w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e v i s c o s i t y - i n c r e a s i n g polymer vs. i n c r e m e n t a l c o n d u c t i -
v i t y b e n e f i t and p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t embedment o r c r u s h i n g f r o m h i g h e r proppant
s a t u r a t i o n s i n f l u i d and f r a c t u r e w h i c h r e q u i r e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f more v i s c o u s
f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s t h a t a r e capable o f t r a n s p o r t i n g l a r g e r p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s
p e r u n i t volume (COOKE 1975). Some p o i n t s o f f i l t e r cake t h i c k n e s s , polymer and
b r e a k e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and r e s i d u e s p l u g g i n g m a t r i x and p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y
a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as , f o l l o w s .

4.3.4.1.3.1. Filter cake thickness

F l u i d l e a k o f f f r o m t h e induced f r a c t u r e i n t o r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x and n a t u r a l
c r a c k s has t o be m i n i m i z e d i n o r d e r t o a v o i d premature s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n o f
t h e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and 6.2.4.2.1.)
and t o p r e v e n t c r a c k damage by d e t e r i o r a t i n g p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y . F r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y damage i s caused by l o c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f proppants and f l u i d
remnants as a consequence o f proppant s e t t l i n g by g r a v i t y , f o r m a t i o n and e r o -
s i o n of a f i l t e r cake c o n t a i n i n g polymer r e s i d u e s and/or f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s
on t h e c r a c k w a l l s , and i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e s w i t h p r o p p a n t t r a n s -
p o r t a l o n g t h e c r a c k . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on r e s e r v o i r permea-
b i l i t y and f l u i d t y p e as w e l l as f l u i d p r e s s u r e and b r e a k i n g .

4.3.4.1.3.1.1. Reservoir permeability and fluid type

The f i l t e r cake i s t h i c k e r i n h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l s where
f l u i d l e a k o f f occurs a t h i g h e r r a t e s , t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e l o c a l c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n of r e s i d u e - f o r m i n g components o p p o s i t e permeable zones, whereas t i g h t pay
sequences a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l o w e r f l u i d escape r a t e s i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 1.4.10.3.5. and 4.3.4.6.4.). Polymer remnants, however, may h e l p t o m i -
n i m i z e s u r f a c e a r e a e f f e c t s o f f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s w h i c h o t h e r w i s e have a
s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y . Enveloping o f f l u i d - l e a k o f f agents
by polymer r e s i d u e may m i n i m i z e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage by p r e v e n t i n g move-
ment o f f i n e p a r t i c l e s through pores t o p l u g narrow openings and by d e c r e a s i n g
the surface area a f f e c t i n g f l o w resistance.

C r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s l e a v e more r e s i d u e p l u g g i n g t h e p o r o s i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t
package than polymer emulsion f l u i d s (DAVIES & KUIPER 1988). W h i l e polymer emul-
s i o n f l u i d s r e s u l t i n a p r o p p a n t package t h a t i s v i r t u a l l y r e s i d u e - f r e e , c r o s s -
l i n k e d f l u i d s produce a p r o p p a n t package c o n t a i n i n g a l o t o f f i b r o u s m a t e r i a l
between t h e g r a i n s which a r e t h e n g l u e d t o g e t h e r .
 428

4.3.4.1.3.1.2. Fluid pressure and breaking

High-pressure f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s l e a k i n g away i n t o f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x and n a t u -
r a l c r a c k s provoke g e n e r a t i o n o f a f i l t e r cake c o n s i s t i n g m a i n l y o f polymer and
f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.10.3.5. and 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . 4 . ) . Filter-cake
t h i c k n e s s i s determined by t y p e o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d , f o r m a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s , f r a c t u r e - t o - r e s e r v o i r pressure, and e r o s i o n a l e f f e c t s caused by s l u r r y be-
i n g pumped a l o n g t h e c r a c k f a c e s . F i l t e r cakes c r e a t e d by c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s
w i t h d i e s e l as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e can almost c o m p l e t e l y p l u g narrow induced
f r a c t u r e s , whereas polymer emulsion f l u i d s do n o t g i v e s i g n i f i c a n t f i l t e r - c a k e
buildup.

Proppant p e r m e a b i l i t y damage by c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s s u b s t a n t i a l l y depends on

f i l t e r - c a k e b u i l d u p and i s m i n i m i z e d by use o f an e f f e c t i v e v i s c o s i t y b r e a k e r
which i s p a r t i c u l a r l y necessary i n low-temperature s h a l l o w f o r m a t i o n s . W h i l e an
inadequate b r e a k e r l e a d s t o v i r t u a l l y complete loss o f proppant-package conduc-
t i v i t y , a g g r e s s i v e b r e a k e r schedules on t h e o t h e r hand can p r o v i d e h i g h r e t e n -
t i o n f a c t o r s o v e r 80 %, b u t can a l s o r e s u l t i n e x c e s s i v e p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g i n
t h e f r a c t u r e b e f o r e c l o s u r e , w i t h t h u s a p r o p e r balance b e i n g r e q u i r e d ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 1 . 1 . ) . Polymer emulsion f l u i d s a r e advantageous because c o n d u c t i v i t y
r e c o v e r y i s l e s s s e n s i t i v e t o b r e a k e r e f f i c i e n c y , whereas s u r f a c t a n t s t h a t a r e
sometimes used i n these f l u i d s g e n e r a t e o i l - w e t n e s s o f t h e p r o p p a n t package,
w i t h r e t a i n e d e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o w a t e r b e i n g much l o w e r i n such cases.

4.3.4.1.3.2. Polymer and breaker concentration

D r a s t i c a l r e d u c t i o n s o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y p a r t i c u l a r l y o c c u r i n case o f
low p r o p p a n t and h i g h f l u i d r e s i d u e s a t u r a t i o n s . I n terms o f accumulations o f
h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f f i n e s c a u s i n g p l u g g i n g o f t h e p r o p p a n t package, e f f e c t s
o f column l e n g t h a r e i m p o r t a n t ( P Y E & SMITH 1973) and polymer remnants may even
g i v e r i s e t o more s e r i o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y t h a n f l u i d -
loss a d d i t i v e s ( c f . section 1.4.10.3.). Factors determining crack c o n d u c t i v i t y
r e d u c t i o n by i n f l u e n c e s o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s a r e p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e
c a r r i e r medium, amount o f r e s i d u e i n t h e f l u i d , p r o p p a n t p o r o s i t y and q u a n t i t y
share o f r e s i d u e r e t a i n e d i n t h e f r a c t u r e as t r e a t m e n t f l u i d l e a k s o f f (COOKE
1975). The amount o f f l u i d remnants depends on polymer c o n c e n t r a t i o n as w e l l as
t y p e and s a t u r a t i o n o f t h e b r e a k e r c u t t i n g t h e c r o s s l i n k e d g e l i n t o s i m p l e r con-
s t i t u e n t s which f i n a l l y achieve a v i s c o s i t y i n t h e range o f t h a t o f w a t e r .

L o c a l v a r i a t i o n s i n p r o p p a n t and r e s i d u e s a t u r a t i o n s i n a c r a c k can e x p l a i n
why f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s can be s u c c e s s f u l u s i n g s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s t h a t d r a s -
t i c a l l y decrease c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y a t normal s a t u r a t i o n o f i n j e c t e d p r o p p a n t s .
E f f e c t s o f t r e a t m e n t f l u i d v e l o c i t y on f l u i d - l o s s agent performance a r e i n v e s t i -
g a t e d by HALL & DOLLARHIDE ( 1 9 6 4 ) . GALL & RAIBLE (1985) r e p o r t on m o l e c u l a r
s i z e s t u d i e s o f degraded f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d polymers. I n case o f problems w i t h
t h e o r i g i n a l b r e a k e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n a l i m p o s s i b i l i t y t o w a i t f o r
complete thermal breakage, r e m e d i a l b r e a k e r t r e a t m e n t s by i n j e c t i n g b r e a k e r so-
l u t i o n s i n f i l l i n g t h e f r a c t u r e p o r o s i t y w i t h excess can be c a r r i e d o u t i n o r d e r
t o ensure f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, LORENZ, NOR-
THROP, MANN & FROHNE 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.2.3.).

Another aspect o f m i n i m i z i n g r e s i d u e c o n c e n t r a t i o n and f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y

damage i s i r o n c o n t r o l which a p p l i e s f o r b o t h a c i d and p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n s
(DILL 1983). Many hydrocarbon-producing zones c o n t a i n i r o n compounds i n b o t h
m a t r i x and f l u i d s which can g e n e r a t e i n c o m p a t i b i l i t i e s d u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s ,
because i r o n i n s o l u t i o n may p r e c i p i t a t e and d e p o s i t i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o r t h e
fracture, thus r e d u c i n g f l o w c a p a c i t y . I r o n t h e r e f o r e has t o be m a i n t a i n e d i n
s o l u t i o n u n t i l r e c o v e r y o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s , because d i s s o l v e d i r o n has
no blockage p o t e n t i a l and p r o d u c t i o n d e l i v e r a b i l i t y i s a t i t s maximum, i n
c o n t r a s t t o i r o n p r e c i p i t a t i o n as c r y s t a l l i n e f i n e s o r g e l a t i n o u s mass which
s e r i o u s l y hinders f l o w capacity ( c f . section 4.5.1.1.4.).
 429

4.3.4.1.3.3. Residues plugging matrix and proppant permeabi 1 i ty

R e s u l t s o f MHF t r e a t m e n t s i n t i g h t gas sands v a r y f r o m e x t r e m e l y s u c c e s s f u l
t o v e r y d i s a p p o i n t i n g f a i l u r e s (AHMEO, ABOU-SAYED & JONES 1979), w i t h t h e l a t -
t e r f a i l i n g t o c r e a t e l a r g e f r a c t u r e s o f a p p r o p r i a t e c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e zone
o f h i g h gas s a t u r a t i o n . Achievement o f t h e necessary propped c r a c k geometry i s
m a i n l y i m p a i r e d b y f r a c t u r e d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e gas-bearing zone, p r o d u c t i o n da-
mage due t o s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e h o s t r o c k m a t r i x , and f r a c -
t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage due t o t r e a t m e n t f l u i d i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e p r o p p a n t
package ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . ) . F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s e l e c t i o n f o r an e f f e c t i v e MHF
j o b depends n o t o n l y upon f l u i d e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n f r a c t u r e c r e a t i o n and p r o p p a n t
t r a n s p o r t , b u t a l s o on m i n i m i z a t i o n o f damage t o f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y and
fracture conductivity.

Loss o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n a d j a c e n t t o t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e
c r e a t e s a zone o f immobile f r a c t u r i n g l i q u i d and reduces gas f l o w t h r o u g h t h e
f o r m a t i o n f a c e due t o d i m i n u t i o n o f r e l a t i v e gas p e r m e a b i l i t y , and i n a d d i t i o n
t o t h a t , s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s l e a v e b e h i n d s o l i d and l i q u i d r e s i d u e s . R e d u c t i o n
o f m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y by f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i s provoked by s w e l l i n g o f c l a y mine-
r a l s and subsequent s o f t e n i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e which l e a d s t o p r o p p a n t em-
bedment ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.3.). Comparative e v a l u a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t
f l u i d s has r e v e a l e d t h a t foam i s t h e most f a v o u r a b l e and s u c c e s s f u l f r a c t u r i n g
medium ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.11.2.) and t h a t d i f f e r e n t s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s cause va-
r i o u s amounts and i n t e n s i t i e s o f damage and i n t e r a c t d i f f e r e n t l y w i t h s p e c i f i c
l i t h o l o g i e s by l e a v i n g d i f f e r e n t s o l i d and l i q u i d r e s i d u e s . T h e r e f o r e r e d u c t i o n
o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y depends on t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t f l u i d and r e -
s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n and t h e i r mutual c o m p a t i b i l i t y .

D i m i n u t i o n o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y w i t h s t r e s s i s p r i n c i p a l l y due t o prop-
p a n t p a c k i n g d e n s i t y . C o n d u c t i v i t y damage o f f r a c t u r e s plugged w i t h f u l l mono-
l a y e r s o r m u l t i l a y e r s i s l e s s pronounced than t h a t o f p a r t i a l p r o p p a n t mono-
l a y e r s . The most i m p o r t a n t reasons f o r f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y d i m i n u t i o n a t i n -
s i t u c o n d i t i o n s a r e p r o p p a n t packing, p r o p p a n t embedment due t o f r a c t u r e f a c e
softening, proppant crushing, residues from s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s , release o f f i -
nes f r o m f r a c t u r e face, and c l a y f l o c c u l a t i o n around p r o p p a n t embedment s i t e s
( c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.10.).

4.3.4.1.4. Gel filter cake on fracture wall

Gel f i l t e r cakes a c c u m u l a t i n g on t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s when f l u i d l e a k s o f f
i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n have an i m p o r t a n t d e t e r i o r a t i n g impact on f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y u n l e s s r e a s o n a b l y compensated by h i g h e r proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n -
f i l l i n g w i d e r c r a c k s (PARKER & McOANIEL 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.10.3.5.). Some as-
p e c t s o f g e l f i l t e r cake t h i c k n e s s vs. proppant g r a i n diameter and p r o p p a n t con-
c e n t r a t i o n v s . f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.3.4.1.4.1. Gel filter cake thickness

vs. proppant grain diameter
Gel f i l t e r cake t h i c k n e s s i s i n many cases c l o s e t o average p r o p p a n t g r a i n
d i a m e t e r f o r 20/40 mesh p a r t i c l e s (PARKER & McDANIEL 1987). T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p
c r e a t e s a p o t e n t i a l t o f i l l t h e p r o p p a n t p o r o s i t y w i t h f i l t e r cake, and t o
l o o s e t h e f l o w a l o n g t h e w a l l o f b o t h f r a c t u r e f a c e s and f o r a depth o f one o r
more p r o p p a n t g r a i n s on each s i d e o f t h e c r a c k . As proppants embed i n t o t h e f i l -
t e r cake, t h e y may d i s p l a c e p a r t s o f t h i s t h i c k g e l p e l l i c l e towards t h e c e n t e r
o f t h e p r o p p a n t package w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e , t h e r e b y s e r i o u s l y d e s t r o y i n g f r a c -
t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y u n l e s s m u l t i l a y e r p r o p p i n g o f t h e c r a c k i s achieved by h i g h
proppant concentrations.
 430

4.3.4.1.4.2. Proppant concentration vs. fracture conductivity

Experimental r e s u l t s show t h a t d o u b l i n g p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n f r o m 1 t o 2
l b s / f t 2 ( 5 t o 10 kg/m2) g i v e s r i s e t o a f i v e - t o t e n - f o l d i n c r e a s e o f f r a c t u r e
conductivity, l e a d i n g t o c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i n case o f presence o f g e l f i l t e r ca-
kes, proppant s a t u r a t i o n s o f 1 l b / f t 2 may n o t be s u f f i c i e n t f o r adequate produc-
t i o n s t i m u l a t i o n even a t low c l o s u r e s t r e s s l e v e l s . I n s o f t r e s e r v o i r r o c k s ,
p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f 3 - 4 l b s / f t 2 (15 - 20 kg/m2) a r e recommended t o com-
pensate p r o p p a n t embedment i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n (GARBIS, BROWN & MAURITZ 1985;
McDANlEL & PARKER 1988).

The same a p p l i e s i n u n s t a b l e c o l l a p s i n g c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s where p r o p p a n t s a t u -

r a t i o n s h o u l d be a t l e a s t 2 lbs/m2 i n o r d e r t o a v o i d embedment d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y (SIMON, COULTER, K I N G & HOLMAN 1982; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . ) .
McDANIEL & PARKER (1988) even conclude t h a t g e l f i l t e r cake damage i s n o t u n i -
v e r s a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h o n l y d a t a a t 2 l b s / f t 2 . As p e r m e a b i l i t y o f a propped
f r a c t u r e i s n o t c o n s t a n t i n t h e presence o f g e l f i l t e r cakes, d e s i g n s i m u l a t o r s
have t o a l l o w f o r i n p u t o f c o n d u c t i v i t y d a t a b e i n g a f u n c t i o n o f p r o p p a n t con-
c e n t r a t i o n . Aspects o f proppant s a t u r a t i o n and c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e presence o f
g e l f i l t e r cakes a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by ROODHART, K U I P E R & D A V I E S ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; PARKER
& McDANIEL (1987), PENNY (1987) and McDANIEL ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

S i m i l a r l y as g e l f i l t e r cakes on f o r m a t i o n s u r f a c e s a t f r a c t u r e w a l l s d e t e -
r i o r a t e c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y by p r o p p a n t embedment, g e l s u r f a c e f i l t r a t i o n f r o m
polymer s o l u t i o n s d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g c r e a t e s a l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y drape on t h e
r e s e r v o i r f a c e which upon r a p i d b u i l d u p dominates system b e h a v i o u r (TORREST &
MARCANO 1986) and i n h i b i t s f u r t h e r f l u i d l e a k o f f i n t o t h e pay m a t r i x , t h e r e b y
h a v i n g d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s on g r a v e l placement and thus q u a l i t y and performance
o f mechanical sand c o n t r o l ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.10.3.5.3. and 5 . 3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) .

4.3.4.1.5. Possibilities o f fracturing fluid improvement

Improvement o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i n terms o f f l u i d c o m p o s i t i o n can be
c h i e f l y made by s e l e c t i o n o f c o m p l e t e l y degradable f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s w h i c h
a r e s t a b l e a t h i g h temperatures and a r e decomposed w i t h o u t reasonable r e s i d u e
( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.4.6.4. and 4.8.8.3.1.), and o f d e l a y e d - a c t i v i t y b r e a k e r s
which s t a y dormant u n t i l t h e end o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g j o b and t h e n q u i c k l y s p l i t
t h e c r o s s l i n k e d g e l i n t o s m a l l fragments w i t h a g a i n n o t l e a v i n g any s i g n i f i c a n t
r e s i d u e . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t due t o t h e f a c t t h a t many o f t h e p r e -
s e n t l y applied breakers a c t very s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e i r a d d i t i o n t o the f l u i d
stream and 60 - 90 % o f t h e o r i g i n a l f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s l o s t a f t e r p l a c e -
ment o f t h e p r o p p a n t package by r e s i d u e p l u g g i n g ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 0 . ) .
Some aspects o f foam u t i l i z a t i o n and f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y vs. r e s i d u e d e p o s i t i o n
a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.3.4.1.5.1. Utilization of foam

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f foam f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . 2 . ) enables r e -
t a i n m e n t o f up t o 90 % o f t h e o r i g i n a l p r o p p a n t package c o n d u c t i v i t y due t o t h e
b e t t e r c l e a n - u p c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e foam which does n o t r e q u i r e b r e a k i n g ,
b u t f i r s t foams a r e l i m i t e d i n a p p l i c a t i o n due t o t h e i r temperature s e n s i t i v i t y
and second h i g h foam q u a l i t y o f a b t . 75 % l e a v e s o n l y 25 % l i q u i d phase f o r t h e
c a r r i a g e o f proppants, r e s u l t i n g i n o n l y l o w e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t o be
p l a c e d downhole. T h i s e f f e c t , however, i s compensated by t h e b e t t e r f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y r e t a i n m e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s p l a c e d by
c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.3.) where l a t e r much c o n d u c t i v i t y i s des-
t r o y e d by r e s i d u e p l u g g i n g as w e l l as by b e t t e r c l e a n - u p p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h a r e
p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n low-pressure f o r m a t i o n s where r e s e r v o i r energy a v a i -
 431

l a b l e f o r f l u i d flowback a f t e r t h e end o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t i s l i m i t e d .
I n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n s , l e a k o f f c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r some foams can be l o -
wer than those o f c r o s s l i n k e d aqueous f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s (VEATCH & M O S C H O V I D I S
1986).

4.3.4.1.5.2. Fluid efficiency vs. residue deposition

I n a d d i t i o n t o impairment o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y by p l u g g i n g w i t h r e s i d u e
formed upon breakage o r d e g r a d a t i o n o f g e l l e d f l u i d s , p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e prop-
p a n t package can be d e t e r i o r a t e d by c a p t u r e and e n t r a i n m e n t o f f i n e p a r t i c l e s
d e r i v i n g f r o m p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g (CARROLL & BAKER 1979; c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.4.).
The p r i n c i p a l mechanisms t h a t cause d e p o s i t i o n d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t o f p a r t i c l e s
w i t h i n a porous medium a r e sedimentation, d i r e c t i n t e r c e p t i o n , and s u r f a c e a t -
t r a c t i v e p r o p e r t i e s o f p a r t i c l e s and medium. P l u g g i n g o f a propped f r a c t u r e c o r -
responds t o removal o f suspended p a r t i c l e s by c o n t a c t between t h e p o r e w a l l s
and t h e g r a i n s when t h e pores a r e g e n e r a l l y l a r g e r than t h e p a r t i c l e s i n sus-
pension. R e s i d u e - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l caught i n t h e pores upon r e l e a s e o f t h e p a r t -
i n g p r e s s u r e reduces p o r e d i a m e t e r and p a r t i a l l y b l o c k s t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g
channels ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.4.1.3.).

Problems encountered i n h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f deep r e s e r v o i r s a r e

o f t e n c r e a t e d by h i g h b o t t o m h o l e p r e s s u r e s and temperatures, small d i a m e t e r t u -
b i n g , and t u b i n g c o n t r a c t i o n d u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n (CONWAY & H A R R I S 1982). The
h i g h o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e s o f t e n n e c e s s i t a t e t h e use o f f l u i d s w i t h minimal pump-
i n g f r i c t i o n pressures. I n order t o minimize c o n t r a c t i o n i n long tubing s t r i n g s
w i t h s m a l l diameter, t r e a t i n g f l u i d s must o f t e n be p r e h e a t e d ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.5.1.). w i t h t h e h i g h i n i t i a l f l u i d temperatures c o n s i d e r a b l y a l t e r i n g f l u i d
p r o p e r t i e s downhole. F l u i d e f f i c i e n c y i n most h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s
v a r i e s f r o m 30 - 90 %, w i t h maximum percentage r e f l e c t i n g minimum l e a k o f f i n t o
the formation which i s desirable f o r successful execution o f the job. I t i s
h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e t o use f l u i d s which can p r o v i d e adequate v i s c o s i t y f o r prop-
p a n t t r a n s p o r t , b u t y e t a r e c o n t r o l l a b l e so t h a t n e i t h e r e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t n o r e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e w i d t h do n o t o c c u r .

4.3.4.2. Fluid viscosity and transport ability

Concerning p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t e f f e c t i v i t y , l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s (10 - 20 c p )
r e s u l t i n s e t t l i n g o f proppants t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f r a c t u r e , and bed h e i g h t
can be i r r e g u l a r when p a r t i c l e s o f d i f f e r e n t s i z e a r e used d u r i n g t h e t r e a t -
ment. L o w - v i s c o s i t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s a r e t h e r e f o r e o n l y s u i t a b l e f o r p r o p p i n g o f
s h o r t e r f r a c t u r e s , w i t h u n d e s i r e d s e g r e g a t i o n e f f e c t s h a v i n g t o be t a k e n i n t o
c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n case o f t r a n s p o r t o f proppants f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e .
M e d i u m - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s ( 5 0 - 200 cp) p r o v i d e good b u t n o t p e r f e c t t r a n s p o r t ,
w i t h p r o p p a n t beds s t i l l p o s s i b l y b e i n g i r r e g u l a r . M e d i u m - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s can
c a r r y 20/40 o r s m a l l e r proppants f o r l o n g e r d i s t a n c e s i n more e x t e n s i v e f r a c t u -
r e s , b u t l a r g e r g r a i n s i z e s w i l l s e t t l e more r a p i d l y . H i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s
( o v e r 200 c p ) can c a r r y a l l s i z e s o f proppants w i t h o n l y minimal s e t t l i n g f a r
away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e w i t h i n l o n g cracks, and t h e r e s u l t i n g f r a c t u r e i s u s u a l -
l y v e r y u n i f o r m (HOLDITCH 1984).

H i g h f l u i d v i s c o s i t y reduces f r i c t i o n w h i l e moving t h r o u g h t h e p i p e (SHAH

1984 and SHAH & LEE 1986 comment on f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e s o f p r o p p a n t - l a d e n hydrau-
l i c fracturing fluids; c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.2.2.1.), permits t r a n s p o r t o f h i g h
p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s and c r e a t e s w i d e r f r a c t u r e s t h e r e b y making i t e a s i e r t o
p l a c e t h e p r o p p i n g agent (WATERS 1980). The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n focusses on
p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e growth as w e l l as on p r o p p a n t den-
s i t y l f l u i d v i s c o s i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p and f l u i d volume p e r r e s e r v o i r t h i c k n e s s
u n i t . An o u t l i n e i s a l s o g i v e n o f t h e concept o f o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d stimu-
l a t i o n design.
 432

4.3.4.2.1. Proppant concent rat ion and vertical fracture growth

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e growth i s
i l l u s t r a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f h i g h - and l o w - v i s c o s i t y s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s as
w e l l as s h e a r i n g o f g e l l e d f l u i d s .

4.3.4.2.1.1. High-vi scos i ty f 1 uids

H i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s c r e a t e w i d e r f r a c t u r e s and a r e b e t t e r f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g
p r o p p i n g agents, b u t a r e a l s o e x e r t i n g h i g h e r t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s which have a
p o t e n t i a l f o r u n d e s i r e d v e r t i c a l h e i g h t growth (MENG & BROWN 1987; c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.2.3.3.). Proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n and pad volume determine t h e f i n a l propped
f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n and c o n d u c t i v i t y . I n s u f f i c i e n t pad volume o f t e n r e s u l t s i n
premature s c r e e n o u t due t o e a r l y pad d e p l e t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and
6.2.4.2.1.), and s h o r t propped p e n e t r a t i o n i s n o t uncommon when pumping excess
pad volume. I t i s t h e r e f o r e necessary t o determine t h e optimum pad s i z e and
p r o p p a n t schedule i n o r d e r t o ensure t h a t t h e proppants w i l l be t r a n s p o r t e d t o
t h e f r a c t u r e t i p a t t h e end o f t h e i n j e c t i o n process (NOLTE 1984, MENG & BROWN
1987). G e n e r a l l y h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s p r o v i d e improved r e s u l t s f r o m h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s (ROSENE & SHUMAKER 1971).

4.3.4.2.1.2. Low-viscosity fluids

L o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s i n j e c t e d a t low pumping r a t e s i n t r e a t m e n t s o f r e s t r i c -
t e d s i z e a r e an e f f e c t i v e means o f c o n t r o l l i n g v e r t i c a l g r o w t h o f f r a c t u r e
height, b u t s u f f e r from l i m i t e d proppant t r a n s p o r t c a p a b i l i t i e s , w i t h proppant
banking o c c u r r i n g as a consequence o f p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g d u r i n g f l u i d i n s e r t i o n
i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e and b e f o r e c l o s u r e o f t h e c r a c k (BARBER & THEMIG 1985; c f .
s e c t i o n 4.12.2.2.). C o o r d i n a t e d r a t h e r than random and u n d e s i r e d p r o p p a n t bank-
i n g o r s t r a t i f i c a t i o n as w e l l as s e l e c t i v e placement can be achieved by f l u i d
d e n s i t y c o n t r o l i n c l u d i n g pumping o f two f l u i d s o f d i f f e r e n t s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y
and v i s c o s i t y which o v e r r i d e o r u n d e r r i d e each o t h e r and which can be charged
w i t h d i f f e r e n t proppant loads f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f solid-supporting p a r t i c l e s i n
t h e upper and/or l o w e r segment o f t h e f r a c t u r e as h o r i z o n t a l l a y e r s ( c f . sec-
t i o n s 4.2.2.4. and 4 . 3 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) .

4.3.4.2.1.3. Shearing o f gelled fluids

Viscous g e l l e d w a t e r systems f e a t u r e moderate polymer l o a d i n g s and low r e s i -
due on b r e a k i n g (HANNAH & MATSON 1977). Shearing o f g e l l e d f l u i d s r e s u l t s i n r e -
d u c t i o n o f v i s c o s i t y and t h u s d i m i n u t i o n o f p r o p p a n t - c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y (ROLL,
HIMES, EWERT & DOERKSEN 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 3 . 2 . ) . V i s c o s i t y decrease o f
f l u i d s by s h e a r i n g i s h i g h l y u n d e s i r a b l e , because i t l e a d s t o p r o p p a n t f a l l o u t
d u r i n g pumping and placement w h i c h g i v e s r i s e t o premature s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e by
p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) i n pump, c a s i n g o r
t u b i n g , screen, c r o s s o v e r t o o l , p e r f o r a t i o n s and o t h e r d e v i c e s . Proppant concen-
t r a t i o n i n t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d has o n l y l i t t l e e f f e c t on shear d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e
g e l . F r a c t u r e h e i g h t and w i d t h i s g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r w i t h v i s c o u s f l u i d s ( O S -
BORNE, McLEOD & SCHROEDER 1981). I n deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e w e l l s , t h e t u b u l a r goods
o f t e n l i m i t i n j e c t i o n r a t e , and shear r a t e s a r e l o w e r i n these f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ments s o t h a t apparent v i s c o s i t y o f f l u i d f l o w i n g i n these c r a c k s i s h i g h e r .

Shearing o f g e l l e d f l u i d s i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y o c c u r r i n g a t t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s i n
l i m i t e d - e n t r y c o n s t e l l a t i o n s (HOEL 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) . Crosslinked
f l u i d s h a v i n g undergone shear e x h i b i t l o w e r v i s c o s i t y which r e n d e r s them u n a b l e
t o c a r r y and p l a c e h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , b u t a l l o w s deeper p r o p p a n t
p e n e t r a t i o n w i t h l e s s h e i g h t growth t h a t r e s u l t s i n c o n n e c t i o n o f more n e t pay
t o t h e w e l l b o r e (HOEL 1988). Ifa h i g h e r - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d were pumped i n an a t -
 433

tempt t o t r a n s p o r t l a r g e volumes and t o p l a c e h i g h s a t u r a t i o n s o f proppant,

broader f r a c t u r e s c o u l d be obtained which cause more h e i g h t growth o u t o f zone
and l e s s proppant p e n e t r a t i o n w i t h i n the core o f the p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l . Case
s t u d i e s reveal t h a t a t l e a s t f o r some r e s e r v o i r s , deep proppant p e n e t r a t i o n a t
the expense o f h i g h proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s the b e t t e r s o l u t i o n o f drainage
maximization.

4.3.4.2.1.4. Other aspects

High apparent v i s c o s i t i e s l e a d t o h i g h pressure drops i n t h e f r a c t u r e which
can cause premature shut-downs because o f wellhead pressure l i m i t s , o r e l s e bar-
r i e r shales surrounding t h e sandstone f o r m a t i o n are p a r t e d and the f l u i d f r a c t u -
r e s o u t o f zone. Premature shut-downs g i v e r i s e t o s h o r t e r cracks than expec-
ted, lower f i n a l i n j e c t e d proppant concentrations and poorer f r a c t u r e conduc-
tivities, and s t i m u l a t i n g out-of-zone leads t o h i g h e r b u t s h o r t e r cracks, w i t h
i n b o t h cases the expected p r o d u c t i v i t y being lower than t h a t d e s i r e d .

HANNAH, HARRINGTON & ANDERSON (1977) document t h a t the temperature o f f l u i d s

f l o w i n g i n a f r a c t u r e i s near t h e f o r m a t i o n temperature over 50 - 75 % o f the
crack l e n g t h . The apparent v i s c o s i t y a t t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e f r a c t u r e i s the
most i m p o r t a n t one s i n c e t h a t i s where the g r e a t e s t treatment f l u i d pressure
drop takes place. I t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t h a t the apparent v i s c o s i t i e s o f the f i -
nal f l u i d stages are n o t t o o h i g h under near-wellbore cool-down c o n d i t i o n s , as
t h i s c o u l d cause u n d e s i r a b l e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t extension i n t o barren shales o r
nonproductive sand sections.

4.3.4.2.2. Proppant density/f luid viscosity relationship

and fluid volume oer reservoir thickness unit
The g r e a t e s t advantage o f decreasing s p e c i f i c proppant g r a v i t y i s the f a c t
t h a t l i g h t e r proppants can be t r a n s p o r t e d by l o w e r - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s a t i d e n t i -
c a l c o n d i t i o n s as compared t o heavier proppants and h i g h e r - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s ,
w i t h pumping o f l o w e r - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s being a b l e t o be c a r r i e d o u t a t lower
pressure (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & CARROLL 1983; c f . s e c t i o n s 1.3.2. and
4.2.2.3.3.). V e r t i c a l propagation o f the crack can be l i m i t e d by reducing f r a c -
t u r i n g f l u i d pressure, and m i n i m i z i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y by i n s e r t i o n o f l i g h t e r
proppants i s a much more e f f e c t i v e method o f c o n t r o l l i n g pressure than l o w e r i n g
the pumping r a t e (SIMONSON, ABOU-SAYED & CLIFTON 1978; NOLTE 1982; c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.2.3.2.). A l t e r n a t i v e l y , h i g h e r proppant volumes can be pumped i n a g i v e n
amount o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d .

F l u i d volumes per r e s e r v o i r thickness u n i t a l s o have an i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e

on proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n placed w i t h i n the f r a c t u r e and thus post-treatment
w e l l performance (NALL, CAMPBELL & BONEY 1983). F i e l d experience has shown t h a t
the lowest s k i n e f f e c t s , g r e a t e s t c a l c u l a t e d f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s , and
h i g h e r decreased absolute open-flow p o t e n t i a l t e s t s were o b t a i n e d when volumes
o f 2,000 g a l / f t n e t r e s e r v o i r thickness were pumped. I n terms o f h i g h e r f l u i d
quantities, t h e key t o the observed p r o d u c t i v i t y increase i s the a b i l i t y t o
p l a c e more proppants i n h i g h e r s a t u r a t i o n i n the f r a c t u r e w i t h the l a r g e r f l u i d
amounts, b u t economics have t o be considered on a w e l l - t o - w e l l b a s i s t o d e t e r -
mine the b e s t p o s s i b l e treatment volume f o r the money spent. The d i s c u s s i o n as
f o l l o w s focusses on f r i c t i o n l o s s i n t u b u l a r goods, gel degradation, f l u i d v i s -
c o s i t y m o d i f i c a t i o n , and f r a c t u r e h e i g h t vs. w i d t h .

4.3.4.2.2.1. Friction loss in tubular goods

Tubing and c a s i n g design a l s o have a l a r g e i n f l u e n c e on treatment r a t e s and
pressures which i n t u r n i n f l u e n c e proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h a t t h e f o r m a t i o n can
accept (PA1 & GARBIS 1983 b ) . F r i c t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r the f l u i d i n the p i p e
 434

and across t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s need t o account f o r t h e i n c r e a s e d v i s c o s i t y and den-

s i t y due t o h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s (SHAH, S M I T H & OONALOSON 1983). Because
f r i c t i o n l o s s across t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s can become e x c e s s i v e as f l u i d d e n s i t y r i -
ses, i t i s n o t uncommon t o i n c r e a s e t h e p e r f o r a t i o n number by 50 o r 100 % i n an
u l t r a - h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n j o b . D u r i n g course o f t h e o p e r a t i o n , t h e ac-
t u a l bottomhole t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e may be g r a d u a l l y r i s i n g b e i n g a p o s s i b l e i n d i -
c a t i o n o f a screenout, whereas t h e s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e i s d r o p p i n g due t o t h e
l a r g e increases i n f l u i d densities.

4.3.4.2.2.2.Gel degradation
The s t r u c t u r e o f most f r a c t u r i n g g e l s tends t o degrade and l o s e i t s p r o p p a n t
t r a n s p o r t a b i l i t y t o some degree w i t h b o t h i n c r e a s i n g temperature and t i m e
(POULSEN & LEE 1984). A l t h o u g h some g e l s r e q u i r e e l e v a t e d temperatures t o a t -
t a i n t h e i r maximum degree o f c r o s s l i n k i n g , these f l u i d s a l s o degrade w i t h s u f f i -
c i e n t temperature and t i m e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . ) . Since temperature and p r e -
sence t i m e o f t h e f l u i d i n t h e f r a c t u r e b o t h i n c r e a s e w i t h d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e
wellbore, i t f o l l o w s t h a t the c l o s e r the f l u i d i s t o the crack t i p , the less
p r o p p a n t - c a r r y i n g a b i l i t y i t has, w i t h t h e r e f o r e a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p most e a s i -
l y proppant b r i d g i n g and b l o c k i n g o c c u r r i n g which provokes premature o r subma-
t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b t e r m i n a t i o n by s c r e e n o u t .

4.3.4.2.2.3. Fluid viscosity modification

When m o n i t o r i n g n e t p r e s s u r e e v o l u t i o n d u r i n g course o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ment, t h e a b i l i t y t o a l t e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y can improve s t i m u l a t i o n e f f e c t i v e -
ness (OLSEN & DEBONIS 1988). F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and pumping r a t e a f f e c t f r a c t u r e
geometry almost e q u a l l y when a l t e r e d a t t h e same magnitude, b u t i n most cases,
i t i s o p e r a t i o n a l l y e a s i e r and more c o s t e f f i c i e n t t o t r i p l e f l u i d v i s c o s i t y
than t o t r i p l e pumping r a t e . T h e r e f o r e m o d i f y i n g f l u i d r h e o l o g y seems t o be a
more v i a b l e means o f a l t e r i n g f r a c t u r e geometry i n a r e a l - t i m e mode t h a n pump-
i n g r a t e , a l t h o u g h b o t h can be used c o n c u r r e n t l y ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 3 . ) . I f n e t
f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e exceeds c r i t i c a l f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e o r c a p a c i t y o f t h e l a t -
t e r , e i t h e r e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f o r u n c o n t r o l l e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t g r o w t h oc-
c u r which can be b o t h d e t r i m e n t a l t o f r a c t u r i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.2.3.). I f f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e c a p a c i t y f o r a g i v e n r e s e r v o i r i s known, s t i m u -
l a t i o n f l u i d v i s c o s i t y can be m o d i f i e d d u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t t o p r e v e n t n e t p r e s -
s u r e f r o m exceeding f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e c a p a c i t y .

4.3.4.2.2.4.Fracture height vs. width

Pad o r o t h e r non-proppant stages a r e p r o p a g a t i n g t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d
f r a c t u r e . As t h i s i s t h e f i r s t f l u i d exposed t o new rock i n t h e f r a c t u r e , pad
stage o f t e n s u f f e r s most s e v e r e l y f r o m f l u i d - l o s s c o n d i t i o n s . E x c e s s i v e pad
f l u i d l o s s g i v e s r i s e t o almost complete f l u i d l e a k o f f i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n t h u s
b r i n g i n g p r o p p a n t - b e a r i n g f l u i d n e a r t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e . As p r o p p a n t - b e a r i n g
f l u i d s do n o t propagate h y d r a u l i c cracks, f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d
and b a l l o o n s i n w i d t h due t o t h e l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e between i n j e c t i o n r a t e and
l e a k o f f r a t e ( c f . section 6.2.4.2.1.). A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e r e i s no need f o r
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y t o m a i n t a i n f r a c t u r e w i d t h , and t h u s polymer l o a d i n g c o u l d be
reduced t o t h e minimum v i s c o s i t y r e q u i r e d f o r p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t which d i m i n i -
shes t h e amount o f polymer used, decreases c o n d u c t i v i t y damage i n t h i s c o n f i n e d
f r a c t u r e area, and a l s o slows down p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e . A s u i t a b l e improvement i s
c o n s i d e r a b l e enlargement o f t h e pad f l u i d stage o f t h e purpose o f b o t h l e a k o f f
c o n t r o l and r e s e r v o i r c o o l i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 4 . 2 . 2 . ) .

On t h e o t h e r hand, sudden unexpected and u n a v o i d a b l e occurrence o f e x c e s s i v e

f r a c t u r e h e i g h t can d r a m a t i c a l l y decrease c r a c k w i d t h which i n t u r n can cause
p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g i n t h e f r a c t u r e l e a d i n g t o r a p i d p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e and prema-
 435

t u r e t r e a t m e n t t e r m i n a t i o n by s c r e e n o u t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) . The w o r s t
case i s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i g h f l u i d l o s s and s e r i o u s w i d t h r e d u c t i o n caused
by u n c o n t r o l l e d h e i g h t growth which can provoke proppant b r i d g i n g f a i r l y c l o s e
t o t h e w e l l b o r e t h a t can r e s u l t i n s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e a t a v e r y e a r l y stage o f
t h e t r e a t m e n t . V i s c o s i t y i n c r e a s e o f t h e f l u i d c o u l d compensate f o r t h e w i d t h
l o s s f r o m h e i g h t growth and h e l p p r e v e n t i n g submature s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e r e v e a l s t h a t ramped p o l y -
mer l o a d i n g j o b s have much h i g h e r p r e s s u r e f a l l o f f r a t e s a f t e r shutdown t h a n
c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n s t a n t polymer l o a d i n g o p e r a t i o n s .

4.3.4.2.3. Overpressure cal ibrated stimulation design

Another method o f enhancing t r e a t m e n t s i z e and t h u s p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y and
c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d s t i m u l a t i o n d e s i g n (SHLYAPOBERSKY,
WONG & WALHAUG 1988) where t h e n e t c r a c k p r e s s u r e measured d u r i n g m i n i - o r m i -
c r o f r a c t u r i n g j o b s (SHLYAPOBERSKY, WALHAUG, SHEFFIELD & HUCKABEE 1988; c f . sec-
t i o n 4.8.2.6.) s h o r t l y a f t e r s h u t - i n ( o v e r p r e s s u r e ) i s used t o determine appa-
r e n t f r a c t u r e toughness o f t h e f o r m a t i o n which i s then taken as an i n p u t i n a
r e s e r v o i r s i m u l a t o r t o d e s i g n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n volume and prop-
p a n t i n j e c t i o n schedule. The o v e r p r e s s u r e i s d e f i n e d as t h e d i f f e r e n c e between
t h e c o r r e c t e d i n s t a n t a n e o u s s h u t - i n p r e s s u r e and t h e minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s .
The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s focusses on c o n v e n t i o n a l u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n o f n e t f r a c t u r e
p r o p a g a t i o n pressure, reasons f o r e l e v a t e d n e t f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e s ,
s c a l e dependency o f apparent f r a c t u r e toughness, and h i g h e r p r o p p a n t volumes
and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s pumped w i t h o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d f r a c t u r e d e s i g n .

4.3.4.2.3.1. Conventional underestimation

of net fracture propagat ion pressure
W i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l models, n e t f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e ( d e f i n e d as f r a c -
t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e minus minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s o r c l o s u r e s t r e s s ) i s a l -
ways underestimated, w i t h these models t h u s p r e d i c t i n g a narrower and l o n g e r
propped c r a c k t h a n a c t u a l l y i s b e i n g c r e a t e d i n t h e f i e l d , and t h e r e f o r e t h e de-
s i g n i s n o t o p t i m i z e d t o produce t h e d e s i r e d f r a c t u r e geometry and maximum
c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y t h r o u g h h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (SHLYAPOBERSKY, WONG &
WALHAUG 1988). Apparent m o d e l l i n g o f w i d e r c r a c k s t h a n t e c h n i c a l l y p o s s i b l e as
a consequence o f u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n o f n e t f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e can a l s o
l e a d t o an unwanted a g g r e s s i v e t r e a t m e n t t h a t has a h i g h p o t e n t i a l o f submature
screenout.

O p t i m i z a t i o n of t h e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n t h u s r e q u i r e s c a l i b r a -
t i o n o f t h e model w i t h t h e f i e l d n e t c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e which r e s u l t s
i n s h o r t e r p r e d i c t e d l e n g t h t h a t i s more c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i v e respon-
se o f t h e w e l l . Overpressure c a l i b r a t e d d e s i g n enables t o p e r f o r m more aggres-
s i v e t r e a t m e n t s w i t h s m a l l e r pad and l a r g e r amount and s a t u r a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t s
t h a n w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l models and p e r m i t s t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i m i n i s h t h e r i s k o f
premature s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.2.3., 4.2.3.2.5. and
6.2.4.2.1.). The necessary d a t a f o r o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d s t i m u l a t i o n d e s i g n
a r e measured d u r i n g m i n i - and m i c r o f r a c t u r e f i e l d t e s t s (SHLYAPOBERSKY 1988;
SHLYAPOBERSKY, WALHAUG, SHEFFIELD & HUCKABEE 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . 6 . ) .

4.3.4.2.3.2. Reasons for elevated

net fracture propagat ion pressures
H i g h e r n e t f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e s as usual can be c r e a t e d by h i g h e r
than expected f r i c t i o n a l p r e s s u r e s d e v e l o p i n g i n p e r f o r a t i o n s , near t h e w e l l -
bore r e g i o n and i n t h e c r a c k e s p e c i a l l y near i t s t i p (SHLYAPOBERSKY, WONG & WAL-
HAUG 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . The enhanced f r i c t i o n c o u l d be caused by i n -
 436
creased s l u r r y v i s c o s i t y due t o l e a k o f f and p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n , fracture
s u r f a c e roughness, t u r b u l e n t f r a c t u r e f l o w under non-Darcy c o n d i t i o n s ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 3 . ) , and m a j o r c u r r e n t c o n s t r i c t i o n s a l o n g t h e c r a c k caused by o r t h o -
gonal j o i n t s such as n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s . Other reasons f o r e l e v a t e d n e t c r a c k
p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e s a r e h i g h e r f r a c t u r e toughness than expected due t o a sca-
le-dependent c r a c k l a y e r a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p , and presence o f a f l u i d - n o n p e n e -
t r a t i n g region a t the l a t t e r p o i n t .

C r e a t i o n o f a s e t o f m u l t i p l e p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.6.2.4.) in-
s t e a d o f a s i n g l e dominant c r a c k i s u n l i k e l y t o be a reason f o r h i g h e r n e t f r a c -
t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n pressures, as many s u c c e s s f u l t r e a t m e n t s have been pumped w i t h
moderate n e t c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e s w i t h h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s and a
v i s c o u s s l u r r y . D u r i n g f l u i d i n j e c t i o n , b o t h f r i c t i o n a l and f r a c t u r e toughness
e f f e c t s a r e p r e s e n t and d i f f i c u l t t o separate, whereas s h o r t l y a f t e r s h u t - i n
when t h e c r a c k remains open and n e a r l y ceases t o propagate w i t h f l u i d r e d i s t r i -
b u t i o n and p r e s s u r e i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n , t h e f r i c t i o n a l e f f e c t s a r e minimized, and
t h e n e t f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e a t t h i s moment r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e can t h e n
be p r i m a r i l y a t t r i b u t e d t o apparent f r a c t u r e toughness (SHLYAPOBERSKY 1987).

4.3.4.2.3.3. Scale dependency o f apparent f r a c t u r e toughness

Successive f i e l d f r a c t u r i n g t e s t s conducted i n t h e same f o r m a t i o n w i t h i d e n -
t i c a l r a t e and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y r e v e a l e d o c c a s i o n a l l y t h a t t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s
s h u t - i n p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s w i t h r i s i n g i n j e c t i o n volumes, whereas c l o s u r e
s t r e s s remains n e a r l y unchanged (SHLYAPOBERSKY, WONG & WALHAUG 1988). As p r o p -
p a n t b r i d g i n g cannot o c c u r due t o proppant absence i n t h e m i n i - o r m i c r o f r a c -
t u r e t e s t s , the increase o f instantaneous shut-in pressure o r overpressure w i t h
i n j e c t i o n volumes may be a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e s c a l e dependency o f a p p a r e n t
f r a c t u r e toughness (SHLYAPOBERSKY 1987). I n o r d e r t o p r e d i c t r e a l i s t i c c r a c k
dimensions, h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e d e s i g n t h e r e f o r e has t o i n c l u d e apparent c r a c k
toughness o f t h e r o c k i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o t h e r i n t e r a c t i n g processes o f v i s c o u s
f l u i d f l o w , e l a s t i c r o c k d e f o r m a t i o n , and f l u i d l o s s through f r a c t u r e w a l l s .

The energy a n a l y s i s o f h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n model (SHLYAPOBERSKY 1985) i n -

c o r p o r a t e s t h e e f f e c t o f f r a c t u r e toughness f o r u n c o n t a i n e d ( c i r c u l a r o r r a -
d i a l ) and c o n t a i n e d ( r e c t a n g u l a r o r l i n e a r ) f r a c t u r e s . The model c o n s i d e r s t h e
f l u i d - f i l l e d h y d r a u l i c c r a c k as an open thermodynamic system and t h e q u a s i - e q u i -
l i b r i u m p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e as t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e system. An a p p r o x i -
mate s o l u t i o n f o r such a system i s o b t a i n e d by m i n i m i z i n g t o t a l energy d i s s i p a -
t i o n r a t e as r e q u i r e d by t h e u n i v e r s a l e v o l u t i o n a r y c r i t e r i o n . Energy d i s s i p a -
t i o n t a k e s p l a c e by c r e a t i o n o f t h e new f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e , c r a c k - o p e n i n g by de-
f o r m i n g t h e s u r r o u n d i n g r e s e r v o i r , and v i s c o u s d i s s i p a t i o n i n f l u i d .

4.3.4.2.3.4. Higher proppant volumes and concentrations

pumped w i t h overpressure c a l i b r a t e d f r a c t u r e design

F i e l d examples o f comparative assessment o f Overpressure c a l i b r a t e d d e s i g n

and c o n v e n t i o n a l m o d e l l i n g show t h a t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e o v e r p r e s s u r e concept
can more than double t h e t r e a t m e n t volume by p e r m i t t i n g c r e a t i o n o f w i d e r f r a c -
t u r e s t h a t accept h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and l a r g e r t o t a l p r o p p a n t quan-
t i t i e s (SHLYAPOBERSKY, WONG & WALHAUG 1988). Even w i t h some chosen degree o f
conservatism, t h e r e s u l t i n g o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d t r e a t m e n t s a r e s t i l l much
more a g g r e s s i v e i n b o t h s l u r r y volume and amount o f p r o p p a n t i n j e c t e d t h a n con-
v e n t i o n a l d e s i g n s . Thus o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d f r a c t u r e m o d e l l i n g l e a d s t o
v e r y e f f e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s w i t h much l a r g e r f l u i d volumes and c o n s i -
d e r a b l y more a g g r e s s i v e p r o p p a n t i n j e c t i o n schedules than c o n v e n t i o n a l l y d e s i g -
ned. The i n c r e a s e d j o b s i z e s a r e t h e c o n f i r m a t i o n t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d models un-
d e r e s t i m a t e n e t f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e . The t e c h n i c a l and economical be-
n e f i t o f o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d f r a c t u r e d e s i g n i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f more
t h a n d o u b l i n g t o t a l t r e a t m e n t volume and h a l v i n g pad s i z e w i t h r e s p e c t t o con-
 437

v e n t i o n a l approaches.

Overpressure c a l i b r a t i o n can a l s o be used t o o p t i m i z e t h e aggressiveness o f

t h e p r o p p a n t schedule ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.13.) and t o reduce s c r e e n o u t r i s k accord-
i n g t o f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s and sound e n g i n e e r i n g judgement. A l a r g e r o v e r p r e s -
s u r e g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t s i n a w i d e r f r a c t u r e t h a t r e q u i r e s a g r e a t e r t r e a t m e n t vo-
lume t o produce a d e s i r e d economical f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and a l l o w s a more aggres-
s i v e p r o p p a n t schedule t o o p t i m i z e t r e a t m e n t p r o d u c t i v i t y , whereas an o v e r p r e s -
s u r e s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t measured i n t h e f i e l d can be used i n t h e d e s i g n t o con-
t r o l t h e aggressiveness o f t h e p r o p p a n t schedule and t o reduce t h e r i s k o f p r e -
mature s c r e e n o u t ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.4.2.1.). The u t i l i z a t i o n o f o v e r p r e s s u r e i n -
s t e a d o f n e t f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e as a c a l i b r a t i o n parameter f o r hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n d e s i g n t h u s p r o v i d e s c o n s i d e r a b l e advantages p a r t i -
c u l a r l y i n new f i e l d s where e x p e r i e n c e and u n c e r t a i n t i e s w i t h t h e model d a t a
have n o t been f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d , and i s an e x c e l l e n t t o o l f o r m i n i m i z a t i o n o f
f r i c t i o n a l uncertainties, u n r e l i a b i l i t i e s i n using treatment pressure t o pre-
d i c t f r a c t u r e growth, and r i s k o f premature screenout f a i l u r e . Aspects o f o v e r -
p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d f r a c t u r e d e s i g n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by HUCKABEE ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.3.4.3. Impact of delayed crosslinking

The impact o f delayed c r o s s l i n k i n g on proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s predominant-
l y t h e reduced d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n by premature m a t e r i a l f a l l -
o u t . A f t e r some i n t r o d u c t o r y comments on c r o s s l i n k i n g types, s i g n i f i c a n c e and
performance, improvement o f p r o p p a n t placement by r e t a r d e d c r o s s l i n k i n g as w e l l
as enhanced f l u i d s t a b i l i t y and t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y i s o u t l i n e d .

4.3.4.3.1. Cross1 inking types

C r o s s l i n k i n g o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s w i t h some t y p e o f t r a n s i t i o n m e t a l l i c com-
pound such as b o r a t e o r t i t a n a t e g i v e s r i s e t o f o r m a t i o n o f c h e l a t e complexes
which have c o n s i d e r a b l y enhanced p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and temperature s t a b i l i t y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s than c o n v e n t i o n a l f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s (GRONE, BAUMGARTNER & WOOD-
ROOF 1983; VEATCH 1983, WALSER 1985; KRAMER, PRUDHOMME, NORMAN & SANDY 1987),
and t h a t a l s o a i d s i n f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l and combats p o t e n t i a l s c r e e n o u t f a i -
l u r e (NALL, CAMPBELL & BONEY 1983). The c r o s s l i n k i n g r e a c t i o n r a t e o f t h e orga-
n o m e t a l l i c c h e l a t e w i t h d e r i v a t i z e d c e l l u l o s e o r guar i s i n f l u e n c e d by a combi-
n a t i o n o f pH and temperature (HARRIS, HARMS & NORMAN 1987). The f o l l o w i n g o v e r -
view c o n t a i n s some comments on g e n e r a l b e n e f i t o f c r o s s l i n k i n g as w e l l as con-
v e n t i o n a l and delayed c r o s s l i n k i n g . Aspects o f v i s c o s i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c o n t i -
nuous vs. b a t c h m i x i n g , delayed c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s vs. d u a l - v i s c o s i -
t y g r a v e l p a c k i n g f l u i d s , and m i x i n g o f delayed and r a p i d c r o s s l i n k i n g agents
are also i l l u s t r a t e d .

4.3.4.3.1.1. General benefit o f crosslinking

C r o s s l i n k i n g a l s o i n c r e a s e s f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and t h u s p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t capa-
c i t y (GRONE, BAUMGARTNER & WOODROOF 1983). The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c -
t u r i n g g e l s i n t h e l a t e 1960's has i n many ways been r e v o l u t i o n a r y , because
t h e i r unique advantage i s t h e v e r y h i g h v i s c o s i t y y i e l d f o r modest polymer s a t u -
r a t i o n s w h i c h makes them i d e a l f o r p l a c i n g h i g h e r proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s due
t o i n h e r e n t h i g h e f f i c i e n c y , a b i l i t y t o c r e a t e wide f r a c t u r e s , e x c e l l e n t prop-
p a n t t r a n s p o r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (HANNAH, HARRINGTON & POTTER 1980; PA1 & GARBIS
1983 b ) and e x t r e m e l y l o w f l u i d l o s s (NORTON & HOFFMAN 1982). As t h e y employ l o -
wer polymer c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s t e n d t o break c l e a n e r and p r o -
duce l e s s damaging r e s i d u e than u n c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s . Conventional c r o s s l i n k e d
f l u i d systems a r e s t a b l e up t o 275 OF, b u t w i t h enhanced temperature s t a b i l i t y
m i x t u r e s , s u c c e s s f u l f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s have been c a r r i e d o u t a t temperatures
up t o 540 OF (280 oC; WILLIAMS, WOODROOF & BOX 1982; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 7 . 4 . 2 . ) . O i f -
 438

f e r e n t l i g a n d s can be u t i l i z e d f o r f a s t e r o r slower c r o s s l i n k i n g o f t h e f l u i d .
Delayed c r o s s l i n k i n g systems a r e f o r m u l a t e d t o a c t i v a t e a f t e r t h e f l u i d has
been pumped down t h e t u b u l a r s and through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and has been one o f
t h e r e c e n t s i g n i f i c a n t improvements i n f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d t e c h n o l o g y (VEATCH &
M O S C H O V I D I S 1986).

The o n l y disadvantage o f c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i s t h e i r u n s a t i s f a c t o -
r y f l u i d c o m p a t i b i l i t y (NORTON & HOFFMAN 1982), because many j o b s u s i n g c r o s s -
l i n k e d g e l s r e s u l t i n moderate t o severe w a t e r blockage problems ( c f . s e c t i o n
3.11.2.4.2.). While a d d i t i o n o f n i t r o g e n t o the crosslinked gel helps recover-
i n g t h e t r e a t i n g f l u i d , t h e w a t e r blockage problems s t i l l o c c u r d e s p i t e p r e -
sence o f n i t r o g e n and use o f s u r f a c t a n t s . Water blockage, however, a l s o o c c u r s
w i t h a p p l i c a t i o n o f n o n - c r o s s l i n k e d water-based g e l s . An unusual s p e c i a l a p p l i -
c a t i o n o f c r o s s l i n k i n g i s c o n n e c t i o n o f an a c r y l i c r e s i n and a l i q u i d epoxy r e -
s i n f o r d e s t r u c t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y by p l u g g i n g o f t h i e f zones (KNAPP
& WELBDURN 1978; ZAITOUN, KOHLER & G U E R R I N I 1989; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 9 . 1 . 7 . ) .

4.3.4.3.1.2. Conventional and delayed crosslinking

Three types o f c r o s s l i n k e r systems have t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d (ZIGRYE, OSBORNE
& WESTBROOK 1 9 8 6 ) . E a r l y t i m e systems b e g i n c r o s s l i n k i n g i m m e d i a t e l y when i n j e c -
t e d i n t o t h e base g e l . Delayed c r o s s l i n k e r systems s t a r t t o a c t some t i m e a f t e r
i n j e c t i o n i n t o t h e base g e l , w i t h t h e r e a c t i o n b e i n g a c t i v a t e d by t e m p e r a t u r e .
The c o n t r o l l e d e a r l y t i m e c r o s s l i n k e r system i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e two o t h e r
systems, and when i t i s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e base g e l , some c r o s s l i n k i n g o c c u r s i m -
m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w e d by a m a j o r c r o s s l i n k i n g r e a c t i o n i n i t i a t e d a t h i g h e r tempera-
t u r e o f a b t . 100 OF ( 3 8 oC). The p r i m a r y advantage o f d e l a y i n g t h e c r o s s l i n k i n g
r e a c t i o n i s t h a t v i s c o s i t y would n o t i n c r e a s e u n t i l s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e f r a c t u -
r i n g f l u i d reaches t h e b o t t o m o f t h e w e l l b o r e and e n t e r s t h e f r a c t u r e . D e l a y i n g
can be achieved by u s i n g an i n h e r e n t l y delayed c r o s s l i n k e r (WALSER & OTT 1985)
o r adding a d e l a y i n g agent t o a f a s t - r e a c t i n g c r o s s l i n k e r (RUMMO 1982).

This delay i n c r o s s l i n k i n g minimizes f r i c t i o n pressure i n the i n j e c t i o n t u -

b i n g as w e l l as d e g r a d a t i o n o f c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d caused by h i g h
shear i n t h e t u b i n g and t h u s d i m i n i s h e s h y d r a u l i c horsepower r e q u i r e d f o r t h e
j o b (GARBIS, BROWN & MAURITZ 1985) and p e r m i t s h i g h e r i n j e c t i o n r a t e s (ECONOMI-
DES 1986). The delayed c r o s s l i n k e d g e l forms when t h e f l u i d i s f a r down t h e t u -
b i n g s t r i n g a f t e r t h e h i g h - s h e a r p o r t i o n o f t h e t r e a t m e n t (HARRIS, HARMS & NOR-
MAN 1987). The small immediate v i s c o s i t y i n c r e a s e generated by t h e c o n t r o l l e d
e a r l y t i m e c r o s s l i n k e r system i s s u f f i c i e n t t o i n s u r e p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t as t h e
f l u i d f l o w s i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e , b u t i t does n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e t u b i n g
f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e . HODGE & BARANET (1987) e v a l u a t e f i e l d methods t o d e t e r m i n e
c r o s s l i n k i n g time o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s .

4.3.4.3.1.3.Viscosity relationships
The v i s c o s i t y o f delayed c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i s a f u n c t i o n o f f l o w
geometry, c r i t i c a l s t r e s s and t i m e as w e l l as shear and thermal h i s t o r i e s ( C A -
MERON, GARDNER & VEATCH 1988). The s t r e s s - t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o p e r t y o f d e l a y e d
c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s i s t h e r e s u l t o f g e l breaking-down and m i g r a t i n g i n t o t h e low-
v i s c o s i t y f l u i d a t t h e w a l l s , and p o s s i b l y shear-induced f l o c c u l a t i o n and secon-
d a r y f l o w s . I n l o w - s t r e s s s t a t e where t h e g e l shows v e r y low apparent v i s c o s i t y
because of w a l l s l i p , p e r f e c t p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t may be p o s s i b l e s i n c e t h e b u l k
f l u i d i s c o m p l e t e l y g e l l e d . Delayed c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s a r e g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i -
zed by non-homogeneous f l o w (CAMERON 1988). D e l a y i n g c r o s s l i n k i n g u n t i l a f t e r
exposure t o h i g h shear i n c r e a s e s g e l v i s c o s i t y (PRUDHOMME, ELLIS, CONSTIEN &
KNOLL 1988). The r h e o l o g y o f c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s i s determined by t h e s t r u c t u r e o f
t h e g e l network which i n t u r n i s c o n t r o l l e d by c r o s s l i n k e r r e a c t i o n k i n e t i c s
and f l o w c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g c r o s s l i n k i n g . I n f a s t c r o s s l i n k i n g systems where t h e
c r o s s l i n k i n g process i s r a p i d enough t h a t t h e g e l s t r u c t u r e i s e s t a b l i s h e d du-
 439

ring m i x i n g o r d u r i n g exposure t o h i g h shear r a t e s , e v e r y d i f f e r e n t c o n f i g u r a -

tion o f t u b i n g geometry and pumping r a t e produces a d i f f e r e n t g e l network s t r u c -
ture and d i f f e r e n t f l u i d r h e o l o g y , and t h e same g e l c h e m i s t r y generates d i f f e -
rent v i s c o s i t i e s depending upon magnitude and d u r a t i o n o f shear.

D e l a y i n g o f g e l f o r m a t i o n u n t i l a t i m e when o n l y low l e v e l s o f shear a r e ex-

p e r i e n c e d by t h e f l u i d ( f o r example a f t e r t h e f l u i d has t r a v e l l e d t h r o u g h t h e
w e l l b o r e ) a l l o w s a more h i g h l y s t r u c t u r e d g e l t o o r i g i n a t e t h e r e b y r e s u l t i n g i n
h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y . The r a t e a t which t h e g e l i s c h e m i c a l l y formed can be c o n t r o l -
l e d by t h e a d d i t i o n o f c h e l a t e s which slow t h e r e a c t i o n between t h e polymer mo-
l e c u l e s and t h e t r a n s i t i o n - m e t a l i o n (KRAMER, PRUDHOMME, NORMAN & SANDY 1987).
The v i s c o s i t y o f t h e delayed system i s s e v e r a l t i m e s g r e a t e r than t h a t o f t h e
f a s t l i n k i n g g e l and m a i n t a i n s a h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y a t e l e v a t e d temperature, t h u s
d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t h i g h e r g e l v i s c o s i t y can be o b t a i n e d f o r a g i v e n c h e m i s t r y
i f g e l f o r m a t i o n occurs a f t e r exposure t o h i g h shear r a t e s .

4.3.4.3.1.4. Continuous vs. batch mixing

Delayed c r o s s l i n k e d g e l v i s c o s i t y i s i n f l u e n c e d by shear r a t e and t h e degree
o f base g e l h y d r a t i o n (HARRIS, HARMS & NORMAN 1987). Chemical f a c t o r s i n f l u e n -
c i n g v i s c o s i t y development i n c l u d e base g e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , c r o s s l i n k i n g agent
s a t u r a t i o n , f l u i d pH and i o n i c s t r e n g t h . H y d r a t i o n t i m e and pH r e q u i r e m e n t s may
d i f f e r f o r s p e c i f i c p o l y m e r - c r o s s l i n k e r p a i r s . F o r many years, h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g o p e r a t i o n s have used p r e g e l l e d o r batch-mixed v i s c o s i f i e r s as t h e s t a n d a r d
base f l u i d f o r a p p l i c a t i o n o f c r o s s l i n k e d g e l l e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s . Continuous
o r o n - t h e - f l y m i x i n g o f f l u i d s , however, i s more economical, b u t i t i s essen-
t i a l t h a t base g e l polymer and a d d i t i v e s a r e d e l i v e r e d t o an aqueous stream so
t h a t r a p i d u n i f o r m g e l a t i o n occurs, and g e l a t i o n must be s u f f i c i e n t l y complete
p r i o r t o c r o s s l i n k i n g agent r e a c t i o n t o g i v e f u l l v i s c o s i t y development.

The key elements i n p r o d u c i n g c o n t i n u o u s l y mixed f l u i d s h a v i n g performance

equal t o batch-mixed f l u i d s i n c l u d e e f f i c i e n t g e l d e l i v e r y , p r o p e r m i x i n g e n e r -
gy l e v e l , pH c o n t r o l and u t i l i z a t i o n o f a delayed onset c r o s s l i n k e r . The most
r a p i d base g e l h y d r a t i o n i s a t t a i n e d w i t h h i g h m i x i n g energy, low pH and m i n i -
mum s a l t c o n c e n t r a t i o n . N o r m a l l y t u b i n g t r a n s i t t i m e i s l o n g enough and forma-
t i o n temperature s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h t o a l l o w polymer h y d r a t i o n and t o i n i t i a t e
the c r o s s l i n k i n g reaction, b u t shallow w e l l s w i t h very s h o r t tubing t r a n s i t
t i m e and r e l a t i v e l y low f o r m a t i o n temperature may r e q u i r e i n c r e a s e d p r e c i s i o n
i n use o f d e l a y e d c r o s s l i n k e d g e l f l u i d s . H i g h e r c r o s s l i n k e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e
r e q u i r e d f o r q u i c k e r a c h i e v i n g h i g h e r c r o s s l i n k e d g e l v i s c o s i t y a t low tempera-
t u r e s , whereas l o w e r c r o s s l i n k e r s a t u r a t i o n s should be used a t e l e v a t e d tempera-
tures.

The most obvious a p p l i c a t i o n o f delayed c r o s s l i n k i n g agents a r e j o b s where

i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o reduce polymer l o a d i n g and y e t o b t a i n comparable v i s c o s i t i e s
t o those achieved w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l systems a t h i g h e r polymer l o a d i n g s (CONWAY
& HARRIS 1982) as w e l l as b e t t e r f l u i d s t a b i l i t y (ECONOMIDES 1986). The p o s s i b i -
l i t y o f delayed c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s t o t r a n s p o r t h i g h e r proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
enables performance of t r e a t m e n t s w i t h s m a l l e r f l u i d volumes. Pumping o f h i g h -
v i s c o s i t y crosslinked f r a c t u r i n g gels generally requires batch-mixing p r i o r t o
t h e j o b (FREE, FREDERICK & THOMPSON 1975; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 7 . 5 . 3 . ) .

4.3.4.3.1.5. Delayed cross1 inked f ractur ins fluids

vs. dual-viscosity gravel packing fluids
Delayed c r o s s l i n k i n g o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s can t o some e x t e n t be compared
w i t h dual c a r r i e r v i s c o s i t y m o d e l l i n g o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.3.2.2.), a l t h o u g h t h e v i s c o s i t y change t a k e s p l a c e i n r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n i n
t h e l a t t e r system. W h i l e delayed c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s have l o w e r v i s c o -
s i t y a t t h e s u r f a c e and on t h e i r way down t h e t u b u l a r s i n o r d e r t o d i m i n i s h
 440

f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e and achieve h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y p r i o r t o e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e f r a c -
t u r e d r e s e r v o i r i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o suspend and t r a n s p o r t h i g h p r o p p a n t con-
c e n t r a t i o n s as w e l l as t o l i m i t f l u i d l o s s , d u a l - v i s c o s i t y g r a v e l pack f l u i d s
have h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y a t t h e s u r f a c e f o r a m e l i o r a t i n g m i x i n g and pumping o f t h e
s l u r r y and l o w e r v i s c o s i t y downhole i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e necessary h i g h
f l u i d - l o s s r a t e s t o achieve a t i g h t pack.

4.3.4.3.1.6. Mixing of delayed and rapid crosslinking agents

S p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e m i x i n g o f delayed and r a p i d c r o s s l i n k i n g agents ( Z I -
GRYE, OSBORNE & WESTBROOK 1986; HARRIS, HARMS & NORMAN 1987). As delayed c r o s s -
l i n k i n g agents may n o t produce s u f f i c i e n t c r o s s l i n k e d g e l v i s c o s i t y near t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n s t o t r a n s p o r t proppant, adding o f a r a p i d c r o s s l i n k e r ensures t h a t
t h e f l u i d i n o r near t h e w e l l b o r e has a l s o c r o s s l i n k e d g e l v i s c o s i t y . A n o t h e r
s p e c i a l t y p e o f u t i l i z a t i o n i s i n - s i t u c r o s s l i n k i n g and subsequent g e l a t i o n o f
w a t e r - s o l u b l e polymer s o l u t i o n s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e w e l l b o r e i n o r d e r t o de-
crease r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o w a t e r and t o i n h i b i t w a t e r c o n i n g and channel-
l i n g through n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a t h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y s t r e a k s i n heterogeneous r e -
s e r v o i r s (MODY, McKITRICK & SHAHSAVARI 1988).

Aspects o f delayed c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d systems a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d by CONWAY &

H A R R I S (1382), RUMMO (1982), BARANET & AINLEY (1385), L I & ZHU (1986); CAMERON,
GARONER & VEATCH (1988); CONSTIEN, BRANNON & BANNISTER (1988); HOLDITCH, ROBIN-
SON, ELY & R A H I M (1988) and ROSE ( 1 9 8 8 ) . R h e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s o f c r o s s l i n k e d
f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by PRUDHOMME, ELLIS, CONSTEIN & KNOLL
(1988).

4.3.4.3.2. Cross1 inking sign if icance and performance

C r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s develop h i g h v i s c o s i t i e s t h a t e x h i b i t s e v e r a l advantages
over n o n - c r o s s l i n k e d systems b e i n g e x t r e m e l y good f l u i d l e a k o f f c o n t r o l , y i e l d
o f w i d e r f r a c t u r e s t h a t accept h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , p e r f e c t p r o p p a n t
t r a n s p o r t p r o p e r t i e s , and b e t t e r temperature s t a b i l i t y (PA1 & GARBIS 1983 b ) .
F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t c o n t r o l l e d e a r l y t i m e c r o s s l i n k e r systems gene-
r a l l y p e r f o r m much b e t t e r t h a n delayed c r o s s l i n k e r systems e s p e c i a l l y when t h e
b o t t o m h o l e f l o w i n g temperature o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i s n o t h i g h enough t o
i n i t i a t e t h e c r o s s l i n k i n g r e a c t i o n b e f o r e t h e f l u i d reaches t h e f r a c t u r e , which
would g i v e r i s e t o p r o p p a n t d r o p - o u t r e s u l t i n g i n p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e and screen-
o u t f a i l u r e o f the s t i m u l a t i o n job.

T h e r e f o r e e a r l y t i m e v i s c o s i t y and r e t a i n e d v i s c o s i t y a r e e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t
t o i n s u r e success o f a f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t . Delayed c r o s s l i n k i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y
enhances f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and enables t o i n c r e a s e p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n up t o
20 l b s / g a l f l u i d a t t h e s u r f a c e ( t r a n s l a t i n g t o up t o 7 l b s / f t 2 o r 35 kg/m2 i n
the fracture; SHAH, SMITH & DONALDSON 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 1 . 1 . ) o r even more
o v e r l o n g pumping t i m e s (GREGORCZYK, PAULS, HOLTMYER, CHISHOLM & VENOITTO
1984). Aspects o f f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e l o w e r i n g , screenout r a t e r e d u c t i o n , f r i c -
t i o n p r e s s u r e v s . f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth, f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and p r o p p a n t suspen-
s i o n improvement, and f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e and b r e a k e r a c t i o n a r e b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d
as f o l l o w s .

4.3.4.3.2.1.Friction pressure lower ins

Employing d e l a y e d c r o s s l i n k e r systems a l s o a v o i d s e x c e s s i v e f r i c t i o n p r e s -
s u r e i n t h e t u b u l a r goods which enables r e d u c t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c horsepower
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t and thus p e r m i t s t o l o w e r t h e opera-
t i o n a l c o s t s (SHAH & WATTERS 1386). C o r r e l a t i o n s o f f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e s o f de-
l a y e d c r o s s 1 i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s f r o m l a b o r a t o r y measurements, y a r d t e s t s o r
f i e l d a n n u l a r f l o w s i t u a t i o n s , however, may n o t be a p p l i c a b l e t o f r i c t i o n loss
 441

p r e d i c t i o n f o r f l o w down a l o n g v e r t i c a l t u b i n g s t r i n g (LORD & McGOWEN 1986).

I n p a r t i c u l a r , c o r r e l a t i o n o f l a b o r a t o r y f r i c t i o n d i m i n u t i o n measurements made
w i t h s t i m u l a t i o n g e l s w i t h o r w i t h o u t proppants o v e r p r e d i c t s f r i c t i o n l o s s o f
these f l u i d s when t h e y a r e i n j e c t e d down f i e l d t u b i n g s t r i n g s . Delayed c r o s s l i n -
ked f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d systems g e n e r a l l y e x h i b i t e x c e l l e n t v i s c o u s p r o p e r t i e s i n
t h e crack, good temperature s t a b i l i t y , and p r a c t i c a l l y no i n c r e a s e i n t u r b u l e n t
f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e o v e r base g e l (SHAH & WATTERS 1986).

The v i s c o s i t y o b t a i n e d f r o m c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y reduced by
t i m e and i n t e n s i t y o f shear t o w h i c h t h e f l u i d i s exposed, and p r e h e a t i n g o f
f l u i d s f o r t h e purpose o f t u b i n g c o n t r a c t i o n m i n i m i z a t i o n i n c r e a s e s c r o s s l i n k -
i n g r a t e and shear d e g r a d a t i o n o f f l u i d v i s c o s i t y (McMECHAN & CONWAY 1983). De-
layed crosslinked f l u i d s w i t h c o n t r o l l a b l e c r o s s l i n k i n g time are n o t subjected
t o t h e h i g h shear c o n d i t i o n s f o u n d i n t h e t u b u l a r goods, and t h e r h e o l o g y i s
much more i n s e n s i t i v e t o t r e a t i n g f l u i d temperature (CONWAY & H A R R I S 1982). The
use o f temperature-delayed c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s r e s u l t s i n l o w e r and more c o n s i s -
t e n t f r i c t i o n pressures w i t h respect t o conventional organometallic c r o s s l i n -
k e r s and base l i n e a r - g e l l e d f l u i d s , and an e x c e l l e n t f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e t o l e -
rance and compensation range even l e a d s t o absence o r n e g l i g i b i l i t y o f f r i c t i o n
p r e s s u r e r i s e upon a d d i t i o n o f proppants up t o c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
(WALSER 1985).

4.3.4.3.2.2. Screenout r a t e reduct i o n

The much improved p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t c o n d i t i o n s a r e u n d e r l i n e d by s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y reduced screenout r a t e s (SHAH & WATTERS 1986). H i g h e r average p r o p p a n t
s a t u r a t i o n s a l l o w more proppant t o be p l a c e d downhole w i t h l e s s f l u i d which
opens way f o r t o h y d r a u l i c horsepower d i m i n u t i o n , t r e a t m e n t f l u i d r e q u i r e m e n t s
r e d u c t i o n , and polymer l o a d i n g l o w e r i n g , w i t h a l l o f these e f f e c t s g i v i n g r i s e
t o s i g n i f i c a n t s a v i n g s o f s t i m u l a t i o n expenses. As a consequence o f v e r y e f f e c -
t i v e p r o p p a n t suspension, p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e somewhat i n d e -
pendent o f depth, b o t t o m h o l e s t a t i c temperature and pumping t i m e . HOLDITCH, RO-
BINSON & ELY (1988) comment on t h e e f f e c t o f v i s c o u s f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s on excess
f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e s d u r i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s . WOODROOF & ANDERSON
(1977) d i s c u s s f r i c t i o n r e d u c e r s i n a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n s and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
p r o v o k i n g f o r m a t i o n damage. Aspects o f f r i c t i o n l o s s d i m i n u t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s -
sed by OUSTERHOUT & HALL (1961); PRUITT, SIMMONS, NEILL & CRAWFORD (1965) and
SUTTON ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

4.3.4.3.2.3. F r i c t i o n pressure vs . f r a c t u r e height growth

Higher s l u r r y v i s c o s i t i e s r e s u l t i n g from high proppant concentrations w i l l
s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e t h e f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e i n t h e f r a c t u r e t o t h e p o i n t where
i t may c o m p l e t e l y dominate t h e excess p r e s s u r e e s p e c i a l l y when narrower c r a c k s
a r e b e i n g c r e a t e d (HOLDITCH, ROBINSON, ELY & R A H I M 1988). As a r e s u l t o f h i g h e r
f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e s i n t h e f r a c t u r e , u n c o n t a i n e d h e i g h t growth can o c c u r even
when t h e excess p r e s s u r e i s r a p i d l y r i s i n g . I n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e and t h u s s t r e s s
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a r e s e r v o i r away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e due t o p a r t i a l d e p l e t i o n g i -
ves way t o i n c r e a s i n g s t r e s s a t t h e c r a c k t i p as t h e f r a c t u r e propagates. Oe-
l a y e d c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d systems e x h i b i t v e r y complex non-Newtonian b e h a v i o u r
due t o i n s i g n i f i c a n c e o f shear d e g r a d a t i o n , r e t a i n m e n t o f much h i g h e r v i s c o s i -
ty, and t r a n s p o r t o f much h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s than w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l
c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s . The v i s c o s i t i e s o f delayed c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d systems a r e con-
s t a n t l y changing w i t h t i m e and temperature w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.3.4.3.1.2.) and t h e f r i c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r due t o grea-
t e r proppant s a t u r a t i o n s which i s i n c o n t r a s t t o c o n v e n t i o n a l c r o s s l i n k e d
f l u i d s where b y t h e t i m e t h e y r e a c h t h e f r a c t u r e , f l u i d v i s c o s i t y has a l r e a d y
been c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced by shear d e g r a d a t i o n and does n o t change much d u r i n g
the treatment.
 442

As the downhole v i s c o s i t i e s of delayed crosslinked f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e

much l a r g e r t h a n those of conventionally crosslinked ones, they can c a r r y much
higher proppant s a t u r a t i o n s which leads t o again increasing v i s c o s i t y , and be-
cause proppant concentrations a r e v ar i ab l e within the f r a c t u r e in most cases
( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 6 . ) , s l u r r y v i s c o s i t i e s and f r i c t i o n pressure gra die nts
a r e a l s o v a r i a b le in the crack. Another influence on f r i c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s of the
f r a c t u r i n g gel i s wall s l i p . I n case of higher proppant s a t u r a t i o n s pumped i n t o
narrow c r a c k s, s l u r r y v i s c o s i t y and r e s u l t i n g f r i c t i o n pressure inc re a se consi-
derably and a r e ser i o u s l y a f f e c t i n g the excess pressure. Under such c onditions,
f r a c t u r e height i s no longer being contained, b u t height i s growing a t a much
f a s t e r r a t e t h a n length towards the end of the treatment, w i t h the inc re a se in
height extension being caused by the r a p i d increase in excess pressure which i s
dominated by the f r i c t i o n in the system.

4.3.4.3.2.4. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and proppant suspension improvement

Since the inception of massive hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . se c tion 1 . 1 . 1 . )
where the l a r g e cracks ar e supported by multiple proppant l a y e r s , v i s c o s i t i e s
s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of water a re required f o r the stim ula tion
f l u i d s ( O L S E N & D E B O N I S 1988). As p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g ve loc ity i s inve rse ly pro-
portional t o c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , the more viscous the f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d ,
the f a r t h e r the p r o p p a n t can be transported i n t o the crack without s e t t l i n g o u t
of the c a r r i e r ( c f . s ect i o n 4 . 1 2 . 2 . ) . Viscous f l u i d s need more energy f o r mo-
ving through a f r a c t u r e than t h i n f l u i d s , and the a dditiona l energy i n form of
pressure i s applied a g a i n s t the crack wal l s , thereby causing the f r a c t u r e t o wi-
den which enables placement of more proppants within the crack i n order t o ob-
t a i n the d e s i r e d multiple l a y e r s . While too low f l u i d v i s c o s i t y i s n o t benefi-
c i a l , a l s o too h i g h v i s c o s i t y can be d et rim e nta l. Increased f l u i d v i s c o s i t y
tends t o increase the pressure in the f r a c t u r e which i s r e l a t e d t o crack
h e i g h t , with increasing f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and f r a c t u r e pressure increasing the
danger of uncontrolled height propagation ( c f . se c tion 4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) .

I f f r a c t u r e height g r e a t l y exceeds prospective inte rva l thic kne ss, the stimu-
l a t i o n treatment l o s es e f f e c t i v e n e s s by wasting f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d a n d proppant
upon unproductive rock. P r o p p a n t embedment in gel f i l t e r cakes i s a s i g n i f i c a n t
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o proppant conductivity damage, with higher gel loadings causing
g r e a t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n than lower gel s a t u r a t i o n s ( c f . se c tions
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 5 . a n d 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 . 4 . ) . I t i s t h er ef o re necessary t o e s t a b l i s h a balance
between too l i t t l e a n d too much v i s c o s i t y t o optimize proppant placement in the
crack, w i t h the design goal being minimum v i s c o s i t y a n d f l u i d - l o s s control f o r
accurate proppant i n s t a l l a t i o n .

F l u i d s which ar e conventionally cr o s s l i n k ed a t the surfa c e lose a percentage

of the i n i t i a l p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t capacity when being forced t h r o u g h a lim ite d
number of p e r f o r at i o n s a t high i n j e c t i o n r a t e s p a r t i c u l a r l y during limited-en-
t r y f r a c t u r i n g (EASON 1985; c f . s ect i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) . Delayed c rosslinking taking
place i n the formation a f t e r passage through the pe rfora tions keeps f l u i d degra-
d a t i o n t o a minimum, a n d preserves proppant suspension and move p r o p e r t i e s .

4.3.4.3.2.5. Fracture closure and breaker a c t i o n

I n low-temperature r e s e r v o i r s , the use of a mixture of delayed c r o s s l i n k e r
and rapid c r o s s l i n k e r reduces the v i s c o s i t y increase a t e le va te d temperatures
obtained w i t h a delayed c r o s s l i n k e r only (ALMOND & GARVIN 1985; c f . se c tion
4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . 1 . 6 . ) . Optimization of the polymer-crosslinker i n t e r a c t i o n can dimi-
nuish the amount of base polymer required t o achieve a s p e c i f i c v i s c o s i t y and
thus considerably decrease the c o s t of g e l l i n g . Rheological diffe re nc e s between
various types of cr o s s l i n k ed f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e a l s o inve stiga te d by GARDNER
& EIKERTS (1982, 1983), C R A I G I E (1983) ; LESCARBOURA, SIFFERMAN & WAHL (1984) ;
ROGERS, VEATCH & NOLTE (1984); GUILLOT & D U N A N D (1985), K N O L L (1985) and SHAH &
 443

WATTERS ( 1 9 8 6 ) . F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e w i t h delayed c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s i s r e p o r t e d by
PEARSON, LYNCH, SCHMIDT & McCASLIN ( 1 9 8 8 ) . D e s p i t e c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s made
i n r e c e n t years, r h e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s
remains a d i f f i c u l t and e l u s i v e c h a l l e n g e (VEATCH & M O S C H O V I D I S 1986).

I n case o f l a r g e t r e a t m e n t s and e f f i c i e n t f l u i d s , f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e would n o t

occur f o r s e v e r a l hours which would a l l o w ample t i m e f o r complete p r o p p a n t s e t t -
l i n g i n water-based low- t o m o d e r a t e - v i s c o s i t y g e l s (HANNAH, HARRINGTON & POT-
TER 1980). C r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g g e l s , however, can r e t a i n t h e a b i l i t y t o sup-
p o r t proppants f o r s e v e r a l hours a t e l e v a t e d temperatures u n l e s s t h e i r h i g h e r
v i s c o s i t y i s degraded t o some c r i t i c a l p o i n t due t o t h e a c t i o n o f b r e a k e r s o r
a b s o l u t e thermal d e g r a d a t i o n . O x i d i z i n g b r e a k i n g agents a f f e c t b o t h p r o p p a n t
s u p p o r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and f l u i d loss p r o p e r t i e s o f c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s . I f brea-
k e r a c t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduces t h e t i m e d u r i n g which p e r f e c t proppant s u p p o r t
i s p r e s e n t and f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e i s r e t a r d e d , then i m p e r f e c t p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u -
t i o n w i l l r e s u l t and t h e o v e r a l l performance may be no b e t t e r t h a n i f a s i m p l e
g e l were used ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.1.1.).

On t h e o t h e r hand, i f b r e a k e r a c t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e s f l u i d l o s s du-
r i n g c l o s u r e , then f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e t i m e may be reduced and may a s s i s t i n t r a p -
p i n g proppants between t h e c r a c k w a l l s i n a f a v o u r a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n . I n some ca-
ses, t h e a d d i t i o n o f b r e a k e r s d e s t r o y s w a l l l e a k o f f c o n t r o l and t r a n s f o r m s i t
i n t o v i s c o s i t y c o n t r o l . Base g e l v i s c o s i t y d i c t a t e s performance o f c r o s s l i n k e d
fluids, and p a r t i a l l y broken g e l s p e r f o r m s l i g h t l y p o o r e r t h a n would be expec-
t e d due t o t h e i r base g e l v i s c o s i t y (CONWAY & HARRIS 1982).

4.3.4.3.3. Improvement o f proppant placement

FREEMAN, EILDEN & H O S S A I N I (1986) document t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f delayed foamed
c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s which a l l o w t h e placement o f much h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s i n t h e f r a c t u r e t h a n w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o i n s e r t w i t h foamed l i n e a r g e l s
as a consequence of extended fluid-loss properties. The enhanced
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f foamed delayed c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s even a l l o w r e d u c t i o n i n foam
q u a l i t y i n c o n s i d e r a b l e magnitude w i t h o u t d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s on p r o p p a n t
t r a n s p o r t c a p a b i l i t y . The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s i n c l u d e s some aspects o f p r o p -
p a n t t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y and f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s as w e l l as f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a -
t i o n vs. f l u i d c r o s s l i n k i n g .

4.3.4.3.3.1. Proppant transport capacity and f l u i d - loss a d d i t i v e

Comparative assessment has shown t h a t s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s m a t e r i a l s which have
t o be i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h foamed l i n e a r g e l s and r e s u l t i n p r o d u c t i v i t y i m p a i r -
ment due t o t h e damage caused by these a d d i t i v e s a r e n o t necessary t o be ap-
p l i e d w i t h delayed c r o s s l i n k e d foams because o f t h e h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y o f t h e l a t -
t e r (FREEMAN, BILDEN & H O S S A I N I 1986). The g r e a t e r v i s c o s i t y o f t h e foamed
c r o s s l i n k e d g e l a l s o reduces p r o p p a n t f a l l r a t e up t o almost z e r o p r o p p a n t s e t t -
l i n g i n i d e a l cases, t h e r e b y n o t o n l y i m p r o v i n g proppant s a t u r a t i o n which can
be s u c c e s s f u l l y placed, b u t a l s o p e r m i t t i n g a delayed s t a r t o f l o a d r e c o v e r y
a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l y decreases t h e r i s k o f proppant flowback
by a l l o w i n g s u f f i c i e n t f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e r e s t r a i n i n g t h e p r o p p a n t package ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 4.12.2.3. and 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) . R h e o l o g i c a l aspects o f foamed c r o s s l i n k e d
f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by REIDENBACH, HARRIS, LEE & LORD (1983);
WATKINS, WENDORFF & AINLEY (1983); H A R R I S & REIDENBACH (1984); ROYCE, BECK &
RICKARDS (1984) and CRAIGHEAD, H O S S A I N I & FREEMAN ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

C r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i n c r e a s e f r i c t i o n drop t h r o u g h t u b i n g w h i c h i s
f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d b y t h e presence o f proppants due t o a b r a s i o n (PAI, GARBIS &
HALL 1983). Employment o f delayed c r o s s l i n k e r s which p r e v e n t c r o s s l i n k i n g o f
f l u i d u n t i l i t reaches t u b i n g b o t t o m lowers t h e t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e and enables
t o save c o n s i d e r a b l e expenses o f horsepower, as w e l l as t o make t h e e n t i r e ope-
 444

r a t i o n s a f e r and more e f f i c i e n t by n o t o v e r l o a d i n g t h e equipment ( c f . s e c t i o n

4.3.4.3.1.). While c r o s s l i n k i n g o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s g e n e r a l l y aids i n l e a k o f f
c o n t r o l and combats p o t e n t i a l s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e , proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a
n o n - c r o s s l i n k e d g e l l e d f l u i d i s more e f f e c t i v e when i n c r e a s e d r a t e s a r e used t o
promote p r o p p a n t suspension because o f i n c r e a s e d f l u i d v e l o c i t y .

4.3.4.3.3.2. Fracture penetration vs. fluid crosslinking

F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t c r o s s l i n k e d g e l l e d 2 % KC1 w a t e r i s more
e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e proppants t h r o u g h o u t t h e f r a c t u r e , whereas t h e non-
c r o s s l i n k e d g e l l e d 2 % KC1 w a t e r l e a v e s a l a r g e r amount o f p r o p p a n t s n e a r t h e
w e l l b o r e , w i t h t h i s e f f e c t b e i n g t h e consequence o f t h e b e t t e r t r a n s p o r t i n g cha-
r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c r o s s l i n k e d system. N o n - c r o s s l i n k e d g e l l e d f l u i d s p r o v i d e a
deeper p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e propped f r a c t u r e due t o narrower c r a c k w i d t h w i t h r e -
s p e c t t o c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s , b u t on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e more u n i f o r m l y packed
f r a c t u r e c r e a t e d by c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be more i m p o r t a n t i n
s u s t a i n i n g p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s o v e r t h e l i f e o f these w e l l s than t h e l e s s u n i f o r m
deeper p e n e t r a t i n g f r a c t u r e s generated by n o n - c r o s s l i n k e d systems.

Delayed c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s a l l o w h i g h e r pumping r a t e s as w e l l as t r a n s p o r t and

placement o f h i g h e r p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r r a t e s o f
s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e (KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988 r e p o r t examples o f s u c c e s s f u l pumping
o f sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n s up t o 12 l b s / g a l i n t o r e s e r v o i r s where s a t u r a t i o n s up t o
3 l b s / g a l i n conventional f l u i d s l e d formerly t o screenout t e r m i n a t i o n ) . Other
measures t o a v o i d screenout f i n i s h i n g a r e d e s i g n i n g o f optimum l a r g e pad v o l u -
mes ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . 1 . 4 . ) .

4.3.4.3.4,Enhanced fluid stability and transport capacity

The main advantages o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s as com-
pared t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f n o n - c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s a r e e x t r e m e l y good l e a k -
o f f c o n t r o l , y i e l d o f w i d e r f r a c t u r e s which accept h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s , p e r f e c t proppant t r a n s p o r t p r o p e r t i e s , and enhanced temperature s t a b i l i -
t y (PA1 & G A R B I S 1983). A p a r t f r o m n e u t r a l f l u i d s , a l s o a c i d s can be g e l l e d and
c r o s s l i n k e d ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . 2 . ) which c o n s i d e r a b l y broadens t h e a p p l i c a -
t i o n spectrum o f these a g g r e s s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s . The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s
p r e s e n t s some aspects o f a c i d g e l l i n g and c r o s s l i n k i n g , r h e o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s
o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d stages, and impact o f shear d u r i n g m i x i n g and pumping.

4.3.4.3.4.1. Acid gelling and crosslinking

A p a r t f r o m more o r l e s s n e u t r a l w a t e r - o r polymer-based f l u i d s , a l s o a c i d
can be g e l l e d and c r o s s l i n k e d i n b o t h c o n v e n t i o n a l and delayed f o r m (PABLEY &
HOLCOMB 1980, 1981, 1982; CHURCH, QUISENBERRY & FOX 1981; PABLEY, EWING & CALLA-
WAY 1982; McLANE & SCOTT 1983; SMITH, DAWSON & SCOGGINS 1983; JOHNSON, FOX,
BURNS & O'MARA 1988; FOX, O'MARA, BURNS & JOHNSON 1989). Some aspects o f v i s c o -
s i t y and temperature s t a b i l i t y as w e l l as l o w - c o n c e n t r a t i o n a c i d as f r a c t u r i n g
base f l u i d a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.3.4.3.4.1.1.Viscosity and temperature stability

As c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d systems a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h s t r e n g t h , e l e v a t e d tem-
p e r a t u r e s t a b i l i t y and c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y , t h e y a r e an op-
timum t o o l f o r c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c i d and proppant f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4.5.4.2. and 4 . 8 . 1 0 . ) and t h e r e f o r e compete w i t h polymer- o r water-based more
o r l e s s n e u t r a l c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s , foam and e n e r g i z e d f l u i d s , and e m u l s i f i e d
a c i d s . Delayed c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d systems have v e r y h i g h r e d u c t i o n i n t u b u l a r
f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e and l e a v e no i n s o l u b l e r e s i d u e , because once t h e f l u i d i s i n
 445

t h e f r a c t u r e and t h e a c i d i s spent, t h e polymer i n v e r t s f r o m m i l d l y c a t i o n i c t o

a n i o n i c thus becoming a b r i n e - s o l u b l e polymer which does n o t p r e c i p i t a t e even
when becoming c o m p l e t e l y n e u t r a l i z e d i n t h e presence o f c a l c i u m i o n s .

The low pH o f a c i d g e l systems m i n i m i z e s c l a y damage o f t h e f o r m a t i o n and

thus also permits a p p l i c a t i o n o f crosslinked a c i d f l u i d s t o water-sensitive
sandstone r e s e r v o i r s . V i s c o s i t y s t a b i l i t y reaches i n a c i d s t r e n g t h s up t o 28 %
h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n and up t o 220 OF temperature. F l u i d l o s s con-
t r o l matching o r s u r p a s s i n g t h a t achieved by c r o s s l i n k e d water-based f l u i d s en-
sures deep p e n e t r a t i o n o f l i v e a c i d , and an e x t r e m e l y r e t a r d e d r e a c t i o n r a t e a l -
lows i n many cases t h e c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d t o be p l a c e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n w i t h
l i t t l e o r no decrease i n a c i d s t r e n g t h ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 3.11.3. and
4.5.1.2.).

F i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d g e l systems i s d i s c u s s e d
by COULTER, H A R R I S & KLEBENOW (1980); PABLEY, EWING & CALLAWAY (1982); PABLEY &
HOLCOMB (1982), McLANE & SCOTT (1983) and PA1 & G A R B I S (1983 b ) . MOLON & FOX
(1983) and BAILEY & WICKHAM (1984) o u t l i n e enhancement o f f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n
and p r o d u c t i v i t y by a c i d g e l l i n g . Temperature s t a b i l i t y o f a c i d g e l l i n g p o l y -
mers i s i n v e s t i g a t e d by NORMAN, CONWAY & WILSON (1981) and FOX, O'MARA, BURNS &
JOHNSON ( 1 9 8 9 ) . I n a comparable way as f o r f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s , extended thermal
s t a b i l i t y o f a c i d can be achieved f o r a c i d i z i n g u t i l i z a t i o n , w i t h b u f f e r regu-
l a t i o n o f h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d p e r m i t t i n g sandstone a c i d i z i n g up t o 550 OF (280
oC) r e s e r v o i r temperature (SCHEUERMAN 1988; c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 4 . 5 . 1 . and 4 . 5 . 5 . ) .

4.3.4.3.4.1.2. Low-concentration acid as fracturing base fluid

COULTER, H A R R I S & KLEBENOW (1980) p r e s e n t t h e advantages o f u s i n g low-concen-
t r a t i o n h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d as a base f l u i d f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f some sand-
stone f o r m a t i o n s . A g e l system w i t h l o w - r e s i d u e c r o s s l i n k e d polymer w i t h
3 - 5 % h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d has s u p e r i o r f l u i d - r o c k c o m p a t i b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
and e l i m i n a t e s t h e e a r l i e r problems o f r a p i d d e g r a d a t i o n o f most g e l l i n g agents
w i t h h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d . A c i d g e l l i n g reduces a c i d r e d u c t i o n r a t e and t h e r e f o r e
i n c r e a s e s a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e (BAILEY & WICKHAM 1984). O t h e r methods o f
d e c r e a s i n g a c i d r e a c t i o n r a t e and t h u s enhancing a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e a r e
a d d i t i o n o f chemical r e t a r d i n g agents and a c i d e m u l s i f i c a t i o n i n o i l , as w e l l
as a p p l i c a t i o n o f g e l l e d w a t e r p r e f l u s h e s and u t i l i z a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i n g stages
of crosslinked polymer f l u i d s and a c i d ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 1 . 3 . 2 . 2 . and
4 . 5 . 5 . 3 . ) . Aspects o f r e t a r d a t i o n o f r e a c t i o n r a t e by a c i d g e l l i n g a r e a l s o d i s -
cussed by NIERODE & KRUK (1973); CROWE, MARTIN & MICHAELIS (1981) and JOHNSON,
FOX, BURNS & O'MARA ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.3.4.3.4.2. Rheological differences o f fracturing fluid stages

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s u s u a l l y c o n s i s t o f successive pumping o f
f o u r f l u i d stages w i t h d i f f e r e n t r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s c o m p r i s i n g pre-pad,
pad, p r o p p a n t - l a d e n c a r r i e r and displacement (LEE & OANESHY 1985). R h e o l o g i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s and p r e d o m i n a n t l y v i s c o s i t y o f each f l u i d stage can change s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y due t o temperature changes i n t h e f r a c t u r e and t h e t i m e d u r a t i o n o f expo-
s u r e t o each temperature. Shearing i n a h i g h - s t r e s s environment can d e s t r o y a
g e l a f t e r c r o s s l i n k i n g (GARDNER & EIKERTS 1982, 1983; SHAH & WATTERS 1984;
ROYCE, BECK & RICKARDS 1984), whereas h i g h l e v e l s of shear p r i o r t o c r o s s l i n k -
i n g have l i t t l e e f f e c t on o v e r a l l performance. Overshearing l e a d s t o b r e a k i n g
o f t h e polymer c h a i n t h e r e b y decreasing t h e average m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t which u l t i -
m a t e l y means l o s s o f polymer f u n c t i o n a l i t y (HASHEMI, CAOTHIEN & R O V I G 1 9 8 8 ) .
 446

4.3.4.3.4.3. Impact o f shear during mixing and pumping

The p r o p e r t i e s o f c r o s s l i n k e d p o l y m e r f l u i d s i n h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u -
r e s depend o n i n t e n s i t y and d u r a t i o n o f s h e a r t o w h i c h t h e f l u i d was s u b j e c t e d
w h i l e m i x e d and pumped f r o m t h e s u r f a c e i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e (SHAH & WATTERS
1986), and c o n s e q u e n t l y f r a c t u r e g e o m e t r y and p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e a l s o a f -
f e c t e d . I n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e d r o p i n t u r b u l e n t f l o w i s an i n d i c a t i o n o f c r o s s l i n k -
i n g r e a c t i o n o c c u r r i n g a t a f a s t e r r a t e t h a n s h e a r d e g r a d a t i o n . Time- and
shear-dependent behaviour o f c r o s s l i n k e d polymer f l u i d s i s a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d b y
ROGER, VEATCH & NOLTE ( 1 9 8 1 ) and C R A I G I E ( 1 9 8 3 ) . W i t h r e s p e c t t o p o l y m e r emul-
s i o n f l u i d s , c r o s s l i n k e d g e l l e d w a t e r - b a s e d f l u i d s cause l e s s f o r m a t i o n damage,
c a n c a r r y h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , a r e l e s s f l a m m a b l e and l e s s expen-
s i v e , and have a much f a s t e r l o a d r e c o v e r y t i m e (ROBERTS 1981; c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 3 . 4 . 2 . ) . T e m p e r a t u r e i s g e n e r a l l y a c t i v a t i n g t h e c r o s s l i n k i n g mechanism (GARD-
NER & EIKERTS 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) . Viscosity loss o f the c a r r i e r
s t a g e due t o t i m e and t e m p e r a t u r e c a n g i v e r i s e t o i n a b i l i t y o f f u r t h e r suspend-
i n g t h e proppants, w i t h s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h i s f l u i d stage being a b l e by replace-
ment b y a t w o - s t a g e g e l l e d f l u i d where t h e second g e l l i n g a g e n t i s a c t i v a t e d a t
higher temperature ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4.3.4.4.3.).

As c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e s h e a r - h i s t o r y d e p e n d e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.3.4.2.1.), t h e y do n o t p o s s e s s u n i q u e r h e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (CONWAY &
H A R R I S 1 9 8 2 ) . The r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e a d d i t i o n a l l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e va-
r i a b l e c o n d i t i o n s e n c o u n t e r e d d u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t such as t u b i n g s i z e , pumping
r a t e , s u r f a c e f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e and p i p e r e s i d e n c e t i m e .

4.3.4.4. Fluid heat capacity and reservoir temperature

Heat t r a n s f e r d u r i n g f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n takes p l a c e by c o n v e c t i o n along
t h e f r a c t u r e combined w i t h c o n d u c t i o n and c o n v e c t i o n i n t h e r e s e r v o i r (BEN NA-
CEUR & STEPHENSON 1 9 8 5 ) . H e a t t r a n s f e r mechanisms p l a y a c r u c i a l r o l e i n deep
w e l l f r a c t u r i n g e s p e c i a l l y when f l u i d s w i t h h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e dependency l i k e
c r o s s l i n k e d p o l y m e r s o r foams a r e u s e d . I n a d d i t i o n t o c o n d u c t i o n and c o n v e c -
t i o n , a l s o d i f f u s i o n b y t h e r m a l exchanges and m e c h a n i c a l l e a k o f f t a k e p l a c e i n
r e s e r v o i r r o c k s a d j a c e n t t o t h e f r a c t u r e . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l
a s p e c t s , an o v e r v i e w i s g i v e n o n h e a t b l o c k a g e and f o r m a t i o n c o o l i n g , p r i m a r y
and s e c o n d a r y g e l l a n t s , and f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y improvement.

4.3.4.4.1. General aspects

The i n f l u e n c e o f h e a t t r a n s f e r i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t
p r o p e r t i e s due t o v i s c o s i t y v a r i a t i o n s , as w e l l as f o r f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e ana-
l y s i s . A t low f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y , f l u i d temperature i n t h e crack remains c l o s e t o
i n j e c t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e , whereas w i t h i n c r e a s i n g e f f i c i e n c y , t h e temperature
a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e t e n d s e x p o n e n t i a l l y t o t h e r e s e r v o i r t e m p e r a t u r e (VEATCH
1 9 8 3 ) . A s p e c t s o f h e a t t r a n s f e r i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e
p r o f i l e s i n t h e c r a c k d u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y WHEELER
( 1 9 6 9 ) , WHITSITT & DYSART ( 1 9 7 0 ) , SINCLAIR ( 1 9 7 1 ) ; CLARK, CLOUD, WAREMBOURG &
YUNKO ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; HARRINGTON, HANNAH & BEIRUTE ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; CROCKETT, V O & CLEARY ( 1 9 8 4 )
and POULSEN & LEE (1984; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 5 . 1 . ) . V a r i a t i o n a l t e m p e r a t u r e
a n a l y s i s i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t b y BIOT, MASSE & MEDLIN ( 1 9 8 4 ) .
MOODY ( 1 9 8 8 ) comments on t h e r m a l d i s p l a c e m e n t i n f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n s . The o u t -
l i n e as f o l l o w s f o c u s s e s on t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s i t i v i t y o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i -
t y as w e l l as t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e between f o r m a t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s .
 447

4.3.4.4.1.1. Temperature sensitivity

of fracturing fluid viscosity
R e s e r v o i r temperature and h e a t t r a n s f e r e f f e c t s have an i m p o r t a n t impact on
f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and t h u s a l s o p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and suspension capa-
b i l i t y (SINCLAIR 1971), p a r t i c u l a r l y i n w e l l s w i t h bottomhole temperatures be-
yond 200 OF. F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y i s h i g h l y t e m p e r a t u r e - s e n s i t i v e . Gel de-
g r a d a t i o n a t h i g h temperature t a k e s p r e d o m i n a n t l y p l a c e by h y d r o l y s i s and o x i d a -
t i o n (CONWAY & HARRIS 1982). When t h e pH i s h e l d i n t h e optimum range, t h e r a t e
o f polymer d e g r a d a t i o n can be slowed down by a d d i t i o n of temperature s t a b i l i -
zers, b u t l i t t l e e f f e c t on i n i t i a l apparent v i s c o s i t y a t temperature i s a c h i e -
ved, and t h e r a t e o f v i s c o s i t y l o s s f o r a c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d w i l l be no l e s s
than t h a t o f an e q u a l l y s t a b i l i z e d base g e l . F l u i d shear h i s t o r y i s t h e m a j o r
f a c t o r d i c t a t i n g v i s c o s i t y enhancement a t h i g h temperatures. C r o s s l i n k i n g t i m e
o f h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e c r o s s l i n k i n g agents c o n t r o l s t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e l a t t e r t o
p r o v i d e v i s c o s i t y enhancement i n t h e f r a c t u r e .

4.3.4.4.1.2. Temperature difference between

format ion and stimulation fluids
The temperature d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c o o l i n j e c t e d s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d and
the hot r e s e r v o i r rock a t the f r a c t u r e w a l l s ( c f . also section 6.2.1.1.) causes
h e a t f l o w f r o m t h e pay zone t o t h e c r a c k . Both c o n d u c t i o n and c o n v e c t i o n o f
h e a t t a k e s p l a c e i n v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s (DYSART & WHITSITT 1967, W H I T S I T T & DY-
SART 1970, PEACEMAN 1976). Heat blockage i s c r e a t e d by c o o l t r a n s p i r i n g c a r r i e r
f l u i d s l e a k i n g o u t o f t h e c r a c k i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n , because a l e a k i n g - o f f f l u i d
moving i n a d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t o t h a t o f t h e c o n d u c t i v e h e a t t r a n s f e r tends t o
i n s u l a t e o r b l o c k t h e f l o w o f h e a t t o t h e f l u i d r e m a i n i n g i n t h e f r a c t u r e . Heat
f l u x i n c l u d e s t h e p r i m a r y e f f e c t s o f c o n v e c t i o n w i t h i n t h e crack, h e a t conduc-
t i o n w i t h i n t h e f l u i d , and h e a t exchange between f l u i d and r e s e r v o i r , and t h e
secondary e f f e c t s o f h e a t c o n d u c t i o n and h e a t g e n e r a t i o n by energy d i s s i p a t i o n
i n t h e f l u i d (CLIFTON & WANG 1988).

4.3.4.4.2. Heat blockage and formation cooling

Conventional water-based g e l s which a r e v e r y e f f e c t i v e c o o l a n t s a r e t y p i f i e d
by low apparent v i s c o s i t i e s and h i g h l e a k o f f r a t e s , w i t h t h u s f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y
b e i n g low, g e n e r a t e d f r a c t u r e s b e i n g narrow and h e a t blockage b e i n g v e r y impor-
t a n t , because w a t e r has a much h i g h e r h e a t c a p a c i t y than o i l . Some aspects o f
f l u i d r h e o l o g y and proppant g r a i n s i z e , enlargement o f pre-pad and pad s i z e ,
and changing temperature and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.3.4.4.2.1. Fluid rheology and proppant grain size

Since h i g h temperatures have d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s on polymers, a d d i t i v e s and
a c i d s , p r e c o o l i n g o f h o t f o r m a t i o n s w i t h w a t e r o r b r i n e ahead o f f r a c t u r i n g
treatments are considerably improving the effectiveness o f the j o b ( c f . section
4.3.4.4.2.2.). Viscous water-based g e l s a r e non-Newtonian f l u i d s t h a t a r e occa-
s i o n a l l y even v i s c o e l a s t i c a l (PAI, G A R B I S & HALL 1983; BEN NACEUR & STEPHENSON
1985). Viscous water-based g e l s e x h i b i t h i g h apparent v i s c o s i t y a t low o r mode-
r a t e shear r a t e s , w i t h these r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s p r o v i d i n g low t u b u l a r f r i c -
t i o n l o s s , h i g h f r a c t u r e f r i c t i o n d i m i n u t i o n , low f l u i d l e a k o f f and good p r o p -
p a n t - c a r r y i n g a b i l i t y , w i t h v i s c o u s water-based g e l s t h u s g e n e r a t i n g wide f r a c -
t u r e s and a l l o w i n g u t i l i z a t i o n o f coarse proppants f o r p l u g g i n g o f t h e cracks,
and a t t h e same t i m e h a v i n g t h e h i g h h e a t c a p a c i t y o f w a t e r . Viscous w a t e r - i n -
o i l d i s p e r s i o n s w i t h v e r y v i s c o u s o i l s p e r m i t t h e r o u t i n e use o f coarse 8/12
mesh proppants i n o i l - w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n and h e l p t o c r e a t e wide f r a c t u r e s (MATT-
HEWS 1969; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 5 . ) . Heat blockage by s u i t a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s i s
 448

an e f f e c t i v e means t o improve c r a c k performance, because when h e a t blockage oc-

c u r s , f r a c t u r e s a r e w i d e r i n t h e e a r l y stages o f t h e t r e a t m e n t and have g r e a t e r
volumes, and t h e need f o r f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s t h a t c o u l d damage r e s e r v o i r f o r -
m a t i o n and p r o p p a n t package i s reduced o r even c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e d .

Wider f r a c t u r e s which a r e f a v o u r e d by e f f e c t i v e h e a t blockage a l l o w t h e use

o f c o a r s e r proppants and p e r m i t t o s t a r t p r o p p a n t i n j e c t i o n much e a r l i e r t h a n
usual d u r i n g course o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t , l e a d i n g t o a b e t t e r p r o p p a n t
f i l l - u p o f t h e f r a c t u r e and e n a b l i n g a b e t t e r p r o p p a n t schedule f o r p l u g g i n g o f
t h e c r a c k . S u b s t a n t i a l a m e l i o r a t i o n s o f f r a c t u r e geometry and d e s i g n a r e t h e
consequence o f t h e importance o f h e a t blockage, g i v i n g r i s e t o i n c r e a s i n g p r o p -
p a n t volumes, e a r l i e r b e g i n n i n g o f p r o p p a n t i n s e r t i o n i n t h e j o b program, reduc-
t i o n o r t o t a l e l i m i n a t i o n o f f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s , and e x t e n s i o n o f t h e upper
temperature l i m i t o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d . The o v e r a l l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e f f e c -
t i v e h e a t blockage o f t h e c a r r i e r i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f w i d e r f r a c t u r e s and t h e
p u s s i b i l i t y o f p l u g g i n g o f t h e c r a c k s w i t h h i g h e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and
c o a r s e r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s , t h e r e b y m a x i m i z i n g f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 3 . 5 . ) . Aspects o f impact o f f o r m a t i o n temperature on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g d e s i g n and h e a t t r a n s f e r i n c r a c k s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by HILL & WAHL
(1968) and WHEELER (1969; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 5 . 1 . ) .

4.3.4.4.2.2. Enlargement of pre-pad and pad size

F o r m a t i o n c o o l i n g by a pre-pad o f a b t . 100,000 g a l o f n o n - c r o s s l i n k e d p o l y -
mer f l u i d has t h e purpose o f slowing-down v i s c o s i t y l o s s i n t h e f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d and has t h e a d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i l t e r cake on t h e c r a c k
w a l l i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d l e a k o f f which m i g h t r e s u l t i n prema-
t u r e screenout t e r m i n a t i o n (PA1 1982; P A I , G A R B I S & HALL 1983). D u r i n g pre-pad
pumping, r a t e s s h o u l d be maximized i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a l r e a d y t h e t o t a l f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t w i t h t h e pre-pad and pad f l u i d s i n s t e a d o f t h e expensive polymer
c a r r i e r f l u i d . F o r m a t i o n c o o l i n g by pumping o f l a r g e f l u i d volumes i s p a r t i c u -
l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e r e s e r v o i r s t o guarantee extended s t a b i l i -
t y o f c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s (GRONE, BAUMGARTNER & WOODROOF 1983; c f .
section 4.7.4.2.).

PA1 & G A R B I S (1983 b ) p r e s e n t a pre-pad system c o n s i s t i n g o f g e l l e d weak hy-

d r o c h l o r i c a c i d and carbon d i o x i d e c o n t a i n i n g s u r f a c t a n t s and c l a y s t a b i l i z e r
i n o r d e r t o c o o l down t h e f o r m a t i o n t o m i n i m i z e v i s c o s i t y l o s s i n p r o p p a n t - l a -
den f l u i d , c o n d i t i o n t h e r e s e r v o i r by c r e a t i n g a low-pH environment t o m i n i m i z e
c l a y s w e l l i n g and s l o u g h i n g , e s t a b l i s h a f i l t e r cake on t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e and
m i n i m i z e l e a k o f f o f c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s t h u s r e d u c i n g s c r e e n o u t tendency, and de-
crease c l e a n - u p t i m e by carbon d i o x i d e a d d i t i o n . Aspects o f cooldown pad pump-
i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by SNOW & HOUGH ( 1 9 8 8 ) . The f o l l o w i n g o v e r v i e w c h a r a c t e -
r i z e s r e s e r v o i r c o o l i n g and f l u i d s a t u r a t i o n as t h e two main purposes o f pad en-
largement and comments on some m u l t i p l e pad schedules.

4.3.4.4.2.2.1.Reservoir cooling and fluid saturation

S i m i l a r enlargement o f pre-pad and pad stage s i z e s as a p p l y i n g f o r r e s e r v o i r
c o o l i n g can be performed f o r f l u i d s a t u r a t i o n o f t h e pay zone complex and d i m i -
n u t i o n o f f l u i d l o s s . Proper s i z i n g o f t h e pad pumped ahead o f t h e p r o p p a n t c a r -
r i e r f l u i d i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n o r d e r t o keep t h e p r o p p a n t s l u r r y away f r o m t h e
f r a c t u r e t i p r e g i o n and t h u s a v o i d i n g t i p screenout f a i l u r e (LEE 1987; c f . sec-
t i o n s 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 5 . and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . W h i l e continuous-mix b l e n d i n g f r a c t u r i n g ope-
r a t e s w i t h lower p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , batch-mix f r a c t u r i n g a i m i n g on p l a c e -
ment o f h i g h e r proppant s a t u r a t i o n s commonly i s c a r r i e d o u t w i t h l a r g e p e r c e n t a -
ges o f t r e a t m e n t volume c o n s i s t i n g o f pad f l u i d ( u p t o 60 - 80 % o f t h e whole
j o b ) i n s u r i n g l e a k o f f c o n t r o l and s u f f i c i e n t f r a c t u r e w i d t h f o r passage o f t h e
c o n c e n t r a t e d p r o p p a n t s l u r r y (CRAMER & SONGER 1988; TAN, McGOWEN, LEE & SOLIMAN
1988; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.3.5.3. and 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . 1 . 4 . ) .
 449

4.3.4.4.2.2.2. Mu1 t iple pad schedules

WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, CIPOLLA, LORENZ & THORNE (1988) r e p o r t a spe-
c i a l case where t h r e e d i f f e r e n t pads were s u c c e s s i v e l y pumped i n c l u d i n g an i n i -
t i a l foamed-water/breaker spearhead, a m i d d l e normal foam pad, and a t e r m i n a l
pad w i t h 100 mesh sand f o r f l u i d l e a k o f f c o n t r o l ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.11.2.1. and
4.8.8.3.2.3.) p r i o r t o t h e p r o p p a n t - l a d e n f l u i d stages. HOLOITCH, ROBINSON,
WHITEHEAD & ELY (1988) p r e s e n t an example o f v e r y low f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y o f o n l y
20 % which has t o be compensated by a l a r g e pre-pad and a 50 % v i s c o u s pad, be-
cause w i t h o u t s u c c e s s f u l l y c o n t r o l l i n g t h e l a r g e amount o f l e a k o f f , l a r g e hy-
d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r e j o b s c a n n o t be pumped due t o r a p i d d e h y d r a t i o n screen-
o u t t e r m i n a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.2.3. and 6.2.4.2.1.). I n a d d i t i o n t o consi-
d e r a b l y e n l a r g e d pre-pad and pad, e x t r a volumes o f l i q u i d and s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s
a d d i t i v e s have t o be used f o r l e a k o f f m i n i m i z a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.4.6. and
4.8.8.3.).

4.3.4.4.2.3. Changing temperature and fluid viscosity

As a consequence o f temperature d i f f e r e n c e s between s u r f a c e and f o r m a t i o n ,
s i g n i f i c a n t r e s e r v o i r and s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d cooldown o c c u r s a c r o s s a p o r t i o n o f
t h e f r a c t u r e (OLSEN & DEBONIS 1988). As many t r e a t m e n t s a r e designed f o r a
worst-case temperature w i t h a t most two f l u i d s o f d i f f e r e n t v i s c o s i t y t o compen-
s a t e f o r f l u i d temperature v a r i a n c e , t h e r e s u l t i s a f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d w i t h v a r y -
i n g v i s c o s i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e c r a c k . O n - s i t e m i c r o p r o c e s s o r c o n t r o l ( c f . sec-
t i o n s 4.3.3.5.3. and 6.2.4.3.) and a c c u r a t e continuous-mix g e l l i n g equipment a l -
lows t o v a r y g e l l o a d i n g i n o r d e r t o compensate f o r t i m e and temperature e f -
f e c t s t h u s y i e l d i n g a s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d w i t h a more c o n s i s t e n t downhole v i s c o s i -
t y w h i l e u s i n g l e s s g e l l i n g agent.

Most f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s undergo c o n s i d e r a b l e temperature changes d u r i n g a s t i -

m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n due t o e l e v a t e d r e s e r v o i r temperatures, and v i s c o s i t y a l s o
changes, because a l l modern v i s c o s i f i e d f l u i d s a r e non-Newtonian i n n a t u r e
where v i s c o s i t y i s n o t c o n s t a n t b u t i s a f u n c t i o n o f shear r a t e . D e t e r m i n a t i o n
o f f l u i d r h e o l o g y t h r o u g h o u t t h e c r a c k t h u s r e q u i r e s knowledge o f t h e tempera-
t u r e p r o f i l e i n t h e f r a c t u r e . I n l a r g e t r e a t m e n t s , temperature and t h u s f l u i d
v i s c o s i t y v a r i a t i o n s c o u l d be compensated t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t by b a t c h m i x i n g
o f s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t polymer l o a d i n g s . Continuous m i x i n g , however, a l l o w s accu-
r a t e t a i l o r i n g o f polymer l o a d i n g t o meet t h e t i m e and temperature c o n d i t i o n s
t o which i t w i l l u l t i m a t e l y be exposed ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.3.5.3.).

Ramped v i s c o s i t y procedures by c o n t i n u o u s m i x i n g b e n e f i t f r o m c o s t s a v i n g by
reduced polymer l o a d i n g and improved f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y by l e s s p r o p p a n t
package damage due t o d i m i n i s h e d polymer l o a d i n g s , w i t h t h e l o w e r g e l c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n a l s o r e q u i r i n g l e s s b r e a k e r near t h e w e l l b o r e . Ramped polymer l o a d i n g p r o -
cedures, however, can o n l y compensate t h e maximum t i m e and temperature which a
f l u i d experiences, w i t h c o n s t a n t v i s c o s i t y b e i n g achieved o n l y u n t i l n e a r t h e
end o f t h e o p e r a t i o n . H i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e s
v i s c o s i t y s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d (THOMAS & ROOT 1979; c f . sec-
t i o n 4.7.4.2.).

4.3.4.4.3. Primary and secondary gellants

PAULS, VENOITTO, CHISHOLM, HOLTMYER & GREGORCZYK (1985) comment on m i x i n g
problems o f f l u i d s and proppants when h i g h sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n s s h o u l d be p l a c e d
i n t o high-temperature reservoirs. Oil-based f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s are t r a d i t i o n a l l y
g e l l e d by b a t c h m i x i n g a t t h e s u r f a c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.3.5.3.), w i t h a l l the
g e l l i n g agent and a c t i v a t o r r e q u i r e d b e i n g added p r i o r t o commencing t h e t r e a t -
ment. I n case o f h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e f o r m a t i o n s up t o 260 OF (130 oC), t h e down-
 450

h o l e v i s c o s i t y w h i c h c o n v e n t i o n a l l y m i x e d f l u i d s p r o v i d e i s much l e s s t h a n ne-
cessary, b u t i f more p r i m a r y g e l l a n t and a c t i v a t o r a r e added b y s u r f a c e b a t c h
m i x i n g , t h e h i g h v i s c o s i t y o f t h e s e f l u i d s r e n d e r s them d i f f i c u l t b o t h t o
h a n d l e w i t h s u r f a c e e q u i p m e n t and t o m i x w i t h s o l i d m a t e r i a l s such as f l u i d -
l o s s a d d i t i v e s and p r o p p a n t s , e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n i n g h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h e
latter.

T h e r e f o r e s o l i d s e c o n d a r y g e l l i n g a g e n t s may be added t o t h e base g e l a f t e r

passage o f t h e b l e n d e r on t h e f l y t o p r o d u c e a f l u i d w h i c h i s n o t t o o v i s c o u s
t o be h a n d l e d a t t h e s u r f a c e and y e t p r o v i d e s t h e r e q u i r e d v i s c o s i t y i n t h e
f r a c t u r e downhole, w i t h t h i s h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e s e c o n d a r y g e l l a n t c o n s i d e r a b l y e x -
tending the usable range o f g e l l e d o i l - b a s e f l u i d s t o higher f r a c t u r e temperatu-
r e s and l o n g e r pumping t i m e s , and a l s o a l l o w i n g t o s t i m u l a t e h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e
r e s e r v o i r s w i t h h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s . T h i s d u a l a d d i t i o n o f p r i m a r y and se-
c o n d a r y g e l l i n g a g e n t s r e p r e s e n t s a s e q u e n t i a l c o m b i n a t i o n o f b a t c h - and c o n t i -
nuous-mix f r a c t u r i n g and l i n k s t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f b o t h s e p a r a t e methods i n t o one
j o i n t process.

4.3.4.4.4. Fracturing f l u i d viscosity improvement

S i m u l t a n e o u s a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y g e l l i n g a g e n t s r e p r e s e n t -
i n g s e q u e n t i a l l y combined b a t c h - and c o n t i n u o u s - m i x s t i m u l a t i o n c o m p r i s e s t h e
f l e x i b i l i t y o f f o r m u l a t i n g a f l u i d t o meet b o t h s u r f a c e and downhole c o n d i -
t i o n s . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f i m p r o v i n g downhole f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y w i t h o u t
e x c e s s i v e p r o b l e m s o f s u r f a c e m i x i n g by a d d i t i o n o f s e c o n d a r y g e l l a n t s a n d / o r
a c t i v a t o r s t o a base g e l downstream o f t h e b l e n d e r a r e d i s c u s s e d b y BURNHAM,
HARRIS & McOANIEL ( 1 9 7 8 ) . LOUVIERE ( 1 9 8 7 ) o u t l i n e s t h a t g e l p r e p a r a t i o n c a n be
done b y b a t c h m i x i n g o r s e m i - c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n , w i t h t h e l a t t e r t e c h n i q u e
h a v i n g n o l i m i t a t i o n o n c e r t a i n s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y and j o b s i z e b e i n g a b l e t o be
v a r i e d during the treatment.

F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d recovery i s essential f o r successful s t i m u l a t i o n operations

and depends t o l a r g e amounts on g e l volume added t o t h e base f l u i d ( P A I , GARBIS
& HALL 1 9 8 3 ) . The a d d i t i o n o f g e l b r e a k e r s and l o w s u r f a c e t e n s i o n a g e n t s may
c o n s i d e r a b l y f a c i l i t a t e c l e a n - u p , and t h e a d d i t i o n o f an e n e r g i z e r such as n i -
t r o g e n o r c a r b o n d i o x i d e t o t h e t r e a t m e n t t a i l may i n c r e a s e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
an e a r l y h y d r o c a r b o n show. R e a s o n a b l e c o s t r e d u c t i o n s c a n be a c h i e v e d b y t a p e r -
i n g p o l y m e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e f l u i d system. As g e l w e i g h t i s r e d u c e d , j o b
c o s t s d e c r e a s e due t o d i m i n i s h i n g p o l y m e r expenses, l e s s h o r s e p o w e r n e c e s s a r y
a s a r e s u l t o f l o w e r f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e , and f a s t e r w e l l c l e a n - u p as a c o n s e -
quence o f l e s s p o l y m e r h a v i n g been pumped downhole (SCHLOTTMAN, MILLER & LUE-
DERS 1 9 8 1 ) .

4.3.4.5. Fluid viscoelasticity

ACHARYA ( 1 9 8 7 ) i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f v i s c o e l a s t i c i t y o f c r o s s l i n -
ked f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s f o r proppant t r a n s p o r t . Concerning proppant placement
along the fracture, p r o p p a n t movement v e l o c i t y i s a f u n c t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d r h e o l o g y and p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as s i z e and d e n s i t y .
Crosslinked g e l s can respond t o deformation by viscous f l o w which d i s s i p a t e s
e n e r g y and b y e l a s t i c d i s p l a c e m e n t w h i c h s t o r e s f r e e e n e r g y . When t h e R e y n o l d s
number o f t h e p a r t i c l e s i s g r e a t e r t h a n two, p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g r a t e c a n b e i n -
f l u e n c e d b y v i s c o u s as w e l l as e l a s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d s . The n e t w o r k s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c r o s s l i n k e d g e l r e s t r i c t s p r o p p a n t s e t t -
l i n g , and d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e n e t w o r k s t r u c t u r e b y s h e a r , t e m p e r a t u r e o r c h e m i c a l
breakup o n l y a l l o w s t h e proppant t o f a l l through t h e g e l .

A s p e c t s o f p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y NOVOTNY ( 1 9 7 7 ) , CLARK &

QUADIR ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; SIEVERT, WAHL, CLARK & HARKIN ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; AHMED ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; CLARK, HALVA-
CI, GHAELI & PARKS ( 1 9 8 5 ) ; MORALES & ABOU-SAYED ( 1 9 8 5 ) and LEE & DANESHY
 45 1

( 1 9 8 6 ) . E f f e c t s o f pumping equipment on sand-laden s l u r r i e s a r e covered by

ROLL, HIMES, EWERT & DOERKSEN ( 1 9 8 6 ) . HANDKE (1987) r e v i e w s q u a l i t y and v e r s a t i -
l i t y improvement o f f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s by sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n c o n t r o l . Com-
ments on g r a v e l p a c k i n g f l u i d v i s c o e l a s t i c i t y a r e g i v e n by HUDSON & MARTIN
(1988; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . ) .

4.3.4.6. Flu id leakoff containment

F l u i d l o s s p l a y s a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e by b e i n g one o f t h e more dominant f a c -
t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s (VEATCH & MOSCHOVIDIS
1986, McGOWEN & McDANIEL 1988) and b e i n g a b l e t o have as much e f f e c t on c r a c k
p e n e t r a t i o n as v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth has (VEATCH 1983). The volume o f
f l u i d l e a k o f f determines f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y as w e l l as a f f e c t s t r e a t m e n t s i z e and
p r o p p a n t s c h e d u l i n g . The r a t e of f l u i d l o s s a l s o impacts f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e t i m e
and t h u s f i n a l proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e c r a c k . W h i l e m i n i m i z a t i o n o f
f l u i d l e a k o f f i s d e s i r a b l e d u r i n g t h e pumping o p e r a t i o n , i t i s u n d e s i r a b l e t o
c o n t r o l f l u i d l o s s t o t h e p o i n t o f e x c e s s i v e p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g due t o v e r y l o n g
f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e t i m e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.2.2.), w i t h thus a sound o p t i m i z a t i o n
h a v i n g t o be performed by m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 . ) .
F l u i d l e a k o f f i s g e n e r a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s and f i l t e r cake
(WILLIAMS 1970).

4.3.4.6.0. Types and inpact of fluid loss

F l u i d l o s s comprises leakage o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d o u t o f t h e main f r a c -
t u r e i n t o formation m a t r i x porosity, natural h a i r l i n e cracks o r macrofractures,
j o i n t s and f a u l t s (ECONOMIDES 1986). H a i r l i n e c r a c k s a r e t h i e f f r a c t u r e s which
s t e a l f l u i d f r o m t h e main f r a c t u r e and c o n s e q u e n t l y l i m i t i t s e x t e n s i o n ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.3.1.2. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . F l u i d l e a k o f f b e h a v i o u r depends on a
number o f f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g t y p e and q u a n t i t y o f f l u i d l o s s a d d i t i v e and g e l -
l i n g agent, p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l between f r a c t u r e and f o r m a t i o n , r e s e r v o i r p e r -
m e a b i l i t y and p o r o s i t y as w e l l as f l u i d f l o w and c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y b e h a v i o u r ,
f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and f l u i d f i l t r a t e v i s c o s i t y and temperature behaviour, r e s e r -
v o i r temperature, and c h a r a c t e r o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e
pay zone m a t r i x . Other parameters c o n t r o l l i n g f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y a r e f l u i d p r o p e r -
t i e s and i n j e c t i o n r a t e (WAREMBOURG, KLINGENSMITH, HODGES & ERDLE 1985). F l u i d
l e a k o f f models and e v a l u a t i o n s a r e a l s o p r e s e n t e d by SETTARI (1985, 1988); SET-
T A R I , KRY & YEE (1988) and WARPINSKI (1988 a ) .

Experimental m o d e l l i n g o f f l u i d l o s s has shown t h a t p r e s s u r e drop i s i n i t i a l -

l y t o t a l l y d i s s i p a t e d across t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e and f l u i d l e a k o f f occurs as i f
no a d d i t i v e were p r e s e n t (WILLIAMS 1970). T h i s b e g i n n i n g stage i s f o l l o w e d by
an i n t e r m e d i a t e stage where a f i l t e r cake s t a r t s t o f o r m and l e a k o f f v e l o c i t y
i s l o w e r because some p r e s s u r e d r o p o c c u r s across t h e drape. The f i n a l stage
comprises achievement o f a steady s t a t e i n which t h e cake has c o n s t a n t t h i c k -
ness and f l u i d l e a k o f f v e l o c i t y i s c o n s t a n t . Flow v e l o c i t y t h r o u g h t h e steady-
s t a t e drape i s depending on f l o w v e l o c i t y across t h e r o c k s u r f a c e , f l u i d and ad-
d i t i v e p r o p e r t i e s , and m a t r i x p o r e s i z e . T o t a l f l u i d l o s s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t s o f
s p u r t l o s s and f l u i d - l o s s o r w a l l - b u i l d i n g c o e f f i c i e n t . S p u r t l o s s p e r t a i n s t o
t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s l o s s when f l u i d i s f i r s t exposed t o t h e f r a c t u r e face, where-
as f l u i d - l o s s o r w a l l - b u i l d i n g c o e f f i c i e n t r e p r e s e n t s l o n g - t e r m b e h a v i o u r o v e r
t h e d u r a t i o n of exposure. The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s d i s c u s s e s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f
f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l , n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and p a r t i c u l a t e a d d i t i v e s , mushroom-type
f r a c t u r e s and f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y , and combined f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e and
g e l b r e a k e r . MEDLIN & MASSE (1986 b) analyze f l u i d - l e a k o f f mechanisms f o r g e l s
and suspensions.
 452

4.3.4.6.1. Possibi 1 it ies of f luid-loss control

The i m p a c t o f f l u i d l e a k o f f on t h e r e s u l t o f t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g treatment i s u n d e r l i n e d by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t o achieve s i g n i f i c a n t l y longer
f r a c t u r e s w i t h f l u i d s w i t h l o w e r f l u i d - l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t s . F l u i d l e a k o f f may b e
c o n t r o l l e d w i t h s o l i d o r l i q u i d additives. While s o l i d p a r t i c u l a t e f l u i d - l o s s
a d d i t i v e s may be v e r y e f f e c t i v e f o r m o d e r a t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n s
b u t a r e much l e s s e f f e c t i v e i n t i g h t l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s , l i q u i d f l u i d -
l o s s a d d i t i v e s such as h y d r o c a r b o n phases c a n r e d u c e f l u i d l e a k o f f s i g n i f i c a n t -
l y i n t i g h t f o r m a t i o n s b u t have l i t t l e o r n o e f f e c t i n m o d e r a t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a -
b i l i t y rocks ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.6.2.). Liquid additives mainly r e s t r i c t f l u i d
l o s s i n t o t h e m a t r i x b y v i s c o s i t y and c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s o f r e s e r v o i r
and s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s , whereas p a r t i c u l a t e a d d i t i v e s p r i n c i p a l l y l i m i t f l u i d
l e a k o f f i n t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s (McMECHAN & CONWAY 1983) b y p l u g g i n g o f c r a c k s
and b u i l d i n g o f f i l t e r c a k e s on t h e w a l l .

4.3.4.6.1.1.General aspects
P o l y m e r and c r o s s l i n k e r t y p e s have a p r o n o u n c e d e f f e c t o n f l u i d l e a k o f f beha-
v i o u r (McGOWEN & McDANIEL 1 9 8 8 ) . Lower r e s i d u e p o l y m e r s e x h i b i t h i g h e r l e v e l s
o f f l u i d l o s s , whereas c r o s s l i n k e r t y p e i n f l u e n c e s c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d l e a k o f f .
A d d i t i o n o f p r o p p a n t s o f t e n seems t o have n o a l t e r i n g i m p a c t o n f l u i d - l o s s beha-
v i o u r o f c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s , and a l s o t h e f i l t e r c a k e s d e p o s i t e d o n t h e f r a c t u r e
w a l l s do n o t e x h i b i t any s i g n s o f e r o s i o n w h i c h may have r e s u l t e d f r o m i n c l u -
s i o n o f proppant t o the flow.

Pumping r a t e o b v i o u s l y compensates f o r f l u i d l e a k o f f i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n i f
h i g h enough and f e a s i b l e (VEATCH 1986), b u t does u s u a l l y n o t compete e c o n o m i c a l -
l y w i t h f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s t o overcome l e a k o f f . H i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s o f s u i -
t a b l e f l u i d s c a n o f f s e t f l u i d l o s s and e n s u r e adequate p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t w i t h -
i n t h e f r a c t u r e (NORTON & HOFFMAN 1 9 8 2 ) . I n l o w l e a k o f f s i t u a t i o n s , optimum r a -
t e s a r e g e n e r a l l y d o m i n a t e d b y f r i c t i o n l o s s b e h a v i o u r and h y d r a u l i c h o r s e p o w e r
c o s t s , whereas i n h i g h l e a k o f f c a s e s where volume r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e a f f e c t e d b y
pumping r a t e s , f r a c t u r i n g m a t e r i a l expenses e n t e r t h e p i c t u r e . D i s t i n c t i o n c a n
be made between s t o r a g e - d o m i n a t e d o r l o w f l u i d - l o s s f r a c t u r i n g , and f l u i d - l e a k -
o f f - d o m i n a t e d o r h i g h f l u i d - l o s s f r a c t u r i n g (SMITH 1 9 8 1 ) . Drawbacks o f h i g h
f l u i d l e a k o f f r a t e s as w e l l as a s p e c t s o f s o l i d p a r t i c l e s i z e v s . p o r e t h r o a t
d i a m e t e r , f l u i d u p t a k e s a t u r a t i o n o f t h e f o r m a t i o n by p r e - p a d and p a d s t a g e s ,
and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y v s . l e a k o f f a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.3.4.6.1.2.Drawbacks o f high fluid leakoff rates

Fluid l e a k o f f during hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g leads t o increasing f l u i d v i s c o s i -
t y due t o d e h y d r a t i o n and c o n s e q u e n t l y i n c r e a s i n g p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n
the
c r a c k as a r e s u l t o f volume d i m i n u t i o n o f t h e t o t a l s l u r r y w h i c h may be d e s i -
r a b l e up t o a c e r t a i n p o i n t (because o t h e r w i s e f l u i d v i s c o s i t y decreases b y
s h e a r and t e m p e r a t u r e d e g r a d a t i o n and c a n r e a c h a p o i n t where s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o p -
p a n t t r a n s p o r t and s u s p e n s i o n c a p a c i t y i s no l o n g e r g u a r a n t e e d ) , but a t the
same t i m e e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l o s s c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e s t h e d a n g e r o f p r e m a t u r e
s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e b y g e l t h i c k e n i n g as w e l l as p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g and p l u g g i n g
and t h u s f l o w s t u c k i n t h e f r a c t u r e (HARRIS & PENNY 1985; PEARSDN, ABOU-SAYED &
NGUYEN 1985; VEATCH & MOSCHOVIDIS 1986, SMITH 1987; c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 5 . and
6.2.4.2.1.). I n a d d i t i o n , h i g h f l u i d l e a k o f f can g i v e r i s e t o severe c u r t a i l -
ment o f p r o d u c t i o n due t o f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x damage, a d v e r s e r e s e r v o i r f l u i d i n -
t e r a c t i o n s o r s i m p l y a l t e r e d f r a c t u r e g e o m e t r y (PENNY, CONWAY & LEE 1 9 8 4 ) . As
f l u i d l o s s c a n e x c e e d 70 % o f t h e i n j e c t e d volume i f n o t c o n t r o l l e d p r o p e r l y ,
an o v e r w h e l m i n g amount o f f l u i d c a n b e n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e a d e s i r e d f r a c t u r e
g e o m e t r y i n a MHF t r e a t m e n t and t h u s f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y c a n g o v e r n t h e e c o n o m i c a l
success o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n .
 453

L e a k o f f r a t e s o f unbroken f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r t h a n those
o f broken ones because w a t e r i s squeezed out, b u t polymer p a r t i c l e s cannot
b u i l d a f i l t e r cake, and t h e r e f o r e o n l y w a t e r l e a k s o f f . W h i l e unbroken f l u i d
cannot f o r m f i l t e r cakes a t t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l , broken p a r t i c l e s can m i g r a t e and
c o v e r t h e c r a c k boundary w i t h a f i l t e r cake which i s then l i m i t i n g f u r t h e r l o s s
by r a t e r e d u c t i o n . Absence o f a f i l t e r cake p r i o r t o f l u i d b r e a k i n g as w e l l as
m a t r i x s a t u r a t i o n w i t h w a t e r o r b r i n e a f t e r i n i t i a l l e a k o f f a r e t h e reasons f o r
much h i g h e r f l u i d l o s s i n t h e e a r l y stage p r i o r t o b r e a k i n g t h a n i n t h e l a t e
stage a f t e r b r e a k i n g . BENNY & FORD (1985) emphasize t h e i n f l u e n c e o f downhole
c o n d i t i o n s on t h e l e a k o f f p r o p e r t i e s o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s . Another e f f e c t o f
f l u i d l o s s i n t o t h e n e a r - f r a c t u r e p o r e space can be f l u c t u a t i o n s i n c l o s u r e
s t r e s s r e p r e s e n t i n g b a c k s t r e s s (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, CORENZ, NORTHROP,
MANN & FROHNE 1985).

4.3.4.6.1.3. S o l i d p a r t i c l e s i z e vs. pore t h r o a t diameter

Small-diameter s o l i d s d i s p e r s e d i n f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s have s u f f i c i e n t concen-
t r a t i o n and s i z e range t o a c t as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s i n f o r m a t i o n s w i t h s m a l l
p o r e - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s (CARROLL & BAKER 1979). B l e e d - o f f t o t h e f o r m a t i o n f r o m
t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d prepared w i t h such m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d e s a h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y
o f some damage t o r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y . B l e e d - o f f t o t h e f o r m a t i o n f r o m a
t r e a t m e n t f l u i d c o n t a i n i n g d i s p e r s e d s o l i d s and r e s i d u e - f o r m i n g m a t e r i a l s g i v e s
r i s e t o b u i l d i n g o f a f i l t e r cake upon t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e b e f o r e t h e p a r t i n g
p r e s s u r e i s r e l e a s e d , a f t e r which t h e proppants a d j a c e n t t o t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e
s e t t l e i n t o t h e r a t h e r s o f t f i l t e r cake and come t o r e s t a t t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e .
Depending upon f i l t e r cake t h i c k n e s s , t h e v o i d volume o f t h e p r o p p a n t immediate-
l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l c o u l d be c o m p l e t e l y f i l l e d .

Experimental r e s e a r c h r e v e a l s t h a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p l u g g i n g a propped
f r a c t u r e i s c o n t r o l l e d by p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o p o r e s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n . Residue-forming m a t e r i a l i n t h e g e l s generate a p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s -
t r i b u t i o n t h a t even i n low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i l l s e v e r e l y damage f r a c t u r e conduc-
t i v i t y . Proppants s t a r t c r u s h i n g o r a t l e a s t r e l e a s i n g f i n e s i m m e d i a t e l y upon
a p p l i c a t i o n o f overburden pressure, and f i n e s adhere t o t h e proppants which
upon l i b e r a t i o n i n a f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d may a c t as a f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e . P a r t i c -
l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n s used t o g e n e r a t e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i n w a t e r may be s u f f i -
c i e n t l y h i g h enough t o c o n t r i b u t e t o b o t h f o r m a t i o n and f r a c t u r e p l u g g i n g .

4.3.4.6.1.4. F l u i d uptake s a t u r a t i o n by pre-pad and pad stages

The pre-pad and/or t h e pad stages o f a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t a r e
o f t e n s a c r i f i c e d f o r f l u i d l o s s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r i n o r d e r t o have a l r e a d y
achieved a s a t u r a t i o n l e v e l i n f l u i d u p t a k e by t h e f o r m a t i o n once t h e c a r r i e r
stage w i t h t h e suspended proppants i s i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e (SMITH 1987).
F o r m a t i o n f l u i d l e a k o f f r a t e s can be e s t i m a t e d f r o m p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e a n a l y s i s
f o l l o w i n g i n j e c t i o n by m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t (NOLTE 1979, NOLTE & SMITH
1981) and f r o m changes o f f r a c t u r i n g g r a d i e n t d u r i n g pumping based on measure-
ments o f i n c r e a s i n g i n s t a n t a n e o u s s h u t - i n p r e s s u r e (NIERODE 1983).

Concerning f l u i d - l o s s m o d e l l i n g by l a b o r a t o r y experiments, dynamic t e s t s can

y i e l d q u i t e d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s than s t a t i c runs, and shear r a t e and h i s t o r y have
s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s (GULBIS 1983, ROODHART 1983; ZIGRYE, WHITFILL & SIEVERT
1983; PENNY, CONWAY & LEE 1984; H A R R I S & PENNY 1985, FORD & PENNY 1988). PEAR-
SON, LYNCH, SCHMIDT & McCASLIN (1988) o u t l i n e improvement o f f l u i d - l e a k o f f con-
t r o l by s u c c e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e pad stage volume d u r i n g course o f an e v o l u -
t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n o l o g y . I n c r e a s i n g pad q u a n t i t y a l s o aims on s c r e e n o u t
r i s k m i n i m i z a t i o n , because e a r l y pad d e p l e t i o n due t o h i g h f l u i d - l o s s r a t e s i n -
creases t h e danger o f premature f a i l u r e o f t h e j o b . T h i s a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y
f o r b r i d g e o u t c o n d i t i o n s o c c u r r i n g when t h e movement o f p r o p p a n t g r a i n s a t some
p o s i t i o n i n t h e f r a c t u r e i s r e s t r i c t e d by i n s u f f i c i e n t f r a c t u r e w i d t h .
 454

I n e n e r g i z e d f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s , t h e pre-pad aims on e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a
f i l t e r cake on t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e l e a k o f f o f c r o s s l i n k e d
c a r r i e r f l u i d , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e tendency o f premature s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e
( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) , as w e l l as c o o l i n g down t h e f o r m a t i o n
t o decrease v i s c o s i t y l o s s o f t h e p r o p p a n t - l a d e n f l u i d , c o n d i t i o n t h e r e s e r v o i r
t o m i n i m i z e c l a y s w e l l i n g and sloughing, and r e d u c i n g c l e a n - u p t i m e by a d d i t i o n
o f carbon d i o x i d e o r n i t r o g e n gas (PA1 & G A R B I S 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . 2 . 2 . ) .

4.3.4.6.1.5. F l u i d viscosity vs. leakoff

Most v i s c o s i f y i n g agents used i n f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a l s o p l a y an i m p o r t a n t
r o l e i n c o n t r o l l i n g f l u i d l o s s (OLSEN & DEBONIS 1988). Reducing v i s c o s i t y i n
t h e l a t t e r p o r t i o n s o f a t r e a t m e n t t h u s c o u l d i n c r e a s e f l u i d l e a k o f f , and i f
needed, o t h e r m a t e r i a l s c o u l d be added t o t h e f l u i d t o m a i n t a i n an adequate
l o s s r a t e and y e t n o t a f f e c t v i s c o s i t y . I f f l u i d l o s s f r o m a w a l l - b u i l d i n g v i s -
c o s i f i e r i s a f u n c t i o n of f l u i d amount t h a t has l e a k e d o f f across a g i v e n r o c k
face, then t h e f i l t e r cake should always be t h i c k e s t near t h e w e l l b o r e where ex-
posure t i m e has been l o n g e s t and t a p e r down towards t h e f r a c t u r e t i p where expo-
s u r e t i m e i s s h o r t e s t . Concerning p r o p p a n t embedment i n g e l f i l t e r cakes t r i g g e -
r i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.10.3.5. and 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 ) , t h e dan-
g e r o f f r a c t u r e performance damage p a r t i c u l a r l y near t h e w e l l b o r e a l s o j u s t i -
f i e s t o reduce t h e amount o f f l u i d - l o s s m a t e r i a l i n t h e l a t t e r p o r t i o n o f t h e
t r e a t m e n t . F l u i d - l e a k o f f c o n t r o l s h o u l d be p r e f e r e n t i a l l y done i n t h e pad stage
o f t h e o p e r a t i o n t o m a i n t a i n a more even d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f i l t e r cake.

The aim o f m i n i m i z i n g f l u i d l o s s i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g f o r t h e purpose o f

o p t i m i z i n g p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and p r e v e n t i o n o f screenout f a i l u r e due t o p r o p -
p a n t b r i d g i n g and/or s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . , 4.2.3.2.5.
and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) i s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e goal o f h i g h f l u i d l e a k o f f i n g r a v e l pack-
i n g f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f adequate p a c k i n g d e n s i t y and p r o p e r p l u g g i n g o f t h e p e r -
f o r a t i o n tunnels ( c f . section 5.3.1.1.).

4.3.4.6.2. Nat ura 1 fractures and particulate additives

F l u i d l e a k o f f i s i n an o v e r r i d i n g amount i n f l u e n c e d by n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s
and/or h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y s t r e a k s o f t h e s t i m u l a t e d r e s e r v o i r . N a t u r a l c r a c k s
and f i s s u r e s p r o v i d e an a c c e l e r a t e d f l u i d d e p l e t i o n mechanism w i t h i n t h e propa-
g a t i n g c r a c k analogous t o a p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r and a r e p r i n c i p a l l y u n d e s i r a b l e ,
because u n c o n t r o l l e d f l u i d l o s s l e a d s t o s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n and p r o p p a n t b r i d -
g i n g which g i v e r i s e t o s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e o f t h e t r e a t m e n t (NOLTE 1988 b; c f .
s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . Once t h e h i g h l e a k o f f r a t e s i n these weak-
ness elements a r e curbed, f l u i d l o s s t o t h e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y m a t r i x i s s t r o n g l y
governed by t h e shear r a t e w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h i g h - r a t e j o b s
i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e pad where crack w i d t h s a r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l , w h i c h can
l e a d t o changing l e a k o f f r a t e s d u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t .

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m a t i o n d i c t a t e t h e s e l e c t i o n o f
f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s t h a t a r e r e q u i r e d t o achieve t h e necessary l e a k o f f con-
t r o l . P a r t i c u l a t e a d d i t i v e s such as 100 mesh sand, s i l i c a f l o u r , c a l c i u m carbo-
nate o r o i l - s o l u b l e r e s i n grains are essential f o r containing l e a k o f f t o high-
p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s t r e a k s (above a b t . 5 md p e r m e a b i l i t y ) and n a t u r a l f r a c -
t u r e s , whereas l i q u i d hydrocarbon a d d i t i v e s f u n c t i o n w e l l i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y
m a t r i x c c n t r o l (PENNY, CONWAY & LEE 1984; SMITH 1 9 8 7 ) . Hydrocarbon phases mixed
w i t h s i l i c a f l o u r o r o t h e r f i n e - g r a i n e d p a r t i c u l a t e s and a s u r f a c t a n t can a l s o
s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduce f l u i d l o s s (GULBIS 1983, ROODHART 1983; ZIGRYE, WHITFILL &
SIEVERT 1983; PENNY, CONWAY & LEE 1984; H A R R I S & PENNY 1985, FORD & PENNY
1988). An overview o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d a d d i t i v e s i s g i v e n by H A R R I S ( 1 9 8 8 ) . WIL-
LIAMSON & ALLENSON (1989) i n t r o d u c e a nondamaging p a r t i c u l a t e f l u i d - l o s s a d d i -
t i v e . The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s focusses on l i q u i d and s o l i d f l u i d - l e a k o f f
 455

agents, foams and r e s i n s , and i m p a c t o f f r a c t u r e geometry and morphology.

4.3.4.6.2.1. Liquid f luid-loss additives

I n c r o s s l i n k e d g e l systems, d i e s e l o i l p r o v i d e s b e t t e r f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l
t h a n p a r t i c u l a t e f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s , whereas i n n o n - c r o s s l i n k e d l i n e a r g e l
systems, p a r t i c u l a t e a d d i t i v e s p r o v i d e l o w e r l e a k o f f than d i e s e l o i l (OSBORNE,
McLEOD & SCHROEDER 1981). The reason f o r t h i s d i a m e t r i c a l b e h a v i o u r and t h e su-
p e r i o r i t y o f the diesel o i l i n crosslinked gels i s t h a t the l a t t e r concentrates
i n a t h i n l a y e r a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s as f i l t r a t e i s squeezed i n t o t h e forma-
t i o n pores, r e s e m b l i n g a f i b r o u s mat composed o f many polymer entanglements,
w i t h t h e d i e s e l o i l d i s p e r s e d i n t o s m a l l d r o p l e t s by s u i t a b l e s u r f a c t a n t s f i l -
l i n g i n t h e i n t e r s t i c e s between these entanglements. CANTU & BOYD (1988) i n t r o -
duce a c o m b i n a t i o n o f f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e and g e l b r e a k e r .

McDRNIEL, H O W & BRRRlNGER (1976) i n t r o d u c e a new g e n e r a t i o n o f s o l i d - f r e e

f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s which do n o t need s o l i d a d d i t i v e s f o r l e a k o f f c o n t r o l . I n con-
t r a s t t o c o n v e n t i o n a l s o l i d - l a d e n f l u i d s where polymers i m p a r t v i s c o s i t y and
f l u i d - l o s s additives help t o l i m i t f l u i d leakoff, solid-free fracturing f l u i d s
m i n i m i z e p e r m e a b i l i t y damage t o b o t h f o r m a t i o n and packed c r a c k . These s o l i d -
f r e e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s a r e a p p l i c a b l e i n h i g h - and low-temperature r e s e r v o i r s .
The h i g h - v i s c o s i t y water-based f l u i d s a r e m a i n l y used as spearheads i n a c i d i -
z i n g t r e a t m e n t s and as f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s f o r proppant placement.

4.3.4.6.2.2. Sol id f luid-loss additives

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s as t h e head o f t h e p r o p p a n t
s l u r r y has t o be done w i t h c a u t i o n i n o r d e r n o t t o provoke i n t e r m i x i n g o f p r o p -
p a n t s and f i n e sand which would d r a s t i c a l l y d e t e r i o r a t e t h e f l o w c a p a c i t y o f
t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.11.2.1.). I n many n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d r e s e r v o i r s ,
a d d i t i o n a l 100 mesh sand i n a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f up t o 2 l b s / g a l f l u i d i s s u f f i -
c i e n t t o reduce l e a k o f f enough t o p r e v e n t p r o p p a n t screenout (COOPER, NELSON &
SCHOPPER 1977; SCHUMACHER & DICKERMAN 1986; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.3.1.2. and
4.8.8.3.2.3.). The b e s t e f f e c t i s achieved when t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and f i s s u -
r e s a r e opened by m a x i m i z i n g n e t p r e s s u r e and s e a l e d w i t h 100 mesh sand b e f o r e
t h e p r o p p a n t i s placed, w i t h c a u t i o n , however, h a v i n g t o be undertaken t h a t
crack tip does n o t screen o u t p r e m a t u r e l y (NOLTE 1988 b; c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . 3 . ) . The d i s c u s s i o n a s f o l l o w s focusses on comparative e v a l u a t i o n o f va-
r i o u s agents, 100 mesh sand i n s e r t i o n f o r dual l e a k o f f c o n t r o l , a c c e l e r a t e d
l e a k o f f and screenout, and f i n e sand vs. b a u x i t e .

4.3.4.6.2.2.1. Comparative evaluation of various agents

F i e l d examples o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f 100 mesh sand and s i l i c a f l o u r as f l u i d -
l o s s c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e s a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d by PEARSON, LYNCH, SCHMIDT & McCASLIN
(1988) and SATTLER, RAIBLE, GALL & GILL (1988; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . ) .
PENNY (1982) and WILLIAMSON & ALLENSON (1989) o u t l i n e non-damaging f l u i d - l o s s
a d d i t i v e s . CRAWFORD (1983) p r e s e n t s p r o p p a n t schedules and f l u i d l e a k o f f c a l c u -
l a t i o n s . S I N H A (1976) comments on s t a t i c and dynamic f l u i d - l o s s c o n d i t i o n s .
HALL & HOUK (1983) i n v e s t i g a t e f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l i n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d forma-
t i o n s . ZIGRYE, WHITFILL & SIEVERT (1983) e v a l u a t e f l u i d l e a k o f f containment d i f -
f e r e n c e s o f c r o s s l i n k e d and l i n e a r f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s .

DOLAK & PERNTHANER (1976) propose cement as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o 100 mesh sand

f o r p l u g g i n g o f h a i r l i n e f i s s u r e s , w i t h pumping o f a b t . 100 sacks o f cement
p r i o r t o t h e main f r a c t u r e f l u i d stages s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s i n g t h e h a i r l i n e
c r a c k s i n s m a l l - s c a l e sand f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s . Cement, however, i s permanent-
l y d e s t r o y i n g h a i r l i n e p e r m e a b i l i t y and does n o t a l l o w t h e t i n y f i s s u r e s t o l a -
t e r c o n t r i b u t e t o p r o d u c t i o n , whereas 100 mesh sand i s h i g h l y - p e r m e a b l e and i s
 456

the i d e a l combination o f both hairline-crack-plugging and hydrocarbon-draining

agent ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 2 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) .

4.3.4.6.2.2.2. 100 mesh sand insertion for dual leakoff control

Dual l e a k o f f i s a common phenomenon i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f t i g h t gas r e -
s e r v o i r s (WARPINSKI 1988 a; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.3.1.2. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) which
i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d ( u p t o 50 t i m e s ) f l u i d l e a k o f f oc-
c u r r i n g f r o m a t h r e s h o l d p r e s s u r e above f o r m a t i o n c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e onwards. The
i n c r e a s e d l e a k o f f r e s u l t s i n r a p i d f l u i d d r a i n a g e and d e h y d r a t i o n , and i s a p r o -
b a b l e cause o f e a r l y screenouts u n l e s s r e s t r i c t e d by u s i n g 100 mesh sand b o t h
as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e and as m i c r o p r o p p a n t i n f i l l i n g t h e h a i r l i n e c r a c k s and
p l u g g i n g them open i n o r d e r t o guarantee t h a t t h e y w i l l keep s u f f i c i e n t conduc-
t i v i t y t o e n a b l e gas f l o w d u r i n g subsequent e x p l o i t a t i o n . A r e l a t i v e l y f l a t
p r e s s u r e c u r v e d u r i n g i n j e c t i o n i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f dual l e a k o f f be-
h a v i o u r . Low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f 100 mesh sand t h a t a r e added t o b o t h pad and
p r o p p a n t - l a d e n stages t h r o u g h o u t t h e t r e a t m e n t and w h i c h have t o be k e p t l i m i -
t e d i n o r d e r t o n o t s e r i o u s l y d e s t r o y i n g proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y , however, can
o n l y r e a s o n a b l y r e t a r d a c c e l e r a t e d f l u i d l o s s and a r e by no means a b l e t o s t o p
i t e n t i r e l y , w i t h l e a k o f f r a t e s s t i l l b e i n g v e r y h i g h (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN,
SATTLER, CIPOLLA, LORENZ & THORNE 1988).

On t h e o t h e r hand, an e x c l u s i v e a d d i t i o n o f 100 mesh sand d u r i n g t h e pad

stage may n o t p e r m i t t o b r i n g i n and t o d e p o s i t enough m a t e r i a l t o p e r f e c t l y
s e a l t h e h a i r l i n e c r a c k s such t h a t t h e y a r e n o t c o n t r i b u t i n g t o f l u i d l e a k o f f
d u r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p p a n t - l a d e n stages. The a c c e l e r a t e d secondary l o s s may
s t a r t a t 50 t i m e s t h e b a s e - l e v e l l e a k o f f r a t e and can be reduced t o 20 t i m e s
s h o r t l y a f t e r 100 mesh sand e n t e r s t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and t o 5 t i m e s by t r e a t m e n t
end p r o v i d e d c o n t i n u o u s i n s e r t i o n o f small amounts o f 100 mesh sand, w h i c h i s
c e r t a i n l y a s i g n i f i c a n t r e t a r d a t i o n o f f l u i d escape i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r t h r o u g h
t h i e f h a i r l i n e c r a c k s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.3.1.2. and 4.8.8.3.2.3.). I n or-
d e r t o accept p r o p p i n g agents, f r a c t u r e w i d t h must be i n t h e range o f 2 . 5 t i m e s
the proppant diameter, w i t h t h i s c o n d i t i o n being f u l f i l l e d f o r h y d r a u l i c a l l y i n -
duced f r a c t u r e s by s t a n d a r d p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s (16/20 and 20/40), w h i l e 100
mesh m i c r o p r o p p a n t s f i t i n t o h a i r l i n e c r a c k s and f i s s u r e s (THOMPSON 1977; c f .
section 1.4.11.2.1.).

4.3.4.6.2.2.3.Accelerated leakoff and screenout

I n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s w i t h dual l e a k o f f b e h a v i o u r , s o l i d f l u i d -
l o s s a d d i t i v e s a r e i n d i s p e n s i b l e , because o t h e r w i s e e a r l y screenouts i m p a i r t h e
t r e a t m e n t s b y r e s u l t i n g i n s h o r t h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s , h i g h p r e s s u r e s and n a t u -
r a l c r a c k damage. I f c o n t r o l o f a c c e l e r a t e d o r secondary l e a k o f f i s o n l y p a r -
t i a l due t o necessary l i m i t a t i o n o f 100 mesh sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r t h e purpose
o f p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y p r e s e r v a t i o n , c o n s i d e r a b l e f l u i d l o s s s t i l l o c c u r s and
s c r e e n o u t i s imminent a t s h u t - i n as r e v e a l e d by h i s t o r y match r e s u l t s . I n such
cases, o n l y r e s t r i c t e d amounts and l i m i t e d s a t u r a t i o n s o f proppants can be i n -
j e c t e d i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r u n l e s s a more e f f i c i e n t means o f f l u i d l e a k o f f con-
t r o l can be discovered, because on t h e o t h e r hand a d d i t i v e s t h a t p l u g t h e n a t u -
r a l f r a c t u r e s and a r e n o t r e a d i l y produced back a r e unacceptable s i n c e r e a s o -
n a b l e w i t h d r a w a l r a t e s a r e o n l y achieved t h r o u g h t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system.

A c c e l e r a t e d l e a k o f f m o d e l l i n g p r o v i d e s a l s o a p l a u s i b l e damage mechanism f o r
foams when l i t t l e g e l and s m a l l l i q u i d volumes a r e i n j e c t e d (WARPINSKI 1988 a;
WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, CIPOLLA, LORENZ & THORNE 1988; c f . s e c t i o n s
4.8.8.3.1.2. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . I f h i g h f l u i d - l o s s r a t e s o c c u r due t o opening
o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k s , l e a k o f f o f t h e t o t a l foam sys-
tem i n t o t h e c r a c k s has t o be expected. D u r i n g p o s t - f r a c t u r e cleanup, t h e n a t u -
r a l c r a c k s c l o s e and p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e l i q u i d s t r a p p e d w i t h i n t h e j o i n t s would
be n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e , w i t h g e l and l i q u i d s w i t h i n t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s t h e n
 457

c o n s i d e r a b l y damaging r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y . Thus b r e a k e r pre-pads s h o u l d be

used i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e cleanup o f any g e l s t h a t a r e i n j e c t e d p a s t t h e 100
mesh sand b r i d g e s w i t h i n t h e h a i r l i n e cracks, b u t t h e main c o n t r o l on damage i s
t h e e f f o r t t o m i n i m i z e l e a k o f f volumes, w i t h s t i m u l a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n r e s u l t s
suggesting t h a t t h i s i s a successful strategy.

4.3.4.6.2.2.4. Fine sand vs. bauxite

F i n e s o l i d p a r t i c l e s o f sand and b a u x i t e a r e e f f e c t i v e l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s i f
t h e s t r e n g t h c o m p a t i b i l i t y between f i n e p a r t i c l e s and proppants i s c o n s i d e r e d
t o a v o i d damage caused by l o w - s t r e n g t h g r a i n s ( L I & ZHU 1986). The amount o f
f i n e f l u i d - l o s s p a r t i c l e s s h o u l d g e n e r a l l y n o t exceed 10 % o f t h e t o t a l w e i g h t
o f t h e proppants because damage o f t h e propped zone by t h e f i n e s o l i d s i n c r e a -
ses s h a r p l y w i t h r i s i n g amount o f f i n e s . The damage c r e a t e d by h i g h - s t r e n g t h
b a u x i t e i s l e s s t h a n t h a t generated by l o w - s t r e n g t h sand. HUDSON, COFFEY, SAUER
& TEOT (1982) d i s c u s s n o n - s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l agents and t h e i r p e r f o r -
mance.

4.3.4.6.2.3. Foams and resins

O i l foams a r e a reasonable a l t e r n a t i v e f o r f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l i n n a t u r a l l y
f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s (NORTON & HOFFMAN 1982). F l u i d l e a k o f f r a t e s o f o i l foams
a r e v e r y low w h i c h reduce t h e need t o use o t h e r f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s e x c e p t f o r
n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d pay zones where some a d d i t i v e s f u r t h e r s u p p o r t f l u i d l e a k -
o f f c o n t r o l . Aspects o f o i l foam f r a c t u r i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by DRISCOLL, BO-
WEN & ROBERTS (1980) and GAYELOS & H A R R I S (1980). O i l - s o l u b l e r e s i n s a r e s u i -
t a b l e f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s when t h e y a r e p r o p e r l y s i z e d and have a h i g h enough
s o f t e n i n g p o i n t e n a b l i n g them t o b r i d g e p o r e spaces, because t h e y can subse-
q u e n t l y be d i s s o l v e d i n t h e produced hydrocarbons and thus do n o t provoke any
f o r m a t i o n o r proppant pack damage (ECONOMIDES 1986). O i l - i n - w a t e r emulsions con-
t a i n i n g l i t t l e amounts o f d i e s e l produce two-phase f l o w upon f l u i d l o s s w h i c h
d r a s t i c a l l y reduces l e a k o f f .

4.3.4.6.2.4. Inpact o f fracture geometry and morphology

G e o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s may c o n s i d e r a b l y a l t e r f r a c t u r e geometry ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.2.3.4.) and t h u s t h e i r e f f e c t on p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and f l u i d l e a k o f f
may be s e r i o u s (WARPINSKI & TEUFEL 1984). F o r c i n g proppants t h r o u g h such f e a t u -
r e s as narrow m u l t i s t r a n d f r a c t u r e s o r o f f s e t s i s much more d i f f i c u l t t h a n
through a s i n g l e h y d r a u l i c crack, w i t h t h e consequence b e i n g h i g h e r f r a c t u r i n g
p r e s s u r e and f r e q u e n t occurrence o f screenouts. I f l o c a l s m a l l screenouts t a k e
p l a c e i n s e v e r a l branches o f a m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e system, l i t t l e a d d i t i o n a l
c r a c k growth i s s t i l l p o s s i b l e u n t i l t h e abundance o f these e v e n t s becomes t o o
l a r g e and u l t i m a t e l y provokes a complete screenout o f t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e
system ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . T h e r e f o r e f l u i d l e a k o f f c o e f f i -
c i e n t s may change d u r i n g course o f a t r e a t m e n t as a c o m p l i c a t e d c r a c k p a t t e r n
develops.

Successful h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a l s o r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n o f
t h e main r e s e r v o i r r o c k t y p e s i n heterogeneous f o r m a t i o n s , w i t h t h e c l a s s i f i c a -
t i o n o f f l u i d c o m p a t i b i l i t y a i m i n g on e l i m i n a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e f a i l u r e reasons
due t o e x c e s s i v e f l u i d s e n s i t i v i t y o f some l a y e r s o f t h e pay s t o r e y complex ( S I -
MON, KAUL & CULBERTSON 1977) w i t h l e a k o f f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a g a i n b e i n g one o f
t h e most i m p o r t a n t parameters. A summary o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d l o s s i s g i v e n by
POULSEN ( 1 9 8 8 ) .
 458

4.3.4.6.3. Mushroom-type f r a c t u r e s and f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y

A s p e c i a l f l u i d - l o s s t r e a t m e n t i s n e c e s s a r y in c a s e o f mushroom-type f r a c t u -
r e s c o n s i s t i n g o f a v e r t i c a l c r a c k topped b y a h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e l i k e a cap
i n t r a n s i t i o n a l d e p t h r a n g e s o r when i n j e c t i o n r a t e s e x c e e d t h e s t r e s s r e q u i r e d
t o l i f t t h e o v e r b u r d e n (FITZ-PATRICK, KARR & O'SHEA 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s
1 . 2 . 8 . 4 . , 4 . 9 . 4 . 2 . and 6 . 2 . 2 . 4 . ) . F l u i d - l o s s r e p l a c e m e n t t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l f r a c -
t u r e component and m a x i m i z a t i o n o f t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e compo-
n e n t c a n be a c h i e v e d b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e pad s i z e t o a l m o s t 100 % and a d d i t i o n o f
a j u n k sand s t a g e d e s i g n e d t o b r i d g e o f f t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e n a r r o w h o r i z o n t a l
fracture, thereby f o r c i n g the t r a i l i n g proppant t o stay i n the v e r t i c a l f r a c -
t u r e . The p a d i s g e n e r a l l y a more o r l e s s s a c r i f i c i a l f l u i d q u a n t i t y w h i c h
m i g h t l e a k o f f and t h u s s a t u r a t e t h e p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y p o r o s i t y o f t h e r e -
s e r v o i r formation i n order t o prevent excessive loss o f c a r r i e r f l u i d which
w o u l d p r o v o k e p r e m a t u r e s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e (SMITH 1987; c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 5 .
and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) , and a l s o s e r v e s f o r c r e a t i o n o f s u f f i c i e n t f r a c t u r e w i d t h ( c f .
section 4.3.4.4.1.2.). As f l u i d l o s s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h a t t h e c r a c k t i p , the
p r o p p a n t - l a d e n s l u r r y c a t c h e s u p w i t h t h e f r a c t u r e t i p where i t i d e a l l y s h o u l d
have a r r i v e d a t t h e end o f t h e t r e a t m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . 2 . 2 . ) . Useful in-
f o r m a t i o n a b o u t f l u i d l o s s i s g i v e n b y t h e p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e p a t t e r n ( c f . sec-
t i o n 6.2.4.2.).

F l u i d e f f i c i e n c y i s t h e f r a c t i o n o f t h e i n j e c t e d volume t h a t i s i n t h e c r a c k
a t t h e t i m e i n j e c t i o n s t o p s , and t h e r e m a i n i n g f r a c t i o n i s l o s t t o t h e f o r m a -
t i o n b y f l u i d l o s s (NOLTE 1984 a ) . Because f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d
f o r a s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t i n d e p e n d e n t o f any f r a c t u r e model, t h e p r o s p e c t a r i -
ses t h a t t h e e f f i c i e n c y f o r a c a l i b r a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s h o u l d be u s e d t o d e s i g n a
s u b s e q u e n t s t i m u l a t i o n j o b i n c l u d i n g pad s i z e and optimum p r o p p a n t s c h e d u l e com-
p l e t e l y w i t h o u t t h e need f o r a model and such a s s o c i a t e d p a r a m e t e r s as h e i g h t ,
l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t and v i s c o s i t y . T h i s w o u l d be e s p e c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e f o r t r e a t -
ments i n new p r o s p e c t a r e a s where l i t t l e i f any i n f o r m a t i o n may b e a v a i l a b l e t o
d e t e r m i n e w h a t model o r a s s o c i a t e d p a r a m e t e r s a r e a p p r o p r i a t e . F l u i d e f f i c i e n c y
c a n be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m p r e s s u r e - d e c l i n e a n a l y s i s f o r a m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n
treatment performed b e f o r e t h e actual s t i m u l a t i o n j o b which provides i n f e r r e d
v a l u e s o f f l u i d - l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t and f r a c t u r e w i d t h and o e n e t r a t i o n .

4.3.4.6.4. Combined f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e and g e l breaker

CANTU & BOYD ( 1 9 8 8 ) p r e s e n t a n o r g a n i c a c i d c o n d e n s a t i o n p r o d u c t b e i n g a p o -
l y e s t e r as a combined f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e and g e l b r e a k e r f o r f r a c t u -
r i n g f l u i d s . The o r g a n i c e s t e r exposes i n c r e a s i n g a c i d f u n c t i o n a l g r o u p s when
d e g r a d e d t o s o l u b l e monomers a t t e m p e r a t u r e s above 150 OF f o l l o w i n g t h e f r a c t u -
r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t , and t h e r e f o r e t h e d e g r a d e d a d d i t i v e imposes o n l y m i -
n i m a l f o r m a t i o n damage. Some a s p e c t s o f p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y r e t a i n m e n t due t o
s e c o n d a r y f i l t e r cake d i s s o l u t i o n , p o l y e s t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n and f i l t e r c a k e r e -
s o r p t i o n , and d e g r a d a b l e p o l y e s t e r v s . 100 mesh sand a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.3.4.6.4.1. Proppant permeabi 1i t y retainment

due t o secondary f i l t e r cake d i s s o l u t i o n

The h i g h - a c i d - c o n t e n t d e g r a d a t i o n p r o d u c t b r e a k s t h e l i n e a r a n d / o r c r o s s l i n -
k e d g e l u s e d i n t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and e f f e c t i v e l y c l e a n s t h e p r o p p a n t p a c k -
age w h i c h s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e s f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , w i t h t h e p o l y m e r b r e a k -
down b e i n g m a i n l y a consequence o f d e c r e a s i n g pH caused b y t h e d e g r a d e d p a r t s
o f t h e o r g a n i c a c i d p a r t i c u l a t e s and t a k i n g p l a c e b y backbone c l e a v a g e (TYSSEE
& VETTER 1 9 8 1 ) . T h e r e f o r e s e c o n d a r y f i l t e r c a k e d i s s o l u t i o n r e i n s t a l l s p r i m a r y
proppant permeability which thus i s r e t a i n e d i n the l a t e r stage o f t h e t r e a t -
m e n t i n c o n t r a s t t o c o n v e n t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n s where g e l f i l t e r c a k e p r e c i p i t a t i o n
d e s t r o y s p r o p p a n t pack p e r m e a b i l i t y b y embedment. Replacement o f t h e common s i -
l i c a f l o u r as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e b y t h e p o l y e s t e r c a n r e s u l t i n more t h a n
 459

200 % i n c r e a s e i n f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y (CANTU & BOYD 1988)

and i n l e a k o f f c o n t r o l performance as good as o r b e t t e r than w i t h s i l i c a f l o u r
i n c r o s s l i n k e d and l i n e a r g e l s as w e l l as n i t r o g e n foams.

The p a r t i c u l a t e p o l y e s t e r i s c o n c e n t r a t e d and r e t a i n e d i n t h e g e l f i l t e r
cake as t h e f l u i d s l e a k s o f f i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n , w i t h f i l t e r cake cleanup t h u s
b e i n g much more e f f i c i e n t w i t h a combined f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e and g e l
breaker, because c o n v e n t i o n a l w a t e r - s o l u b l e g e l b r e a k e r s l e a k o f f i n t o t h e r e -
s e r v o i r m a t r i x more e a s i l y . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l i s u n d e r l i -
ned by t h e f a c t t h a t f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s must have a minimum l e a k o f f w h i l e t r a n s -
p o r t i n g proppants i n o r d e r t o achieve an e f f e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t .

F l u i d s c o n t a i n i n g p o l y e s t e r a d d i t i v e s can r e t a i n a l l o f t h e i n i t i a l proppant
p e r m e a b i l i t y , whereas t h e s i l i c a f l o u r g e l b r e a k e r system may o n l y l e a v e
10 - 15 % o f o r i g i n a l p r o p p a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y even w i t h excess b r e a k e r c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n i n t h e s l u r r y volume ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.10. and 4 . 1 2 . 1 . 1 . ) . This i n d i c a t e s
t h a t i n o r d e r t o e f f e c t i v e l y break r e s i d u a l g e l s i n f r a c t u r e systems, i t i s i m -
p o r t a n t t o p l a c e t h e g e l b r e a k e r s p r o p e r l y i n t h e f i l t e r cake. C o n v e n t i o n a l s i -
l i c a f l o u r / g e l b r e a k e r systems can o n l y approach t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e newly
i n t r o d u c e d p o l y e s t e r a d d i t i v e i f a b t . 5 % d i e s e l i s added t o t h e m i x t u r e , b u t
i n any case t h e p o l y e s t e r i s s t i l l s l i g h t l y b e t t e r p e r f o r m i n g . A d d i t i o n o f 5 %
d i e s e l t o t h e p o l y e s t e r m i x t u r e , however, d r a s t i c a l l y reduces and d e l a y s a c t i v i -
t y and e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e l a t t e r .

4.3.4.6.4.2. Polyester concentration and filter cake resorption

The p o l y e s t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e f i l t e r cake i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t i n g e l
b r e a k i n g as evidenced by i n c r e a s i n g proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y w i t h h i g h e r p o l y e s t e r
s a t u r a t i o n (CANTU & BOYD 1988). The h i g h e r t h e p o l y e s t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h e
more a c i d i s r e l e a s e d as t h e p a r t i c l e s degrade t o s o l u b l e monomers, and w i t h de-
c r e a s i n g pH o f t h e f i l t e r cake, polymer breakdown l e a d i n g t o f i l t e r cake r e s o r p -
t i o n begins. The f l u i d b u f f e r i n g c a p a c i t y a l s o determines t h e r a t e a t w h i c h g e l
b r e a k i n g t a k e s p l a c e . I f t h e f l u i d s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p o l y e s t e r p a r t i c u l a t e s has a
h i g h b u f f e r i n g c a p a c i t y , t h e pH change w i l l be l i m i t e d due t o consumption o f
t h e s o l u b l e a c i d by t h e b u f f e r and t h u s f i l t e r cake cleanup i s s l o w e r .

Proper f l u i d c o n d i t i o n i n g and optimum p o l y e s t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n g i v e s r i s e t o

complete cleanup o f t h e f i l t e r cake by b r e a k i n g i n t o s o l u b l e monomers, and no
f i l t e r cake l a y e r i s l e f t i n t o which p r o p p a n t embedment c o u l d t a k e p l a c e . T h i s
removal o f t h e f i l t e r cake i n an advanced s t a g e o f t h e t r e a t m e n t when i t has
s u c c e s s f u l l y f u l f i l l e d i t s t a s k t o l i m i t f l u i d l o s s and i s no l o n g e r needed i s
a v e r y e f f e c t i v e mechanism t o l i q u i d a t e t h e f o r m a t i o n damage e f f e c t which t h e
f i l t e r cake had provoked so f a r and t o l e a v e t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s c o m p l e t e l y un-
i m p a i r e d t h a t a l s o does n o t c r e a t e any r e m a i n i n g damage o f t h e p r o p p a n t package
and t h e r e f o r e guarantees maximum f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
1.4.10.3.5.4.).

4.3.4.6.4.3. Degradable polyester vs. 100 mesh sand

Gel b r e a k i n g and f i l t e r cake cleanup by t h e p o l y e s t e r a r e a f u n c t i o n o f tem-
p e r a t u r e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n and f l u i d pH. F l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l by n o n - i o n i c degra-
d a b l e p l a t e l e t a d d i t i v e s i s d e s c r i b e d by NORTHCUTT, ROBERTSON & HANNAH ( 1 9 8 8 ) .
Such degradable f l u i d - l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s which l a t e r a r e c o m p l e t e l y d i s s o l v e d o r
d i s i n t e g r a t e d and removed c o u l d a l s o be a good approach f o r d u a l f l u i d - l o s s con-
trol i n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s (WARPINSKI 1988 a; c f . s e c t i o n s
4.8.8.3.1.2. and 4.8.8.3.2.3.) because i n c o n t r a s t t o 100 mesh sand, t h e y do
n o t decrease p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.11.2.1.). On t h e o t h e r
hand, however, absence o f m i c r o p r o p p a n t s p l u g g i n g t h e h a i r l i n e c r a c k s c o u l d r e -
s u l t i n t h e i r c l o s u r e w i t h d e c l i n i n g p r e s s u r e and t h u s no l o n g e r s a t i s f a c t o r y
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o gas p r o d u c t i o n .
 460

T h e r e f o r e i t i s d e s i r a b l e i n deep and h i g h - p r e s s u r e r e s e r v o i r s t o i n s e r t 100

mesh m i c r o p r o p p a n t s i n t o t h e n a t u r a l j o i n t l e t s i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e f l o w o f gas
t h r o u g h t h e f i s s u r e s i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e , w i t h an improvement i n p a y zones w i t h
h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s b e i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f 100 mesh i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h -
s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s once t h i s g r a i n s i z e becomes c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i -
l a b l e (NORTHCUTT, ROBERTSON & HANNAH 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . An a t t r a c -
t i v e i n t e r m e d i a t e s o l u t i o n w o u l d be r e s i n - c o a t e d 100 mesh sand w h i c h s i m i l a r l y
as c o n v e n t i o n a l 100 mesh sand has a b t . 5 - 7 d a r c y p e r m e a b i l i t y a t a l m o s t any
c l o s u r e s t r e s s , w i t h a g g r e g a t i o n o f r e s i n f i l m s l o c k i n g t h e g r a i n package i n
p l a c e i f m i c r o p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k f r o m h a i r l i n e c r a c k s i s u n a c c e p t a b l e (FRACFAX
1988 f ) . VARGAS & OHLSON ( 1 9 8 6 ) d i s c u s s s u i t a b l e b r e a k e r s f o r g r a v e l - p a c k com-
pletion fluids.

4.3.5. Ultra-high fracture conductivity achievement

U l t r a - h i g h f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s c a n be a c h i e v e d w i t h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f
v e r y h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s and e x t r a l a r g e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s (BARBY &
BARBEE 1987) o r b y m i x i n g o f a n g u l a r and r o u n d p r o p p a n t g r a i n s (LARSEN & SMITH
1985).

4.3.5.1. Extraordinarily large proppant grain size

The h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e s s e n t i a l t o be r e a c h e d i n
high-permeability r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.6.1.). Large proppant diameters o f
8 / 1 2 o r 6 / 1 0 r e s u l t i n n e g l i g i b l e embedment e v e n i n h a r d , w e l l - c e m e n t e d r e s e r -
v o i r s . The d a n g e r o f w e l l b o r e s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e i n such j o b s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
h i g h i f f r a c t u r e w i d t h i s n o t l a r g e enough t o a c c e p t t h e h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
and l a r g e s i z e s o f p r o p p a n t s , and i n o r d e r t o p e r f o r m a smooth t r e a t m e n t , o f t e n
h i g h e r pumping r a t e s a r e r e q u i r e d , w i t h t h e n c a u t i o n h a v i n g t o be e x e r c i s e d
t h a t e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t g r o w t h does n o t o c c u r ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 5 .
and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . O t h e r o p e r a t i o n a l drawbacks a r e t h a t t h e consequences o f mecha-
n i c a l p r o b l e m s such as e q u i p m e n t f a i l u r e o r e n g i n e e r i n g e r r o r s i n t h e f r a c t u r e
d e s i g n a r e u s u a l l y u n f o r g i v i n g and i r r e v e r s i b l e i n t h e s e j o b s r e q u i r i n g a h i g h
l e v e l and s t a n d a r d (BARBY & BARBEE 1 9 8 7 ) .

The g a i n i n f l u i d d e n s i t y w i t h i n c r e a s e d p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h o u l d cause
a s i g n i f i c a n t n e t r e d u c t i o n i n pumping p r e s s u r e , w i t h t h e absence o f p r e s s u r e
decrease thus e a r l y i n d i c a t i , n g a premature screenout. I n terms o f proppant f l o w -
back, t h e l a r g e r t h e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e , t h e more s t a b l e i s t h e package i n t h e
f r a c t u r e and p r o p p a n t back p r o d u c t i o n i s r e d u c e d u n l e s s c o a r s e a b r a s i v e p r o p -
p a n t s e r o d e t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e a t t h e w e l l b o r e upon e n t r y o r l a r g e - v o l u m e a c i d i -
z i n g a n n i h i l a t e s t h e f r a c t u r e mouth. Some a d v a n t a g e s and drawbacks o f u l t r a -
h i g h f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y achievement w i t h e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y l a r g e proppant
g r a i n s i z e s a r e summarized as f o l l o w s .

4.3.5.1.1. Advantages
I n terms o f c o n d u c t i v i t y maximization, 6/10 i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants
a t 1 l b / f t 2 ( 5 kg/m2; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 1 . 1 . ) c o n c e n t r a t i o n d i s p l a y g r e a t e r c o n -
d u c t i v i t y t h a n 8 / 1 2 p a r t i c l e s a t 2 l b / f t 2 ( 1 0 kg/m2) s a t u r a t i o n , w i t h t h u s o n l y
h a l f t h e volume o f 6 / 1 0 p r o p p a n t s b e i n g needed t o a c h i e v e more c o n d u c t i v i t y
t h a n w i t h 8 / 1 2 p r o p p a n t s (BARBY & BARBEE 1 9 8 7 ) . The l o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 6 / 1 0
p r o p p a n t s w o u l d be e a s i e r o n t h e pumping e q u i p m e n t , l e a v e l e s s p r o p p a n t i n t h e
f r a c t u r e mouth n e a r t h e w e l l b o r e t h a t c o u l d be s u b j e c t e d t o f l o w b a c k , and d e l i -
ver the equivalent production r a t e a t lower costs. A general g u i d e l i n e f o r f r a c -
t u r e design i s t h a t i f a f o r m a t i o n can accept h i g h e r s a t u r a t i o n s o f s m a l l e r
proppants, i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o place lower concentrations o f l a r g e r prop-
p a n t s . Examples o f f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n o f 8 / 1 2 mesh p r o p p a n t s i n o i l r e s e r v o i r s
 461

where b o t h l o n g l o w - c o n d u c t i v i t y and s h o r t h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y fractures have

been c r e a t e d a r e d e s c r i b e d by BRITT & LARSEN (1986).

F r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y and t h u s p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y l a y o u t s h o u l d be done
based on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a c o n d u c t i v i t y c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r o f 0.5 i n o r d e r t o
account f o r t h e performance d i f f e r e n c e o f proppants i n l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d
(POULSEN & SOLIMAN 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.10.3.). Improvement o f f r a c t u r e f l o w
c a p a c i t y can be achieved by i n c r e a s i n g t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n and/or by choosing a h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y p r o p p a n t t y p e and/or g r a i n s i z e .
F a i l u r e o f r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between apparent and e f f e c t i v e prop-
p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y r e s u l t i n underdesign o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t . L a r g e r
g r a i n s i z e s o f h i g h e r - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t t y p e s p r o v i d e g r e a t e r f r a c t u r e f l o w capa-
c i t y t h a t would n o t be as a f f e c t e d by f o r m a t i o n f i n e s which a r e r e l e a s e d as
s m a l l e r l o w e r - q u a l i t y proppants a r e c r u s h i n g due t o i n c r e a s i n g c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e
(CROSS & SHELDON 1977).

4.3.5.1.2. Drawbacks
Drawbacks o f e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y l a r g e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s a r e c r u s h i n g and em-
bedment ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.5.1.). Closure stress a f f e c t s f i r s t coarser grains o f
a g i v e n t y p e o f proppants due t o t h e l a r g e r s u r f a c e o f a t t a c k and t h u s c r u s h i n g
o f l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s b e g i n s e a r l i e r as compared t o s m a l l e r g r a i n s , and embedment
i n s o f t f o r m a t i o n s a l s o s t a r t s w i t h c o a r s e r p a r t i c l e s due t o t h e i r l o w e r q u a n t i -
t y and l e s s dense package w i t h r e s p e c t t o f i n e r g r a i n s . N e t p r e s e n t v a l u e
( b e i n g d e f i n e d as e x t r a hydrocarbon revenue by s t i m u l a t i o n minus t r e a t m e n t
c o s t ; c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.12.1. and 4.8.11.4.) r i s e s w i t h increasing proppant
g r a i n s i z e , p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and f r a c t u r e h a l f - l e n g t h . L a r g e r p r o p p a n t
g r a i n s i z e , however, r e q u i r e s m u l t i l a y e r p r o p p i n g i n o r d e r t o s u f f i c i e n t l y de-
crease d e t e r i o r a t i o n by embedment. I n narrower f r a c t u r e s , a b e t t e r package p e r -
m e a b i l i t y can be achieved w i t h s m a l l e r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s . O t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h
l a r g e - d i a m e t e r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s a r e p a r t i c l e b r i d g i n g i n p e r f o r a t i o n s and f r a c -
t u r e r e s u l t i n g i n s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e o f t h e j o b ( c f . s e c t i o n s 5.6. and
6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . NIEMEYER & REINART (1986) document comparative j o b d e s i g n e v a l u a -
t i o n which e x h i b i t s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s c r e e n o u t r a t e s f o r 12/20 mesh w i t h r e -
s p e c t t o 20/40 mesh proppants under t h e same w e l l c o n d i t i o n s .

An o p e r a t i o n a l drawback can o c c u r i n s o f t u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sands, because

t a i l s o f 8/16 o r 10/20 mesh proppants f o l l o w i n g pumping o f 20/40 mesh m a t e r i a l
m i g h t t o l a r g e amounts remain w i t h i n t h e w e l l b o r e . The s i t u a t i o n o f coarse
t a i l - i n l o t s b e i n g l e f t i n t h e c a s i n g can be avoided by i n c r e a s i n g t h e share o f
t h e t a i l i n t h e whole t r e a t m e n t q u a n t i t y (LAMBERT, DOLAN E GALLUS 1983; c f . sec-
t i o n 2.4.1.2.3.).

4.3.5.2. Mixing o f round and angular proppant grains

M a x i m i z a t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n - f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t and f r a c t u r e f l o w
c a p a c i t y can f u r t h e r be done by m i x i n g o f round and a n g u l a r p r o p p a n t o r sand
g r a i n s , because t h e i n c r e a s e d v o i d space o f a r o u n d - a n g u l a r g r a i n b l e n d enhan-
ces t h e performance o f t h e c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h a t o f t h e i n g r e d i e n t s
a l o n e (LARSEN & SMITH 1985). L a b o r a t o r y experiments on 20/40 sand have r e v e a l e d
t h a t o f a l l t h e m i x t u r e s t e s t e d , a 50 : 50 round-angular b l e n d has on t h e ave-
rage t h e h i g h e s t r e l a t i v e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y t h r o u g h o u t a l l c l o s u r e s t r e s s
l e v e l s up t o 6,000 p s i ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.11.3.). Therefore angular proppant
g r a i n s i n t e r s p e r s e d i n t o round g r a i n p o p u l a t i o n s would i n c r e a s e s t a b i l i t y o f
t h e package and improve t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e proppant wedge w i t h i n t h e f r a c -
ture.

O t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f maximizing f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y a r e p r o p p a n t banking
and p r o p p a n t p i l l a r i n g i n c l u d i n g c r e a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l open f l o w
channels within the fracture, r e s p e c t i v e l y ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.4. and
 462

4.3.2.2.). PAULS, VENDITTO, CHISHOLM, HOLTMYER & GREGORCZYK ( 1 9 8 5 ) i l l u s t r a t e

t h e b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t o f a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m a x i m i z i n g f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and p r o p -
p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n . The l o n g c r a c k s c o n t a c t a d d i t i o n a l r e s e r v e s and t h e h i g h
proppant s a t u r a t i o n s n o t o n l y produce h i g h l y - c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e s , b u t a l s o
s e t t l e d bank h e i g h t s t h a t a r e c a p a b l e o f i n f i l l i n g t h e c r a c k b o t h b e l o w and
through the r e s e r v o i r .

4.3.6. Uniform vs. changing fracture conductivity

SOLIMAN ( 1 9 8 6 b ) e v a l u a t e s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e e f f e c t i v i t y o f u n i f o r m and chan-
g i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u r e s and c o n c l u d e s t h a t a c h a n g i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y c r a c k be-
haves i n many r e s p e c t s as an u n i f o r m and a v e r a g e c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u r e . The ap-
p a r e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e w h o l e f r a c t u r e depends upon c o n d u c t i v i t y d i s t r i b u -
t i o n and n o t j u s t a v e r a g e c o n d u c t i v i t y . The r e a s o n why d e c r e a s i n g and u n i f o r m
c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u r e s a r e a l m o s t e q u i v a l e n t i n e f f e c t i s t h a t t h e amount o f
f l u i d passing through a section o f the crack increases nearer t o the wellbore,
and t h e r e f o r e i n c a s e o f u n i f o r m f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , the pressure gradient
a l o n g t h e c r a c k i n c r e a s e s as i t n e a r s t h e w e l l b o r e . F u r t h e r away f r o m t h e w e l l -
bore, t h i s pressure g r a d i e n t can be so small t h a t decreasing f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i -
v i t y w o u l d n o t a p p r e c i a b l y i n c r e a s e t o t a l p r e s s u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e c r a c k . Un-
l e s s f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s c h a n g i n g v e r y q u i c k l y , a f r a c t u r e may a p p e a r t o
be u n i f o r m , and w e l l t e s t a n a l y s i s may n e v e r d e t e c t c h a n g i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y i n -
side a crack.

Thus a n u n i f o r m h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y i n s i d e t h e f r a c t u r e may n o t b e a l w a y s ne-

c e s s a r y . U s u a l l y c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y n e a r t h e w e l l b o r e i s h i g h , and t h e p r e s s u r e
g r a d i e n t i n s i d e t h e f r a c t u r e i s much l o w e r t h a n i t s g r a d i e n t i n t h e f o r m a t i o n .
I f t h i s c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y n e a r t h e w e l l b o r e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be s u f f i c i e n t t o
p r o d u c e a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m a t i o n , t h e n i t i s n o t i n d i s p e n s i b l e t o m a i n t a i n such a
c o n d u c t i v i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e c r a c k . As f l o w r a t e t h r o u g h t h e f r a c t u r e d e c r e a s e s
w i t h d i s t a n c e away f r o m t h e w e l l , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n o n l y t h e l o w
pressure g r a d i e n t . T h i s constant pressure g r a d i e n t i s achieved through decreas-
i n g crack conductivity, w i t h therefore instead o f using a constant c o n d u c t i v i t y
f r a c t u r e design, a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t b e i n g more e f f i -
c i e n t . T h i s has s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t on p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y and t h u s s i z e and expen-
ses o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t , as a c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t f r a c t u r e may
r e q u i r e l e s s t h a n h a l f o f t h e p r o p p a n t volume needed f o r a c o n s t a n t c o n d u c t i v i -
t y c r a c k . A s p e c t s o f c h a n g i n g f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y and n o n - u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u -
t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y GUPPY, CINCO-LEY & RAMEY ( 1 9 8 0 ) and BENNETT, ROSATO,
REYNOLDS & RAGHAVAN ( 1 9 8 1 ) .
 463

4.4. Targets o f unconventional gas stimulation

T a r g e t s o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas s t i m u l a t i o n comprise c h i e f l y t i g h t gas sand-
stone r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 . ) which a r e a l r e a d y e x p l o i t e d i n s e v e r a l
p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d t o v a r i o u s degree, w i t h t h e c u r r e n t c e n t r e s b e i n g USA and
Western Europe. I n a d d i t i o n t o l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y c l a s t i c g a s - b e a r i n g sequences,
some o t h e r m a r g i n a l t a r g e t s f o r s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on hydrau-
l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e coming y e a r s i n c l u d e geopressured r e s e r v o i r s ,
c o a l seams, shales, h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e r e s e r v o i r s , and gas condensate r e s e r v o i r s .
Emphasis i s p u t on these v a r i o u s sources o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas because o f t h e i r
a l r e a d y c u r r e n t importance i n p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d (LINDEN 1985) and t h e i r i n c r e a -
s i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e energy s u p p l y spectrum u n t i l t h e y e a r 2000, w i t h t h e
share o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas i n t h e w o r l d gas d e l i v e r y b e i n g a b l e t o be f o r e c a s -
t e d as r a n g i n g i n t h e o r d e r o f 10 - 30 % (LIESEN 1985, LINDEN 1985) o r as b e i n g
a b t . 30 % and 50 % by t h e y e a r s 2000 and 2020, r e s p e c t i v e l y (BAKER 1981). An
overview o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l n a t u r a l gas i n t h e USA i s g i v e n by DOE (1984) and
KUUSKRAA & HAAS ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

The low p e r m e a b i l i t y o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e s e r v o i r s imposes severe r e s t r i c -

t i o n s on t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e gas t o m i g r a t e a p p r e c i a b l e d i s t a n c e s (LAW, POLLAS-
TRO & K E I G H I N 1986). T h e r e f o r e g e o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s such as temporal r e l a t i o n s h i p
o f hydrocarbon g e n e r a t i o n and m i g r a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o development o f s t r u c t u -
r a l and s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l t r a p s a r e n o t as i m p o r t a n t as i n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e s e r -
v o i r s . The more i m p o r t a n t g e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e s e r -
v o i r s a r e source rock q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y , o r g a n i c m a t u r a t i o n , thermal h i s t o -
ry, and d i s t r i b u t i o n and n a t u r e o f p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y ( c f . a l s o SPENCER
1985; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 . ) .

Unconventional gas p r o s p e c t s a r e m a i n l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by m a j o r g e o l o g i c a l
and e n g i n e e r i n g c h a l l e n g e s t h a t need t o be f a c e d i n t r a n s l a t i n g these p o t e n t i a l
r e s o u r c e s i n t o e c o n o m i c a l l y proven r e s e r v e s (KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988). Improved ad-
vances i n geosciences, s t r a t e g i c a l w e l l placement, and enhanced h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g technology a r e r e q u i r e d t o overcome t h e n a t u r a l g e o l o g i c a l d i s -
c o n t i n u i t i e s and p e r m e a b i l i t y b a r r i e r s impeding t h e a b i l i t y o f t r a d i t i o n a l i n -
f i l l d r i l l i n g t o r e c o v e r t h e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas r e s o u r c e s . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s -
s i o n i n c l u d e s h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g aspects o f t i g h t gas sandstones,
geopressured r e s e r v o i r s , c o a l seams, s h a l e s and h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e r e s e r v o i r s .
Some comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on gas condensate r e s e r v o i r s .

4.4.1. Tight gas sandstones

T i g h t gas sandstones a r e t h e most p r o m i n e n t unconventional gas r e s e r v o i r s as
w e l l as t h e l a r g e s t and most w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d o f t h e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y n a t u r a l
gas r e s o u r c e s (KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988) and a r e a l r e a d y t h e f o c u s o f e x p l o r a t i o n
and p r o d u c t i o n s i n c e some t i m e . T i g h t gas sandstones have p r o v i d e d b o t h i n USA
and Europe a l r e a d y f r e q u e n t l y t h e stage f o r e x e c u t i o n o f s p e c t a c u l a r l a r g e - s c a -
l e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.4.1.) w h i c h repeated-
l y s e t w o r l d r e c o r d s i n terms o f f l u i d and proppant q u a n t i t y pumped as w e l l as
o p e r a t i o n expenses ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 1 . 1 . 4 . and 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) . The l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y
( l e s s t h a n 0 . 1 md) m a t r i x can o n l y l i b e r a t e t h e entrapped gas i n s u f f i c i e n t
amounts i f i n t e r s e c t e d by a d e e p l y p e n e t r a t i n g l o n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e t h a t
crosses as much r o c k m a t r i x as p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o maximize gas c o l l e c t i o n
a l o n g t h e h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y pathway o f t h e propped f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) . Large t r e a t m e n t volumes, p r o p e r l y p l a c e d and c o n t r o l l e d f r a c t u r e s ,
and s a t i s f a c t o r y s u p p o r t o f t h e c r a c k by p r e s s u r e - r e s i s t a n t p r o p p a n t s a r e essen-
t i a l f o r a c h i e v i n g e c o n o m i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e r a t e s o f gas p r o d u c t i o n . The o u t l i n e
as f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a t e s on t i g h t gas sand body morphology and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i m p o r t a n t t i g h t gas sand f o r m a t i o n s and
basins, i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t i g h t gas sands and c o a l seams, and o v e r h y d r o s t a -
t i c r e s e r v o i r pressure.
 464

4.4.1.1. Tight gas sand body morphology

and significance of hydraulic fracturing
T i g h t gas sands f o r m blanket-shaped o r l e n t i c u l a r b o d i e s ( c f . s e c t i o n
3.4.1.), w i t h b o t h t y p e s r e q u i r i n g h y d r a u l i c g e n e r a t i o n o f r i b b o n - and wedge-
l i k e h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y passageways t h r o u g h which t h e gas can f l o w f r o m t h e
t i g h t m a t r i x t o t h e w e l l b o r e (SPENCER 1983, DOE 1984). L e n t i c u l a r sand b o d i e s
( c f . p l a t e s I I / 7 - 8, 111/4, V/4 and V I I / 3 ) n e c e s s i t a t e i n a d d i t i o n l i n k i n g o f
v a r i o u s i s o l a t e d sand l e n s e s t o g e t h e r along an e x t e n s i v e f r a c t u r e i n o r d e r t o
s u s t a i n s u f f i c i e n t p r o d u c t i o n o v e r t h e economical l i f e o f t h e p r o j e c t ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.10.2.1.). L o c a t i o n o f d i s c r e t e sand lenses can be performed by 3-D r e -
f l e c t i o n s e i s m i c s e c t i o n e v a l u a t i o n , v e r t i c a l s e i s m i c b o r e h o l e p r o f i l i n g and
c r o s s - w e l l b o r e s e i s m i c c h e c k i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . ) . O t h e r heterogeneous
g e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s such as u n c o n f o r m i t i e s and d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s ( c f . p l a t e I )
f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f n a t u r a l gas r e s o u r c e s i n t i g h t sandsto-
nes which as a consequence o f t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n r e p r e s e n t an a r b i t r a r y d e l i n e a -
t i o n o f a n a t u r a l g e o l o g i c a l c o n t i n u o u s p e r m e a b i l i t y spectrum o f t h e r e s e r v o i r
r o c k s . Aspects o f t i g h t gas sandstone r e s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n s
1.1.1., 2.4.1. and 3.4. An overview o f t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t i g h t gas sands i s g i -
ven by HAAS, BRASHEAR & MORRA ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

Massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g has a l r e a d y i n t h e e a r l y 1970's been i d e n t i f i e d

as a p r o m i s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e t e c h n o l o g y f o r economical development o f t i g h t gas
r e s e r v o i r s (KUUSKRAA, BRASHEAR, ELKINS & MORRA 1979). T e c h n o l o g i c a l improve-
ments which have t h e l a r g e s t impact on u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y and n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e
i n c l u d e improved a b i l i t y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e and c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e t i g h t pay zones,
c a p a c i t y t o s t i m u l a t e m u l t i p l e r e s e r v o i r s f o r a common w e l l b o r e ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.2.1.3.), improved p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f f r a c t u r e performance, i n c r e a s e d e f f e c t i -
v e l y propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) , a b i l i t y f o r f r a c t u r e s t o i n -
t e r s e c t lenses n o t d i r e c t l y i n contact w i t h the w e l l ( c f . section 4.10.2.1.),
and optimizing field development c o m p r i s i n g w e l l spacing ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 1 0 . 5 . 1 . ) , w e l l p a t t e r n and f r a c t u r e s i z e .

4.4.1.2. Distribution of important

tight gas sand formation and basins
The t i g h t gas sand b a s i n s i n t h e USA a r e expected t o have more than 400 T c f
(10,000 B i l l . m3) c u m u l a t i v e r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s (OFFICE OF TECHNOLOGY ASSESS-
MENT 1985). Some o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t t i g h t gas sand b a s i n s a r e N o r t h e r n G r e a t
P l a i n s / W i l l i s t o n B a s i n (138 T c f o r 3,450 B i l l . m3 gas i n p l a c e ) , G r e a t e r Green
R i v e r BasinlWyoming and Colorado (135 T c f o r 3,375 B i l l . m3 GIP), Piceance
Creek Basin/Utah and Colorado ( 4 9 T c f o r 1,225 B i l l . m3 GIP), Wind R i v e r B a s i n /
Wyoming (34 T c f o r 850 B i l l . m3 GIP), C o t t o n V a l l e y Basin/Texas and L o u i s i a n a
( 2 2 T c f o r 550 B i l l . m3 GIP), U i n t a Basin/Utah and Colorado ( 2 1 T c f o r 525
B i l l . m3 GIP), Edwards L i n e Basin/Texas ( 1 4 T c f o r 350 B i l l . m3 GIP), Denver Ba-
s i n / C o l o r a d o , Nebraska and Wyoming ( 1 3 T c f o r 325 B i l l . m3 GIP), Val Verde Ba-
sin/Texas ( 5 T c f o r 125 B i l l . m3 GIP), and San Juan Basin/New Mexico and C o l o r a -
do ( 3 T c f o r 75 B i l l . m3 G I P ; KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988). The maximum t e c h n i c a l l y r e -
c o v e r a b l e gas r e s e r v e i n t h e t i g h t gas sandstone r e s o u r c e i s o v e r 600 T c f o r
15,000 B i l l . m3 (NORTHROP & FROHNE 1988).

Some o f t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t t i g h t gas sands i n t h e USA a r e i n t h e Pennsylva-

n i a n t h e Atoka F o r m a t i o n i n New Mexico, and t h e C l e v e l a n d and Morrow F o r m a t i o n s
i n t h e Anadarko Basin/Oklahoma and Texas. The Upper J u r a s s i c i n c l u d e s t h e Cot-
t o n V a l l e y Sandstone ( S c h u l e r F o r m a t i o n ) i n t h e E a s t Texas BasinfTexas and L o u i -
siana, and t h e Lower Cretaceous c o n t a i n s t h e Muddy "J" and t h e Code11 Sandsto-
nes i n t h e Denver-Julesburg Basin/Colorado, t h e T r a v i s Peak (Hosston) F o r m a t i o n
i n t h e E a s t Texas Basin/Texas and L o u i s i a n a , and the Dakota Sandstone i n t h e
San Juan Basin/New Mexico. The Upper Cretaceous comprises t h e Corcoran, Cozzet-
t e and R o l l i n s Sandstones i n t h e Mesaverde Group i n t h e Piceance Creek Basin/Co-
 465

l o r a d o and G r e a t e r Green R i v e r BasinlWyoming, Utah and Colorado. The Upper Cre-

taceous Mesaverde Group c o n s i s t s o f a l o w e r m a r g i n a l marine s e c t i o n w i t h m o s t l y
b l a n k e t r e s e r v o i r s (Corcoran, C o z z e t t e and R o l l i n s Sandstones) and an upper f l u -
v i a l t o d e l t a i c and p a l u d a l p a r t w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y l e n t i c u l a r pay zones (JOHN-
SON & N U C C I O 1986).

F u r t h e r Upper Cretaceous r e s e r v o i r s a r e t h e N i o b r a r a and Greenhorn Forma-

t i o n s i n Rocky Mountains and G r e a t P l a i n s area/Colorado, Kansas and Nebraska;
t h e Olmos F o r m a t i o n i n t h e M a v e r i c k Basin/Texas, t h e F r o n t i e r and Almond Forma-
t i o n s i n t h e G r e a t e r Green R i v e r Basin/Wyoming, U t a h and Colorado; and t h e Tu-
scher F o r m a t i o n i n t h e E a s t e r n U i n t a Basin/Utah. The Lower T e r t i a r y f i n a l l y
bears t h e Wasatch and Green R i v e r Formations i n Piceance Creek B a s i n / C o l o r a d o
and E a s t e r n U i n t a Basin/Utah ( c o m p i l e d f r o m SPENCER & MAST 1986). The most i m -
p o r t a n t t i g h t gas sands i n Europe a r e R o t l i e g e n d and Upper C a r b o n i f e r o u s i n
N o r t h Sea and onshore N e t h e r l a n d s and Germany FRG ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1. and chap-
t e r 3).

4.4.1.3. Interrelationship o f tight gas sands and coal seams

T i g h t gas sands a r e f r e q u e n t l y i n t e r r e l a t e d w i t h c o a l seams r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e
p r i m a r y sources and r e s e r v o i r s o f n a t u r a l gas which p a r t i a l l y l a t e r m i g r a t e d
and accumulated s e c o n d a r i l y i n sandstone pays (RIGHTMIRE & CHOATE 1986). The
most prominent examples i n c l u d e t h e San Juan and Piceance Creek Basins i n t h e
Cretaceous o f t h e USA, and t h e Upper C a r b o n i f e r o u s i n N o r t h Sea and a d j o i n i n g
onshore areas i n Europe ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.2.1.). Mass balances r e v e a l t h a t o n l y
s m a l l p o r t i o n s o f t h e l a r g e volumes o f gas generated d u r i n g c o a l i f i c a t i o n remai-
ned w i t h i n t h e c o a l seams themselves, w i t h l a r g e amounts o f a d d i t i o n a l gas ha-
v i n g e m i g r a t e d i n t o a d j a c e n t sandstone r e s e r v o i r s o r escaped t o t h e atmosphere.
As a consequence o f c o n t i n u i t y o f d e p o s i t i o n a l environment, t i g h t gas sand com-
p l e x e s a r e r e a d y r e c i p i e n t s f o r t h e l a r g e volumes o f excess c o a l - b e d gas.

4.4.1.4. Overhydrostatic reservoir pressure

Many Upper Cretaceous and Lower T e r t i a r y t i g h t gas sands i n Colorado, U t a h
and Wyoming i n USA a r e o v e r p r e s s u r e d (LAW, POLLASTRO & K E I G H I N 1986) as a conse-
quence o f gas accumulating a t r a t e s g r e a t e r than t h a t i t i s d e p l e t e d and l o s t
(LAW & DICKINSON 1985). D u r i n g thermal g e n e r a t i o n o f gas, d e w a t e r i n g i s a c c e l e -
r a t e d and w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n i s decreased t o i r r e d u c i b l e l e v e l s which i s immobi-
l e , t h e r e b y p r o d u c i n g a r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e d h y d r o l o g i c a l system i n which t r a n s p o r -
t a t i o n o f d i s s o l v e d m a t e r i a l o u t o f t h e system i s impeded and s i g n i f i c a n t enhan-
cement o f p e r m e a b i l i t y and p o r o s i t y i s p r e c l u d e d . As processes l e a d i n g t o ame-
l i o r a t i o n o f p e r m e a b i l i t y and p o r o s i t y a r e i n e f f e c t i v e , o t h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y - and
p o r o s i t y - r e d u c i n g processes c o n t i n u e , t h u s r e s u l t i n g i n a v e r y l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y
r o c k sequence i n which r a t e s o f gas accumulation exceed r a t e s o f gas d e p l e t i o n .

The gas accumulations a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e presence o f u p - d i p w a t e r - b e a r -

i n g r e s e r v o i r s and down-dip g a s - c o n t a i n i n g pays, and t h e t o p o f t h e overpressu-
r e d g a s - b e a r i n g r e s e r v o i r s c u t s across s t r u c t u r a l and s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l bounda-
r i e s and i s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h any p a r t i c u l a r l i t h o l o g i c a l u n i t . I n t h e deeper
p a r t s o f t h e b a s i n , t h e r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e d n a t u r e o f t h e system imposes severe
r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e gas t o m i g r a t e a p p r e c i a b l e d i s t a n c e s f r o m
t h e i n t e r b e d d e d source r o c k s . The t o p o f o v e r p r e s s u r i n g i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l co-
lumn almost matches w i t h t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f s m e c t i t e i n t o i l l i t e and i s s i -
t u a t e d near t h e zone o f c o e x i s t e n c e o f c h l o r i t e - s m e c t i t e i n r e g u l a r i n t e r s t r a t i -
f i c a t i o n (LAW, POLLASTRO & K E I G H I N 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 3.5.1.).

O t h e r aspects o f o v e r p r e s s u r i n g i n t i g h t gas sands a r e r e p o r t e d by LAW, SPEN-

CER & BOSTICK (1980); LAW (1984) and SPENCER (1984). Together w i t h o t h e r pay zo-
ne t y p e s and gas d i s t r i b u t i o n types, o v e r p r e s s u r e d t i g h t gas sands b e l o n g t o
t h e group o f geopressured r e s e r v o i r s which a r e discussed i n t h e s e c t i o n below.
 466

4.4.2. Geopressured reservoirs

A p a r t f r o m t h i n n e r o r t h i c k e r , s h e e t - t y p e o r l e n t i c u l a r t i g h t gas s a n d s t o -
nes, a n o t h e r m a j o r c h a l l e n g e o f n e c e s s a r y a p p r o a c h i n t h e n e x t y e a r s i s seen i n
g e o p r e s s u r e d r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n where gas i s d i s s o l v e d i n o v e r p r e s s u r e d b r i -
nes o r may a l s o o c c u r as f r e e phase (TUCKER 1979, WEEKS 1 9 7 9 ) . G e o p r e s s u r e d r e -
s e r v o i r s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by abnormally h i g h pore f l u i d pressures exceeding
t h e h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o r a i s e a f l u i d column f r o m t h e s u b s u r f a c e
f o r m a t i o n t o t h e s u r f a c e (DUTTA 1 9 8 6 ) . O v e r p r e s s u r i n g o c c u r s w i t h i n i s o l a t e d
s a n d s t o n e s t h a t a r e encased i n t o t h i c k e r mudstone sequences. Thus t h e f l u i d i n
t h e s a t u r a t e d b u r i e d s e d i m e n t s i s t r a p p e d w i t h i n t h e p o r e spaces and p r e s s u r e
changes f r o m h y d r o s t a t i c t o l i t h o s t a t i c d u r i n g p r o g r e s s i v e b u r i a l (JONES 1969;
SWANSON, BERNARD & OSOBA 1 9 8 6 ) . As a consequence o f h a v i n g p r e s s u r e s g r e a t e r
than normal, geopressured r e s e r v o i r s a r e capable o f p r o d u c t i o n w i t h o u t needing
pumps o r o t h e r e q u i p m e n t t o b r i n g gas and w a t e r t o t h e s u r f a c e , i n c o n t r a s t t o
h y d r o p r e s s u r e d r e s e r v o i r s w i t h a v e r a g e p r e s s u r e w h i c h c o n t a i n a v a s t amount o f
gas t h a t m i g h t be r e c o v e r a b l e b u t w i l l n o t f l o w n a t u r a l l y t o t h e s u r f a c e (GRI
1988 b ) .

R e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g a s p e c t s of g e o p r e s s u r e d f o r m a t i o n s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d
b y T I M K O & FERTL ( 1 9 7 1 ) , ISOKRARI & KNAPP ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; KNAPP, ISOKRARI, GARG & PRIT-
CHETT ( 1 9 7 7 ) ; LAW & SPENCER ( 1 9 8 1 ) , McPEEK ( 1 9 8 1 ) , QUITZAU & BASSIOUNI ( 1 9 8 1 ) ,
SPENCER & LAW ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; DOHERTY, RANDOLPH, ROGERS & POONAWALA ( 1 9 8 2 ) ; QUONG, OWEN
& LOCKE ( 1 9 8 2 ) ; ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & LEE ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; ANDERSON, PETERSON & PARIS1
(1984); LAW ( 1 9 8 4 ) , MCMULLAN & BASSIOUNI ( 1 9 8 4 ) , ENGINEER (19851, LAW & OICKIN-
SON ( 1 9 8 5 ) , SOOKPRASONG & ELBEL ( 1 9 8 5 ) , BEGLAND & WHITEHEAD ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; LAW; POLLAS-
TRO & KEIGHIN ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; PRASAD ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; WERES, JUN & TSAO ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; CHARPENTIER, LAW
& PRENSKY ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; IRELAND & ROBINSON ( 1 9 8 7 ) , POSTON & CHEN ( 1 9 8 7 ) , PRASAD
( 1 9 8 7 ) and FERTL & LEACH ( 1 9 8 8 ) . Case s t u d i e s o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
i n g e o p r e s s u r e d r e s e r v o i r s a r e c a r r i e d o u t b y DOSCHER & A Z A R I ( 1 9 8 0 ) and ROBIN-
SON, HOLDITCH & LEE ( 1 9 8 3 ) . A r e v i e w o f t e c h n o l o g y and economics o f methane p r o -
d u c t i o n f r o m g e o p r e s s u r e d a q u i f e r s i s g i v e n b y DOSCHER, OSBORNE, RHEE, COX &
KUUSKRAA ( 1 9 7 9 ) , and DOSCHER & A Z A R I ( 1 9 8 0 ) a n a l y z e t h e e f f e c t o f c r i t i c a l gas
s a t u r a t i o n on methane p r o d u c t i v i t y . GEER & COOK ( 1 9 7 8 ) d i s c u s s c r e a t i o n , augmen-
t a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n o f h y d r o c a r b o n p o r e - v o l u m e s a t u r a t i o n i n g e o p r e s s u r e d
a q u i f e r s , and MATTHEWS ( 1 9 8 1 ) r e v i e w s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f e n h a n c i n g gas p r o d u c t i o n
f r o m g e o p r e s s u r e d a q u i f e r s . Some comments o n g e o t e c t o n i c a l s e t t i n g , p o r o p e r m
p r o p e r t i e s , b a l l - o u t t r e a t m e n t s and o t h e r s o u r c e s o f deep gas a r e o f f e r e d as
f01 1 ows .

4.4.2.1. Geotectonical setting

G e o p r e s s u r e d gas a c c u m u l a t i o n s a r e o f t e n d e e p - b a s i n o r b a s i n - c e n t e r e d r e s e r -
v o i r and d e p o s i t t y p e s w h i c h a r e commonly v e r y l a r g e , occupy t h e d e e p e r p a r t s
of s e d i m e n t a r y and s t r u c t u r a l t r o u g h s , a r e f r e q u e n t l y downdip f r o m w a t e r - b e a r -
i n g r o c k s and c o n s i s t n e a r l y a l w a y s o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y s a n d s t o n e s (CHARPEN-
T I E R , LAW & PRENSKY 1 9 8 7 ) . The abnormal p r e s s u r e s a r e caused b y a c t i v e gas gene-
r a t i o n i n t h e younger g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y , w i t h t h e poor p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e
sandstone pays n o t a l l o w i n g t h e pressure t o e q u i l i b r a t e t o h y d r o s t a t i c l e v e l s
(MEISSNER 1981; LAW, SPENCER & BOSTICK 1980; LAW & DICKINSON 1 9 8 5 ) . The o c c u r -
r e n c e o f t h e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l g e o p r e s s u r e d gas d e p o s i t s i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y c o n t r o l -
l e d by s t r u c t u r e and s t r a t i g r a p h y , b u t t h e more i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e s e a c c u -
m u l a t i o n s a r e t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e r m a l m a t u r i t y , o r g a n i c r i c h n e s s , gas c o m p r e s s i b i -
l i t y , w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n and e s p e c i a l l y p e r m e a b i l i t y (LAW 1984; CHARPENTIER, PREN-
SKY & LAW 1 9 8 7 ) . I n t h e USA, g e o p r e s s u r e d a q u i f e r s c o n t a i n i n g n a t u r a l g a s o c c u r
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e G u l f C o a s t a r e a i n Texas and L o u i s i a n a (RANDOLPH 1 9 7 7 ) .
 467

4.4.2.2. Poroperm p r o p e r t i e s
Geopressured gas r e s e r v o i r s a r e o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h secondary p o r o s i -
t i e s (BERG & HABECK 1982). The i n f l u e n c e o f i n c r e a s i n g f o r m a t i o n temperature
w i t h b u r i a l causes t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f s m e c t i t e t o i l l i t e whereby w a t e r i s r e -
l e a s e d t h a t causes i n c r e a s i n g p o r e p r e s s u r e due t o i t s entrapment ( c f . s e c t i o n
3 . 5 . 1 . ) . Aquathermal p r e s s u r i n g o r i g i n a t e s f r o m thermal expansion o f i n t e r s t i -
t i a l w a t e r w i t h d e p t h o f b u r i a l . D u r i n g normal b u r i a l , d e w a t e r i n g o f t h e s e d i -
mentary s e c t i o n i s unequal as a consequence o f r e s t r i c t e d d r a i n a g e i n geopressu-
r e d r e s e r v o i r s t h a t a r e surrounded by impervious p e r m e a b i l i t y b a r r i e r s . Genera-
t i o n o f o i l and gas f r o m o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s t h e f l u i d volume.
Secondary p o r o s i t y i s c r e a t e d by d i s s o l u t i o n o f m i n e r a l cements by t h e f l o w o f
w a t e r f r o m h i g h - p r e s s u r e zones t o low-pressure patches. The p r e s s u r e response
i n geopressured gas r e s e r v o i r s i s a d e q u a t e l y e x p l a i n e d i n a changing p o r e com-
p r e s s i b i l i t y s c e n a r i o (POSTON & CHEN 1987).

I n a b n o r m a l l y p r e s s u r e d w e l l s , p r o d u c t i o n r a t e and f l o w i n g t u b i n g p r e s s u r e
d e c l i n e r a p i d l y f o l l o w i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s (SOOKPRA-
SONG & ELBEL 1985). G e n e r a l l y t h e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e d e c l i n e depends on many f a c -
t o r s such as f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y , f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , r e -
s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e and r e s e r v o i r s i z e . I n deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y
w e l l s , c l o s u r e s t r e s s can p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e on t h e r a t e o f d e c l i n e i n p r o -
d u c t i o n when l a r g e r a p i d p r e s s u r e drawdown i s r e q u i r e d f o r economical o f f t a k e
r a t e s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.2.1.1. and 4 . 1 2 . 4 . ) . The economical s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r e c o -
v e r y o f gas d i s s o l v e d i n geopressured b r i n e s i s a l s o s t r e s s e d by LINDEN ( 1 9 8 5 ) .
P r o d u c t i o n o f t h e gas d i s s o l v e d a t bubble p o i n t p r e s s u r e can be s t i m u l a t e d by
b o t h f r a c t u r i n g and a c i d i z i n g a i m i n g on c r e a t i o n o f a h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y zone
around t h e w e l l b o r e (DOSCHER & A Z A R I 1980). Excess p r e s s u r e s o f i s o l a t e d sand
l e n s e s w i t h i n s h a l e s r e p r e s e n t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s o f r e s e r v o i r c o n n e c t i o n a r e con-
t r o l l e d by g e o l o g i c a l and p e t r o p h y s i c a l f a c t o r s (OZKAYA 1987). Flowback and
cleanup o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i n geopressured r e s e r v o i r s i s g e n e r a l l y n o t a p r o -
blem due t o t h e a b n o r m a l l y h i g h p o r e p r e s s u r e s (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & LEE 1983).

BROWNE & PARKER (1986) r e p o r t subnormal l y p r e s s u r e d and f r a c t u r e d r e s e r -

v o i r s , and McLENNAN, ROEGIERS & MARX (1983) p r e s e n t underpressured s i l t s t o n e
and s h a l e sequences. I n a d d i t i o n t o deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e d h a r d sandstones, a l s o
s h a l l o w low-pressured s o f t sandstones may be t i g h t and c o n t a i n a p p r e c i a b l e gas
r e s e r v e s w i t h i n t h e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y m a t r i x t h a t has t o be l i b e r a t e d by hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g (RICE & SHURR 1978; NYDEGGER, R I C E & BROWN 1979; BROWN & CRAFTON
1981, GAUTIER & R I C E 1981; KUKAL, BIDDISON, HILL, MONSON & SIMMONS 1983). Some
t i g h t gas sandstones a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y overpressured (McMECHAN & CONWAY 1983,
BRANAGAN & WILMER 1985). Combined geopressured and geothermal a q u i f e r s w i t h
l o w - s a l i n i t y w a t e r a t abnormal p r e s s u r e s and e l e v a t e d temperature c o n t a i n i n g
d i s s o l v e d n a t u r a l gas a l s o o c c u r (KNAPP, I S O K R A R I , GARG & PRITCHETT 1977).

4.4.2.3. Ball -out treatments

Many l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y geopressured r e s e r v o i r s a r e r a t h e r s o f t r o c k s and
should be b a l l e d o u t p r i o r t o p r o d u c t i o n t e s t i n g and f r a c t u r e t r e a t i n g o f t h e
p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l , because f o r m a t i o n damage can o c c u r i f l a r g e p r e s s u r e g r a -
d i e n t s a r e imposed (ROBINSON, LEE & HOLDITCH 1983). B a l l - o u t t r e a t m e n t s u s u a l l y
change t h e s k i n f r o m a p o s i t i v e v a l u e caused by d r i l l i n g mud and cement damage
t o a s l i g h t l y n e g a t i v e v a l u e due t o c r e a t i n g m i n o r f r a c t u r e s around t h e w e l l -
bore, w i t h t h i s amount o f s t i m u l a t i o n a l l o w i n g t o produce a w e l l a t moderate
f l o w r a t e s f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s o f t i m e w i t h o u t imposing l a r g e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s
around t h e w e l l b o r e . I n a d d i t i o n , d u r i n g p r e - f r a c t u r i n g t e s t i n g , c e r t a i n t y has
t o be made t h a t a l l t h e n e t gas pay i s c o n t r i b u t i n g p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e w e l l . As
a consequence o f t h e geopressure, i t i s expected t h a t n o t a l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n
h o l e s w i l l be i n e f f e c t i v e communication w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e b a l l -
o u t t r e a t m e n t s a r e necessary t o open up a l l o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s so t h a t a more
a c c u r a t e p r e - f r a c t u r i n g f l o w t e s t and p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p t e s t can be performed.
 468

A s p e c t s o f l i m i t e d e n t r y and i n i t i a l b a l l o u t i n geopressured r e s e r v o i r s are

a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y WEEKS ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

4.4.2.4. Other sources o f deep gas

O t h e r s o u r c e s o f deep gas c a n be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s c o m p r i s i n g
a b i o g e n i c and s u b d u c t e d gas (DOE 1 9 8 4 ) . A b i o g e n i c gas i s s p e c u l a t e d t o have
been f o r m e d b y n o n - o r g a n i c means i n t h e m a n t l e d u r i n g t h e p r i m o r d i a l c r e a t i o n
o f t h e e a r t h , and d u r i n g c o u r s e o f g e o l o g i c a l t i m e , i t s l o w l y seeped t o s h a l l o -
wer d e p t h s . S u b d u c t e d gas i s o f o r g a n i c o r i g i n , b u t i n s t e a d o f b e i n g formed
f r o m l a y e r s o f compacted s e d i m e n t s , t h e gas i s c r e a t e d when m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s
and v e g e t a t i o n a r e pushed deep i n t o t h e e a r t h b y t e c t o n i c a l c r u s t a l movements.
A c o m b i n a t i o n o f c h e m i c a l a c t i o n , magmatic h e a t , p r e s s u r e and t i m e c a u s e d t h e
gas t o be g e n e r a t e d w h i c h l a t e r e i t h e r m i g r a t e d t o t h e s u r f a c e o r a c c u m u l a t e d
b e n e a t h caps o f i m p e r v i o u s r o c k . As b o t h a b i o g e n i c and s u b d u c t e d gas r e s e r v o i r s
a r e s t i l l f a r f r o m r e a l i s t i c access and a r e p a r t i a l l y s t i l l s e m i h y p o t h e t i c a l
i t e m s , n o comments c a n be made c o n c e r n i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l o f
these types o f hydrocarbon accumulations.

4.4.3. Coal seams

Methane f r o m c o a l seams has been p r o d u c e d o n v a r i o u s s c a l e s i n c e t h e e a r l y
19OO's, b u t has o n l y i n t h e l a s t decades r e c e i v e d l a r g e r a t t e n t i o n (RIGHTMIRE &
CHOATE 1 9 8 6 ) . Methane f o u n d i n c o a l d e p o s i t s was once r e g a r d e d as a s a f e t y ha-
z a r d t o m i n e r s and was f l a r e d and v e n t e d t o t h e atmosphere, b u t i s t o d a y r e g a r -
ded as a p o t e n t i a l and v a l u a b l e e n e r g y s o u r c e (KUUSKRAA & MEYER 1980, DOE 1984,
KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1 9 8 8 ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o i t s p r o v e n a n c e f r o m s e c o n d a r y e n r i c h -
ments, u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas i s a l s o coming i n i n c r e a s i n g amounts d i r e c t l y f r o m
t h e i r p r i m a r y p l a c e s o f g e n e r a t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e c o a l seams ( w h i c h a r e
b o t h s o u r c e and r e s e r v o i r r o c k s ) where s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s a r e t r a p p e d i n na-
t u r a l m i c r o c r a c k s (sometimes t r a g i c a l l y a c c e n t u a t e d b y e x p l o s i o n s o f gas w h i c h
i s r e l e a s e d d u r i n g s u b s u r f a c e m i n i n g i n t h e g a l l e r i e s ) and has been p r e v e n t e d
from migration.

The l a r g e volumes o f gas w h i c h a r e s t i l l c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e c o a l seams and

have n o t y e t e m i g r a t e d i n t o i n t e r r e l a t e d t i g h t s a n d s t o n e s a r e a c q u i s i t e d b y
c o a l f r a c t u r i n g i n v a r i o u s s c a l e (TREVITS, HANSON & WARD 1982; LASSITER & HOL-
LINGSWORTH 1984, SARDA 1984, SECCOMBE & SAKASHITA 1985; BOYER, STUBBS & SCHWE-
RER 1986; JONES 1986; JONES, BELL & MORALES 1986; LAYNE & BYRER 1986; LOGAN,
SECCOMBE & JONES 1986; MILITZER & SCHWERER 1986, PERLMAN 1986; HANSON, NIELSEN,
SORRELS, BOYER & SCHRAUFNAGEL 1987; SCHRAUFNAGEL 1987; REEVES, WALLACE & BEA-
VERS 1987; ELY, HOLDITCH & CARTER 1988; HOLDITCH, ELY, SEMMELBECK & CARTER
1988; JEU, LOGAN & McBANE 1988; KELAFANT, BOYER & ZUBER 1988; LOGAN, ERWIN &
McBANE 1988; ZUBER, KUUSKRAA & SAWYER 1 9 8 8 ) . The j o i n t s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c o a l
seams as s o u r c e s and r e s e r v o i r s o f n a t u r a l gas and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s
w i t h t i g h t gas sands a r e emphasized b y RIGHTMIRE & CHOATE (1986; c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 4 . 1 . 3 . ) A f t e r i l l u s t r a t i o n o f some g e n e r a l a s p e c t s , t h e o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s i n -
cludes r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f c l e a t geometry, s p e c i a l mechanical coal p r o p e r t i e s ,
f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o f c o a l seams, f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y m a x i m i z a t i o n , v e r t i -
c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g v s . h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g , r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e , and r e l a -
t i o n s h i p s between c o a l seam and b o u n d i n g s t r a t a .

4.4.3.1. General aspects

The methane a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o a l seams was f o r m e d as a b y - p r o d u c t o f t h e na-
t u r a l b i o g e n i c and t h e r m a l m a t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s o f c o a l and e x i s t s b o t h as a d s o r -
bed gas on t h e i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e s o f t h e m i c r o p o r o u s c o a l s t r u c t u r e and as f r e e
gas w i t h i n t h e p o r e s and i n t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e and c l e a t s y s t e m o f t h e c o a l -
bed (KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1 9 8 8 ) , a n d / o r as d i s s o l v e d gas i n g r o u n d w a t e r w i t h i n t h e
 469

c o a l bed (RIGHTMIRE & CHOATE 1986) and t h u s i s n o t s i m p l y compressed w i t h i n t h e

p o r e spaces o f t h e r e s e r v o i r (JEU, LOGAN & McBANE 1988). Gas generated i n ex-
cess o f t h a t which can be adsorbed on t h e c o a l s u r f a c e s i s i n i t i a l l y p r e s e n t as
f r e e gas w i t h i n t h e p o r o s i t y o f t h e c o a l , most n o t i c e a b l y w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e
p o r o s i t y . T h i s gas i s a v a i l a b l e f o r s o l u t i o n i n ground w a t e r moving t h r o u g h t h e
bed and m i g r a t i o n under hydrodynamic c o n d i t i o n s , o r i t may be r e t a i n e d i n t h e
c o a l bed as t r a p p e d f r e e gas under p r o p e r h y d r o g e o l o g i c c o n d i t i o n s .

P r o d u c t i o n o f methane f r o m c o a l seams i n v o l v e s removing o f w a t e r f r o m t h e

c o a l c l e a t system, l o w e r i n g r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e s t o r e f l e c t gas d e s o r p t i o n , and
i n i t i a t i n g t h e subsequent f l o w o f gas through t h e r e s e r v o i r i n t o a p r o d u c i n g
w e l l b o r e . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e importance o f t h e c l e a t system f o r gas
d r a i n a g e f r o m c o a l seams, an account i s g i v e n on s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g i n deep unmineable c o a l seams f o r gas e x p l o i t a t i o n , aims and purposes o f
c o a l f r a c t u r i n g , and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i m p o r t a n t c o a l b a s i n s and gas r e s e r v e s .

4.4.3.1.1. Importance of the cleat system

for gas drainage from coal seams
The mechanism o f gas p r o d u c t i o n f r o m c o a l i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m
t h a t i n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e s e r v o i r s (HOLDITCH, ELY, SEMMELBECK, CARTER, HINKEL &
JEFFREY 1988). There i s i n most cases l i t t l e o r no f r e e gas p r e s e n t i n t h e
c o a l , b u t most o f t h e p o r e space i n t h e c l e a t system i s w a t e r - s a t u r a t e d and
most o f t h e gas i s adsorbed on t h e c o a l s u r f a c e . I n o r d e r t o a l l o w gas w i t h d r a -
wal, t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e c l e a t system must be reduced t o cause t h e gas t o de-
s o r b f r o m t h e c o a l s u r f a c e t o t h e c l e a t system and t o d i f f u s e t h r o u g h t h e c o a l
m a t r i x . Normally, s i g n i f i c a n t volumes o f w a t e r must be produced f o r l o w e r i n g
t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e c l e a t system so t h a t gas d e s o r p t i o n can b e g i n . W h i l e f r a c t u -
r e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f v e r y h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y zones would be b e n e f i c i a l t o gas o f f -
t a k e i n sandstones and carbonates, gas e x p l o i t a t i o n i n c o a l seams becomes d i f f i -
c u l t due t o t h e l a r g e volumes o f w a t e r t h a t must be removed, and t h e r e f o r e c o a l
f r a c t u r i n g does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y aim on c r o s s i n g o f t h e s e c t i o n s w i t h h i g h e s t
c l e a t p e r m e a b i l i t y (ZUBER, REEVES, JONES & SCHRAUFNAGEL 1988). As gas desorp-
t i o n i s t h e p r i m a r y source o f p r o d u c t i o n , t h e gas f l o w r a t e f r o m a c o a l seam
may i n c r e a s e w i t h time, and i t i s n o t uncommon f o r maximum gas f l o w r a t e s t o oc-
c u r months o r y e a r s a f t e r s t a r t i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n . D e s o r p t i o n i s a l s o a s i g n i f i -
c a n t mechanism f o r gas l i b e r a t i o n i n s h a l e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 4 . 1 . ) .

Economical gas w i t h d r a w a l f r o m c o a l seams r e q u i r e s e x i s t e n c e o f an e x t e n s i v e

c l e a t system i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e t h e necessary p e r m e a b i l i t y , a h i g h enough gas
c o n t e n t t o c o n s t i t u t e a r e s o u r c e t h a t i s w o r t h developing, and c o n n e c t i o n o f
t h e c l e a t system t o t h e w e l l b o r e . The p r i m a r y r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s which con-
t r o l gas p r o d u c t i o n f r o m c o a l seams a r e adsorbed gas c o n t e n t , d e s o r p t i o n beha-
v i o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , e f f e c t i v e d r a i n a g e area s i z e , r e s e r v o i r pressure, and
p e r m e a b i l i t y volume and w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n o f t h e c l e a t system. F o l l o w i n g i l l u -
s t r a t i o n o f some aspects o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n deep un-
mineable c o a l seams f o r gas e x p l o i t a t i o n , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i m p o r t a n t c o a l ba-
s i n s and gas r e s e r v e s i s sketched.

4.4.3.1.2. Significance of hydraulic fracturing

in deep unmineable coal seams for gas exploitation
W h i l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g has f o r m e r l y been used as a p u r e s a f e t y procedure
i n o r d e r t o a c c e l e r a t e methane removal f r o m c o a l seams ahead o f underground m i -
nes which then was f l a r e d and vented, d u r i n g t h e l a s t decade a growing aware-
ness o f t h e v a s t economical and i n d u s t r i a l p o t e n t i a l o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
f o r methane e x p l o i t a t i o n f r o m c o a l seams has been e s t a b l i s h e d (HOLDITCH, ELY,
SEMMELBECK, CARTER, HINKEL & JEFFREY 1988). Coal-bed r e s e r v o i r s a r e low-pres-
s u r e l o w - f l o w producers because t h e y a r e a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
 470

and once t h e f r e e gas i s d e p l e t e d , p r o d u c t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d by methane d e s o r p -

t i o n and d i f f u s i o n t o the f r a c t u r e s . The r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o g a s and w a t e r
a r e c r i t i c a l t o i n i t i a t i n g g a s w i t h d r a w a l . Where the c o a l seams a r e w a t e r - s a t u -
r a t e d , the w a t e r c o n t e n t must be reduced i n o r d e r t o p e r m i t d e s o r p t i o n and flow
of the gas t o t h e w e l l b o r e , because high w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n i s s e r i o u s l y l i m i t i n g
gas f l o w . S t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y , coal i s o f t e n d i s t r i b u t e d i n r e l a t i v e l y t h i n seams
o v e r l a r g e i n t e r v a l s which means t h a t f o r economical r e c o v e r y , s p e c i a l produc-
t i o n p r a c t i c e s and m u l t i p l e c o m p l e t i o n s from the same w e l l b o r e a r e r e q u i r e d .

S p e c i a l emphasis i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i s p u t on a c q u i s i t i o n of deep unmineable

coal seams by d r i l l i n g and subsequent f r a c t u r i n g , whereas f u r t h e r e x p l o i t a t i o n
of c o a l seams a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an a c t i v e underground coal mine i s of l e s s econo-
mical s i g n i f i c a n c e . Hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g of d e g a s i f i c a t i o n w e l l s of c o a l - b e a r -
ing s t r a t a has i n the p a s t a l r e a d y r e p e a t e d l y been c a r r i e d o u t i n the USSR. An
a l t e r n a t i v e o r complementary t e c h n i q u e f o r a c q u i s i t i o n of i n - s i t u coal-seam g a s
i s h o r i z o n t a l o r l a t e r a l d r i l l i n g (TRACY 1988; c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 4 . 3 . 6 . and
4 . 8 . 6 . 2 . 1 . ) . LINDEN (1985) emphasizes t h e importance of deep unmineable c o a l
seam gas f o r the improvement of the energy a c q u i s i t i o n spectrum i n the n e x t de-
c a d e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 4 . ) . Coalbed methane c u r r e n t l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e f a s -
t e s t growing and p o t e n t i a l l y t h e economically most a t t r a c t i v e of the low-permea-
b i l i t y gas r e s o u r c e s (KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988).

4.4.3.1.3. Aims and purposes o f coal f r a c t u r i n g

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n c o a l a t t e m p t s t o bypass n e a r - w e l l b o r e damage ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 3 . ) , s t i m u l a t e p r o d u c t i o n and a c c e l e r a t e d e w a t e r i n g , d i s t r i b u t e the
p r e s s u r e drawdown t o reduce f i n e s p r o d u c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 7 . ) , and e f f e c -
t i v e l y connect the w e l l b o r e t o the r e s e r v o i r (JEU, LOGAN & McBANE 1 9 8 8 ) . The
primary purpose of coal f r a c t u r i n g i s t o bypass any f o r m a t i o n damage t h a t may
be p r e s e n t from d r i l l i n g mud o r cement i n v a s i o n , because f o r m a t i o n damage s h a r p -
l y r e d u c e s t h e e x t e n t of pressure drawdown t h a t r e a c h e s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r ,
t h e r e b y slowing the dewatering p r o c e s s and d e l a y i n g methane l i b e r a t i o n . Remo-
ving o r bypassing of f o r m a t i o n damage e n a b l e s e a r l y g a s p r o d u c t i o n and h i g h e r
overall exploitation.

Deeply p e n e t r a t i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s can s t i m u l a t e h i g h e r p r o d u c t i v i t y i n
l o w e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y c o a l s a s i n o t h e r t i g h t f o r m a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) . Be-
c a u s e of the need t o q u i c k l y drop r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h o u t the pay and the
b e n e f i t of a c c e l e r a t i n g t h e dewatering p r o c e s s , high f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s
paramount e s p e c i a l l y i n the moderate p e r m e a b i l i t y of s h a l l o w c o a l s . F r a c t u r e
s t i m u l a t i o n s p r o v i d e b e t t e r a c c e s s t o the c o a l r e s e r v o i r than can be o b t a i n e d
by p e r f o r a t i n g a l o n e . While open-hole c o m p l e t i o n s should a d e q u a t e l y a c c e s s t h e
i n d i v i d u a l c o a l l a y e r s , p e r f o r a t i n g of c a s e d w e l l s may n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c e s s
the a l t e r n a t i n g s t r u c t u r e of t h i n l a y e r s of c l e a t e d c o a l and n o n - c l e a t e d c a r b o -
naceous s h a l e . H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g can h e l p t o r e a c h beyond t h e w e l l b o r e t o
c o n t a c t c o a l d e p o s i t s t h a t t h e b o r e h o l e may n o t a c t u a l l y p e n e t r a t e ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.10.2.1.).

4.4.3.1.4. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f i m o r t a n t coal basins and gas reserve

The coal b a s i n s i n the USA a r e e x p e c t e d t o have more than 400 Tcf o r 10,000
B i l l . m3 r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s ( B Y R E R , MROZ & COVATCH 1984; OFFICE OF TECHNOLOGY
ASSESSMENT 1985, RIGHTMIRE & CHOATE 1986) o r even up t o 800 Tcf o r 20,000 B i l l .
m3 p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l ( L A Y N E & BYRER 1 9 8 8 ) . E s t i m a t e s of r e s o u r c e p o t e n t i a l
in v a r i o u s coal b a s i n s and a s s e s s m e n t s of r e s e r v e r e c o v e r a b i l i t y a r e a l s o c a r -
r i e d o u t by CHOATE, JURICH & SAULNIER ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; CHOATE, LENT & RIGHTMIRE ( 1 9 8 2 )
and ADAMS e t a l . ( 1 9 8 2 ) . Some of the most i m p o r t a n t coalbed methane b a s i n s i n
the USA a r e P i c e a n c e Creek Basin/Utah and Colorado ( 8 4 Tcf o r 2,100 B i l l . m3
gas i n p l a c e ) , San Juan Basin/Colorado and New Mexico (80 Tcf o r 2,000 B i l l . m3
GIP), Northern Appalachian Basin ( 6 1 Tcf o r 1,525 B i l l . m3 G I P ) , C e n t r a l Appala-
 471

c h i a n B a s i n ( 4 8 T c f o r 1,200 B i l l . m3 GIP), Powder R i v e r Basin/Montana and Wyo-

ming ( 3 9 T c f o r 975 B i l l . m3 GIP), G r e a t e r Green R i v e r Basin/Wyoming and Colo-
r a d o ( 3 1 T c f o r 775 B i l l . m3 GIP), I l l i n o i s B a s i n ( 2 1 T c f o r 525 B i l l . m3 GIP),
W a r r i o r Basin/Alabama ( 2 0 T c f o r 500 B i l l . m3 GIP), Raton Mesa B a s i n ( 1 8 T c f o r
450 B i l l . m3 GIP), Arkoma Basin/Oklahoma and Arkansas ( 4 T c f o r 100 B i l l . m3
GIP), Wind R i v e r Basin/Wyoming ( 2 T c f o r 50 B i l l . m3 GIP), and U i n t a Basin/Utah
and Colorado ( 1 T c f o r 25 B i l l . m3 G I P ; KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988).

The g r e a t e s t c u r r e n t a c t i v i t y i s i n t h e W a r r i o r B a s i n and i n t h e San Juan Ba-

s i n . I n t h e USA, a s s o c i a t e methane f r o m c o a l seams i s a l r e a d y now t h e p r i m a r y
source o f n a t u r a l gas f o r Alabama and i s r a p i d l y becoming a m a j o r source o f na-
t u r a l gas i n t h e San Juan B a s i n i n New Mexico and Colorado (HOLDITCH, ELY, SEM-
MELBECK, CARTER, HINKEL & JEFFREY 1988). Aspects o f c l e a t geometry, s p e c i a l me-
c h a n i c a l c o a l p r o p e r t i e s , f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n types o f c o a l seams, f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y m a x i m i z a t i o n , v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g vs. h o r i z o n t a l d r i l -
l i n g , r e s e r v o i r pressure, and r e l a t i o n s h i p s between c o a l seams and bounding
s t r a t a a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.4.3.2. Cleat geometry

Most o f t h e r e t a i n e d gas w i t h i n t h e c o a l seams ( w h i c h i s much l e s s than t h e
t o t a l amount generated d u r i n g c o a l i f i c a t i o n due t o c o n s i d e r a b l e e m i g r a t i o n i n t o
n e a r e r o r f a r t h e r h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s ) i s t r a p p e d by a b s o r p t i o n on
t h e s u r f a c e o f m i c r o p o r e s . S m a l l e r amounts a r e a l s o enclosed as f r e e gas w i t h i n
f r a c t u r e s o r pores and as d i s s o l v e d gas i n f o r m a t i o n w a t e r . The c l e a t system
which p r o v i d e s t h e p r i m a r y f l o w channel and t h u s r e p r e s e n t s c o a l p e r m e a b i l i t y
u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s o f two s e t s o f c l o s e l y - s p a c e d v e r t i c a l n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s which
a r e o r i e n t e d o r t h o g o n a l t o each o t h e r . The p r i m a r y s e t o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a r e
f a c e c l e a t s , and a l e s s d e f i n e d second s e t o f p e r p e n d i c u l a r f r a c t u r e s a r e b u t t
c l e a t s (DECKER & SECCOMBE 1986; LOGAN, SCHWOEBEL & HORNER 1987). The f a c e
c l e a t s a r e c o n t i n u o u s and c r o s s c u t t i n g , whereas t h e b u t t c l e a t s t e r m i n a t e a t
t h e f a c e c l e a t s . Coal c l e a t s f o r m g e n e r a l l y i n response t o l o c a l s t r u c t u r a l f o r -
ces, a l t h o u g h t h e process o f c o a l i f i c a t i o n and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s a l s o i n f l u e n c e
c l e a t d e n s i t y (McFALL, WICKS, KELSON, SEDWICK & BRANDENBURG 1987; c f . a l s o sec-
t i o n 4.2.2.7.).

Coal gas r e s e r v o i r s t y p i c a l l y have v e r y low m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y , w i t h t h e

gas b e i n g desorbed f r o m t h e m a t r i x t o t h e w e l l b o r e t h r o u g h a system of c l e a t s .
I n a d d i t i o n t o these n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and f i s s u r e s , c o a l seam r e s e r v o i r s u s u a l -
l y r e q u i r e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n t o achieve economical p r o d u c t i o n as
a consequence o f t h e i r t i g h t n a t u r e . H y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d c r a c k s commonly p r o -
pagate p a r a l l e l t o t h e maximum s t r e s s o r f a c e c l e a t d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o a l seam
and t h e r e f o r e may n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a d e q u a t e l y access an a n i s o t r o p i c r e s e r v o i r .
S i g n i f i c a n t improvement can be made by a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e
p l a c e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e maximum p e r m e a b i l i t y d i r e c t i o n (LOGAN, SCHWOEBEL
& HORNER 1987; PETZET 1988) and a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.4.3.6. and
4.8.6.2.1.). C l e a t w i d t h and spacing c o n t r o l c o a l p e r m e a b i l i t y and as i n - s i t u
s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s w i t h b u r i a l depth, t h e deeper t h e c o a l , t h e l o w e r t h e permeabi-
l i t y (JEU, LOGAN & McBANE 1988).

Assessment o f gas r e s e r v e s and p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l i n d e e p l y b u r i e d unminea-

b l e c o a l seams i s made by DOE (1983 b ) ; BYRER, MOROZ & COVATOH (1984); R I G H T -
M I R E , EDDY & K I R R (1984); DECKER & SECCOMBE (1986) and McFALL, WICKS, KELSON,
SEDWICK & BRANDENBURG ( 1 9 8 7 ) . Comments on t h e c o a l - b e d d e g a s i f i c a t i o n process
a r e o f f e r e d by ANCELL, LAMBERT & JOHNSON (1980) and GRAY ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

4.4.3.3. Special mechanical coal properties

Some s p e c i a l mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f c o a l seams t h a t a r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r de-
s i g n and e x e c u t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d a l o n g the l i n e s o f
 472

treatment pressures and c o a l c h i p p i n g as w e l l as impact o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e

geometry as f o l l o w s .

4.4.3.3.1. Treatment pressures and coal chipping

Treatment p r e s s u r e s observed d u r i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f c o a l seams a r e
o f t e n d i f f e r e n t f r o m those o f c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m a t i o n s (JONES, BELL, MORALES &
SCHRAUFNAGEL 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . A f t e r an e a r l y steep p r e s s u r e r i s e ,
o v e r a l l o p e r a t i o n p r e s s u r e s o f t e n exceed t h e l i t h o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , b u t produce
s u r p r i s i n g l y l i t t l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n . The a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c o a l c h i p s
a t t h e w e l l b o r e and p a r t i a l p l u g g i n g o f an advancing c r a c k t i p by c o a l f i n e s
c a r r i e d ahead o f o r w i t h i n t h e f l u i d o p e r a t i o n pad a r e t h e r e s p o n s i b l e mecha-
nisms which account f o r t h e anomalous t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 7 . ) . As a consequence o f narrow c l e a t spacing, c o a l tends t o break
i n t o small cleat-bounded fragments a l r e a d y a t moderate mechanical s t r e s s . I n ad-
d i t i o n , t h e p a r t i c u l a r p r o p e r t i e s l e a d t o mechanical d e s t r u c t i o n o f c o a l around
t h e w e l l b o r e w i t h time, w i t h t h e l o o s e c o a l c a u s i n g blockage a t t h e w e l l b o r e
and p a r t i a l s c r e e n o u t a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p . The e f f e c t s can be p a r t i a l l y o v e r -
come by j e t t i n g t h e c o a l w i t h h i g h - p r e s s u r e w a t e r p r i o r t o f r a c t u r i n g i n o r d e r
t o c r e a t e a c a v i t y around t h e b o r e h o l e and t h e r e b y remove any s k i n damage i n d u -
ced by l o o s e c o a l fragments and t o reduce breakdown o r f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n
p r e s s u r e s (REEVES, WALLACE & BEAVERS 1987).

The low v a l u e o f Young's modulus i n c o a l seams ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.3.8.3.) crea-

t e s v e r y wide h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s as w e l l as v e r y complex m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e sys-
tems p r o p a g a t i n g i n m u l t i p l e d i r e c t i o n s (HOLDITCH, ELY, SEMMELBECK, CARTER, H I N -
KEL & JEFFREY 1988). The complex h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e b e h a v i o u r i s a consequence
o f t h e presence o f t h e c l e a t system, t h e complex s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o a l m a t r i x ,
and t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e c o a l seams w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s u r -
r o u n d i n g sediments (JEU, LOGAN & McBANE 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 3 . 8 . ) . T h i s gene-
r a t e s c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s t o c r e a t e and t o p r o p l o n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s .
T h e r e f o r e coal-seam r e s e r v o i r s w i t h p o o r l y developed c l e a t systems may n o t be
c a n d i d a t e s f o r development, because t h e y may n o t be capable o f s u p p l y i n g enough
gas t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e . V a r i a t i o n s o f s t r e s s l e v e l i n
c o a l seams may be t h e consequence o f f a u l t s c r o s s i n g t h e gas f i e l d which l o c a l -
l y cause weakening o f t h e c o a l m a t r i x so t h a t i t w i l l r e a d i l y f a i l and spa11 du-
r i n g the f r a c t u r e treatment, w i t h spalled coal chips b l o c k i n g the crack t o -
g e t h e r w i t h h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s r e s u l t i n g i n e l e v a t e d t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s (ZU-
BER, REEVES, JONES & SCHRAUFNAGEL 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 7 . ) . There i s a l s o a
r e l a t i o n s h i p between b o r e h o l e s t a b i l i t y and c o a l f r i a b i l i t y (LOGAN 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.4.3.3.2. Imact o f hydraulic fracture geometry

R e d u c t i o n o f t h e amount o f c o a l f i n e s produced i s a p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t o f hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (JEU, LOGAN & McBANE 1988). A h i g h l y - c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e can
d i s t r i b u t e t h e p r e s s u r e drop a l o n g t h e c r a c k i n s t e a d o f c o n c e n t r a t i n g i t i n t h e
immediate w e l l b o r e area. Thus t h e p r o p e n s i t y o f g e n e r a t i n g c o a l f i n e s s h o u l d be
reduced, w i t h u t i l i z a t i o n o f l a r g e r proppant g r a i n s i z e s b e i n g a b l e t o a s s i s t
maintenance o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y by a l l o w i n g t h e s m a l l e r c o a l f i n e s t o pass
t h r o u g h t h e p r o p p a n t package. Another problem o f p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n c o a l
seams i s p r o d u c t i o n o f c o a l g r i t , p r o p p a n t and w a t e r t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e gas. The
a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d proppants i n t h e t a i l - i n p o r t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e
( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . ) g i v e s s u f f i c i e n t s t a b i l i z a t i o n t o p r e v e n t p r o p p a n t move-
ment and flowback (FRACFAX 1988 e ) .

The optimum s i z e o f f r a c t u r e h a l f - l e n g t h depends on w e l l spacing, c o a l seam

p r o p e r t i e s and s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.11.), w i t h t h e h i g h e s t p e r f o r -
mance b e i n g achieved by v e r y h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y and l o n g e x t e n s i o n o f t h e f r a c t u -
r e s (JONES, BELL, MORALES & SCHRAUFNAGEL 1987). When t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e exceeds
l i t h o s t a t i c s t r e s s , h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s a r e i n i t i a t e d which may p o s s i b l y be e f -
 473

f e c t i v e i n c o n t a c t i n g h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y j o i n t s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n t h a t may n o t
n o r m a l l y be accessed by v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s . Because o f t h e i r r a d i a l growth, how-
ever, h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y s h o r t e r t h a n c o n f i n e d v e r t i c a l f r a c -
t u r e s f o r t h e same t r e a t m e n t volumes and t h e r e f o r e w i l l n o t be as e f f e c t i v e i n
c o n s i s t e n t l y i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i o n as l o n g h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y v e r t i c a l f r a c t u -
res.

4.4.3.4, Fracturing stimulation types o f coal seams

Design and e x e c u t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s i n c o a l seams i s n o t s t r a i g h t -
forward, b u t h i g h i n j e c t i o n pressures, complex f r a c t u r e systems, screenouts,
and p r o d u c t i o n o f proppants and c o a l f i n e s a r e t y p i c a l problems (HOLDITCH, ELY,
SEMMELBECK, CARTER, HINKEL & JEFFREY 1988). H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s
n o r m a l l y i n e v i t a b l e f o r c o a l seam gas e x p l o i t a t i o n . The t y p e o f s t i m u l a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t depends on depth, t h i c k n e s s and s t r a t i g r a p h y o f t h e c o a l seam. Some
d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n t y p e s o f c o a l seams a r e b r i e f l y sketched as f o l -
lows along t h e l i n e s o f f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , m u l t i p l e i n t e r v a l f r a c t u r i n g , f r a c t u -
r i n g s t r a t e g i e s , and f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n and t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e i n -
crease.

4.4.3.4.1. Fluid viscosity

ZUBER, KUUSKRAA & SAWYER (1988) compare d i f f e r e n t h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t y p e s
and w e l l spacings f o r economical r e c o v e r y o f coalbed methane. E v a l u a t i o n o f wa-
t e r , foam and g e l f r a c t u r i n g r e v e a l s t h a t t h e b e s t r e s u l t s a r e achieved w i t h
l a r g e - s c a l e g e l s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s , w i t h t h e economical b e n e f i t o f t h e c o s t -
l i e r gel-based f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s more than compensating f o r t h e r e l a t i v e l y
h i g h t r e a t m e n t expenses. Well s p a c i n g and r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n e f f e c t i v e n e s s
a r e t h u s t h e two key parameters d i c t a t i n g economical r e t u r n s f r o m c o a l b e d metha-
ne w e l l s and have a d r a m a t i c e f f e c t on b o t h t i m i n g o f peak p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s and
u l t i m a t e w e l l r e c o v e r y (KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988). Some comments a r e o f f e r e d on
g e l - v s . water-based s t i m u l a t i o n as w e l l as p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g and r o l l i n g i n wa-
t e r f r a c t u r i n g as f o l l o w s .

4.4.3.4.1.1. Gel- vs. water-based stimulation

HANSON (1988) f i n d s o u t t h a t l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s such as w a t e r can e f f e c t i -
v e l y induce f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth through s e v e r a l c o a l seams v i a e n t r y a t t h e
bottom o f t h e i n t e r v a l , and h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s such as c r o s s - l i n k e d g e l s p r o -
mote a measure o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t containment and l a t e r a l e x t e n s i o n i n l a y e r e d
media. An o p t i m a l t r e a t m e n t f o r many c o a l seams c o n s i s t s o f a l a r g e w a t e r p r e -
pad f o r t h e purpose o f h e i g h t growth f o l l o w e d by a c r o s s l i n k e d g e l pad f o r t h e
reason o f f r a c t u r e w i d e n i n g and e x t e n s i o n f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e . S l u r r y stages c a l l
f o r c r o s s l i n k e d g e l t o e f f e c t i v e l y c a r r y t h e proppant and f o r c o a r s e - g r a i n e d
proppants t o enhance f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . Casing s l o t t i n g t h r o u g h c o a l can r e -
duce h i g h t r e a t m e n t p e s s u r e i n d i n p a r t m i n i m i z e f r a c t u r e - i n l e t c o n s t r i c t i o n s .

REEVES, WALLACE & EAVERS 1.987) p e r f o r m a comparative assessment o f d i f f e -

r e n t s t i m u l a t i o n tec n i q u e s i n terms o f c o s t and p r o d u c t i o n which i n d i c a t e s
t h a t w e l l s f r a c t u r e d w i t h wlrte and foam-water t r e a t m e n t s produce a t h i g h e r wa-
t e r and gas r a t e s t h a n those f r a c t u r e d w i t h e i t h e r g e l o r foam. I n a d d i t i o n ,
f o a m - w a t e r - s t i m u l a t e d w e l l s e x h i b i t h i g h f l u i d l o s s d u r i n g t h e f i r s t two months
o f p r o d u c t i o n , whereas w a t e r - f r a c t u r e d w e l l s produce more w a t e r a f t e r t h e se-
cond month. T h e r e f o r e w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g appears t o be t h e most e f f e c t i v e t r e a t -
ment i n terms o f b o t h expenses and o f f t a k e . KUUSKRAA & HAAS (1988) f i n d o u t
t h a t gel-based s t i m u l a t i o n s a r e s u p e r i o r t o water-based t r e a t m e n t s , because
t h e y achieve peak p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s a t e a r l i e r times and n e a r l y double t h e peak
r a t e s achieved by water-based j o b s . The i n c r e a s e i n gas r e c o v e r y due t o t h e
h i g h e r f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y and l e n g t h o f t h e gel-based s t i m u l a t i o n more than
 474

compensates f o r t h e a d d i t i o n a l c o s t o f t h e s e t r e a t m e n t s

4.4.3.4.1.2.Proppant settling and rolling in water fracturing

I n some e x c e p t i o n a l l y w e l l - c l e a t e d and t h u s h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y c o a l seams, ve-
r y s m a l l - t o medium-size f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n s u s i n g water w i t h o n l y v e r y low
p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s c a n a l r e a d y be c o n s i d e r a b l y e f f e c t i v e (ZUBER, REEVES,
JONES & SCHRAUFNAGEL 1 9 8 8 ) . The p o o r p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
f r e s h water r e s u l t i n proppant s e t t l i n g near the wellbore during s l u r r y i n j e c -
t i o n , w i t h p r o p p a n t s t h e n b e i n g r o l l e d t o t h e head o f t h e bank a c r o s s i t s t o p
d u r i n g f l u s h i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h . Although proppant
transport i s considerably poorer w i t h water than w i t h h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s ,
t h e b a n k i n g phenomena c a u s e d by p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g c a n p o t e n t i a l l y r e s u l t i n a
h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u r e w i t h p r o p p a n t s i n t h e b o t t o m and an open c h a n n e l i n
t h e u p p e r s e c t i o n o f t h e c r a c k c r o s s i n g t h e c o a l seam ( c f . LASSITER & HOLLINGS-
WORTH 1984; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 2 . ) . Water f r a c t u r i n g i s a l s o o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g -
n i f i c a n c e i n c h a l k sequences ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 5 . 2 . ) and g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r s
( c f . section 4.7.3.5.).

4.4.3.4.2.Multiple interval fracturing

SCHRAUFNAGEL & LAMBERT ( 1 9 8 8 ) s t a t e t h a t h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g c a n
be s u c c e s s i v e l y c a r r i e d o u t i n v a r i o u s s u p e r i m p o s e d c o a l seams and i s a c c o m p l i -
shed t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f b a f f l e s whereby a b a l l i s d r o p p e d down t h e c a s i n g t o
s e a l o f f a zone f o l l o w i n g i t s t r e a t m e n t , w i t h m u l t i p l e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e -
d u r e i n upwards d i r e c t i o n a l o n g t h e p r o s p e c t i v e s e c t i o n i n t h e b o r e h o l e r e s u l t -
i n g i n u p h o l e f r a c t u r i n g one l e v e l a f t e r t h e o t h e r i n s e q u e n t i a l o r d e r ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.2.2.1.1.). A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y o f m u l t i p l e c o a l seam f r a c t u r i n g i s t h e
l i m i t e d - e n t r y technique which r e q u i r e s maintenance o f a predetermined w e l l b o r e
p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h o u t t h e o p e r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) . Some a s p e c t s o f r e s e r -
v o i r d e p t h o f c o a l seams and l i m i t e d - e n t r y s t i m u l a t i o n a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l -
1ows.

4.4.3.4.2.1.Reservoir depth of coal seams

I n s h a l l o w e r r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y s where h o r i z o n t a l r a t h e r t h a n v e r t i c a l f r a c t u -
r e s a r e more l i k e l y t o f o r m ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.2.8.), t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e
must p r o v i d e f o r m u l t i p l e h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s o f h o r i z o n t a l o r i e n t a -
t i o n a n d / o r complex f r a c t u r e s w i t h b o t h h o r i z o n t a l and i n c l i n e d components
(SCHRAUFNAGEL & LAMBERT 1 9 8 8 ) .

Thus i n many c a s e s d e e p e r r e s e r v o i r s r e q u i r e c o a l seam p e n e t r a t i o n b y h i g h l y -

i n c l i n e d t o h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s f r o m w h i c h m u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s emanate
( c f . section 4.8.6.2.4.), whereas i n s h a l l o w e r p a y zones, t h e c o a l seams a r e a c -
q u i s i t e d b y v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e s f r o m w h i c h m u l t i p l e o b l i q u e d r a i n h o l e s may r a -
d i a t e o f f ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 6 . 1 . 2 . ) t h a t a r e i n t e r s e c t e d b y m u l t i p l e h;.-i:c:ntal
f r a c t u r e s i n c a s e o f s i n g l e t h i c k e r c o a l seams, o r a r e t r a v e r s e d b y h i g h i y - d e -
v i a t e d t o h o r i z o n t a l boreholes from which o n l y s i n g u l a r h o r i z o n t a l h y d r a u l i c
c r a c k s c a n be p r o p a g a t e d i n t o t h e c o a l m a t r i x f o r t h e o c c a s i o n o f g r o u p s o f
t h i n n e r c o a l seams.

4.4.3.4.2.2.Limited-entry stimulation
The l i m i t e d - e n t r y s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e a p p l i e s f o r s i m u l t a n e o u s t r e a t m e n t
o f m u l t i p l e zones b y e n g i n e e r i n g p l a c e m e n t , s i z e and number o f c a s i n g p e r f o r a -
t i o n s w h i c h s e r v e as p r e s s u r e chokes t h a t c o n t r o l t h e r a t e o f f l u i d i n j e c t i o n
i n t o e a c h t a r g e t e d zone (SCHRAUFNAGEL & LAMBERT 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) .
P r o p p a n t a b r a s i o n l e a d s t o p e r f o r a t i o n d i a m e t e r g r o w t h and c o n s e q u e n t l y p r e s -
 475

s u r e r e d u c t i o n . S i g n i f i c a n t p r e s s u r e drops i n some t r e a t m e n t stages can be cau-

sed by s c r e e n o u t o f v a r i o u s p e r f o r a t i o n s and i n i t i a t i o n o f a v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e
f o l l o w i n g termination o f propagation o f a horizontal crack ( c f . sections
1.2.8.4. and 4 . 9 . 4 . 2 . ) . L i m i t e d e n t r y has t u r n e d o u t t o be a . v i a b l e approach t o
s t i m u l a t i n g a s e r i e s o f c o a l seams even a t s h a l l o w depths where h o r i z o n t a l f r a c -
t u r e s a r e a n t i c i p a t e d , and a t g r e a t e r depths where t h e p r i m a r y c r a c k o r i e n t a -
t i o n l i k e l y would be v e r t i c a l , t h e concept may a l s o p r o v e v i a b l e i n c o m p l e t i n g
m u l t i p l e seams w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l c o a l groups.

4.4.3.4.3. Fracturing strategies

Four b a s i c f r a c t u r i n g s t r a t e g y s c e n a r i o s f o r h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o f c o a l
seams (HOLDITCH, ELY, SEMMELBECK, CARTER, HINKEL & JEFFREY 1988) i n c l u d i n g h o r i -
z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s i n a s i n g u l a r s h a l l o w c o a l seam, s i n g l e p l a n a r v e r t i c a l f r a c -
t u r e i n a s e r i e s o f t h i n c o a l seams, m u l t i p l e complex f r a c t u r e system i n a
s i n g l e t h i c k c o a l seam, and i n i t i a l f r a c t u r e confinement w i t h i n a s i n g l e c o a l
seam p a s s i n g l a t e r t o v e r t i c a l c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n i n t o t h e bounding l a y e r s . A f -
t e r d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l aspects, an overview i s g i v e n on s i n g l e v e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g s e v e r a l t h i n c o a l seams and complex m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s
c o n t a i n e d i n a s i n g l e t h i c k c o a l seam which a r e t h e most f r e q u e n t l y developed
cases of c o a l f r a c t u r i n g . Some comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on i n j e c t i o n r a t e s ,
f l u i d l o s s and t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r g e n e r a t i o n o f complex T-sha-
ped f r a c t u r e s .

4.4.3.4.3.1. General aspects

Concerning t h e g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y a p p l i c a b l e t o any c o a l seam, t h e main purpo-
se o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s t o i n t e r c o n n e c t t h e c l e a t system o f t h e c o a l t o
t h e b o r e h o l e . W i t h o u t a w e l l - d e v e l o p e d c l e a t system, c r e a t i o n and p r o p p i n g o f a
l o n g f r a c t u r e i n c o a l seams i s u s u a l l y n o t p r o f i t a b l e and commercial a t c u r r e n t
gas p r i c e s (HOLDITCH, ELY, SEMMELBECK, CARTER, HINKEL & JEFFREY 1988). Bottom-
h o l e p r e s s u r e d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n s h o u l d be m i n i m i z e d t o a c c e l e r a t e d e s o r p t i o n o f
n a t u r a l gas. A wide c o n d u c t i v e propped f r a c t u r e system t h a t can w i t h s t a n d t h e
maximum c l o s u r e s t r e s s must be c r e a t e d t o m i n i m i z e t h e p r e s s u r e drop down t h e
f r a c t u r e . As a consequence o f h i g h t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.3.8.3.)
and complex n a t u r e o f t h e f r a c t u r e systems, r e a l - t i m e changes d u r i n g t h e opera-
t i o n a r e t h e r u l e r a t h e r than t h e e x c e p t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 3 . ) . Cutting of
p r o p p a n t i n s e r t i o n and r e i n i t i a t i n g t h e pad o r changing pad volume based upon
t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s may be r e q u i r e d t o improve t h e r e s u l t s .

i n s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r depth, i n d i v i d u a l h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e sepa-
r a t e c o a l seams have t o be c r e a t e d by u s i n g e i t h e r l i m i t e d - e n t r y methods ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.2.2.2.) o r mechanical d i v e r s i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . ) . L i n e a r f l u i d s
w i t h a moderate pad volume s h o u l d be a p p l i e d and t h e bottomhole t r e a t i n g p r e s -
s u r e s h o u l d be i n excess o f 1 p s i / f t . Complex m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e systems may be
generated i f bottomhole p r e s s u r e s i n c r e a s e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d u r i n g t h e j o b .

4.4.3.4.3.2. Single vertical fractures

intersecting several thin coal seams
Concerning s i n g l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g a s e r i e s o f t h i n c o a l
seams, t h i s s c e n a r i o i s analogous t o v e r t i c a l c r a c k s p e n e t r a t i n g l a y e r e d c l a s -
t i c and/or c a r b o n a t e r e s e r v o i r s (HOLDITCH, ELY, SEMMELBECK, CARTER, HINKEL &
JEFFREY 1988). Well-developed c l e a t systems i n c o a l seams may provoke h i g h e r
f l u i d l e a k o f f than i n c o n v e n t i o n a l pay zones. A common p r a c t i c e o f s t i m u l a t i o n
o f t h i n c o a l seam complexes i s t o p e r f o r a t e i n a c l a s t i c zone a d j a c e n t t o t h e
c o a l and t o f r a c t u r e t h e c o a l by a l l o w i n g t h e c r a c k t o grow v e r t i c a l l y , w i t h
t h i s technique u s u a l l y r e s u l t i n g i n lower operating pressures than i f t r e a t i n g
t h e c o a l e x c l u s i v e l y . Excess p r e s s u r e s a r e moderate .and d e c l i n e t h r o u g h o u t most
 476

o f t h e j o b as t h e f r a c t u r e c o n t i n u e s t o grow v e r t i c a l l y . F r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n
g r a d i e n t s s h o u l d be l e s s t h a n 1 p s i / f t , and pad volumes o f a b t . 30 - 35 % a r e
a p p r o p r i a t e . V i s c o u s s h e a r - s t a b l e d e l a y e d c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s o r foams s h o u l d be
u s e d t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and t o m i n i m i z e p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g .

4.4.3.4.3.3. C w l e x mu1 t iple fractures

contained in a single thick coal seam
The s c e n a r i o o f complex h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a s i n g l e t h i c k
c o a l seam i s u n i q u e t o c o a l gas r e s e r v o i r s and i s w e l l documented b y m i n e b a c k s .
High t r e a t i n g pressures occur, w i t h t h e excess pressure i n t h e f r a c t u r e i n c r e a -
s i n g r a p i d l y when pumping b e g i n s and r e m a i n i n g h i g h d u r i n g t h e j o b , as a conse-
quence o f c r e a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l o r T-shaped f r a c t u r e s ( o r m u s h r o o m - l i k e
c r a c k s ; c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 2 . 8 . 4 . and 4 . 9 . 4 . 2 . ) n e a r t h e w e l l b o r e (HOLDITCH, ELY,
SEMMELBECK, CARTER, HINKEL & JEFFREY 1 9 8 8 ) . The t o r t u o u s p a t h f o r f l u i d f l o w ge-
n e r a t e d b y t h e s e m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s r e s u l t s i n a zone where t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p
i s q u i t e l a r g e . O t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r h i g h t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s a r e s l i p zones
f o r m e d i n h i g h l y - c l e a t e d a r e a s i m m e d i a t e l y ahead o f t h e f r a c t u r e t i p .

Due t o s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s n e a r t h e f r a c t u r e t i p , s l i p c a n o c c u r t h a t
t e n d s t o a b s o r b e n e r g y w h i c h o t h e r w i s e w o u l d be u s e d t o p r o p a g a t e t h e c r a c k . As
a consequence o f t h e h i g h f l u i d l e a k o f f t h a t c a n t a k e p l a c e i n c l e a t e d c o a l ,
backstresses can increase d u r i n g t h e j o b which a l s o r a i s e s i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e
through p o r o e l a s t i c e f f e c t s ( c f . section 4.4.3.8.3.). I f l a r g e volumes o f c o a l
f i n e s a r e g e n e r a t e d , t h e y c a n c o n c e n t r a t e a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p and p l u g i t t h e r e -
by i n h i b i t i n g f u r t h e r p r o p a g a t i o n and i n c r e a s i n g t h e o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.7. and 4 . 4 . 3 . 3 . ) . Coal f i n e s may a l s o r e m a i n e n t r a i n e d i n t h e
f l u i d and t h u s cause i n c r e a s i n g a p p a r e n t v i s c o s i t y w h i c h a l s o may g i v e r i s e t o
e l e v a t e d i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e (JONES e t a l . 1 9 8 7 ) . S e v e r a l p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s
a l s o have c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p a c t on t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e and c r a c k w i d t h (JEFFREY,
VANDAMME, HINKEL & HORNER 1 9 8 7 ) .

4.4.3.4.3.4. Injection rates, fluid loss and treatment pressure

F o r r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s t r a t e g y o f complex h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s c o n t a i n e d
w i t h i n a s i n g l e t h i c k c o a l seam, h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s have t o be u s e d d u r i n g
t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t t o combat h i g h f l u i d loss (HOLDITCH, ELY, SEMMELBECK,
CARTER, HINKEL & JEFFREY 1 9 8 8 ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s , h i g h - v i s c o -
s i t y s h e a r - s t a b l e d e l a y e d c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . ) and b r i d -
ging f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s ( c f . section 4.3.4.6.) are required t o o f f s e t h i g h
l e a k o f f . Because t h e c o a l has l o w Young modulus and h i g h f o r m a t i o n c o m p r e s s i b i -
l i t y and as a consequence o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f complex c r a c k systems, hydraulic
f r a c t u r e s s e l d o m p e n e t r a t e more t h a n a f e w h u n d r e d f e e t away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e .

As e x c e s s p r e s s u r e r i s e s due t o complex f r a c t u r e g e o m e t r y ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.4.3.8.3.), a v e r t i c a l component may be i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r s a t
a weakness p o i n t a t t h e b o r d e r i n t e r f a c e . I f t h i s happens, f l u i d e s c a p i n g t o
t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r c o u l d cause t h e f r a c t u r e s i n t h e c o a l seam t o d e c r e a s e i n
w i d t h w h i c h c o u l d l e a d t o s c r e e n o u t i f h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e pumped
when v e r t i c a l e x c e s s p r o p a g a t i o n s t a r t s (cf. sections 4.2.3.5.3. and
6.2.4.2.1.). I f the sharp drop i n t r e a t i n g pressure i n d i c a t i n g h e i g h t growth
o u t o f zone o c c u r s n e a r t h e end o f t h e j o b , i n c r e a s i n g pumping r a t e may p r o v i d e
the necessary f r a c t u r e w i d t h r e q u i r e d t o f i n i s h the job. I f t h e pressure drop,
however, t a k e s p l a c e e a r l i e r i n t h e o p e r a t i o n , r e i n i t i a t i n g t h e p a d and pumping
o f f l u i d w i t h o u t p r o p p a n t u n t i l s u f f i c i e n t f r a c t u r e w i d t h i s o b t a i n e d may be
n e c e s s a r y p r i o r t o c o n t i n u i n g t h e p r o p p a n t s t a g e s o f t h e t r e a t m e n t . I f t h e pad
i s reinitiated, a l a r g e enough p a d volume m u s t be pumped t o d e v e l o p a f r a c t u r e
t h a t i s s u f f i c i e n t l y w i d e t o a c c e p t p r o p p a n t b e f o r e s t a r t i n g back w i t h p r o p p a n t
insertion.
 477

4.4.3.4.4. Fracture propagation direction

and treatment pressure increase
Treatment p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s o c c u r r i n g s h o r t l y a f t e r p r o p p a n t s e n t e r t h e
c o a l seam r e f l e c t f l o w r e s t r i c t i o n due t o n e a r - w e l l b o r e p r o p p a n t blockage i n
the fracture, and subsequently s h o r t p e r i o d s o f p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e t a k e p l a c e as
t h e proppants a r e f l u s h e d away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e (JONES 1987, 1988). S i m u l a t i o n
r u n s r e v e a l t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e blockage i n c o a l seams f r e q u e n t l y c o n t a i n s b o t h
proppants and c o a l c h i p s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.7. and 4.4.3.3.). Fracturing with
water-based f l u i d s r e s u l t s i n s h o r t e r propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s , whereas h i g h e r -
v i s c o s i t y f r a c t u r i n g media such as l i n e a r g e l and n i t r o g e n foam t h a t have a l s o
b e t t e r p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s than w a t e r l e a d t o much l o n g e r prop-
ped c r a c k s .

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i n c o a l seams u s u a l l y propagate p a r a l l e l t o t h e maximum

s t r e s s o r f a c e - c l e a t d i r e c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.3.2.) and t h e r e f o r e may n o t ade-
q u a t e l y access an a n i s o t r o p i c r e s e r v o i r (LOGAN 1988). I n some cases, a h o r i z o n -
t a l b o r e h o l e p l a c e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e maximum p e r m e a b i l i t y d i r e c t i o n may
t h e r e f o r e be a more e f f e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n technique ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.4.3.6. and
4.8.6.2.1.2.). During coal s t i m u l a t i o n treatments, f r a c t u r e s are h y d r a u l i c a l l y
newly induced o r p r e - e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n t h e c o a l seam a r e expanded
(LAYNE & BYRER 1986). The complex n a t u r a l c r a c k system i n c o a l seams and s u r -
r o u n d i n g f o r m a t i o n may i n h i b i t t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f a s t i m u l a t i o n j o b by d i v e r t -
i n g f l u i d p a t h s away f r o m t h e pay zone f r a c t u r e channel.

A l l c o a l d e p o s i t s c o n t a i n methane, a l t h o u g h t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s v a r y f r o m
seam t o seam and sometimes even change w i t h i n t h e same seam (DOE 1984). U n l i k e
o i l and gas w e l l s where w a t e r h e l p s t o push t h e hydrocarbons t o t h e s u r f a c e ,
t h e w a t e r i n c o a l seams h i n d e r s t h e gas f r o m moving t o t h e w e l l s and t h u s f i r s t
t h e w a t e r has t o be pumped o u t b e f o r e the gas can be d r a i n e d o f f ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.4.3.1.). I n a d d i t i o n , n a t u r a l p r e s s u r e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y low i n a c o a l seam,
f o r c i n g t h e gas t o be e i t h e r used o n - s i t e o r compressed i n o r d e r t o enable f l o w
through a l o n g e r - d i s t a n c e p i p e l i n e . Coal seams can i n p l a c e s be o v e r p r e s s u r e d
and w a t e r - s a t u r a t e d and can possess h i g h s t r u c t u r a l l y enhanced p e r m e a b i l i t y
(McBANE & JEU 1988). A t t e m p t s t o produce n a t u r a l gas f r o m c o a l seams u s u a l l y en-
c o u n t e r s i g n i f i c a n t volumes o f w a t e r which must be removed i n o r d e r t o reduce
r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e and hence a l l o w d e s o r p t i o n o f methane f r o m t h e c o a l (WAY
1988). Deeper c o a l seams have o v e r a l l l o w e r p e r m e a b i l i t i e s t h a n s h a l l o w e r ones,
b u t a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s d e s i r a b l e and e c o n o m i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e t a r g e t s because o f
t h e i r h i g h e r rank and h i g h e r gas c o n t e n t (McKEE, BUMB & KOENIG 1986; SCHRAUFNA-
GEL & LAMBERT 1988). A comparative e v a l u a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i -
ques f o r c o a l seams i s c a r r i e d o u t by LOGAN, ERWIN & McBANE ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.4.3.5. Fracture conductivity maximization

I n o r d e r t o maximize f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i n c o a l seam s t i m u l a t i o n , p a r t i a l -
l y coarse 10/20 mesh proppants have t o be a p p l i e d ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4.3.5.) and
t h e t o t a l p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y has t o be i n c r e a s e d o v e r s t a n d a r d designs (JONES,
BELL, MORALES & SCHRAUFNAGEL 1987; REEVES, WALLACE & BEAVERS 1987; ZUBER, REE-
VES, JONES & SCHRAUFNAGEL 1988). The use o f l o w - v i s c o s i t y banking f l u i d s w i l l
a l l o w proppants t o s e t t l e t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f r a c t u r e and t o f o r m a p r o p p a n t
bank which b r i d g e s t h e e n t i r e w i d t h o f t h e b a l l o o n e d f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4.3.3.2. and 4.12.2.2.). Banking f l u i d s may a l l o w an u l t r a - h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y
open f r a c t u r e t o form above t h e p r o p p a n t bank (LASSITER & HOLLINGSWORTH 1984).
As a consequence o f i n e f f i c i e n t p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t , t h e proppant-banking ap-
proach u s i n g w a t e r r e s u l t s i n r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h which i s
s a c r i f i c e d f o r h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y (JONES, BELL, MORALES & SCHRAUFNAGEL 1987).

T h i n c o a l seams a r e n o t amenable t o v e r t i c a l d r i l l i n g and t h u s h i g h l y - d e v i a -

ted t o h o r i z o n t a l h o l e s have t o f o l l o w t h e c o a l seam more o r l e s s a l o n g i t s d i p
 418

o r s t r i k e i n o r d e r t o f i r s t r e n d e r s t i m u l a t i o n more e f f e c t i v e and second t o p r o -

duce more gas (DUE 1984; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 6 . 2 . 1 . ) . S p e c i a l t e c h n i q u e s f o r econo-
m i c a l a c q u i s i t i o n a l s o i n c l u d e b i r d f o o t d r i l l i n g f r o m one c e n t r a l v e r t i c a l s t e m
well r a d i a l l y i n t o various directions.

4.4.3.6. Vertical hydraulic fracturing vs. horizontal dr i 1 ling

A p a r t f r o m p r e d o m i n a n t l y v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g as a consequence o f
t h e m a i n l y g r e a t e r d e p t h o f c o a l seams, h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g i s a n o t h e r s u i t a b l e
t e c h n i q u e f o r gas d r a i n a g e f r o m c o a l r e s e r v o i r s , w i t h h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s f o r
c o a l - s e a m d e g a s i f i c a t i o n h a v i n g been i m p l e m e n t e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e USA
more t h a n 30 y e a r s ago (ERTEKIN, SUNG & SCHWERER 1986). The m a i n a d v a n t a g e o f
h o r i z o n t a l boreholes i s t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f w e l l b o r e t r a j e c t o r y can be con-
t r o l l e d with respect t o the principal permeability directions o f the coal,
whereas v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s have random o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e c l e a t s y s -
tem w h i c h i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e g e o t e c t o n i c a l s t r e s s s t a t e ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.6.2.1.5.).

Coal seam t h i c k n e s s has a more p r o n o u n c e d e f f e c t o n a v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e t h a n

on a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e , because f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e a r e a i n c r e a s e s w i t h c o a l
seam t h i c k n e s s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e e x p o s e d s u r f a c e a r e a o f a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e
w h i c h o n l y i n c r e a s e s w i t h l e n g t h o f t h e w e l l . Based on i d e n t i c a l e x p o s e d s u r f a -
c e a r e a s , v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s and h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s c r e a t e h i g h e r gas p r o d u c t i o n
rates in early and l a t e e x p l o i t a t i o n , respectively (cf. also section
4 . 8 . 6 . 2 . 1 . ) . T h e r e f o r e t h e optimum s o l u t i o n f o r c o a l seam d r a i n a g e c o u l d be ho-
r i z o n t a l boreholes from which m u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s a r e propagating, w i t h
t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n a c c e s s i n g t h e l a r g e s t p o s s i b l e c o a l seam s u r f a c e a r e a ( c f .
a l s o section 4.8.6.2.4.). Horizontal w e l l s i n combination w i t h hydraulic f r a c t u -
r i n g a r e a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t i n s t r u m e n t s f o r gas d r a i n a g e f r o m s h a l e s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.4.4.3.2.).

4.4.3.7. Reservoir pressure

C o a l seam r e s e r v o i r s i n v a r i o u s b a s i n s a r e g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y o v e r -
p r e s s u r i n g , u n d e r p r e s s u r i n g o r n o r m a l p r e s s u r e r e g i m e (McFALL, WICKS, KELSON,
SEDWICK & BRANDENBURG 1 9 8 7 ) . O v e r p r e s s u r e d a r e a s a r e b a s i n r e g i o n s where gas ge-
n e r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e c o a l d e p o s i t s may s t i l l be a c t i v e , where t h e c o a l s have
been u p l i f t e d , o r where t h e o v e r b u r d e n h a s been e r o d e d . U n d e r p r e s s u r e d a r e a s
a r e b a s i n r e g i o n s where t h e c o a l s a r e n o l o n g e r a c t i v e l y g e n e r a t i n g gas, where
t h e v o i d space may have i n c r e a s e d due t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r i n g o r c o a l d e s o r p t i o n ,
o r where t h e gas may have e s c a p e d from t h e c o a l d e p o s i t s t o t h e o v e r - and u n d e r -
l y i n g rock s t r a t a . Normally pressured areas are b a s i n regions i n which mobile
w a t e r and r e s i d u a l gas c o e x i s t w i t h i n t h e c l e a t and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s y s t e m o f
t h e c o a l d e p o s i t s . In t h e l a t t e r a r e a s , i t i s assumed t h a t an e q u i l i b r i u m h y d r o -
s t a t i c c o n d i t i o n has been r e a c h e d a f t e r w a t e r has i m b i b e d and r e s a t u r a t e d t h e
c o a l seam.

4.4.3.8. Relationships between coal seams and bounding strata

F r a c t u r e d e s i g n i n c o a l seams m u s t r e f l e c t t h e l i t h o l o g y o f t h e b o u n d i n g
s t r a t a , because t h i s a f f e c t s f r a c t u r e h e i g h t g r o w t h and c r a c k g e o m e t r y (JEU, LO-
GAN & McBANE 1 9 8 8 ) . U i s t i n c t i o n has m a i n l y t o be made between s a n d s t o n e s and
s h a l e s as l i t h o l o g i e s n e x t t o t h e c o a l seam. Some mechanisms o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t
c o n t a i n m e n t and e l e v a t e d t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s a r e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d .
 479

4.4.3.8.1. Sandstones
Where c o a l seams a r e a d j a c e n t t o sandstone, h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e growth occurs
i n b o t h sandstone and c o a l , and s t i m u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e s a r e l e s s than 1.1 p s i / f t .
L i n e a r f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s can be used e f f e c t i v e l y t o p l a c e proppants i n t h e c o a l
seam i f t h e sandstone o v e r l i e s t h e c o a l (JEU, LOGAN & McBANE 1988). I f t h e sand-
stone i s s i t u a t e d beneath t h e c o a l seam, i n many cases s u c c e s s f u l s t i m u l a t i o n
can be achieved by p e r f o r a t i n g t h e sandstone i n t e r v a l and p r o p a g a t i n g t h e hy-
d r a u l i c c r a c k f r o m t h e sandstone upwards i n t o t h e c o a l seam. T h i s upwards f r a c -
t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e has t h e advantage t h a t t h e g u i d i n g sandstone p e r m i t s a l o n g e r
f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n deeper i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r than would be p o s s i b l e w i t h i n t h e
c o a l seam a l o n e and a l s o enables i n s e r t i o n o f l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s and h i g h e r con-
c e n t r a t i o n s o f proppants which a t l e a s t i n p a r t s o f t h e c r e a t e d c r a c k r e a c h
a l s o t h e c o a l seam ( s i m i l a r u p h o l e f r a c t u r i n g i s performed i n c h a l k sequences,
w i t h t h e c r a c k b e i n g i n i t i a t e d i n a more competent h o r i z o n u n d e r l y i n g s o f t and
c o l l a p s i n g s t o r e y s where most o f t h e hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s a r e c o n t a i n e d ; c f .
section 4.5.4.3.2.).

4.4.3.8.2. Shales
Much h i g h e r t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s o c c u r when c o a l i s bounded by shale, w i t h t h e
f r a c t u r e s b e i n g p r i m a r i l y c o n t a i n e d t o t h e c o a l and t h e h i g h o p e r a t i o n a l p r e s s u -
r e s h a v i n g r e s u l t e d i n p a r t f r o m a complex f r a c t u r e geometry (JEU, LOGAN &
McBANE 1988). H i g h - s t r e n g t h c a s i n g i s u s e f u l i n accommodating t h e h i g h e r t r e a t -
i n g p r e s s u r e s and a l l o w s l a r g e r j o b s t o be pumped where many o p e r a t i o n s had t o
be t e r m i n a t e d p r e m a t u r e l y when t h e b u r s t s t r e n g t h o f t h e t u b u l a r s was reached.
H i g h e r i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s m a t e r i a l c r e a t e s u f f i c i e n t w i d t h i n
t h e complex geometry and t h e r e b y i n c r e a s e t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f a s u c c e s s f u l t r e a t -
ment.

I n many cases, t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s i n sandstone i s l e s s than t h a t i n c o a l

which i n t u r n i s l e s s t h a n t h a t i n s h a l e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.3.1., 4.2.3.2.2.
and 4 . 2 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) . I n c o a l seams bounded by shales, c o n f i n e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t r e -
s u l t s i n h i g h e r t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s which causes a complex T-shaped f r a c t u r e geo-
m e t r y t h a t has b o t h v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l components (JEFFREY, VANDAMME & ROE-
G I E R S 1987; c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 2 . 8 . 4 . and 4 . 9 . 4 . 2 . ) . I n terms o f p r o p a g a t i o n , t h e
r a d i u s o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e q u i c k l y exceeds c o a l seam t h i c k n e s s and i s
more narrow, whereas t h e v e r t i c a l c r a c k i s u s u a l l y v e r y wide due t o i t s c o n f i n e -
ment (JEU, LOGAN & McBANE 1988). F r a c t u r e growth i n c o a l seams bounded by s h a l e
i s u s u a l l y c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e c o a l and a d j a c e n t s h a l e s even though p r e s s u r e s
f a r exceed t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s o f t h e s h a l e s . F r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e s f r e q u e n t l y
a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n 1.1 p s i / f t . Successful f r a c t u r e designs must en-
s u r e t h a t t h e complex T-shaped c r a c k w i l l have adequate w i d t h t o accommodate
p r o p p a n t which i s achieved by i n c l u d i n g a g r e a t e r percentage o f pad ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.3.4.6.1.4.), h i g h e r i n j e c t i o n r a t e s , and use o f s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s agents
such as 40/70 o r 100 mesh sand ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.3.1.2. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) .

4.4.3.8.3. Fracture height containment

and elevated treating pressures
P o t e n t i a l mechanisms f o r f r a c t u r e h e i g h t containment a r e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n
o f shales, s l i p p a g e a t t h e c o a l / s h a l e i n t e r f a c e , t h e n e a r l y t e n f o l d c o n t r a s t i n
Young's modulus between c o a l and t h a t o f s h a l e and sandstone, and l i m i t a t i o n o f
f r a c t u r e h e i g h t g r o w t h by c r e a t i o n o f a h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e due t o t h e h i g h
t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e . Magnitude and r a t e o f p r e s s u r e r i s e accompanying t h e s t a r t
o f p r o p p a n t i n j e c t i o n l i m i t s c r a c k l e n g t h , w i t h t h e p r e s s u r e r i s e o f t e n reach-
i n g t h e b u r s t s t r e n g t h o f t h e c a s i n g and a p r e s s u r e o u t c a u s i n g a premature t e r -
m i n a t i o n o f t h e j o b . Accommodation o f t h e abnormally h i g h t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s i s
r e q u i r e d t o be a b l e t o c r e a t e t h e v e r y l o n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t h a t a r e needed
t o t a p deep l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y c o a l s . H i g h o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e s g e n e r a l l y c r e a t e
 480

s h o r t e r and w i d e r f r a c t u r e s , and complex c r a c k geometries cause fracture pene-

t r a t i o n t o be v e r y i n e f f i c i e n t .

P o s s i b l e mechanisms f o r a b n o r m a l l y h i g h t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s a r e unusual f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t containment, m u l t i p l e p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 6 . 2 . 4 . ) ,
i n t e r a c t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m l e a k o f f i n f l a t i o n o f c o a l c l e a t s (sometimes r e f e r r e d
t o as p o r o e l a s t i c o r b a c k s t r e s s e f f e c t s ) , c o a l f i n e s i n c r e a s i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i -
ty, c o a l f i n e s s c r e e n i n g o f f t h e f r a c t u r e t i p r e g i o n due t o c o a l f a i l u r e , p l a s -
t i c c o a l d e f o r m a t i o n a t t h e w e l l b o r e , p a r t i a l blockage o f t h e f r a c t u r e a t t h e
b o r e h o l e due t o c o a l f a i l u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.7. and 4.4.3.3.), and i n c r e a -
ses i n e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e toughness due t o f r a c t u r e s p l i t t i n g n e a r t h e t i p r e -
gion.

4.4.4. Shales
I n a d d i t i o n t o c o a l seam t r e a t m e n t and t i g h t sandstone s t i m u l a t i o n , s i g n i f i -
c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas a r e f u r t h e r d e r i v i n g f r o m s h a l e f r a c t u -
r i n g (SCHRIDER, OVERBEY, KOMAR & P A S I N I 1977; SCHRIDER & WISE 1980; SWARTZ & AH-
ME0 1982; CHEN, ALAM, VOZNIAK & BLANTON 1984). Shales have a v e r y low m a t r i x
p e r m e a b i l i t y ( 0 . 1 - 10 m i c r o d a r c y ) and t h e r e f o r e an e x t e n s i v e n a t u r a l o r synthe-
t i c f r a c t u r e system i s r e q u i r e d i n t h e r e s e r v o i r t o move economical q u a n t i t i e s
o f gas t o a w e l l b o r e (SOEDER 1 9 8 8 ) . Shales a r e r o c k s made up o f c l a y - t o s i l t -
s i z e d p a r t i c l e s independent f r o m p e t r o g r a p h i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n t h a t a r e l a m i n a t e d
o r f i s s i l e o r both, w i t h t h e term s h a l e t h u s n o t i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e r o c k has a
s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t e n t o f c l a y m i n e r a l s (HENSEL 1 9 8 8 ) . F o l l o w i n g an o u t l i n e o f r e -
s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s and p r o d u c t i o n mechanisms, aspects o f non-proppant f r a c t u -
r i n g , p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , e f f e c t i v i t y o f p r o p p a n t vs. n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g , spe-
c i a l f e a t u r e s o f s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s and e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d .

4.4.4.1. Reservoir properties and production mechanisms

Shale gas r e s o u r c e s i n c l u d e f r e e gas i n t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e and p o r o s i t y
system as w e l l as adsorbed gas on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e o r g a n i c kerogen (KUUSKRAA
& HAAS 1988). The gas adsorbed on o r g a n i c m a t t e r desorbs o n l y s l o w l y i n respon-
se t o d e c r e a s i n g r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e . The gas r e s i d i n g i n t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s
i s i n dynamical b a l a n c e w i t h t h e adsorbed gas i n t h e m a t r i x o f t h e a d j a c e n t
w a l l r o c k . When a w e l l encounters t h e g a s - f i l l e d f r a c t u r e s o r i s j o i n e d t o t h e
n a t u r a l c r a c k s by h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n , gas moves r a p i d l y f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e
system i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e . D u r i n g d e c l i n e o f f l u s h p r o d u c t i o n , t h e f r a c t u r e d gas
s h a l e r e a c t s as a c o n v e n t i o n a l porous r e s e r v o i r . The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e focusses
on gas d r a i n a g e t h r o u g h n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s , s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r gas i n d u s t r y and
r e s e r v e p o t e n t i a l , and impact o f h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g .

4.4.4.1.1. Gas drainage through natural fractures

Shale w e l l s g e n e r a l l y e x h i b i t a f a i r l y r a p i d i n i t i a l d e c l i n e c u r v e as gas i s
d r a i n e d f r o m t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system, f o l l o w e d by a slow g r a d u a l d e c l i n e as
gas f r o m t h e m a t r i x moves t o t h e c r a c k s (KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988). Gas movement
t h r o u g h t h e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y s h a l e m a t r i x i s so slow t h a t o n l y a f t e r s e v e r a l
y e a r s t h e volume o f m a t r i x gas moving i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e s e q u a l s t h e volume o f
gas f l o w i n g f r o m t h e c r a c k s i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e . P r i o r t o a t t a i n i n g t h i s steady-
s t a t e flow, t h e w i t h d r a w a l d i m i n u t i o n c u r v e shows a steep drop, b u t soon a f t e r
t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e f l o w f r o m m a t r i x v i a f r a c t u r e t o w e l l b o r e has been reached,
t h e p r o d u c t i o n d e c l i n e c u r v e f l a t t e n s almost t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l and shows o n l y
s l i g h t d e c l i n e d u r i n g t h e n e x t s e v e r a l decades. Gas d r a i n a g e t h r o u g h n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s i s a l s o a s i g n i f i c a n t mechanism f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n o f c o a l seams ( c f .
section 4.4.3.1.).

An i n c r e a s e i n t h e amount o f s u r f a c e area connected t o t h e borehole by hy-

 481

d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s causes more o f t h e adsorbed gas t o be r e l e a s e d and produced

over the e n t i r e l i f e o f the w e l l (MERCER, PRATT & YOST 1988). KAMATH & GODBOLE
(1985) comment on h o t b r i n e s t i m u l a t i o n f o r gas p r o d u c t i o n from n a t u r a l gas hy-
d r a t e s . OZKAYA (1986) analyzes n a t u r a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f shales d u r i n g se-
dimentation. An assessment o f the p o t e n t i a l o f shale gas r e s e r v o i r s i n c l u d i n g
o u t l i n e o f e f f e c t i v e p r o d u c t i o n techniques i s g i v e n by KUUSKRAA, WICKS, SAWYER,
ESPOSITO & KOMAR (1983); McBANE & THOMPSON (1984), MASON (1987) and VANORSDALE
(1987).

4.4.4.1.2. Significance for gas industry and reserve potential

Gas from shale r e s e r v o i r s a c t u a l l y gave b i r t h t o the n a t u r a l gas i n d u s t r y i n
the USA when the f i r s t commercial gas w e l l was d r i l l e d i n t o Devonian shales i n
Canadaway Creek near Fredonia/New York i n 1821 ( t h u s preceding the f i r s t o i l
w e l l d r i l l e d i n 1859 near T i t u s v i l l e / P e n n s y l v a n i a by 38 years) and heralded a
new energy source (DOE 1984, WITT 1986) which was a l r e a d y abundantly e x p l o i t e d
more than 100 years ago. The Devonian shales o f the Appalachian, I l l i n o i s and
Michigan basins i n the USA c o n t a i n i n f a c t one o f the l a r g e s t worldwide concen-
t r a t i o n o f o r g a n i c a l l y r i c h carbon and gas i n p l a c e (KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988) and
are estimated t o c o n t a i n more than 100 T c f o r 2,500 B i l l . m3 recoverable resour-
ces (OFFICE OF TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT 1985). The c u r r e n t development a c t i v i t y by
d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n i s concentrated i n West V i r g i n i a , Kentucky and Ohio.

DOE (1983 a); GATENS, LEE & R A H I M (1985); KOZIAR (1985); KUUSKRAA, SEDWICK
& YOST (1985); LEE & GATENS (1985); HAZLETT, LEE, NARAHARA & GATENS (1986); KEM-
PER, FRANKIE, MOODY & JOHNSTON (1986); WITT (1986); GATENS, LEE, LANE, WATSON,
STANLEY & LANCASTER (1987) and GUIDRY, GRAHAM, LANCASTER & CURTIS (1987) pre-
sent reviews on e v a l u a t i o n , completion and t e s t i n g o f the p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l
o f Devonian shales. LINDEN (1985) u n d e r l i n e s the r o l e which shale gas p l a y s i n
the gas supply d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n concepts o f the near f u t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.6.4.). A systematical approach f o r economical development o f shale gas
resources i s documented by AMERI, AMINIAN, MILLER, D O R I C I C H & YOST (1985). Pro-
blems o f l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n shale gas r e s e r v o i r s are summarized by CAMPBELL
& TRUMAN (1986); McBANE, CAMPBELL & TRUMAN (1986); G R I (1987 b ) and VANORSDALE
(1987), w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l l o g e v a l u a t i o n having d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g
between apparent and e f f e c t i v e p o r o s i t y (KUUSKRAA & HAAS 1988).

4.4.4.1.3. Impact o f horizontal drilling and hydraulic treating

S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r coal seams, t h e gas p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l o f shales
can be g r e a t l y improved by a combination o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l d r i l l i n g and mul-
t i p l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (YOST, OVERBEY, SALAMY, OKOYE & SARADJI 1987; ZUBER,
LEE & GATENS 1987; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.8.6.2.1. and 4.8.6.2.4.). Directional d r i l -
l i n g o f a h o r i z o n t a l w e l l r e c t a n g u l a r l y c r o s s i n g the n a t u r a l cracks f o l l o w e d by
m u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n o r t h o g o n a l l y t o the borehole
t r a j e c t o r y i s the optimum means t o increase the shale surface area i n c o n t a c t
w i t h the borehole i n o r d e r t o r e l e a s e more o f the adsorbed gas (HORTON, MERCER
& SAWYER 1982; SALAMY, SARADJI, OKOYE, MERCER & YOST 1987).

Aspects o f i n t e r f e r e n c e o f n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s i n
shales are a l s o discussed by P A S I N I & OVERBEY (1969) and BLANTON (1982). P o r o s i -
t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y o f gas shales are evaluated by SOEDER (1988). Aspects o f
shale w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g are o u t l i n e d by FOSTER (1975),
TILLMAN (1983); OUTTON, BEMIS, JOHNSON & WHITE (1984); SHAW, GATENS, LANCASTER,
LEE, AVARY & TERRY (1986); LANCASTER, GUIDRY, GRAHAM, CURTIS, SHAW & BLAKE
(1987); KUUSKRAA, KELAFANT & HORNER (1988); LAYNE & SIRIWARDANE (1988) and NEA-
R I N G & STARTZMAN (1988). Shale r e f r a c t u r i n g i s o u t l i n e d by GUIDRY, GRAHAM, CUR-
T I S , SHAW & BLAKE (1987). D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between non-proppant and
proppant h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g as w e l l as e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g .
 482

4.4.4.2. Non-proppant fracturing

The m o s t i m p o r t a n t n o n - p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e s i n s h a l e gas r e s e r -
v o i r s a r e n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g , c a r b o n d i o x i d e f r a c t u r i n g and foam f r a c t u r i n g
w h i c h a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.4.4.2.1. Nitrogen fracturing

When pumped a t s u f f i c i e n t r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s , gaseous n i t r o g e n a l o n e i s s u c -
c e s s f u l as a f r a c t u r i n g medium f o r s h a l e e v e n w i t h o u t p r o p p a n t s and may e v e n
o u t p e r f o r m o t h e r t r e a t m e n t t y p e s (ABEL 1982, ABEL e t a l . 1 9 8 3 ) . The a d v a n t a g e s
o f n i t r o g e n a r e non-damaging c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , minimum s h u t - i n t i m e , and minimum
n o m i n a l t r e a t m e n t c o s t s . L i q u i d s can c a u s e c l a y m i g r a t i o n and s w e l i i n g i n t h e
formation which reduces p e r m e a b i l i t y (water s e n s i t i v i t y ; c f . s e c t i o n 3.11.2.),
and t h e r e f o r e l i q u i d c o n t e n t o f f r a c t u r i n g media i s e x t r e m e l y c r u c i a l . I n con-
t r a s t t o f l u i d s , n i t r o g e n i s i n e r t , r e l a t i v e l y i n s o l u b l e and c o m p r e s s i b l e , with
t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s p r e v e n t i n g any damage t o s h a l e f o r m a t i o n s . A f t e r an o u t l i n e o f
a d v a n t a g e s o f n i t r o g e n gas f r a c t u r i n g , some comments a r e o f f e r e d on w e l l b o r e v i -
c i n i t y damage r e m o v a l and r e s e r v o i r breakdown.

4.4.4.2.1.1. Advantages o f nitrogen gas fracturing

C o n c e r n i n g a d v a n t a g e s o f n i t r o g e n s t i m u l a t i o n , no f l u i d l o s s a d d i t i v e s a r e
n e c e s s a r y i n n i t r o g e n gas t r e a t m e n t s . S i n c e n i t r o g e n gas i s m o b i l e , fractures
t h a t v i s c o u s l i q u i d s o r s o l i d s c o u l d n o t p e n e t r a t e c a n be c o n n e c t e d f o r optimum
d e l i v e r a b i l i t y . The s h u t - i n t i m e i s a l s o c r u c i a l , because t h e l o n g e r t h e li-
q u i d s r e m a i n i n t h e w e l l , t h e more s e v e r e f o r m a t i o n damage p r o v o k e d e s p e c i a l l y
i n s h a l e s . F r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s u s i n g o n l y gaseous n i t r o g e n u n d e r p r e s s u r e t o
c r e a t e c r a c k s a r e g e n e r a l l y l e s s c o s t l y t h a n o t h e r h y d r a u l i c methods and s i n c e
no l i q u i d s a r e a p p l i e d , l i q u i d r e t e n t i o n and removal p r o b l e m s do n o t o c c u r
(BRANDENBURG 1 9 8 8 ) . Because t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s a r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y p e r f o r m e d w i t h -
o u t p r o p p a n t s , s p a l l i n g o r f r a c t u r e f a c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s a r e r e l i e d upon f o r
maintaining fracture conductivity.

4.4.4.2.1.2. We1 lbore vicinity damage

removal and reservoir breakdown
N i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s m a i n l y remove n e a r -
w e l l b o r e damage ( s i m i l a r l y as i n c o a l - s e a m s t i m u l a t i o n ; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . 3 . )
and e s t a b l i s h c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h p r e v i o u s l y n o n - p r o d u c i n g p e r f o r a t i o n s and t h e
f o r m a t i o n (ELY 1988, LANCASTER 1 9 8 8 ) . As n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g v i r t u a l l y e l i m i n a -
tes t h e clean-up problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l i q u i d systems ( c f . sections
3 . 1 1 . 2 . 2 . ) , p r o d u c t i o n i s n o t l o s t and c o s t l y swabbing u n i t s t o r e c o v e r f l u i d s
a r e n o t needed. Low i n i t i a l c o s t f o r n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g g u a r a n t e e s r a p i d p a y -
back and r e n d e r s i t e v e n e c o n o m i c a l t o r e p e a t t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t a t a l a -
t e r s t a g e . N i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g o f gas s h a l e s w i t h p a r t i a l p r o p p a n t i n s e r t i o n i s
o u t l i n e d by GOTTSCHLING, ROYCE & SCHUCK ( 1 9 8 5 ) , and K I N G (1982, 1983) documents
h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h l i q u i d c a r b o n d i o x i d e . An e c o n o m i c a l a n a l y -
s i s o f foam f r a c t u r i n g i n s h a l e s (sometimes i n c l u d i n g p r o p p a n t a d d i t i o n ) i s p e r -
f o r m e d b y LIEBENTHAL, KOMAR, RIEKE & SKILLERN ( 1 9 7 9 ) and STRANG & NORTON
( 1 9 8 3 ) . COURSEN ( 1 9 8 3 ) d i s c u s s e s t h e e f f e c t o f e x p l o s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h v a r y -
i n g c h a r g e t y p e s on gas p r o d u c t i v i t y o f s h a l e s .

N i t r o g e n i s a l s o a s u i t a b l e medium f o r p e r f o r m i n g m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g breakdown
treatments ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.2.2.) i n o r d e r t o minimize n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system
damage i n s h a l e s and t i g h t s a n d s t o n e s (BRANAGAN & WILMER 1 9 8 8 ) . S e v e r a l t e c h n i -
ques c a n be a p p l i e d i n c l u d i n g h y d r a u l i c n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g u s i n g s u r f a c e pump
t r u c k s , p e r f o r a t i n g w i t h an u n d e r b a l a n c e d n i t r o g e n column, h i g h - p r e s s u r e n i t r o -
 483

gen impulse perforating/microfracturing combination, n i t r o g e n impulse i n j e c t i o n

u s i n g a t u b i n g pump-out p l u g , and t a i l o r e d p u l s e e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g .

4.4.4.2.2. Carbon dioxide and foam fracturing

A p a r t f r o m s t r a i g h t n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g , o t h e r non-proppant h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g techniques commonly a p p l i e d i n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s a r e carbon d i o x i d e
f r a c t u r i n g and foam f r a c t u r i n g , w i t h t h e l a t t e r method p a r t i c u l a r l y f r e q u e n t l y
a l s o b e i n g combined w i t h proppant i n s e r t i o n i n o r d e r t o improve t h e r e s u l t o f
t h e j o b beyond s i m p l e communication between b o r e h o l e and r e s e r v o i r as w e l l as
f o r m a t i o n damage removal around t h e w e l l b o r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 3 . ) . Some aspects
o f e f f e c t i v i t y o f carbon d i o x i d e vs. n i t r o g e n t r e a t i n g , foam s t i m u l a t i o n and
t a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g , and a u t o - p r o p p i n g o f c r a c k s c r e a t e d by gas f r a c t u r i n g
a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.4.4.2.2.1. Effectivity of carbon dioxide vs. nitrogen treating

YOST, OVERBEY, WILKINS & LOCKE (1988) compare t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f d i f f e r e n t
h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s i n a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e t r a v e r s i n g s h a l e gas
r e s e r v o i r s w i t h e x t e n s i v e n a t u r a l j o i n t i n g . Carbon d i o x i d e j o b s t u r n o u t t o be
more t h a n f o u r t i m e s b e t t e r than n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g i n i t i a l l y and t o l a s t
t w i c e as l o n g p r i o r t o c l o s u r e o f t h e non-propped c r a c k s . The d e n s i t y c o n t r a s t
between n i t r o g e n and carbon d i o x i d e may have caused t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f more and
w i d e r f r a c t u r e s w i t h carbon d i o x i d e r e s u l t i n g i n h i g h improvement r a t i o s . A l -
though s t r e s s r a t i o s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e area under s t u d y i s n e a r l y t e c t o n i c a l l y
r e l a x e d , proppants a r e s t i l l r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n permeable f l o w p a t h s f o r more
than s e v e r a l weeks.

4.4.4.2.2.2. Foam fracturing and tailored pulse loading

I n a d d i t i o n t o n i t r o g e n and carbon d i o x i d e f r a c t u r i n g , o t h e r non-proppant
s t i m u l a t i o n methods h i t h e r t o a p p l i e d i n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s i n c l u d e foam f r a c -
t u r i n g and t a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g , w i t h t h e l a t t e r t e c h n i q u e c o m p r i s i n g i g n i -
t i o n o f s l o w - b u r n i n g p r o p e l l a n t s i n t h e b o r e h o l e ( D O E 1984; c f . s e c t i o n s
4.2.2.1.3.3., 4.7.3., 4.8.8.5. and 4 . 8 . 9 . 6 . ) . The f o r c e o f t h e b u r n p l u s t h e
produced combustion gases crack t h e r o c k i n s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s a t once i n s t e a d
o f t h e u s u a l s i n g l e - d i r e c t i o n f r a c t u r e s c r e a t e d by w a t e r o r foam. C o n v e n t i o n a l
e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g has a l s o h i s t o r i c a l l y been a p p l i e d i n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s
and r e s u l t s i n communication o f t h e b o r e h o l e w i t h t h e pay zone and i n a r e l a t i -
v e l y small degree o f s t i m u l a t i o n because t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e s a r e m u l t i d i r e c -
t i o n a l , unpropped and o f l i m i t e d p e n e t r a t i o n (BRANDENBURG 1988; c f . s e c t i o n
4.4.4.6.).

4.4.4.2.2.3. Auto-propping of cracks created by gas fracturing

Experience w i t h non-proppant n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s has shown t h a t
a u t o - p r o p p i n g o f t h e c r a c k s by gas e r o s i o n g e n e r a t i n g an e t c h e d s u r f a c e i n t h e
f o r m a t i o n a t t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l , r a p i d flowback causing pay s p a l l i n g , o r some
o t h e r mechanisms o f r e s e r v o i r d e f o r m a t i o n g i v i n g r i s e t o an a u t o - p r o p p i n g con-
d u c t i v e f l o w p a t h i s e x t r e m e l y r a r e , i f e x i s t i n g a t a l l (ELY 1988). C a l c u l a t i o n
o f c u r r e n t r a t e s o f n i t r o g e n across t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e shows t h a t t h e p o s s i b i l i -
t y o f s i g n i f i c a n t e r o s i o n i s remote, and t h e f a c t t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e amounts o f
r e s e r v o i r m a t e r i a l a r e produced w i t h r a p i d flowback procedures does n o t p r o v e
t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a c o n d u c t i v e p a t h by s e l f - p r o p p i n g , b u t r a t h e r t e s t i f i e s t o
f a i l u r e o f t h e s h a l e under t h e imposed s t r e s s . Auto-propping a l s o i s t h e mecha-
nism t o keep open c r a c k s h a v i n g been generated by a c i d f r a c t u r i n g , b u t a l s o i n
carbonate s t i m u l a t i o n , t h e much b e t t e r approach i s h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t t r e a t m e n t
w i t h p r o p e r i n f i l l i n g and s u p p o r t o f t h e c r a c k ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) .
 484

T h e r e f o r e much s u p e r i o r r e s u l t s o f s h a l e gas s t i m u l a t i o n can be achieved by hy-

d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . Aspects o f foam f r a c t u r i n g i n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s
a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by KOMAR & YOST (1979) and DRISCOLL, BOWEN & ROBERTS ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n gas shales i n t h e e a r l y 1950's,

o n l y w a t e r was used as t r e a t i n g f l u i d and y i e l d e d c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r gas f l o w
r a t e s t h a n e a r l i e r e x p l o s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n (WITT 1986). The l a t e r s w i t c h t o foam
and l i q u e f i e d gas f r a c t u r i n g f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d gas r e c o v e r y , decreased t h e t i m e
required f o r the w e l l t o r e t u r n the f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d , l a r g e l y prevented water
blockage i n t h e c r a c k s ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.11.2.4.2.), and p e r m i t t e d more c a r e f u l l y
designed procedures f o r s t i m u l a t i n g m u l t i p l e zones i n one w e l l ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.2.1.3.).

4.4.4.3. Proppant fractur ins

A l t h o u g h s t r a i g h t n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g b o t h as s m a l l - s c a l e f o r m a t i o n and p e r -
f o r a t i o n breakdown t r e a t m e n t and as l a r g e - s c a l e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n a r e v e r y
s u c c e s s f u l i n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s p a r t i c u l a r l y due t o t h e i r e x t r e m e l y low c o s t
and t e c h n i c a l s i m p l i c i t y , l o n g - t e r m s t i m u l a t i o n e f f e c t s can o n l y be achieved by
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n d i f f e r e n t s c a l e s . Experience has shown, however, t h a t
s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s a r e v e r y s e n s i t i v e pay zones which r e q u i r e p r o p e r d e s i g n
o f t h e t r e a t m e n t s , w i t h emphasis b e i n g on achievement o f s u f f i c i e n t p r o p p a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e c r a c k ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.) and r a p i d cleanup o f t h e w e l l a f -
t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e j o b ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . 2 . ) . Some aspects o f p r o p p a n t p l a -
cement and f l u i d r e t r i e v a l as w e l l as v e r t i c a l vs. h o r i z o n t a l h o l e d r i l l i n g and
f r a c t u r i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.4.4.3.1. Proppant placement and f l u i d r e t r i e v a l

LANCASTER, GUIDRY, GRAHAM, CURTIS, SHAW & BLAKE (1987) p r e s e n t p r o p p a n t f r a c -
t u r i n g o f s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s b o t h f o r o r i g i n a l t r e a t m e n t s and f o r l a t e r r e s t i -
m u l a t i o n . As p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t l a r g e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g t r e a t m e n t s a r e e f f e c t i v e means o f s h a l e s t i m u l a t i o n , the optimal design
s t r a t e g y s h o u l d maximize p r o p p a n t placement and m i n i m i z e l i q u i d volumes. Good
s o l u t i o n s a r e achieved w i t h n i t r o g e n foam f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s c a r r y i n g h i g h p r o p -
p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i t h a p p l i c a t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e chemical a d d i t i v e s t o as-
s i s t i n e f f i c i e n t cleanup o f l i q u i d s f o l l o w i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n
3.11.2.). Proppant f r a c t u r i n g has h i t h e r t o c o m p a r a t i v e l y r a r e l y been a p p l i e d i n
s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s , b u t i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be o f p r o g r e s s i v e l y r i s i n g s i g n i f i -
cance i n t h e coming y e a r s . Aspects o f s h a l e proppant f r a c t u r i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s -
sed by K I N G (1982, 1983) and GOTTSCHLING, ROYCE & SCHUCK ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

Gas p r o d u c t i o n i n s h a l e r e s e r v o i r s i s f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n t e r v a l s
h a v i n g up t o 4 % h i g h e r p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y than t h e u s u a l s h a l e s e c t i o n ,
h a v i n g a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e p o r o s i t y f i l l e d w i t h hydrocarbons ( t h e f r e e
gas s a t u r a t i o n i s g r e a t e r than a b t . 2 % o f t h e b u l k volume) and h a v i n g a r e l a t i -
v e l y h i g h kerogen c o n t e n t ( g r e a t e r than 2 . 5 % ) . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n f o c u s -
ses on comparative s u p e r i o r i t y o f p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g as w e l l as c o m b i n a t i o n o f
gas and foam-proppant f r a c t u r i n g .

4 . 4 . 4 .3.1.1. Comarative s u p e r i o r i t y o f proppant f r a c t u r i n g

ZUBER, LEE & GATENS (1987) compare t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f d i f f e r e n t s t i m u l a t i o n
t e c h n i q u e s i n Devonian s h a l e r e s e r v o i r s . P e r m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p y i n t h e Devo-
n i a n s h a l e i s p r e s e n t i n v a r i o u s degrees and i s a r e s u l t o f v a r i a t i o n o f n a t u -
r a l f r a c t u r e spacing, c o n d u c t i v i t y , geometry and o t h e r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s . As a
consequence o f a n i s o t r o p i c p e r m e a b i l i t y caused by n a t u r a l c r a c k t r e n d s , a w e l l
w i t h an induced f r a c t u r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e n a t u r a l j o i n t t r e n d w i l l p e r -
f o r m much more f a v o u r a b l y t h a n a w e l l w i t h an induced f r a c t u r e p a r a l l e l t o t h e
 485

n a t u r a l crack t r e n d . Comparative assessment o f s i n g l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , t a i -

lored-pulse s e l e c t i v e and c o n t r o l l e d e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g c r e a t i n g two o r more
r a d i a l f r a c t u r e s being p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o each o t h e r ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.1.3.3.
and 4.7.3.3.), and standard e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g r e v e a l s a r a n k i n g o f e f f e c t i -
v i t y o f the d i f f e r e n t methods i n the mentioned sequence. H y d r a u l i c proppant
f r a c t u r i n g t h e r e f o r e has t u r n e d o u t t o be the economically most a t t r a c t i v e s t i -
m u l a t i o n p r i n c i p l e a l s o i n Devonian shale gas r e s e r v o i r s . Other treatment me-
thods comprise nitrogen-foam (KOMAR, YOST & SINCLAIR 1980) o r pure n i t r o g e n gas
f r a c t u r i n g w i t h o r w i t h o u t proppant i n s e r t i o n (FREEMAN, ABEL, K I M & HEINRICH
1981; c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.4.2.1.).

As a consequence o f t h e experience w i t h more advanced techniques i n t h e l a s t

years, the h i s t o r i c a l l y t r a d i t i o n a l standard e x p l o s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n by borehole
shooting w i t h 80 % g e l a t i n a t e d n i t r o g l y c e r i n e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.4.6.) has been
p r o g r e s s i v e l y replaced by s i n g l e h y d r a u l i c and m u l t i p l e r a d i a l t a i l o r e d - p u l s e
f r a c t u r i n g . OVERBEY, YOST & WILKINS (1988) r e p o r t nitrogen-foam proppant f r a c t u -
r i n g . Other aspects o f shale r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n are discussed by KOMAR
(1978) and HORTON (1982). OZKAYA (1984) o u t l i n e s computer s i m u l a t i o n o f hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n shales.

4.4.4.3.1.2. Combination of gas and foam-proppant fracturing

LAYNE & SIRIWARDANE (1988) f i n d o u t from f i e l d experience t h a t t h e most e f -
f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e design may c o n s i s t o f a h y b r i d treatment w i t h a carbon d i o x i d e
pad and h i g h - q u a l i t y foam as proppant t r a n s p o r t f l u i d which prevents screenout
and f o r m a t i o n damage w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g p o s t - s t i m u l a t i o n f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y
( c f . s e c t i o n 3.11.2.2.). Carbon d i o x i d e may be the p r e f e r r e d base f l u i d f o r
many shale formations, whereas n i t r o g e n foam has o f t e n h i g h e r proppant t r a n s -
p o r t c a p a c i t y than carbon d i o x i d e foam. F l u i d entrance i n t o enlarged n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s d u r i n g course o f the s t i m u l a t i o n treatment takes p l a c e as annulus
loss and l a r g e i n j e c t i o n f l o w i n t o d i s c r e t e f r a c t u r e s . L e a k o f f i s d e f i n e d as a
small amount o f f l u i d t h a t does n o t p e n e t r a t e o r s i g n i f i c a n t l y deform the r e s e r -
v o i r , whereas l a r g e i n j e c t i o n f l o w represents a s i g n i f i c a n t r a t e o f f l u i d pene-
t r a t i o n t h a t i s capable o f c a r r y i n g a proppant and i n f l a t i n g e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e s
t o enhance r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y .

YOST, OVERBEY, WILKINS & LOCKE (1988) conclude t h a t t h e b e s t r e s u l t s o f hy-

d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o f a h o r i z o n t a l borehole through shale gas r e s e r v o i r s which
are w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e would be a carbon d i o x i d e pneumatic proppant t r a n s p o r t f r a c -
t u r i n g process t h a t moves s u f f i c i e n t amounts o f proppants t o m a i n t a i n crack con-
d u c t i v i t y w i t h o u t a water base f l u i d (KING 1983, LEINAN & H A R R I S 1983, SINAL &
CANCASTER 1987; MERCER, PRATT & YOST 1988) o r a mixed treatment c o n s i s t i n g o f a
carbon-dioxide pad f o l l o w e d by proppant-laden n i t r o g e n foam where t h e l i q u i d
phase c o n t a i n s water and methanol ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.11.2.2.). As s t r a i g h t carbon
d i o x i d e f r a c t u r i n g operations had the h i g h e s t i n i t i a l improvement r a t i o , u l t i m a -
t e l y a carbon dioxide-based treatment may be p r e f e r r e d . N i t r o g e n foam can a l s o
be a p p l i e d i n massive h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g j o b s w i t h placement o f prop-
pant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s up t o 6 l b s / g a l a t downhole conditions, w i t h l i q u i d volume
m i n i m i z a t i o n and proppant t r a n s p o r t maximization being the o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y t o
achieve a reasonable r e l a t i o n s h i p between treatment c o s t and e f f e c t i n the
shale gas r e s e r v o i r s (GATENS 1988). Aspects o f proppant-laden n i t r o g e n foam
f r a c t u r i n g are a1 so discussed by LANCASTER (1988).

4.4.4.3.2. Vertical vs. horizontal hole drilling and fracturing

I n terms o f w e l l type, case s t u d i e s i n shale gas r e s e r v o i r s r e v e a l e d t h a t
f o u r h o r i z o n t a l u n s t i m u l a t e d boreholes can produce 1.5 times as much gas as s i x -
teen v e r t i c a l u n t r e a t e d w e l l s i n b o t h i n f i l l d r i l l i n g and v i r g i n r e s e r v o i r deve-
lopment cases (MERCER, PRATT & YOST 1988). The e f f e c t o f f o u r u n s t i m u l a t e d h o r i -
z o n t a l boreholes can be achieved by o n l y two h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s i f they are hy-
 486

d r a u l i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d . On t h e o t h e r hand, BRANDENBURG ( 1 9 8 8 ) c o n c l u d e s t h a t i n
a number o f i n s t a n c e s , h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g f r o m v e r t i c a l w e l l s a p p e a r s t o o f -
f e r t h e b e s t o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x t r a c t gas r e s e r v e s f r o m s h a l e s i n an e c o n o m i c a l l y
e f f i c i e n t manner.

Horizontal wells crossing multiple natural fractures i n the reservoir are re-
q u i r e d i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n s s u c h as s h a l e s i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e n a t u -
r a l gas r e c o v e r y and t o r e d u c e t h e r i s k o f d r i l l i n g a d r y h o l e (LAYNE & S I R I W A R -
DANE 1 9 8 8 ) . Pumping o f h i g h - p r e s s u r e f l u i d down t h r o u g h t u b i n g and a n n u l u s g i -
ves r i s e t o e n l a r g e m e n t o f numerous n a t u r a l j o i n t s i n t h e s h a l e sequence i n t e r -
sected by the horizontal w e l l ( c f . section 4.8.6.2.). Fracture containment i n
v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n promotes e x t e n s i v e f l u i d p e n e t r a t i o n throughout t h e f r a c t u r e
n e t w o r k and e n a b l e s i n d u c t i o n o f h i g h l y e l o n g a t e d e q u i v a l e n t c r a c k s t h r o u g h
more t h a n a s i n g l e n a t u r a l j o i n t o r i e n t a t i o n ( a n e q u i v a l e n t f r a c t u r e h a s t h e
same c r a c k volume e x t e n d e d i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r and does n o t f o l l o w a s i n g l e d i -
r e c t i o n o f maximum p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s ) . I n p a y zones w i t h numerous f r a c t u r e i n t e r -
sections, l o w a n g l e s o f i n d u c e d c r a c k approach, and l o w r a t i o s o f maximum and
minimum h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s , i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s
w i t h m u t u a l f l u i d p e n e t r a t i o n has a v e r y h i g h p o t e n t i a l o f o c c u r r e n c e (BLANTON
1 9 8 6 ) . I n t e r s e c t i o n and p e n e t r a t i o n o f f l u i d s i n a n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e t e n d s t o i m -
pede p r o p a g a t i o n i n t h e same o r i e n t a t i o n and may d i v e r t t h e f l u i d back t o t h e
wellbore. Horizontal w e l l s i n combination w i t h hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g are a l s o
significant instruments f o r gas d r a i n a g e f r o m c o a l seams ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.4.3.6.).

4.4.4.4.Effectivity of proppant vs. nitrogen fracturing

P r o p p a n t - l a d e n t r e a t m e n t s a r e g e n e r a l l y p e r f o r m e d w i t h a foam o r g e l l e d wa-
t e r c a r r i e r t o p a r t t h e f o r m a t i o n and t r a n s p o r t p r o p p a n t t o s u p p o r t t h e c r e a t e d
f r a c t u r e and t o h o l d i t open (BRANDENBURG 1 9 8 8 ) . A l t h o u g h many s h a l e s a r e n o t
p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e t o f l u i d s , c a p i l l a r y a c t i o n may h o l d w a t e r i n s m a l l p o -
r e s , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e i r p e r m e a b i l i t y t o gas. As r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e s i n many
s h a l e s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o overcome t h e s e c a p i l l a r y f o r c e s and t o remove t h e wa-
t e r , foam i s o f t e n p r e f e r r e d because i t r e d u c e s t h e l i q u i d volume o f t h e t r e a t -
ment ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . 2 . ) .

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s i n v a r i o u s s c a l e s f r e -
q u e n t l y had t h e s u r p r i s i n g r e s u l t t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e w e l l s a f t e r t h e s t i m u -
l a t i o n j o b s was n o t a p p r e c i a b l y b e t t e r t h a n t h a t a f t e r s t r a i g h t n i t r o g e n f r a c t u -
r e t r e a t m e n t s w h i c h d i d l i t t l e more t h a n e s t a b l i s h c o m m u n i c a t i o n between b o r e -
h o l e and r e s e r v o i r . I n a d d i t i o n , w e l l p e r f o r m a n c e a f t e r s m a l l n i t r o g e n b r e a k -
down j o b s was o f t e n s i m i l a r t o t h a t seen a f t e r f u l l - s c a l e n i t r o g e n s t i m u l a t i o n s
(SHAW, GATENS, LANCASTER, LEE, AVARY & TERRY 1986; LANCASTER, G U I O R Y , GRAHAM,
CURTIS, SHAW & BLAKE 1 9 8 7 ) . U n s a t i s f a c t o r y s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s f a l l i n g c o n s i d e -
r a b l y b e h i n d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d b y LANCASTER ( 1 9 8 8 ) . A f t e r d i s -
c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l a s p e c t s , a f e w p o i n t s o f l i q u i d r e t e n t i o n and w e l l
c l e a n u p , and f e a s i b i l i t y o f MHF t r e a t m e n t s a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 1 . General aspects
The gas r e s e r v o i r s a r e l o w - p r e s s u r e and l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y l a y e r s w h i c h a r e
d i s t r i b u t e d v e r t i c a l l y w i t h i n t h e s h a l e s e c t i o n , t h e r e b y m a k i n g c o m p l e t i o n s me-
c h a n i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t . S t r e s s c o n t r a s t s between p r o d u c t i v e i n t e r v a l s and p o t e n -
t i a l s t i m u l a t i o n b a r r i e r s a p p e a r t o be m i n i m a l ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 1 . and
4.2.3.2.2.), w i t h t h u s v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e g r o w t h c o n t a i n m e n t b e i n g an i m p o r t a n t
p l a c e m e n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n . As a consequence o f l o w b o t t o m h o l e p r e s s u r e and l o w
permeability, s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s s h o u l d g e n e r a l l y r e s p o n d v e r y w e l l t o t h e
l a r g e increase i n permeable s u r f a c e area a v a i l a b l e f o r f l o w t h a t can be achie-
ved w i t h p r o p e r l y c o n d u c t e d f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s (ZUBER, LEE & GATENS 1987; ELY
1 9 8 8 ) . U n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s o f many h i t h e r t o p e r f o r m e d h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
 487

f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n s h a l e r e s e r v o i r s can be due t o usage o f i n s u f f i c i e n t

b r e a k e r t o degrade t h e polymer v i s c o s i f i e r s i n t h e p r o p p a n t - c a r r y i n g f l u i d s
( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.12.1.1.), w i t h t h e r e s u l t i n g downhole v i s c o s i t y s e v e r e l y l o w e r -
i n g gas p e r m e a b i l i t y i n and around t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e .

O t h e r reasons a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h a v i n g been p l a c e d t o

achieve t h e necessary f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , s t a n d a r d flowback procedures some-
t i m e s r e s u l t i n g i n l i t t l e o r no p r o p p a n t b e i n g p l a c e d across t h e p r o d u c i n g f o r -
mation, and slow l i q u i d cleanup due t o low bottomhole pressure, w i t h unbroken
g e l o r g e l lumping b e i n g a b l e t o cause e i t h e r f a i l u r e t o s t i m u l a t e o r even dama-
ge s h a l e gas w e l l s . F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t l i q u i d cleanup i n t h e low-
p r e s s u r e s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s a f t e r l a r g e - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i s v e r y
slow and w i l l p r o b a b l y never be complete (GATENS 1988), w i t h t h e r e t a i n e d li-
quids i n the f r a c t u r e therefore f o r a longer period o f time s e r i o u s l y reducing
fracture conductivity.

4.4.4.4.2. Liquid retention and well cleanup

Long cleanup p e r i o d s f o l l o w i n g h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n
s h a l e gas w e l l s a r e due t o a c o m b i n a t i o n o f l a r g e r e t a i n e d l i q u i d volumes, in-
s u f f i c i e n t l y broken polymer f l u i d s , and low bottomhole p r e s s u r e , w i t h foamed
f l u i d s t h e r e f o r e b e i n g s u p e r i o r s o l u t i o n s o f t h e problem ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . 2 . ) .
Another answer t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f improvement o f performance a r e i n c r e a s e d p r o p -
p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t o be p l a c e d i n t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.), w i t h the
h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y achieved by h i g h e r proppant s a t u r a t i o n s enhancing f l u i d
cleanup r a t e s and c r e a t i n g more e f f i c i e n t f l o w p a t h s t o t h e w e l l b o r e (GATENS
1988). I n s u f f i c i e n t s t i m u l a t i o n e f f e c t s f o l l o w i n g proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f s m a l l -
o r l a r g e - s c a l e t y p e can a l s o be t h e r e s u l t o f u n c o n t a i n e d c r a c k h e i g h t growth
which may have caused placement o f o n l y inadequate p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
across t h e pay zone (LANCASTER 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.).

R e d u c t i o n o f f l u i d r e t e n t i o n t i m e can a l s o be o b t a i n e d by i n t r o d u c i n g s u r f a c -
t a n t s which a r e f o r m u l a t e d so t h a t minimal l i q u i d a b s o r p t i o n occurs, t h e r e b y a l -
l o w i n g t o enhance flowback o f low s u r f a c e t e n s i o n f l u i d s . An accompanying mea-
s u r e can be t r e a t i n g o f t h e proppants w i t h n o n - w e t t i n g s u r f a c t a n t s i n o r d e r t o
enhance c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t package. Because o f t h e low p e r m e a b i l i t y
o f t h e s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r and i t s i n h e r e n t low l e a k o f f impact t o p r o p e r l y de-
s i g n e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s , c r a c k c l o s u r e may n o t occur f o r many hours i f f l u i d
flowback i s n o t i n i t i a t e d by pumping o r v a l v e opening t o a r t i f i c i a l l y a c c e l e -
r a t e f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e o r i s n o t enhanced by e n e r g i z i n g components o r foams. As
foam i s an e x c e l l e n t p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t medium, b u t n o t a p e r f e c t p r o p p a n t sus-
pension f l u i d , t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g o c c u r s
u n l e s s t h e w e l l i s i m m e d i a t e l y f l o w e d back.

4.4.4.4.3. Feasibility o f MHF treatments

GATENS (1988) r e v i e w s massive h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n s h a l e gas r e -
s e r v o i r s where t r e a t m e n t s have been c a r r i e d o u t w i t h up t o 1.6 M i o . l b s .
(800 t ) o f sand i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e l o n g propped c r a c k s . Comparison o f p e r f o r -
mance o f MHF-stimulated w e l l s w i t h t h a t of o f f s e t w e l l s which were s h o t w i t h n i -
t r o g l y c e r i n e e x p l o s i v e s r e v e a l e d t h e s u r p r i s i n g f a c t t h a t t h e MHF-treated w e l l s
a r e f r e q u e n t l y j u s t s l i g h t l y b e t t e r than t h e average s h o t w e l l s d e s p i t e t h e
l a r g e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s pumped. Some aspects o f r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e and p r o p p a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.4.4.4.3.1. Reservoir pressure

A p a r t i a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s paradoxon i s l i n k e d w i t h t h e much l o w e r r e s e r -
v o i r p r e s s u r e i n t h e MHF-treated w e l l s t h a t were s t i m u l a t e d s e v e r a l decades a f -
 488

t e r t h e o t h e r w e l l s had been almost i n i t i a l l y s h o t w i t h n i t r o g l y c e r i n e a t a

t i m e when r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e was c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r , w i t h t h u s t h e MHF-treated
w e l l s n o t h a v i n g t h e same amount o f r e s e r v o i r energy a v a i l a b l e t o h e l p b r i n g i n g
t h e gas t o t h e b o r e h o l e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 9 . ) . I f n o r m a l i z e d f o r p r e s s u r e , t h e
MHF-stimulated w e l l s appear a l l t o be p e r f o r m i n g s i m i l a r l y t o t h e b e s t s h o t
well, b u t i f normalized f o r r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y (permeability times n e t t h i c k -
ness), t h e MHF-treated w e l l s a r e each c l e a r l y p e r f o r m i n g b e t t e r t h a n even t h e
b e s t s h o t w e l l i n t h e area. N e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s s t i l l s u r p r i s i n g why t h e c o s t l y
MHF o p e r a t i o n s do i n many cases n o t r e s u l t i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r performance
t h a n r a t h e r s i m p l e w e l l s h o o t i n g and n i t r o g e n non-proppant f r a c t u r i n g , and t h e
much h i g h e r i n v e s t m e n t i s o f t e n n o t compensated by a l s o a c o m p a r a t i v e l y b e t t e r
pos t - s t imul a t ion produc t i on.

Massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e e v a l u a t i o n by s i m u l a t i o n r e v e a l s t h a t i f t h e f r a c -
t u r e s were w e l l c o n t a i n e d , propped f r a c t u r e h a l f - l e n g t h s up t o 1,000 f t .
(330 m) o r more c o u l d have been o b t a i n e d , and i f t h e c r a c k s were u n c o n f i n e d ,
h a l f - l e n g t h s o f 500 f t (165 m) o r more c o u l d have been achieved, w i t h t h u s l o n g
propped f r a c t u r e s h a v i n g been c r e a t e d r e g a r d l e s s o f e x i s t e n c e o f good b a r r i e r s
t o v e r t i c a l h e i g h t growth. I n t e r z o n e communication b e h i n d t h e p i p e i n d i c a t e s
t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t v e r t i c a l h e i g h t growth has o c c u r r e d .

4.4.4.4.3.2. Proppant concentration

Economical comparison o f s m a l l n i t r o g e n breakdown t r e a t m e n t s , s t r a i g h t n i t r o -
gen f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s o f f u l l - s c a l e type, and l a r g e - s c a l e p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g j o b s r e v e a l s t h a t i f p r o p e r l y designed and c a r r i e d o u t w i t h emphasis on
h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and r a p i d w e l l cleanup a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s t i -
m u l a t i o n j o b , massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s t h e u l t i m a t e l y b e s t t r e a t m e n t
t y p e i n t h e l o n g - t e r m range o f gas f i e l d e x p l o i t a t i o n . I t i s a l s o a t t r a c t i v e t o
r e s t i m u l a t e a w e l l w h i c h had o r i g i n a l l y been t r e a t e d by s t r a i g h t n i t r o g e n f r a c -
t u r i n g by s m a l l - o r l a r g e - s c a l e p r o p p a n t foam f r a c t u r i n g (LANCASTER 1988; c f .
a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 9 . ) . Aspects o f massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n s h a l e gas r e -
s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by CREMEAN, McKETTA, OWENS & SMITH (1979) and GA-
TENS, HOLGATE & LEE (1987). The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n maximiza-
t i o n and l i q u i d volume m i n i m i z a t i o n i n l a r g e c o a l and s h a l e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ments i s a l s o emphasized by KUUSKRAA & HAAS ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.4.4.5. Special features o f shale gas reservoirs

The complex f l o w c o n d i t i o n s i n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s can be p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i -
ned by b u b b l i n g and seeping o f condensate a n d / o r n a t u r a l gas l i q u i d s o u t o f na-
t u r a l c r a c k s a l o y g t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l and s u b l i m a t i n g i n t o gas, as r e v e a l e d by
d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h i s process as w e l l as by r e c o r d i n g o f s t a i n e d f r a c t u r e
p l a n e s by v i d e o camera survey (OVERBEY, YOST & YOST 1988; c f . s e c t i o n
6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . 3 . ) . T h i s phenomenon r a i s e s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f two-phase f l o w t h r o u g h t h e
f r a c t u r e systems and can account f o r some unusual p r o d u c t i o n p a t t e r n s . Another
n o t e w o r t h y e f f e c t i n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s i s gas d r a i n a g e i n an e l l i p t i c a l p a t -
t e r n i n s t e a d o f a c i r c u l a r one common t o most c o n v e n t i o n a l w e l l s (DOE 1984),
w i t h t h i s f e a t u r e i m p l y i n g t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t a d d i t i o n a l q u a n t i t i e s o f gas c o u l d
be r e c o v e r e d by s p e c i a l i n f i l l d r i l l i n g .

Other p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s o f s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s a r e t h a t gas i s n o t imme-

d i a t e l y f l o w i n g a f t e r p e r f o r a t i o n , and once gas c u r r e n t i s f i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d ,
t h e r e i s a l o n g p e r i o d o f w e l l b o r e s t o r a g e d u r i n g b o t h f l o w and s h u t - i n p e r i o d s
(SCHETTLER, PARMLEY & LEE 1987; LANCASTER 1988). The problem o f r e t a r d e d i n i t i a -
t i o n o f gas c u r r e n t can be overcome by b r e a k i n g down t h e w e l l w i t h a s m a l l n i -
t r o g e n t r e a t m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . 2 . ) , and e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e w e l l b o r e s t o -
rage e f f e c t r e q u i r e s improved t e s t d e s i g n s i n c l u d i n g b o t h s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g
f l o w and s h u t - i n p e r i o d s . S m a l l - s c a l e n i t r o g e n o p e r a t i o n s have n o t o n l y t h e
t a s k o f c r e a t i n g communication w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n and e s t a b l i s h i n g a gas f l o w
 489

rate, b u t are also c a r r i e d o u t i n order t o permit a pre-stimulation flow and

pressure buildup t e s t .

4.4.4.6. Explosive fracturing

E x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g was t h e f i r s t s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e i n s h a l e gas r e s e r -
v o i r s when t h i s r e s o u r c e s t a r t e d t o undergo more widespread development more
than 50 y e a r s ago (WITT 1986). E x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g was c a r r i e d o u t by detona-
t i n g g e l a t i n a t e d n i t r o g l y c e r i n e under a w a t e r o r g r a v e l tamp ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.7.3.). Massive s h o t s w i t h s e v e r a l t o n s o f e x p l o s i v e c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d
t h e gas y i e l d , b u t a l s o o f t e n provoked subsequently a massive and p r o l o n g e d
c l e a n o u t j o b because o f t h e l a r g e volume o f s h a l e r u b b l e t h a t g e n e r a l l y c o l l a p -
sed i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e . More than 90 % o f t h e w e l l s i n some f i e l d s were s t i m u l a -
t e d by e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g b e f o r e t h e i n v e n t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e
l a t e 1940's (RAY 1976). E x p l o s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n m a i n l y generated p e r m e a b i l i t y
pathways t h a t l i n k e d t h e w e l l b o r e w i t h e x t e n s i v e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems which
d r a i n gas f r o m t h e m a t r i x , w i t h s i z e , e x t e n t and geometry o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c -
t u r e system l a r g e l y g o v e r n i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y . W e l l s i n w h i c h s h o o t i n g f a i l e d t o
i n t e r s e c t e x t e n s i v e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems remained d r y h o l e s and were f a i l u -
res.

4.4.5. High- temperature reservoirs

Another t a r g e t i s i n c r e a s i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o f v e r y h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e t i g h t gas
and condensate f o r m a t i o n s where s u c c e s s f u l j o b s have so f a r been r u n i n Europe
m a i n l y i n Y u g o s l a v i a (ECONOMIDES, CIKES, PFURTER, UDICK & URODA 1986; c f . sec-
t i o n 2.4.3.1.) and a s u i t e o f f u r t h e r w e l l s i s w a i t i n g on o p e r a t i o n . A f t e r d i s -
c u s s i o n o f some aspects o f f l u i d s t a b i l i t y a d j u s t m e n t t o e l e v a t e d pay tempera-
t u r e , h e a t t r a n s f e r i n f r a c t u r e s and temperature s t a b i l i t y o f s t i m u l a t i o n
f l u i d s , f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d r e q u i r e m e n t i n h o t and c o l d environment i s b r i e f l y o u t -
lined.

4.4.5.1. Fluid stability adjustment to elevated pay temperature

The d e c i s i v e n e c e s s i t y o f approaching h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e r e s e r v o i r s o f e i t h e r
hydrocarbon o r geothermal w a t e r t y p e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.7.) by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
o p e r a t i o n s i s extended thermal s t a b i l i t y o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s which can be r e a -
ched by b o t h d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t t r e a t m e n t s . D i r e c t ways o f improvement o f tem-
perature r e s i s t i v i t y include c r o s s l i n k i n g f o r achieving higher v i s c o s i t y ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.3.4.3.) as w e l l as i n t e r m i x i n g o f a d d i t i v e s t h a t r e t a r d thermal break-
age o f t h e polymers. I n d i r e c t p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e f o r m a t i o n c o o l i n g by pumping
l a r g e pre-pad and pad stages p r i o r t o i n s e r t i o n o f t h e c r o s s l i n k e d polymer c a r -
r i e r stage ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.6.1.4.), t h e r e b y m i m i c k i n g t o t h e l a t t e r phase a
comparatively colder formation than present i n r e a l i t y . While t h i s heat block-
i n g may work v e r y e f f e c t i v e l y i n n o t t o o h o t pay zones, some e x t r e m e l y h o t geo-
thermal r e s e r v o i r s can o n l y be s t i m u l a t e d w i t h more o r l e s s w a t e r as f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.7.3.5.).

On t h e o t h e r hand, h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s f o r l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e r e -
s e r v o i r r o c k s a r e r e p o r t e d by ALMOND & G A R V I N ( 1 9 8 5 ) . Experimental e v a l u a t i o n
o f thermal s t a b i l i t y o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i s c a r r i e d o u t by LESCARBOURA, SIFFER-
MAN & WAHL ( 1 9 8 4 ) . V a r i o u s aspects o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s e l e c t i o n and performan-
ce e x p e r i e n c e a r e d i s c u s s e d by BLASIO, BAILEY & BERGTHOLD (1985); SOLIMAN &
HUNT (1985) and ROODHART & D A V I E S ( 1 9 8 7 ) . H i g h - q u a l i t y water-based f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d s a r e a l s o d e s c r i b e d by CHEN, CHEN & ZI ( 1 9 8 2 ) . H i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t s
o f proppants, f l u i d s and equipment a r e a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t f o r geothermal r e s e r -
v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n ( c f . section 4.7.).
 490

4.4.5.2.Heat transfer in fractures and

temerature stability o f stimulation fluids
Temperature e f f e c t s on s t i m u l a t i o n d e s i g n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by W H I T S I T T &
DYSART (1970) and McDANIEL (1986), and q u e s t i o n s o f h e a t t r a n s f e r i n f r a c t u r e s
a r e examined by WHEELER (1969), W H I T S I T T & DYSART (197D), SINCLAIR (1971);
CLARK, CLOUD, WAREMBOURG & YUNKD (1978); HARRINGTON, HANNAH & BEIRUTE (1978);
CROCKETT, VO & CLEARY (1984) and POULSEN & LEE (1984; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 4 . 1 . ) .
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l t r e a t -
ment o f h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e , l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s i s o u t l i n e d by ELY, CHAT-
TERJI, HOLTMYER & TINSLEY (1975); THOMAS & ELBEL (1979), ELBEL & THOMAS (1980),
WHITE & DANIEL (1980), HSU & CONWAY (1981), WENDORFF & AINLEY (1981), HORTON
(1982) ; BAUMGARTNER, PARKER, WILLIAMS & WOODROOF (1983); GRONE, BAUMGARTNER &
WOODROOF (1983 a, 1983 b ) ; HARMS, GOSS & PAYNE (1984); POULSEN & LEE (1984) and
WALSER & OTT ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

Time-temperature s t a b i l i t y o f c r o s s l i n k e d s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d
by CONWAY, PAULS & H A R R I S (1980) and H A R R I S & REIDENBACH ( 1 9 8 4 ) . I n c r e a s i n g
h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e performance o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i s m a i n l y achieved by redu-
c i n g t h e r a t e o f v i s c o s i t y l o s s w h i c h r e s u l t s i n more e f f e c t i v e p r o p p a n t t r a n s -
p o r t and a l l o w s t o r e p l a c e t h e flammable methanol (ELBEL & THOMAS 1 9 8 0 ) . The
f l e x i b i l i t y o f f o r m u l a t i n g o i l - b a s e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s t o meet b o t h s u r f a c e and
downhole c o n d i t i o n s i n h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e r e s e r v o i r s i n terms o f v i s c o s i t y and
h a n d l i n g by a d d i t i o n o f secondary g e l l a n t s and/or a c t i v a t o r s t o a p r i m a r y base
g e l on t h e f l y downstream o f t h e b l e n d e r i s i n v e s t i g a t e d by BURNHAM, H A R R I S &
McDANIEL (1978) and PAULS, VENDITTO, HOLTMYER & GREGORCZYK ( 1 9 8 5 ) . The use o f
v i s c o s i t y ' s t a b i l i z e r s i n h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e f r a c t u r i n g i s e v a l u a t e d by THOMAS &
ROOT ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

4.4.5.3. Fracturing fluid requirements in hot environment

More and more hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s a r e c u r r e n t l y found i n deep h o t r e s e r -
v o i r s which demand u n i q u e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (HARMS, G O S S &
PAYNE 1984). The i d e a l f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d f o r h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s h o u l d
c o n t a i n t h e l o w e s t polymer l o a d i n g c o n s i s t e n t w i t h s u f f i c i e n t v i s c o s i t y f o r
p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and minimal f l u i d l e a k o f f ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . ) . The f l u i d
a l s o has t o m a i n t a i n i t s v e l o c i t y and f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l under shear and p r o l o n -
ged exposure t o h i g h temperature i n o r d e r t o e x t e n d t h e f r a c t u r e and p l a c e t h e
proppant, and f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e l o s s e s s h o u l d be low f o r r e d u c i n g t u b i n g pressu-
r e s and m i n i m i z i n g pumping energy ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 2 . 2 . ) . A u n i q u e combina-
t i o n o f heterogeneously s u b s t i t u t e d p o l y s a c c h a r i d e as a key component f o r g e l -
l i n g aqueous systems, s t a b i l i z e r s and delayed c r o s s l i n k i n g c h e m i c a l s p r o v i d e s
t h e extended thermal s t a b i l i t y and low f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e necessary f o r high-tem-
p e r a t u r e MHF s t i m u l a t i o n w h i l e m i n i m i z i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f o r m a t i o n damage
(HARMS, GOSS & PAYNE 1984).

GRONE, BAUMGARTNER & WOODROOF (1983) document t h e chemical e v o l u t i o n o f a

h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d . Shear and thermal s t a b i l i t y a t h i g h bottomho-
l e temperatures i s p r o v i d e d by h i g h polymer c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and/or l a r g e f l u i d
volumes which m a i n t a i n e f f e c t i v e f l u i d v i s c o s i t i e s i n t h e f r a c t u r e , b u t on t h e
o t h e r hand, h i g h polymer s a t u r a t i o n s l e a d t o h i g h e r f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e , h i g h e r
t r e a t m e n t c o s t and h i g h broken g e l r e s i d u e l e v e l s , and l a r g e f l u i d volumes i n -
crease t h e c o s t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 2 . 2 . ) . C r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u -
r i n g f l u i d s have been developed f o r extended temperature s t a b i l i t y due t o f a v o u -
r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s o f polymer, b u f f e r , g e l s t a b i l i z e r and c r o s s l i n k e r ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . ) . Pumping l a r g e volirmes o f f l u i d aim on c o o l i n g down t h e forma-
t i o n and can p a r t i a l l y be o p e r a t e d w i t h a d u a l - s t a g e polymer system ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . 1 . 4 . ) . Gel s t a b i l i z e r s p r e v e n t o r r e t a r d t h e chemical d e g r a d a t i o n
o f polymer s o l u t i o n s , b u t many o f them i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e c r o s s l i n k i n g mecha-
nism.
 491

The c u r r e n t temperature r e c o r d s o f s u c c e s s f u l f r a c t u r i n g comprise b o t t o m

h o l e v a l u e s o f 420 OF f o r a 15,000 f t deep gas w e l l , 540 OF (280 oC; WILLIAMS,
WOODROOF & BOX 1982) f o r a 5,500 f t deep hydrothermal w e l l , and 600 OF f o r a
13,500 f t deep h o t d r y r o c k w e l l (FRACFAX 1988 a ) . Comments on h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e
d r i l l i n g mud and f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e s f o r geothermal r e s e r v o i r s and
deep h e a t - s e n s i t i v e f o r m a t i o n s a r e g i v e n by HILSCHER & CLEMENTS (1982) and CAR-
NEY, GUVEN & McGREW (1982), r e s p e c t i v e l y ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 7 . 4 . 2 . ) . Similarly
as f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s , thermal s t a b i l i t y e x t e n s i o n o f a c i d can be achieved, w i t h
b u f f e r r e g u l a t i o n o f HF a c i d a l l o w i n g sandstone a c i d i z i n g up t o 550 OF (280 oC)
r e s e r v o i r temperature (SCHEUERMAN 1988).

4.4.5.4. Fracturing requirements in cold environment

I n c o n t r a s t t o e x t r e m e l y h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e r e s e r v o i r s , h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e ope-
r a t i o n s have a l s o t o be a d j u s t e d t o e x t r a o r d i n a r y low-temperature environments
r e s u l t i n g f r o m c o l d weather i n A r c t i c l a t i t u d e s where c u r r e n t l y e x p l o r a t i o n i s
b o o s t i n g . SCHUMACHER & DICKERMAN (1986) r e p o r t s u c c e s s f u l h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
s t i m u l a t i o n i n a n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r i n an a t m o s p h e r i c a l temperature
below -50 OF where p r o p p a n t and a d d i t i v e s c o u l d o n l y be mixed on t h e f l y and
r h e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s were s t i l l adequate t o p l a c e up
t o 4 l b s o f p r o p p a n t p e r g a l l o n o f c a r r i e r medium i n t o t h e h y d r a u l i c c r a c k i n -
t e r s e c t i ng t h e f o r m a t i on.

4.4.6. Gas condensate reservoirs

Gas condensate r e s e r v o i r s r e q u i r e i n many cases s o p h i s t i c a t e d s t i m u l a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t s p a r t i c u l a r l y i f b e i n g t i g h t and abnormally p r e s s u r e d . I f t h e r e t r o -
grade condensation p o i n t (DANESH, HENDERSON, K R I N I S & PEDEN 1988) i s v e r y c l o s e
t o t h e i n i t i a l f o r m a t i o n pressure, condensate p r o d u c t i o n can l e a d t o r e t r o g r a d e
f a l l o u t and i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e w e l l b o r e , and
two-phase f l o w r e s u l t s i n r e d u c t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o gas and
t h u s f l o w c a p a c i t y o f t h e w e l l (ENGINEER 1985). R e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e can be p r i n -
c i p a l l y m a i n t a i n e d h i g h enough t o m i n i m i z e r e t r o g r a d e l i q u i d condensation by
d r y gas i n j e c t i o n , b u t i n heterogeneous t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s , gas i n j e c t i v i t y i s
t o o low and t h u s t h e d e s i r e d e f f e c t i s n o t achieved. I n such cases, h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g has been shown t o c r e a t e a c o n d u c t i v e p a t h w h i c h c o n s i d e r a b l y impro-
ves t h e d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r and t h e r e b y h e l p s t o keep t h e f l o w i n g
p r e s s u r e above t h e r e t r o g r a d e condensation p o i n t . H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g f o r
a v o i d i n g r e t r o g r a d e f a l l o u t (DANESH, HENDERSON, K R I N I S & PEDEN 1988; c f . sec-
t i o n 2.4.3.1.) has been s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d o u t i n h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e gas conden-
s a t e w e l l s i n Y u g o s l a v i a (ECONOMIDES, C I K E S , PFURTER, UDICK & URODA 1986), and
p o t e n t i a l i s a l s o seen i n o t h e r f i e l d s w i t h comparable c o n d i t i o n s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e aforementioned t y p e s o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas d e p o s i t s , n a t u -
r a l gas may a l s o be t r a p p e d i n i c e - l i k e c r y s t a l s below t h e p e r m a f r o s t o r be-
n e a t h t h e s e a f l o o r , a l t h o u g h t h e p o t e n t i a l o f such c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i s s t i l l un-
determined (DOE 1984). Such methane h y d r a t e s were f i r s t i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e
1930's when t h e y formed i n n a t u r a l gas p i p e l i n e s t h a t were b u i l t i n c o l d c l i m a -
t e s . Methane h y d r a t e s have i n t h e r e c e n t decades been proven t o o c c u r n a t u r a l l y
i n b o t h onshore and o f f s h o r e d e p o s i t s and may i n cases even f o r m a n a t u r a l s e a l
o v e r more c o n v e n t i o n a l g a s - b e a r i n g s t r a t a . Aspects o f n a t u r a l gas h y d r a t e s a r e
a l s o d i s c u s s e d by GODBOLE ( 1 9 8 5 ) .
 492

4.5. Hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f carbonate rocks

I n Europe and many o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , s o f a r p r e d o m i n a n t l y sandstone
r e s e r v o i r s a r e s t i m u l a t e d by h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . Carbonate forma-
t i o n s which a r e a l s o commonly t r e a t e d w i t h t h i s method and w i t h encouraging r e -
s u l t s i n t h e USA (RENSHAW & JOINES 1977, WILLIAMS 1977; M I S A K , ATTEBERRY, VEN-
DITTO & FREDRICKSON 1978 b; ATTEBERRY, TUCKER & RITZ 1979; K O Z I K , BAILEY & HOL-
D I T C H 1979; ROSEPILER 1979; SCHLOTTMAN, MILLER & LUEDERS 1981; CLARK 1983, B A I -
LEY & WICKHAM 1984, EASON 1985, ILSENG & CORTEZ 1985, MACDONALD & FRANK 1985,
BRITT & LARSEN 1986, CRAMER 1987; HUCKABEE 1987, 1988; HOOVER & ADAMS 1988;
JOHNSON, FOX, BURNS & O'MARA 1988) a r e i n Europe s t i l l almost e x c l u s i v e l y sub-
j e c t e d t o c o n v e n t i o n a l m a t r i x a c i d o r a c i d f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n . Massive hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (MHF; c f . RANDOLPH 1974, MURPHY & CARNEY 1977, PA1 & GARBIS
1983; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 1 . 1 . ) u s u a l l y stands f o r proppant f r a c t u r i n g and i s o f t e n
d e f i n e d as c o m p r i s i n g c r a c k s o f a t l e a s t 1,500 f t (500 m) p e n e t r a t i o n i n each
d i r e c t i o n f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e (FAST, HOLMAN & COVLIN 1977), whereas i n most cases
no p r o p p i n g agents a r e i n s e r t e d i n massive a c i d f r a c t u r i n g (MAF; McDONALD
1983). A c i d t r e a t m e n t s can be p r i n c i p a l l y s p l i t i n t o m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g and a c i d
f r a c t u r i n g (KING 1986).

While m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g w i t h h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d i n carbonates i s a l r e a d y com-

mon p r a c t i c e s i n c e more t h a n 60 y e a r s (LABRID 1975) and w i t h h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d
i n sandstones ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 5 . ) has been i n t r o d u c e d o v e r 30 y e a r s ago (SMITH
& HENDRICKSON 1965), a c i d f r a c t u r i n g o r f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g i n c a r b o n a t e r o c k s
has been f i r s t a p p l i e d more t h a n 20 y e a r s ago (HENDRICKSON & CAMERON 1968) and
i s t h e r e f o r e a c o n s i d e r a b l y younger procedure than h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g w h i c h i s an e s t a b l i s h e d t e c h n i q u e s i n c e o v e r 40 y e a r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . ) .
BAILEY & WICKHAM (1984) i n v e s t i g a t e p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g vs. f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g ,
and BEN NACEUR & ECONOMIDES (1988 b) e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a c i d f r a c t u -
r i n g . LO & DEAN (1988) model a c i d f r a c t u r i n g .

D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between a c i d f r a c t u r i n g and f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g

(BRISCOE 1978), w i t h a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i n c l u d i n g t h e p r i m a r y process o f opening
o f t h e c r a c k and subsequently i m p r o v i n g i t s c o n d u c t i v i t y by a c i d a t t a c k , whe-
r e a s f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g comprises c h i e f l y secondary a c i d i n j e c t i o n i n t o p r e - e x i -
s t i n g e i t h e r n a t u r a l j o i n t s o r a r t i f i c i a l l y - c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e s . Aspects o f e x t e n -
s i o n o f d r a i n a g e p a t h and c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t , c o m b i n a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and a r -
t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s , and p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n i n Europe a r e o u t l i n e d as
f o l l o w s . P a r t i c u l a r emphasis i s g i v e n t o c h a l k s t i m u l a t i o n w h i c h i s a v e r y spe-
c i a l t y p e o f carbonate r e s e r v o i r s w i t h c o m p l i c a t e d c o n d i t i o n s t h a t r e q u i r e ex-
t e n s i v e and s o p h i s t i c a t e d t r e a t m e n t s . Comments on sandstone a c i d i z i n g a r e a l s o
offered.

4 . 5 . 1 . Extension o f drainage path and conductivity contrast

A l t h o u g h i n many cases t h e e c o n o m i c a l l y c o m p a r a t i v e l y cheap and t e c h n i c a l l y
r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e a c i d j o b s have e x c e l l e n t r e s u l t s i n carbonate r e s e r v o i r s t i m u -
l a t i o n and p a r t i c u l a r l y p a y - o u t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t i s v e r y f a s t due t o t h e low
c o s t and a l s o a p p a r e n t l y many carbonate f o r m a t i o n s respond b e t t e r t o a c i d i z i n g
than t o h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g (JENNINGS & DARDEN 1979), t h e r e a r e q u i t e
some hydrocarbon-bearing c a r b o n a t e f o r m a t i o n s i n Europe and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e
'

w o r l d where h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g would be t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n i n view o f

r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g and would g i v e r i s e t o t h e h i g h e s t p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s o f
a l l s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s t h a t c o u l d be a p p l i e d , The e v a l u a t i o n as f o l l o w s f o -
cusses on advantages and drawbacks o f f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g , c o n d u c t i v i t y improve-
ment by a c i d o p t i m i z a t i o n , enhancement of a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e , a c i d foam-
i n g , open vs. propped f r a c t u r e s , and a c i d f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l .
 493

4.5.1.1. Advantages and drawbacks of fracture propping

The main reason f o r t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f proppant f r a c t u r i n g a l s o i n carbonate
r o c k s i s t h e much l a r g e r e x t e n s i o n and t h e more c o n t i n u o u s shape o f t h e d r a i n a -
ge p a t h t h r o u g h t h e r e s e r v o i r i n case o f a propped f r a c t u r e as compared t o t h e
e f f e c t of e n l a r g i n g n a t u r a l j o i n t s o r s o l v i n g o u t r e l a t i v e l y u n s t a b l e compo-
nents o f t h e m a t r i x o f carbonate r o c k s by a c i d i z i n g . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e d r a i n a g e
r a d i u s o f a propped f r a c t u r e i s c e r t a i n l y much l a r g e r than t h a t o f n a t u r a l
j o i n t s accentuated by a c i d s o l u t i o n which i s more o r l e s s r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e c l o -
s e r v i c i n i t y o f the b o r e h o l e .

While t h e advantages comprise m a i n l y g e n e r a t i o n o f a pronounced c o n d u c t i v i t y

c o n t r a s t between r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x and propped f r a c t u r e ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
4 . 6 . 1 . ) , t h e most i m p o r t a n t drawbacks o f i n s t a l l a t i n g propped f r a c t u r e s i n c a r -
bonate r o c k s a r e s c a l e f o r m a t i o n i n t h e proppant package and f l u i d l o s s ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . 6 . ) i n e x t e n s i v e and narrowly-spaced n a t u r a l c r a c k systems. B A I -
LEY & WICKHAM (1984) r e p o r t a d e f i n i t e p r o d u c t i o n b e n e f i t by proppant f r a c t u -
r i n g o v e r a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i n carbonate o i l r e s e r v o i r s . The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s
focusses on m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g v s . f r a c t u r i n g , c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between r e -
s e r v o i r m a t r i x and propped f r a c t u r e , carbonate s c a l e f o r m a t i o n and f l u i d l o s s ,
and i r o n s e q u e s t e r i n g and complexing.

4.5.1.1.1. Matrix acidizing vs. fracturing

W h i l e m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g below f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e i s s t i l l b e n e f i c i a l i n h i g h -
p e r m e a b i l i t y damaged carbonate f o r m a t i o n s ( o v e r 50 md), a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i s gene-
r a l l y used i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y carbonate r e s e r v o i r s ( l e s s than 10 md; i n con-
t r a s t t o sandstone p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g where such v a l u e s comprise s t i l l modera-
t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y t a r g e t s ) , because much more e f f e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n i s
achieved w i t h l o n g a c i d - e t c h e d f r a c t u r e s (McLEOD 1984), and an even b e t t e r r e -
s u l t can be o b t a i n e d w i t h p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . The main purpose o f m a t r i x a c i d i -
z i n g i n sandstones and carbonates i s t o d i s s o l v e formation-damaging c l a y mine-
r a l s and o t h e r f i n e s and t o r e s t o r e more o r l e s s o r i g i n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y (DOWELL
SCHLUMBERGER 1988 d; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 5 . 2 . ) by f l o w p a t t e r n t h r o u g h t h e n a t u r a l
m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y below f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e .

E x t r a o r d i n a r y h i g h amounts o f s o l u b l e m i n e r a l s can a l s o g i v e r i s e t o i n c r e a -
se o f secondary s o l u t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y beyond i t s p r i m a r y l e v e l , w i t h c a u t i o n ,
however, h a v i n g t o be e x e r c i s e d t h a t e x c e s s i v e m a t r i x d i s s o l u t i o n does n o t l e a d
t o rock framework c o l l a p s e and d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n e f f e c t ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.5.5.4.2.). A c i d f r a c t u r i n g i s a p p l i e d i n o r d e r t o improve low f o r m a t i o n
p e r m e a b i l i t y i n sandstones and carbonates beyond i t s p r i m a r y amount by c r e a t i o n
o f a c o n d u c t i v e c r a c k a t i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s above f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t . Flow p a t -
t e r n i s e s s e n t i a l l y through t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y - g e n e r a t e d c r a c k , a l t h o u g h much o f
t h e f l u i d does l e a k o f f i n t o t h e m a t r i x a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e s . HUCKABEE
(1988) p r e s e n t s a comparative e v a l u a t i o n o f t e c h n i c a l and economical e f f e c t i v i -
t y o f p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , m a t r i x f r a c t u r i n g , and s i n g l e - and m u l t i p l e - s t a g e ma-
t r i x a c i d i z i n g f o r a case example. Some aspects o f removal o f f o r m a t i o n damage,
a u t o - p r o p p i n g o f rugged f r a c t u r e w a l l s a f t e r e t c h i n g , f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y vs.
f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , and double f r a c t u r i n g i n r e s e r v o i r s w i t h h a i r l i n e c r a c k s a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.5.1.1.1.1. Removal o f formation damage

M a t r i x a c i d i z i n g f o r removal o f f o r m a t i o n damage around t h e b o r e h o l e i s o n l y
s u c c e s s f u l i n s h a l l o w p e n e t r a t i o n depth. whereas deep s o l i d p e r m e a b i l i t y p l u g -
g i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r i n t h e w e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y has t o be c o r r e c t e d by c r e a t i n g
a c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e t h r o u g h t h e damage zone e i t h e r by a c i d o r by p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 3 . ) . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e a r e p l e n t y o f cases
where a c i d cannot d i s s o l v e t h e m a t e r i a l s c a u s i n g w e l l and f o r m a t i o n damage o r
 494

where e v e n a c i d i t s e l f may cause damage upon c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r e s e r v o i r s ( c f .

s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 5 . 3 . ) . Under such c o n d i t i o n s , e i t h e r c h e m i c a l t r e a t m e n t w i t h non-
a c i d f l u i d s (BROADDUS 1988) o r - i n many i n s t a n c e s w i t h much b e t t e r r e s u l t - h y -
d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a r e r e q u i r e d f o r damage removal o r c r e a t i o n o f a
c o n v e c t i v e avenue f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e t o t h e undamaged v i r g i n a l p a y zone, r e s p e c -
t iv e l y .

F o r m a t i o n damage r e m o v a l and p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s t o r a t i o n d u r i n g m a t r i x a c i d i -
z i n g i s a c h i e v e d b y e i t h e r d i s s o l v i n g t h e damaging m a t e r i a l i t s e l f o r p a r t s o f
t h e r o c k i n w h i c h t h e damage e x i s t s (DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1988 d ) , w i t h t h e l a t -
t e r method b e i n g m o s t e f f e c t i v e i n c a r b o n a t e r e s e r v o i r s w i t h a c i d s o l u b i l i t i e s
g r e a t e r t h a n 50 % . A l t h o u g h f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e s h o u l d g e n e r a l l y n o t be e x c e e -
ded, i t may b e n e c e s s a r y t o c r e a t e an i n t e r m i t t e n t f r a c t u r e i n o r d e r t o open
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s a f t e r w h i c h p r e s s u r e c a n be r e d u c e d t o s u c h an e x t e n t t h a t t h e
f r a c t u r e c l o s e s again, t h e r e b y r e i n s t a l l i n g m a t r i x f l o w p a t t e r n ( s i m i l a r l y as
i n g r a v e l p a c k i n g ; c f . s e c t i o n s 5 . 6 . 4 . and 5 . 6 . 6 . ) . I n s a n d s t o n e a c i d i z i n g p e r -
f o r m e d w i t h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d and h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.5.5.), a s p e a r h e a d o f h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d s h o u l d be i n j e c t e d t o r e a c t w i t h
c a r b o n a t e s b e f o r e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e HCl/HF m i x t u r e i f t h e r o c k c o n t a i n s a b t .
5 - 10 % c a r b o n a t e s . I n c a s e o f c a r b o n a t e c o n t e n t s above 20 %, hydrofluoric
a c i d i s p r o b a b l y n o t needed a t a l l e x c e p t f o r g i v i n g e n t r y t h r o u g h t h e c l a y da-
mage m a n t l e a r o u n d t h e b o r e h o l e .

I n a d d i t i o n t o o r as an a l t e r n a t i v e o f l a r g e - s c a l e m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g t r e a t -
ments, s m a l l volume o p e r a t i o n s c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t b y s p o t t i n g a c i d a c r o s s t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n s o r o p e n - h o l e i n t e r v a l and a l l o w i n g i t t o soak (HUCKABEE 1 9 8 8 ) . F u r -
t h e r a c i d volumes c a n be squeezed i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r . These t e c h n i q u e s c a n a l s o
be combined o r c a n a l t e r n a t e w i t h p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g on v a r i o u s s c a l e ( c f . s e c -
t i o n s 4.5.1.6.2. and 4 . 5 . 4 . 2 . ) .

4.5.1.1.1.2. Autopropping of rugged f r a c t u r e walls a f t e r etching

I n a c i d f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s , p r o p p a n t s a r e i n many c a s e s n o t i n e v i t a b l y r e -
q u i r e d f o r p r o v i d i n g f r a c t u r e s u p p o r t and c o n d u c t i v i t y enhancement, because
a c i d r e a c t i o n w i t h t h e c r a c k f a c e s o f c a r b o n a t e r e s e r v o i r s i s n o r m a l l y v e r y un-
even, w i t h t h i s h e t e r o g e n e o u s e t c h i n g p a t t e r n c r e a t i n g r o u g h e n e d s u r f a c e s w i t h
r e l i e f w h i c h p r e v e n t t h e f r a c t u r e f r o m f u l l y c l o s i n g (McLEOD 1984, OOWELL
SCHLUMBERGER 1988 d ) . T h e r e f o r e a h i g h l y c o n d u c t i v e c r a c k may e x i s t a f t e r h y -
d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e s a r e r e l e a s e d , b u t enough a c i d s t r e n g t h and volume m u s t be
used t o generate s u f f i c i e n t d i s s o l u t i o n f o r e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e d con-
d u c t i v i t y . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r u g g e d f r a c t u r e w a l l s do n o t keep open i n
such a c o n t i n u o u s manner t h a t a l l t h e i n d i v i d u a l e t c h e d c h a n n e l s and h o l e s s t a y
i n connection a f t e r f r a c t u r e closure, b u t f r e q u e n t l y c a v i t i e s a r e separated by
p r o t r u d i n g p i l l a r s where a c i d a t t a c k was s l o w e r . T h i s p r i m a r y p e r m e a b i l i t y de-
t e r i o r a t i o n i s f u r t h e r enhanced b y s e c o n d a r y c o l l a p s e and c r u s h i n g o f u n s t a b l e
p i l l a r s and b r i d g e s once c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s a p p l i e d , and i r r e g u l a r and d i s c o n t i -
nuous auto-propping o f parts o f the fracture walls ( c f . also section
4.5.1.5.1.) w i t h broken carbonate r o c k f u r t h e r decreases crack c o n d u c t i v i t y .
A l l t h e s e e f f e c t s c a n be a v o i d e d b y a d e q u a t e i n f i l l i n g o f t h e e t c h e d f r a c t u r e
w i t h p r o p p a n t s w h i c h keeps t h e w h o l e space open and p r o v i d e s an i d e a l l y connec-
t e d and c o n d u c t i v e f l o w c h a n n e l t o t h e b o r e h o l e .

A l t h o u g h f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y r e s u l t i n g f r o m a c i d r e a c t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y ve-
r y h i g h , i t may b e c o n s i d e r a b l y d e c r e a s e d when r o c k embedment s t r e n g t h a n d / o r
r o c k s o l u b i l i t y a r e l o w o r c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s h i g h (NIERODE & KRUK 1 9 7 3 ) . The
m a i n a d v a n t a g e o f a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i s deep c r a c k p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o c a r b o n a t e r e -
s e r v o i r s w i t h l o w - c o s t f l u i d s and a c i d r e p l a c i n g e x p e n s i v e p r o p p a n t s (HENDRICK-
SON & CAMERON 1 9 6 8 ) . A c i d f r a c t u r i n g i s t h e r e f o r e v e r y e c o n o m i c a l , because i n e x -
p e n s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s a r e u s e d t o c r e a t e t h e c r a c k a r e a and t o p r o p a g a t e
i t t o f i n a l p e n e t r a t i o n i n c l u d i n g u n d e r t a k i n g measures a g a i n s t f l u i d l o s s , and
t h e n much s m a l l e r q u a n t i t i e s o f a c i d a r e f o l l o w i n g i n t h e second s t a g e o f t h e
 495

treatment t o e t c h the desired c o n d u c t i v i t y a t the r e q u i r e d depth o f penetration

i n t h e r e s e r v o i r . As c o n v e n t i o n a l l y no proppants a r e a p p l i e d which c o u l d b r i d g e
i n t h e c r a c k ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) , t h e r e i s no danger o f
screenout f a i l u r e o f a c i d f r a c t u r i n g j o b .

4.5.1.1.1.3. Fracture conductivity vs. fracture length

A comparative e v a l u a t i o n o f a c i d i z e d f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y vs. a c i d concen-
t r a t i o n p r o f i l e , amount o f r o c k d i s s o l v e d p e r u n i t area, c l o s u r e s t r e s s and f o r -
m a t i o n r o c k s t r e n g t h has shown t h a t s t i m u l a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y l i m i t e d by a c i d i -
zed f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y and n o t by a c i d i z e d c r a c k l e n g t h (NOVOTNY 1976). A c i -
d i z e d f r a c t u r e s c r e a t e d by h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d have l i m i t e d l e n g t h b u t h i g h con-
d u c t i v i t y , whereas low f l u i d - l o s s a c i d emulsions ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.1.1.3.2.) ge-
n e r a t e d l o n g e r a c i d i z e d c r a c k s than h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d , because t h e a c i d emul-
s i o n r e a c t s a f u r t h e r d i s t a n c e down t h e f r a c t u r e and t h u s r e s u l t a n t c o n d u c t i v i -
t y i s l o w e r than t h a t c r e a t e d w i t h h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d . When c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s on
t h e c r a c k s a r e h i g h and f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y l i m i t e d s t i m u l a t i o n , h y d r o c h l o r i c
a c i d t r e a t m e n t s p r o v i d e s l i g h t l y b e t t e r r e s u l t s , whereas a t low c l o s u r e s t r e s -
ses and when a c i d i z e d f r a c t u r e l e n g t h l i m i t s s t i m u l a t i o n , t h e a c i d emulsion g i -
ves s u b s t a n t i a l l y improved t r e a t m e n t e f f e c t o v e r p l a i n h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d .

4.5.1.1.1.4. Double fracturing in reservoir with hairline cracks

A s u i t a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.5.4.2.) i s double f r a c t u r i n g i n r e s e r v o i r s c o n t a i n i n g reasonable amounts
o f carbonates t h a t can be d i s s o l v e d by a c i d (DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1988 c, 1988
d ) . Double f r a c t u r i n g c o n s i s t s o f a l t e r n a t i n g stages o f n o n - r e a c t i v e v i s c o u s
pad f l u i d and a c i d ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . 6 . 2 . ) . Many carbonate f o r m a t i o n s c o n t a i n
numerous n a t u r a l h a i r l i n e c r a c k s and f i s s u r e s which a r e e x t r e m e l y narrow o r c l o -
sed and have l i t t l e e f f e c t on o v e r a l l p e r m e a b i l i t y , b u t once opened h y d r a u l i c a l -
l y o r e n l a r g e d by a c i d e t c h i n g , t h e y can cause e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f and be-
come t h e dominant i n f l u e n c e on f l u i d l o s s ( s i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r dual f l u i d
l e a k o f f i n sandstone r e s e r v o i r s ; WARPINSKI 1988 a; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.3.1.2.
and 4.8.8.3.2.3.). U s i n g i n t e r m i t t e n t stages o f pad f l u i d and a c i d , t h e acid-en-
l a r g e d h a i r l i n e c r a c k s a r e exposed t o n o n - r e a c t i v e pad f l u i d as t h e h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t e s outward i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r which keeps t h e a c i d i n t h e main
f r a c t u r e and a v o i d s a c i d l o s s by f u r t h e r opening o f t h e h a i r l i n e c r a c k s .

W h i l e normal f l u i d - l o s s agents do n o t r e s t r i c t f l o w i n t o t h e h a i r l i n e f r a c t u -
r e s , v i s c o u s pad stages a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h a c i d stages a r e p u t a g a i n s t and i n t o
h a i r l i n e c r a c k s as soon as t h e y b e g i n t o comprise t h e main source o f l e a k o f f ,
t h e r e b y c o n t r o l l i n g and subsequently r e d u c i n g f l o w i n t o t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g e n l a r -
ged h a i r l i n e f r a c t u r e s which a l l o w s t h e a c i d t o r e a c h degree o f p e n e t r a t i o n and
f o l d s o f i n c r e a s e as designed. Even more e f f e c t i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f c o n t r o l can be
achieved by b r i d g i n g t h e h a i r l i n e c r a c k s w i t h 100 mesh sand t h a t i s suspended
i n t h e pad f l u i d ( c f . a l s o MILLER & WAREMBOURG 1975; COULTER, CROWE, BARRETT &
MILLER 1976; WARPINSKI 1988 a; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.3.1.2. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . An
a l t e r n a t i v e s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s agent t o 100 mesh sand i s f i n e s a l t o f 30/60 and/
o r 80/120 mesh g r a i n s i z e which i s b e t t e r than s i l i c a because i t packs t o lower
p e r m e a b i l i t i e s i n h a i r l i n e c r a c k s under p r e s s u r e and subsequently d i s s o l v e s
a g a i n o u t o f t h e f r a c t u r e s , t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g them t o s t a y open and t o c o n t r i b u -
t e t o p r o d u c t i o n (SCHRIETER & SHAW 1978; c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.11.2.1.2. and
5 . 1 1 . 4 . 2 . ) . S a l t a d d i t i v e a l s o a v o i d s pump and equipment a b r a s i o n caused by s i -
1i c a .
 496

4.5.1.1.2. Conductivity contrast between

reservoir matrix and propped fracture
The e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e optimum e f f e c t o f s t i m u l a t i o n by h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g o f b o t h sandstone and carbonate r e s e r v o i r s i s t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y con-
t r a s t t h a t i s c r e a t e d between t h e t i g h t m a t r i x o f t h e h y d r o c a r b o n - b e a r i n g r o c k s
( r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r l i t h o l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n ) and t h e propped f r a c t u r e ( c f .
section 4.6.1.). Depending on d e p t h and c l o s u r e s t r e s s , t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y con-
t r a s t can be i n f l u e n c e d by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c h o i c e between v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t
t y p e s which have d i f f e r e n t c o n d u c t i v i t i e s as w e l l as between d i f f e r e n t g r a i n s i -
zes ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . ) t h a t i n d e p e n d e n t l y f r o m t y p e a l s o r e s u l t i n changing p e r -
m e a b i l i t i e s o f t h e p r o p p a n t package i n f i l l i n g t h e f r a c t u r e . Some aspects o f
f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y c o n t r a s t as w e l l as p e r m e a b i l i t y and c o n d u c t i v i t y con-
t r a s t a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.5.1.1.2.1. Fracture flow capacity contrast

A f l o w c a p a c i t y c o n t r a s t o f a t l e a s t 100 between f o r m a t i o n and f r a c t u r e i s
c o n s i d e r e d t o be e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e achievement o f adequate s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s ,
and t h i s approach can o n l y be c o n t r o l l e d by s e l e c t i n g a s u i t a b l e h i g h - q u a l i t y
p r o p p a n t (WATERS 1980). P A I , G A R B I S & HALL (1983) recommend f l o w c a p a c i t y con-
t r a s t r a t i o s between c r a c k and f o r m a t i o n o f 1,000 - 1,000,000, w i t h f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y b e i n g a f u n c t i o n o f type, s i z e , s t r e n g t h , q u a l i t y , and d e n s i t y o f
t h e proppant, as w e l l as f o r m a t i o n overburden p r e s s u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 3 . and
4 . 6 . 1 . ) . S t i m u l a t i o n o f carbonate r o c k s i n Europe and i n many o t h e r p a r t s o f
t h e w o r l d has s o f a r been m a i n l y done by a c i d i z i n g due t o much l o w e r c o s t o f
such t r e a t m e n t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e expenses f o r h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
t h a t has t u r n e d o u t t o be v e r y s u c c e s s f u l i n many o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e USA, and as
a consequence o f h i t h e r t o more o r l e s s s a t i s f a c t o r y t e c h n i c a l and economical r e -
s u l t s o f a c i d f r a c t u r i n g o r a c i d washing. E f f e c t s o f f l o w c a p a c i t y c o n t r a s t b e t -
ween f r a c t u r e and f o r m a t i o n on w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by FAST,
FLICKINGER & HOWARD ( 1 9 6 1 ) .

4.5.1.1.2.2. Permeability and conductivity contrast

The p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t between f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x and propped f r a c t u r e i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h i n t i g h t gas sandstones such as t h e R o t l i e g e n d - H a u p t s a n d s t e i n
i n some f i e l d s i n Germany FRG where t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y o f
a b t . 10 m i c r o d a r c y c o n t r a s t s w i t h a p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t pack i n t h e
f r a c t u r e o f a b t . 100 d a r c y (KLOSE & KRUMER 1983; c f . s e c t i o n s 3.4. and 3 . 5 . ) .
MONTGOMERY & STEANSON (1985) l i s t e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s f o r n a t u r a l sand i n
t h e range o f 35 - 80 darcy, f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants w i t h i n t h e li-
m i t s o f 80 - 900 darcy, and f a r h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s
o f 65 - 1000 d a r c y (depending on g r a i n s i z e and m i n e r a l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of
t h e proppants as w e l l as on c l o s u r e s t r e s s regime; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . ) . The e f f e c -
t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r 20/40 i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants which a r e
t h e most f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d s y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l s i s i n t h e range o f 180 - 260
darcy, and t h a t o f 20/40 n a t u r a l sand which i s s t i l l today t h e most common p r o p -
p i n g agent i s w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f 50 - 80 d a r c y . A b s o l u t e p e r m e a b i l i t y and i t s
dependence on c o n f i n i n g pressure, p o r e p r e s s u r e and temperature a r e r e v i e w e d by
GOBRAN, BRIGHAM & RANEY ( 1 9 8 1 ) .

4.5.1.1.3. Carbonate scale formation and fluid loss

On t h e o t h e r hand, packages o f n a t u r a l sand o r s y n t h e t i c proppants i n f i l l i n g
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i n carbonate r o c k s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a l k s ) s u f f e r f r o m secon-
d a r y p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n by s c a l e f o r m a t i o n due t o c a r b o n a t e c e m e n t a t i o n
o f t h e p r o p p a n t a g g l o m e r a t i o n s . One o f t h e m a j o r drawbacks o f c a r b o n a t e f r a c t u -
 497

r i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o sandstone s t i m u l a t i o n i s the h i g h e r d e n s i t y and e f f e c t i v e -

ness o f n a t u r a l cracks i n carbonate r e s e r v o i r s i n comparison t o sandstone pays
( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.2.) which g i v e r i s e t o more serious f l u i d l e a k o f f , thereby
c r e a t i n g a h i g h e r r i s k o f premature screenout f a i l u r e o f the h y d r a u l i c proppant
f r a c t u r i n g j o b (DEES & COULTER 1986; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.5.3. and 6.2.4.2.1.),
and a l s o have a worse i n f l u e n c e on h y d r a u l i c crack propagation which i s subjec-
t e d t o v a r i o u s d e f l e c t i o n and r e f r a c t i o n events when c r o s s i n g the abundance o f
p r e - e x i s t i n g j o i n t s i n the carbonate pay zone. Thus t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s are
a c t i n g as pronounced f l u i d t h i e v e s which have a s e r i o u s impact on the e f f e c t i v i -
t y o f creation, propagation and p l u g g i n g o f the h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e ( c f . sec-
t i o n s 4.8.8.3.1.2. and 4.8.8.3.2.3.). Some comments on s c a l e p r e c i p i t a t i o n pre-
v e n t i o n and c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t i o n are o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s .

4.5.1.1.3.1. Scale precipitation prevention

VETTER, NILSSEN, LANKFORD & SHELTON (1988) i n v e s t i g a t e s c a l e i n h i b i t o r s f o r
proppant and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g . The a d d i t i o n o f scale i n h i b i t o r s t o s t i m u l a t i o n
f l u i d s i s essential f o r prevention o f precipitations during well o r reservoir
operations a f t e r the f r a c t u r i n g treatment i s completed. I n terms o f chemical
c o m p a t i b i l i t y , numerous s c a l e i n h i b i t o r s p r e v e n t the s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s from ac-
q u i r i n g any g e l s t r e n g t h even a t very low preventor concentrations, and many i n -
h i b i t o r s even provoke r a p i d complete breakage o f c r o s s l i n k e d gel systems. Gel
s t r e n g t h i n t h e presence o f s c a l e preventors can be p r o v i d e d by i n c r e a s i n g
c r o s s l i n k e r concentration, w i t h some o f t h e excess c r o s s l i n k e r becoming s a c r i f i -
c i a l , b u t on t h e o t h e r hand, the g e l becomes extremely u n s t a b l e upon a p p l i c a -
t i o n o f mechanical shear as a consequence o f supersaturation, w i t h the p o s s i b i -
l i t y o f c r e a t i n g f o r m a t i o n damage. Chemical and p h y s i c a l i n c o m p a t i b i l i t i e s b e t -
ween s c a l e i n h i b i t o r s and s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s can become serious problems.

Concerning h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g , scale preventors can be added by

d i s s o l u t i o n w i t h i n the aqueous phase o f the s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d t o the l i q u i d
pre-pad d u r i n g the treatment where they h o p e f u l l y do n o t g e t i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h
the f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i t s e l f , o r t o the proppant i n s o l i d form where they do n o t
d i s s o l v e t o any major e x t e n t w i t h i n the s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d . While some f r a c t u -
r i n g f l u i d s are r a t h e r s e n s i t i v e t o any s c a l e i n h i b i t o r a d d i t i o n , o t h e r s are
n o t . Concerning a c i d f r a c t u r i n g , s c a l e i n h i b i t o r s are i n e f f e c t i v e a t low pH va-
lues, because the pH value o f produced f l u i d s a f t e r an a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n j o b may
s t a y t o o low f o r e f f e c t i v e s c a l e prevention. Scale i n h i b i t o r s may n o t absorb
p r o p e r l y on the i n t e r n a l surface area o f the r e s e r v o i r rock thus d r a s t i c a l l y r e -
ducing the l i f e t i m e o f a squeeze j o b d u r i n g o r p r i o r t o an a c i d j o b .

4.5.1 L 3 . 2 . Corrosion inhibition

DAVIES, LIEVAART & NITTERS (1988) study e f f e c t s o f c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t o r s and
mutual s o l v e n t s on m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g treatments. F i l t e r - c a k e - f o r m i n g i n h i b i t o r s
have a s t r o n g e r impact on h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y rocks, whereas the e f f e c t s o f ad-
sorbing i n h i b i t o r s are g r e a t e r i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y rocks. F i l t e r e d - o u t o r adsor-
bed preventors can be removed from the f o r m a t i o n by mutual s o l v e n t s which s o l u -
b i l i z e damaging i n h i b i t o r residues and p r e v e n t f o r m a t i o n p l u g g i n g d u r i n g a c i d
i n j e c t i o n . E f f e c t s o f a c i d c o r r o s i o n preventors on m a t r i x s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s
are a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d by WOODROOF, BAKER & JENKINS (1975); SMITH, DOLLARHIDE &
BYTH (1978) and CROWE & MINOR (1982). I n h i b i t o r adsorption and f o r m a t i o n p l u g -
g i n g by p r e v e n t o r residues can have a major i n f l u e n c e on clean-up r a t e and u l t i -
mate e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f the t r e a t e d zone. Formation damage can a l s o be
provoked by f r i c t i o n reducers i n a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n (OUSTERHOUT & HALL 1961;
PRUITT, SIMMONS, NEILL & CRAWFORD 1965; SUTTON 1976, WOODROOF & ANDERSON 1977).
 498

4.5.1.1.4. Iron sequestering and complexing

Many c a r b o n a t e f o r m a t i o n s c o n t a i n i r o n o x i d e s and s e q u e s t e r i n g agen s m u s t
be u s e d w i t h a c i d t r e a t m e n t s in t h e s e f o r m a t i o n s (JENNINGS & DARDEN 1979) Iron
p r e c i p i t a t i o n has been r e c o g n i z e d as a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o b l e m i n a c i d i z i n g o p e r a -
t i o n s f o r o v e r 30 y e a r s . I r o n d i s s o l v e d b y a c i d f r o m r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t on o r
b o r e h o l e c o m p l e t i o n r e m a i n s in s o l u t i o n u n t i l t h e a c i d i s s p e n t (SMITH, CROWE &
NOLAN 1 9 6 8 ) . As pH o f t h e s p e n t a c i d b e g i n s t o r i s e , i r o n l o s e s i t s s o l u b i l i t y
and p r e c i p i t a t e s , t h e r e b y s e r i o u s l y damaging t h e f l o w c h a n n e l s j u s t opened b y
t h e a c i d r e a c t i o n i n t h e p a y zone complex. S e q u e s t e r i n g a g e n t s a c t b y complex-
i n g i r o n i o n s t o i n h i b i t p r e c i p i t a t i o n as h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d spends. The p r e s e n -
c e o f i r o n compounds in a f o r m a t i o n i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t when a zone i s t r e a t e d b y
hydraulic fracturing, s i n c e a c i d i s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d as a f o r m a t i o n breakdown
f l u i d p r i o r t o s t i m u l a t i o n . A f t e r an o u t l i n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s o f
i r o n in a c i d i z i n g and f r a c t u r i n g , p r o b l e m s o f c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f i r o n - s e q u e s t e r -
i n g and - c o m p l e x i n g a g e n t s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d .

4.5.1.1.4.1.Sources of iron in acidizing and fracturing

A n a l y s i s o f i r o n problems i n f o r m a t i o n s n o t c o n t a i n i n g i r o n - b e a r i n g m i n e r a l s
i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y r e v e a l s t h a t t h e primary source o f i r o n i n a c i d t r e a t -
ments i s p i p e dope and m i l l s c a l e o f i r o n and r u s t in d r i l l i n g s t r i n g , casing
and t u b i n g o f t h e w e l l (GOUGLER, HENDRICK & COULTER 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 1 1 . 5 . ) .
P a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s s o u r c e s a r e new t u b u l a r goods where i n e x t r e m e c a s e s , t h e
m i l l s c a l e c o u l d n e a r l y spend t h e f i r s t p o r t i o n o f a c i d t h e r e b y c a u s i n g i t t o
be i n e f f e c t i v e . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f i r o n p r e c i p i t a t i o n d u r i n g a c i d t r e a t m e n t s and
i t s p r e v e n t i o n a r e examined b y SMITH, CROWE & NOLAN ( 1 9 6 8 ) ; D I L L & FREDETTE
( 1 9 8 3 ) , COULTER & GOUGLER ( 1 9 8 4 ) , CROWE ( 1 9 8 4 ) , GDANSKI & PEAVY ( 1 9 8 6 ) and SMO-
LARCHUK & D I L L ( 1 9 8 6 ) . HALL & D I L L ( 1 9 8 8 ) summarize c o m p a t i b i l i t i e s o f i r o n - c o n -
t r o l a d d i t i v e s f o r l i m e s t o n e and s a n d s t o n e a c i d i z i n g o f sweet and s o u r w e l l s .
D e p o s i t s o f i r o n compounds i n t u b u l a r s and f o r m a t i o n d e t e r m i n e amount o f i r o n
d i s s o l v e d b y t h e a c i d and t h u s s e v e r i t y o f i r o n p r o b l e m s .

I r o n - s e q u e s t e r i n g a d d i t i v e s may p r e s e n t c o m p a t i b i l i t y d i f f i c u l t i e s and may

l o s e e f f e c t i v e n e s s because o f d e g r a d a t i o n . The m a i n i r o n s o u r c e s a r e m i l l s c a l e
i n new p i p e , i r o n - b e a r i n g m i n e r a l s i n s a n d s t o n e and c a r b o n a t e f o r m a t i o n s , and
i r o n in r e c o v e r e d s p e n t a c i d s o l u t i o n s (SMITH, CROWE & NOLAN 1 9 6 8 ) . I n j e c t i o n
w e l l s u s u a l l y c o n t a i n more i r o n o x i d e s c a l e s t h a n p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s . W h i l e h y d r o -
c h l o r i c a c i d i n c a r b o n a t e f o r m a t i o n s does n o t show c o m p a t i b i l i t y p r o b l e m s w i t h
i r o n sequestering additives, considerable d i f f i c u l t i e s occur w i t h hydrochloric-
h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d s o l u t i o n s i n sandstone f o r m a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 5 . ) .

I n r e s e r v o i r r o c k s c o n t a i n i n g abundant d e t r i t a l and/or d i a g e n e t i c a l i r o n -
b e a r i n g m i n e r a l s such as s i d e r i t e , a n k e r i t e , h e m a t i t e , l i m o n i t e and p y r i t e , h y -
d r o c h l o r i c a c i d d i s s o l v e s t h e i r o n compounds w h i c h c a n r e p r e c i p i t a t e as t h e
a c i d c o m p l e t e l y spends on t h e c a r b o n a t e p h a s e s . I r o n compound p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h e -
r e f o r e has t o b e p r e v e n t e d o r c o n t r o l l e d b y i r o n - s e q u e s t e r i n g o r - c o m p l e x i n g
a g e n t s i n t h e a c i d (McLEOD 1 9 8 4 ) .

4.5.1.1.4.2.Compatibility of iron-
sequestering and -comlexing agents
SMITH, CROWE & NOLAN ( 1 9 6 8 ) p r e s e n t a c o m p a r a t i v e p e r f o r m a n c e e v a l u a t i o n o f
v a r i o u s i r o n - s e q u e s t e r i n g o r - c o m p l e x i n g a g e n t s , w i t h a l l o f them, however, ha-
v i n g t o b e c a u t i o u s l y a p p l i e d , as t h e r e i s p r i n c i p a l l y n o i r o n - c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e
t h a t can economically p r e v e n t i r o n p r e c i p i t a t i o n w i t h o u t danger o f agent p r e c i -
p i t a t i o n i f i r o n i s n o t f o u n d downhole i n t h e e x p e c t e d q u a n t i t y , and i n some c a -
ses, t h e i r o n even keeps t h e s e q u e s t e r i n g a d d i t i v e i n s o l u t i o n i n s p e n t a c i d . A
s i m i l a r e f f e c t as i r o n p r e c i p i t a t i o n f o l l o w i n g a c i d i z i n g i s i r o n c o l l o i d p l u g -
g i n g i n s a n d s t o n e m a t r i x (POTTER & D I B B L E 1 9 8 5 ) . F l o c c u l a t i o n a n d / o r c o a g u l a -
 499

t i o n o f t h e f e r r i c h y d r o x i d e l e a d s t o f o r m a t i o n o f f i l t e r cake i n low-pH cases,

whereas c o l l o i d and q u a r t z s u r f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n produces a more u n i f o r m accumula-
t i o n o f c o l l o i d a t h i g h e r pH. I n a d d i t i o n t o p r e v e n t i n g p l u g g i n g , s e l e c t i v e c o l -
l o i d f o u l i n g m i g h t be used as a m o b i l i t y b u f f e r i n r e s e r v o i r s w i t h heterogene-
ous p e r m e a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n .

I r o n - c o n t a m i n a t e d a c i d i s a b l e t o promote p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f asphaltenes when

a c i d i z i n g c e r t a i n o i l - b e a r i n g r e s e r v o i r s (NEWBERRY & BARKER 1985, JACOBS & THOR-
N E 1986) even i n t h e presence o f moderate amounts o f a n t i - s l u d g i n g agents. T r a -
d i t i o n a l i r o n - c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e s a r e i n e f f e c t i v e as t h e y sequester i r o n a f t e r
t h e a c i d i s spent. H i g h l e v e l s o f a n t i - s l u d g i n g a d d i t i v e s can sometimes f o r m r e -
verse emulsions as a consequence o f o r i g i n a l i r o n complexes w i t h n o n - e m u l s i f y -
i n g agents and a n t i - s l u d g i n g a d d i t i v e s . A c i d s t r e n g t h has s e r i o u s impact on t h e
amount o f sludge and t h e i n a b i l i t y o f t y p i c a l a n t i - s l u d g i n g a d d i t i v e s t o con-
t r o l i t . The use o f an improved i r o n - s u p e r v i s i o n a d d i t i v e i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h
a p p r o p r i a t e amounts o f a n t i - s l u d g i n g agent and c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t o r can e l i m i -
n a t e asphaltene p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n m o d e r a t e - s t r e n g t h a c i d s when measures a r e t a -
ken t o keep t h e i r o n c o n t e n t i n t h e a c i d t o a minimum. T h e r e f o r e i t i s most i m -
p o r t a n t t o remove i r o n s c a l e f r o m a l l p i p i n g by back-washing t e c h n i q u e s .

4.5.1.2. Conductivity improvement by acid optimization

A c i d f r a c t u r i n g i s performed by i n j e c t i o n o f a c i d w i t h a bottomhole t r e a t i n g
p r e s s u r e exceeding f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e which l e a d s t o h y d r a u l i c opening
o f t h e c r a c k and e t c h i n g o f t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e f a c e s by t h e a c i d , t h e r e b y g i -
v i n g r i s e t o an open f l o w channel (ECONOMIDES 1987 b ) . The p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f
a c i d improvement i n c l u d e a c i d s t r e n g t h and f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l , a c i d g e l l i n g and
c r o s s l i n k i n g , and a c i d h e a t i n g .

4.5.1.2.1. Acid strength

I n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y and l e n g t h i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t means o f
improvement o f a c i d f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s (NOVOTNY 1976) as w e l l as p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 3 . , 1.4.10. and 4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) . T h i s can be
achieved by i n c r e a s i n g t h e d i s s o l v i n g power o f t h e a c i d system. A c i d - e x t e r n a l
emulsions c r e a t e l o n g a c i d i z e d f r a c t u r e s , b u t t h e y n o r m a l l y c o n t a i n o n l y one-
t h i r d a c i d and t h u s t h e r e s u l t a n t c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y i s low. P l a i n h y d r o c h l o r i c
a c i d g i v e s r i s e t o o r i g i n o f v e r y c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e s i n carbonates, b u t be-
cause o f i t s poor f l u i d - l o s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , crack l e n g t h i s s h o r t and l i m i t s
s t i m u l a t i on.

A c i d emulsions p r o v i d e e x c e l l e n t improvements a f t e r t r e a t m e n t i n s h a l l o w r e -
s e r v o i r s where c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s a r e low and f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s h i g h , as
t h e crack s t a y s more o r l e s s open, whereas i n deeper r e s e r v o i r s , unpropped f r a c -
t u r e s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y damaged by c l o s u r e and t h u s reasonable a m e l i o r a t i o n can
be o n l y o b t a i n e d by s u p p o r t i n g t h e c r a c k s w i t h p r e f e r a b l y l a r g e proppants i n o r -
d e r t o g e t maximum c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e propped d r a i n a g e p a t h t h a t would s t i l l
be s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h e r t h a n a p a r t i a l l y c l o s e d u n f i l l e d f r a c t u r e . W h i l e a u t o -
p r o p p i n g o f f r a c t u r e w a l l s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.1.2. and 4.5.1.5.) can be
s t i l l q u i t e e f f e c t i v e i n s h a l l o w pay depth, c r u s h i n g o f broken r o c k fragments
c a u s i n g s e l f - p r o p p i n g i n deep r e s e r v o i r s i s a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r o f c o n d u c t i v i -
t y damage i n f r a c t u r e s c r e a t e d by a c i d and n o t plugged by h i g h - q u a l i t y synthe-
t i c proppants.

4.5.1.2.2. Acid fluid-loss control

F l u i d l o s s can be c o n t r o l l e d by u s i n g a v i s c o u s i n e r t pad ahead o f p l a i n hy-
d r o c h l o r i c a c i d , b u t f i r s t h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d i s denser than t h e pad f l u i d which
would cause t h e h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d t o f l o w a l o n g t h e bottom o f t h e f r a c t u r e
 500

( t h i s problem c o u l d be c o r r e c t e d by a p p l y i n g b a l a n c e - d e n s i t y f l u i d s ; FREDRICK-
SON & BROADOUS 1976; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 6 . ) , and second t h e poor f l u i d - l o s s con-
t r o l o f h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d a l l o w e d i t t o wormhole through t h e pad and d e s t r o y e f -
f e c t (NOVOTNY 1976). NIERODE & KRUK (1973) a l s o comment on a c i d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i -
t i v e s and a c i d i z e d f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . The use o f a l t e r n a t i n g stages o f a c i d
and n o n - a c i d f l u i d ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.1.6.2.) containing particulate f l u i d - l o s s
a d d i t i v e s can be e f f e c t i v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g f l u i d l e a k o f f t o t h e f o r m a t i o n (PAR-
KER, AOAMS & LIANKUI 1986). Viscous a c i d a l l o w s b u l k d i s p l a c e m e n t o f f l u i d down
t h e f r a c t u r e i n o r d e r t o promote e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e c r a c k t o a c i d , w i t h
r e t a r d a t i o n o f a c i d r e a c t i o n r a t e b e i n g an a d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t ( a s p e c t s o f a c i d
f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l are also discussed i n section 4.5.1.6.).

A c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e determined more by f o r m a t i o n m i n e r a l o g y than by t h e

p l u g g i n g s o l i d damaging t h e r e s e r v o i r (McLEOD 1984). V a r i o u s a c i d c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s d i s s o l v e damage p a r t i c u l a r l y i f small amounts a r e c r i t i c a l l y p l a c e d
around t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , b u t l o w e r a c i d s a t u r a t i o n s reduce p r e c i p i t a t i o n p r o -
blems i n a c i d - s e n s i t i v e pay zones. Low h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
( 3 - 5 % ) a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y used f o r v a r i o u s d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n purposes
(SIMON & UNDERWOOD 1977).

4.5.1.2.3. Ac id cross 1 ink i ng

A c i d o p t i m i z a t i o n can be e f f e c t i v e l y achieved by g e l l i n g a n d / o r c r o s s l i n k i n g
t h e a c i d (COULTER, HARRIS & KLEBENOW 1980; PABLEY & HOLCOMB 1980, 1981, 1982;
CHURCH, QUISENBERRY & FOX 1981; PABLEY, EWING & CALLAWAY 1982; McLANE & SCOTT
1983; SMITH, DAWSON & SCOGGINS 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.3.4.1.). Crosslinked
h i g h - s t r e n g t h a c i d systems a r e e x c e l l e n t f l u i d s f o r a c i d f r a c t u r i n g and a r e
a l s o capable o f c a r r y i n g s u b s t a n t i a l amounts o f proppants, t h e r e b y r e p r e s e n t i n g
t h e i d e a l medium f o r combined a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 5 . 4 . 2 . ) . H i g h - s t r e n g t h c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d systems p r o v i d e c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c -
t i o n o f t u b u l a r f r i c t i o n pressure.

F u r t h e r advantages a r e t h e a b i l i t y t o i n h i b i t c l a y s w e l l i n g i n w a t e r - s e n s i t i -
ve r e s e r v o i r s , and t h e r e f o r e t h e h i g h - s t r e n g t h c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d system can even
compete w i t h foam f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s and e m u l s i f i e d a c i d s a l s o because o f super-
i o r proppant t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y . F l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l e q u a l l i n g o r exceeding t h a t
achieved by c r o s s l i n k e d water-based f l u i d s ensure deep p e n e t r a t i o n o f l i v e
a c i d , and an e x t r e m e l y r e t a r d e d r e a c t i o n r a t e a l l o w s i n many cases t h e c r o s s l i n -
ked a c i d t o be p l a c e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n w i t h l i t t l e o r no decrease i n a c i d
s t r e n g t h . C o n t r o l l e d b r e a k o u t e f f e c t i v e l y a l l o w s t h e a c i d t o spend as t h e f l u i d
i s moving back toward t h e w e l l b o r e d u r i n g cleanup ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 3.11.3.
and 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . ) .

4.5.1.2.4. Acid gelling

G e l l i n g o f a c i d by polymers p r o v i d e s s t a b l e v i s c o s i t y and c o n t i n u e d s o l u b i l i -
t y o f t h e a c i d a t e l e v a t e d temperatures due t o r e s i s t a n c e t o thermal degrada-
t i o n and h y d r o l y s i s o f t h e a c i d (JOHNSON, FOX, BURNS & O'MARA 1988; FOX, O'MA-
RA, BURNS & JOHNSON 1989; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 . ) . Some polymers a r e a l s o so-
l u b l e i n t h e c a l c i u m and magnesium b r i n e s produced by spending o f h y d r o c h l o r i c
a c i d i n c a r b o n a t e f o r m a t i o n s . The v i s c o s i t y o f t h e b r i n e i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e
same as t h a t o f t h e o r i g i n a l g e l l e d a c i d which guarantees c o n t i n u e d r e s i s t a n c e
t o f l u i d l o s s . A c i d r e t a r d a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.1.3.2.) by p r o d u c i n g a s t a b l e
v i s c o s i t y r e s t r i c t s c o n v e c t i o n i n t h e a c i d . Under dynamic c o n d i t i o n s where a c i d
spending r a t e i s h e a v i l y i n f l u e n c e d by c u r r e n t regime, maintenance o f l a m i n a r
f l o w i s i m p o r t a n t i n p r o l o n g a t i o n o f spending t i m e . Enhancement o f p r o d u c t i o n
s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t i n g from m a t r i x o r f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g i s due t o improved a c i d
p e n e t r a t i o n , a m e l i o r a t e d a c i d r e t a r d a t i o n and reduced f l u i d l o s s .

I n some s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , combinations o f gelled and non-gelled acids

 501

a r e a p p l i e d , w i t h g e l l e d a c i d b e i n g i n s e r t e d f i r s t f o r t h e purpose o f f l u i d -
l e a k o f f c o n t r o l and l i v e a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n a m e l i o r a t i o n , and n o n - g e l l e d a c i d
b e i n g pumped b e h i n d t h e g e l l e d a c i d t o promote f i n g e r i n g o f t h e t h i n f l u i d
t h r o u g h t h e more v i s c o u s f l u i d ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.2.1.) and enhancement o f a
d i f f e r e n t i a l e t c h and d i s s o l u t i o n p a t t e r n on t h e f r a c t u r e face. L i g h t l y g e l l i n g
o f a c i d i s o c c a s i o n a l l y c a r r i e d o u t i n o r d e r t o enhance wormhole p e n e t r a t i o n
( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.1.6.3.) and t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t r e s i d u a l v i s c o s i t y f o r f i n e s
suspension and removal. As a consequence o f i t s i n c r e a s e d v i s c o s i t y , g e l l e d
a c i d has c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced f l u i d l o s s and a l s o i n h i b i t s m i g r a t i o n o f i o n s
which r e t a r d s r e a c t i o n r a t e . V i s c o s i t y i s r e t a i n e d a f t e r a c i d spending which a l -
lows i n s o l u b l e m a t e r i a l s t o remain suspended and t o be r e t u r n e d w i t h flowback.

4.5.1.2.5. Acid heating

A c i d h e a t i n g a l s o i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t o improve a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n and e f f e c t i v i -
t y (HOCH, WALKER, FREDRICKSON & NORMAN 1986). Heated a c i d i n c r e a s e s t h e r a t e of
r o c k d i s s o l u t i o n e s p e c i a l l y on c o o l e r f o r m a t i o n s , and t h e i n c r e a s e d a c i d tempe-
r a t u r e can s o f t e n o r g a n i c d e p o s i t s f r e q u e n t l y found on r e s e r v o i r f a c e s which
h i n d e r t h e a c i d - t o - r o c k c o n t a c t . Heated a c i d can a l s o m i n i m i z e r e p r e c i p i t a t i o n
o f s o l i d s i n o i l used by r a p i d thermal shock and can p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e t u b i n g
con t r a c t i o n .

4.5.1.3. Enhancement o f acid penetration distance

When a pad o f f l u i d i s used ahead o f t h e a c i d t o achieve a l o n g w i d e f r a c t u -
r e , maximum p o s s i b l e p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e i s based on t h e assumption o f a c i d r e -
a c t i o n i n t h e f r a c t u r e geometry e x i s t i n g a t t h e end o f t h e pad, and t h e minimum
p o s s i b l e a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e w i l l be t h e dynamic c r a c k l e n g t h c a l c u l a t e d
assuming t h a t f l u i d l o s s i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e v i s c o s i t y o f r e a c t e d a c i d , w i t h
these two c o n d i t i o n s b e i n g r e a c t i o n r a t e l i m i t and f l u i d - l o s s boundary, respec-
t i v e l y (WILLIAMS & NIERODE 1971). The a c t u a l p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e p r o b a b l y va-
r i e s between t h e maximum and minimum d i s t a n c e d u r i n g a t r e a t m e n t , because a c i d
r e a c t i o n produces wormholes l e a d i n g f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.5.1.6.3.) which e l i m i n a t e f l u i d - l e a k o f f c o n t r o l by t h e pad. F o l l o w i n g
an o u t l i n e o f a c i d i n j e c t i o n and r e a c t i o n , some aspects o f a c i d r e t a r d a t i o n a r e
i11u s t r a t e d .

4.5.1.3.1. Acid injection and reaction

The most i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s a f f e c t i n g a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e a r e a c i d i n -
j e c t i o n r a t e , f r a c t u r e w i d t h c r e a t e d by t h e pad f l u i d , temperature and a c i d con-
c e n t r a t i o n . A c i d p e n e t r a t i o n and r e a c t i o n r a t e a r e c o n t r o l l e d by f l o w v e l o c i t y ,
e x i s t i n g damage, a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n and temperature, and t o t a l amount o f a c i d
i n j e c t e d , as w e l l as by r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s , f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , and area/volume r a -
t i o (BRANNON, NETTERS & GRIMMER 1987; DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1988 d ) . I n c r e a s i n g
temperature l e a d s t o d i m i n i s h i n g a c i d v i s c o s i t y and an a s s o c i a t e i n c r e a s e i n
t h e e f f e c t i v e m i x i n g c o e f f i c i e n t w h i c h a l t o g e t h e r g i v e r i s e t o r e d u c t i o n o f pe-
n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e . Temperature c o n t r o l l i n g a c i d r e a c t i o n i s a f f e c t e d by a c i d
i n j e c t i o n temperature as a m a j o r f a c t o r and by t h e h e a t l i b e r a t e d by t h e i n j e c -
t i o n i t s e l f as a m i n o r f a c t o r . As a c i d spends, r e a c t i o n r a t e decreases due t o
reduced l i v e a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n and t h e e f f e c t o f d i s s o l v e d r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s .
Some aspects o f a c i d c h a n n e l i z a t i o n and f l u i d p r o p e r t y m o d i f i c a t i o n a r e i l l u s -
t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.5.1.3.1.1. Acid channel izat ion

A c i d f l o w r a t e can be i n c r e a s e d by h i g h e r i n j e c t i o n r a t e s o r by d e s i g n i n g a
c h a n n e l i z e d t r e a t m e n t where t h e a c i d c o n t a c t s o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l
 502

crack height, w i t h t h e necessary containment being achieved by using a viscous

pad f l u i d s o t h a t a c i d c h a n n e l s t h r o u g h t h e f l u i d ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) ra-
t h e r t h a n u n i f o r m l y d i s p l a c i n g i t (GRAHAM, KERVER & MORGAN 1 9 6 5 ) . A c i d c h a n n e l i -
z a t i o n t o a b t . one f o u r t h o f t o t a l f r a c t u r e h e i g h t s i g n i f i c a n t l y i m p r o v e s a c i d
p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e (WILLIAMS & NIERODE 1 9 7 1 ) . The i m p o r t a n c e o f p r e c e d i n g
a c i d i n j e c t i o n w i t h a v i s c o u s f l u i d pad i s u n d e r l i n e d b y t h e i n c r e a s e o f f r a c -
t u r e w i d t h i n p r o p o r t i o n t o f l u i d v i s c o s i t y (GEERTSMA & DEKLERK 1969; c f . s e c -
t i o n 4.5.1.6.2.).

I n c r e a s i n g a c i d s a t u r a t i o n enhances p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e s i n c e t h e more con-

c e n t r a t e d a c i d i s more v i s c o u s and has a l o w e r v a l u e o f t h e e f f e c t i v e m i x i n g c o -
e f f i c i e n t (WILLIAMS & N I E R O D E 1 9 7 1 ) , w i t h f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e o f p e n e t r a t i o n d i s -
t a n c e b e i n g a b l e t o be a c h i e v e d b y a d d i n g more m a t e r i a l s w h i c h c r e a t e h i g h e r
a c i d v i s c o s i t y . Advantages o f h i g h a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d b y HAR-
RIS, HENDRICKSON & COULTER ( 1 9 6 6 ) . SEVOUGIAN, SCHECHTER & SEPEHRNOORI ( 1 9 8 7 )
comment on o p t i m i z a t i o n o f v e r t i c a l a c i d f r a c t u r e s i n s t e a d y - s t a t e f l o w . On t h e
o t h e r hand, r e d u c e d a c i d s t r e n g t h s g i v e r i s e t o s l o w e r r e a c t i o n r a t e s t h a t t r i g -
g e r a pH e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h s t a b i l i z e s t h e s o l u t i o n s t h u s m i n i m i z i n g p r e c i p i t a -
t i o n o f s p e n t a c i d b y - p r o d u c t s (BRANNON, NETTERS & GRIMMER 1 9 8 7 ) . T h i s p a r t i c u -
l a r l y i n h i b i t s a c i d r e a c t i o n s l o u g h i n g w h i c h may l e a d t o p e r m e a b i l i t y d i m i n u -
t i o n v i a c l a y and f i n e s m i g r a t i o n and s u b s e q u e n t b l o c k a g e .

4.5.1.3.1.2. Fluid property modification

A c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e and r a t e c a n b e i n c r e a s e d b y a d d i t i o n o f 100 mesh
sand i n v a r i o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s t a g e s as a f l u i d - l o s s
c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e i n case o f h i g h l e a k o f f (BAILEY & WICKHAM 1984; c f . s e c t i o n s
1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . L o n g e r p e r s i s t e n c e o f l i f e a c i d t h a t c a n move
f u r t h e r outwards i n t o t h e formation along the f r a c t u r e i s a l s o achieved by r e -
d u c t i o n o r r e t a r d a t i o n o f a c i d r e a c t i o n r a t e b y c h e m i c a l r e t a r d i n g a g e n t s , ernul-
s i f i c a t i o n o f a c i d i n o i l , and a c i d g e l l i n g .

F u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n of l e a k o f f and r e a c t i o n r a t e c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y v a r i o u s vo-
lumes o f g e l l e d w a t e r p r e f l u s h , w i t h t h i n n e r g e l T e d f l u i d s b e i n g d e s i g n e d as
c o o l d o w n and l e a k o f f m o d i f i e r s , whereas t h i c k e r f l u i d s i n j e c t e d ahead o f t h e
a c i d a r e u s e d as f l u i d l o s s m o d i f i e r s and p r e s e n t a t h i c k f l u i d t h r o u g h w h i c h
t h e a c i d can f i n g e r ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . A n o t h e r method o f i n c r e a s i n g a c i d
p e n e t r a t i o n i s using a l t e r n a t i n g stages o f c r o s s l i n k e d polymer f l u i d f o l l o w e d
by a c i d ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . 6 . 2 . ) . Reduction o f surface t e n s i o n by mutual s o l -
v e n t s and e l i m i n a t i o n o f w a t e r b l o c k i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . 2 . 4 . 2 . ) a l s o improves
a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n and i n c r e a s e s c l e a n - u p (HARMS, SMITH, KING & POSEY 1 9 8 8 ) . AL-
MOND, BRADY & UNDERDOWN ( 1 9 8 8 ) d i s c u s s m o n i t o r i n g o f a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h and
s p e n d i n g r a t e by r e t u r n f l u i d a n a l y s i s .

4.5.1.3.2. Acid retardation

A c i d e f f e c t i v i t y o p t i m i z a t i o n w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h c a n a l s o be
a c h i e v e d b y r e t a r d a t i o n o f r e a c t i o n r a t e and t h u s s p e n d i n g t i m e (DOWELL SCHLUM-
BERGER 1988 d ) . R e t a r d e d a c i d t r a v e l s f a r t h e r away f r o m b o r e h o l e and p e r f o r a -
t i o n s i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e becoming s p e n t and i s t h u s a b l e t o p e r f o r m spe-
c i a l t r e a t m e n t s such as c r e a t i o n o f a few l o n g l a r g e - d i a m e t e r c h a n n e l s , deep
uniform m a t r i x invasion, deep p e n e t r a t i o n and e t c h i n g o f n a t u r a l h a i r 1 i n e
c r a c k s , and g e n e r a t i o n and a t t a c k o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s .

A c i d r e t a r d i n g a g e n t s d e p o s i t h y d r o p h o b i c f i l m s on c a r b o n a t e s u r f a c e s , o r
a r e f o a m i n g a d d i t i v e s w h i c h s t a b i l i z e a c a r b o n d i o x i d e foam b a r r i e r on t h e r o c k
s u r f a c e (CROWE, McGOWAN & BARANET 1 9 8 8 ) . D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between chemi-
c a l r e t a r d e r s , e m u l s i o n s , foams, g e l l e d a c i d ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . 1 . 4 . and
4.5.1.2.3.) and o r g a n i c a c i d s . T e c h n i q u e s i n v o l v i n g i n j e c t i o n o f p a d f l u i d s t o
c o o l t h e f r a c t u r e faces ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.6.1.4.) and t o d e p o s i t a p r o t e c t i v e
 503

f i l t e r cake a r e a l s o employed. I n t h e absence o f f i l t e r cake development, v i s c o -

s i t y i m p a r t e d by a d d i t i o n o f g e l l i n g agents has l i t t l e e f f e c t on r e a c t i o n r a t e .
E m u l s i f i c a t i o n o f a c i d reduces r e a c t i o n r a t e , w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t r e t a r d a t i o n p r o -
v i d e d by o i l - e x t e r n a l a c i d emulsions. The summary as f o l l o w s compiles some
p o i n t s o f s l o w l y r e a c t i n g a c i d s and s o l i d a d d i t i v e s , a c i d e m u l s i f i c a t i o n , a c i d
g e l l i n g and f i l t e r cakes, and a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n and f r i c t i o n l o s s .

4.5.1.3.2.1. Slowly reacting acids and solid additives

R e t a r d a t i o n o f h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d i s most e f f e c t i v e i n f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g and
can be c a r r i e d o u t by adding a slower r e a c t i n g a c i d such as a c e t i c , f o r m i c o r
propionic a c i d t o the hydrochloric acid. Other p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r e t a r d a t i o n are
u s i n g agents t o i n t r o d u c e a b a r r i e r on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e r o c k p r e v e n t i n g n o r -
mal c o n t a c t w i t h t h e a c i d , a p p l y i n g a d d i t i v e s such as c a l c i u m c h l o r i d e t o gene-
r a t e a common i o n e f f e c t , and i n c r e a s i n g a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o p r o l o n g
spending t i m e , W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s l o w l y r e a c t i n g a c e t i c , f o r m i c and p r o p i o n i c
a c i d s (DILL & KEENEY 1978), deeper m a t r i x p e n e t r a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d by t h e f a s t e r
r e a c t i n g h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d , because c h a n n e l l i n g o r wormholing ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.5.1.6.3.) reduces t h e area/volume r a t i o t h e r e b y p r o l o n g i n g r e a c t i o n t i m e . O r -
g a n i c a c i d s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y used t o t r e a t h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e w e l l s (CROWE, McGO-
WAN & BARANET 1 9 8 8 ) .

On t h e o t h e r hand, a c e t i c , f o r m i c and p r o p i o n i c a c i d s o b t a i n deeper p e n e t r a -

t i o n i n f r a c t u r e s t h a n h y d r o c h l o r i c acid, b u t l a r g e r volumes would be r e q u i r e d
t o d i s s o l v e an e q u i v a l e n t amount o f r o c k and t h e h i g h e r c o s t may p r o h i b i t t h e i r
e x t e n s i v e use. Formic and a c e t i c a c i d s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by low
c o r r o s i v e n e s s on m e t a l s and c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h o i l . I n c o r p o r a t i o n o f c a l c i u m
c h l o r i d e i n t o h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d r e t a r d s r e a c t i o n r a t e and p r o v i d e s h i g h e r v i s c o -
s i t y o f t h e s o l u t i o n once t h e a c i d i s spent which may a i d i n clean-up. Calcium
c h l o r i d e a d d i t i o n f u r t h e r extends t h e i n h e r e n t l o n g e r spending t i m e o f t h e con-
c e n t r a t e d h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d . H y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d r e t a r d a t i o n can a l s o be p e r f o r -
med b y s e q u e n t i a l HF l i b e r a t i o n (HDLDEN, PRIHODA & HALL 1981; c f . s e c t i o n
4.5.5.4.3.).

4.5.1.3.2.2. Acid emulsification

E m u l s i f i c a t i o n i s one o f t h e e a r l i e s t methods used f o r a c i d r e t a r d a t i o n ,
w i t h b o t h o i l - e x t e r n a l and a c i d - e x t e r n a l emulsions h a v i n g been a p p l i e d (CROWE,
McGOWAN & BARANET 1988). A c i d - i n - o i l emulsions a l s o have r e t a r d e d r e a c t i o n r a -
t e s , because t h e a c i d i n t h e emulsion i s t o some e x t e n t p r e v e n t e d f r o m complete-
l y c o n t a c t i n g t h e r o c k s u r f a c e by presence o f an o i l f i l m p a r t i c u l a r l y i n emul-
s i o n s w i t h a t l e a s t 20 % o i l as t h e o u t e r phase. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e h i g h e r v i s c o -
s i t y o f t h e emulsion tends t o r e s t r i c t f l o w i n t o t h e s m a l l e r pores, t h u s m i n i m i -
z i n g c o n t a c t w i t h e x t r e m e l y h i g h area/volume r a t i o s . A c i d - i n - o i l emulsions p r o -
v i d e i n c r e a s e d c h a n n e l l i n g o r wormholing ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . 6 . 3 . ) i n m a t r i x
f l o w . S u r f a c t a n t s r e s u l t i n t h e presence o f o i l i n a hydrophobic o r w a t e r - r e p e l -
l e n t o i l - l i k e f i l m on t h e r o c k s u r f a c e which r e s t r i c t s a c i d - r o c k c o n t a c t and i s
thus a l s o b e n e f i c i a l i n reducing a c i d r e a c t i o n r a t e leading t o extension o f
spending t i m e and t r a v e l d i s t a n c e . Some o i l - e x t e r n a l a c i d emulsions a r e capable
o f r e t a r d i n g r e a c t i o n r a t e by as much as 98 %, b u t on t h e o t h e r hand, such an
extreme l e v e l o f a c i d r e t a r d a t i o n would l e a d t o inadequate e t c h i n g o f f r a c t u r e
faces (BERGSTROM & MILLER 1975).

F l u i d - l o s s m a t e r i a l s and g e l l i n g agents b e i n g a c i d t h i c k e n i n g a d d i t i v e s ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.3.4.3.4.1. and 4 . 5 . 1 . 2 . 3 . ) a l s o t e n d t o reduce t h e r e a c t i o n o f hydro-
c h l o r i c a c i d by f i l m development on r o c k s u r f a c e s and r e s t r i c t i o n o f d i f f u s i o n
(CROWE, MARTIN & MICHAELIS 1981). DAVIS, MANCILLAS & MELNYK (1965) p r e s e n t a
procedure u s i n g a d d i t i v e s i n a spearhead f l u i d ahead o f t h e a c i d j o b i n o r d e r
t o c r e a t e new f r a c t u r e s . The s p e c i a l l y compounded a d d i t i v e s a r e o n l y s l o w l y d i s -
p e r s i b l e i n a c i d , and t h e i r presence on exposed f o r m a t i o n and f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s
 504

as a t h i n s e a l i n g f i l m i n h i b i t s and postpones a c i d r e a c t i o n u n t i l t h e e n t i r e
t r e a t m e n t volume has e n t e r e d t h e r e s e r v o i r .

4.5.1.3.2.3.Acid gelling and filter cakes

The use o f g e l l e d a c i d s has i n c r e a s e d due t o development o f t h i c k e n i n g
agents h a v i n g g r e a t e r s t a b i l i t y i n h o t a c i d (CROWE, McGOWAN & BARANET 1988).
A c i d g e l l i n g reduces r e a c t i o n r a t e by s l o w i n g c o n v e c t i o n and hydrogen i o n d i f f u -
s i o n , and f u r t h e r d i m i n u t i o n o f g e l l e d a c i d r e a c t i o n r a t e s can be a c h i e v e d by
a d d i t i o n o f a foaming agent o r a c r o s s l i n k e r ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.4.3.4.1. and
4.5.1.2.3.). A l t h o u g h i n c r e a s i n g a c i d v i s c o s i t y does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d i m i n u i s h
r e a c t i o n r a t e , g e l l i n g agents can r e t a r d a c i d r e a c t i o n by d e p o s i t i n g a f i l t e r
cake on carbonate s u r f a c e s (GDANSKI & NORMAN 1983). On t h e o t h e r hand, n e i t h e r
polymer n o r s u r f a c t a n t g e l l e d a c i d s e x h i b i t s i g n i f i c a n t r e t a r d a t i o n i n t h e ab-
sence o f c o n d i t i o n s which cause f i l t e r cake f o r m a t i o n , b u t i n many cases r e a c -
t i o n r a t e s a r e i n s t e a d a c c e l e r a t e d (CROWE, McGOWAN & BARANET 1988).

Escape o f g e l l e d a c i d i n t o permeable carbonates can r e s u l t i n g e n e r a t i o n o f

f i l t e r cakes p r o v i d e d t h a t l e a k o f f v e l o c i t y i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o cause wormhole
development ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.1.6.3.): As t h e p r i m a r y s i t e o f a c i d f l u i d - l o s s i s
f r o m t h e area around t h e wormhole t i p s r a t h e r t h a n i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e s ,
l i t t l e f i l t e r cake development o c c u r s on t h e c r a c k w a l l s and t h u s r e a c t i o n r a t e
i s n o t r e t a r d e d i n case o f e x t e n s i v e wormholing. When u s i n g g e l l e d a c i d s , i t i s
doubly i m p o r t a n t t o c o n t r o l a c i d f l u i d - l o s s i n order t o both h y d r a u l i c a l l y
extend the fracture and a l l o w f i l t e r cake development ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4.3.4.3.1.4. and 4.5.1.2.3.).

4.5.1.3.2.4. Acid concentration and friction loss

High a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s have l o n g e r r e a c t i o n t i m e s than l o w e r s a t u r a t i o n s
because t h e r e i s more a c i d t o r e a c t , t h e a d d i t i o n a l r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s f u r t h e r
r e t a r d r e a c t i o n r a t e s , and t h e e n l a r g e d f l o w p a t h w i t h reduced area/volume r a -
t i o p r o l o n g s spending t i m e and t r a v e l d i s t a n c e o f a h i g h - c o n c e n t r a t i o n a c i d .
NIERODE & KRUK (1973) and MILLER & BERGSTROM (1975) p r e s e n t an a c i d e m u l s i o n
system which overcomes t h e v i s c o s i t y and f r i c t i o n - l o s s problem a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
many emulsion systems and p r o v i d e s b e t t e r l i v e a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n . A c i d f r a c t u -
r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n can be i n c r e a s e d by u s i n g e f f e c t i v e f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s i n hy-
d r o c h l o r i c a c i d or s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e a c i d v i s c o s i t y . W h i l e a c i d emulsions
have a low f l u i d - l o s s r a t e and a r e r e t a r d e d , o i l - w e t t i n g s u r f a c t a n t s u s u a l l y g i -
ve no r e t a r d a t i o n a t t y p i c a l f i e l d i n s p e c t i o n r a t e s . Retarded h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d
r e a c t s slower w i t h c l a y m i n e r a l s and f e l d s p a r s and t h u s a l l o w s deeper p e n e t r a -
t i o n o f l i v e a c i d (GDANSKI & PEAVY 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 5 . 4 . ) .

The r e a c t i o n r a t e o f a c i d on s o l i d carbonate s u r f a c e s i s a l s o a f f e c t e d by
c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e (CROWE, McGOWAN & BARANET 1988), w i t h d i s s o l u t i o n r a t e s a t
l o w e r p r e s s u r e s b e i n g much h i g h e r due t o s u r f a c e a g i t a t i o n by carbon d i o x i d e
bubbles, b u t i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e s r e d u c i n g r e a c t i o n r a t e . The impact o f v a r i o u s
r e t a r d i n g agents on temperature s e n s i t i v i t y o f a c i d r e a c t i o n r a t e s i s v e r y d i f -
f e r e n t . Aspects o f a c i d r e t a r d a t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by KNOX, LASATER & DILL
(1964), NIERODE & KRUK (1973), GDANSKI (1985) and CROWE, McGOWEN & BARANET
(1988).

4.5.1.4. Acid foaming

A c i d foaming a l s o has s i g n i f i c a n t impact on a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e and r a -
t e (FORD & ROBERTS 1982). I n c r e a s i n g foam q u a l i t y r e s u l t s i n d e c r e a s i n g a c i d pe-
n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e , and t h e h i g h e r t h e foam q u a l i t y , t h e l o w e r t h e a c i d c o n t e n t
o f t h e foam, w i t h t h e l e s s a c i d p r e s e n t i n t h e foam, t h e l o w e r t h e r o c k - d i s s o l -
v i n g power o f t h e foam. The w i d e r t h e f r a c t u r e , t h e l o n g e r i t t a k e s f o r hydro-
 505

gen i o n s t o r e a c h t h e r o c k s u r f a c e and t h u s t h e a c i d t r a v e l s f a r t h e r down t h e

c r a c k b e f o r e spending, w i t h t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p a p p l y i n g f o r foamed a c i d s as we17
as f o r non-foamed a c i d s . I f pumping r a t e i s i n c r e a s e d and f r a c t u r e h e i g h t r e -
mains c o n s t a n t , t h e d i s t a n c e which foamed a c i d t r a v e l s down a f r a c t u r e b e f o r e
spending i s i n c r e a s i n g . A c i d spending i n a c r a c k i s governed p r i m a r i l y by t h e
mass t r a n s f e r o f t h e a c i d t o t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l . Channel e t c h i n g i s due t o d e n s i -
t y e f f e c t s and may be reduced by u s i n g a foam s t a b i l i z e r which i n c r e a s e s g e l l e d
f l u i d viscosity.

Foamed a c i d i s non-damaging and p r o v i d e s u n e x c e l l e d f l u i d - l e a k o f f c o n t r o l es-

p e c i a l l y when used i n a l t e r n a t i n g stages o f a c i d and i n e r t pad f l u i d s (SCHERU-
BEL & CROWE 1978; c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.1.6.2.), and i s p a r t i c u l a r l y b e n e f i c i a l i n
low-pressure, l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y , l i q u i d - s e n s i t i v e f o r m a t i o n s (FORD 1980; FORD,
BURKLECA & SQUIRE 1980) as w e l l as i n h i g h l y s o l u b l e r e s e r v o i r s t h a t r e l e a s e
l a r g e amounts o f f i n e s . As a c i d e n l a r g e s t h e f l o w p a t h s t h e r e b y c o n s t a n t l y i n -
c r e a s i n g l e a k o f f r a t e , t h e b e s t f l u i d l o s s c o n t r o l by s t a b l e a c i d foam i s a c h i e -
ved by pumping g e l l e d water-based pads ahead o f t h e a c i d foam i n o r d e r t o r e -
duce escape o f gas (SCHERUBEL & CROWE 1978). The use o f foamed a c i d i n f r a c t u r e
a c i d i z i n g t r e a t m e n t s has g a i n e d widespread acceptance i n t h e l a s t y e a r s . As-
p e c t s o f foamed a c i d s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by HOLCOMB (1977), HOLCOMB & WILSON
(1978), WILSON (1978), PETRYK & GARUK (1979), FORD (1981) and HARMS, SMITH,
KING & POSEY (1988).
Aspects o f o p t i m i z a t i o n and improvement o f a c i d r e a c t i o n i n m a t r i x and f r a c -
t u r e a c i d i z i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by SUTTON & LASATER (1972); DOMSELAAR, SCHOLS
& V I S S E R (1973); McCUNE, AULT & DUNLAP (1975) and COULTER, CROWE, BARRETT & MIL-
LER (1976).

4.5.1.5. Open vs. propped fractures

Proppant p l u g g i n g o f t h e a c i d i z e d f r a c t u r e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e most e f -
f e c t i v e way o f i m p r o v i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y i n a c i d f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s o f deeper
r e s e r v o i r s where c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s t o o h i g h t o a l l o w a c i d i z e d f r a c t u r e s t o s t a y
open w i t h o n l y n e g l i g i b l e damage and t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r
l o n g - t e r m hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n . Some aspects o f drawbacks o f a u t o - p r o p p i n g o f
a c i d i z e d f r a c t u r e w a l l s and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r o p p a n t i n f i l l i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e
a r e b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.5.1.5.1. Drawbacks o f auto-propping of acidized fracture walls

S e l f - p r o p p i n g by c r u s h i n g o f exposed p o r t i o n s o f t h e i r r e g u l a r f r a c t u r e w a l l
c r e a t e d by a c i d l e a c h i n g o r b r i d g i n g o f broken fragments o f t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k
m a t r i x w i t h i n t h e c r a c k ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4.5.1.1.1.2.) can be e f f e c t i v e , b u t
might also r e s u l t i n serious f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n i f l a r g e
amounts o f f i n e s a r e c r e a t e d upon squeezing and c r u s h i n g o f s o f t d u c t i l e and
h a r d b r i t t l e carbonate f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x , r e s p e c t i v e l y . W h i l e smooth f r a c t u r e
w a l l s t e n d t o e a s i e r p r i m a r y c l o s u r e once s u f f i c i e n t s t r e s s i s a c t i n g , rough
c r a c k f a c e s e x h i b i t more r e s i s t a n c e t o c l o s u r e s t r e s s , and once exceeding t h e
s t a b i l i t y boundary, i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t b r e a k i n g of t h e p r o t r u s i o n s i n t o l a r g e r
pieces leads t o auto-propping o f the crack a t l e a s t i n metastable nature, b u t
i t i s much more p o s s i b l e t h a t c r u s h i n g o f these fragments i n t o f i n e s p l i n t e r s
w i l l l a t e r r e s u l t i n secondary c l o s u r e o f t h e f r a c t u r e .

The p o s s i b i l i t y o f c r u s h i n g o f p r o t r u s i o n s and subsequent a t l e a s t p a r t i a l

f r a c t u r e closure i s e s p e c i a l l y given i n hard b r i t t l e fine-grained, well-banked
and - j o i n t e d sedimentary and b i o c l a s t i c carbonates, whereas massive b i o l i t h i c
carbonates c o n s t r u c t e d b y r e e f - b u i l d i n g organisms ( c f . p l a t e f/8) p r o v i d e more
i r r e g u l a r i t i e s b o t h i n terms o f p r i m a r y c r a c k opening and secondary s e l e c t i v e
f r a c t u r e e t c h i n g . P a r t i a l l y c l o s e d c r a c k s resemble p i l l a r p r o p p i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 3 . 3 . 2 . ) , b u t i n c o n t r a s t t o i n f i l l i n g w i t h round s t a b l e s y n t h e t i c high-conduc-
 506

t i v i t y p r o p p a n t s , s u p p o r t of t h e f r a c t u r e by i r r e g u l a r n a t u r a l c a r b o n a t e f r a g -
ments t h a t a r e s u b j e c t t o c o n s i d e r a b l e c r u s h i n g due t o t h e i r u n s u i t a b i l i t y t o
w i t h s t a n d the c l o s u r e s t r e s s represents patchy flow o b s t r u c t i o n r a t h e r than ame-
l i o r a t i o n , w i t h f r a c t u r e auto-propping by b r e a k i n g and c o l l a p s i n g c a r b o n a t e p a r -
t i c l e s t h e r e f o r e being e s p e c i a l l y i n g r e a t e r r e s e r v o i r d e p t h h i g h l y u n d e s i -
r a b l e . G e n e r a l l y , e t c h e d flow c h a n n e l s c r e a t e d by a c i d f r a c t u r i n g can have s i g -
n i f i c a n t l y lower c o n d u c t i v i t y than propped c r a c k s because of t h e much h i g h e r l i -
k e l i h o o d of the open unsupported f r a c t u r e t o c l o s e due t o f o r m a t i o n c o l l a p s e
(ECONOMIDES 1987 b ) .

4.5.1.5.2. Significance o f proppant i n f i l l i n g o f t h e fracture

F r a c t u r e wall roughness t h e r e f o r e i s an i m p o r t a n t parameter f o r p r e s e r v a t i o n
o r d e t e r i o r a t i o n of c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y c r e a t e d by a c i d t r e a t m e n t s o n l y i n s h a l -
low t o moderately-deep r e s e r v o i r s . Proppant plugging of the f r a c t u r e s h o u l d a t
l e a s t be c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h e immediate w e l l b o r e s u r r o u n d i n g s , a s t h i s t a i l of
the f r a c t u r e wedge i s most s u s c e p t i b l e t o p r e s s u r e drawdown ( c f . s e c t i o n s
2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . 3 . and 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . ) . S e c u r i n g the r e s u l t of an a c i d f r a c t u r i n g j o b by ap-
p l y i n g a proppant of known c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r i n f i l l i n g of t h e c r a c k i s e s p e c i a l -
l y b e n e f i c i a l a s a consequence of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y d e l i v e r e d by
an a c i d t r e a t m e n t c a n n o t be p r e d i c t e d w i t h c e r t a i n t y (WILLIAMS & NIERODE 1971)
i n c o n t r a s t t o t h a t provided by a proppant package which can be more o r l e s s f o -
r e c a s t e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 0 . ) . C o n d u c t i v i t y o b t a i n e d from a c i d f r a c t u r i n g ope-
r a t i o n s i s a f u n c t i o n of f o r m a t i o n t y p e , a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n , c o n t a c t time b e t -
ween a c i d and r o c k , and c l o s u r e stress and t h u s r e s e r v o i r d e p t h , whereas prop-
p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y i s ( w i t h i n the range of c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y o f the i n -
d i v i d u a l proppant t y p e s ) independent from a l l t h e s e f a c t o r s and o n l y i s r e l a t e d
t o t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e proppant package.

In h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s w i t h low f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , g a s break-
through o c c u r s e a r l y i n time and n e a r t h e w e l l b o r e which r e d u c e s f r a c t u r e e f f e c -
t i v i t y f o r g a s p r o d u c t i o n (SOLIMAN & H U N T 1 9 8 6 ) . T h i s drawback can be overcome
by d e s i g n i n g a h i g h e r c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y by implementing p r o p p a n t s of l a r g e r
g r a i n s i z e and b e t t e r q u a l i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 3 . 5 . and 4 . 6 . 1 . ) . AL-TAMIMI & EL-
MZEIN (1987) comment on s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s of t i g h t m u l t i l a y e r e d carbona-
t e s . Another combination method r e l a t e d t o a c i d and proppant f r a c t u r i n g i s che-
mical f r a c t u r e - s q u e e z e t r e a t m e n t (TINSLEY, LASATER & KNOX 1 9 6 7 ) .

4.5.1.6. Acid f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l
Acid f l u i d l o s s i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l and i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e -
red t o be the major f a c t o r l i m i t i n g the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a c i d f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ments (CROWE, HUTCHINSON & TRITTIPO 1 9 8 7 ) . Chemical e r o s i o n of c r a c k f a c e s and
development of wormholes a r e l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e reduced e f f i c i e n c y of
a c i d f r a c t u r i n g . The c r e a t i o n of a c i d wormholes i n c r e a s e s t h e e f f e c t i v e a r e a
from which l e a k o f f o c c u r s thus r e d u c i n g the h y d r a u l i c e f f i c i e n c y of t h e a c i d .
Once wormholes form, most a c i d f l u i d l o s s o r i g i n a t e s from these wormholes r a -
t h e r than p e n e t r a t i n g uniformly i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 1 . 2 . 1 .
and 4 . 5 . 1 . 6 . 3 . ) . A f t e r an i n t r o d u c t o r y o u t l i n e of a c i d r e a c t i o n s d u r i n g f r a c t u -
r i n g , some comments a r e o f f e r e d on a l t e r n a t i n g a c i d and g e l l e d w a t e r s t a g e s ,
wormhole growth and a c i d f l u i d l o s s , and p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r improving a c i d
fluid-loss control.

4.5.1.6.1. Acid react ions during f r a c t u r ins

Acid f r a c t u r i n g comprises a c i d i n j e c t i o n i n t o a c a r b o n a t e f o r m a t i o n a t pres-
s u r e s s u f f i c i e n t t o f r a c t u r e the r e s e r v o i r o r t o open e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l j o i n t s
(CROWE, HUTCHINSON & TRITTIPO 1 9 8 7 ) . As a c i d flows along the f r a c t u r e , p o r t i o n s
of the c r a c k f a c e s a r e d i s s o l v e d and eroded i n a non-uniform manner, and thus
 507

c o n d u c t i v e channels a r e c r e a t e d which u s u a l l y remain f o l l o w i n g f r a c t u r e c l o -

sure. The e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h o f t h e c r a c k i s determined by t h e volume o f a c i d
used, i t s r e a c t i o n r a t e , and t h e a c i d f l u i d - l o s s r a t e , and p r o d u c t i v i t y improve-
ment i s l a r g e l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e l e n g t h o f t h e e t c h e d f r a c t u r e .

The maximum e f f e c t i v i t y d i s t a n c e o b t a i n a b l e by a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i s l i m i t e d by
e i t h e r spending o r f l u i d l e a k o f f . I f t h e a c i d spends t o o r a p i d l y , t h e e t c h e d
p o r t i o n of t h e c r a c k w i l l be r a t h e r s h o r t . I f a c i d f l u i d - l o s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a r e poor, e x c e s s i v e l e a k o f f w i l l t e r m i n a t e f r a c t u r e growth. I n many a c i d f r a c t u -
r i n g t r e a t m e n t s , o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e c o n t i n u a l l y d e c l i n e s and e v e n t u a l l y f a l l s
below a l e v e l r e q u i r e d t o propagate t h e c r a c k . I n some cases, t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e
never reaches a l e v e l s u f f i c i e n t t o i n i t i a t e a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e , i n d i c a t i n g
t h a t t h e a c i d i s expended i n a m a t r i x s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h e n e a r - w e l l b o r e r e g i o n .

C o n t r o l o f f l u i d l o s s d u r i n g a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i n carbonate f o r m a t i o n s p r e -
s e n t s problems which a r e unique t o r e a c t i v e f l u i d s , because most f l u i d - l e a k o f f
a d d i t i v e s and g e l l i n g agents used i n n o n r e a c t i v e aqueous f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e
c h e m i c a l l y u n s t a b l e i n t h e a g g r e s s i v e a c i d . I n a d d i t i o n , a c i d f l o w a l o n g carbo-
n a t e c r a c k s u r f a c e s produces c o n s t a n t chemical e r o s i o n , t h u s making i t d i f f i -
c u l t f o r w a l l - b u i l d i n g f l u i d s t o d e p o s i t an e f f e c t i v e f i l t e r cake. A c i d tends
a l s o t o s e l e c t i v e l y e n l a r g e p o r e s and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s r e s u l t i n g i n wormhole
c r e a t i o n and channel g e n e r a t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e c r a c k face, w i t h these
phenomena g r e a t l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e s u r f a c e area f r o m which l e a k o f f oc-
c u r s and g e n e r a l l y b e i n g b e l i e v e d t o a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t f l u i d l o s s .

4.5.1.6.2. Alternating acid and gelled water stages

While a c i d - and t e m p e r a t u r e - r e s i s t a n t a d d i t i v e s a r e e i t h e r o f l i m i t e d chemi-
c a l and/or p h y s i c a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y o r a r e i n many cases t o o expensive, a c i d l e a k -
o f f c o n t r o l can e a s i l y be performed by i n j e c t i o n o f a v i s c o u s n o n r e a c t i v e pad
p r e c e d i n g t h e a c i d (DAVIS, MANCILLAS & MELNYK 1965; COULTER, CROWE, BARRETT &
MILLER 1976; CROWE, HUTCHINSON & TRITTIPO 1988). T h i s t e c h n i q u e u s u a l l y employs
a water-based f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d t o c o o l t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.6.1.4.)
and l a y down an impermeable f i l t e r cake on t h e crack f a c e . The f i l t e r cakes co-
v e r i n g f r a c t u r e w a l l s , however, a r e r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f e c t i v e f o r a c i d f l u i d - l o s s
control, because t h e y a r e q u i c k l y p e n e t r a t e d by wormholes ( c f . section
4.5.1.6.3.) and t h e n t h e i r e f f e c t i s gone. While t h e use o f t h e pad p r o b a b l y
p r o v i d e s o n l y l i m i t e d a c i d f l u i d - l e a k o f f s u p e r v i s i o n , i t does have o t h e r u s e f u l
f u n c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g c o o l i n g o f t h e t u b u l a r goods through which a c i d f l o w s t h e r e -
by r e d u c i n g c o r r o s i o n , c o o l i n g t h e f r a c t u r e and i n c r e a s i n g c r a c k w i d t h r e s u l t -
i n g i n reduced a c i d r e a c t i o n r a t e and i n c r e a s e d l i v e a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n , and p r o -
m o t i n g a c i d f i n g e r i n g through i t s v i s c o s i t y t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e amount o f r e a c -
t i v e s u r f a c e area t o which t h e a c i d i s exposed and i m p r o v i n g f r a c t u r e l e n g t h
and c o n d u c t i v i t y ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.1.4. and 4.5.4.2.1.).

Enhanced v a r i a t i o n s o f pad pumping a r e i n i t i a l f r a c t u r e c r e a t i o n by a g e l l e d

pad a f t e r w h i c h a l t e r n a t i n g stages o f a c i d and a d d i t i o n a l pad a r e i n j e c t e d t h a t
a r e designed t o e n t e r and seal t h e wormholes c r e a t e d by t h e p r e c e d i n g a c i d . By
a l t e r n a t i n g a c i d and g e l stages, a c i d l e a k o f f i n t o wormholes and e n l a r g e d n a t u -
r a l f r a c t u r e s i s c o n t r o l l e d and t r e a t m e n t e f f i c i e n c y improved. F i n e p a r t i c u l a t e
m a t e r i a l s such as 100 mesh sand a r e o f t e n added t o t h e pad stages t o a i d i n
f l u i d - l o s s supervision ( c f . section 4.5.1.1.1.4.). A c i d f l u i d l e a k o f f can a l s o
be reduced by a c i d g e l l i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.4.3.4.1. and 4 . 5 . 1 . 2 . 3 . ) .

4.5.1.6.3. Wormhole growth and acid fluid loss

Wormhole growth i s generated by most o f t h e a c i d e n t e r i n g a few e n l a r g e d po-
r e s . C r e a t i o n and b r a n c h i n g o f wormholes and enlargement o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s
has a m a j o r e f f e c t on a c i d f l u i d loss s i n c e i t i n c r e a s e s t h e e f f e c t i v e amount
o f s u r f a c e area f r o m which a c i d f l u i d l e a k o f f occurs. Some aspects o f wormhole
 508

p e n e t r a t i o n and acid channelling as well as f l u i d invasion pa tte rn a n d f r a c t u r e

conductivity development ar e o u t l i n ed as follows.

4.5.1.6.3.1.Wormhole penetration and acid channelling

Factors governing wormhole propagation ar e analogous t o those a f f e c t i n g a c id
spending in a hydraulic f r a c t u r e with wormholes continuing t o grow i n length
providing t h a t l i v e acid i s delivered t o the wormhole t i p . Increased temperatu-
r e diminishes wormhole p en et r at i o n d i s t an ce, while wormhole depth i s lengthened
by increased acid concentration a n d i n j ect i o n r a t e . Once wormholes reach the ma-
ximum spending-limited depth, i n j e c t i o n of additional acid mainly a c t s to e n l a r -
ge the diameter of e x i s t i n g wormholes. Wormholes grow ra pidly in length during
e a r l y st a g e s of acid i n j e c t i o n due t o s e l e c t i v e acid channelling. I n many ca-
s e s , no s i n g l e wormholes b u t r a t h e r a branched wormhole network i s developed.
Thus leakoff of only a small q u an t i t y of acid g r e a t l y inc re a se s the amount of
new s u r f a c e area from which f l u i d l o s s can occur, with t h i s being a major rea-
son why acid f l u i d leakoff i s more d i f f i c u l t t o control t h a n escape of non-reac-
t i v e f l u i d s . Factors o t h er than f l u i d - l o s s v e loc ity influencing wormhole depth
a r e temperature a n d acid concentration (DACCORD, TOUBOUL & LENORMAND 1987;
HUNG, H I L L & SEPEHRNOORI 1987).

4.5.1.6.3.2.Fluid invasion pattern

and fracture conductivity development
I n addition t o increasing acid f l u i d l o s s , wormholes a l s o a l t e r the pa tte rn
of f l u i d invasion i n t o the f r a c t u r e f ace. Once developed, acid l u i d leakoff
o r i g i n a t e s predominantly from e x i s t i n g wormholes with l i t t l e f l u i d oss a c t u a l -
ly occurring a t the f r a c t u r e f a c e . F i l t e r cakes deposited by non r e a c t i v e pad
f l u i d s have i n many cases l i t t l e influence on subsequent acid f l u i d l o s s , becau-
se once wormholes p en et r at e the f i l t e r cake, they a re re sponsible f o r almost
a l l acid f l u i d leakoff r eg ar d l es s of the presence of the remaining f i l t e r cake
( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . 2 . 1 . ) . On the o t h er hand, acid re a c tion r a t e i s re ta rde d by
addition of f i l t e r a b l e s o l i d s t o the aci d , with the a dditive s depositing f i l t e r
cakes which a c t as b a r r i e r s between acid a n d f r a c t u r e surfa c e . While t h i s me-
thod of acid r e t a r d a t i o n i s e f f e c t i v e under conditions of l i t t l e o r no wormhole
development, the ex i s t en ce of deeply p en et r ating wormholes e lim ina te s most leak-
off a t the f r a c t u r e face and prevents f i l t e r cakes from being formed (DACCORD,
TOUBOUL & LENORMAND 1987; HUNG, H I L L & SEPEHRNOORI 1987).

The e x i st e n c e of wormholes a l s o influences the development of f r a c t u r e con-

d u c t i v i t y . Since acid f r a c t u r i n g depends upon etching of f r a c t u r e fa c e s t o c re -
a t e flow channels, acid l o s t t o wormholes r e s u l t s i n l e s s d i s s o l u t i o n of rock
from the crack face a n d thus lower co n d u ct i v ity. I t i s more be ne fic ia l t o ex-
pend a c i d i n e t c hi n g f r a c t u r e walls rather than in c r e a t i o n of wormholes perpen-
d i c u l a r t o the hydraulic f r a c t u r e . Localized changes i n crack face permeability
have a f a r smaller e f f e c t on p r o d u ct i v i t y t h a n does f r a c t u r e length o r conducti-
vity.

4.5.1.6.4. Possibilities for improving acid fluid-loss control

Both f l u i d - l o s s and wormhole development can be e f f e c t i v e l y c ontrolle d by i n -
j e c t i o n of m u l t i p l e s t ag es of acid and g elle d water i n an a l t e r n a t i n g manner
( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 1 . 6 . 2 . a n d 4 . 5 . 4 . 2 . ) . Gelled acids have found increased usage
i n acid f r a c t u r i n g s i n ce development of more s t a b l e acid g e l l i n g agents which,
however, reduce b o t h f l u i d leakoff and aci d re a c tion r a t e due to acid thicken-
ing by forming mi cel l ar networks within the acid s o l u t i o n . Viscosity loss a t
e le v a t e d temperature i s n o t caused by g e l l i n g agent degradation, b u t occurs as
the r e s u l t of d i s r u p t i o n of the mi cel l ar as soc ia tion network, a n d re a c tion pro-
ducts formed d u r i n g aci d spending a l s o d i s r u p t the m ic e lla r assemblage, thereby
 509

c a u s i n g t h e spent a c i d t o r e v e r t t o a t h i n f l u i d which a i d s i n r e c o v e r y a f t e r
the treatment.

The wormhole problem i n a c i d f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l can be s o l v e d w i t h a g e l l e d

a c i d h a v i n g u n i q u e r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . T h i s g e l l e d a c i d system has a modera-
t e i n i t i a l v i s c o s i t y , b u t spending o f t h e a c i d d u r i n g escape produces a r i s e i n
pH which i n i t i a t e s a process c r e a t i n g a v e r y l a r g e temporary i n c r e a s e i n e f f e c -
t i v e l e a k o f f v i s c o s i t y . F i n a l spending o f t h e a c i d t r i g g e r s a n o t h e r chemical r e -
a c t i o n which r e v e r s e s t h e temporary v i s c o s i t y i n c r e a s e , t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g t h e
spent a c i d t o be e a s i l y r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e f o r m a t i o n .

4.5.2. Combination of natural and artificial fractures

Another means o f enhancement o f t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f carbonate s t i m u l a t i o n i s
t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f n a t u r a l j o i n t i n g and a r t i f i c i a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g ( c f .
a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . ) . As carbonates and sandy carbonates a r e i n many cases i n -
t e r s e c t e d by b e t t e r p e n e t r a t i n g and a l s o c l o s e r spaced n a t u r a l c r a c k s than sand-
stones ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.1.1.1.3.), t h e y a l s o s u f f e r i n a l a r g e r degree f r o m t h e
f a c t t h a t n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s b e i n g c r o s s e d by a h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d propaga-
t i n g f r a c t u r e may d e f l e c t , a t t e n u a t e o r even t o t a l l y s t o p t h e g r o w t h o f t h e l a t -
ter (CONWAY, McGOWEN, GUNDERSON & KING 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.3.1.,
4.2.3.2.2. and 4.2.4.3.1.). As g e l l e d h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d c o u l d h e l p p r e v e n t i n g
f r a c t u r e d e f l e c t i o n and a r r e s t m e n t i f t h e f o r m a t i o n has s i g n i f i c a n t h y d r o c h l o -
r i c a c i d s o l u b i l i t y (GDANSKI & NORMAN 1983), t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c i d and p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n carbonate r o c k s i s a l s o a v e r y e f f e c t i v e means o f s t i m u l a -
t i o n o f n a t u r a l l y - j o i n t e d f o r m a t i o n s , w i t h emphasis b e i n g i d e a l l y p u t on e n l a r -
gement o f e x i s t i n g c r a c k s p a r a l l e l t o t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n r a t h e r than c r e a t i o n o f
a new independent system o f f r a c t u r e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g one
( c f . also section 4.8.8.).

4.5.3. Possibilities of application in Europe

Various carbonate r e s e r v o i r s i n d i f f e r e n t geological formations are targets
o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l gas and o i l e x p l o r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n i n Europe as w e l l as
o t h e r areas o f t h e w o r l d i n t h e near f u t u r e . While m a j o r f o r m a t i o n s such as t h e
Z e c h s t e i n carbonate s o u r gas b e l t ( r e a c h i n g f r o m G r e a t B r i t a i n t o Poland and
c o n t a i n i n g t h e l a r g e s t and most i m p o r t a n t r e s e r v o i r s i n Germany FRG) a r e o n l y
i n e x c e p t i o n a l cases needing t r e a t m e n t s beyond m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g o r a c i d f r a c t u -
r i n g ( i f r e q u i r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n a t a l l ) , p a r t i c u l a r l y J u r a s s i c , Cretaceous and
T e r t i a r y carbonate r o c k s i n t h e N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea, onshore Germany FRG, Sou-
t h e r n France, Yugoslavia, Hungary, I t a l y , A u s t r i a and t h e M i d d l e E a s t a r e p r o l i -
f e r o u s g o a l s f o r o p t i m i z a t i o n o f e x p l o i t a t i o n by h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g .

The most e f f e c t i v e h e l p f o r l a y i n g d e c i s i v e groundwork i n t h i s approach, how-

ever, would be a r i s i n g o i l p r i c e and i n c r e a s i n g US $ v a l u e which w i l l conside-
r a b l y i n c r e a s e t h e a t t r a c t i v i t y o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f carbonate
r o c k s i n Europe and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , because i n t h e p r e s e n t unfavou-
r a b l e g e n e r a l economical framework, h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f c a r b o n a t e
f o r m a t i o n s would be everywhere on t h e v e r y b o t t o m o f t h e r a n k i n g l i s t of p l a n -
ned i n v e s t m e n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.5.). The most p r o m i s i n g c a r b o n a t e r e s e r v o i r
t y p e f o r h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g (sometimes i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h g r a v e l
p a c k i n g ) i s t h e c h a l k which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n more d e t a i l i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
section.

4.5.4. Chalk stimulation

A s p e c i a l case o f c a r b o n a t e r e s e r v o i r s i s t h e Upper Cretaceous and p a r t i a l l y
a l s o Lower T e r t i a r y c h a l k i n t h e N o r t h Sea and p a r t s o f onshore M i d d l e Europe
as w e l l as i n t h e Rocky Mountain area i n Colorado, Nebraska and Kansas/USA.
 510

T h i s h i g h - p o r o s i t y , b u t l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y and l o w - s t a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n s
c o n s i d e r a b l e o i l and o c c a s i o n a l l y a l s o gas r e s e r v e s . W h i l e t h e c h a l k i n some
deeper f i e l d s i s more c o n s o l i d a t e d and s u f f i c i e n t l y n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d t o have
o n l y t o be t r e a t e d b y a c i d i z i n g , t h e c h a l k i n o t h e r s h a l l o w e r f i e l d s i s s o f t
and f l o w i n g and i n t h e s e cases i n e v i t a b l y has t o be approached b y s o p h i s t i c a t e d
b o t h h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g f o r t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f
economically f e a s i b l e production rates (various stimulation-related aspects o f
c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s a r e d i s c u s s e d b y MANCILLAS, MATSON & Z I A R A 1976; Z I A R A , MANCIL-
LAS & MATSON 1977; VLIS, DUNS & FERNANDEZ-LUQUE 1979; BARK & THOMAS 1980, NEW-
MAN 1981, BETZ 1982; SIMON, COULTER, K I N G & HOLMAN 1982; WATTS 1983, BREWSTER &
DANGERFIELD 1984, PEETERS & HARTLEY 1984, GISTAU 1985, HARTLEY & BOSMA 1985;
BREWSTER, DANGERFIELD & FARRELL 1986; JOHNSON & RHETT 1986; TANSOE, K I N G & HOL-
MAN 1986; SMITH, MILLER & HAGA 1987; FARRELL 1988, HOWES 1988, SNOW & HOUGH
1988).

U n s t a b l e c h a l k i s p r o b a b l y t h e w o r s t r e s e r v o i r t y p e t o handle i n terms o f
c o m p l e t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n i n N o r t h Sea and o t h e r a r e a s . The m a i n o i l - p r o d u c i n g
c h a l k f i e l d s i n t h e Norwegian and D a n i s h N o r t h Sea a r e E k o f i s k (BARK & THOMAS
1980, 1981; OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1985 b, PEKOT & GERSIB 1987, SNOW & HOUGH 1988),
E l d f isk ( M I C H A U D 1 9 8 7 ) , B a l m o r a l , Hod ( NORBURY 1987), T o r (D 'HEUR 1 9 8 7 ) , Dan
and V a l h a l l (TANSOE, K I N G & HOLMAN 1986; LEONARD & MUNNS 1987; ATTARD, MATHES &
MOWER 1988; BISHLAWI & PENG 1988; RUDDY, ANDERSEN, PATTILLD & FOGED 1 9 8 8 ) , whe-
r e a s o t h e r f i e l d s such as T r o l l and Tommeliten (D'HEUR & PEKOT 1987) s t i l l have
t o be d e v e l o p e d . A s p e c t s o f p e t r o p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and p r o d u c t i v e n e s s , combi-
n a t i o n o f a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , c o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and
g r a v e l p a c k i n g , s p e c i a l c h a l k f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e s , and w a t e r i m b i b i t i o n and
o i l r e c o v e r y o f u n s t a b l e s o f t f l o w i n g c h a l k a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s . Some com-
ments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on h o r i z o n t a l w e l l d r i l l i n g .

4.5.4.1. Petrophysical properties and productiveness

The c h a l k i s t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k where t h e f i r s t commercial o i l d i s c o v e r y i n
t h e N o r t h Sea was made i n 1969 i n E k o f i s k i n t h e Norwegian N o r t h Sea, w i t h p r o -
d u c t i o n h a v i n g s t a r t e d i n 1971 ( t h u s f o u r y e a r s a f t e r t h e f i r s t gas s t r i k e and
s i x y e a r s a f t e r t h e o n s e t o f o i l and gas e x p l o r a t i o n i n t h e N o r t h Sea; THOMAS
1986; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 3 . 1 . ) . E k o f i s k i s a l s o t h e f i r s t g i a n t o i l f i e l d t h a t was
d i s c o v e r e d i n Western Europe (BARK & THOMAS 1980, 1981; SNOW & HOUGH 1 9 8 8 ) . I n
t h e l a s t y e a r s , a p a r t f r o m o i l p r o d u c t i o n and r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n , t h e n a t u r e
o f t h e c h a l k pay zones i n p a r t s o f t h e N o r t h Sea has been h i g h l i g h t e d b y tremen-
dous f i e l d s u b s i d e n c e as a consequence o f r e s e r v o i r d r a i n a g e and d e p l e t i o n p a r -
t i c u l a r l y i n E k o f i s k (BLEAKLEY 1986, DIJK & KLOTERS 1987; THOMAS, D I X O N , EVANS
& VIENOT 1987; BOADE, C H I N & SIEMERS 1988; JOHNSON, RHETT & SIEMERS 1988; MEN-
G H I N I 1988, MES 1988, RENTSCH & MES 1988, SULAK & DANIELSEN 1988) w h i c h had t o
be compensated b y a c o m p l i c a t e d p l a t f o r m j a c k - u p o p e r a t i o n t o r e n d e r t o e q u i l i -
b r i u m a v e r t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e o f more t h a n s i x m e t e r s (MANNESMANN REXROTH 1988,
S M I T H 1988; SMITH, S M I T H & MONSHAUGEN 1 9 8 8 ) . Subsidence on an even l a r g e r s c a l e
t h a n i n E k o f i s k has been d e t e c t e d i n t h e V a l h a l l c h a l k o i l f i e l d (OILMAN 1987
d; RUDDY, ANDERSON, PATTILLO, BISHLAWI & FOGED 1 9 8 8 ) . O i l - and g a s - f i e l d s u b s i -
dence p r o b l e m s a l s o o c c u r i n o t h e r c h a l k s , d i a t o m i t e 5 and l o o s e f i n e r - g r a i n e d
sands (GEERTSMA 1973, WAAL & SMITS 1988; WENDEL, KUNKEL & SWANSON 1 9 8 8 ) . M O R I -
TA, WHITFILL, NYGAARD & BALE ( 1 9 8 8 ) d e s c r i b e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s u b s i d e n c e , r e s e r -
v o i r c o m p a c t i o n , and i n - s i t u s t r e s s i n d u c e d b y r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n .

4.5.4.1.1. General aspects

Chalk i s h i t h e r t o h y d r o c a r b o n - p r o d u c t i v e i n N o r t h Sea, M i d d l e E a s t , G u l f
C o a s t and Rocky M o u n t a i n area/USA, and S c o t i a n S h e l f / C a n a d a (BLANTON 1981, HART-
LEY & BOSMA 1 9 8 5 ) . Chalk i s a m a s s i v e , r a t h e r homogeneous, s o f t and e x t r e m e l y
f i n e - g r a i n e d s e d i m e n t w h i c h has a d u c t i l e b e h a v i o u r , w i t h a i l t h e s e f e a t u r e s
c a u s i n g o r t r i g g e r i n g p o r e c o l l a p s e and l o s s o f p e r m e a b i l i t y , embedment o f p r o p -
 511

p a n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.3.) and d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f c o n d u c t i v i t y , e v e n l y e t c h i n g by
a c i d r e s u l t i n g i n low c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y when t h e p r e s s u r e i s r e l e a s e d and an
unpropped f r a c t u r e c l o s e s , and l a c k o f s i g n i f i c a n t c r a c k b a r r i e r s l e a d i n g t o r a -
d i a l f r a c t u r e development w i t h o u t containment (KING & HOLMAN 1982). As a conse-
quence o f t h e s o f t n e s s , any r i d g e s l e f t a f t e r a c i d i z a t i o n c o l l a p s e under t h e
s t r e s s e s imposed by p r o d u c t i o n u n l e s s t h e y a r e m u l t i - l a y e r propped (BLANTON
1981; SIMON, COULTER, K I N G & HOLMAN 1982). Some r o c k mechanical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f N o r t h Sea r e s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d by HOLT, INGSOY & MIKKELSEN
( 1 9 8 7 ) . Aspects o f s t r a t i g r a p h y , p e t r o g r a p h y and p e t r o p h y s i c s , and n a t u r a l f r a c -
t u r e types a r e b r i e f l y summarized as f o l l o w s . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on p r i -
mary c h a l k p r o p e r t i e s and s t i m u l a t i o n response as w e l l as secondary f i e l d s u b s i -
dence.

4.5.4.1.2. Stratigraphy
N o r t h Sea c h a l k (HARPER & SHAW 1974) e x h i b i t s d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e t r o p h y s i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s i n s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l succession (TANSOE, K I N G & HOLMAN 1986) by b e i n g
a m u l t i s t o r e y r e s e r v o i r w i t h d i s t i n c t t h i c k n e s s , p o r o s i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y and wa-
t e r s a t u r a t i o n t r e n d s w i t h i n each l a y e r (BREWSTER, DANGERFIELD & FARRELL 1986).
D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between Hod, T o r and E k o f i s k f o r m a t i o n s , and i n some
f i e l d s , even a f r a c t u r e s t r a t i g r a p h y can be e s t a b l i s h e d .

4.5.4.1.2.1. Hod, Tor and Ekofisk formations

The Tor F o r m a t i o n (upper p a r t o f t h e Upper Cretaceous M a a s t r i c h t i a n c h a l k se-
quence) i s a h i g h - p o r o s i t y ( 4 0 - 50 % ) n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d c h a l k w i t h a m a t r i x
p e r m e a b i l i t y o f a b t . 5 md, whereas t h e u n d e r l y i n g Hod F o r m a t i o n ( l o w e r p a r t o f
t h e Upper Cretaceous M a a s t r i c h t i a n c h a l k s e r i e s ) i s much denser w i t h a b t .
30 - 35 % p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t i e s between a b t . 2 md and a few m i c r o d a r c y . A
t h i r d s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l e v e l i s t h e Lower T e r t i a r y Danian c h a l k ( E k o f i s k Forma-
t i o n ; FARRELL 1988).

While t h e Hod c h a l k a t t h e base i s r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e and a l s o due t o i t s

t i g h t e r f a c i e s i s o n l y s u b o r d i n a t e l y p r o d u c t i v e , and a l s o t h e E k o f i s k c h a l k a t
t h e t o p i s a t h i n t i g h t l a y e r g e n e r a l l y a c t i n g as a h y d r a u l i c b a r r i e r , t h e Tor
c h a l k i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e r e s e r v o i r complex c o n t a i n s t h e m a j o r c h a l k o i l
f i e l d s i n t h e N o r t h Sea, b u t i s o f t e n s e r i o u s l y u n s t a b l e and a t l e a s t i n t h e
V a l h a l l f i e l d almost e v e r y w e l l needs more o r l e s s e x t e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t by b o t h
h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g t o be a b l e t o be produced a t
e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e r a t e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.3.). I n the Ekofisk f i e l d , the
c h a l k i s more s t a b l e and o n l y c o n v e n t i o n a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n , b u t
no g r a v e l pack c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n has t o be c a r r i e d o u t
(FARRELL 1988).

4.5.4.1.2.2. Fracture stratigraphy

I n some f i e l d s , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f n a t u r a l crack t r e n d s and d i s t r i b u t i o n
w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r column r e s u l t s i n e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a f r a c t u r e s t r a t i g r a -
phy. I n t h e E k o f i s k f i e l d , t h e T e r t i a r y E k o f i s k F o r m a t i o n i s m a i n l y c h a r a c t e r i -
zed by t e c t o n i c a l f r a c t u r e s o f c o n j u g a t e type, whereas t h e Cretaceous T o r Forma-
t i o n c o n t a i n s p r e d o m i n a n t l y s t y l o l i t e - a s s o c i a t e d c r a c k s which propagate between
and t e r m i n a t e a t s t y l o l i t e s and f o r m anastomosing networks o f n e a r l y v e r t i c a l
e x t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e s . The c o r r e l a t i o n between crack i n t e n s i t y and sedimentary f a -
c i e s o f t h e c h a l k g i v e s r i s e t o a p r e d i c t i v e f r a c t u r e model (FARRELL 1988).
 512

4.5.4.1.3. Petrography and petrophysics

The Tor c h a l k c o n s i s t s o f c o c c o l i t h s and c a l c i t e c r y s t a l s and i s almost unce-
mented which a p a r t f r o m o v e r p r e s s u r i n g and undercompaction i s one o f t h e main
reasons f o r i t s i n s t a b i l i t y . The low f o r m a t i o n s t r e n g t h i s a l s o due t o a v e r y
low c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f connate w a t e r ( l e s s t h a n 5 X ) which has decreased t h e n o r -
mal e f f e c t o f p r e s s u r e s o l u t i o n a t g r a i n c o n t a c t s and t h u s c e m e n t a t i o n i s seve-
r e l y r e t a r d e d . The h i g h p o r o s i t y o f t h e Tor c h a l k has a l s o been p r e s e r v e d by a
v e r y low n e t c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s (overburden minus pore p r e s s u r e ) caused by a v e r y
h i g h overpressure, r e s u l t i n g i n p r e v e n t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n p o r o s i t y c o l l a p s e becau-
se t h e f l u i d i n t h e pore-space i s a m a j o r s u p p o r t i n g element o f t h e overburden.
While t h e m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e Tor c h a l k i s o n l y a b t . 5 md, p r e s s u r e
b u i l d u p e v a l u a t i o n r e v e a l s p e r m e a b i l i t i e s up t o 100 md which a r e t h e e f f e c t o f
an e x t e n s i v e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e network. The s o f t c h a l k does n o t f a i l and move as
i n d i v i d u a l f i n e p a r t i c l e s , b u t as a deformable p l a s t i c f l o w o f an u n i t mass
;, LANTON 1981, NEWMAN 1981; TANSOE, K I N G & HOLMAN 1986; ATTARD, MATHES & MOWER
1988). Some aspects o f autochthonous and a l l o c h t h o n o u s ch-alk as w e l l as f r a c -
t u r e c l o s u r e a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.5.4.1.3.1. Autochthonous and a1 lochthonous cha 1k

Chalk p o r o s i t y i s b o t h s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y and m i n e r a l o g i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d
(SNOW & HOUGH 1988). The c h a l k h o r i z o n s o f Hod, Tor and E k o f i s k f o r m a t i o n s con-
s i s t o f a l t e r n a t i n g l a y e r s o f a l l o c h t h o n o u s and autochthonous sediments. The au-
tochthonous c h a l k s were d e p o s i t e d by g r a d u a l r a i n i n g down o f c a l c a r e o u s mate-
r i a l o n t o t h e ocean f l o o r , whereas t h e a l l o c h t h o n o u s c h a l k s were l a i d down r a -
p i d l y by movements on graben f a c e s . Because o f t h e i r s l o w e r s e d i m e n t a t i o n r a t e ,
t h e autochthonous c h a l k s a r e harder, have more cementation and h i g h e r s i l i c a
c o n t e n t , underwent more dewatering, have lower p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y , have
l e s s f r e q u e n t n a t u r a l f r a c t u r i n g , and a g r e a t e r percentage o f t h e i r n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s a r e cemented t h a n i n t h e a l l o c h t h o n o u s d e p o s i t s . These v a r i a t i o n s i n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s can cause d r a m a t i c changes i n p o r o s i t i e s a c r o s s a f i e l d and
w i t h i n a w e l l b o r e and a r e a l s o a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y t h e source f o r d i f f e r e n t f r a c -
t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s i n v a r i o u s p l a c e s and s t o r e y s .

4.5.4.1.3.2. Fracture closure

L a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g proved t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s t o heal and e t c h e d open chan-
n e l s t o c l o s e above 2,000 p s i and 800 p s i n e t c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Wide f r a c t u r e s and h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e c r a c k s p r o v i d e s t a b l e
f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y when c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e i s i n c r e a s e d i n c o n t r a s t t o h e a l -
i n g o f unpacked f r a c t u r e s a t moderate c o n f i n i n g loads. E x c e s s i v e p r e s s u r e draw-
down r e s u l t s i n f a i l u r e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n and c a t a s t r o p h i c loss o f p r o d u c t i o n i n -
c l u d i n g c o l l a p s e o f c r a c k s c r e a t e d by b o t h p r o p p a n t and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g . O'HEUR
(1984) documents p o r o s i t y and hydrocarbon d i s t r i b u t i o n i n N o r t h Sea c h a l k r e s e r -
voi r s .

Formations comparable t o t h e N o r t h Sea and Rocky Mountain c h a l k s i n terms o f

p e t r o g r a p h i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e diatoma-
ceous e a r t h s and d i a t o m i t e s i n C a l i f o r n i a / U S A (STRUBHAR, MEDLIN, NAB1 & ANDREA-
N I 1984; STRICKLAND 1985; WENDEL, KUNKEL & SWANSON 1988).

4.5.4.1.4. Natural f r a c t u r e types

The N o r t h Sea c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s a r e e x t e n s i v e l y n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d . D i s t i n c -
t i o n can be made between healed, t e c t o n i c and s t y l o l i t e - a s s o c i a t e d f r a c t u r e s
(BREWSTER, DANGERFIELD & FARRELL 1986; FARRELL 1988). The main c h a l k s t i m u l a -
t i o n targets are also o u t l i n e d .
 513

4.5.4.1.4.1. Healed and tectonic fractures

Healed f r a c t u r e s a r e t h e e a r l i e s t cracks, because t h e y a r e c r o s s - c u t by a l l
o t h e r j o i n t c l a s s e s (BREWSTER, DANGERFIELD & FARRELL 1986; FARRELL 1988). Hea-
l e d f r a c t u r e s a r e s i n g l e o r anastomosing networks and a r e i n f i l l e d w i t h f i n e ma-
t e r i a l b e i n g h a r d e r t h a n t h e c h a l k m a t r i x . No v i s i b l e p o r o s i t y can be d e t e c t e d
w i t h i n t h e h e a l e d f r a c t u r e s which p r e s e n t l y do n o t f o r m permeable f l o w chan-
n e l s , b u t r a t h e r may i n h i b i t f l u i d f l o w by a c t i n g as m i c r o b a r r i e r s . The o v e r a l l
geometry and t e x t u r e o f t h e h e a l e d f r a c t u r e s suggests t h e i r o r i g i n f r o m l o c a l
b r i t t l e d e f o r m a t i o n o f p a r t i a l l y l i t h i f i e d sediment, and t h i s t y p e o f c r a c k s i s
i n t i m a t e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h reworked c h a l k .

T e c t o n i c f r a c t u r e s p r o v i d e t h e most e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y enhancement and

a r e e s s e n t i a l l y h i g h - a n g l e normal f a u l t s commonly f o r m i n g p a r a l l e l s e t s o f con-
j u g a t e c r a c k s . I n such g r e g a r i o u s zones, one s e t o f f r a c t u r e s i s always domi-
n a n t and may have an average c r a c k spacing as small as 10 - 15 cm. The f r a c t u -
r e s a r e u s u a l l y p l a n a r w i t h smooth s u r f a c e s , w i t h s l i c k e n s i d e s and secondary m i -
n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e c r a c k s b e i n g unusual. Communication o f r e s e r v o i r f l u i d s b e t -
ween m a t r i x and t e c t o n i c f r a c t u r e s i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be v e r y good. Displacement
across t h e c r a c k s i s commonly i n t h e o r d e r o f a few cm. T e c t o n i c f r a c t u r e s deve-
l o p e d under a n e a r v e r t i c a l maximum p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s .

4.5.4.1.4.2. Stylol ite-associated fractures

S t y l o l i t e - a s s o c i a t e d f r a c t u r e s a l s o o r i g i n a t e d under a v e r t i c a l p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s system (NELSON 1981, WATTS 1983; BREWSTER, DANGERFIELD & FARRELL 1 9 8 6 ) .
These c r a c k s f o r m a d j a c e n t t o s t y l o l i t e s and u s u a l l y p a r a l l e l t h e s t y l o l i t e co-
lumns. They a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as t e n s i o n gashes, a l t h o u g h a shear f r a c t u r e geome-
t r y i s o c c a s i o n a l l y seen. The c r a c k s t e r m i n a t e a t t h e s t y l o l i t e s u r f a c e s and ne-
v e r c r o s s them. S t y l o l i t e - a s s o c i a t e d f r a c t u r e s may o c c u r i n d i v i d u a l l y i n areas
w i t h low c r a c k i n t e n s i t i e s , b u t a r e u s u a l l y seen i n anastomosing networks where
a f r a c t u r e s p a c i n g o f 5 cm i s common and 0.5 cm i s n o t unusual. I n d i v i d u a l
c r a c k s do n o t e x t e n d f a r i n t o t h e c h a l k m a t r i x f r o m t h e s t y l o l i t e s . F r a c t u r e
l e n g t h may r e a c h up t o 5 - 15 cm. S t y l o l i t e - a s s o c i a t e d c r a c k s a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y
near v e r t i c a l , b u t t h e y f o r m b e d d i n g - p a r a l l e l permeable zones a d j a c e n t t o i n d i -
v i d u a l s t y l o l i t e s . A d d i t i o n a l r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y i s i n some p a r t s o f t h e
c h a l k p r o v i d e d by f r a c t u r e s a l o n g slump s u r f a c e s . O u t l i n e s o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c -
t u r e system i n N o r t h Sea c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o g i v e n by THOMAS, DIXON,
EVANS & VIENOT (1987); SYLTE, HALLENBECK & THOMAS (1988) and JENSEN, BRESLING,
RASMUSSEN, FOGED & PETERSEN ( 1 9 8 9 ) .

4.5.4.1-4.3.Chalk stimulation targets

Besides m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y and n e t pay t h i c k n e s s , w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y i s h i g h -
l y dependent on n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e occurrences (SNOW & HOUGH 1988). Because t h e
n a t u r a l c r a c k s a r e s h o r t and o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y , and due t o h i g h m a t r i x permeabi-
l i t i e s , dual p o r o s i t y b e h a v i o u r i s n o t observed i n t r a n s i e n t t e s t s , b u t t h e na-
t u r a l f r a c t u r e s e s s e n t i a l l y behave as an i n c r e a s e d m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y . Three
s t i m u l a t i o n t a r g e t s i n c h a l k s o f t h e E k o f i s k area can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d : c h a l k s
w i t h good m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y and good n a t u r a l f r a c t u r i n g , c h a l k s w i t h good ma-
t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y b u t p o o r n a t u r a l f r a c t u r i n g , and c h a l k s w i t h low m a t r i x p e r -
m e a b i l i t y and poor n a t u r a l f r a c t u r i n g . N a t u r a l c r a c k occurrence i s b o t h l o c a l l y
and r e g i o n a l l y c o n t r o l l e d . L o c a l l y t h e n a t u r a l j o i n t s appear t o r a d i a t e f r o m
t h e c r e s t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , whereas r e g i o n a l l y t h e y t r e n d NNE-SSW. Conductive
n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a r e i n f l u e n c e d by i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s and may o c c u r i n a d i r e c -
t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h a t o f minimum s t r e s s .
 514

4.5.4.1.5. Primary chalk properties and stimulation response

The v a r i o u s n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems a r e e s p e c i a l l y w e l l - d e v e l o p e d i n h a r d
c h a l k s t h a t a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n s o l i d a t e d t o a l l o w t h e c r a c k s t o s t a y open.
T h i s i s o n l y t h e c a s e i n some f i e l d s and s t r a t i g r a p h i c h o r i z o n s , whereas i n
o t h e r p a t c h e s and s t o r e y s , t h e c h a l k i s s o f t and p o o r l y c o h e s i v e and t h u s t h e
n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a r e i n most cases rehealed. U l t i m a t e recovery, p r o d u c i n g r a t e
and d r a i n a g e e f f i c i e n c y f o r e a c h w e l l depend on t h e success o f c o n n e c t i n g t h e
n a t u r a l c r a c k s w i t h t h e w e l l b o r e b y a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e ( t h e same a p p l i e s f o r
v e r y f i n e - g r a i n e d h a r d o r s o f t s a n d s t o n e s t o s i l t s t o n e s o f d i f f e r e n t m a t r i x co-
h e s i o n t y p e s w h i c h c a n i n t e r m s o f r o c k m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s b e compared w i t h
c h a l k ; PEARCE 1983; and t h e same i s t r u e f o r d i a t o m i t e s and d i a t o m a c e o u s
e a r t h s ; STRUBHAR, MEDLIN, NAB1 & ANDREANI 1984; STRICKLAND 1985; WENDEL, KUNKEL
& SWANSON 1 9 8 8 ) .

The c h a l k i s a d i f f i c u l t s t i m u l a t i o n t a r g e t , because i t s m a s s i v e u n i f o r m na-

t u r e r e s u l t s i n s h o r t r a d i a l f r a c t u r e g r o w t h (SNOW & HOUGH 1 9 8 8 ) . Low h a r d n e s s
and d u c t i l e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e c h a l k l e a d t o p o r e c o l l a p s e and c r e e p c a u s i n g e x -
c e s s i v e p r o p p a n t embedment ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . ) . The homogeneous n a t u r e o f t h e
c h a l k a l s o g i v e s r i s e t o e v e n l y e t c h e d c r a c k f a c e s d u r i n g a c i d i z i n g and a c i d
fracturing. Low h a r d n e s s and l o w y i e l d s t r e n g t h o f t h e c h a l k c a n a l s o r e s u l t in
h e a l i n g o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s and f a i l u r e o f any a c i d - e t c h e d g r o o v e s . The c h a l k s
a l s o l o s e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h when c o n t a c t e d by f o r e i g n f l u i d s , t h u s c a u s i n g
t r e a t m e n t s w i t h w a t e r - b a s e d f l u i d s t o a c t u a l l y damage i n s t e a d o f s t i m u l a t i n g
the formation.

P r o d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e o f chalk r e s e r v o i r s f o l l o w i n g f r a c t u r i n g and/or a c i d i -
z i n g i s p a r t i a l l y due t o two-phase f l o w and c o n d e n s a t e d r o p o u t . The m a j o r i t y o f
t h e o u t p u t l o s s i s a consequence o f t o t a l f a i l u r e and p l a s t i c f l o w o f t h e
chalk, s t a b l e creep flow, crushing o f the f r a c t u r e face, b r i t t l e f a i l u r e , break-
i n g o f f o f f i n e s on t h e c r a c k f a c e t h e r e b y c l o g g i n g u p t h e f r a c t u r e , and s l i p -
page a l o n g t h e j o i n t w a l l o f t h e c h a l k . As e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s i n c r e a s e , c h a l k
u n d e r g o e s c r e e p f a i l u r e and p o r e c o l l a p s e , and as t h i s f a i l u r e o c c u r s o n t h e
f r a c t u r e f a c e , t h e c r a c k l o s e s some m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h and may c l o s e . F i n e s ha-
v i n g been c h i p p e d o f f t h e c r a c k w a l l and h a v i n g f i l l e d up t h e c o n d u c t i v e chan-
n e l a r e t h e most i m p o r t a n t reason f o r c o n d u c t i v i t y r e d u c t i o n .

4.5.4.1.6. Primary chalk properties

and secondary field subsidence
OEN, ENGELL-JENSEN & BARENDREGT ( 1 9 8 8 ) d e s c r i b e a c o m b i n a t i o n o f s m a l l - s c a l e
f a u l t s and m i c r o f r a c t u r e s w i t h l a r g e - s c a l e f a u l t s i n a c r a c k s y s t e m e x t e n d i n g
throughout t h e r e s e r v o i r which p r o v i d e s a communicating network o f h i g h l y p e r -
meable f l u i d c o n d u i t s t h a t r e s u l t i n h i g h w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t i e s and e x c e l l e n t
f i e l d d r a i n a g e . The f a u l t and f r a c t u r e s y s t e m i s q u i t e w e l l s u p p o r t e d b y t h e
c h a l k m a t r i x framework i n o r d e r t o s t a y open even i n c a s e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e r e n e -
wed c o m p a c t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r due t o f i e l d s u b s i d e n c e (SULAK & DANIELSEN
1988),

The l a t t e r p r o c e s s i s p r o v o k e d b y o i l d e p l e t i o n and phase changes due t o r e -

p l a c e m e n t o f t h e p o r e volume f o r m e r l y i n f i l l e d by o i l s u b s e q u e n t l y b y w a t e r
w h i c h a l t e r s f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and t h u s r o c k c o h e s i o n , and t h e r e b y t r i g g e r s secon-
d a r y r e c o m p a c t i o n o f t h e m a t r i x w i t h o u t , however, s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t i n g f r a c -
t u r e p o r o s i t y and o i l p r o d u c t i v i t y . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e r a t h e r n e g l i g i b l e i m p a c t
o f f i e l d s u b s i d e n c e on p e t r o p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g , re-
c o m p a c t i o n o f t h e c h a l k as an a d j u s t m e n t t o a l t e r e d f l u i d phase d i s t r i b u t i o n
has tremendous consequences f o r t e c h n i c a l f i e l d o p e r a t i o n and r e q u i r e s c o m p l i c a -
t e d jack-ups f o r e q u i l i z a t i o n o f s u b s i d e n c e ( c f . D I J K & KLOTERS 1987, MANNES-
MANN REXROTH 1988; S M I T H , SMITH & MONSHAUSEN 1 9 8 8 ) . The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s
f o c u s s e s on r e s e r v o i r c o m p a c t i o n and f i e l d s u b s i d e n c e , P e r m i a n ( R o t l i e g e n d )
s a n d s t o n e v s . C r e t a c e o u s c h a l k s u b s i d e n c e , and s u b s i d e n c e r a t e s i n d i f f e r e n t
 515

chalk f i e l d s .

4.5.4.1.6.1. Reservoir compaction and field subsidence

Subsidence i s t h e gradual s e t t l i n g o f t h e l a n d mass o r ocean f l o o r o v e r o i l
and gas r e s e r v o i r s o r a q u i f e r s where f l u i d removal causes p r e s s u r e r e d u c t i o n i n
t h e p o r e space (BLEAKLEY 1986). Subsidence i s t r i g g e r e d by compaction o f t h e
pay r o c k under p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e overburden when r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e i s r e l i e -
ved. E f f e c t i v e s t r e s s on t h e pay f o r m a t i o n i s equal t o overburden p r e s s u r e m i -
nus r e s e r v o i r p o r e p r e s s u r e . As t h e p o r e p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e s due t o o i l and gas
p r o d u c t i o n , s t r e s s on t h e pay r o c k i n c r e a s e s and compaction o c c u r s depending on
f o r m a t i o n c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y . F o r l a r g e a r e a l r e s e r v o i r e x t e n s i o n s , t h e overburden
cannot be expected t o p r o v i d e s u p p o r t through a r c h i n g and b r i d g i n g o f g r a i n s be-
cause o f t h e d i s t a n c e s i n v o l v e d r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e overburden
r o c k . Subsidence t a k e s p l a c e i f t h e pay zone covers a l a r g e area, has g r e a t
t h i c k n e s s and i s compressible, and a l a r g e p r e s s u r e drop i s p r e s e n t i n t h e p o r e
space. Subsidence i s a l s o more l i k e l y t o o c c u r o v e r a s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r than a
deep one.

I n o v e r p r e s s u r e d and u n d e r s a t u r a t e d c h a l k s , d e p l e t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e
w i t h f i e l d development causes l a r g e changes i n n e t s t r e s s e s on t h e f o r m a t i o n
which r e s u l t i n p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n and compaction (RUDDY, ANDERSON, PATTILLO,
BISHLAWI & FOGED 1988). The e f f e c t s o f r o c k compaction m a n i f e s t themselves i n
two i m p o r t a n t ways b e i n g s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o r e s e r v o i r energy i n f o r m
o f l i t h i c d r i v e , and p a r t i a l t r a n s f e r o f t h i s compaction through t h e overburden
l e a d i n g t o m u d l i n e subsidence. The l i t h i c d r i v e process r e s u l t i n g f r o m r o c k com-
p a c t i o n p r o v i d e s a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f t h e hydrocarbon r e c o v e r y f r o m overpressu-
r e d and u n d e r s a t u r a t e d c h a l k s , w i t h r o c k c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y and i t s v a r i a t i o n w i t h
p o r e p r e s s u r e b e i n g one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t parameters i n r e s e r v o i r model-
l i n g . Aspects o f r e s e r v o i r compaction and f i e l d subsidence due t o p o r e c o l l a p s e
i n c h a l k f o r m a t i o n s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by SMITS, WAAL & KOOTEN ( 1 9 8 8 ) . BLANTON
(1981) emphasizes t h e unusual d u c t i l e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e c h a l k which g e n e r a l l y
h i n d e r s o r i n h i b i t s t h e f r a c t u r i n g process. The t r a n s i t i o n f r o m p o s i t i v e t o ne-
g a t i v e d i l a t a n c y w i t h increasing c o n f i n i n g pressure r e f l e c t s a t r a n s i t i o n from
m i c r o c r a c k i n g t o pore c o l l a p s e .

4.5.4.1.6.2. Permian sandstone vs. Cretaceous chalk subsidence

While i n sandstones pay f o r m a t i o n compaction g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t s i n p e r m e a b i l i -
t y r e d u c t i o n as pores a r e c l o s e d and t h e r o c k becomes more dense, i n c h a l k s oc-
c a s i o n a l l y c o n s t a n t l y r e m a i n i n g hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s (SULAK & DANIELSEN
1988) r e f l e c t t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t p e r m e a b i l i t y d i m i n u t i o n d i d n o t o c c u r . On t h e
o t h e r hand, t h e more s t a b l e framework o f sandstones i n h i b i t s m a j o r p o r e c o l l a p -
se which l e a d s t o o n l y m i n o r subsidence r a t e s (SCHOONBEEK 1976, BLEAKLEY 1986),
whereas i n c h a l k s , t h e g r a i n f a b r i c i s much more s u b j e c t e d t o p o r e f a i l u r e and
c l o s u r e t h a t g i v e s r i s e t o much h i g h e r compaction which can be up t o 10 - 20 t i -
mes g r e a t e r t h a n f o r sandstones. Water f l o o d i n g i n o i l and gas f i e l d s s u f f e r i n g
f r o m subsidence does n o t o n l y aim on i n c r e a s i n g u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y , b u t serves a
dual r o l e i n c l u d i n g m a i n t a i n i n g r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e t o m i t i g a t e compaction. Wa-
t e r f l o o d i n g i s t h e f i r s t c h o i c e o f pressure-maintenance system i n o i l f i e l d s ,
because gas i n j e c t i o n i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r means d i r e c t l o s s o f revenue u n l e s s i n -
e r t n i t r o g e n i s u t i l i z e d i n s t e a d o f c o m b u s t i b l e methane.

The s p e c i a l mechanical b e h a v i o u r o f c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s w i t h f i e l d subsidence

as a consequence o f compaction by p o r e c o l l a p s e i s i l l u s t r a t e d by a comparison
between Cretaceous ( M a a s t r i c h t i a n ) c h a l k o i l f i e l d s and Permian ( R o t l i e g e n d )
sandstone gas f i e l d s (SCHOONBEEK 1976). W h i l e subsidence e q u a l i z a t i o n i n t h e
c h a l k o i l f i e l d s E k o f i s k and V a l h a l l i n t h e Norwegian N o r t h Sea r e q u i r e s j a c k -
up o p e r a t i o n s up t o 6 m v e r t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e f o r compensation o f an annual s e t t -
l i n g r a t e o f a b t . 8 - 16 i n . ( 2 0 - 40 cm; BLEAKLEY 1986), R o t l i e g e n d sandstone
 516

subsidence as a r e s u l t o f framework condensation due t o gas w i t h d r a w a l i n t h e

Groningen f i e l d / N e t h e r l a n d s onshore i s i n t h e range o f 10 - 25 cm f o r a produc-
t i o n p e r i o d o f 20 - 40 y e a r s . T h i s i s t h e consequence o f t h e much more s t a b l e
framework o f R o t l i e g e n d sandstones w i t h r e s p e c t t o Cretaceous c h a l k s (SCHOON-
BEEK 1 9 7 6 ) . O t h e r hydrocarbon f i e l d s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t r e s e r v o i r subsidence o f
a b t . 2 m ( 6 f t ) o r more a r e W i l m i n g t o n and Inglewood i n C a l i f o r n i a / U S A , Bacha-
quero and L a g u n i l l a s i n Venezuela and one f i e l d i n t h e USSR (BLEAKLEY 1986).

4.5.4.1.6.3. Subsidence rates in different chalk fields

The E k o f i s k c h a l k f i e l d i s s u b s i d i n g a t a r a t e o f a b t . 20 - 40 cm/year (8 -
16 i n . ) , and f r o m t h e annual r a t e , maximum t o t a l subsidence f r o m t h e o n s e t o f
p r o d u c t i o n i n 1971 u n t i l t h e y e a r 2011 when t h e o p e r a t i n g l i c e n s e e x p i r e s has
been c a l c u l a t e d and c o n s i d e r e d as a base f o r compensation o f compaction by t h e
1987 j a c k - u p o p e r a t i o n ( c f . DIJK & KLUTERS 1987, MANNESMANN REXROTH 1988;
SMITH, SMITH & MONSHAUSEN 1988). W h i l e subsidence so f a r has ranged f r o m a b t . 8
i n . v i a 12 i n . on average t o 16 i n . p e r y e a r , i t i s expected t h a t as a conse-
quence o f massive w a t e r f l o o d p r e s s u r e maintenance, f u t u r e subsidence w i l l be no
more t h a n h a l f o f t h a t (PETROLEUM ENGINEER INTERNATIONAL 1987 a ) . The V a l h a l l
c h a l k o i l f i e l d , however, i s even s l i g h t l y f a s t e r s u b s i d i n g t h a n E k o f i s k a t a
r a t e o f more than 40 cm/year, w i t h p r e s e n t e s t i m a t e s b e i n g t h a t t h e maximum s i n -
kage o f V a l h a l l w i l l be between 3 and 5 m o v e r t h e n e x t t e n y e a r s (OILMAN 1987
a) i n s t e a d o f t h r o u g h o u t 20 - 40 y e a r s i n E k o f i s k .

4.5.4.2. Combination of acid and proppant fracturing

Combination o f a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s a s u i t a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i -
que f o r c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s , because i t a l l o w s t o p r o f i t f r o m t h e advantages o f
b o t h i n d i v i d u a l t r e a t m e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s . The sequence o f combined a c i d and p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n c l u d e s g e l i n j e c t i o n t o i n i t i a t e f r a c t u r e growth, a c i d i n s e r -
t i o n t o e t c h t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s , again g e l pumping f o r r e o p e n i n g o f an even w i -
d e r f r a c t u r e due t o a c i d e t c h i n g , and f i n a l l y i n j e c t i o n o f h i g h p r o p p a n t concen-
t r a t i o n s i n t o t h e c r a c k (SNOW & HOUGH 1988; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 4 . ) . As-
p e c t s r e q u i r i n g a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g j o i n t a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a r e v i s c o u s
f i n g e r i n g a c i d i z i n g and wormhole growth, w h i s p e r f r a c t u r i n g , and f r a c t u r e propa-
g a t i o n c o n t r o l . The comparative e f f e c t i v i t y o f proppant and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i n
chalk s t i m u l a t i o n i s also discussed.

4.5.4.2.1.Viscous fingering acidizing and wormhole growth

Enhancement o f c h a l k s t i m u l a t i o n can be achieved by a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m u l t i -
l a y e r p r o p p i n g o f s h o r t l a r g e f r a c t u r e s and v i s c o u s f i n g e r i n g a c i d i z i n g (HART-
LEY & BOSMA 1985; D A V I E S , BOSMA & V R I E S 1987; K I N G & SCHER 1987; SMITH, MILLER
& HAGA 1987), w i t h t h e l a t t e r t e c h n i q u e c r e a t i n g widely-spaced e t c h e d r i d g e s
and t h u s an i r r e g u l a r f r a c t u r e w a l l (SHELL 1979). Viscous f i n g e r i n g a c i d i z i n g
(FREORICKSON & 8ROADDUS 1976; O A V I E S , BOSMA & V R I E S 1987) i s t o e s t a b l i s h f r a c -
t u r e geometry w i t h a v i s c o u s c r o s s l i n k e d n o n - a c i d pad f o l l o w e d by l o w - v i s c o s i t y
a c i d (PARKER, ADAMS & LIANKUI 1 9 8 6 ) . The l o w - v i s c o s i t y a c i d f i n g e r s t h r o u g h t h e
v i s c o u s pad and c r e a t e s h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y channels i n t h e c r a c k , i n c o n t r a s t t o
c o n v e n t i o n a l a c i d f r a c t u r i n g where t h e e n t i r e c r a c k f a c e is e t c h e d and c o n d u c t i -
v i t y depends on t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e t c h i n g p a t t e r n s c r e a t e d by t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
r o c k . Widely-spaced p e r f o r a t i o n s can h e l p t o g e t good s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e a c i d
f i n g e r s o r channels as t h e y e n t e r t h e f r a c t u r e (PARKER, AOAMS & LIANKUI 1986).

PEETERS & HARTLEY (1984) r e p o r t a c i d f i n g e r i n g across t h e c r a c k f a c e and f i l -

l i n g o f t h e r e s u l t i n g e t c h e d r i d g e s w i t h proppants, w i t h i n t h i s t e c h n i q u e some
p a r t s o f t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e n o t b e i n g c o n t a c t e d by a c i d . O t h e r aspects o f v i s -
cous f i n g e r i n g a r e covered by DACCORD, NITTMAN & STANLEY (1986); LENORMAND
( 1 9 8 6 ) , SARMA (1986), FAYERS & NEWLEY (1987), HOMSY (1987), ALLEN & BOGER
 517

(1988), EWING & RUSSELL (1988), GRADER & O'MEARA (1988), KOSSACK & OPDAL
(1988), ODEH & COHEN (1988); EWING, RUSSELL & YOUNG (1989); KU, H I R S H & TAYLOR
(1989) and MILLER, MOISSIS & WHEELER (1989). The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s focusses
on whisper f r a c t u r i n g , and v i s c o s i t y c o n t r a s t and d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e required
f o r fingering.

4.5.4.2.1.1. Whisper fracturing

Whisper f r a c t u r i n g i s a p s e u d o l i m i t e d - e n t r y treatment s p e c i a l l y designed f o r
chalk r e s e r v o i r s (HARTLEY & BOSMA 1985). I n l i m i t e d - e n t r y l a y o u t , t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s are r e s t r i c t e d enough t o c r e a t e h i g h f r i c t i o n pressures i n t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s which behave l i k e backpressure valves ensuring t h a t h i g h pressures are ap-
p l i e d across a l l p e r f o r a t i o n s and t h a t breakdown o f the e n t i r e i n t e r v a l occurs
(SNOW & HOUGH 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.2.). The h i g h f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s a t each
p e r f o r a t i o n d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n r e s u l t i n h i g h f r i c t i o n losses, r e d u c t i o n of w e l l
p r o d u c t i v i t y , and p o t e n t i a l l y h i g h p e r f o r a t i o n e r o s i o n and subsequent casing
weakening. I n a d d i t i o n , o n l y small a c i d volumes c o u l d be i n j e c t e d i n t o hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r e s b e f o r e they c l o s e up. I n p s e u d o l i m i t e d - e n t r y designs, more p e r f o -
r a t i o n s are used, the treatments are staged, and the phases are separated by d i -
v e r t e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.1.).

I n whisper f r a c t u r i n g , the p e r f o r a t i o n s are spaced such t h a t viscous f i n g e r -

i n g occurs and uneven r i d g e s are etched by the a c i d . Another p a t t e r n i s t o p e r -
f o r a t e c l o s e t o t h e crack boundary t o increase f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n by genera-
t i n g semi-radial i n s t e a d of r a d i a l crack growth. Whisper f r a c t u r i n g treatments
can u t i l i z e b o t h a c i d and proppant. I f the chalk i s unstable, proppant can be
i n j e c t e d f o l l o w i n g t h e a c i d . Large proppant volumes may be used t o support t h e
e n t i r e etched crack, o r small proppant q u a n t i t i e s c o u l d be i n j e c t e d t o support
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i n o n l y the near-wellbore r e g i o n . F o r more competent
chalks, a proppant j o b f o l l o w e d by an a c i d s l u g t o e s t a b l i s h h i g h near-wellbore
conductivity i s also a suitable solution.

4.5.4.2.1.2. Viscosity contrast required f o r finger ins

Promotion of viscous f i n g e r i n g has t o be ensured by e s t a b l i s h i n g a v i s c o s i t y
c o n t r a s t o f a t l e a s t 200 - 300, w i t h the h i g h - v i s c o s i t y g e l a l s o reducing l e a k -
o f f and r e a c t i o n r a t e s by c r e a t i n g a w i d e r f r a c t u r e (SNOW & HDUGH 1988). A t
l e a s t some o f the a c i d must have reduced l e a k o f f t o increase a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n
e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e h i g h f l u i d - l o s s p o r t i o n s o f the chalk, w i t h reduced l e a k o f f
and increased p e n e t r a t i o n being achieved by a c i d g e l l i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4.3.4.3.4.1. and 4.5.1.2.2.). Aspects o f f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g treatment design
are a l s o o u t l i n e d by BROADDUS, KNOX & FREDRICKSON (1975) and ANDERSON & FRE-
DRICKSON (1987), and mechanical model 1 i n g o f wormhole growth i n carbonate a c i d
f r a c t u r i n g i s performed by DACCORD, TOUBOUL & LENORMAND (1987) and HUNG, HILL &
SEPEHRNOORI (1987).

The wormhole growth phenomenon ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.1.6.3.) i n matrix acidizing

o f carbonate formations i s analogous t o t h e viscous f i n g e r i n g e f f e c t i n water-
f l o o d s t u d i e s (ARAKTINGI & ORR 1988, VOGE & CRAFTON 1988). As the c o n d u c t i v i t y
o f acid-etched f r a c t u r e s i s s e n s i t i v e t o r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n and any e l e v a t e d
t o excessive pressure drawdown associated w i t h p r o d u c t i o n increases the e f f e c -
t i v e s t r e s s beyond the s t a b i l i t y t h r e s h o l d o f the chalk, propping o f the f r a c -
t u r e s i s i n e v i t a b l e . While s i n g l e - l a y e r propped cracks s u f f e r i n performance se-
r i o u s l y from embedment o f g r a i n s (SIMON, CDULTER, K I N G & HOLMAN 1982; HARTLEY &
BOSMA 1985), m u l t i - l a y e r propping i s the optimum s o l u t i o n . Another technique i s
closed f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g (FREDRICKSON 1987). I n some areas, harder and more
permeable c h a l k s achieve economical p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s a l r e a d y w i t h a c i d f r a c t u -
r i n g , whereas s o f t e r and l e s s permeable chalks can o n l y be f e a s i b l y e x p l o i t e d
if s t i m u l a t e d by proppant f r a c t u r i n g (ANDERSEN, HANSEN & FJELDGAARD 1988).
 518

4.5.4.2.1.3. Density difference required f o r f i n g e r i n g

F o r d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e s between a c i d and pad f l u i d o f l e s s t h a n 0 . 1 g/cm3,
g r a v i t y has no e f f e c t on v i s c o u s f i n g e r i n g (SNOW & HOUGH 1 9 8 8 ) , whereas f o r den-
s i t y d i f f e r e n c e s g r e a t e r t h a n 0 . 2 g/cm3, g r a v i t y o v e r - o r u n d e r r u n n i n g c a n domi-
n a t e t h e f l o w p a t t e r n . I n t h e r a n g e between 0 . 1 and 0 . 2 g/cm3 d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n -
ce, b o t h f i n g e r i n g and g r a v i t y s e g r e g a t i o n o c c u r , w i t h t h e s e l i m i t s b e i n g
s l i g h t l y i n c r e a s e d i f t h e g e l i s c r o s s l i n k e d . Once f i n g e r i n g b e g i n s , i t c o n t i -
nues r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e v i s c o s i t y r a t i o . Uneven e t c h i n g d e v e l o p s i n homogeneous
c h a l k s even w i t h o u t v i s c o s i t y d i f f e r e n c e s . F i n g e r i n g i s i n i t i a t e d by near-per-
f o r a t i o n e f f e c t s and t h e uneven f r a c t u r e f a c e , and once i n i t i a t e d , uneven e t -
c h i n g becomes a s e l f - p r o p a g a t i n g p r o c e s s , because as a c i d e t c h e s , t h e f r a c t u r e
widens, thus causing t h e a c i d t o c o n t i n u e t o f l o w i n t h e w i d e r s e c t i o n o f t h e
crack.

4.5.4.2.2. Fracture propagation c o n t r o l

A c r i t i c a l factor i n chalk reservoirs i s the control o f fracture propagation
i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n (EEKELEN 1982, McOONALD 1983, HARTLEY & BOSMA 1 9 8 5 ) . F r a c -
t u r e g r o w t h i n t o n e i g h b o u r i n g zones had r e p e a t e d l y o c c u r r e d i n c h a l k f o r m a -
t i o n s , b e i n g a consequence o f t h e s p e c i a l r e s e r v o i r r o c k p r o p e r t i e s of t h e
c h a l k . The f r a c t u r e s n e a r l y a l w a y s e n t e r t h e l a y e r s a d j o i n i n g t o t h e p a y zone,
and p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t i f f n e s s and h o r i z o n -
t a l i n - s i t u s t r e s s between p a y zone and n e i g h b o u r i n g beds. F r a c t u r e g r o w t h i s
r a d i a l i n c h a l k f o r m a t i o n s where n o s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s c o n t r a s t e x i s t s between
r e s e r v o i r zones s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f p e r m e a b i l i t y v a r i a t i o n s i n an o t h e r -
w i s e r a t h e r homogeneous f o r m a t i o n . A l t h o u g h v e r t i c a l z o n a t i o n o f t h e c h a l k com-
p l e x based on r e s e r v o i r q u a l i t y ( a s c h i e f l y r e f l e c t e d b y p e r m e a b i l i t y and f r a m e -
work s t a b i l i t y ) may n o t be i m p o r t a n t f o r f r a c t u r e g r o w t h i n t h e i n i t i a l p r o d u c -
t i o n s t a g e , i t may become s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h d e p l e t i o n once d i f f e r e n t p r e s s u r e r e -
gimes a r e d e v e l o p e d i n t h e v a r i o u s s u p e r i m p o s e d pay column zones. Some a s p e c t s
o f s h o r t w i d e f r a c t u r e s and h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n as w e l l as i m p a c t o f s t i m u -
l a t i o n b o a t s on a c i d v s . p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.5.4.2.2.1. Short wide fractures and high proppant saturation

A p p r o p r i a t e s t i m u l a t i o n s o l u t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y e v i d e n c e
a r e s h o r t w i d e f r a c t u r e s t h a t a r e i n d u c e d h y d r a u l i c a l l y and a r e e n l a r g e d b y
c r e a t i o n o f w i d e l y - s p a c e d e t c h e d r i d g e s b y a c i d i z i n g (SHELL 1979, HARTLEY & BOS-
MA 1985, KING & SCHER 1 9 8 7 ) . The r e s u l t i n g w i d e f r a c t u r e i s p r o p p e d b y a m u l t i -
l a y e r i n f i l l i n g . Another p o s s i b i l i t y i s combination o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c -
t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g w i t h b o t h c o n v e n t i o n a l and r e s i n - c o a t e d l o w - d e n s i t y
i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s where t h e a g g r e g a t i o n o f t h e r e s i n f i l m s a t
g r a i n c o n t a c t s p r o v i d e s a s t a b l e wedge- and m a n t l e - l i k e package i n t h e s o f t r e -
s e r v o i r (TANSOE, K I N G & HOLMAN 1986; ATTARD, MATHES & MOWER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n
4.5.4.2.). The s p e c t r u m o f t r e a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s c a r r i e d o u t i n c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s
a l s o includes whisper f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . section 4.5.4.2.1.1.).

C h a l k f r a c t u r i n g p r o v i d e s f l o w avenues f r o m t h e c o l l a p s i n g m a t r i x t o t h e
w e l l b o r e i f proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s i n excess o f 2 l b s / f t 2 i n o r d e r t o a v o i d
embedment i m p a i r m e n t (SIMON, COULTER, K I N G & HOLMAN 1 9 8 2 ) . O i l - b a s e d f l u i d s a r e
s u g g e s t e d f o r s t i m u l a t i n g c h a l k i n t e r v a l s w i t h h i g h o i l s a t u r a t i o n , because
t h e y do n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s l o s i n g s t r e n g t h n e a r l y as much as
w a t e r - b a s e d f l u i d s w h i c h p r o v o k e f l u i d phase and v i s c o s i t y changes t h a t u l t i -
m a t e l y c o u l d g i v e r i s e t o m a t r i x framework c o l l a p s e i n a s i m i l a r way as r e s e r -
v o i r d e p l e t i o n leads t o f i e l d subsidence.
 519

4.5.4.2.2.2. Impact of stimulation boats

on acid vs. proppant fracturing
P r i o r t o i n v e n t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n boats, l e s s t r e a t m e n t v e r s a t i l i t y due t o
space c o n s t r a i n t s on p l a t f o r m s r e s u l t e d i n c o n v e n t i o n a l a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h e
c h a l k (SNOW & HOUGH 1 9 8 8 ) . A c i d t r e a t m e n t has t h e dual e f f e c t o f overcoming
n e a r - w e l l b o r e damage and o f p u t t i n g t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k s i n d i r e c t f l u i d communi-
c a t i o n w i t h t h e b o r e h o l e . Proppants were o r i g i n a l l y n o t i n s e r t e d , because i t
was expected t h a t proppants would screen o u t o r f l o w back r a t h e r than s t i m u l a t e
t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s . I n areas w i t h p o o r n a t u r a l j o i n t i n g , h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g o c c u r r e d d u r i n g a c i d i z i n g due t o pressure parting (cf. section
4.5.1.1.1.1.; s i m i l a r p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g t a k e s o c c a s i o n a l l y p l a c e i n g r a v e l pack-
ing; c f . s e c t i o n s 5.6.4. and 5 . 6 . 6 . ) .

4.5.4.2.3. Conparat ive effectivity

o f proppant and acid fracturing
Flow i n t h e near p e r f o r a t i o n r e g i o n i s e x t r e m e l y t u r b u l e n t and v e l o c i t y p r o -
f i l e s around t h e p e r f o r a t i o n make even a c i d f l o w and e t c h i n g u n l i k e l y i n t h i s
area (SNOW & HOUGH 1988). Proppant f r a c t u r i n g i s l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r
crack l e n g t h s t h a n a c i d f r a c t u r i n g f r o m p r o d u c t i v i t y s t a n d p o i n t . I n i t i a l c r a c k
c o n d u c t i v i t i e s a r e comparable o r m o d e r a t e l y l o w e r i n proppant t r e a t m e n t s t h a n
i n a c i d j o b s p r i m a r i l y due t o t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a f i n e s problem. F i n e s a r e gene-
r a t e d b o t h as p r o p p a n t i s f l o w e d i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e , upon e t c h i n g o f t h e f r a c -
t u r e face, and d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n . Some aspects o f l o n g e v i t y o f c r e a t e d f r a c t u -
r e s as w e l l as f o r m a t i o n breakdown and c l o s e d f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g a r e i l l u s t r a -
t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.5.4.2.3.1. Longevity of created fracture

Proppant t r e a t m e n t s , however, a r e n o t as e f f e c t i v e i n s t i m u l a t i n g n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s as a c i d j o b s and may a c t u a l l y c l o g them up o r o t h e r w i s e damage them.
As t h e p r i m a r y mechanisms c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e l o s s o f c o n d u c t i v i t y a r e t h e same
f o r b o t h a c i d and p r o p p a n t o p e r a t i o n s , t h e l o n g e v i t y o f t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e i s
n o t g r e a t e r f o r p r o p p a n t j o b s e x c e p t i n case o f an u l t r a - h i g h p r o p p a n t concen-
t r a t i o n where h i g h e r f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s may be r e t a i n e d f o r a l o n g e r pe-
r i o d o f t i m e because t h e f i n e s problem w i l l n o t be as severe. As t h e w e l l s a r e
deep, h o t and h i g h l y d e v i a t e d , and a t l e a s t moderate proppant s a t u r a t i o n s a r e
r e q u i r e d , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f proppant d r o p o u t i n t h e w e l l b o r e i s h i g h . Once t h e
proppant e n t e r s t h e f r a c t u r e , t h e r i s k o f screenout i s high, because t h e c r a c k
may bend and t u r n , and s i n c e l e a k o f f t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s may be h i g h .

G r e a t e r f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s t h a n can be a t t a i n e d w i t h a c i d a r e o n l y r e q u i r e d i n
t h e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r p o r t i o n s , whereas optimum f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s i n
t h e moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y l o w - n a t u r a l c r a c k areas a r e a l s o o b t a i n a b l e
w i t h a c i d s . Thus a t t h e bottom o f t h e l i n e , a c i d f r a c t u r i n g may be s u p e r i o r i n
moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e g i o n s , whereas p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s p r e f e r e n -
t i a l i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y areas o f t h e c h a l k o i l f i e l d s . Proppant s t i m u l a t i o n
s h o u l d be c a r r i e d o u t w i t h moderate c o n c e n t r a t i o n and w i t h p o s s i b l y some a c i d
ahead o f t h e p r o p p a n t l o t t o e t c h t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s depending on c h a l k cha-
r a c t e r i s t i c s . P s e u d o l i m i t e d - e n t r y a c i d f r a c t u r i n g ( w h i s p e r f r a c t u r i n g ; c f . sec-
t i o n 4.5.4.2.1.1.) has t u r n e d o u t t o be t h e most s u i t a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e
f o r the chalk r e s e r v o i r s i n the Ekofisk f i e l d .

4.5.4.2.3.2. Formation breakdown and closed fracture acidizing

H i g h - r a t e a c i d i n j e c t i o n l e a d s t o f o r m a t i o n breakdown i n a l l p a r t s o f t h e
f i e l d i n c l u d i n g areas w i t h narrow s p a c i n g o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s (SNOW & HOUGH
 520

1988). W h i l e some o f t h e breakdown i s caused by n a t u r a l j o i n t opening, hydrau-

l i c f r a c t u r i n g due t o p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g accounts f o r much o f t h e breakdown i n
many r e g i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.1.1. and 4.5.4.2.2.). Increased i n j e c t i o n r a -
t e s have i n c r e a s e d a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n by c r e a t i n g h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s i n t h e induced
f r a c t u r e s t h u s k e e p i n g them open and w i d e n i n g them, and b y l i m i t i n g l e a k o f f .

The spectrum o f c h a l k a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n a l s o i n c l u d e s c l o s e d f r a c t u r e a c i d i -
z i n g c o m p r i s i n g opening o f t h e c r a c k by t h e pad f o l l o w e d by p e r m i t t i n g i t t o
c l o s e and t o s t a y p a r t i a l l y open by a u t o - p r o p p i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.1.2.
and 4 . 5 . 1 . 5 . ) , w i t h t h e n t h e a c i d b e i n g i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e p a r t i a l l y open c r a c k
below f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e and e t c h i n g much more s e l e c t i v e l y . There i s , however,
t h e r i s k t h a t t h e a c i d may r e a c t q u i c k l y i n t h e n e a r - w e l l b o r e r e g i o n and equa-
l i z e t h e uneven r i d g e s , t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g r a t h e r t h a n i n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e con-
d u c t i v i t y o r even c o n t r i b u t i n g t o c a s i n g f a i l u r e s . I n o r d e r t o a v o i d c a s i n g c o l -
l a p s e by l a r g e c a v i t i e s f o r m i n g i m m e d i a t e l y around t h e b o r e h o l e , i t i s necessa-
r y t o maximize a c i d v e l o c i t y i n t h e n e a r - w e l l b o r e r e g i o n so as t o p l a c e t h e
a c i d f a r o u t i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n and m i n i m i z e e x c e s s i v e n e a r - w e l l b o r e e t c h i n g .

4.5.4.3. Combination of hydraulic fracturing and gravel packing

S p e c i a l t e c h n i q u e s i n c l u d i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l
p a c k i n g o r p r o p p a n t and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g as w e l l as v a r i o u s r e s e r v o i r enginee-
r i n g p e c u l i a r i t i e s considerably enlarge the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f hydraulic proppant
f r a c t u r i n g o f carbonate r o c k s . The most s p e c t a c u l a r case o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f com-
b i n e d h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s t h e V a l h a l l f i e l d (ATTARD, MAT-
HES & MOWER 1988) where t h e T o r F o r m a t i o n which c o n t a i n s a b t . 2/3 o f t h e o i l -
i n - p l a c e has e x t r e m e l y h i g h p o r o s i t y ( a b t . 40 - 50 % ) as a consequence o f t h e
o v e r p r e s s u r e d n a t u r e o f t h e r e s e r v o i r . A f t e r d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l as-
p e c t s , t h e o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a t e s on up-and-under s t i m u l a t i o n vs. com-
b i n e d h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l packing, d e s i g n and purpose o f
c h a l k g r a v e l packing, and w e l l b o r e c l e a n o u t e f f e c t i v i t y .

4.5.4.3.1. General aspects

The i n a b i l i t y o f f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s t o escape as t h e c h a l k was b u r i e d r e s u l t e d
i n l a c k o f compaction t h e r e b y p r e s e r v i n g h i g h e r p o r o s i t y t h a n i n o t h e r f i e l d s
and s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l e v e l s (ATTARD, MATHES & MOWER 1988). The h i g h p o r o s i t y i n
c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h l a c k i n g c e m e n t a t i o n between t h e c h a l k g r a i n s g i v e s r i s e t o a
v e r y weak m a t r i x which i s prone t o c o l l a p s e and t o p l a s t i c f l o w when s u b j e c t e d
t o s t r e s s e s such as l a r g e p r e s s u r e drawdowns f r o m t h e pay zone i n t o t h e w e l l -
bore ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 1 . 3 . ) . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e T o r Formation, t h e l o w e r Hod
F o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n i n g t h e r e m a i n i n g 1 / 3 o f t h e o i l - i n - p l a c e i s a much s t r o n g e r
and more t y p i c a l l i m e s t o n e r e s e r v o i r . D e s p i t e t h e h i g h p o r o s i t y , t h e p e r m e a b i l i -
t y o f t h e T o r F o r m a t i o n i n t h e V a l h a l l f i e l d i s r e l a t i v e l y low ( a b t . 1 - 10 md)
due t o t h e v e r y small s i z e o f t h e c a l c i t e p a r t i c l e s composing t h e r o c k . N a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s i n c r e s t a l p l a c e s can i n c r e a s e p e r m e a b i l i t y up t o 100 md.

The o n l y p o s s i b l e c o m p l e t i o n t e c h n i q u e f o r economical p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e T o r
F o r m a t i o n i n t h e V a l h a l l f i e l d i s h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g f o l l o w e d by g r a -
v e l packing, w i t h b o t h t r e a t m e n t s b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t w i t h r e s i n - c o a t e d alumina
s i l i c a t e proppants i n most stages ( o n l y t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g j o b i s i n i t i a -
t e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l alumina s i l i c a t e proppants f o r c o s t c o n t a i n m e n t purpo-
s e s ) . As above c e r t a i n c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s e s t h e Tor F o r m a t i o n f a i l s by e n t e r i n g
mass f l o w o r p l a s t i c f l o w mode i n s t e a d o f m i g r a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s and
because t h e presence of w a t e r r e s u l t s i n more r a p i d f a i l u r e o f t h e c h a l k a t l o -
wer n e t c o n f i n i n g pressures, wide f r a c t u r e s w i t h h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
t h a t a r e aggregated t o g e t h e r by r e s i n f i l m bonding ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 6 . ) a r e i n -
d i s p e n s i b l e t o p r o v i d e s t a b l e f l o w c a p a c i t y a t h i g h drawdowns, and an a d d i t i o -
n a l g r a v e l pack m a n t l e guarantees s a t i s f a c t o r y and r e l i a b l e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f
t h e c h a l k r e s e r v o i r i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y o f t h e w e l l b o r e .
 52 1

4.5.4.3 2. up-and-under s t mulat i o n vs. combined

hydraul c proppant f r a c t u r ng and gravel packing
I n i t i a l l y developments were f r a c t u r e d up i n t o the Tor Formation through per-
f o r a t i o n s i n the Hod Formation, w i t h the reasoning o f t h i s up-and-under t e c h n i -
que having been t h a t most o f the pressure drop through the w e l l b o r e d u r i n g pro-
d u c t i o n would be experienced by t h e more competent Hod Formation and the weaker
Tor Formation would n o t f a i l and c o l l a p s e ( s i m i l a r uphole f r a c t u r i n g i s p e r f o r -
med o c c a s i o n a l l y i n c o a l - b e a r i n g s t r a t a , w i t h an u n d e r l y i n g sandstone g u i d i n g
the crack i n t e r s e c t i n g the coal seam; c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.3.8.1.). High-rate wells,
however, s u f f e r e d subsequently from massive f l o w o f proppants and c h a l k when
drawn down below r e l a t i v e l y h i g h wellhead f l o w i n g pressures, and newly d r i l l e d
w e l l s became more and more d i f f i c u l t t o complete w i t h Hod t o Tor f r a c t u r i n g as
the r e s e r v o i r pressure d i f f e r e n t i a l between Tor and Hod formations increased
owing t o f a s t e r d e p l e t i o n o f t h e more p r o d u c t i v e Tor Formation (ATTARD, MATHES
& MOWER 1988).

Therefore the combination o f f r a c t u r i n g and gravel packing was i n t r o d u c e d i n -

c l u d i n g a two-stage gravel pack c o n s i s t i n g o f fracture/prepack ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.6.7.) f o l l o w e d by an annulus pack w i t h screen and l i n e r ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.10.1.). High s h o t d e n s i t y and l a r g e average p e r f o r a t i o n diameter ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.6.1.) were s e l e c t e d t o p r o v i d e a l a r g e f l o w area f o r p r o d u c t i o n and thus m i n i -
mize the pressure drop across t h e gravel pack. The h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u -
r i n g treatment i s performed t o c r e a t e a wide h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y crack through
the Tor Formation w i t h as many o f the p e r f o r a t i o n s as p o s s i b l e packed w i t h prop-
pants thereby a l s o a c t i n g as a prepack t o precede the a c t u a l g r a v e l pack j o b .
The d e s i r e d f r a c t u r e c o n s t e l l a t i o n i s achieved by t i p screenout o p e r a t i o n ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.5.4.4.1.). Aggregation o f the proppant wedge by r e s i n bonding ( c f .
s e c t i o n 1.2.6.) had t h e s p e c i a l a i m t o minimize proppant flowback d u r i n g w e l l
cleanup and p r o d u c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.3.3.).

4.5.4.3.3. Design and purpose o f chalk gravel packing

The purpose of chalk gravel packing was t o prevent mass f l o w o f c h a l k i n t o
the w e l l b o r e through p e r f o r a t i o n s l e f t u n f i l l e d a f t e r f r a c t u r i n g and t o r e -
s t r a i n t h e f r a c t u r e l p r e p a c k proppant p l u g s (ATTARD, MATHES & MOWER 1988). 20/40
mesh gravel g r a i n s i z e was chosen because t e s t i n g had revealed t h a t t h i s s i z e
e f f e c t i v e l y r e s t r a i n s the f r a c t u r e d chalk w h i l e r e t a i n i n g s u b s t a n t i a l hydrocar-
bon f l o w c a p a c i t y . Gravel g r a i n s i z e design f o l l o w i n g the standard r u l e s ( c f .
s e c t i o n 5.2.3.) would r e s u l t i n a p r o h i b i t i v e l y small gravel g r a i n s i z e f o r en-
s u r i n g stoppage o f the t i n y c h a l k p a r t i c l e s , which would be simply a waste o f
e f f e c t because p l a s t i c c h a l k f l o w occurs as a cohesive mass r a t h e r than as
single grains.

As a consequence o f r e s e r v o i r depth, borehole d e v i a t i o n and n e c e s s i t y t o m i -

nimize b r i n e l o s s , a o n e - t r i p c i r c u l a t i o n s l u r r y g r a v e l pack was s e l e c t e d as ap-
p r o p r i a t e technique, and a t o t a l amount o f 3,000 - 4,000 l b s (1,300 - 1,800 kg)
o f alumina s i l i c a t e gravel was pumped w i t h a maximum gravel c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
7 . 5 l b s / g a l (900 kg/m3) i n o r d e r t o a v o i d gravel b r i d g i n g i n the small clearan-
ce between l i n e r and g r a v e l pack assembly ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.2.3.4.). According t o
the h i g h r e s e r v o i r pressure and the water s e n s i t i v i t y o f the chalk, the g r a v e l
pack had t o be c a r r i e d o u t under pressure u s i n g a snubbing u n i t and w i t h d i e s e l
as t h e work f l u i d . Opening o f as much p e r f o r a t i o n s as p o s s i b l e p r i o r t o f r a c t u -
r i n g and g r a v e l packing was achieved by breakdown w i t h a c i d o r g e l l e d d i e s e l
and b a l l s e a l e r s f o r d i v e r s i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.1.1.).
 522

4.5 -4.3.4.We1 lbore cleanout effectivity

The l i g h t alumina s i l i c a t e proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 2 . 1 . ) were chosen i n -
s t e a d o f sand t o i n c r e a s e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y and i n s t e a d o f o t h e r h e a v i e r
s y n t h e t i c proppants t o achieve an e f f e c t i v e b o r e h o l e c l e a n o u t p r i o r t o r u n n i n g
t h e g r a v e l pack equipment (ATTARO, MATHES & MOWER 1988). W e l l b o r e c l e a n o u t w i t h
p r o p p a n t removal can b e s t be performed w i t h more v i s c o u s f r a c t u r i n g g e l i n s t e a d
o f t h i n d i e s e l . I n c r e a s i n g f l u i d v e l o c i t y and improvement o f b o r e h o l e c l e a n o u t
e f f i c i e n c y was reached by r e v e r s e c i r c u l a t i o n d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g ( c f . sec-
t i o n 5 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . R e p e r f o r a t i o n s and g r a v e l p a c k i n g under p r e s s u r e i n an a l r e a d y
completed i n t e r v a l a l s o r e s u l t e d i n s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o d u c t i v i t i e s . As a conse-
quence o f t h e s u c c e s s f u l performance o f these combined t r e a t m e n t s , t h e w e l l s
a r e p r o d u c i n g a t t h e expected f l o w r a t e s w i t h no s i g n s o f b o r e h o l e damage and a t
much l o w e r f l o w i n g w e l l h e a d p r e s s u r e than w i t h o u t s t i m u l a t i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n c o r -
respondingly higher withdrawal r a t e s .

4.5.4.4. Spec ia 1 cha 1 k fracturing techniques

As t h e c h a l k i s a p e c u l i a r r e s e r v o i r r o c k w i t h s p e c i a l p r o p e r t i e s , a l s o hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n has t o a p p l y unusual methods i n o r d e r t o success-
f u l l y t r e a t t h i s t y p e o f pay f o r m a t i o n . Some s p e c i a l c h a l k s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i -
ques such as t i p s c r e e n o u t f r a c t u r i n g , i n t e r f a c e f r a c t u r i n g , and d e n d r i t i c f r a c -
t u r i n g a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s ,

4.5.4.4.1. Tip screenout fracturing

T i p s c r e e n o u t f r a c t u r i n g i s a s p e c i a l technique f o r c r e a t i n g s h o r t wide
h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u r e s (SMITH, MILLER & HAGA 1987). The d e s i g n o f t h i s me-
thod i s based on i n t e n t i o n a l l y s c r e e n i n g o u t t h e t i p o f t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h sand
and then c o n t i n u i n g t o pump s l u r r y i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e f r a c t u r e w i d t h and t o
f i l l t h e c r a c k w i t h p r o p p a n t m u l t i l a y e r s t o o b t a i n t h e necessary h i g h c o n d u c t i -
v i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 . ) . The f l u i d - l e a k o f f c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e f o r m a t i o n has
t o be c a r e f u l l y determined by a m i n i f r a c t u r i n g c a l i b r a t i o n j o b ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 8 . 2 . ) b e f o r e t h e main t r e a t m e n t , because t h i s s p e c i a l t e c h n i q u e i n v o l v e s se-
vere r i s k o f premature s c r e e n o u t ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) and f a i l u r e t o a c h i e -
ve t h e planned t i p screenout w i l l n o t y i e l d t h e d e s i r e d a m e l i o r a t i o n o f produc-
t i o n r a t e ( c f . also section 4.8.5.3.).

W h i l e t i p s c r e e n o u t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p l u g g i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e f r o n t w i t h
proppants o r s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s , r a p i d f l u i d l e a k o f f o f p r o p p a n t - l a d e n
stages and c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s i n g p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e s l u r r y w i t h -
i n t h e f r a c t u r e g i v e r i s e t o d e h y d r a t i o n screenout (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATT-
LER, CIPOLLA, LORENZ & THORNE 1988; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.5.3. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) .
T i p screenout f r a c t u r i n g i s e s p e c i a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r t h e c h a l k i n t h e V a l h a l l
f i e l d which i s s o f t e r , more w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e , and more l i k e l y t o undergo p l a s t i c
d e f o r m a t i o n t h a n t h e c h a l k i n t h e E k o f i s k f i e l d (SMITH, MILLER & HAGA 1987; AT-
TARO, MATHES & MOWER 1 9 8 8 ) . I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s and t o
h e l p r e s t r a i n t h e c h a l k f r o m f l o w i n g i n on t h e propped f r a c t u r e , an engineered
s c r e e n o u t i s provoked, r e s u l t i n g i n h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e w h i c h
cause t h e crack t o widen. As t h e s c r e e n o u t c o n t i n u e s , t h e w i d e r f r a c t u r e i s
packed f u l l o f proppant, t h e r e b y g i v i n g r i s e t o a l a r g e w e l l - p a c k e d c r a c k (SNOW
& HOUGH 1988).

4.5.4.4.2. Interface fractur ins

I n t e r f a c e f r a c t u r i n g i s a special technique o f c r e a t i n g hydraulic cracks
near o r a t t h e i n t e r f a c e o f two f o r m a t i o n s w i t h d i f f e r e n t l e a k o f f c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s and mechanical p r o p e r t i e s f o r t h e purpose o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f N o r t h Sea
c h a l k c o m p l e t i o n s (MOSCHOVIDIS 1 9 8 7 ) . The p r i n c i p a l o i l - b e a r i n g zone w h i c h i s
 523

p o o r l y c o n s o l i d a t e d and c r e a t e s s o l i d s p r o d u c t i o n problems i s b r o u g h t i n commu-

n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e u n d e r l y i n g more competent c h a l k zone t h a t i s a l s o o i l - b e a r i n g
v i a a hydraulic f r a c t u r e i n order t o minimize i n f l o w o f formation f i n e s ( c f .
a l s o s e c t i o n s 4.5.4.3. and 4.4.3.8.1.). Good t r e a t m e n t r e s u l t s w i t h high-conduc-
t i v i t y f r a c t u r e s a r e achieved by a screenout towards t h e end o f t h e o p e r a t i o n .

I n t h i s combined h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e vo-

lume c u r v e s i n t e r s e c t towards t h e end o f t h e treatment, b u t a c o n s i d e r a b l e sand
volume has been pumped above t h e s i m u l a t e d crack c a p a c i t y , w i t h a p o s s i b i l i t y
o f e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p b e i n g t h a t t h e s i m u l a t i o n s do n o t account
f o r any b a l l o o n i n g of t h e f r a c t u r e due t o h i g h e r t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e caused by t o -
t a l o r p a r t i a l c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n a r r e s t . H i g h e r o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e s t h a n normal
a r e observed towards t h e end o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g j o b s and a r e i n t e n d e d t o i n c r e a -
se c r a c k w i d t h . The i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t s o f g r a v e l pack and f r a c t u r e volume c u r -
ves determine t h e s l u r r y volume a t which a g l o b a l s c r e e n o u t occurs, w i t h c o r r e c -
t i o n s h a v i n g t o be made f o r t h e p o r o s i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t package when dehydra-
t e d a t s c r e e n o u t c o n d i t i o n s , t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e f r a c t u r e volume t o t h e
proppants, and i n c r e a s i n g c r a c k w i d t h due t o p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n and n o n - l i n e a -
r i t y o f r e s e r v o i r behaviour.

4.5.4.4.3. Dendr i t ic f ractur ins

Another s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n a l procedure r e p r e s e n t i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n o f n a t u r a l
and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g where t h e t r e a t m e n t i s c o n f i -
ned t o a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l c r a c k s by u s i n g l a r g e volumes o f l i g h t l y g e l l e d
w a t e r pumped a t h i g h r a t e s and v e l o c i t i e s , t h e r e b y a v o i d i n g c r e a t i o n o f new
f r a c t u r e s as more v i s c o u s f l u i d s would (LOPUS, SEIFERT & SCHEIN 1987; c f . sec-
t i o n 4.8.8.4.). V a r i o u s stages o f t h e t r e a t m e n t i n c o r p o r a t e small amounts o f
proppants i n o r d e r t o a i d i n a b r a s i o n o f e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e s plugged by seconda-
r y m i n e r a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n s as w e l l as f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l , o r b r i d g i n g agent t o
cause s l i g h t changes i n d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e w i t h i n a f r a c t u r e t o a s s i s t i n d i -
v e r t i n g i n t o other f r a c t u r e s ( c f . section 6.2.1.3.4.5.). After briefly outli-
n i n g some g e n e r a l aspects, t h e s p e c i a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f combined d e n d r i t i c n a t u -
r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s i l l u s t r a t e d . Some r e f r a c t u r i n g aspects a r e a l s o
sketched.

4.5.4.4.3.1. General aspects

O e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t by i n j e c t i o n o f a t h i n water-based f l u i d
a t h i g h r a t e s i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n ( K I E L 1976, 1977, 1984), and pumping i s t h e n
stopped and t h e w e l l i s a l l o w e d t o f l o w back, w i t h t h i s i n j e c t i o n / f l o w b a c k
c y c l e b e i n g r e p e a t e d s e v e r a l t i m e s . The process causes i n - s i t u m a t e r i a l t o
break o f f f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e and lodge i n s i d e o f t h e c r a c k t h e r e b y p r o p p i n g
i t open (MURPHY & FEHLER 1986). D e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g t h u s i n c l u d e s a u t o - p r o p -
p i n g o f t h e c r a c k w a l l s by f o r m a t i o n fragments and broken i n f i l l i n g o f h e a l e d
j o i n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.1. and 4 . 5 . 1 . 5 . 1 . ) . D e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . a l s o
s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 4 . ) has been s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e A u s t i n Chalk (Texas/
USA) and i n t h e E k o f i s k c h a l k (Norwegian N o r t h Sea) as w e l l as i n v a r i o u s o t h e r
n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d carbonate r e s e r v o i r s .

4.5.4.4.3.2. Combinat ion o f dendr i t ic

natural and hydraulic fracturing
D e n d r i t i c h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r c h a l k s which a r e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an a l r e a d y d e n d r i t i c n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system as a consequence
o f t e c t o n i c a l f o r c e s such as subsidence, u p l i f t and i n t r u s i o n h a v i n g been ap-
p l i e d a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s b o t h r e g i o n a l l y and l o c a l l y on an a l t e r e d s t r e s s f i e l d
(HUBBARD & PIERSON 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . ) . I n some c h a l k s , t h e d e n d r i t i c
n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system i s t h e hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r w i t h l i t t l e o r no m a t r i x
 524

p o r o s i t y c o n t r i b u t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 1 . 4 . ) . As t h e n a t u r a l c h a l k f r a c t u r e s
a r e o f t e n o n l y p a r t i a l l y c o n d u c t i v e and can be plugged beyond r e p a i r by d r i l -
l i n g mud and cement, and can a l s o be i n h e r e n t l y f i l l e d w i t h c a l c i t e and s a l t ,
d e n d r i t i c hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g i s a s u i t a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n technique. D e n d r i t i c
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g u t i l i z e s l a r g e volumes o f l i g h t l y g e l l e d f r e s h w a t e r pum-
ped down t h e c a s i n g a t h i g h v e l o c i t y ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 4 . ) . The t h i n
f l u i d w i t h i t s h i g h l e a k o f f r a t e seeks f i n e h a i r l i n e c r a c k s r a t h e r t h a n propaga-
t i n g and w i d e n i n g m a j o r f r a c t u r e s as more v i s c o u s f l u i d s would do. Small q u a n t i -
t i e s o f p r o p p a n t s a r e used as a b a n k - b r i d g i n g medium.

Since t h e t h i n f l u i d i s n o t a p e r f e c t t r a n s p o r t system, t h e p r o p p a n t s a r e
banked i n t h e f r a c t u r e s r e p r e s e n t i n g h i g h e r - v e l o c i t y streams u n t i l v e l o c i t y i s
no l o n g e r adequate t o t r a n s p o r t t h e p r o p p a n t s . A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e p r o p p a n t s a c t
t o c r e a t e a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l a l o n g exposed c r a c k f a c e s t h a t subse-
q u e n t l y p e r m i t s f l u i d and p r o p p a n t s t o be c a r r i e d i n t o o t h e r f r a c t u r e s as t h e y
open. The process i s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l f u r t h e r d i v e r s i o n w i t h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n i s
no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e w i t h proppants alone. A t t h i s stage, temporary d i v e r t i n g
agents such as r o c k s a l t a r e i n t r o d u c e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . ) . I t i s n o t un-
usual t h a t more t h a n one temporary p l u g i s r e q u i r e d f o r d i v e r s i o n , and s e v e r a l
may be u t i l i z e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e t r e a t m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.3.4.5.). Since the
purpose o f temporary p l u g s i s t o achieve d i v e r s i o n away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e , r e l a -
t i v e l y small-volume p l u g s a r e u t i l i z e d , and t h e procedure i s r e p e a t e d i n stages
u n t i l changes i n bottomhole p r e s s u r e i n d i c a t e e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e growth.

4.5.4.4.3.3. Ref ractur ing aspects

Refracturing o f a conventionally stimulated well requires only s l i g h t modifi-
c a t i o n o f t h e procedure. Standard t r e a t m e n t s c a r r y l a r g e p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s
and a t t e m p t t o c r e a t e and pack f r a c t u r e s . Thus an e f f i c i e n t f i l l e r system i s
p r o v i d e d f o r d e p o s i t i o n o f eroded f i n e s as w e l l as a c c u m u l a t i o n and r e d e p o s i -
t i o n o f s a l t and c a l c i t e . H y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d i s u t i l i z e d ahead o f each f r a c t u -
r i n g stage t o remove c a l c i t e p r e c i p i t a t i o n f r o m t h e e a r l i e r p r o p p a n t packages,
thus a l l o w i n g t h e o r i g i n a l p r o p p a n t i n f i l l i n g o f t h e c r a c k t o g e t u n c o n s o l i d a -
t e d by d e s t r u c t i o n and d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e secondary c a l c i t e cement and t o be
t r a n s p o r t e d away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e which r e q u i r e s somewhat l a r g e r h i g h - v e l o c i t y
pads ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 9 . ) .

4.5.4.4.4. Other aspects of chalk fracturing

N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n t h e c h a l k o f t h e E k o f i s k f i e l d s a r e s h o r t , o c c u r most
f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e reworked i n t e r v a l s , and a r e non-continuous f r o m t o p t o b o t t o m
o f t h e s e c t i o n s (BREWSTER, DANGERFIELO & FARRELL 1986; FARRELL 1988, SNOW &
HOUGH 1988). Because o f t h e i r d i s c o n t i n u o u s n a t u r e , h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a -
t i o n i s o f t e n b e n e f i t i n g p r o d u c t i o n beyond a n t i c i p a t i o n by e n c o u n t e r i n g n a t u r a l
c r a c k s . F l u i d l e a k o f f c o e f f i c i e n t s can be e x t r e m e l y h i g h because o f i n t e n s e na-
t u r a l j o i n t i n g , l a r g e c a p i l l a r y f o r c e s , and q u i c k a c i d - c h a l k r e a c t i o n r a t e s . I n -
duced f r a c t u r e growth i s g e n e r a l l y v e r t i c a l and r a d i a l , w i t h l o c a l changes i n
s t r e s s e s n o t b e i n g l a r g e enough t o c o n f i n e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t , a l t h o u g h t h e c r a c k s
t e n d t o grow commonly upwards due t o t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s g r a d i e n t . D e v i a t i o n s
f r o m t h i s i d e a l f r a c t u r e geometry occur f r e q u e n t l y due t o s e v e r a l reasons. As
t h e w e l l s a r e h i g h l y i n c l i n e d up t o 60 degrees i n o r d e r t o access numerous l o c a -
t i o n s by extended-reach d r i l l i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.6.1.3.) from the platforms,
a t l e a s t i n t h e r e g i o n near t h e w e l l b o r e f r a c t u r e g r o w t h w i l l n o t be i d e a l , b u t
w i l l e i t h e r r e s u l t i n m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s o r i n a c o n t i n u o u s o r en-echelon bend-
i n g o f t h e c r a c k t o v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n (STRUBHAR, FITCH & GLENN 1975; SNOW &
HOUGH 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . 1 . ) .
 525

4.5.4.5. Water imbibition and oi 1 recovery

Water i m b i b i t i o n p l a y s an important r o l e i n o i l recovery from c h a l k forma-
t i o n s b o t h through water f l o o d i n g w i t h i n j e c t i o n i n one w e l l and p r o d u c t i o n
from another through m a t r i x and n a t u r a l cracks, and water f r a c t u r i n g by pumping
water down w i t h a pressure exceeding the r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t and t a k i n g
o f f the f l u i d from the same w e l l . I n a water-wet r e s e r v o i r such as t h e chalk,
i m b i b i t i o n i s the process by which o i l r e p r e s e n t i n g the non-wetting phase i s
d i s p l a c e d by water being the w e t t i n g phase (OEN, ENGELL-JENSEN & BARENDREGT
1988). Transverse i m b i b i t i o n occurs i n f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s ( d o u b l e - p o r o s i t y
rocks; BECKNER, ISHIMOTO, YAMAGUCHI, FIROOZABADI & A Z I Z 1987; BECKNER, FIROOZA-
BAD1 & A Z I Z 1988). BECH, JENSEN & NIELSEN (1989) comment on g r a v i t y - i m b i b i t i o n
and g r a v i ty-drainage processes. WENDEL, KUNKEL & SWANSON (1988) r e p o r t sponta-
neous water i m b i b i t i o n i n d i a t o m i t e r e s e r v o i r s which are rock-mechanically
q u i t e comparable t o chalks. D i a t o m i t e s and diatomaceous e a r t h s can be success-
f u l l y s t i m u l a t e d w i t h h i g h proppant concentrations up t o 20 l b s / g a l (STRUBHAR,
MEDLIN, NAB1 & ANDREANI 1984; STRICKLAND 1985). The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s focusses
on water f l o o d i n g and water f r a c t u r i n g . Some comments are a l s o o f f e r e d on foam
fracturing.

4.5.4.5.1. Water flooding

Concerning secondary o i l recovery, n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s w i l l
produce under a displacement process d u r i n g w a t e r f l o o d i n g , i n c o n t r a s t t o sand-
stones which r e l y on a p i s t o n - l i k e a c t i o n o f the water (OFFSHORE ENGINEER 1985
b ) . I n the very l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y chalk, the primary movement o f f l u i d s i s
through the n a t u r a l cracks r a t h e r than the a c t u a l rock, a l l o w i n g o i l t o be d i s -
placed from the rock as the water i s p r e f e r e n t i a l l y absorbed. A p a r t from t h i s
water i m b i b i t i o n ( c f . MATTAX & KYTE 1962, AGUILERA 1975, MENOUAR & KNAPP 1980,
C H I E R I C I 1984, TORSAETER 1984, BALDWIN 1986, WU & PRUESS 1986; THOMAS, DIXON,
EVANS & VIENOT 1987; OEN, ENGELL-JENSEN & BARENDREGT 1988), the i n j e c t e d water
can move t o o f a s t through the f r a c t u r e system thus bypassing much o f the forma-
t i o n and q u i c k l y breaking through t o the w e l l b o r e s . These e f f e c t s a l s o have t o
be taken under c o n s i d e r a t i o n when designing h y d r a u l i c proppant and a c i d f r a c t u -
r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n i n the c h a l k .

I n the N o r t h Sea, the chalk i n the E k o f i s k f i e l d i s more s t a b l e and o i l reco-

very can be enhanced by w a t e r f l o o d i n g through the n a t u r a l crack system w i t h o u t
n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l packing, whereas the
c h a l k i n the V a l h a l l f i e l d can o n l y be brought t o economically f e a s i b l e produc-
t i o n by the s p e c i a l technique o f combined h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g and gra-
v e l packing w i t h b o t h conventional and resin-coated low-density i n t e r m e d i a t e -
s t r e n g t h alumina s i l i c a t e proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.3.).

Water i m b i b i t i o n d i s p l a c i n g and e x p u l s i n g o i l as the dominant p r o d u c t i o n me-

chanism i n f r a c t u r e d c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s t h a t are subjected t o secondary water
f l o o d i n g i s l a r g e l y depending on r e s e r v o i r w e t t a b i l i t y being the magnitude o f
f l u i d - s u r f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n (BALDWIN 1986). Water i m b i b i t i o n can a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t -
l y be a f f e c t e d by the removal o f small amounts o f t i g h t l y bound organic coat-
i n g s on t h e chalk surfaces. The h i g h e r the l e v e l o f o x i d a t i o n o f the most t i g h t -
l y bound m a t e r i a l , the g r e a t e r i s water i m b i b i t i o n . EHRLICH (1970) discusses
the e f f e c t of temperature on w a t e r - o i l imbibition r e l a t i v e permeability. I n
b o t h chalk and d i a t o m i t e r e s e r v o i r s , w a t e r f l o o d i n g i s e s s e n t i a l f o r b o t h o i l r e -
covery improvement and r e s e r v o i r pressure maintenance which i s h a l t i n g o i l -
f i e l d subsidence (WENDEL, KUNKEL & SWANSON 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.1.6.). Other
aspects o f water i m b i b i t i o n i n c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s are discussed by SYLTE, HALLEN-
BECK & THOMAS (1988).
 526

4.5.4.5.2.Water fracturing
Water i m b i b i t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h c r e a t i o n o f a m i n i f r a c t u r e i s a l s o t h e reason
why s m a l l - s c a l e w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g i n d e p l e t e d c h a l k o i l f i e l d s by pumping w a t e r
downhole w i t h a p r e s s u r e exceeding f o r m a t i o n t e n s i l e s t r e s s and p r o d u c i n g i t
back f r o m t h e same b o r e h o l e t o g e t h e r w i t h i n c r e m e n t a l o i l i s a c o m p a r a t i v e l y
simple, cheap and e f f e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e (JOURNAL PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
1987). Such s m a l l - s c a l e w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g can be p r i n c i p a l l y compared w i t h
steam-soak h u f f and p u f f t r e a t m e n t s and b a s i c a l l y c l e a n s up t h e w e l l b o r e and
i t s immediate v i c i n i t y , d i s s o l v e s and removes p a r t i c l e s t h a t a r e p l u g g i n g t h e
f o r m a t i o n , breaks through n e a r - b o r e h o l e damage haloes and d i s p l a c e s t h e o i l .
I n j e c t i o n o f w a t e r a t s u p e r c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s g i v e s r i s e t o opening o f e i t h e r
s i n g u l a r o r m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s i n c l u d i n g a t l e a s t p a r t i a l enlargement o f p r e -
e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l c r a c k s , and p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e w a t e r i n t o b o t h t h e a r t i f i c i a l
f r a c t u r e and n a t u r a l c r a c k systems. The enlargement o f t h e r e s e r v o i r s u r f a c e ac-
c e s s i b l e t o t h e i n j e c t e d w a t e r i s t h e reason f o r an a m e l i o r a t e d d r a i n a g e a r e a
f o r o i l , w i t h t h e r e f o r e i n c r e a s e d amounts o f o i l f l o w i n g t o t h e w e l l once pump-
i n g o f w a t e r i s stopped and b a c k - p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e i n j e c t e d f l u i d i n combina-
tion with o i l offtake starts.

I n c o n t r a s t t o m a i n l y s m a l l - s c a l e w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g i n carbonates and p a r t i c u -
l a r l y c h a l k , l a r g e - s c a l e non-proppant w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g i s f r e q u e n t l y c a r r i e d
o u t i n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s where o f t e n v a r i o u s f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e no l o n -
g e r s t a b l e due t o h i g h r e s e r v o i r temperature ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 7 . 3 . 5 . ) . Water f r a c -
t u r i n g i s a l s o o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n c o a l seams ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.4.3.4.1.).

4.5.4.5.3. Foam fracturing

A p a r t f r o m t h e N o r t h Sea and a d j o i n i n g onshore areas i n Europe, l a r g e b e l t s
o f Upper Cretaceous c h a l k o c c u r i n t h e Rocky Mountain area i n Colorado, Nebras-
ka and Kansas i n USA. A l t h o u g h o i l and gas have been produced f r o m c h a l k r e s e r -
v o i r s i n t h e Rocky Mountains/USA s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1900's (SCHOLLE 1977), o n l y i n
t h e 1970's an upsurge o f e x p l o r a t i o n and development o f c h a l k gas i n t h e Upper
Cretaceous N i o b r a r a and Greenhorn f o r m a t i o n s took p l a c e as a consequence o f t h e
s u c c e s s f u l a c q u i s i t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n o f hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s i n Upper C r e t a -
ceous and l o w e r T e r t i a r y c h a l k s i n t h e N o r t h Sea i n Europe (POLLASTRO & SCHOLLE
1986). O t h e r f a c t o r s p r o m o t i n g development o f t h e c h a l k gas boom were i n c r e a -
s i n g gas p r i c e s , advanced e x p l o r a t i o n techniques f o r l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r -
v o i r s , and m a j o r improvements i n r e c o v e r y technology i n c l u d i n g above a l l hydrau-
l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g .

Foam f r a c t u r i n g has proven t o be t h e most e f f e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e i n

N i o b r a r a F o r m a t i o n c h a l k s (ROHRET & JONES 1978, LOCKRIDGE & SCHOLLE 1978) be-
cause o f m i n i m i z i n g f l u i d volume and s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c i n g f o r m a t i o n damage by
a l l o w i n g r a p i d c l e a n - u p a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t . Foam f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a l s o c a r r y
h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and p r e v e n t l a r g e p r e s s u r e drops due t o f r i c t i o n
( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . 2 . ) . The advantage o f a l c o h o l i n foamed methanol-water sys-
tems i s r a p i d and more complete cleanup due t o h i g h vapour p r e s s u r e , h i g h s o l u -
b i l i t y i n produced gas, h i g h m i s c i b i l i t y i n f o r m a t i o n waters, and low s u r f a c e
t e n s i o n p r o p e r t i e s (ROHRET & JONES 1978; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . 4 . ) . The e v o l u t i o n o f
f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n techniques i s summarized by BROWN, CRAFTON & GOLSON
( 1 9 8 2 ) . O i l - b a s e d foam f r a c t u r i n g i n c h a l k s i s d i s c u s s e d by BOWEN & DRISCOLL
( 1 9 8 0 ) . Aspects o f c h a l k f r a c t u r i n g by d i f f e r e n t methods and i n v a r i o u s forma-
t i o n s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by WEBSTER (1977) and LUPPENS ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

4.5.4.6. Horizontal well drilling

Comparative e v a l u a t i o n s o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s vs. v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s ( c f . a l s o
s e c t i o n 4.8.6.2.1.) i n t h e N o r t h Sea c h a l k have shown t h a t a n o n - s t i m u l a t e d ho-
 527

r i z o n t a l w e l l c o u l d y i e l d a p r o d u c t i v i t y equal t o a s u c c e s s f u l l y propped v e r t i -
c a l l y f r a c t u r e d d e v i a t e d w e l l , whereas i n s t a l l a t i o n c o s t o f t h e l a t t e r b o r e h o l e
i s h i g h e r (ANDERSEN, HANSEN & FJELDGAARD 1988). While t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y i n d e x i m -
provement f o r a m a t r i x - a c i d i z e d h o r i z o n t a l w e l l compared w i t h an o p t i m a l l y f r a c -
tured v e r t i c a l w e l l i s o n l y marginal, a matrix-acidized h o r i z o n t a l w e l l could
be b e n e f i c i a l i n m u l t i p h a s e f l u i d r e s e r v o i r s because b r e a k t h r o u g h o f gas and/or
w a t e r i s delayed as a r e s u l t o f drawdown r e d u c t i o n .

4.5.5. Sandstone acidizing

In c o n t r a s t t o carbonates w h i c h need proppant f r a c t u r i n g r a t h e r t h a n a c i d
f r a c t u r i n g i n o r d e r t o achieve l a r g e r p r o d u c t i o n improvements, some sandstones
can i n a d d i t i o n t o proppant f r a c t u r i n g a r r i v e a t s t i l l a m e l i o r a t e d o u t p u t by
f r a c t u r i n g o r m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g w i t h h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d o r HCl/HF-mixtures (ROSS,
PIERSON & COULTER 1963; SMITH, ROSS & HENDRICKSON 1965; GATEWOOD, HALL, ROBERTS
& LASATER 1970; WILLIAMS & WHITELEY 1971, HOLCOMB 1975; McCUNE, FOGLER, LUND,
CUNNINGHAM & AULT 1975). Aspects o f sandstone a c i d i z i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by
FARLEY, MILLER & SCHOETTLE (1970); GIDLEY (1970, 1975), SUTTON & LASATER
(1972), BURKHILL & PIERRE (1975), HALL (1975); McCUNE, AULT & DUNLAP (1975);
WILLIAMS (1975); GIDLEY, RYAN & MAYHILL (1976); LUND, FOGLER & McCUNE (1976);
ASELTINE & ELLENBERGER (1977); HILL, LINDSAY, SCHECHTER & SILBERBERG (1977);
THOMAS & CROWE (1978 b ) , PACCALONI (1979); WILLIAMS, GIDLEY & SCHECHTER (1979);
SHAUGHNESSY & KUNZE (1981), CROWE & M I N O R (1982), SCHECHTER (1982); McLEOD, LED-
LOW & T I L L (1983); GIDLEY (1985), BURMAN & HALL (1986); SMITH, CLARK, HENDRICK-
SON & EGBOGAH (1986); TAHA, HILL & SEPEHRNOORI (1986, 1987) and BRANNON, NET-
TERS & GRIMMER (1987). REN & XIONG (1986) r e p o r t f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g e f f e c t i v e
a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n i n f r a c t u r e systems. Some aspects o f a c i d r e a c t i o n , a c i d i z i n g
t a r g e t s , a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e , and a c i d types and d i s s o l u t i o n p o s s i b i l i -
t i e s a r e b r i e f l y i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.5.5.1. Acid reaction

The commercial development o f a c i d i z i n g as a s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e has be-
come widespread a l r e a d y more than 60 y e a r s ago when h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d t r e a t i n g
o f carbonates was i n t r o d u c e d (LABRID 1975). Sandstone a c i d i z i n g was i n v e n t e d
o v e r 30 y e a r s ago (SMITH & HENDRICKSON 1965) and i s based on t h e unique q u a l i t y
o f h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d t o a t t a c k s i l i c a and a l u m i n o - s i l i c a t e s . C l a y and f e l d s p a r
d i s s o l u t i o n i s much f a s t e r than t h a t o f s i l i c a p r o b a b l y because o f t h e l a r g e r
s u r f a c e area, and t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e f i r s t stage by u n i f o r m a l t e r a t i o n o f t h e
c r y s t a l l a t t i c e and t h e n i n t h e second phase by p r o g r e s s i v e e x t r a c t i o n o f a l u m i -
num i n t h e f o r m o f f l u o r i n a t e d complexes. The main r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t o f s i l i c a
s o l u b i l i z a t i o n i s f l u o r o s i l i c a c i d accompanied by a small amount o f c o l l o i d a l
s i l i c a ( f o r thermodynamic and k i n e t i c aspects o f a c i d r e a c t i o n s w i t h v a r i o u s m i -
n e r a l s c f . LUND, FOGLER, McCUNE & AULT 1973; LABRIO 1975). Chemical p r e c i p i t a -
t i o n mechanisms a r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s o f f o r m a t i o n damage d u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n
w i t h h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d and r e q u i r e c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n (WALSH, LAKE & SCHECHTER
1982). A f t e r f l u s h i n g and r e d u c t i o n o f h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n can be
used t o combat s i l i c a p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n sandstone m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g (SHAUGHNESSY
& KUNZE 1980). Some aspects o f p a r t i a l m a t r i x d i s i n t e g r a t i o n as w e l l as separa-
t i o n o f connate w a t e r and a c i d by p r e f l u s h a r e discussed as f o l l o w s .

4.5.5.1.1. Partial matrix disintegration

The most i m p o r t a n t element o f a c i d r e a c t i o n w i t h sandstone i s t h e p a r t i a l
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e m a t r i x and t h e r e l e a s e o f f o r m a t i o n f i n e s i n t h e p o r e
space (GIDLEY 1970). D i s s o l u t i o n o f m a t r i x cement and l o o s e n i n g o f f i n e p a r t i c -
l e s , however, a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e danger o f downstream f l o w o f m o b i l i z e d s o l i d
fragments which l a t e r t e n d t o p l u g p o r e channels. E f f e c t i v e a c i d t r e a t m e n t o f
sandstone f o r m a t i o n s should p r o v i d e a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n p e r m e a b i l i t y , no
 528

adverse changes i n f o r m a t i o n w e t t a b i l i t y , r a p i d cleanup f o l l o w i n g t h e j o b and

minimum o p e r a t i o n a l c o s t . The most e f f i c i e n t t r e a t m e n t i s composed o f t h r e e s t a -
ges c o m p r i s i n g p r e f l u s h , a c i d and a f t e r f l u s h and i s conducted a t r a t e s t h a t
w i l l n o t open f r a c t u r e s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n which d i d n o t a l r e a d y e x i s t b e f o r e
a c i d i n s e r t i o n (GIDLEY, RYAN & MAYHILL 1976 found t h a t t h e p o o r e s t t r e a t m e n t
response o c c u r r e d when a c i d was i n j e c t e d a t p r e s s u r e s exceeding f r a c t u r i n g p r e s -
sure).

4.5.5.1.2. Separation of connate water and acid by preflush

The p r e f l u s h c o n s i s t i n g o f h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d s h o u l d p r o v i d e a s e p a r a t i o n b e t -
ween connate w a t e r and h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t f o r m a t i o n o f so-
dium f l u o r o s i l i c a t e , r e a c t w i t h t h e carbonates p r e s e n t i n t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k t o
a v o i d d i s s i p a t i o n o f t h e more expensive h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d , and m a i n t a i n a low
pH t o i n h i b i t d e p o s i t i o n o f c a l c i u m f l u o r i d e as p r o d u c t o f h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d
r e a c t i n g w i t h c a r b o n a t e s . Concerning amount o f a c i d , c a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i -
sed, as e x c e s s i v e q u a n t i t i e s o f a c i d u l t i m a t e l y d i s s o l v e m a t r i x cements and de-
s t r o y sandstone c o n s o l i d a t i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n recompaction by overburden s t r e s s
t o a new and l o w e r p o r o s i t y and a g r e a t l y reduced p e r m e a b i l i t y . The b e t t e r t h e
l i t h i f i c a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k and t h e more mature i t s s t a g e in b u r i a l d i a -
genesis, t h e l a r g e r t h e a c i d volume r e q u i r e d f o r e f f e c t i v e sandstone s t i m u l a -
tion.

4.5.5.2. Acidizing targets

Concerning a c i d f l o w t h r o u g h sandstone m a t r i x , damaged f o r m a t i o n s a r e p a r -
t i a l l y plugged by c l a y and hence have l o w e r p o r o s i t y and h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of d i s s o l u b l e m i n e r a l s (McCUNE, FOGLER, LUNO, CUNNINGHAM & AULT 1975). A l t h o u g h
t h e t o t a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d i s s o l u b l e p a r t i c l e s i s increased, much o f them
m i g h t be bypassed because o f p o s s i b l e c h a n n e l l i n g , g i v i n g r i s e t o a n e t de-
crease o f m i n e r a l s a c c e s s i b l e t o a c i d , w i t h t h e o v e r a l l n e t e f f e c t p r o b a b l y
b e i n g a decrease i n a c i d c a p a c i t y number and an i n c r e a s e i n r e q u i r e d a c i d vo-
lume o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r r e s e r v o i r damage removal. S u i t a b l e t a r g e t s f o r a c i d
t r e a t m e n t a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y m i n e r a l o g i c a l l y immature and submature sandstones
which c o n t a i n c o m p a r a t i v e l y low amounts o f q u a r t z , b u t have h i g h e r shares o f de-
t r i t a l f e l d s p a r s and u n s t a b l e r o c k fragments, as w e l l as c l a s t i c and d i a g e n e t i c
c l a y m i n e r a l s and a u t h i g e n i c carbonate cement. Mature q u a r t z sandstones can
o n l y be s u c c e s s f u l l y s t i m u l a t e d by a c i d i z i n g i f c o n t a i n i n g r e a s o n a b l e q u a n t i -
t i e s o f c a r b o n a t e cement. The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n comments on c l a y and i r o n -
b e a r i n g m i n e r a l s as w e l l as on carbonate m i n e r a l s .

4.5.5.2.1. Clay and iron-bearing minerals

L a r g e r amounts o f c l a y and i r o n m i n e r a l s a r e u s u a l l y u n d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s i n sandstone a c i d i z i n g c a n d i d a t e s , because such r o c k c o m p o s i t i o n s a r e
o f t e n s u s c e p t i b l e t o chemical ( c l a y damage) o r mechanical ( p a r t i c u l a t e p l u g g i n g
caused by e n t r a i n e d s o l i d s i n t h e c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d ) impairment (BRANNON, NET-
TERS & GRIMMER 1987) and a l s o subsequent i r o n p r e c i p i t a t i o n problems ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . 1 . 4 . ) . On t h e o t h e r hand, however, d i r t y sandstones w i t h e x c e s s i v e
c o n t e n t s o f c l a y m i n e r a l s a r e h a r d l y s t i m u l a t i o n c a n d i d a t e s a t a l l because o f
t o o p o o r r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s t h a t i n some cases even cannot be s u f f i c i e n t l y i m -
proved f o r achievement o f economical hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s by n e i t h e r hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g n o r a c i d i z i n g . C a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d i n a c i d i z i n g deep
h o t sandstone f o r m a t i o n s w i t h h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d , because d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f p r o -
d u c t i v i t y m i g h t o c c u r (BARBY & BARBEE 1987). F i e l d s t u d i e s have shown t h a t i n
some r e s e r v o i r s , h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s o f w a t e r can have a b e t t e r f o r m a t i o n
breakdown e f f e c t than a c i d t r e a t m e n t s . A c i d can cause m i g r a t i o n o f f i n e s and
i r o n c o l l o i d s which may p l u g t h e p o r e t h r o a t s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r .
 529

4.5.5.2.2. Carbonate minerals

H i g h c o n t e n t s o f carbonate cement i n q u a r t z sandstones g i v e r i s e t o h i g h
a c i d s o l u b i l i t y o f t h e r o c k . I f t h e cement share i s exceeding a c e r t a i n bounda-
ry percentage o f t o t a l r o c k volume, carbonate d i s s o l u t i o n can r e s u l t i n severe
l o s s o f f o r m a t i o n s t r e n g t h f o l l o w i n g a c i d t r e a t m e n t and t h u s f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x
c o l l a p s e . T h e r e f o r e i n many sandstone r e s e r v o i r s , h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
i s t h e s u p e r i o r s t i m u l a t i o n method and g i v e s i n most cases b e t t e r d r a i n a g e e f -
f e c t s w i t h l e a v i n g t h e m a t r i x f a b r i c i n t a c t i n comparison t o a c i d t r e a t m e n t s
which n o t o n l y on t h e one hand c r e a t e pathways f o r f l u i d f l o w , b u t a l s o on t h e
o t h e r hand weaken f o r m a t i o n cohesion up t o s u p e r c r i t i c a l l e v e l s where g r a i n f a -
b r i c c o l l a p s e d e t e r i o r a t e s t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n (PEARCE
1979). A s u i t a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and a c i d i z i n g
would c e r t a i n l y be t h e optimum s o l u t i o n f o r improval o f b o t h m a t r i x and f r a c -
t u r e drainage, b u t i t r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e t o g e t a s a t i s f a c t o r y
f e e l i n g how much o f t h e m a t r i x can be d i s s o l v e d w i t h o u t r i s k i n g framework c o l -
l a p s e t h a t would screw up most of t h e success o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b .

4,5.5.3. Acid penetration distance

A c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e i n f r a c t u r e s i s t h e way t h e a c i d t r a v e l s b e f o r e
spending t o some predetermined degree (ROBERTS & G U I N 1974) w h i c h i s i n most
cases a b t . 10 % o f i t s o r i g i n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n (NOVOTNY 1976). A c i d p e n e t r a t i o n
d i s t a n c e i s e s s e n t i a l f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n improvement o b t a i n a b l e by
f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g . W h i l e a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e s i n carbonates a r e l i m i t e d
by h i g h spending r a t i o s due t o r e a c t i o n o f t h e a c i d w i t h most, i f n o t a l l , o f
t h e r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x , a c i d can m i g r a t e e x t r e m e l y f a r i n sandstones where com-
monly o n l y s u b o r d i n a t e shares o f t h e framework r e a c t w i t h t h e a c i d and spending
i s t h u s c o n s i d e r a b l y s l o w e r i n sandstones w i t h r e s p e c t t o carbonates. Some as-
p e c t s o f t y p e o f f o r m a t i o n damage, a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n and r e a c t i o n r a t e , low-
and high-pH acids, and w a t e r b l o c k i n g a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.5.5.3.1. Type o f formation damage

Comparing t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f a c i d i z i n g t r e a t m e n t s o f undamaged, natural-dama-
ged and mud-damaged sandstone f o r m a t i o n s , p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s a r e most s i g n i f i -
c a n t f o r i n t e r s t i t i a l a c i d i z i n g o f damaged f o r m a t i o n s (GATEWOOD, HALL, ROBERTS
& LASATER 1970). I n r e s e r v o i r s w i t h d r i l l i n g - m u d damage r e s u l t i n g f r o m c l a y p a r -
t i c l e i n v a s i o n , volumes o f a c i d s u f f i c i e n t t o remove o n l y t h e c l a y c o n t a i n e d
w i t h i n t h e narrow damage m a n t l e around t h e w e l l b o r e y i e l d t h e most economical
p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s i f no n a t u r a l damage has o c c u r r e d as a consequence o f con-
t a c t i n g o f w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e c l a y s by mud f i l t r a t e . When t r e a t i n g f o r m a t i o n s w i t h
n a t u r a l c l a y damage, t h e p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e i s d i r e c t l y dependent upon t h e d i s -
t a n c e w h i c h l i v e h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d can be pumped i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r . Penetra-
t i o n d e p t h o f l i v e h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d i s a f u n c t i o n o f c l a y c o n c e n t r a t i o n , forma-
t i o n temperature, i n i t i a l h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n , r a t e o f h y d r o f l u o r i c
a c i d r e a c t i o n and pumping r a t e . I n c r e a s i n g f o r m a t i o n temperature and c l a y con-
c e n t r a t i o n b o t h decrease t h e p e n e t r a t i o n r a d i u s o f l i v e o r unspent a c i d .

4.5.5.3.2. Acid concentration and reaction r a t e

Greater penetration depth o f l i v e a c i d leading t o higher production increase
i s obtained by r i s i n g the i n i t i a l h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d concentration, r e t a r d a t i o n
o f t h e r e a c t i o n r a t e o f h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d on silicates (cf. section
4.5.5.4.3.), and i n c r e a s i n g pumping r a t e . Enhancement o f s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s
can a l s o be achieved by a c i d h e a t i n g (WALKER, FREDRICKSON & NORMAN 1984; c f .
s e c t i o n 4.5.1.2.4.). W h i l e an improvement o f s t i m u l a t i o n by i n c r e a s i n g a c i d vo-
lumes i s d e s i r a b l e and l i m i t a t i o n o f q u a n t i t i e s i s u s u a l l y g i v e n by economical
 5 30

f a c t o r s of j o b f e a s i b i l i t y , a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n has t o be c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d a c -
c o r d i n g t o f o r m a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , because the h i g h e r r e a c t i o n r a t e of more
c o n c e n t r a t e d a c i d a l s o g i v e s r i s e t o i n c r e a s e d s w e l l i n g , detachment and migra-
t i o n of s e n s i t i v e c l a y m i n e r a l s and thus d e t e r i o r a t i o n of p e r m e a b i l i t y by plug-
g i n g of pore t h r o a t s ( G I D L E Y 1 9 7 1 ) . B u f f e r r e g u l a t i o n of h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d
e n a b l e s e x t e n s i o n of thermal s t a b i l i t y and a p p l i c a t i o n f o r s a n d s t o n e a c i d i z i n g
u p t o 550 OF (280 oC; SCHEUERMAN 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.5.5.3.3. Low- and high-PH acids

I n terms of performance, d i s t i n c t i o n has a l s o t o be made between low-pH ( b e -
low 4 ) and high-pH ( 4 - 6 ) a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n systems (ABRAMS, LYBARGER, RICHARD-
SON & NEASHAM 1978; TEMPLETON, RICHARDSON, SCHEUERMAN & ABRAMS 1979; ABRAMS,
SCHEUERMAN, TEMPLETON & RICHARDSON 1 9 8 3 ) . BRISCOE ( 1 9 7 8 ) , SCHERUBEL & CRONE
( 1 9 7 8 ) and FORD (1981 a , 1981 b ) i n t r o d u c e s t a b i l i z e d foamed a c i d which p r o v i -
des g r e a t e r f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n along w i t h i n c r e a s e d f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y
t h r o u g h o u t f r a c t u r e l e n g t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . 4 . ) . Another improvement i s a s e -
q u e n t i a l h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d system which has a r e t a r d i n g e f f e c t ( H A L L & ANDERSON
1977; H A L L , TINNEMEYER & UNDERWOOD 1981; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 5 . 4 . 3 . ) . L E E (1985 b)
d i s c u s s e s geometry d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r m u l t i - s t a g e a c i d i z i n g t r e a t m e n t s w i t h o r
w i t h o u t v i s c o u s p r e f l u s h , and C L A R K , WONG & MUNGAN (1982) i n t r o d u c e new a c i d
systems f o r s a n d s t o n e s t i m u l a t i o n .

4 . 5 . 5 . 3 . 4 . Water blocking
Sandstone m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g o f t e n s u f f e r s from very slow c l e a n - u p of s p e n t
a c i d a s a r e s u l t o f w a t e r b l o c k i n g i n t h e c r i t i c a l m a t r i x s u r r o u n d i n g the w e l l -
bore (McLEOD & COULTER 1966; McLEOD, McGINTY & SMITH 1966; c f . s e c t i o n
3 . 1 1 . 2 . 4 . 2 . ) . Addition of a l c o h o l t o the a c i d can o f t e n p r e v e n t the w a t e r - b l o c k -
ing problem t h e r e b y speeding u p s p e n t a c i d c l e a n - u p . Although w a t e r b l o c k i n g
can occur in c l e a n w e l l - c o n s o l i d a t e d s a n d s t o n e , i t i s more l i k e l y t o be p r e s e n t
t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r forms o f d r a i n a g e such a s p a r t i c l e b l o c k s o r rock w e t t a b i l i -
t y changes. Water b l o c k i n g i s most s e v e r e i n heterogeneous s a n d s t o n e f o r m a t i o n s
p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n high- and l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y l a y e r s a l t e r n a t e such a s i n many
cross-bedded sediments ( c f . p l a t e I I / 5 - 6 ) . Alcohol a d d i t i v e s a r e s u c c e s s f u l
i n water-block removal i n both m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g .

T h e most c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s f o r s u c c e s s f u l s a n d s t o n e m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g a r e mud
a c i d volume and t r e a t i n g pressure (GIDLEY, RYAN & MAYHILL 1 9 7 6 ) . The p o o r e s t
j o b r e s p o n s e o c c u r s when a c i d i s i n j e c t e d a t p r e s s u r e s exceeding f o r m a t i o n f r a c -
ture g r a d i e n t , because the a c i d i s then o n l y c h a n n e l l i n g along t h e c r a c k and
does n o t a d e q u a t e l y flow through the s a n d s t o n e m a t r i x .

4.5.5.4. Acid types and dissolution possibilities

S e l e c t i o n of a c i d t y p e s f o r t r e a t m e n t of both c a r b o n a t e and s a n d s t o n e forma-
t i o n s depends on the composition of the contaminants which a r e plugging r e s e r -
v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y i n c a s e of f o r m a t i o n damage removal n e c e s s i t y (McLEOD 1 9 8 4 ) .
Following d i s c u s s i o n of some g e n e r a l a s p e c t s , an o u t l i n e i s given on c l a y mine-
r a l type v s . a c i d i z i n g t r e a t m e n t a s well a s on d e l a y e d a c i d r e a c t i o n and i n - s i -
t u a c i d g e n e r a t i o n . Some comments a r e a l s o given on s e l e c t i v e a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n
of i n j e c t i o n w e l l s .

4.5.5.4.1. General aspects

H y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d does n o t d i s s o l v e p i p e dope, p a r a f f i n o r a s p h a l t e n e s , w i t h
t r e a t m e n t of t h e s e s o l i d s o r plugging a g e n t s r e q u i r i n g an e f f e c t i v e o r g a n i c s o l -
v e n t . A c e t i c a c i d e f f e c t i v e l y d i s s o l v e s calcium c a r b o n a t e s c a l e , b u t does n o t
 531

d i s s o l v e i r o n o x i d e s c a l e . Calcium s u l p h a t e can be c o n v e r t e d t o c a l c i u m carbo-

n a t e o r c a l c i u m h y d r o x i d e by t r e a t m e n t w i t h potassium h y d r o x i d e o r sodium carbo-
nate, and h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d can then be used t o d i s s o l v e t h e c o n v e r t e d s c a l e .
Calcium s u l p h a t e can a l s o be d i s s o l v e d i n one s t e p w i t h t h e sodium s a l t o f e t h y -
l e n e diamine t e t r a a c e t i c a c i d . H y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d does n o t d i s s o l v e f o r m a t i o n
c l a y m i n e r a l s o r d r i l l i n g mud, w i t h h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d h a v i n g t o be used t o d i s -
s o l v e these a l u m i n o s i l i c a t e s i n r o c k pores around t h e w e l l b o r e i n sandstones,
whereas t h i s t y p e o f f o r m a t i o n damage can be r e p a i r e d i n carbonates a l s o by hy-
d r o c h l o r i c a c i d which e t c h e s p a r t s o f t h e carbonate r o c k m a t r i x i n s t e a d o f t h e
damaging m a t e r i a l s t h a t a r e l e f t i n p l a c e , t h e r e b y a l s o i n c r e a s i n g p e r m e a b i l i -
ty.
Mud a c i d c o n t a i n s h y d r o c h l o r i c and h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d s t o g e t h e r w i t h a d d i t i -
ves f o r p r o p e r s i l i c a t e c o n t r o l , d e m u l s i f i c a t i o n , and s u r f a c e t e n s i o n c h a r a c t e -
r i s t i c s which a l l o w t h e a c i d t o r e s t o r e and i n c r e a s e p e r m e a b i l i t y near t h e w e l l -
b o r e . Mud a c i d can be used f o r m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g o f sandstone r e s e r v o i r s , spear-
heading o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s and squeeze cementing, l o o -
sening s t u c k d r i l l p i p e , and c l e a n i n g g r a v e l - p a c k i n g l i n e r s and screens. The
p r i m a r y use o f h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d t o g e t h e r w i t h i n t e r m i x e d h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d i s
i n sandstone m a t r i x t r e a t m e n t s t o remove c l a y - p a r t i c l e damage w i t h p e r m e a b i l i t y
r e s t o r a t i o n o r t o i n c r e a s e o r i g i n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y o f c l a y - b e a r i n g sandstones.
H i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d i n t h e presence o f h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d
may improve h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d e f f i c i e n c y (LUND, FOGLER & McCUNE 1976) and speed
up h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d r e a c t i o n (McCUNE, FOGLER, LUND, CUNNINGHAM & AULT 1975).

The use o f o r g a n i c a c i d s such as a c e t i c , f o r m i c and p r o p i o n i c a c i d s as s t i m u -

l a t i o n and p e r f o r a t i o n f l u i d s i n carbonate r e s e r v o i r s has i n c r e a s e d i n t h e l a s t
years, because t h e y have i n h e r e n t l y r e t a r d e d r e a c t i o n r a t e s and a r e much e a s i e r
t o i n h i b i t a g a i n s t c o r r o s i o n a t h i g h temperatures (300 - 400 OF) than h y d r o c h l o -
r i c a c i d (DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1988 d ) , whereas i n sandstones, t h e i r u t i l i z a t i o n
does o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y p r o v i d e t e c h n i c a l and economical advantages w i t h r e s p e c t
t o mud a c i d . FRENIER (1989) p r e s e n t s o r g a n i c chemicals f o r i n h i b i t i o n o f a c i d i -
zing f l u i d s f o r high-temperature r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n .

4.5.5.4.2, Clay mineral type vs. acidizing treatment

Concerning d i f f e r e n t c l a y m i n e r a l s , c a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d t o s e l e c t
the proper treatment version f o r d i f f e r e n t c l a y mineral types ( c f . section
3.5.1.). K a o l i n i t e forms s t a c k s o f hexagonal p l a t e s which a r e e a s i l y d i s p e r s e d
and can m i g r a t e through r o c k pores b r i d g i n g i n s m a l l e r p o r e t h r o a t s , and t h e r e -
f o r e has t o be c o n t r o l l e d by c l a y s t a b i l i z e r s i n t h e f i n a l o v e r f l u s h a f t e r a hy-
d r o f l u o r i c a c i d job. l l l i t e i s a f i b r o u s c l a y m i n e r a l t h a t can be broken o f f o r
moved b y h i g h f l o w v e l o c i t i e s o r surges c l o s e t o t h e w e l l b o r e ( c f . s e c t i o n
3.5.2.1.), and t h u s l o w a c i d i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and c o n t r o l l e d p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s a f -
t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t a r e e s s e n t i a l . C h l o r i t e i s u s u a l l y i r o n - r i c h and p a r t i a l l y so-
l u b l e i n hydrochloric acid, w i t h i r o n being extracted leaving a s i l i c a residue
b e h i n d a c i d . T h e r e f o r e c h l o r i t e must be a c i d i z e d c a u t i o u s l y o r n o t a t a l l , w i t h
p r e f e r e n c e t o be g i v e n t o s e l e c t i o n o f a c o m p l e t i o n procedure t h a t makes a c i d i -
z i n g unnecessary. S m e c t i t e can o n l y be s u c c e s s f u l l y a c i d i z e d i f i t i s s p a r s e l y
d i s t r i b u t e d ( l e s s than 3 w t . % ) i n h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n s , whereas i n r e -
s e r v o i r s w i t h h i g h e r s m e c t i t e c o n t e n t s ( o v e r 5 w t . % ) , any aqueous f l u i d i n c l u -
d i n g a c i d may cause g r e a t damage and w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n has t o be made w i t h p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . O t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t d i a g e n e t i c a l m i n e r a l s u s u a l l y comprise carbo-
n a t e s which a r e s o l u b l e i n h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d .

Mud a c i d has t h e a b i l i t y t o d i s s o l v e c l a y m i n e r a l s and i s m a i n l y employed

f o r removal o f f o r m a t i o n damage c o n s i s t i n g o f p l u g g i n g o f p o r e t h r o a t s by c l a y
m i n e r a l s i n t h e w e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y (GIDLEY 1985). Gas w e l l s , o i l w e l l s and w a t e r
i n j e c t i o n w e l l s each r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t s t o o b t a i n maximum response t o
mud a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n . Gas w e l l s respond t o mud a c i d i z i n g most p r e d i c t a b l y w i t h
u n i f o r m i n c r e a s e i n p r o d u c t i o n b u i l d u p w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a c i d volume, and w i t h
 532

u n i f o r m i n c r e a s e i n s t i m u l a t i o n success w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y . O i l w e l l s
e x p e r i e n c e maximum i n response as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e amount o f a c i d used. T r e a t -
ment success does n o t appear t o i n c r e a s e u n i f o r m l y w i t h f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y ,
and t h e a f t e r f l u s h - t o - a c i d volume r a t i o does n o t a f f e c t b u i l d u p u n i f o r m l y . Re-
s u l t s on o i l w e l l s seem t o be more s i t e - s p e c i f i c and t o be more i n f l u e n c e d by
t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e s e r v o i r f l u i d s . Water i n j e c t i o n w e l l s sometimes show t h e
odd response o f h a v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t b u i l d u p t o t h e l e a s t a c i d j o b .

Enhanced removal o f deep c l a y damage can be performed by i n - s i t u h y d r o f l u o -

r i c a c i d c r e a t i o n (HALL 1978) and s e l f - g e n e r a t i n g mud a c i d (TEMPLETON, RICHARD-
SON, KARNES & LYBARGER 1975).

4.5.5.4.3. Delayed acid reaction and in-situ acid generation

D e l a y e d - a c t i o n a c i d systems a t t r i b u t e t h e i r success t o slow g e n e r a t i o n o f hy-
d r o f l u o r i c a c i d i n - s i t u f r o m h y d r o l y s i s o f methyl f o r m a t e w h i c h y i e l d s m e t h y l
a l c o h o l and f o r m i c a c i d , and t h e l a t t e r then r e a c t s w i t h ammonium f l u o r i d e t o
r e l e a s e h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d , w i t h h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d o r i g i n a t i n g downhole i n t h e
r e s e r v o i r i n such d i s t a n c e s f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e t h a t mud a c i d w h i c h i s c o n v e n t i o -
n a l l y pumped n o r m a l l y does n o t r e a c h b e f o r e spending. I n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e o p t i -
mum r e s u l t , t h e w e l l s have t o be r e t u r n e d t o p r o d u c t i o n by g r a d u a l l y opening
t h e choke o v e r a three-month p e r i o d and never a l l o w i n g an e x c e s s i v e drawdown.
Another process o f i n - s i t u h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d g e n e r a t i o n i s h y d r o l y z a t i o n o f
f l u o b o r i c a c i d t o f o r m h y d r o x y f l u o b o r i c a c i d and h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d (THOMAS &
CROWE 1978 a) which p r o v i d e s a slow r e l e a s e source o f h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d t h a t
can p e n e t r a t e deeply b e f o r e spending, and i n a d d i t i o n , t h e h y d r o x y f l u o b o r i c
a c i d t h a t i s c r e a t e d v e r y s l o w l y r e a c t s w i t h c l a y m i n e r a l s t o f o r m a non-swel-
l i n g , n o n - d i s p e r s i n g p r o d u c t t h a t s t a b i l i z e s c l a y and even h o l d s f i n e s i l i c a
p a r t i c l e s i n p l a c e ( c f . a l s o McBRIDE, RATHBONE & THOMAS 1979). On t h e o t h e r
hand, f l u o b o r i c a c i d may spend a t v a r i o u s f o r m a t i o n temperatures a t a r a p i d
r a t e almost s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f c o n v e n t i o n a l h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d (KUNZE & SHAUGH-
NESSY 1980).

A c i d r e t u r n experiments and analyses have r e v e a l e d t h a t excess h y d r o c h l o r i c

a c i d i s almost c o m p l e t e l y consumed by t h e h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d chemical process
(GDANSKI & PEAVY 1986), w i t h t h e main mechanisms o f h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d consump-
t i o n b e i n g spending on carbonates, exchange spending f o r sodium on ion-exchange-
a b l e c l a y s such as mixed l a y e r s , and t h e h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d spending process i t -
s e l f . Lower h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s s h o u l d be used when a c i d i z i n g f o r -
mations c o n t a i n i n g more t h a n 15 % f e l d s p a r s , and h i g h e r h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d s a t u -
r a t i o n s s h o u l d be a p p l i e d w i t h h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d t o a l l o w maximum f o r m a t i o n d i s -
s o l u t i o n ( c f . a l s o BRANNON, NETTERS & GRIMMER 1986). PERTHUIS (1989) d i s c u s s e s
weak o r s l o w l y g e n e r a t i n g h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d s o l u t i o n s as a c h o i c e f o r sandstone
acidizing.

4.5.5.4.4. Selective stimulation o f injection wells

S e l e c t i v e a c i d i z i n g o f sandstone r e s e r v o i r s i n i n j e c t i o n w e l l s can d i s c r e t e -
l y s t i m u l a t e i n e f f e c t i v e i n t e r v a l s and can s i g n i f i c a n t l y improve i n j e c t i o n p r o -
f i l e s (ELLENBERGER & ASELTINE 1976).
 533

4.6. High-permeability reservoir fracturing

T r a d i t i o n a l l y h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g was i n Europe and o t h e r p a r t s o f
t h e w o r l d almost e x c l u s i v e l y l i m i t e d t o t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y ,
more o r l e s s t i g h t sandstone r e s e r v o i r s ( l e s s than a b t . 5 md r e a c h i n g down t o
t h e m i c r o d a r c y range; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 . ) . The p h i l o s o p h y o f t r e a t i n g a l s o
high-permeabi 1 it y hydrocarbon-bearing sandstones ( a b t . 10 - 30 md o r more)
which i s a l r e a d y common sense i n t h e USA s i n c e l o n g e r time, however, has so f a r
n o t been adopted as g e n e r a l procedure i n Europe and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d ,
w i t h t h e main reasons b e i n g c o s t containment f o r s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s and a l s o com-
p a r a t i v e l y l o w e r n e c e s s i t y o f a p p l i c a t i o n due t o f r e q u e n t l y s u f f i c i e n t produc-
t i o n r a t e s a l s o w i t h o u t t r e a t m e n t i n many f o r m a t i o n s i n Europe. Moderate- and
h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g i s c o n s i d e r e d t o have i n Europe t h e grea-
t e s t impact on enhancement o f s t i m u l a t i o n o f o i l - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s (KOHLHAAS
1982, McDONALD 1983; NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB 1983; B R I T T 1985). The most impor-
t a n t aspects a r e f r a c t u r e - f o r m a t i o n c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t , p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e
and c o n c e n t r a t i o n , p r o p p a n t / f l u i d s l u r r y m i x i n g types, and f r a c t u r e d e s i g n cha-
r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h a r e b r i e f l y commented as f o l l o w s .

4.6.1. Fracture-formation conductivity contrast

E x t e n s i o n o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l i n t h e near f u t u r e , however, i s c o n s i -
dered t o be a l s o i n Europe i n e v i t a b l y l i n k e d w i t h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a l s o i n moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandstone r e s e r -
v o i r s . High-permeability r e s e r v o i r s generally r e q u i r e high f r a c t u r e conductivi-
t i e s b u t do n o t need deeply p e n e t r a t i n g cracks, whereas l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y forma-
t i o n s r e q u i r e deeply p e n e t r a t i n g f r a c t u r e s b u t can t o l e r a t e l o w e r c r a c k conduc-
t i v i t i e s (VEATCH 1983). While f r a c t u r e h a l f - l e n g t h requirements a r e t y p i c a l l y
l e s s t h a n 1,000 f t (330 m) i n moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay zones, t i g h t
gas sands may demand c r a c k h a l f - l e n g t h s up t o 4,500 f t (1,500 m; c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.11.). Some aspects o f r e s e r v o i r t y p e s and f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y a r e b r i e f -
l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.6.1.1. Reservoir types

S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r carbonate r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g , i n h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i -
t y sandstone s t i m u l a t i o n a g a i n t h e c r i t i c a l f a c t o r i s t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t
between t h e propped c r a c k and t h e m a t r i x o f t h e f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n , w i t h va-
r i o u s types and g r a i n s i z e s o f proppants a l l o w i n g t o model t h e optimum permeabi-
l i t y c o n t r a s t w i t h i n t h e frame o f depth and c l o s u r e s t r e s s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.5.1.1.2.). Enhancement o f t h e c o n t r a s t between t h e f i n i t e - c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c -
t u r e and t h e r e s e r v o i r can be done by i m p r o v i n g t y p e and/or g r a i n s i z e o f t h e
p r o p p a n t i n s e r t e d f o r s u p p o r t o f t h e c r a c k . While i n v e r y t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s even
a poor f r a c t u r e permeability provides already s u f f i c i e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t
(CALLANAN, CIPOLLA & LEWIS 1983), optimum proppant p r o p e r t i e s and d i s t r i b u t i o n s
have t o be s e l e c t e d and i n s t a l l e d i n o r d e r t o r e s u l t i n s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n d u c t i v i -
t y c o n t r a s t s between f r a c t u r e and f o r m a t i o n i n moderate- t o high-permeabil i t y
reservoirs.

S p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e seen f o r i n s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n s o l i d a t e d sandstones and

carbonate s h e l l l a y e r s t h a t f r e q u e n t l y i n a d d i t i o n t o proppant f r a c t u r i n g r e -
q u i r e s t a b i l i z a t i o n by g r a v e l p a c k i n g o r by usage o f r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s
( c f . s e c t i o n 1.2.6.) which f o r m a massive h a r d wedge i n t h e l o o s e r e s e r v o i r
upon i n t e r l o c k i n g o f g r a i n s by g l u e i n g o f t h e r e s i n f i l m s a t t h e i r c o n t a c t s
( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4.2.5. and 4.12.3.3.), because t h e h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t e n
c r e a t e s a weak r o c k f a b r i c t h a t c o l l a p s e s w i t h d e c l i n i n g f l o w i n g p r e s s u r e o r i n -
c r e a s i n g w a t e r c u t o f t h e o i l o r i s even u n s t a b l e f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f
p r o d u c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 4 . ) , w i t h t h e propped f r a c t u r e s t a y i n g open as a r i -
g i d wedge and p r o v i d i n g a pathway f o r t h e hydrocarbons t o t h e w e l l b o r e .
 534

4.6.1.2. Fracture flow capacity

The g e n e r a l r u l e o f t h e l a r g e r t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t between f o r m a t i o n
and p r o p p a n t package i n t h e f r a c t u r e , t h e b e t t e r t h e f l o w c a p a c i t y and r a t e ,
e q u a l l y a p p l i e s t o s a n d s t o n e s and c a r b o n a t e s and i s one o f t h e s t r o n g e s t a r g u -
ments t o s u p p o r t h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f n o t o n l y sandstone, but also
c a r b o n a t e r e s e r v o i r s o f b o t h l o w - and h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y t y p e s , because e v e n t h e
b e s t n a t u r a l f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y i s s t i l l separated by a pronounced steep
g r a d i e n t f r o m t h e e x t r e m e l y h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y p r o p p a n t package ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.5.1.1.2.). A c o n t r a s t o f a t l e a s t 100 between t h e f l o w c a p a c i t i e s o f f o r m a -
t i o n and f r a c t u r e a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be e s s e n t i a l t o o b t a i n a d e q u a t e s t i m u l a t i o n
r e s u l t s , and t h i s c a n o n l y be i n f l u e n c e d b y s e l e c t i n g a h i g h - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t
t o f i l l i n t h e f r a c t u r e (WATERS 1 9 8 0 ) , w i t h g r a i n s i z e i n a d d i t i o n t o a n d / o r i n
combination w i t h type o f proppants being a very important t o o l f o r maximizing
t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between f r a c t u r e and f o r m a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 5 . ) .
H i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y s h o r t f r a c t u r e s and t h e i r e c o n o m i c a l b e n e f i t i n m o d e r a t e - p e r -
m e a b i l i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y BRITT (1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 2 . ) .

The n e c e s s i t y o f l a r g e r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s f o r e f f e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n o f mo-
d e r a t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s i s n o t o n l y t h e consequence o f t h e r e -
q u i r e m e n t t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e f l o w c a p a c i t y , b u t i s a l s o due t o t h e need t o r e -
s i s t embedment i n t o t h e f r e q u e n t l y s o f t t o p o o r l y c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s
(CLARK 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 2 . ) .

4.6.2. Proppant grain size and concentration

U l t r a - h i g h f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s maximizing the c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t bet-
ween r e s e r v o i r and d r a i n a g e p a t h c a n t h u s be b e s t a c h i e v e d b y a c o m b i n a t i o n o f
v e r y l a r g e propparit s a t u r a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d l e a d i n g t o high-concen-
t r a t i o n m u l t i l a y e r p r o p p i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e and e x t r a l a r g e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i -
zes (BARBY & BARBEE 1987; c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 3 . 4 . and 4 . 3 . 5 . ) . The g r e a t e r t h e c o n -
d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t , t h e h i g h e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s , and c u m u l a t i v e q u a n t i t i e s
w i l l be up t o l i m i t s d e f i n e d b y f r a c t u r e and r e s e r v o i r g e o m e t r i c a l and h y d r o d y -
namical p r o p e r t i e s .

F r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y and t h u s c o n d u c t i v i t y c a n be enhanced b y t a i l - i n p r o p -
p a n t p l a c e m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . 3 . and 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . ) . Ultra-high conductivity
f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n by predominantly g r a i n - s i z e modelling o f s y n t h e t i c prop-
p a n t s i s a l s o d i s c u s s e d by BARBY & BARBEE ( 1 9 8 7 ) . M o d e r a t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i -
t y r e s e r v o i r s c a n o f t e n a l r e a d y be s u c c e s s f u l l y s t i m u l a t e d b y m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g
o r m i n i f r a c t u r i n g (CRAMER & SONGER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 . ) .

4.6.3. Proppant/fluid slurry mixing types

M o d e r a t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s a r e b e s t s t i m u l a t e d b y pumping o f
s m a l l p r e c i s e f l u i d volumes c o n t a i n i n g h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (CRAMER &
SONGER 1988) f o r c r e a t i o n o f s h o r t h i g h l y c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e s . The f o l l o w i n g
a c c o u n t p r e s e n t s a d i s c u s s i o n o f b a t c h - m i x p r e p a r a t i o n and c o n t i n u o u s - m i x b l e n d -
i n g . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on s p e c i a l d e s i g n f o r w a t e r f l o o d o p e r a t i o n s .

4.6.3.1. Batch-mix preparation

While continuous-mix b l e n d i n g equipment g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e s h a n d l i n g o f
l a r g e f l u i d and p r o p p a n t volumes and e n a b l e s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and e x e c u t i o n o f
massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g treatments i n t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s , i t i s p o o r l y s u i -
t e d t o p r e p a r e and d i s p l a c e s m a l l p r e c i s e s l u r r y volumes (CRAMER & SONGER 1988;
c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.3.5.3.). Batch-mix f r a c t u r i n g comprising u t i l i z a t i o n o f pre-mi-
xed f l u i d / p r o p p a n t s l u r r i e s i s a s u i t a b l e t e c h n i q u e t o i n c r e a s e w e l l b o r e t r a n s -
 535

r n i s s i b i l i t y i n moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s due t o bypass o f t h e

w e l l b o r e - v i c i n i t y damage zone ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 3 . ) and e x t e n s i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i -
ve b o r e h o l e r a d i u s .

High proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s can be p r e - b l e n d e d w i t h g e l l e d l i q u i d i n t h e

batch-mix i n v e n t o r y compartments and s l u r r y d e n s i t y can be v e r i f i e d b e f o r e t h e
s t a r t o f t h e j o b . T h i s assures placement o f an u n i f o r m p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n
t h e f r a c t u r e , s i n c e p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s a t t h e s u r f a c e a r e n o t a f f e c t e d by
t r e a t m e n t r a t e f l u c t u a t i o n s . I n c r e m e n t a l improvements i n w e l l b o r e t r a n s m i s s i b i -
l i t y can i n many cases be achieved by c r e a t i o n o f a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y
c o n t r a s t between r e s e r v o i r and f r a c t u r e . The use o f small p r e c i s e s l u r r y v o l u -
mes a l s o s u c c e s s f u l l y l i m i t s v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n , a v o i d s ne-
g a t i v e consequences o f i n t e r z o n a l communication and w a t e r f l o o d sweep i n e f f i c i e n -
cy, and reduces s c r e e n o u t problems by achievement o f u n i f o r m p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u -
t i o n and use o f a h i g h p a d l s l u r r y r a t i o .

4.6.3.2. Continuous-mix blending

Conventional c o n t i n u o u s - m i x t r e a t m e n t s have i n h e r e n t l i m i t a t i o n s i n modera-
t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s (CRAMER & SONGER 1988; c f . section
4.3.3.5.3.). A s r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e s l u r r y volumes a r e o f t e n used, f r a c t u r e dimen-
s i o n s can become e x t e n s i v e and t h i s can r e s u l t i n o n l y a s m a l l p o r t i o n o f t h e
crack c o n t r i b u t i n g t o wellbore t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y g i v i n g r i s e t o wastefulness,
and can l e a d t o achievement o f e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and h e i g h t e n a b l i n g ac-
c e l e r a t e d w a t e r breakthrough, h i n d e r e d v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l sweep e f f i c i e n c y i n
w a t e r f l o o d e d r e s e r v o i r s , and c h a n n e l l i n g i n t o v e r t i c a l l y a d j a c e n t pay zones.
Continuous-mix b l e n d i n g equipment g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e s h a n d l i n g o f l a r g e f l u i d
and proppant volumes, b u t i s p o o r l y s u i t e d t o prepare and d i s p l a c e s m a l l p r e -
c i s e s l u r r y volumes. Non-uniform proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n and i r r e g u l a r p r o p p a n t
a d d i t i o n due t o f l u c t u a t i n g t r e a t m e n t r a t e occurs i n t h e f r e q u e n t l y used h i g h
c a p a c i t y / v o l u m e b l e n d e r t u b apparatus. I r r e g u l a r p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e
f r a c t u r e can r e s u l t i n l o w - c o n d u c t i v i t y b o t t l e n e c k s and i n s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e
due t o proppant s l u g g i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.5.3. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) .

Conventional t r e a t m e n t s a l s o o f t e n u t i l i z e r e l a t i v e l y modest p r o p p a n t concen-

t r a t i o n s and t o g e t h e r w i t h narrow f r a c t u r e w i d t h t h i s leads t o low c r a c k conduc-
t i v i t y which i s f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t e d by g e l r e s i d u e and o t h e r p r o p p a n t package
damage mechanisms. Depending on t h e v i s c o e l a s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s t i m u l a -
t i o n f l u i d and on c r a c k c l o s u r e time, proppant s e t t l i n g may o c c u r and enhance
fracture c o n d u c t i v i t y i n the lower p o r t i o n s o f the crack ( c f . sections 4.3.3.2.
and 4.12.2.2.) which can l e a d t o p r e f e r e n t i a l w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n i f a w a t e r l e g
i s p r e s e n t o r may aggravate f l o o d w a t e r c y c l i n g i f a h i g h e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y zone
i s l o c a t e d a t t h e f r a c t u r e base. Screenouts o f t e n o c c u r when p e r f o r m i n g conven-
t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t s i n moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s due t o severe
fluid-loss r a t e s d u r i n g t h e j o b , g i v i n g r i s e t o s u b s t a n t i a l pad f l u i d l e a k o f f
and s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n a t t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e f r a c t u r e , w i t h t h e screenouts
f u r t h e r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t r e a t m e n t waste and c o s t i n e f f i c i e n c y ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4.2.3.5.3. and 6.2.4.2.1.).

4 . 6 . 3 . 3 . Special design for waterflood operations

S p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and c o n d u c t i v i t y a p p l y t o
w a t e r f l o o d e d moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
4 . 8 . 7 . 1 . ) . Premature i n j e c t i o n w a t e r breakthrough may r e s u l t when c o n d u c t i v e
f r a c t u r e s i n excess o f 25 % o f t h e d r a i n a g e r a d i u s a r e c r e a t e d i n b o t h i n j e c -
t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s (CRAMER & SONGER 1988). Water c y c l i n g may be exacerba-
t e d when a f r a c t u r e i s extended i n t o a h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r o c k l a y e r a t t h e e x -
pense o f l o w e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y h o r i z o n s o r r e l a t e d l y when p r o p p a n t i s p l a c e d p r e f e -
r e n t i a l l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e h i g h e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y zone due t o s e t t l i n g ( c f . sec-
t i o n s 4.2.2.4. and 4.12.2.2.2.). B o t h e f f e c t s decrease sweep e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e
 536

f l o o d and n e c e s s i t a t e i n j e c t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r w a t e r volumes t o a c h i e -
ve a g i v e n o i l r e c o v e r y . I f r e s e r v o i r s a r e bounded by r o c k l a y e r s n o t o f f e r i n g
s u f f i c i e n t r e s t r i c t i o n t o v e r t i c a l c r a c k h e i g h t growth, f r a c t u r e communication
i n t o a q u i f e r s , gas caps o r o t h e r p r o d u c t i v e zones as a consequence o f a l a r g e -
s c a l e u n c o n t r o l l e d t r e a t m e n t may cause severe r e s e r v o i r d i s r u p t i o n .

4.6.4. Fracture design character i s t ics

The p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t o b j e c t i v e s i n moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r -
v o i r s a r e t o bypass w e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y damage ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 3 . ) , e x t e n d e f f e c -
t i v e b o r e h o l e r a d i u s , maximize f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.5.,
4.5.1.1.2. and 4.6.1.), a v o i d e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t and l e n g t h ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.2.), and m i n i m i z e t r e a t m e n t c o s t (CRAMER & SONGER 1988). Pad f l u i d volume
and p r o p e r t i e s should be s e l e c t e d t o enable p r o p p a n t e n t r y and o p t i m i z e p r o p -
p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e f r a c t u r e . Enough pad s h o u l d be pumped t o keep pace
w i t h s p u r t l o s s f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e w h i l e b u i l d i n g a l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y f i l t e r cake
a t the crack w a l l s thus reducing f l u i d - l o s s r a t e .

I n some h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s and w i t h c e r t a i n f l u i d systems, f i l t e r

cake g e n e r a t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t t o achieve a t a l l and t h e whole f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d
can l e a k o f f i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x . T o t a l l o s s o f pad f l u i d g i v e s r i s e t o
proppant b r i d g i n g near t h e f r a c t u r e t i p t h e r e b y p r o v o k i n g t i p s c r e e n o u t ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.5.3. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) , and l a c k o f f i l t e r cake g e n e r a t i o n would
r e s u l t i n s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n and p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i n g - t y p e s c r e e n o u t i f s l u r -
r y s u r f a c e s a t u r a t i o n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h and s l u r r y r e s i d e n c e t i m e i s s a t i s -
f a c t o r i l y l o n g . Some aspects o f f r a c t u r e w i d t h and l e n g t h as w e l l as h i g h p r o p -
p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and g r a i n s i z e a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.6.4.1. Fracture width and length

Treatment i n j e c t i o n r a t e and t h e v i s c o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e pad combine
w i t h pad f l u i d l o s s p r o p e r t i e s t o determine h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e w i d t h . I n o r d e r
t o p r e v e n t t h e occurrence o f p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g i n t h e f r a c t u r e , h y d r a u l i c w i d t h
must be a t l e a s t 2.6 t i m e s g r e a t e r than maximum p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r (CRA-
MER & SONGER 1988). As propped w i d t h i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o h y d r a u l i c w i d t h , pad
v i s c o s i t y , pad volume and i n j e c t i o n r a t e can be i n c r e a s e d t o widen t h e f r a c t u -
r e d w e l l beyond t h e minimum e n t r y w i d t h f o r t h e purpose o f i n c r e a s i n g c r a c k con-
d u c t i v i t y . Proppant s e l e c t i o n and s c h e d u l i n g u l t i m a t e l y determine t r e a t m e n t r e -
s u l t s , w i t h propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h b e i n g on average up t o 25 % o f t h e d r a i n a g e
r a d i u s . A c t u a l propped l e n g t h can exceed p r o j e c t e d l e n g t h due t o p o s t - i n j e c t i o n
a f t e r f l o w and v a r i a b l e f l u i d l s l u r r y v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n t h e c r a c k d u r i n g i n s e r -
t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n t o pad i n j e c t i o n techniques, f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y can be ma-
x i m i z e d by i n c r e a s i n g s u r f a c e p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e s l u r r y t h u s i n c r e a -
s i n g propped f r a c t u r e w i d t h , which can be t e c h n i c a l l y achieved by b a t c h m i x i n g
r a t h e r t h a n continuous-mix b l e n d i n g w i t h o u t i n c r e a s i n g s c r e e n o u t r i s k ( c f . sec-
t i o n s 4.3.3.5.3. and 4 . 6 . 3 . 1 . ) .

4.6.4.2. High proppant concentration and g r a i n size

F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y can be f u r t h e r enhanced by n o t adding any f l u i d - l o s s
m a t e r i a l d u r i n g t h e s l u r r y stages, because r e s i d u e development on t h e c r a c k
w a l l s forms p r i m a r i l y a f t e r i n j e c t i o n c e s s a t i o n and i s d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o
t h e remnant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s l u r r y (CRAMER & SONGER 1988). H i g h p r o p p a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a l s o h a s t e n f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e which m i n i m i z e s s e t t l i n g and a f t e r -
f l o w e f f e c t s , and a l s o maximizes propped c r a c k h e i g h t i n cases where p r o p p a n t
s e t t l i n g i s s i g n i f i c a n t . C o n d u c t i v i t y m a x i m i z a t i o n by coarse p r o p p a n t s ( s u c h as
8/12 and 12/20 mesh; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 5 . ) has t o t a k e i n t o account t h a t u n l e s s
p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e diameter i s a t l e a s t s i x t i m e s t h e average p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e
s i z e , proppant b r i d g i n g a t t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s l e a d s t o premature t r e a t m e n t f a i -
 537

l u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 6 . 1 . ) . The f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement b e n e f i t o f
h i g h e r - q u a l i t y proppants has t o be e v a l u a t e d a g a i n s t t h e a n t i c i p a t e d incremen-
t a l p r o d u c t i o n r e t u r n i n o r d e r t o determine i f t h e use o f h i g h e r c o s t / h i g h e r
performance r e l a t i o n s h i p i s w a r r a n t e d .

4.7. Geothermal fracturing

A p a r t f r o m o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s , h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s a l s o a
s u i t a b l e means o f s t i m u l a t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n s b e a r i n g h o t w a t e r o r b e i n g h o t d r y
rocks, w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x p l o i t a t i o n o f geothermal h e a t . Some comments
a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on g e o l o g i c a l aspects as w e l l as a r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and
e x p l o i t a t i o n o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r s , e x p l o s i v e and non-proppant f r a c t u r i n g ,
proppant f r a c t u r i n g , communication f r a c t u r i n g , f r a c t u r e system enlargement by
h e a t e x t r a c t i o n , and shear s t i m u l a t i o n vs. t e n s i l e f r a c t u r i n g .

4.7.1. Geological aspects of geothermal reservoirs

P e r m e a b i l i t y and f l u i d f l o w i n h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e geothermal systems i s predo-
m i n a n t l y f r a c t u r e - c o n t r o l l e d (MOORE & NIELSON 1986). The f r a c t u r e system con-
s i s t s o f f a u l t s and j o i n t s . G e o l o g i c a l and geochemical t e c h n i q u e s can p r o v i d e
v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t s i n t o b e h a v i o u r and e v o l u t i o n o f a c t i v e f r a c t u r e - c o n t r o l l e d
geothermal r e s e r v o i r s . Some comments on d i s t r i b u t i o n o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r t y -
pes and p e r m e a b i l i t y e v o l u t i o n a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s .

4.7.1.1. Distribution of geothermal reservoir types

Many geothermal systems a r e h o s t e d by v o l c a n i c r o c k s e r i e s i n s t r u c t u r a l com-
p l e x e s o f c a l d e r a s and s t r a t o v o l c a n o e s , b u t sandstone and p l u t o n i c geothermal
r e s e r v o i r s a l s o o c c u r . V a r i o u s methods can be a p p l i e d f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f permea-
b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n and f l u i d f l o w p a t t e r n s i n d i f f e r e n t g e o l o g i c a l e n v i r o n -
ments. I n many v o l c a n i c geothermal f i e l d s , f l u i d f l o w i s p r i n c i p a l l y c o n f i n e d
t o s t e e p l y d i p p i n g normal f a u l t s and s u b s i d i a r y f r a c t u r e s , a l t h o u g h i n t e r b e d d e d
sandstone l e n s e s can a l s o a c t as s t r a t i g r a p h i c a q u i f e r s when i n t e r s e c t e d by t h e
f a u l t s (HULEN & NIELSON 1982, 1983).

T e c t o n i c a l doming can s u b j e c t t h e s t r a t a i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f a g e o l o g i c a l p i -
l e t o d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s e s (MOORE & NIELSON 1986). I n t h e upper p o r t i o n s o f t h e
dome, t h e r o c k s a r e under t e n s i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n normal f a u l t i n g and open j o i n t s
a l o n g t h e c r e s t a l p a r t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . The upper t e n s i o n a l zone i s s e p a r a t e d
by t h e n e u t r a l p l a n e f r o m t h e l o w e r compressional zone where c o n j u g a t e shears
a r e p r e s e n t and t h e j o i n t s a r e more o r l e s s c l o s e d . P r i m a r y e x p l o r a t i o n below
t h e d e p t h o f t h e n e u t r a l p l a n e i s n o n - p r o d u c t i v e due t o l a c k o f p e r m e a b i l i t y
and t h u s l a r g e - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s necessary t o make advantage o f t h e
h i g h e r r e s e r v o i r temperature i n g r e a t e r depth.

4.7.1.2. Permeability evolution

I t i s i m p o r t a n t i n geothermal e x p l o r a t i o n t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between f o s s i l
f l u i d c o n d u i t s and those which h o s t t h e p r e s e n t l y a c t i v e geothermal system. T r a -
ce element s i g n a t u r e s t u d i e s can be used t o d i s t i n g u i s h between f l u i d f l o w
p a t h s u t i l i z e d by a n c i e n t geothermal systems and t h e g u i d e channels o f t h e mo-
dern system. Chemical and i s o t o p i c a l analyses o f f l u i d s can be a p p l i e d f o r as-
sessment o f f l o w p a t t e r n s and r e s i d e n c e t i m e s . Lack o f m i x i n g o f s e v e r a l b r i n e
types i n d i c a t e s r e s t r i c t i o n o f f l u i d f l o w t o d i s c r e t e f a u l t and f r a c t u r e zones
i n a l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y m a t r i x i n some r e s e r v o i r s . I n mountaineous t e r r a i n s , t h e -
se c o n d i t i o n s f a v o u r f l u i d f l o w d r i v e n by t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d h e a t d i f f e -
rences r a t h e r t h a n c o n v e c t i v e f l o w common i n more h i g h l y permeable geothermal
f i e l d s (ADAMS, MOORE & FORSTER 1985). The importance o f t o p o g r a p h i c a l c o n t r o l
 538

on t h e f l u i d f l o w p a t t e r n i s i n some cases i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e c o i n c i d e n c e o f
t h e thermal and t o p o g r a p h i c a l d i v i d e s e p a r a t i n g areas o f d i f f e r e n t temperature
and f l u i d t y p e .

Vein m i n e r a l i z a t i o n and f l u i d i n c l u s i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n sandstone g e o t h e r -

mal r e s e r v o i r s can document t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m m a t r i x t o f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y
d u r i n g course o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l e v o l u t i o n o f geothermal complexes (ELDERS 1979,
MOORE & NIELSON 1986) where a l s o geothermal metamorphism o f sandstones (McDO-
WELL & ELDERS 1979) takes p l a c e . D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between an i n i t i a l pha-
se w i t h s t r a t i f i e d porous f l o w o f thermal f l u i d s i n sandstones beneath a l a r g e -
l y impermeable mudstone and e v a p o r i t e caprock complex t h a t forms an a q u i t a r d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e system, and an advanced stage w i t h upwards m i g r a -
t i o n o f f l u i d s o f d i f f e r e n t s a l i n i t y t o d i f f e r e n t depths a l o n g f r a c t u r e s , and
then l a t e r a l l y i n p a r t i a l l y porous r o c k s a t s h a l l o w depths where f l u i d f l o w be-
comes i n c r e a s i n g l y f r a c t u r e - c o n t r o l l e d .

4.7.2. Geothermal reservoir distribution and exploitation

Some p o i n t s o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r d i s t r i b u t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n a r e d i s c u s -
sed as f o l l o w s a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f European g e o t h e r -
mal r e s e r v o i r s and worldwide geothermal energy e x p l o i t a t i o n .

4.7.2.1. Geographical distribution

o f European geo t he rma 1 reservo i r s
Geothermal sources i n c r y s t a l l i n e and sedimentary r o c k s t h a t a r e p a r t i a l l y
a l r e a d y n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d a r e i n Europe p r e d o m i n a n t l y p r e s e n t i n I c e l a n d
( K r a f l a ; STEFANSSON 1981, BODVARSSON e t a l . 1984; N e s j a v e l l i r ; BODVARSSON e t
a l . 1986; S v a r t s e n g i ; GUDMUNDSSON & OLSEN 1985), I t a l y (Bagnore; ATKINSON, TLn.
T I , C O R S I & KUCUK 1980; L a r d e r e l l o ; ATKINSON e t a l . 1978), Southern France and
Y u g o s l a v i a (JELIC 1982) and a r e p a r t i a l l y a l r e a d y c o m m e r c i a l l y used (RAMEY &
GRINGARTEN 1975). P i l o t s t u d i e s a r e a l s o c a r r i e d o u t i n Germany FRG (ERDOEL-ERD-
GAS AKTUELL 1978 c, LEYDECKER 1981, M E I E R & ERNST 1981) and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .
O t h e r i n i t i a l p r o j e c t s a r e l o c a t e d i n England (PINE & LEDINGHAM 1 9 8 3 ) . An o v e r -
view o f t h e European geothermal d r i l l i n g e x p e r i e n c e i s g i v e n by BARON & UNGE-
MACH ( 1 9 8 1 ) , and aspects o f geothermal h e a t e x p l o i t a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d by ERNST
& HUEBINGER ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between low- and h i g h - e n t h a l p y r e s e r v o i r s . Low-en-

t h a l p y r e s e r v o i r s a r e p r o l i f i c and dependable i n foredeep and i n t r a c r a t o n i c ba-
s i n s wherever sedimentary m u l t i - a q u i f e r systems a r e developed ( s u c h as A q u i t a -
n i a n and P a r i s Basins/France, Po V a l l e y / I t a l y ; Wessex, East Y o r k s h i r e and Nor-
t h e r n I r e l a n d B a s i n s / U n i t e d Kingdom, Southern Molasse A l p i n e Foredeep and Nor-
t h e r n MunsterlandlGermany FRG, N e t h e r l a n d s and Denmark), low- t o h i g h - e n t h a l p y
f o r m a t i o n s i n c o n t i n e n t a l r i f t v a l l e y s and areas w i t h young b u t e x t i n c t v o l c a -
nism (such as Limague and Rh6ne V a l l e y / F r a n c e , and Rhine Graben and Urach
region/Germany FRG). H i g h - e n t h a l p y r e s e r v o i r s o c c u r in areas w i t h s u h r r c m t l y
t o r e c e n t l y a c t i v e v o l c a n i s m and t e c t o n i c s w h i c h a r e p l a c e d a l o n g t h e MeuiLerra-
nean b e l t , c o m p r i s i n g c h i e f l y t h e Tuscanian d i s t e n s i v e t e c t o n i c system, t h e Nor-
t h e r n L a t i u m and C a m p a n i a n l I t a l y P l i o c e n e - Q u a t e r n a r y v o l c a n i s m t h a t i s p a r t i a l -
l y s t i l l a c t i v e a t l e a s t a t p o s t - v o l c a n i c stage, and t h e s u b d u c t i o n magmatism
o f t h e A e o l i a n Arc/Greece. H i g h - e n t h a l p y geothermal r e s e r v o i r s a r e i n Europe r e -
s t r i c t e d t o C e n t r a l and Southern I t a l y and t o Greece (BARON & UNGEMACH 1981).
I n terms o f energy c a r r i e r phase, d i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between vapor-domi-
n a t e d and water-dominated h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e geothermal systems (GUDMUNDSSON & OL-
SEN 1 9 8 5 ) .
 539

4.7.2.2. Worldwide geothermal energy exploitation

D I P I P P O (1984) p r e s e n t s an overview o f worldwide geothermal power develop-
ment, w i t h t h e r a n k i n g l i s t i n terms o f h e a t g e n e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y b e i n g USA, P h i -
l i p p i n e s , I t a l y , Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, E l Salvador, I c e l a n d , Indonesia,
Kenya, S o v i e t Union, China, A z o r e s / P o r t u g a l , Turkey, Nicaragua, Guadeloupe/Fran-
ce, Guatemala, Costa R i c a and Greece, w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s b e i n g o n l y o f subor-
d i n a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e . Most o f t h e geothermal p l a n t s i n t h e USA a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d
i n The Geysers f i e l d i n N o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a and I m p e r i a l V a l l e y i n Southern Ca-
l i f o r n i a , w i t h o t h e r areas o f a c t i v i t y i n c l u d i n g s i t e s i n Hawaii, Idaho, Neva-
da, Oregon, Utah, New Mexico and Texas-Louisiana. I t a l y o p e r a t e s more i n d i v i -
dual geothermal power u n i t s t h a n any o t h e r c o u n t r y , a l t h o u g h l a g g i n g b e h i n d i n
t o t a l c u m u l a t i v e c a p a c i t y . The most i m p o r t a n t geothermal f i e l d s i n I t a l y a r e i n
a l p h a b e t i c o r d e r Bagnore, B e l l a v i s t a , Castelnuovo, Gabbro, Lagoni Rossi, La Lec-
c i a , L a r d e r e l l o , M o l i n e t t o , Monte Rotondo, Pianacce, Piancastagnaio, Radicondo-
li, San M a r t i n o , Sasso, Serrazzano, T r a v a l e , Tuscan and V a l l o n s o r d o (BARON & UN-
GEMACH 1981; C I G N I , GAUD10 & FABBRI 1981). The Wairakei f i e l d i n New Zealand i s
a l r e a d y in s e r v i c e f o r more t h a n 25 y e a r s (STACEY & THAIN 1983). P r e s e n t s t a t e
and f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s o f geothermal energy e x p l o i t a t i o n development a r e summari-
zed by EDWARDS, CHILINGAR, R I E K E & FERTI- (1982) and CATALDI & SOMMARUGA ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

I n t h e f a r t h e r M i d d l e East, geothermal energy i s e x p l o i t e d i n I n d i a . High-

temperature p r o p p a n t t e s t i n g f o r p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n i n geothermal f r a c t u r e
s t i m u l a t i o n i s performed by SINCLAIR (1980). Aspects o f geothermal w e l l s t i m u l a -
t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by SINCLAIR, P I T T A R D & HANOLD (1980); GRANT, DONALDSON
& BIXLEY (1982); MORRIS & SINCLAIR (1984) and WALKUP & HDRNE ( 1 9 8 5 ) . Experience
r e p o r t s on geothermal f r a c t u r i n g a r e g i v e n by ERNST (1977); HUNSBEDT, KRUGER &
LONDON (1977) ; MURPHY & TESTER (1979) ; WILLIAMS, ROWLEY, NEUDECKER & BRITTENHAM
(1979) ; MORRIS, VERITY, SCHROEDER & GORANSDN (1980) ; CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR
& VETTER (1981), and TESTER, MURPHY, GRIGSBY, POTTER & ROBINSON ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

4.7.3. Explosive and non-proppant fracturing

E x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g has i n f o r m e r decades been a b u n d a n t l y used as an a l t e r -
n a t i v e t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n b o t h hydrocarbon ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 2 . 1 . and
4.4.4.) and geothermal r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n , b u t due t o v a r i o u s reasons, i t s
a p p l i c a t i o n has d e c l i n e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t years, m a i n l y as a consequence o f t h e
p r o g r e s s i v e l y i m p r o v i n g e f f e c t i v i t y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g . I n r e c e n t time,
however, some r e v i v a l and r e n a i s s a n c e o f e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g can be observed
i n t h e f i e l d o f enhancement o f o i l , gas and w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n , r e s u l t i n g f r o m
some i n n o v a t i o n s which make advanced e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g c o m p e t i t i v e t o hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g o r even a l l o w a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y bran-
ches ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 9 . 6 . ) .

I n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s , s t i m u l a t i o n can g e n e r a l l y be performed by hydrau-

l i c f r a c t u r i n g , e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g and thermal s t r e s s c r a c k i n g (HUNSBEDT, KRU-
GER & LONDON 1977). The aim o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n i s t o i n c r e a s e
v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e adequate
f l u i d c i r c u l a t i o n and t o expose new r o c k s u r f a c e t o a l l o w h e a t t r a n s f e r f r o m
t h e h o t r o c k t o t h e f l u i d (HUNSBEDT, KRUGER & LONDON 1975). F o l l o w i n g t h e o u t -
l i n e o f some g e n e r a l aspects and a s h o r t r e v i e w o f c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i v e f r a c -
t u r i n g and r e c e n t i n n o v a t i o n s , t h e stem-induced e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e
(YOUNG, BARKER & CLARK 1984) i s sketched which p r o v i d e s a reasonable means o f
c o n t r o l l e d r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n b o t h i n hydrocarbon and geothermal f i e l d s .
Some comments on n u c l e a r and w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g a r e a l s o o f f e r e d .

4.7.3.1. General aspects

Geothermal s t i m u l a t i o n has so f a r been m a i n l y done by c r e a t i o n of j o i n t s i n
t i g h t f o r m a t i o n s by c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g where a more o r l e s s mul-
 540

t i p l e r a d i a l f r a c t u r e system ( c f . p l a t e I V / l ) o r i g i n a t e s around a d e t o n a t e d cy-

l i n d r i c a l c a v i t y ( i n c o n t r a s t t o a h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e which f r e -
q u e n t l y i s s i n g u l a r o r i n some cases a l s o c o n s i s t s o f a narrow b u n d l e o f m u l -
t i p l e c l o s e l y - s p a c e d c r a c k s i n a s i m i l a r way as n a t u r a l s t r u c t u r a l f a u l t s due
t o i t s f o r m a t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l e a s t p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s ; SCHOLS 1983),
b u t i n s e v e r a l cases s e l f - p r o p p i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.1.2. and 4 . 5 . 1 . 5 . 1 . )
o f t h e v a r i o u s c r a c k s has n o t proven t o be t h e optimum s o l u t i o n .

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y around a detonated c a v i t y f o l l o w i n g e x p l o s i v e
f r a c t u r i n g decreases e x p o n e n t i a l l y w i t h d i s t a n c e , w i t h t h e e f f e c t t h u s b e i n g
h a r d l y h i g h e r than t h a t o b t a i n e d by h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , i f n o t even
i n f e r i o r i n r e s u l t . The s t i m u l a t i o n e f f e c t f r e q u e n t l y s u f f e r e d f r o m o n l y v e r y
l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s t o c o n t r o l q u a n t i t y and s i z e o f t h e p r o p a g a t i n g f r a c t u -
res, as w e l l as f r o m c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n b y e x c e s s i v e rubb-
l i z a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e f r a c t u r e d zone around
t h e b o r e h o l e . Some aspects o f f o r m a t i o n damage removal i n v a r i o u s r e s e r v o i r
t y p e s as w e l l as s h o r t f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n and r e s e r v o i r r o c k r u b b l i z a t i o n a r e
b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.7.3.1.1. Formation damage removal in various reservoir types

E x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g by d e t o n a t i o n o f chemical o r n u c l e a r d e v i c e s i n open ho-
l e s was b e f o r e t h e advent o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a l s o a common s t i m u -
l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e o f sandstone o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s , w i t h t h e e x p l o s i o n c r e a t -
i n g a r u b b l i z e d f o r m a t i o n and f r a c t u r e s r a d i a t i n g o u t f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e ( c f .
p l a t e I V / l ) t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g i t s e f f e c t i v e d i a m e t e r ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 2 . 1 . and
4 . 4 . 4 . ) . The main purpose o f s t a n d a r d e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e
s i z e o f t h e w e l l b o r e and t o remove any n e a r - b o r e h o l e f o r m a t i o n damage r e s u l t i n g
f r o m m a i n l y d r i l l i n g and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o c o m p l e t i o n (ZUBER, LEE & GATENS
1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 3 . ) . O p t i m i z a t i o n was a l s o made by p l a c i n g e x p l o s i v e s
i n t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n , b u t a l l these a p p l i c a t i o n s had a c o n s i -
d e r a b l y i n f e r i o r e f f e c t i n comparison t o h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g (WATERS
1980).

The l i m i t e d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e f r o m o i l and gas w e l l s s t i m u l a t e d by e x p l o -

s i v e f r a c t u r i n g c o u l d p r e f e r e n t i a l l y be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e inadequate o r even
l a c k i n g success o f s e l f - p r o p p i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.1.2. and 4 . 5 . 1 . 5 . 1 . ) of
t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e s which c o n s e q u e n t l y a l r e a d y p r e m a t u r e l y c l o s e d o r healed.
Aspects o f e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by HOWELL & HILLS (1970); R A -
MEY, KRUGER & RAGHAVAN (1973); CARTER & OLINGER (1976); GRADY, K I P P & SMITH
(1979); SCHMIDT, WARPINSKI & COOPER (1980); McHUGH ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; YOUNG, BARKER &
CLARK (1984); WATSON, BENSON & F I L L 0 (1985); BENNETT (1987) and BRANAGAN, LEE,
CIPOLLA & WILMER ( 1 9 8 8 ) . WINKLE & MIGNOTTE (1963) o u t l i n e i m p l o s i v e shock t r e a t -
ment o f i n j e c t i o n w e l l s ,

4.7.3.1.2. Short fracture extension

and reservoir rock rubblization
E x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g c r e a t e s a h i g h l y cracked and p a r t i a l l y r u b b l i z e d r e g i o n
around t h e w e l l b o r e through p r o p a g a t i o n o f h i g h - e n e r g y s t r e s s waves (STOLLER
1985). The e x t r e m e l y h i g h p r e s s u r e s exceed t h e dynamic compressive s t r e n g t h o f
t h e w e l l b o r e r o c k , w i t h t h e r e s u l t a n t permanent r o c k compaction p r o d u c i n g a ve-
r y l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y b a r r i e r a t t h e w e l l b o r e . Even w i t h o u t t h i s p e r m e a b i l i t y b a r -
r i e r , e f f e c t i v e e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g i s r e s t r i c t e d t o those f o r m a t i o n s w i t h a
h i g h n a t u r a l c r a c k d e n s i t y because o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t f r a c t u r e s c r e a t e d ,
w i t h t h e main s t i m u l a t i o n e f f e c t b e i n g i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n o f numerous i s o l a t e d na-
t u r a l c r a c k s by t h e r a d i a l l y p r o p a g a t i n g s h o r t f r a c t u r e s generated by t h e e x p l o -
s i v e t r e a t m e n t ( c f . p l a t e I V / l ) . I n terms o f o p e r a t i o n s , c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i v e
f r a c t u r i n g i s l i m i t e d t o open h o l e s where t h e shock wave coming f r o m t h e detona-
t i o n o f t h e charge i n t h e w e l l b o r e has d i r e c t c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l access t o t h e r e -
 541

s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n w i t h o u t any r e s t r i c t i o n . S e l e c t i v e placement of charges i n

l a r g e r n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s o r p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t o e x t e n d more
s o p h i s t i c a t e d e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g t o cased h o l e s .

BRANAGAN, LEE, CIPOLLA & WILMER (1988) use h i g h - p r e s s u r e n i t r o g e n gas and e x -

p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g i n t i g h t gas sandstones i n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e f o r e i g n li-
q u i d s from e n t e r i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r c r a c k system f o l l o w i n g p e r f o r a t i o n f o r t h e
purpose of m i n i m i z a t i o n o f e x t e r n a l i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e n a t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n p r o -
cess.

4.7.3.2. Conventional explosive fracturing and recent innovation

D u r i n g t h e l a s t decade, increasing m o d i f i c a t i o n o f conventional explosive
f r a c t u r i n g techniques i n o r d e r t o develop c o s t - and p e r f o r m a n c e - c o m p e t i t i v e a l -
t e r n a t i v e s t o h i g h - e f f e c t i v i t y h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n have l e d t o v a r i o u s innova-
t i o n s which m a i n l y f o c u s on p r o p e l l a n t - b a s e d charges f o r w e l l t r e a t m e n t (FOUR-
NEY, BARKER & HOLLOWAY 1983; CUDERMAN & NORTHROP 1984; YOUNG, BARKER & CLARK
1984). Research e f f o r t s c o n c e n t r a t e d on development o f e x p l o s i v e - and p r o p e l -
lant-founded techniques designed t o m i n i m i z e w e l l b o r e damage which i s provoked
by c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n treatments, and t o maximize t h e r a d i a l
d i s t a n c e t o w h i c h f r a c t u r e s m i g h t be propagated i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n .

The e x p l o s i v e - b a s e d techniques i n c l u d e methods f o r d i r e c t l y d i s p l a c i n g a sen-

s i t i v e l i q u i d e x p l o s i v e i n t o a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e system b e f o r e d e t o n a t i o n
(SPENCER 1981) which l e a d s t o development o f s t a r - l i k e secondary c r a c k s r a d i a -
t i n g f r o m t h e main f r a c t u r e t h a t have a s i m i l a r i n c r e a s i n g d r a i n a g e area e f f e c t
as a bundle o f low-angle t o h o r i z o n t a l d r a i n h o l e s emanating f r o m a main subver-
t i c a l o r i n c l i n e d w e l l b o r e , and i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a l o w - d e t o n a t i o n - v e l o c i t y e x p l o -
s i v e t h a t would be p l a c e d d i r e c t l y across t h e pay zone (WATSON, BENSON & F I L L 0
1985). I n s e r t i o n o f e x p l o s i v e charges i n t o h y d r a u l i c a l l y - c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e s and
s e l e c t i v e f i r i n g r e p r e s e n t s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f e x p l o s i v e and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.9.4.), b u t i n a s i m i l a r way a l s o i n t r o d u c t i o n o f e x p l o s i v e
charges i n t o w i d e r n a t u r a l j o i n t s i s p o s s i b l e . T h i s t e c h n i q u e has t h e advantage
t h a t e i t h e r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e o r n a t u r a l crack serve as a g u i d e channel, and
t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i s t a n c e o f t h e d e t o n a t i o n p o i n t away f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e l e a v e s
t h e immediate w e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y i n t a c t and a v o i d s f o r m a t i o n damage by r e s e r v o i r
rock r u b b l i z a t i o n i n the region c l o s e s t t o the borehole.

Contained e x p l o s i o n s and d e f l a g r a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t a new p e r s p e c t i v e o f w e l l

s h o o t i n g (THOMAS & ROOT 1979). The e f f o r t s u s i n g p r o p e l l a n t s as chemical energy
source have focussed on t a i l o r i n g p r o p e l l a n t b u r n r a t e and consequent p r e s -
s u r e / t i m e h i s t o r y so t h a t maximum w e l l b o r e f r a c t u r i n g and minimum w e l l b o r e da-
mage a r e r e a l i z e d . Explosive-based techniques which a r e much cheaper and more
r e l i a b l e i n f i e l d performance, however, may have broader a p p l i c a b i l i t y and may
be p r e f e r a b l e o v e r any p r o p e l l a n t - b a s e d means. Out o f many concepts, t h e method
o f stem-induced e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g (YOUNG, BARKER & CLARK 1984) has proven t o
be one o f t h e most s u c c e s s f u l i n n o v a t i o n s .

4.7.3.3. Stem- i nduced exp 10s ive f rac t ur ins

The e f f e c t i v i t y o f e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g can be g r e a t l y enhanced by t h e stem-
induced t e c h n i q u e (YOUNG, BARKER & CLARK 1984) i n v o l v i n g placement o f t h e p r i m a -
r y e x p l o s i v e charge i n an expendable r a t h o l e below t h e t a r g e t zone i n such a
manner t h a t t h e h o r i z o n t o be f r a c t u r e d i s n o t d i r e c t l y s u b j e c t e d t o t h e h i g h
detonation pressures o f the explosive i n c o n t r a s t t o conventional s t i m u l a t i o n
where t h e e x p l o s i v e charge i s f i r e d immediately o p p o s i t e t o t h e t a r g e t i n t e r -
v a l . The h i g h - p r e s s u r e gases generated by t h e d e t o n a t i o n o f t h e e x p l o s i v e , how-
ever, a r e used t o f r a c t u r e t h e w e l l b o r e t h r o u g h t h e placement o f a s o l i d stem
o f g r a v e l a t o r near t h e t o p o f t h e zone t o be t r e a t e d . W e l l b o r e f r a c t u r i n g i s
i n i t i a t e d and l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e p r e s s u r e l t i m e h i s t o r y o f t h e e x p l o s i v e
 542

gases a s they r e f l e c t off the s o l i d stem a f t e r moving u p through the open bore-
hole s e c t i o n between the explosive charge and the gravel p l u g (FOURNEY, BARKER
& HOLLOWAY 1981; FOURNEY, HOLLOWAY & S I M H A 1984; YOUNG, BARKER & CLARK 1 9 8 4 ) .

Stem-induced explosive f r a c t u r i n g i s s u i t a b l e f o r treatment of only one i s o -

l a t e d t a r g e t h o r i z o n o r two d i s t i n c t and s ep a ra te pay zones, with the m ultiple -
la y e r st i m u l a t i on configuration designed t o f r a c t u r e the upper r e s e r v o i r sec-
tio n by r e f l e c t i o n of the explosive gases o f f the s o l i d gravel stem a n d t o
crack the lower pay level by i t s proximity t o the explosive charge. The discus-
sion as follows concentrates on co n t r o l l ed o r i g i n of limited multiple f r a c t u r e
system, v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n r ega rdle ss of ge ostre ss s t a t e , l i m i t a -
tio n s and p o s s i b i l i t i e s of improvement, and proppant i n s e r t i o n i n t o explosion-
generated f r a c t u r e s .

4.7.3.3.1. C o n t r o l l e d o r i g i n o f l i m i t e d m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e system
The m a i n advantage of the stem-induced explosive f r a c t u r i n g technique i s i t s
c o n t r o l l e d performance with o r i g i n of only two s e t s of ra dia l cracks propaga-
tin g i n roughly orthogonal d i r e c t i o n s as v isua liz e d by borehole t e l e v i s i o n a n d
photography (YOUNG, BARKER & CLARK 1984; c f . se c tion 6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . 3 . ) . The f a c t t h a t
m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g by stem-induced explosive detonation i s so lim ite d s p a t i a l -
l y and does not exceed four orthogonal f r a c t u r e s even in c lose proximity t o the
primary charge a t t e s t s t o the b en ef i ci al e f f e c t s of energy source decoupl ing
a n d i s the main di f f er en ce t o conventional explosive f r a c t u r i n g where a whole
bundle of closely-spaced or even almost merged multiple f r a c t u r e s in a frequent-
l y s t a r - l i k e p a t t e r n ( c f . p l a t e I V / 1 ) i s cr ea te d which together with rubbliz a -
t i o n v i r t u a l l y destroys the r e s e r v o i r f a b r i c in c o n t r a s t t o smooth i n t e r s e c t i o n
of an i n t a c t formation matrix by d i s c r e t e perpendicular f r a c t u r e s .

This s u p e r i o r i t y of the stem-induced explosive f r a c t u r i n g concept has been

v e r i f i e d by comparative experiments with high detonation r a t e s and r e s u l t i n g
h i g h loading r a t e s of n i t r o g l y c e r i n charges t h a t led t o o r i g i n of u p to ten ver-
t i c a l cracks forming a mu l t i p l e bundle even i n slim boreholes, with f r a c t u r e
a p e r t u r e and thus a l s o p en et r at i o n depth i n t o the formation being q u i t e lim ite d
as opposed t o stem-induced treatments where good f r a c t u r e openings indic a te rea-
sonable propagation i n t o the r e s e r v o i r .

4.7.3.3.2. V e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n
regardless o f geostress s t a t e

The most s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e of stem-induced explosive f r a c t u -

ring i s the d o m i n a n t v e r t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n and e xte nt of the cracks re ga rdle ss
of the i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n in the r e s e r v o i r column YOUNG, BARKER &
CLARK 1984). The a b i l i t y t o develop dominant v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r ng a l s o in a n in-
s i t u s t r e s s s t a t e t h a t g en er al l y d i c t a t e s the o r i g i n of horizontal cracks ( f o r
example i n hydraulic s t i mu l at i o n of shallow r e s e r v o i r s ) i s a s i g n i f i c a n t bene-
f i t t h a t can be obtained w i t h the proper ap p lic a tion of explosive and/or propel-
l a n t s t i m u l a t i o n techniques and i s one of the advantages w i t h re spe c t t o hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g where no influence can be exerted on the i n - s i t u s t r e s s s t a t e
a n d thus o r i e n t a t i o n of the cr ack s . This r e l a t i o n s h i p even allows the combina-
t i o n of h o r i z o n t a l hydraulic a n d v e r t i c a l explosive f r a c t u r e c re a tion giving
r i s e t o orthogonal crack networking f o r s p ec ia l re se rvoir stim ula tion ( c f . sec-
tio n 4 . 8 . 9 . 6 . ) .

4.7.3.3.3. L i m i t a t i o n s and p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f improvement

The stem-induced explosive f r a c t u r i n g technique has thus been proven t o be
q u i t e e f f e c t i v e i n modifying o r t a i l o r i n g the pressure/time h i s t o r i e s obtained
from a l a r g e explosive charge (YOUNG, BARKER & CLARK 1 9 8 4 ) . The stem-induced a p -
 543

proach o f f e r s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f r a c t u r i n g w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t w e l l b o r e damage
a zone w i t h much more e x p l o s i v e gas energy than c o u l d be p l a c e d i n t h a t r e s e r -
v o i r l e v e l d i r e c t l y by e i t h e r decoupled e x p l o s i v e charges o r c o n t r o l l e d - b u r n -
r a t e p r o p e l l a n t s . The o n l y l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e stem-induced f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e
i s t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f an expendable r a t h o l e f o r placement o f t h e p r i m a r y e x p l o -
s i v e charge.

On t h e o t h e r hand, however, t h e m a j o r disadvantage o f any e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u -

r i n g method w i t h r e s p e c t t o h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n i s t h e i n a b i l i t y t o s u p p o r t
t h e c r a c k s w i t h proppants i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t them f r o m subsequently c l o s i n g .
The l a c k o f p l u g g i n g m a t e r i a l e x c e p t o f random f i n e f o r m a t i o n r u b b l e ( a u t o - p r o p -
ping; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.1.2. and 4.5.1.5.1.) gives r i s e t o rapid fracture
f l o w d e t e r i o r a t i o n by p a r t i a l c l o s u r e o f t h e c r a c k upon p r e s s u r e drawdown du-
r i n g hydrocarbon o f f t a k e l e a d i n g t o r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n . Another n e g a t i v e e f -
f e c t i s i n f i l l i n g o f p a r t s o f t h e c r a c k s w i t h r u b b l i z e d o r even p u l v e r i z e d r o c k
d e b r i s o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m r e s e r v o i r framework d e s t r u c t i o n i n t h e immediate s u r -
r o u n d i n g s o f t h e d e t o n a t i o n p o i n t o f t h e e x p l o s i v e charge ( c f . p l a t e I V / l ) .

4.7.3.3.4. Proppant insert ion into exp 10sion-generated fractures

T h e r e f o r e t h e most c h a l l e n g i n g t a s k f o r f u t u r e e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g o p t i m i z a -
t i o n would be t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f i r s t opening a double s e t
o f c r a c k s by e x p l o s i v e t r e a t m e n t and then second f o l l o w i n g w i t h a h y d r a u l i c ope-
r a t i o n which i s t o e n l a r g e t h e a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e s , t o f l u s h o u t the
f i n e d e b r i s f r o m t h e cracks, and t o i n f i l l them w i t h proppants i n o r d e r t o
a v o i d t h e i r subsequent c l o s u r e ( s u c h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f e x p l o s i v e and h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g resembles i n f a c t an i n t e r l o c k i n g o f p r e e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l and l a t e r
a r t i f i c i a l l y - c r e a t e d h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s ; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.2. and 4 . 8 . 9 . 4 . ) ,
w i t h such a l i n k i n g , however, o n l y b e i n g a b l e t o be performed i n g e o s t r e s s r e -
gimes f a v o u r i n g t h e development o f v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s due t o t h e e x -
c l u s i v e c r e a t i o n o f v e r t i c a l c r a c k s by e x p l o s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n . O t h e r aspects o f
stem-induced t a i l o r e d - p u l s e f r a c t u r i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 4.2.2.1.3.2.

4.7.3.4. Nuclear fracturing

A p a r t f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l charges, e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g o f underground forma-
t i o n s can a l s o be c a r r i e d o u t by d e t o n a t i n g n u c l e a r charges (HOWARD & FAST 1970
a ) . While n u c l e a r f r a c t u r i n g has so f a r o n l y r a r e l y been a p p l i e d i n geothermal
r e s e r v o i r s b u t would c e r t a i n l y r e p r e s e n t a s u i t a b l e t e c h n i q u e f o r l a r g e - s c a l e
c r a c k i n g o f t i g h t rocks, n u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n s have more f r e q u e n t l y been u t i l i z e d
i n o i l and gas e x p l o i t a t i o n . N u c l e a r d e t o n a t i o n s can be c o n t a i n e d i n t h e zone
o f i n t e r e s t and a r e capable o f r u b b l i n g l a r g e r o c k volumes t h e r e b y c r e a t i n g mul-
t i p l e f r a c t u r e s such as o r i g i n a t i n g a l s o d u r i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l o i l - w e l l s h o o t i n g
( c f . s e c t i o n 4.7.3.1.), b u t on a much l a r g e r s c a l e . Some comments on p r i n c i p l e s
and a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s .

4.7.3.4.1. Principles
F r a c t u r e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m underground n u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n s d i f f e r f r o m those
c r e a t e d by h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n i n b o t h number o f f r a c t u r e s generated and pene-
t r a t i o n d e p t h i n t o t h e m a t r i x around t h e w e l l b o r e (HOUARD & FAST 1970 a ) . N u -
c l e a r e x p l o s i o n s a r e expected t o generate a c a v i t y o f 100 - 300 f t ( 3 0 - 100 m)
diameter, w i t h numerous f r a c t u r e s r a d i a t i n g f r o m i t t h u s f o r m i n g a high-permea-
b i l i t y zone and c o n s i d e r a b l y e n l a r g i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e w e l l b o r e r a d i u s . Upon d e t o -
n a t i o n o f t h e n u c l e a r device, a c a v i t y i s generated as a r e s u l t o f v a p o r i z a t i o n
o f r o c k s and s a t u r a t i n g f l u i d s . The gases c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e c a v i t y a r e i n i -
t i a l l y a t e x t r e m e l y h i g h p r e s s u r e and temperature. Compaction o f t h e r o c k i n
t h e l o w e r hemisphere c o u p l e d w i t h upward and l a t e r a l r o c k movement r e s u l t s i n a
s p h e r o i d c a v i t y . The gas p r e s s u r e t e m p o r a r i l y supports t h e overburden t h u s p r e -
 544

s e r v i n g t h e c a v i t y shape. Subsequent h e a t l o s s e s , gas l e a k o f f t h r o u g h t h e c r a c k

systcm, and vapor condensation reduce t h e p r e s s u r e u n t i l t h e f r a c t u r e d r o c k
above t h e c a v i t y can no l o n g e r be supported. Rock c o l l a p s e i n t o t h e c a v i t y
forms a complex chimney-rubble zone, w i t h most o f t h e m o l t e n m a t e r i a l and r a d i o -
a c t i v e f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s c o l l e c t i n g i n t h e b o t t o m o f t h e zones. Changes i n c a v i -
t y shape f r o m s p h e r i c a l may be due t o i m p l o s i o n o f c a v i t y w a l l s as w e l l as up-
l i f t and d r o p p i n g o f t h e c e i l i n g .

I n areas where h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s e f f e c t i v e , n u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n s c a n n o t
compete because o f h i g h c o s t s , b u t s u b s t a n t i a l volumes o f hydrocarbons a r e i n
p l a c e i n r e s e r v o i r s t h a t do n o t y i e l d t o p r e s e n t h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i -
ques, and these pay zones may t h e r e f o r e by p o t e n t i a l s i t e s f o r n u c l e a r e x p l o -
s ive s t i m u l a t i on.

4.7.3.4.2. Am1 icat ions

The h i t h e r t o main areas o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f n u c l e a r f r a c t u r i n g a r e New Mexico
and Colorado/USA (HOWARD & FAST 1970 a) and E a s t e r n Siberia/USSR ( O I L GAS JOUR-
NAL 1987 b, 1987 d ) . A f t e r l o w e r i n g t h e n u c l e a r charge i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e , t h e
w e l l i s cemented t o t h e s u r f a c e , and o n l y i n such a h e r m e t i c a l l y s e a l e d e n v i r o n -
ment, t h e n u c l e a r charge i s f i r e d , w i t h no r a d i a t i o n b e i n g v e n t e d t o t h e atmo-
sphere. N u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n s i n t h e USSR have r e c e n t l y prover) t o be a b l e t o i n t e r -
connect a number o f s m a l l s e p a r a t e o i l - b e a r i n g l e n s e s f r o m which o i l so f a r
c o u l d n o t be r e c o v e r e d p r o f i t a b l y . The e x p l o s i o n r e s u l t s i n f r a c t u r i n g beyond
t h e r e s e r v o i r boundaries and combines t h e m i n i d e p o s i t s i n t o a s i n g l e o i l p a t c h
which p e r m i t s maximum r e c o v e r y , w i t h t h e n u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n b e i n g a s p e c i a l case
o f communication f r a c t u r i n g t o l i n k i s o l a t e d pay u n i t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 0 . 2 . 1 . ) .
E a r l i e r a t t e m p t s t o f r a c t u r e such f o r m a t i o n s w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p l o s i v e s were
o n l y m a r g i n a l l y e f f e c t i v e . N u c l e a r b l a s t s a l s o have t u r n e d o u t t o be f e a s i b l e
t o c r e a t e underground s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s i n s a l t f o r m a t i o n s . Aspects o f n u c l e a r
f r a c t u r i n g i n v a r i o u s r e s e r v o i r t y p e s a r e a l s o discussed by ATKINSON & LEKAS
(1963); COFFER, BRAY, KNUTSON & RAWSTON (1964) and BRAY, KNUTSON, WAHL & DEW
(1965).

A p r o b a b l e f u r t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n f o r n u c l e a r f r a c t u r i n g a r e massive o i l s h a l e s
i n Colorado/USA and s u r r o u n d i n g s which can be r e t o r t e d i n p l a c e (HOWARD & FAST
1970 a ) . The o i l i s removed i n l i q u i d o r gaseous f o r m f r o m t h e c a v i t y c r e a t e d
by n u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n , t h e r e b y e l i m i n a t i n g t h e need t o mine t h e s h a l e r o c k and
t o process i t through a r e t o r t t o e x t r a c t t h e hydrocarbons (HOWARD & FAST 1970
a).

4.7.3.5, Water fracturing

A s a consequence o f h i g h r e s e r v o i r temperatures which o f t e n exceed t h e t h e r -
mal s t a b i l i t y boundary o f many t r e a t i n g f l u i d s , geothermal w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n i s
f r e q u e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t by s i m p l e w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g w i t h o u t p r o p p a n t s . H y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e s c o n n e c t i n g n a t u r a l c r a c k systems p r o v i d i n g c o n t a c t t o a f a u l t zone o r
c r e a t i n g communication t o a n e i g h b o u r i n g w e l l a r e generated by i n j e c t i o n o f wa-
t e r above f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e . Since w a t e r has v e r y l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f prop-
p a n t t r a n s p o r t , such t r e a t m e n t s a r e commonly o p e r a t e d w i t h o u t p r o p p a n t i n s e r -
t i o n . S i m i l a r non-proppant f r a c t u r i n g i n c l u d e s n i t r o g e n s t i m u l a t i o n o f s h a l e s
( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 4 . ) . W h i l e geothermal w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g comprises m a i n l y l a r g e -
scale jobs ( c f . section 4.7.4.1.2.), s m a l l - s c a l e w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g can success-
f u l l y enhance o i l p r o d u c t i o n f r o m carbonates and e s p e c i a l l y c h a l k by s u p p o r t i n g
w a t e r i m b i b i t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 5 . 2 . ) . Water f r a c t u r i n g i s a l s o o f c o n s i d e -
r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n coal-seam s t i m u l a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 . )
 545

4.7.4. Proppant f r a c t u r i n g
H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n o f geothermal w e l l s p r e s e n t s c h a l l e n g i n g
problems due t o f o r m a t i o n temperatures i n t h e range 300 - 600 OF which r e q u i r e
c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e b e h a v i o u r o f f l u i d s , proppants and equipment i n t h i s
h o s t i l e h o t b r i n e environment (CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VETTER 1981; c f .
s e c t i o n 4.4.5.). I n o r d e r t o a v o i d p o s s i b l e damage t o t h e p r o d u c i n g h o r i z o n ,
h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e chemical c o m p a t i b i l i t y between i n - s i t u and i n s e r t e d m a t e r i a l s
must be v e r i f i e d . The most s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t i s t h a t i n geothermal w e l l s , t h e
r e q u i r e d t e c h n i q u e s must be capable o f b r i n g i n g about t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f v e r y
l a r g e amounts o f f l u i d s . T h i s n e c e s s i t y f o r h i g h f l o w r a t e s r e p r e s e n t s a s i g n i -
f i c a n t d e p a r t u r e f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l p e t r o l e u m w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n and demands t h e
c r e a t i o n o f v e r y h i g h n e a r - w e l l b o r e p e r m e a b i l i t y and/or f r a c t u r e s w i t h v e r y
h i g h f l o w c o n d u c t i v i t y . H y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s i n geothermal f i e l d s
may be c a r r i e d o u t i n f o r m a t i o n s which produce e i t h e r h o t w a t e r o r steam f r o m
b o t h m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y and f r o m n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems.

I n t e r e s t i n g t a r g e t s f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n a r e geothermal w e l l s
t h a t do n o t i n t e r s e c t nearby m a j o r n a t u r a l c r a c k systems, which can b e n e f i t
f r o m t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y l i n e a r f l o w channels t o improve
f l o w capacity from surrounding l o c a l i z e d regions o f low-permeability formation,
which s u f f e r e d f r o m a r t i f i c i a l damage d u r i n g d r i l l i n g , c o m p l e t i o n o r workover
o p e r a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g mud o r cement i n v a s i o n , and t h a t r e q u i r e p e r i o d i c a l reme-
d i a l t r e a t m e n t as a r e s u l t o f f l u i d - p r o d u c t i o n - r e l a t e d damage. I f f r a c t u r e s t i -
m u l a t i o n can d i m i n u i s h o r e l i m i n a t e t h e need f o r new w e l l o r s i d e t r a c k d r i l l i n g
i n t h e aforementioned s i t u a t i o n s , t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r i m p r o v i n g geothermal deve-
lopment economics and e x t e n d i n g t h e r e s o u r c e base i s c e r t a i n l y s u b s t a n t i a l .
Some aspects o f proppants, f l u i d s and t r e a t m e n t s i n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s t i m u -
l a t i o n a r e b r i e f l y sketched as f o l l o w s .

4.7.4.1. Proppant aspects

I n geothermal w e l l s , c l o s u r e s t r e s s s h o u l d i n most cases be much l o w e r than
i n e q u i v a l e n t - d e p t h o i l and gas w e l l s because o f t h e s i n g l e - f l u i d system ( a l -
though i n some cases a two-phase system o c c u r s i f b o t h w a t e r and steam a r e p r e -
s e n t ) . C l o s u r e s t r e s s i s more o r l e s s i n t h e o r d e r o f t h e h y d r o s t a t i c g r a d i e n t
which i s a b t . 0.5 p s i / f t and t h u s ranges f r o m 2,000 t o 6,000 p s i i n w e l l s f r o m
4,000 t o 12,000 f t i n d e p t h (SINCLAIR 1980). T h e r e f o r e i n most cases n a t u r a l
sand c o u l d be a p p l i e d as p r o p p i n g agent ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.2.2. and 1.3.2.) i f t h e
h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e environment i s n e g l e c t e d . According t o t h e h o t f o r m a t i o n w a t e r
and i n o r d e r t o meet a l s o boundary c o n d i t i o n s i n deeper w e l l s , however, s i n t e -
r e d b a u x i t e i s c e r t a i n l y t h e s u p e r i o r m a t e r i a l f o r p r o p p i n g o f f r a c t u r e s i n geo-
thermal w e l l s , because t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e need f o r c h e m i c a l l y i n e r t proppants
t h a t r e t a i n high permeability f o r long periods o f time i n the high-temperature
r e s e r v o i r and t h u s t e m p e r a t u r e - s e n s i t i v e p r o p p a n t t y p e s have t o be d i s c a r d e d
( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.3.2.1. and 5 . 7 . 1 . ) . Some comments on h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e p r o p p a n t
performance and f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s .

4.7.4.1.1. High-temperature proppant performance

High-temperature p r o p p a n t t e s t i n g under geothermal r e s e r v o i r c o n d i i o n s has
shown t h a t s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e , r e s i n - c o a t e d s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and r e s n-coated
sand a r e t h e most s t a b l e m a t e r i a l s and a r e i n s o l u b l e up t o 500 OF ( 2 5 oC) and
e i t h e r i n s o l u b l e o r o n l y s l i g h t l y s o l u b l e above 500 OF (SINCLAIR 1980). Conven-
t i o n a l n a t u r a l sand which i s w i d e l y used i n o i l and gas i n d u s t r y i s n o t s t r o n g
enough t o w i t h s t a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n most geothermal w e l l s , because i t i s a f -
f e c t e d by h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e w a t e r and b r i n e p a r t i c u l a r l y under s t r e s s ( c f . sec-
t i o n 5 . 7 . 1 . ) . The main disadvantages o f sand a r e b r i t t l e f a i l u r e by p o i n t - t o -
p o i n t l o a d i n g , weakening by numerous m i c r o f r a c t u r e s and f a u l t s w i t h i n t h e
g r a i n s , and s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n c r a c k i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.10.3.2.) i n hot fluids
 546
already a t low cl o s u r e s t r e s s e s , w i t h n a t u r a l sand the re fore being inadequate
as p r o p p a n t i n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s .

Glass beads a re n o t acceptable f o r geothermal well stim ula tion due t o t h e i r

b r i t t l e f a i l u r e a l o n g w i t h s t r e s s corrosion cracking i n high-temperature brine
( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 3 . 1 . ) . Resin-coated sand i s the most s u i t a b l e and probably
a l s o the most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e p r o p p a n t f o r geothermal wells due t o i t s i n s e n s i t i -
v i t y t o temperature a n d l o a d , p r o t ect i v e coating of i n e r t r e s i n , and low de nsi-
t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 6 . ) . Resin-coated s i n t e r e d bauxite i s the be st proppant
ever t e st e d showing no temperature s e n s i t i v i t y and permeability decrease under
load and w o u l d c e r t a i n l y be the f i r s t choice f o r geothermal r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u -
r i n g i f being l e s s expensive ( S I N C L A I R 1980; CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VET-
TER 1981). Although s l i g h t l y crushable, s i n t e r e d bauxite i s much stronge r than
sand a n d e f f e c t i v e l y i n e r t in hot b r i n es a l s o w i t h o u t re sin p e l l i c l e s envelo-
p i n g the g r a i n s .

4.7.4.1.2. Field experience

Experience r ep o r t s of p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g of geothermal r e s e r v o i r s a r e given
by CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VETTER (1981) a n d MORRIS & SINCLAIR (1984). The
h o t t e s t geothermal well i n the world which has been p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r e d so f a r
i s Baca in New Mexico/USA where a high-conductivity crack h a s been generated by
proppicg w i t h s i n t e r e d bauxite i n a hydrothermal well i n a depth o f a b t . 5,000
f t (1,700 m ) and a bottomhole temperature of 540 OF (280 oC; VERITY & MORRIS
1981; IIILLIAMS, MOODROOF & BOX 1982; MORRIS & SINCLAIR 1984). A l t h o u g h the s t i -
mulation treatment d i d not u l t i mat el y r e s u l t i n a commercial well because p r o -
d u c t i v i t y declined t o an uneconomical level a f t e r the f r a c t u r i n g job due t o re-
l a t i v e permeability reduction associated with two-phase flow e f f e c t s in the wa-
ter-steam system t h a t r e s u l t s from r e s t r i c t e d inflow as a consequence of the
t i g h t r e s e r v o i r matrix around the f r a c t u r e , the successful technical perfor-
inance of the operation promises hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g of geothermal p a y zones t o
be a v a l i d f u t u r e a l t e r n a t i v e t o s i d et r ack i n g o r new well d r i l l i n g . Aspects of
proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f geothermal wells a r e a l s o t r e a t e d by CARDEN, NICHOLSON,
PETTIT & ROWLEY (1983). Geothermal we11 s t i mula tion operations a r e a l s o evalua-
ted by CAMPBELL, FIORRIS & VERITY (1981).

Non-proppant geothermal f r a c t u r i n g of hot d r y rock r e s e r v o i r s w i t h c h i e f l y

water as f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d ( c f . s ect i o n 4 . 7 . 3 . 5 . ) includes the l a r g e s t hydraulic
stimulation operations ever c a r r i e d out i n terms of f l u i d volume. The c u r r e n t
world record comprises a treatment in 13,500 f t re se rvoir depth with 600 OF b o t -
tonhole temperature where over 10 Mio. gal of water plus f r i c t i o n reducer a n d
calcium carbonate have been i n j ect ed (FRACFAX 1988 b ) .

4.7.4.2. Fluid aspects

I n terms of f l u i d s , h i g h - v i s co s i t y g el s which a re commonly applied in low-
temperature o i l a n d gas wells cannot be used in geothermal r e s e r v o i r s where
low-viscosity f l u i d s have t o be the r u l e , because of the extremely high tempera-
tu r e s t h a t degrade the g el l ed polymer f l u i d s , and a l s o due t o stim ula tion f l u i d
c o s t . Some a s p e c t s of s e n s i t i v i t y and s t a b i l i z a t i o n of f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a r e o u t -
lin e d as follows.

4.7.4.2.1. Fluid viscosity sensitivity

Water-soluble polymers are the main v i s c o s i f i e r s f o r h y d r a u l c f r a c t u r i n g ,
b u t above 250 OF, almost a l l the polymer systems show a de c line i n viscosity
(CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VETTER 1981; c f . se c tion 4.4.5. . Delaying of
t h i s decline or degradation in p r o p er t i es can be performed by adding small
amounts of methanol t o the polymer-water s o lutions ( c f . se c tion 3 11.4.). High-
 547
temperature f l u i d s t a b i l i z a t i o n can a l s o be achieved by adding an oxygen scaven-
g e r i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e polymer d e g r a d a t i o n by d i s s o l v e d oxygen. R a p i d d e c l i n e
i n v i s c o s i t y o f t h e f l u i d once i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e would i n e v i t a b l y r e -
s u l t i n poor p r o p p a n t placement o r would even provoke premature s c r e e n o u t f a i -
l u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.2.5.and 6.2.4.2.1.) o f h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e geothermal
s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s . H i g h - v i s c o s i t y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s can o n l y be app i e d i n
h i q h - t e m e r a t u r e qeothermal r e s e r v o i r s i f preceded by a l a r q e c o o l i n q w a t e r
pre-pad t h a t give; r i s e t o h e a t blockage ( c f . s e c t i o n - 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . i . 4 . ) .

4.7.4.2.2. Fluid viscosity stabilization

HARMS. GOSS & PAYNE (1984) p r e s e n t a new q e n e r a t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n q f l u ds f o r
u l t r a h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n where an un7que c o m b i n a t i o n o f h e t e r o g neous-
l y s u b s t i t u t e d p o l y s a c c h a r i d e polymer, s t a b i l i z e r s and delayed c r o s s l i n k i n g che-
m i c a l s p r o v i d e s t h e extended thermal s t a b i l i t y . An i n n o v a t i v e c r o s s l i n k i n g me-
chanism enhances t h e thermal p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e f l u i d , and c h e m i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d
c r o s s l i n k i n g r e a c t i o n a l l o w s t h e maintenance o f c r o s s l i n k i n g t i m e o v e r a wide
range o f chemical and/or p h y s i c a l v a r i a b l e s such as temperature and polymer
l o a d i n g . The c o n t r o l l e d v i s c o s i t y development g i v e s r i s e t o l o w e r f r i c t i o n p r e s -
sure and b e t t e r downhole s t a b i l i t y .

GRONE, BAUMGARTNER & WOODROOF (1983) document a c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d

system which has extended thermal s t a b i l i t y due t o f a v o u r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s o f po-
lymer, b u f f e r , g e l s t a b i l i z e r and c r o s s l i n k e r and t h a t a l l o w e d s u c c e s s f u l prop-
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g j o b s up t o 540 OF (280 oC) r e s e r v o i r temperature (WILLIAMS,
WOODROOF & BOX 1982; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4.4.5.2.).

4.7.4.3. Treatment aspects

Geothermal w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n u t i l i z e s b o t h l a r g e - s c a l e c o n v e n t i o n a l h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g o f deep l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y zones and m i n i a t u r e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s
o f s h a l l o w h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s (CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VETTER
1981). F l u i d f l o w w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e systems and between w e l l s can be m o n i t o -
r e d by t r a c e r r e t u r n a n a l y s i s and t r a c e r r e t e n t i o n m o d e l l i n g (TESTER, BIVENS &
POTTER 1982; WALKUP & HORNE 1985) which i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r p r o p e r p l a n -
n i n g o f waste w a t e r r e i n j e c t i o n i n t o h i g h l y - f r a c t u r e d geothermal r e s e r v o i r s i n
o r d e r n o t t o reduce t h e e n t h a l p y o f t h e produced w a t e r by s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g w i t h -
i n t h e pay zone (PRUESS & BODVARSSON 1984), w i t h a correspondence e x i s t i n g b e t -
ween f a s t t r a c e r r e t u r n r a t e s and e n t h a l p y d e t e r i o r a t i o n upon r e i n j e c t i o n (HOR-
NE 1982, WALKUP & HORNE 1985).

Aspects o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n geothermal energy r e s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o d i s -

cussed by AAMODT e t a l . (1977), BODVARSSON & GAULKE (1986) and TESTER, MURPHY,
GRIGSBY, POTTER & ROBINSON (1986). E f f e c t s o f non-proppant f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ments a r e r e p o r t e d by MAHONEY, STUBBS, SCHWERER & DOBSCHA (1980). T e s t i n g o f
geothermal and geopressured f o r m a t i o n s i s reviewed by McCOY, HARTSOCK & DOBSON
(1980); DA S I E & HOANG (1985); LEAVER, SAGEEV & RAMEY (1986) and MARCOU & GUD-
MUNDSSON (1986). BODVARSSON, PRUESS & LIPPMANN (1986) summarize m o d e l l i n g o f
geothermal systems i n c l u d i n g e v a l u a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e - d o m i n a t e d f l o w . I n j e c t i o n
and r e c o v e r y e f f e c t s i n f r a c t u r e d geothermal r e s e r v o i r s a r e analyzed by PRUESS
& BODVARSSON (1984) and BODVARSSON, PRUESS & SULLIVAN (1985).

4.7.5. Comnunication fracturing

I n terms o f geothermal communication f r a c t u r i n g , d i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made
between c o n n e c t i o n o f i n j e c t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s on t h e one hand and connec-
t i o n o f w e l l s and l a r g e - s c a l e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s on t h e o t h e r hand.
 548

4 . 7 . 5 . 1 . Connection o f injection and production wells

A p a r t f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n o f h o t w a t e r f r o m a q u i f e r - t y p e geothermal
r e s e r v o i r s w i t h o r w i t h o u t s t i m u l a t i o n , a s p e c i a l method i n geothermal energy
e x p l o i t a t i o n i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f communication f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 0 . ) b e t -
ween n e i g h b o u r i n g w e l l s and pumping o f c o l d w a t e r f r o m one b o r e h o l e t h r o u g h t h e
c r a c k t o t h e o t h e r w e l l i n o r d e r t o h e a t i t up i n t h e h o t d r y r o c k . The d i r e c -
t i o n o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n can be e s t i m a t e d f r o m d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s t r e s s
f i e l d by o r i e n t e d c o r e s o r i n - s i t u measurements by b r e a k o u t l o g g i n g ( c f . sec-
t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 8 . ) , and t h e t a r g e t w e l l can then be d r i l l e d a c c o r d i n g l y ( p o s s i b i l i -
t i e s o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n a r e o u t l i n e d by R O E G I E R S 1974; ABDU-SAYED,
BRECHTEL & CLIFTON 1977; WARPINSKI, SCHMIDT & NORTHROP 1980; VOEGELE & JONES
1980, BLUMLING 1983, TEUFEL 1983; DANESHY, SLUSHER, CHISHOLM & MAGEE 1984; BLAN-
TON & TEUFEL 1986). Enhancement o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e c e n t r e s o f
t h e b o r e h o l e s can be achieved by o r i e n t i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s t o t h e d i r e c t i o n s
o f t h e s t r e s s f i e l d o f t h e r e s e r v o i r (AHMED, THOMPSON, KELKAR, VEGHTE & HATHA-
WAY 1984; JARED, SCOTT & EVANS 1984; SCOTT 1986; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.10.3. and
4.10.5.).

As a l s o i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k s and t i g h t sedimentary
f o r m a t i o n s t h e s e l f - p r o p p i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.1.2. and 4 . 5 . 1 . 5 . 1 . ) o f some
p i l o t f r a c t u r e s has n o t t u r n e d o u t t o be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y e f f e c t i v e and n a t u r a l
c r a c k s o f b o t h sandstone and carbonate f o r m a t i o n s have a l s o n o t shown t o be s u f -
f i c i e n t pathways, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f proppants f o r s u p p o r t i n g t h e c r a c k s w i l l
become more and more i m p o r t a n t w i t h t h e p r o g r e s s o f geothermal energy e x p l o i t a -
t i o n i n t h e near f u t u r e . F i e l d examples o f communication f r a c t u r i n g between two
u e l l s i n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s a r e r e p o r t e d by ALBRIGHT & PEARSON ( 1 9 8 0 ) , PEAR-
SON ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; BATCHELOR, B A R I A & HEARN (1983); SARDA (1984), TALEBI & CORNET
(1985), BAME & FEHLER (1986) and ROBERTS & CRAMPIN ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

4.7.5.2. Connection o f wells and large-scale natural fractures

A s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f communication f r a c t u r i n g i n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s
i s t o connect t h e w e l l s w i t h nearby m a j o r p r o d u c t i v e c r a c k s o r f a u l t s and t o
achieve t h e d e s i r e d h i g h temperatures o f t h e produced f l u i d ( u p t o 270 OF o r mo-
r e ; CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VETTER 1981). D e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e
( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 4 . 4 . 3 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 4 . ) o f f e r s t h e b e s t chance o f i n t e r s e c t -
i n g m a j o r n a t u r a l c r a c k s , whereas a s i n g l e p l a n a r f r a c t u r e m i g h t o n l y p a r a l l e l
and n o t c r o s s t h e p r i n c i p a l n a t u r a l c r a c k s . D e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r e s a r e caused by
p u l s i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n w i t h r e v e r s e f l o w which provokes f o r m a t i o n s p a l l i n g and
d i v e r s i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e wings by downhole s t r e s s m o d i f i c a t i o n . The b e s t r e -
s u l t s a r e achieved i n n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d f o r m a t i o n s where m a j o r and m i n o r f r a c -
t u r e systems a l r e a d y e x i s t b u t may n o t have f l o w c a p a b i l i t y . M u l t i p l e pumping
p e r i o d s a r e used w i t h each stage o f d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g u t i l i z i n g a l o u - v i s c o -
s i t y f l u i d , sand s l u g s and s e v e r a l flow-back p e r i o d s , w i t h h i g h f l o w r a t e s and
f r i c t i o n r e d u c t i o n b e i n g a p p l i e d i n these t r e a t m e n t s (CAMPBELL, HANOLD, S I N -
CLAIR & VETTER 1981; MURPHY & FEHLER 1986). An a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f
new f r a c t u r e s can be r e a c t i v a t i o n o f p r e - e x i s t i n g j o i n t s and f i s s u r e s i n some
cases (NEIER & ERNST 1 9 8 1 ) .

4.7.6. Fracture system enlargement by heat extraction

TESTER, MURPHY, GRIGSBY, POTTER & ROBINSON (1986) document h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r -
i n g and subsequent i n c r e a s e o f a c c e s s i b l e r e s e r v o i r volume and c r a c k e d r o c k s u r -
f a c e area by energy e x t r a c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s which causes s u b s t a n t i a l thermal draw-
down i n p o r t i o n s o f t h e f o r m a t i o n and r e s u l t s i n r e s e r v o i r c o n t r a c t i o n due t o
c o o l i n g which i n c l u d e s opening o f s h r i n k a g e j o i n t s ( i n a comparable manner as
t a k i n g p l a c e d u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n and c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f v o l c a n i c l a v a f l o w s
and p i p e f i l l i n g s ; c f . p l a t e X I / 5 - 6 ) . Excessive r e s e r v o i r s t r e s s e s r e s u l t i n g
from h e a t removal can be r e l e a s e d w i t h s t r e s s u n l o c k i n g t e c h n i q u e s c o m p r i s i n g
 549

i n j e c t i o n a t e l e v a t e d p r e s s u r e s exceeding t h e i n - s i t u normal and f r i c t i o n a l

s t r e s s e s w h i c h h o l d t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e s t o g e t h e r , t h u s g i v i n g r i s e t o shear s l i p -
page and m i c r o s e i s m i c i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.2.3.2.). Large-scale heterogeneities
such as s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f f l o w s i n m u l t i p l e j o i n t s undoubtedly e x e r t g r e a t i n -
f l u e n c e s on h e a t t r a n s f e r behaviour, s i n c e t h e s p a t i a l p o s i t i o n i n g o f these
low-impedance c o n d u i t s e f f e c t i v e l y d e f i n e s t h e a c c e s s i b l e volume o f t h e r o c k .
I n t h e absence o f thermal s t r e s s c r a c k i n g , r e s e r v o i r growth due t o h e a t e x t r a c -
t i o n i s r e a l l y a thermal c o n t r a c t i o n e f f e c t , w i t h t h e f r a c t u r e s expanding due
t o s h r i n k a g e o f t h e r o c k s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c r a c k s upon thermal drawdown. Over-
p r e s s u r i z a t i o n d u r i n g i n j e c t i o n can a c c e l e r a t e enlargement o f t h e f r a c t u r e sys-
tem, and f u r t h e r s u p p o r t i s g i v e n by remedial p r e s s u r i z a t i o n l e a d i n g t o s t r e s s
unlocking.

BODVARSSON, PRUESS & O-SULLIVAN (1985) a l s o document t h e b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t

o f i n j e c t i o n f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e l o n g - t e r m energy o u t p u t f r o m w e l l s because o f
s u p p o r t o f h e a t e x t r a c t i o n f r o m t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k s and maintenance o f h i g h
f l o w r a t e s . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s v e r y h e l p f u l f o r geothermal o p e r a t i o n s where
i n most h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e f i e l d s b r i n e s have t o be r e i n j e c t e d as a consequence
o f r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e maintenance, enhancement o f energy r e c o v e r y f r o m h o t d r y
o r wet f o r m a t i o n rocks, and e n v i r o n m e n t a l s a f e t y o b l i g a t i o n s n o t p e r m i t t i n g s u r -
f a c e d i s p o s a l o f t h e b r i n e s . Aspects o f i n j e c t i o n response o f geothermal r e s e r -
v o i r s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by LIPPMANN, TSANG & WITHERSPOON (1977); BODVARSSON &
TSANG ( 1982) ; GUDMUNDSSON, HAUKSSON, THORHALLSSON, ALBERTSSON & THOROLFSSON
(1984) and GUDMUNDSSON & OLSEN ( 1 9 8 5 ) . R e i n j e c t i o n has t o be done w i t h f l u i d s
o f low gas s a t u r a t i o n , because t h e l o w e r t h e f l o w i n g gas c o n c e n t r a t i o n , the
more b a c k f l o w o f f l u i d s f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e s i n t o t h e m a t r i x o f t h e r e s e r v o i r
r o c k t a k e s p l a c e , t h e r e b y u l t i m a t e l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e c o v e r a b l e geothermal ener-
gy r e s e r v e s (0-SULLIVAN, BODVARSSON, PRUESS & BLAKELEY 1985; BODVARSSON & GAUL-
KE 1986). Success m o n i t o r i n g o f r e s e r v o i r enlargement by h e a t e x t r a c t i o n can
a l s o be performed by m u l t i p l e i n t e r f e r e n c e t e s t i n g o f w e l l s which d e l i n e a t e s r e -
s e r v o i r boundaries (EARLOUGHER & RAMEY 1973; LEAVER, SAGEEV & RAMEY 1986; c f .
s e c t i o n 4.2.4.1.2.2.).

4.7.7. Shear stimulation vs. tensile fracturing

F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e o f h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t s o f j o i n t e d geothermal r e s e r v o i r s i n -
d i c a t e s shear s t i m u l a t i o n t o be t h e d e c i s i v e mechanism i n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d
f o r m a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l t e n s i l e f a i l u r e (MURPHY & FEHLER 1986; c f .
s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.4.2. and 6.2.2.3.2.). A c o u p l e d r o c k mechanics and f l u i d f l o w mo-
d e l shows t h a t shear s l i p p a g e a l o n g p r e - e x i s t i n g j o i n t s i s more e a s i l y induced
t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l t e n s i l e f a i l u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e d i f f e r e n c e between m i -
nimum and maximum e a r t h s t r e s s e s i s l a r g e , t h e j o i n t s a r e o r i e n t e d a t angles
between 30 and 60 degrees t o t h e p r i n c i p a l e a r t h s t r e s s e s , and a l o w - v i s c o s i t y
f l u i d i s i n j e c t e d . Aspects o f o r i g i n o f shear s l i p p a g e , d i l a t i o n b e h a v i o u r ,
j o i n t d e f o r m a t i o n spectrum, and d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s a r e o u t l i n e d as
follows.

4.7.7.1. Origin o f shear slippage

Most r o c k masses c o n t a i n p r e - e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e s o r j o i n t s (MURPHY & FEHLER
1986). I n j e c t i o n o f f l u i d s r e s u l t s i n r e d u c t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e c l o s u r e
s t r e s s . W i t h c o n t i n u i n g i n j e c t i o n , t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e can a t t a i n a v a l u e h i g h
enough t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e c l o s u r e s t r e s s no l o n g e r p r o v i d e s s u f f i c i e n t f r i c t i o n
i n o r d e r t o r e s i s t s h e a r i n g s t r e s s e s a c t i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e j o i n t mode, and
shear s l i p p a g e w i l l occur. S u f f i c i e n t shear s l i p p a g e l e a d s t o o v e r r i d i n g o f one
s u r f a c e a s p e r i t y o v e r o r a t o p another, so t h a t even i f t h e p r e s s u r e i s suddenly
reduced, j o i n t opening and p e r m e a b i l i t y a r e i r r e v e r s i b l y i n c r e a s i n g , r e s u l t i n g
i n shear s t i m u l a t i o n .

If f l u i d i n j e c t i o n r a t e s a r e modest, shear s t i m u l a t i o n may g i v e r i s e t o s u f -

 550

f i c i e n t permeability t h a t no f u r t h e r increase i n pressure i s a t t a i n a b l e . If,

however, t h e f o r m a t i o n o f v o i d space b y s h e a r i n g i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o accommodate
t h e f l u i d volume i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e r o c k j o i n t s , t h e p r e s s u r e w i l l c o n t i n u e t o
r i s e and e v e n t u a l l y a t t a i n a v a l u e e q u a l t o t h e e a r t h s t r e s s a c t i n g n o r m a l t o
t h e j o i n t and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e e f f e c t i v e c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s z e r o , w i t h t h e n t h e
o p p o s i n g s u r f a c e s o f t h e r o c k t h a t meet a t t h e j o i n t s t a r t i n g t o p a r t . T h i s
j o i n t s e p a r a t i o n does n o t i n v o l v e a c t u a l r u p t u r i n g o f t h e r o c k and t h u s t h e p r o -
c e s s s h o u l d n o t be c a l l e d f r a c t u r i n g . I f p r o p p a n t s , e i t h e r p u r p o s e l y i n j e c t e d
w i t h the f l u i d o r a c c i d e n t a l l y broken o f f the j o i n t surfaces, a r e trapped w i t h -
i n t h e crack f o l l o w i n g shut-in, j o i n t s t i m u l a t i o n i s achieved by i r r e v e r s i b l e
increase o f j o i n t opening.

4.7.7.2. Dilation behaviour

The d i l a t i o n b e h a v i o u r f o r s l i p p a g e and s e p a r a t i o n o f j o i n t s i s q u i t e d i f f e -
r e n t (MURPHY & FEHLER 1 9 8 6 ) . W i t h i n c r e a s i n g f l u i d p r e s s u r e , d i l a t i o n i s f i r s t
s m a l l and s i m p l y r e s u l t s f r o m t h e d e c r e a s e o f e f f e c t i v e c l o s u r e s t r e s s , but
t h e n s h e a r s l i p p a g e ensues. L4ith c o n t i n u i n g j o i n t s l i p p a g e , t h e c r a c k s u r f a c e s
a t t a i n a s t a t e i n w h i c h one l a r g e r o u g h n e s s a s p e r i t y l i e s a t o p a n o t h e r and f u r -
t h e r s l i p p a g e w o u l d a l l o w t h e l a r g e s t a s p e r i t y t o s l i d e o v e r and down t h e
o t h e r , w i t h t h e maximum s h e a r d i l a t i o n t y p i c a l l y b e i n g i n t h e o r d e r t o a f r a c -
t i o n o f a m i l l i m e t e r (BARTON, BANDIS & BAKHTAR 1 9 8 5 ) . F u r t h e r i n c r e a s i n g j o i n t
p r e s s u r e t h e n l e a d s t o s e p a r a t i o n w i t h o r i g i n o f an o p e n i n g o f t y p i c a l l y t e n s
o f m i l l i m e t e r s (PERKINS & KERN 1961, DANESHY 1973 a ) . T h e r e f o r e t h e k e y t o u n -
d e r s t a n d i n g s t i m u l a t i o n l i e s i n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f r o c k m e c h a n i c s and f l u i d dyna-
m i c s and i n v o l v e s b o t h s h e a r s l i p p a g e and t e n s i l e f a i l u r e (LOCKNER & BYERLEE
1977, MURPHY & FEHLER 1986; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.8.8.4.2. and 6 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) .

Thus w h i l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g has been c o n v e n t i o n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o com-

p r i s e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y t e n s i l e f a i l u r e o f t h e r o c k and s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e
c r a c k w a l l s , s h e a r s l i p p a g e s t i m u l a t i o n i s a l s o a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s (LOCK-
NER & BYERLEE 1977, HAST 1979; SOLBERG, LOCKNER & BYERLEE 1 9 8 0 ) , p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n h o t d r y r o c k g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r s (MURPHY & FEHLER 1986; TESTER, IWRPHY,
GRIGSBY, POTTER & ROSINSON 1 9 8 6 ) .

4.7,7.3. Joint deformation system

I n an a c t u a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n , t h e e n t i r e s p e c t r u m o f j o i n t de-
f o r m a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e (MURPHY & FEHLER 1 9 8 6 ) . N e a r t h e i n j e c t i o n w e l l where t h e
f l o w passage a r e a i s l i m i t e d , f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s and p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s a r e l a r g e
and s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s . N e a r t h e t i p s o f t h e f r a c t u r e s f a r away f r o m t h e i n j e c -
tion well, however, f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s and p r e s s u r e s a r e much r e d u c e d and s h e a r
s t i m u l a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e . D i s t i n c t i o n has t o b e made between r o c k m e c h a n i c s and
f l u i d d y n a n i c s i n h y d r o c a r b o n and g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r s . I n p e t r o l e u m - b e a r i n g
formations, very viscous f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s are normally i n j e c t e d a t h i g h rates,
w i t h c o n s e q u e n t l y j o i n t s e p a r a t i o n b e i n g d o m i n a n t , and because i n many c a s e s
o n l y a l i m i t e d amount o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s e x i s t s , a c t u a l j o i n t i n g o f t h e r o c k b y
t e n s i l e f a i l u r e o c c u r s . I n g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r s , however, n a t u r a l j o i n t s o c c u r
f r e q u e n t l y , and h i g h downhole t e m p e r a t u r e s r e n d e r m o s t v i s c o s i f y i n g a g e n t s u s e -
l e s s , w i t h t h e r e f o r e w a t e r b e i n g u s e d as f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and t h i s l o w f l u i d
v i s c o s i t y l e a d s t o a dominance o f s h e a r s t i m u l a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 7 . 3 . 5 . ) .

Microearthquake m o n i t o r i n g o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n r e v e a l s shear

s l i p p a g e a l o n g e x i s t i n g j o i n t s t o be t h e d o m i n a n t cause o f s e i s m i c i t y and a z o -
ne o f m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s o c c u r r i n g p r e d o m i n a n t l y b y s h e a r f a i l u r e , t h u s b e i n g
i n c o n t r a s t t o the conventional hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g theory t h a t p r e d i c t s the
p r o p a g a t i o n o f a s i n g l e c r a c k due t o t e n s i l e r o c k f a i l u r e a t a p r e s s u r e e q u a l
t o t h e minimum e a r t h s t r e s s (MURPHY & FEHLER 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 2 . ) .
Shear s t i m u l a t i o n m o d e l l i n g b y i n t e r a c t i v e c o u p l i n g o f f l u i d dynamics w i t h r o c k
s t r e s s e s and d e f o r m a t i o n shows t h a t when t h e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g
 551

j o i n t s were r o t a t e d 30 degrees f r o m t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n s and a low-

v i s c o s i t y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d l i k e w a t e r i s used, two types o f s t i m u l a t i o n p a t t e r n
occur.

The f i r s t t y p e comprises c r e a t i o n o f o n l y a s i n g l e j o i n t i f f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s -
tance t o shear s l i p p a g e i s low and maximum d i l a t a n c y ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.1.3.1.)
due t o shear i s l a r g e . The second t y p e i n c l u d e s m u l t i p l e j o i n t s t i m u l a t i o n c o r -
responding t o h i g h shear r e s i s t a n c e o r small d i l a t a n c y . Shear s l i p p a g e a l o n g
t h e j o i n t s i s accompanied by s h e a r - s t r e s s drops, and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f these
s t r e s s drops w i t h t h e a c t i n g e a r t h s t r e s s e s r e s u l t s i n opening o f j o i n t s more
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e maximum s t r e s s , w i t h t h u s a d e n d r i t i c o r branched j o i n t
p a t t e r n o r i g i n a t i n g . T h i s d e n d r i t i c s t i m u l a t i o n f a b r i c c o n s i s t i n g o f mu1 t i p l e
branches has i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s i n r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g , because volume
d r a i n a g e i s more e f f i c i e n t than a r e a l d r a i n a g e .

4 7.7.4. Dendr i t i c f ract ur i n s treatments

D e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s have o r i g i n a l l y been i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e hydro-
carbon e x p l o i t a t i o n i n d u s t r y and a r e u s u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t by r e p e a t e d l y f r a c t u -
r i n g a w e l l w i t h a p r o p p a n t - b e a r i n g f l u i d and then s h u t t i n g - i n and v e n t i n g i t
(KIEL 1977; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.4.4.3. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 4 . ) . The f i r s t c y c l e o f p r e s s u r i -
z a t i o n r e s u l t s i n s p a l l i n g and s e l f - p r o p p i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.1.1.1.2. and
4.5.1.5.1.) o f t h e main f r a c t u r e , and i n subsequent c y c l e s , t h e proppant purpo-
s e l y introduced i n the f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d bridges the spall-proppants, w i t h thus
p r e s s u r e r i s i n g and l a t e r a l f r a c t u r e s b e i n g propagated p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e
main c r a c k . W h i l e t h e mechanism proposed by KIEL (1977) p o s s i b l y works when t h e
p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s i n two d i r e c t i o n s a r e n e a r l y t h e same, t h e model o f MURPHY &
FEHLER (1986) shows t h a t i n case o f c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r i n g s t r e s s e s , p r e s s u r e
r i s e i n t h e b l o c k e d main f r a c t u r e would s i m p l y r e s u l t i n f u r t h e r l i f t - o f f o f
t h e l a r g e c r a c k , t h e r e b y overcoming t h e temporary blockage and a l l o w i n g t h e
main f r a c t u r e t o c o n t i n u e i t s p r o p a g a t i o n w i t h o u t opening o f secondary l a t e r a l
cracks.

The key t o d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g , however, i s shear which a l l o w s t h e necessa-

r y r e d u c t i o n o f t h e e a r t h s t r e s s p a r a l l e l t o t h e main f r a c t u r e i n o r d e r t o p e r -
m i t opening o f l a t e r a l j o i n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 4 . 2 . ) . Dendritic fracturing
can t h u s o c c u r under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , b e i n g t h a t t h e m a j o r j o i n t s a r e n o t
p a r a l l e l t o t h e p r i n c i p a l e a r t h s t r e s s e s and t h a t f l o w r a t e and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y
w i t h i n t h e j o i n t s a r e low enough t h a t shear d i l a t i o n i s s t i l l s u f f i c i e n t t o
transmit the f l u i d r a t e w i t h o u t excessive pressure gradients.
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4.8. Minifracturing and other small-scale fracturing

H y d r s u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g c a r r i e d o u t i n Europe and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e
w o r l d so f a r m a i n l y comprised more o r l e s s f u l l - s c a l e l a r g e r o r s m a l l e r t r e a t -
ments w i t h r e s p e c t t o r e s e r v o i r s i z e and aimed on optimum s t i m u l a t i o n ( w i t h t h e
achievement o f t h i s g o a l , however, a l s o i n c l u d i n g h i g h c o s t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n ) ,
w i t h i n most cases b o t h f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and f r a c t u r e h e i g h t h a v i n g been d e s i g -
ned near t h e upper boundaries o f t e c h n i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y o f performance as w e l l
as economical f e a s i b i l i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) . M i n i a t u r e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g and o t h e r s m a l l - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g , however, can n o t o n l y o f t e n be a
t e c h n i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e t o l a r g e - s c a l e s t i m u l a t i o n , b u t can i n many cases a l s o r e -
p r e s e n t e c o n o m i c a l l y s u i t a b l e approaches o f m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s .

V a r i o u s aspects o f m i n i f r a c t u r i n g and o t h e r s m a l l - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g i n c l u d i n g
p r e - t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e breakdown t e s t and f r a c t u r e parameter d e t e r m i n a t i o n , f o r -
m a t i o n damage around t h e w e l l b o r e , f i e l d experiments and mHF vs. MHF, p i l o t s t i -
m u l a t i o n o f m a r g i n a l w s e r v o i r s , h o r i z o n t a l w e l l o r d r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g and f r a c -
t u r i n g , u p t a k e c a p a c i t y enhancement o f i n j e c t i o n w e l l s , c o m b i n a t i o n o f n a t u r a l
and a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s , l a t e - s t a g e r e f r a c t u r i n g o f o l d w e l l s , and c o m b i n a t i o n
o f a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and o t h e r aspects a r e b r i e f l y sketched as f o l -
lows. Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on o p t i m i z a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and h e i g h t
which a r e some o f t h e key parameters f o r t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n . The d i s c u s s i o n i s i n -
troduced by a s h o r t o v e r v i e w o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s and d e f i n i t i o n s o f mini-
f r a c t u r e , m i c r o f r a c t u r e and MHF o p e r a t i o n s .

4.8.1. Minifracture, microfracture

and MHF definitions and principles
The account on m i n i f r a c t u r i n g and o t h e r s m a l l - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t s i s i n t r o d u c e d
by b r i e f l y d e f i n i n g and o u t l i n i n g m i n i f r a c t u r e , m i c r o f r a c t u r e and massive f r a c -
t u r e o p e r a t i o n s w i t h c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t y p i c a l f e a t u r e s and comparative e f f e c -
t i v e n e s s . Some comments on mini-massive f r a c t u r e a r e a l s o o f f e r e d .

4.8.1.1. Minifracture and microfracture

M i n i f r a c t u r e s a r e scaled-down t r e a t m e n t s which a r e pumped a t more o r l e s s
t h e same f l u i d r a t e s p e r t i m e i n t e r v a l as t h e f u l l - s i z e b i g o p e r a t i o n (VEATCH
1983). M i n i f r a c t u r e s a r e i n most cases performed by i n j e c t i o n o f f l u i d a t r a t e s
o f 12 - 15 b b l / m i n , and t h e o n l y d i f f e r e n c e t o l a r g e - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g j o b s i s
t h e l i m i t e d t o t a l pumped volume o f t h e m i n i f r a c t u r e which i s m a i n l y i n t h e r a n -
ge o f 5,000 - 40,000 g a l (PAI, GARBIS & HALL 1983). The f l u i d t a k e n f o r t h e m i -
n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n t r e a t m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . 1 . ) i s u s u a l l y t h e same as
a n t i c i p a t e d t o be a p p l i e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e MHF o p e r a t i o n .
F o r p r o p e r f o r m a t i o n t e s t i n g , t h e m i n i f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d has t o be p r o p p a n t - f r e e
i n o r d e r t o a l l o w u n r e s t r i c t e d c l o s u r e o f t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.2.5.).
M i c r o f r a c t u r e s d i f f e r from m i n i f r a c t u r e s by c o m p r i s i n g r e d u c t i o n o f b o t h t o t a l
volume and pumped f l u i d r a t e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o f u l l - s i z e o p e r a t i o n s .

M i c r o f r a c t u r e s a r e t y p i c a l l y performed w i t h v e r y low f l u i d r a t e s down t o 1

g a l / m i n and w i t h v e r y low t o t a l f l u i d amounts up t o a b t . 500 - 1,000 g a l , and
a r e small breakdown f r a c t u r e s c o m p r i s i n g h y d r a u l i c f o r m a t i o n breakdown a f t e r
b u l l e t o r j e t p e r f o r a t i o n (BRANAGAN & WILMER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . 2 . ) . W h i l e
p r o p p a n t i n s e r t i o n i n t o c r a c k s c r e a t e d by m i n i f r a c t u r i n g may be q u i t e common,
m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g i s e x c l u s i v e l y done w i t h o u t p r o p p a n t s . M i n i f r a c t u r e s o r m i c r o -
f r a c t u r e s f o r s p e c i a l purposes may comprise volumes as low as 500 - 10,000 g a l
o r 1 - 250 g a l , r e s p e c t i v e l y (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN & WILMER 1985).

Aspects o f m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g a r e a l s o discussed by EVANS & ENGELDER (1986),

CRAMER & SONGER (1988), HUCKABEE (1988) ; SHLYAPOBERSKY, UALHAUG, SHEFFIELD &
HUCKABEE (1988) and SHLYAPOBERSKY, WONG & WALHAUG ( 1 9 8 8 ) . M i n i f r a c t u r i n s f l u i d
 553

q u a n t i t y i s o f t e n designed t o be approximately equal t o t h e pad volume o f t h e

main treatment (SATTLER, KAIBLE, GALL & GILL 1988). P o i n t s o f m i n i - and micro-
f r a c t u r i n g are a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d by McLENNAN & ROEGIERS (1982) and SHLYAPOBERSKY
(1985). Another small-scale s t i m u l a t i o n treatment i s the b u c k e t f r a c t u r e where
more o r l e s s a bucket o f n a t u r a l sand o r s y n t h e t i c proppants i s i n j e c t e d i n t o
the very near surroundings o f t h e borehole ( c f . DETOURNAY, McLENNAN & ROEGIERS
1986; ROEGIERS 1987). CROW (1977) documents m i n i a t u r e massive f r a c t u r i n g as a
t r a n s i t i o n a l o r i n t e r m e d i a t e s t i m u l a t i o n technique f o r l o w - p o r o s i t y and -permea-
b i l i t y zones ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.1.3.).

4.8.1.2. Massive fracture

Massive f r a c t u r e s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d as f o l l o w s by proppant q u a n t i t i e s and
f r a c t u r e wing l e n g t h s i n comparison t o m i n i f r a c t u r e s and m i c r o f r a c t u r e s . Some
examples o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n t i g h t gas sand stimu-
l a t i o n are a l s o o u t l i n e d .

4.8.1.2.1. Proppant quantities and fracture wing lengths

I n comparison t o t h e s i z e o f m i n i f r a c t u r e s and m i c r o f r a c t u r e s , massive hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (MHF) treatments comprise f l u i d volumes i n the range o f
100,000 -1 Mio. gal o r even more (PAI, G A R B I S & HALL 1983; VEATCH 1983; up t o
3,000 m3; TEUFEL 1981). Proppant volumes from a b t . 100 t (200,000 l b s ) v i a f r e -
q u e n t l y 1,000 t (2,000,000 l b s ) up t o 2,500 t ( 5 Mio. l b s ) are pumped i n MHF
operations where f r a c t u r e wings i n excess o f 1,000 f t (300 m) up t o 2,500 ft
(800 m) i n most a p p l i c a t i o n s and i n extreme cases up t o 4,500 f t (1,500 m)
l e n s t h and over 200,000 f t 2 area are c r e a t e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.1.1.4.). Gross f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t determining crack volume and n e t f r a c t u r e h e i g h t marking t h e h e i g h t
over which f l u i d l o s s w i l l occur are i n the ranges o f 100 - 1,000 f t (30 - 330
in) and 30 - 300 f t (10 - 100 m), r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n most o f the MHF treatments.
MHF operations are g e n e r a l l y c a r r i e d o u t i n t i g h t gas sands w i t h l e s s than 0 . 1
md e f f e c t i v e r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.4.1.) and have i n the
USA so f a r been s u c c e s s f u l l y performed i n many regions o f the Rocky Mountains
area.

4.8.1.2.2. Applications in tight gas sand stimulation

Some o f the key a p p l i c a t i o n patches o f MHF treatments i n the USA comprise
San Juan Basin (Dakota r e s e r v o i r ) o f Northwest New Mexico, Wattenberg f i e l d
(Muddy " 5 " ) i n the Denver B a s i n o f Colorado, Wamsutter f i e l d (Mesa Verde) i n
the Green R i v e r Basin i n Southern Wyoming, Moxa Arch ( F r o n t i e r ) i n Southwestern
Wyoming, Cotton V a l l e y Sand and Lime i n East Texas, Cotton V a l l e y Formation i n
Louisiana and Arkansas, Canyon Sand Formation o f West Texas, A u s t i n Chalk o f
South and C e n t r a l Texas, and Morrow and Atoka Formations o f Southeast New Mexi-
co (PAI, GARBIS & HALL 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 3.4.1.1.). Massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g i n t i g h t gas sands i n Europe i s c h i e f l y c a r r i e d o u t i n R o t l i e g e n d and Up-
per Carboniferous i n B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern N o r t h Sea as w e l l as Nether-
lands and Germany FRG onshore ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.1. and 3.3.) and i n the T e r t i a -
r y o f Yugoslavia and Hungary ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.3.1.).

While most t i g h t gas sands are deep, compacted and normal- t o overpressured,
o c c a s i o n a l l y a l s o shallow o r underpressured t i g h t gas sands occur (RICE & SHURR
1978; NYDEGGER, R I C E & BROWN 1979; BROWN & CRAFTON 1981, GAUTIER & R I C E 1981;
KUKAL, BIDDISON, HILL, MONSON & SIMONS 1983). D i s t i n c t i o n has a l s o t o be made
between b l a n k e t - t y p e and l e n t i c u l a r t i g h t gas sands, w i t h the l a t t e r category
o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s b e i n g w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e Greater Green R i -
ver, Piceance, Wind R i v e r and U i n t a basins (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, LO-
RENZ, NORTHROP, MANN & FROHNE 1985). Other aspects o f t i g h t gas sand formations
and basins a r e discussed i n s e c t i o n 3.4.1.
 554

4.8.1.3. Mini -massive fracture

M i n i - m a s s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n i s an i n t e r m e d i a t e o r t r a n s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e b e t -
ween massive t r e a t m e n t and m i n i f r a c t u r i n g which combines s e v e r a l methods common-
l y used t o i n c r e a s e f r a c t u r i n g e f f i c i e n c y and t o improve r e s u l t s i n c l u d i n g con-
t r o l o f f l u i d l o s s i n t o h a i r l i n e f r a c t u r e s and m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y , s u p e r v i s i o n
o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t , and achievement o f a d e e p l y - p e n e t r a t i n g and h i g h l y - p a c k e d
f r a c t u r e (CROW 1 9 7 7 ) . F o l l o w i n g some comments on d i l a t a n c y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g , t h e d e s i g n o f mini-massive f r a c t u r e s i s o u t l i n e d .

4.8.1.3.1. Dilatancy of hydraulic fracturing

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f underground f o r m a t i o n s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d i l a t a n c y
which comprises g e n e r a t i o n o f numerous t i n y c r a c k s i n c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n s as
r o c k approaches i t s b r e a k i n g p o i n t (CROW 1977). Subsurface r o c k s a r e t r i a x i a l l y
loaded due t o t h e f o r c e e x e r t e d upon them by t h e o v e r l y i n g s t r a t a . T h i s v e r t i -
c a l f o r c e o r s t r e s s imposed on t h e r o c k causes a h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s t o e x i s t
w i t h i n t h e r o c k system. I f t h e r o c k were n o t c o n f i n e d w i t h i n t h e e a r t h , t h i s
v e r t i c a l f o r c e would express i t s e l f by c a u s i n g t h e r o c k t o deform o r expand i t s
l a t e r a l dimensions. When p r e s s u r e i s a p p l i e d f r o m w i t h i n such a system, t h e
r o c k r u p t u r e s o r f r a c t u r e s i n a p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l e a s t amount o f
s t r e s s on t h e system, w i t h these s t r e s s e s c o n t r o l l i n g f r a c t u r e d i r e c t i o n and de-
t e r m i n i n g whether t h e c r a c k p l a n e w i l l be h o r i z o n t a l , v e r t i c a l o r i n c l i n e d .

D u r i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n , numerous t i n y c r a c k s f o r m as t h e
r o c k approaches i t s b r e a k i n g p o i n t due t o t h e a p p l i e d pressure, and d i l a t a n c y
then c o n t i n u e s t o occur along t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e c r a c k as i t p r o g r e s s e s
outward i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n . D i l a t a n c y d u r i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s t h e reason
f o r premature screenout i n v e r y l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4.2.3.5.3. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) , f a i l u r e of t h e f r a c t u r e t o p e n e t r a t e t h e designed
l e n g t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) , and f a i l u r e o f w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y t o a c h i e v e p r e -
d i c t e d f o l d s o f i n c r e a s e . The e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t a p o r t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n
f l u i d l e a k s o f f i n t o t h e numerous t i n y c r a c k s and t h e encountered n a t u r a l f r a c -
t u r e s , w i t h t h e f l u i d h a v i n g been l o s t t o o r i g i n a l and a r t i f i c i a l h a i r l i n e f i s -
sures n o t b e i n g a v a i l a b l e f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n ( t h i s secondary
f l u i d l e a k o f f i n t o n a t u r a l and s y n t h e t i c h a i r l i n e c r a c k s i s a l s o d i s c u s s e d by
WARPINSKI 1988 a; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) .

4.8.1.3.2. Design of mini-massive fracturing

Secondary f l u i d l o s s i n t o h a i r l i n e f i s s u r e s can be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y c o n t r o l l e d
w i t h 100 mesh sand as a spearhead i n t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t (CROW
1977; c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.11.2.1. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) . Dropping o f proppants o u t o f
t h e c r a c k p r i o r t o i t s c l o s u r e and f a l l o u t i n t u b i n g o r c a s i n g can be a v o i d e d
by b l e e d i n g t h e w e l l i m m e d i a t e l y back a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t t o a l l o w t h e f r a c t u r e
t o c l o s e and t o h o l d t h e p r o p p a n t s i n p l a c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.2.2.1.), and f u r -
t h e r improvement can be made b y u s i n g h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r complete
p a c k i n g o f t h e e n t i r e c r a c k ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.5.). T h e r e f o r e m i n i - m a s s i v e f r a c t u -
r i n g i s designed t o t i e t o g e t h e r s e v e r a l techniques t h a t have been used i n d i v i -
d u a l l y i n t h e p a s t t o i n c r e a s e c r a c k e f f i c i e n c y . The sequence o f elements i n m i -
n i - m a s s i v e t r e a t i n g i n c l u d e s i d e a l l y pumping o f a pad f l u i d c o n t a i n i n g 100 mesh
sand i n o r d e r t o p r o p and t o c o n t r o l l e a k o f f i n t o s m a l l c r a c k s and n a t u r a l f r a c -
tures, i n j e c t i n g a s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d l i m i t i n g l o s s i n t o m a t r i x permeability,
u s i n g a p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n as h i g h as o p e r a t i o n a l l y f e a s i b l e i n o r d e r t o f i l l
t h e e n t i r e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t , and b l e e d i n g t h e w e l l back as soon and as
f a s t as p r a c t i c a l so t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e w i l l c l o s e and t r a p t h e p r o p p a n t w h i l e
i t i s s t i l l suspended i n t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 1 . ) .
 555

F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e has r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e optimum s i z i n g o f m i n i - m a s s i v e f r a c t u -
r e j o b s i s a b t . 10,000 - 50,000 l b s o f 100 mesh sand, 50,000 - 100,000 l b s o f
20/40 proppants, f a c u l t a t i v e l y up t o 10,000 l b s o f 16/20 o r 10120 proppants,
and 20,000 - 50,000 g a l o f g e l l e d w a t e r o r o t h e r f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d . Thus t h e
f l u i d volume i s w i t h i n t h e range o f c o n v e n t i o n a l m i n i f r a c t u r e s , whereas t h e
p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y i s a l r e a d y approaching t h e lower boundary o f massive s t i m u l a -
t i o n t r e a t m e n t s , and t h e b r i d g e f r o m mere c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t t o r e a l r e s e r v o i r i m -
provement i s b u i l t by i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e 100 mesh sand stage which i s a m a j o r
element o f performance a m e l i o r a t i o n .

4.8.2. Pre-fracturing pressure breakdown test

and fracture parameter determination
M i n i a t u r e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g j o b s ( m i n i f r a c t u r e s , mHF; NOLTE 1979, SMITH
1981; CONWAY, McGOWEN, GUNDERSON & K I N G 1985) have h i t h e r t o been m a i n l y done as
p r e - f r a c t u r i n g breakdown and/or i n j e c t i o n t e s t s i n o r d e r t o open t h e f o r m a t i o n
w i t h o u t i n s e r t i o n o f proppants, w i t h t h e main purpose b e i n g t o o b t a i n d e f i n i t e
f i g u r e s t h a t c o u l d r e p l a c e t h e p r e l i m i n a r y and p a r t i a l l y s t i l l q u e s t i o n a b l e as-
sumptions o f f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t , f r a c t u r e pressure, c l o s u r e s t r e s s ( c f . s e c t i o n s
1.2.1.1. and 1.3.2.1.), c l o s u r e time, f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y , e f f e c t i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f
c o e f f i c i e n t , f r a c t u r e l e n g t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.11.), fracture height, fracture
w i d t h , and o t h e r i m p o r t a n t d a t a i n t h e d e s i g n w i t h t h e f r a c t u r i n g s i m u l a t o r i n
o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t f i n a l o p t i m i z a t i o n r u n s b e f o r e t h e b i g j o b i s executed
(LOCKE & SAWYER 1975; ABOU-SAYEO, BRECHTEL & CLIFTON 1977; ZOBACK & POLLARD
1978; NOLTE 1979, 1982; SMITH 1981; VOEGELE, ABOU-SAYEO & JONES 1982; AHMED,
KELKAR & SCHATZ 1983; VEATCH 1983, CUESTA & ELPHICK 1984; PEARSON, ABOU-SAYED &
NGUYEN 1984; CONWAY, McGOWEN, GUNDERSON & K I N G 1985; ELPHICK 1985; LEE 1985,
1987; MARTINS & HARPER 1985; HOLOITCH, ROBINSON & WHITEHEAD 1986; ROBINSON, HOL-
DITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986; TANSOE, K I N G & HOLWAN 1986; MOSCHOVIDIS 1987; SMITH,
MILLER & HAGA 1987; TAN, McGOWEN, LEE & SOLIMAN 1988).

The determined parameters a r e t h e n used f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f presence o f n a t u -

r a l f r a c t u r e s , pad volume r e q u i r e d , b e s t f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s t o be used, and
achievement o f optimum f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n (TAN, McGOWEN, LEE & SOLIMAN
1988). Some p o i n t s o f m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n experiments, m i c r o f r a c t u r e break-
down procedures, p r e s s u r e a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n i n p u t d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , s i z e and
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m i n i f r a c t u r i n g , p r o p p a n t vs. non-proppant m i n i f r a c t u r i n g , and
m o d i f i e d m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g and m i n i f r a c t u r i n g a n a l y s i s f o r o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a -
t e d f r a c t u r e d e s i g n a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.2.1. Minifracture calibration experiments

M i n i f r a c t u r e s can t h e r e f o r e a l s o be regarded as c a l i b r a t i o n experiments f o r
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f r a c t u r e s i m u l a t o r s (BRANAGAN, CIPOLLA, LEE & YAN 1987; HOL-
DITCH, ROBINSON, WHITEHEAD & ELY 1987) and i n f a c t r e p r e s e n t scaled-down t r i a l
r u n s o f t h e main f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t (BARBY & BARBEE 1987) o r dummy stages p r i o r
t o t h e a c t u a l f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n (OSBORNE, McLEOD & SCHROEDER 1981) and a r e
i n f a c t d a t a - g a t h e r i n g j o b s (HOOVER & AOAMS 1988). The most i m p o r t a n t aims and
purposes o f m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n experiments a r e d i m i n u t i o n o f s c r e e n o u t r a -
t e s and f l u i d - l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n .

4.8.2.1.1. Diminution of screenout rates

If p r o p e r l y performed, m i n i f r a c t u r e s have c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r c u t -
t i n g down s c r e e n o u t r a t e s i n t h e main s t i m u l a t i o n treatments, because many
screenout reasons a r e based on i n s u f f i c i e n t knowledge o f f o r m a t i o n b e h a v i o u r
and incorrect assumptions o f f l u i d l o s s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.3.5.3. and
6.2.4.2.1.). F l u i d l e a k o f f may be caused by occurrence o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s ,
f a i l u r e o f f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e and h i g h e r m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y t h a n expected.
 556

O t h e r common s c r e e n o u t reasons a r e f o r m a t i o n response o t h e r than a n t i c i p a t e d

and l e s s t h a n adequate q u a l i t y c o n t r o l o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s . I n a d d i t i o n t o b e t -
t e r information derived from m i n i f r a c t u r i n g experimental treatments, screenout
r a t e s can be decreased by computer m o n i t o r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.4.3.) which o f -
t e n enables e a r l y s c r e e n o u t p r e d i c t i o n d u r i n g t h e j o b and i t s p r e v e n t i o n by on-
t h e - s p o t changing o f t h e pumping schedule. Improvements o f f l u i d s t o guarantee
t h e i r s t a b i l i t y i n h i g h e r temperature f o r l o n g e r t i m e a l s o a s s i s t i n a v o i d i n g
screenout f a i l u r e .

4.8.2.1.2. Fluid-loss coefficient determination

One o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n parameters t o be d e t e r -
mined by m i n i f r a c t u r e a n a l y s i s i s t h e f l u i d - l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t (TAN, McGOWEN, LEE
& SOLIMAN 1988). Loss o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n i s a dominant and
decisive f a c t o r i n hydraulic f r a c t u r e propagation. Local geological v a r i a b i l i t y
and presence o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s r e n d e r l a b o r a t o r y s i m u l a t i o n s ambiguous and r e -
q u i r e i n - s i t u f l u i d - l e a k o f f parameter d e t e r m i n a t i o n f r o m p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e f o l -
l o w i n g a s m a l l - s c a l e c a l i b r a t e d f r a c t u r i n g schedule. Since t h e aim o f mapping a
m i n i f r a c t u r e by techniques such as a c o u s t i c e m i s s i o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( c f . sec-
t i o n 6.2.2.3.2.5.) i s t o look a t the f e a s i b i l i t y o f large-scale h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o measure t h e e v o l u t i o n o f downhole p r e s -
s u r e which can be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h l o c a l s t r e s s e s (SARDA, PERREAU & DEFLANDRE
1988; c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 4 . ) .

A p p l i c a b i l i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y o f m i n i f r a c t u r i n g a n a l y s i s has i n t h e l a s t
y e a r s been f a c i l i t a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y by i n t r o d u c t i o n o f computerized vans e q u i p -
ped w i t h s p e c i a l hardware t o more a c c u r a t e l y m o n i t o r p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e and deve-
lopment o f adequate s o f t w a r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 3 . ) . Aspects o f m i n i f r a c t u r e as-
sessment a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by LEE (1986) and SOLIMAN ( 1 9 8 6 ) . An a d d i t i o n a l
technique o f f o r m a t i o n e v a l u a t i o n i s p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e a n a l y s i s (NOLTE 1979, NOL-
TE & SMITH 1981) which g i v e s optimum r e s u l t s i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h m i n i f r a c t u r e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Some p o i n t s o f m i c r o f r a c t u r e breakdown procedures, p r e s s u r e ana-
l y s i s and d e s i g n i n p u t d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , s i z e and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m i n i f r a c t u -
r i n g , and p r o p p a n t v s . non-proppant m i n i f r a c t u r i n g a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.2.2. Microfracture breakdown procedures

BRANAGAN & WILMER (1988) d i s c u s s a s e r i e s o f m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g breakdown p r o c e -
dures t o m i n i m i z e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e damage i n j o i n t e d t i g h t gas sandstone r e s e r -
v o i r s . I f p e r f o r a t i n g a l o n e does n o t p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t p r o d u c t i o n o r when p e r -
f o r a t i o n s y i e l d r e s t r i c t e d , uneven o r damaged f l o w paths, m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g break-
down i s c a r r i e d o u t i n o r d e r t o m i t i g a t e these u n d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t s . M i c r o f r a c t u -
r i n g breakdown c r e a t e s small c r a c k s e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e t h r o u g h t h e p e r -
f o r a t i o n s i n t o the formation.

The m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g process g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t s o f pumping o f a l o w - v i s c o s i t y

non-damaging f l u i d a t s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h r a t e s t o i n i t i a t e and propagate a s h o r t
c r a c k t h a t emanates f r o m t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and extends beyond t h e damage zone.
The use o f b a l l s e a l e r s o r o t h e r d i v e r t i n g agents ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.1.1.) du-
r i n g m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g p r o v i d e s adequate c o n t r o l o f f l u i d and f r a c t u r e placement.
I n t h e course o f d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i n g a w e l l , numerous mechanisms can de-
grade t h e o r i g i n a l h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.8.3.) such as i n v a s i o n o f d r i l l i n g mud ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.11.2.) t h a t may u l t i -
m a t e l y a c t as a p l u g , cements squeezed i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e , p e r f o r a t i o n s and
n e a r - w e l l b o r e s t r e s s changes t h a t c o u l d t e n d t o c l o s e t h e f r a c t u r e , and i n t e r f a -
c i a l t e n s i o n a l f o r c e s g e n e r a l l y d e s c r i b e d by c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e o f invaded com-
p l e t i o n l i q u i d s which l i m i t f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y .

Non-aqueous microfracturing breakdown techniques t h a t aim on a v o i d i n g w a t e r

 557

b l o c k i n g i n t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.11.2.4.2.) i n c l u d e hy-

d r a u l i c n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g u s i n g s u r f a c e pump t r u c k s , p e r f o r a t i n g w i t h an un-
derbalanced n i t r o g e n column, h i g h - p r e s s u r e n i t r o g e n impulse p e r f o r a t i n g / m i c r o -
f r a c t u r i n g combination, n i t r o g e n impulse i n j e c t i o n u s i n g a t u b i n g pump-out
p l u g , and t a i l o r e d p u l s e e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.1.3.3.). Nitro-
gen a l o n e can be e f f e c t i v e l y employed i n m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g breakdown procedures
(as w e l l as on l a r g e r s c a l e f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f shales; c f . s e c t i o n
4.4.4.2.). P e r f o r a t i n g i n a d r y underbalanced n i t r o g e n w e l l b o r e column s u c c e s s i -
v e l y connects b o r e h o l e and h i g h l y c o n d u c t i v e n a t u r a l c r a c k s . N i t r o g e n impulse
perforating/microfracturing combination using high-pressure n i t r o g e n t o simulta-
neously create f r a c t u r e s during p e r f o r a t i o n i s also successful i n achieving the
d e s i r e d w e l l b o r e enhancement. N i t r o g e n impulse t e c h n i q u e i s a p r a c t i c a l reme-
d i a l t r e a t m e n t o f n e a r - w e l l b o r e and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e damage.

4.8.2.3. Pressure analysis and design input data collection

The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m i n i f r a c t u r e a n a l y s i s by p r e s s u r e m o d e l l i n g r e s u l t i n g i n
crack parameter and geometry d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n 1979 (NOLTE 1979, NOLTE & SMITH
1981; c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.4.2.4.) was t h e second m a j o r b r e a k t h r o u g h i n h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n o l o g y a p a r t f r o m t h e i n v e n t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e - and
h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants (SOLIMAN 1986). M i n i f r a c t u r e e v a l u a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f p e r -
f o r m i n g a s m a l l f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t w i t h l i t t l e o r no proppants a f t e r which
t h e w e l l i s s h u t i n and p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e w i t h t i m e i s m o n i t o r e d . As t h e r a t e o f
p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e w i t h t i m e depends on f o r m a t i o n , f l u i d and f r a c t u r e parameters,
m i n i f r a c t u r e assessment a l l o w s f i e l d c a l c u l a t i o n o f i m p o r t a n t i n p u t d a t a f o r
t h e d e s i g n o f t h e main t r e a t m e n t . The most i m p o r t a n t g o a l s o f m i n i f r a c t u r i n g
a r e c r a c k d i a g n o s t i c s and containment p r e d i c t i o n (SATTLER, RAIBLE & GALL 1985).
The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s focusses on m i n i f r a c t u r i n g t e s t and e v a l u a t i o n types,
i n - s i t u s t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n , c l o s u r e s t r e s s vs. f l u i d type, premature screen-
o u t t e r m i n a t i o n r e c o g n i t i o n , and f l u i d s and mechanics t e s t i n g .

4.8.2.3.1. Minifracturing test and evaluation types

The m i n i f r a c t u r i n g procedure o f t e n i n c l u d e s c o n v e n t i o n a l s t e p r a t e t e s t , r e -
peated pump-in/flow-back t e s t s and p u m p - i n / s h u t - i n p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e t e s t (FEL-
SENTHAL 1974; SMITH, ROSENBERG & BOWEN 1982; KIM, CHAMPION & COOPER 1985; WAR-
P I N S K I , BRANAGAN, SATTLER, LORENZ, NORTHROP, MANN & FROHNE 1985; B R I T T & LARSEN
1986, ROSE 1988; TAN, McGOWEN, LEE & SOLIMAN 1988; WAREMBOURG 1988, WARPINSKI
1988 a ) . The i n d i v i d u a l elements o r stages o f m i n i f r a c t u r i n g a r e b r i e f l y charac-
t e r i z e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.2.3.1.1. Step-rate test

The s t e p - r a t e t e s t i s used t o determine f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n p r e s s u r e and r a -
t e s , w i t h t h e i n j e c t e d f l u i d u s u a l l y b e i n g an i n c o m p r e s s i b l e Newtonian f l u i d
such as w a t e r (TAN, McGOWEN, LEE & SOLIMAN 1988). The f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n pressu-
r e o r p a r t i n g p r e s s u r e p r o v i d e s an a c c u r a t e i n d i c a t i o n o f p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o
e x t e n d an e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e and t h u s determine t h e h y d r a u l i c horsepower needed
t o p e r f o r m t h e a c t u a l t r e a t m e n t . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l aspects
o f m u l t i p l e - s t e p - r a t e t e s t , t h e t w o - s t e p - r a t e t e s t r e p r e s e n t i n g an improved me-
thod i s introduced.

4.8.2.3.1.1.1. General aspects o f mu1 t iple-step-rate test

During conventional multiple-step-rate tests, the f l u i d i s i n j e c t e d i n t o the
f o r m a t i o n a t a v e r y low i n i t i a l r a t e which i s t h e n stepped up i n s m a l l i n c r e -
ments and m a i n t a i n e d a t each i n c r e m e n t f o r a c o n s t a n t t i m e span w h i c h i s s u f f i -
c i e n t f o r p r e s s u r e s t a b i l i z a t i o n (TAN, McGOWEN, LEE & SOLIMAN 1988). The s t e p -
 558

r a t e t e s t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y b e n e f i c i a l f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e maximum i n j e c t i o n
r a t e t h a t c a n be pumped u n d e r m a t r i x c o n d i t i o n s . A s p e c t s o f s t e p - r a t e t e s t s a r e
a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y FELSENTHAL ( 1 9 7 4 ) , ALLEN & BAZA ( 1 9 8 0 ) , BENNETT & CLARK
( 1 9 8 5 ) ; WAREMBOURG, KLINGENSMITH, HOOGES & ERDLE ( 1 9 8 5 ) ; PALMER & VEATCH ( 1 9 8 7 )
and SINGH, AGARWAL & KRASE ( 1 9 8 8 ) . S t e p - r a t e t e s t i n g i s t h e p r i m a r y m e t h o d t o
d e f i n e t h e maximum s a f e i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e w i t h o u t f r a c t u r i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r
rock, being t h e formation o r f r a c t u r e p a r t i n g pressure which i n i t i a t e s a crack
i n an u n f r a c t u r e d w e l l and e x t e n d s an e x i s t i n g c r a c k i n a f r a c t u r e d w e l l .

4.8.2.3.1.1.2. Two-step-rate t e s t
S I N G H & AGARWAL ( 1 9 8 8 ) p r e s e n t t h e t w o - s t e p - r a t e t e s t as an advanced p r o c e d u -
r e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g f o r m a t i o n p a r t i n g p r e s s u r e . Compared t o a c o n v e n t i o n a l s t e p -
r a t e t e s t w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f s e v e r a l ( u s u a l l y seven o r more) c o n s t a n t - r a t e i n j e c -
t i o n steps o f equal duration, t h e two-step-rate t e s t r e q u i r e s o n l y two con-
s t a n t - r a t e s t e p s d u r i n g w h i c h p r e s s u r e s a r e measured c o n t i n u o u s l y . The two-
s t e p - r a t e t e s t has p o t e n t i a l f o r a l a r g e - s c a l e u s e because o f t i m e and c o s t sa-
v i n g s as compared t o c o n v e n t i o n a l s t e p - r a t e t e s t s . The t w o - s t e p - r a t e t e s t c a n
be r u n i n a t l e a s t f o u r d i f f e r e n t modes. The f i r s t mode c o m p r i s e s s h u t - i n o f
the i n j e c t i o n w e l l f o r t h e f i r s t step f o l l o w e d by i n j e c t i o n a t a constant r a t e
f o r t h e second s t e p t o e x c e e d f o r m a t i o n o r f r a c t u r e p a r t i n g p r e s s u r e . The se-
c o n d mode i n c l u d e s t h e w e l l b e i n g o n s t a b i l i z e d l o w - r a t e i n j e c t i o n , w i t h t h e
f i r s t s t e p c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e i n j e c t i o n r a t e b e i n g stepped up t o a c o n s t a n t va-
l u e b e l o w f o r m a t i o n o r f r a c t u r e p a r t i n g p r e s s u r e , and o n l y t h e second s t e p e x -
c e e d i n g t h e l a t t e r v a l u e . The t h i r d mode r e p r e s e n t s r e d u c t i o n o f i n j e c t i o n r a t e
t o a l o w e r c o n s t a n t r a t e f o r t h e f i r s t s t e p and i n c r e a s e t o a h i g h e r c o n s t a n t
r a t e f o r t h e second s t e p . I n t h e f o u r t h mode, t h e w e l l i s s t a b i l i z e d a t s h u t - i n
c o n d i t i o n s , w i t h t h e t e s t b e i n g composed o f two c o n s t a n t - r a t e i n j e c t i o n s t e p s
w i t h progressively increasing rate.

A l l t h e f o u r d i f f e r e n t modes a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e p r e s s u r e s a t t a i n e d f o r
the e n t i r e d u r a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t s t e p b e i n g below f r a c t u r e o r f o r m a t i o n pres-
s u r e , and t h e i n j e c t i o n r a t e f o r t h e second s t e p b e i n g chosen such t h a t t h e i n -
j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e exceeds t h e f o r m a t i o n o r f r a c t u r e p a r t i n g p r e s s u r e d u r i n g t h i s
s t e p . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t i n j e c t i o n r a t e s a r e s t a b l e and c o n s t a n t b e f o r e and
d u r i n g e a c h s t e p and t h e t i m e - r a t e - p r e s s u r e d a t a a r e r e c o r d e d a c c u r a t e l y o n a
c o n t i n u o u s b a s i s d u r i n g t h e s t e p s . The r e s u l t s a r e a n a l y z e d b y m u l t i p l e - r a t e su-
p e r p o s i t i o n m e t h o d s . The t e s t s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d such t h a t t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e
f i r s t s t e p i s l o n g enough t o b e o u t o f w e l l b o r e s t o r a g e e f f e c t s o r a t l e a s t
l o n g enough f o r t h e p r e s s u r e d a t a t o be o u t o f t h e e n t i r e w e l l b o r e s t o r a g e domi-
n a t e d f l o w p e r i o d . The d u r a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t s t e p c a n a l s o be d e s i g n e d based on
t h e time t o reach t h e r a d i a l / p s e u d o - r a d i a l f l o w regime ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.11.3.),
o r f o r a f r a c t u r e d w e l l i t can be l i m i t e d t o t h e end o f t h e l i n e a r f l o w regime.
I f t h e f i r s t s t e p c o n s i s t s o f a s h u t - i n o r a r e d u c e d r a t e i n j e c t i o n p e r i o d (com-
p r i s i n g t h e f i r s t o r t h i r d modes), e q u a l - t i m e s t e p s i z e c a n be u s e d f o r t h e
f i r s t and second s t e p s . I f t h e i n j e c t i o n r a t e i s i n c r e a s e d f o r e a c h s u b s e q u e n t
s t e p ( i n c l u d i n g t h e second o r f o u r t h modes), t h e f i r s t s t e p s h o u l d be t w i c e as
l o n g as t h e second s t e p .

4.8.2.3.1.2. Pump-in/flow-back t e s t
The p u m p - i n / f l o w - b a c k t e s t i s a p p l i e d t o determine t h e l e a s t p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s o r c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n and i s p e r f o r m e d b y i n j e c t i n g a vo-
lume o f f l u i d ( n o r m a l l y w a t e r ) a t f r a c t u r i n g r a t e s f o l l o w e d b y f l o w i n g back t h e
w e l l a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e u n t i l c l o s u r e has been d e t e c t e d (TAN, McGOWEN, LEE & SO-
LIMAN 1 9 8 8 ) . C l o s u r e p r e s s u r e i s t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o i n i t i a t e open-
i n g o f an e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e , and i s e q u i v a l e n t t o and c o u n t e r a c t s s t r e s s i n t h e
r o c k p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e c r a c k p l a n e . C l o s u r e p r e s s u r e may be e q u a l o r l e s s
t h a n breakdown p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o i n i t i a t e an e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e , b u t w i l l a l -
ways be l e s s t h a n t h e f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n p r e s s u r e . I f t h e f l o w b a c k i s w i t h i n
 559

t h e c o r r e c t range, c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e i n f l e c t i o n p o i n t o r
change i n c u r v a t u r e f r o m concave t o convex on t h e p r e s s u r e vs. t i m e p l o t ( c f .
s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . ) , w i t h t h e i n f l e c t i o n p o i n t b e i n g caused by t r a n s i t i o n f r o m li-
near t o r a d i a l f l o w as t h e f r a c t u r e c l o s e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . 3 . ) . C l o s u r e p r e s -
sure can be c o n f i r m e d by t h e p r e s s u r e t h a t rebounds f r o m a s h u t - i n a f t e r t h e
flowback p e r i o d , and r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e pump-in/flow-back t e s t u s i n g d i f f e r e n t
flowback r a t e s g i v e s a more r e l i a b l e value.

C l o s u r e p r e s s u r e a f t e r t h e main f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t i s i n most cases h i g h e r

t h a n t h a t determined p r i o r t o t h e main j o b by a m i n i f r a c t u r i n g c a l i b r a t i o n
t e s t . M i n i f r a c t u r i n g a n a l y s i s i s c h i e f l y performed by c o n v e n t i o n a l t y p e - c u r v e
matching and energy-balance e q u a t i o n t e c h n i q u e (LEE 1987). M a i n t a i n i n g c o n s t a n t
flowback r a t e i s c r i t i c a l t o c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e e v a l u a t i o n which t o g e t h e r w i t h
f l u i d - l e a k o f f c o e f f i c i e n t belongs t o t h e most i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s t o be o b t a i -
ned i n m i n i f r a c t u r i n g a n a l y s i s t h a t may w a r r a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n o f f l u i d volume,
p r o p p a n t schedule, pumping r a t e , n e c e s s i t y o f a d d i t i v e s and/or r e q u i r e m e n t o f
enhanced c l o s u r e o f t h e main t r e a t m e n t . M u l t i p l e i n j e c t i o n s w h i l e changing
f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s and a d d i t i v e s enhance d a t a c o l l e c t i o n w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a means
o f d e t e r m i n i n g whether o r n o t f l u i d - l o s s agents a r e d e s i r a b l e . I f f l u i d l e a k o f f
i s r e l a t i v e l y low, i t may n o t be advantageous t o reduce i t f u r t h e r f o r p r o p p a n t
s e t t l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I f t h e pad f l u i d w i t h o u t f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s i s n o t
s u f f i c i e n t f o r f l u i d - l e a k o f f c o n t r o l , subsequent i n j e c t i o n s and d e c l i n e s i n c l u -
d i n g f l u i d - l o s s agents can be r u n u n t i l f l u i d l e a k o f f management i s a c c e p t a b l e .

4.8.2.3.1.3.Pump-in/shut-in test
The p u m p - i n / s h u t - i n t e s t i s p r o b a b l y t h e most common m i n i f r a c t u r i n g t e s t
used and comprises i n j e c t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d chosen f o r use i n t h e
main t r e a t m e n t a t t h e designed r a t e f o r t h e b i g j o b f o r a s p e c i f i c time, w i t h
then t h e w e l l b e i n g s h u t - i n f o r p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e m o n i t o r i n g (TAN, McGOWEN, LEE
& SOLIMAN 1988). I n f o r m a t i o n s w i t h h i g h l e a k o f f o r f r a c t u r e growth i n t o
h i g h e r - s t r e s s zones, c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e determined f r o m p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e d a t a may
be more a p p r o p r i a t e t h a n t h a t measured f r o m pump-in/flow-back t e s t s . During
shut-in, t h e p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e approaches a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e square r o o t
o f t i m e f r o m s h u t - i n , w i t h t h e i n f l e c t i o n o r change o f s l o p e f r o m t h e l i n e a r de-
c l i n e i n d i c a t i n g c l o s u r e . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o r r e c t s t r a i g h t l i n e may be en-
hanced by u t i l i z a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l p l o t s .

E s t i m a t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g g r a d i e n t and i n j e c t i o n r a t e can a l s o be o b t a i n e d b y
a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m i n i f r a c t u r e dummy t r e a t m e n t and b a l l - o u t o p e r a t i o n (OSBDRNE,
McLEOD & SCHROEDER 1981; c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.2.3.). SHELLEY & McGOblEN (1986) docu-
ment how pump-in t e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s can be used f o r proppant placement p r e d i c -
t i o n s . CASTILLO (1987) and WAREMBOURG (1988) o u t l i n e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t determina-
t i o n f r o m pump-in c a l i b r a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s .

4.8.2.3,2. In-situ stress determination

A l l t h e pump-in methods have become t h e most p r e v a l e n t techniques f o r measu-
r i n g i n - s i t u s t r e s s w i t h d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f b o t h magnitude and d i r e c t i o n (WARPINS-
K I , BRANAGAN & WILMER 1983). The minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s can be c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
t h e i n f l e c t i o n p o i n t s i n t h e observed p r e s s u r e p r o f i l e s b e f o r e and a f t e r f r a c t u -
r e c l o s u r e (ECONOMIDES 1987 b ) . O t h e r techniques f o r i n - s i t u s t r e s s determina-
t i o n a r e a n e l a s t i c a l s t r a i n r e c o v e r y o f o r i e n t e d c o r e s (TEUFEL 1982, 1983,
1985; BLANTON & TEUFEL 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.2.3.3.4.), a c o u s t i c w a v e t r a i n mea-
surements (ARON & MURRAY 1978; MAO, SWEENEY, HANSON & COSTANTINO 1984; NEWBER-
RY, NELSON & AHMED 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s 6.2.1.6.1. and 6.2.1.10.4.), and mechani-
c a l p r o p e r t i e s l o g g i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 6.2.1.7.7. and 6 . 3 . 6 . ) . WOLFF, BREDEHOEFT,
KEYS & SHUTER (1974) p e r f o r m t e c t o n i c a l s t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n by m i n i f r a c t u r i n g .

While pressure d e c l i n e m o n i t o r i n g and a n a l y s i s o f m i n i f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s

 560

was h i t h e r t o c a r r i e d o u t i n u n i f o r m r e s e r v o i r s , M O S C H O V I D I S ( 1 9 8 7 ) p r e s e n t s an
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n n o f m i n i f r a c t u r e s i n i t i a t e d near o r a t t h e i n t e r f a c e o f two f o r -
m a t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t l e a k o f f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and pene-
t r a t i n g both sedimentary l a y e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.4.2.). D i s t i n c t i o n c a n be
made between h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y ( s t o r a g e - d o m i n a t e d ) m i n i f r a c t u r e s where t h e c r a c k
a r e a i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o pumping t i m e , and l o w - e f f i c i e n c y ( l e a k o f f - d o m i n a t e d ) m i -
n i f r a c t u r e s where t h e c r a c k a r e a i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f pumping
t i m e . F r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n i t i a t e d n e a r o r a t t h e i n t e r f a c e o f two f o r m a -
t i o n s have been a p p l i e d i n N o r t h Sea c h a l k o i l f i e l d s t o o b t a i n r e l a t i v e l y
stable w e l l completions. S i m i l a r i n t e r f a c e - i n s e r t i n g f r a c t u r i n g i s s i g n i f i c a n t
i n c o a l - s e a m s t i m u l a t i o n , w i t h an u n d e r l y i n g s a n d s t o n e g u i d i n g t h e c r a c k t h a t
e x t e n d s upwards i n t o t h e c o a l seam ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 3 . 8 . 1 . ) .

When h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s a r e c o n d u c t e d i n t h i c k r e s e r v o i r s e c -
t i o n s , i t i s common f o r t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l t o be l o n g b u t y e t s t i l l s i g n i -
f i c a n t l y s h o r t e r t h a n t h e d i s t a n c e between r e l i a b l e b a r r i e r s t o c r a c k p r o p a s a -
t i o n , o r t h e h e i g h t o f t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e i s o f t h e same o r d e r as t h e p e r f o r a -
t e d s e c t i o n , w i t h c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n b e i n g u n a f f e c t e d b y c o n f i n i n g s t r a t a (MAR-
TINS & HARPER 1 9 8 5 ) . U n d e r such c i r c u m s t a n c e s , f r a c t u r e shape changes c o n t i n u -
o u s l y as i t e v o l v e s f r o m t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l , t h u s c o m p l i c a t i n g i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n o f p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e d a t a measured d u r i n g p r e - s t i m u l a t i o n m i n i f r a c t u r i n g
t e s t s . A s u i t a b l e a p p r o a c h i s t o model t h e f r a c t u r e as h a v i n g e v o l v e d as a se-
r i e s o f confocal ellipses.

4.8.2.3.3.Closure stress vs. fluid type

As c l o s u r e s t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w i t h a c i d may be q u i t e n e a r t o t h o s e o b t a i -
ned w i t h w a t e r , t h e u s e o f m o d e r a t e a c i d volumes ahead o f s h u t - i n p e r i o d s does
n o t h i n d e r and i n d e e d a i d s c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e e v a l u a t i o n as a r e s u l t o f p e r f o r a -
t i o n c l e a n u p (BEGNAUD & CLAIBORNE 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 6 . 4 . 2 . ) . V e r y s m a l l v o l u -
mes pumped i n h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n methods l e a d t o a w i d e s c a t t e r i n measured m i n i -
mum s t r e s s e s and i n t r o d u c e v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o a n i s o t r o p i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I t i s
t h e r e f o r e i m p e r a t i v e t o a p p l y s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e volumes f o r m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i -
b r a t i o n t e s t i n g . A n o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n when pumping m o d e r a t e volumes u t i l i z e d
i n t h e p a y zones i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l e a k o f f - i n d u c e d b a c k s t r e s s i n c r e a s i n g
c l o s u r e s t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n . Comparison o f c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s o b t a i n e d f r o m m i -
c r o f r a c t u r e and m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n j o b s o f t e n shows good agreement w h i c h
adds c r e d i b i l i t y t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f e a r l y b a r r i e r e f f e c t s . The i n f e r r e d l a t e
o c c u r r e n c e o f b a r r i e r phenomena i n t h e r e d u c e d p o r e p r e s s u r e i n t e r v a l m i g h t b e
a t t r i b u t e d t o l e s s g r o w t h i n t o t h e b a r r i e r e a r l y o n due t o l o w e r r e l a t i v e f r a c -
t u r e propagation pressure.

4.8.2.3.4. Premature screenout termination recognition

An i m p o r t a n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f m i n i f r a c t u r i n g c a l i b r a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s i s a l s o r e -
c o g n i t i o n o f p o s s i b l e p r e m a t u r e s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e m a i n j o b and c o l -
l e c t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o p r e v e n t i t s o c c u r r e n c e o r t o r e s c h e d u l e t h e m a i n ope-
r a t i o n a c c o r d i n g l y ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.4.2.3.). Another s i g n i f i c a n t u t i l i z a t i o n
a r e i n - s i t u s t r e s s measurements, w i t h c r e a t i o n o f s m a l l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s be-
i n g t h e m o s t p r a c t i c a l method t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s t a t e o f s t r e s s a c t i n g a t g r e a t
d e p t h s w i t h i n t h e e a r t h (GREENFIELD & AHMED 1 9 8 3 ) . The i n - s i t u s t r e s s measure-
ment v a l u e s a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e b o t t o m h o l e t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e
r e q u i r e d t o c r e a t e and t o c o n t a i n a l a r g e - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e , w i t h t h e de-
t e r m i n e d maximum b o t t o m h o l e t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s b e i n g i n d i s p e n s i b l y f o r a v o i d i n g
f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n t o o v e r l y i n g and u n d e r l y i n g s t r a t a .

I n - s i t u s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n and m a g n i t u d e d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s a l s o e s s e n t i a l f o r
p l a n n i n g and d e s i g n o f w e l l p a t t e r n and s p a c i n g i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t f r a c t u r e i n -
t e r f e r e n c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.10.5.) o r even m a n i p u l a t i o n s o f t h e p r e s s u r e regime
i n o r d e r t o change t h e p r e f e r e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n ( c f . sec-
 561

t i o n 4.9.4.1.). M i c r o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t r e s s measurements are a l s o c a r r i e d

o u t by BREDEHOEFT, WOLFF, KEYS & SHUTER (1976). F i e l d experience o f m i n i f r a c t u -
r i n g f o r parameter d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s a l s o r e p o r t e d by HODGES & PAOLI (1982), BEG-
NAUD & CLAIBORNE (1985), G R I (1988), NORTHROP (1988); HOLDITCH, ROBINSON, WHITE-
HEAD & ELY (1988); PEARSON, LYNCH, SCHMIDT & McCASLIN (1988) and WARPINSKI, BRA-
NAGAN, SATTLER, CIPOLLA, LORENZ & THORNE (1988).

4.8.2.3.5. Fluids and mechanics testing

I n o r d e r t o be f u l l y r e l i a b l e , m i n i f r a c t u r e a n a l y s i s has t o consider a l s o
the r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f the s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d (LEE 1987). T h i s goal can
be achieved by i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f an energy-balance equation i n t o m i n i f r a c t u r e
e v a l u a t i o n , a l l o w i n g geometry p r e d i c t i o n from m i n i f r a c t u r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o
agree w e l l w i t h t h a t d e r i v i n g from f u l l - s c a l e f r a c t u r e design programs based on
the same o r on s i m i l a r models. The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m i n i f r a c t u r i n g and pressure
d e c l i n e a n a l y s i s f o r proper f u l l - s c a l e j o b p l a n n i n g i s a l s o o u t l i n e d by CLEARY
(1988).

I n a d d i t i o n t o measuring d u r i n g the m i n i f r a c t u r e , c l o s u r e s t r e s s can be de-

termined from an i n - s i t u s t r e s s t e s t and from the a c t u a l f u l l - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g
s t i m u l a t i o n (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986). I n - s i t u p e r m e a b i l i t y and i n i -
t i a l r e s e r v o i r pressure a r e o b t a i n e d from p r o d u c t i o n and pressure b u i l d - u p
t e s t s , and minimum bottom h o l e f l o w i n g pressure can be estimated from f i e l d pro-
ducing c o n d i t i o n s . With a l l the v a r i a b l e s obtained from m i n i f r a c t u r e and o t h e r
sources, optimum crack l e n g t h can be determined by p r o j e c t i n g recovery e f f i c i e n -
cy as a f u n c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and drainage area (HOLDITCH, JENNINGS & NEU-
SE 1978; ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & LEE 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.11.1. Aspects o f o p t i -
mum f r a c t u r e l e n g t h are a l s o discussed by HOLDITCH, JENNINGS, NEUSE & WYMAN
(1978) and BENNETT, ROSATO & REYNOLDS (1981).

M i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n and checking treatments a l s o serve as a mechanical

t e s t on f r a c t u r e l i n e , wellhead p r o t e c t o r , tubing, packer, and a l l o t h e r equip-
ment being used, and g i v e s a l s o an idea o f average t r e a t i n g pressures (PAI, GAR-
BIS & HALL 1983). M i n i f r a c t u r i n g jobs are conducted i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h r o u t i n e
p e r f o r a t i o n breakdown operations ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.2.2.). Case s t u d i e s o f m i n i -
f r a c t u r i n g pressure t e s t s and measurements are a l s o r e p o r t e d by BUNDY (1981);
KIM, CHAMPION & COOPER (1985); LEE (1987) and WARPINSKI & BRANAGAN (1988).
SINGH, AGARWAL & KRASE (1988) document systematic design and a n a l y s i s o f step-
r a t e t e s t s f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n p a r t i n g pressure.

4.8.2.4. Size and significance of minifracturing

While the performance o f m i n i f r a c t u r e s f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f the above o u t l i n e d
parameters w i t h o u t p l u g g i n g o f the crack by proppants i s a l r e a d y common sense
i n p r e p a r a t i o n o f l a r g e - s c a l e s t i m u l a t i o n treatments s i n c e q u i t e some time f o r
the reason o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f u n r e s t r i c t e d f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e i n pre-MHF c a l i b r a -
t i o n t e s t s (PAI, GARBIS & HALL 1983), propping o f the s h o r t cracks t h a t are
created d u r i n g the pressure breakdown t e s t b e f o r e the main o p e r a t i o n w i t h the
aim on s t i m u l a t i n g the f o r m a t i o n a l r e a d y w i t h the scaled-down p r e c u r s o r run,
however, has o n l y i n the l a s t years become s l i g h t l y more common. A f t e r discus-
s i o n o f some general aspects, proppant q u a n t i t i e s and f r a c t u r e wing l e n g t h o f
m i n i f r a c t u r i n g treatments i n comparison t o massive f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s a r e
illustrated.

4.8.2.4.1. General aspects

Computer programs support the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f pressure d e c l i n e a f t e r break-
down-test m i n i f r a c t u r e s (HALLIBURTON 1985). The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r e - f r a c t u r e i n -
j e c t i o n surveys f o r a successful main s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n i s a l s o s t r e s s e d by
 562

BUNDY ( 1 9 8 1 ) , and LEE ( 1 9 8 7 ) comments o n e f f e c t s o f f l u i d r h e o l o g y on m i n i f r a c -

ture analysis.

WYMAN, HOLDITCH & RANDOLPH ( 1 9 7 9 ) r e p o r t p r o p p a n t m i n i f r a c t u r i n g f o r t h e p u r -

pose o f p r o d u c t i o n and b u i l d u p t e s t i n g i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e r e s e r v o i r c a p a c i -
ty, w i t h t h e f i e l d experimental t r e a t m e n t i n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s g a t h e r i n g informa-
t i o n o n t h e number o f p e r f o r a t i o n s a c t u a l l y a c c e p t i n g f l u i d f o r t h e r e a s o n o f
s e l e c t i o n o f r a t e and p r e s s u r e t o b e used o n t h e l a r g e - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g j o b .

4.8.2.4.2. Proppant q u a n t i t i e s and f r a c t u r e wing lengths

M i n i a t u r e h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g jobs are g e n e r a l l y performed w i t h
a b t . 5 - 50 t o f p r o p p a n t s , i n e x c e p t i o n a l l y l a r g e c a s e s a l s o w i t h volumes u p
t o 100 - 150 t ( d e p e n d i n g on t h i c k n e s s , l i t h o l o g y and h y d r o c a r b o n p o t e n t i a l o f
the r e s e r v o i r ) t h a t are i n f i l l i n g f r a c t u r e s ranging i n length predominantly bet-
ween a few m and s e v e r a l t e n s o f m and o n l y i n s u b o r d i n a t e c a s e s r e a c h i n g u p t o
a b t . 100 m ( i n c o n t r a s t t o m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n s w h i c h i n c l u d e
c r a c k l e n g t h s between a b t . 100 m and m o s t f r e q u e n t l y a b t . 500 m, b u t i n e x t r e m e
c a s e s up t o more t h a n 1,500 m t h a t a r e p l u g g e d w i t h p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s between
a b t . 100 t and m o s t a b u n d a n t l y a b t . 800 t, b u t i n u l t r a - l a r g e jumbo j o b s u p t o
more t h a n 2,500 t; c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 1 . 1 . 4 . and 4 . 8 . 1 . 2 . ) .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between r e s e r v o i r c a p a c i t y , f l u i d t y p e , d e p o s i t s i z e and

m i n i f r a c t u r e d e s i g n a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t ( c f . AGARWAL, CARTER & POLLOCK 1 9 7 9 ) , be-
cause a m i n i f r a c t u r i n g o r o t h e r s m a l l - s c a l e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b c a r r i e d o u t i n a
h i g h - p o t e n t i a l deep t h i c k t i g h t g a s - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e c o u l d be c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r -
g e r i n view o f absolute s i z e than a f u l l - s c a l e conventional f r a c t u r i n g opera-
t i o n i n a shallow t h i n moderate-permeability o i l - b e a r i n g sandstone.

4.8.2.5. Proppant vs. non-proppant m i n i f r a c t u r i n g

The r e a s o n f o r h i t h e r t o m a i n l y c a r r y i n g o u t n o n - p r o p p a n t m i n i f r a c t u r i n g i s
t o a v o i d h a v i n g an o b s t a c l e i n t h e c r a c k i n c a s e o f l a t e r p e r f o r m i n g l a r g e r -
s c a l e r e f r a c t u r i n g . R e o p e n i n g o f an unpropped c r a c k i s m e c h a n i c a l l y s i m p l e r ,
and g r e a t e r s a f e t y a g a i n s t p r e m a t u r e s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n i s a c h i e v e d i f t h e
m i n i f r a c t u r e does n o t have t o b e c l e a r e d b y r e m o v i n g o r d i s p l a c i n g t h e s m a l l -
s c a l e p r o p p a n t package w h i c h keeps i t open. On t h e o t h e r hand, however, r e f r a c -
t u r i n g o f a p r o p p a n t - f i l l e d c r a c k does o f t e n p e r f o r m q u i t e s m o o t h l y ( c f . s e c -
t i o n 4.8.9.5.), and p r o p p a n t m i n i f r a c t u r i n g has t h e d e c i s i v e a d v a n t a g e t o a l l o w
p r o p e r assessment o f t h e r e s e r v o i r c a p a c i t y due t o a d e q u a t e s u p p o r t o f t h e
c r a c k t h a t i s l i m i t e d t o t h e n e a r w e l l b o r e s u r r o u n d i n g s w h i c h i s t h e r e g i o n sub-
j e c t e d t o t h e h i g h e s t c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s due t o maximum p r e s s u r e drawdown upon de-
p l e t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 9 . 1 . ) . The drawback o f enhanced s c r e e n o u t d a n g e r b y t h e
proppant plug i n the small-scale crack which hinders r e e n t r y o f the f r a c t u r e
c a n be e l i m i n a t e d b y c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s i n c j w i d t h o f t h e y o u n g e r c r a c k u p t o
f o u r t i m e s i t s o r i g i n a l s i z e and t o f i l l i n t h e l a r g e r f r a c t u r e w i t h h i g h e r
p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s ( S M I T H , MILLER & HAGA 1 9 8 7 ) .

Another reason f o r non-proppant m i n i f r a c t u r i n g i s t o a v o i d proppant i n t e r f e -

r e n c e w i t h and d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e c u r v e a f t e r s h u t - i n w h i c h
c o u l d a f f e c t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e f l u i d - l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t (WAREMBOURG, KLINGEN-
SMITH, HODGES & ERDLE 1985) and c o u l d make good m a t c h i n g i m p o s s i b l e (TAN, McGO-
WEN, LEE & SOLIMAN 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e r e i s a l s o n o a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d f l u i d
volume i n s i d e t h e f r a c t u r e a f t e r pumping ( b a s e d o n c a l c u l a t e d f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y )
i s l a r g e r t h a n b u l k p r o p p a n t volume. F i e l d examples o f p r o p p a n t m i n i f r a c t u r i n g
a r e r e p o r t e d b y TAN, McGOWEN, LEE & SOLIMAN ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

P r o p p a n t m i n i f r a c t u r i n g and s u b s e q u e n t p r e s s u r e drawdown t e s t i n g c a n t h e r e -
f o r e a l s o s e r v e as f i e l d e x p e r i m e n t s i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f v a r i o u s
p r o p p a n t t y p e s f o r p l u g g i n g o f m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s , because t h e s h o r t
 563
m i n i f r a c t u r e s happen t o be s i t u a t e d i n t h e zone o f g r e a t e s t c l o s u r e s t r e s s sen-
s i t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e p r e s s u r e d e p l e t i o n cone s u r r o u n d i n g t h e w e l l b o r e . The f o l -
l o w i n g o u t l i n e d i s c u s s e s some p o i n t s o f e f f e c t i v i t y d i f f e r e n c e , comparative as-
sessment and s h o r t p r e c i s e propped m i n i f r a c t u r e s .

4.8.2.5.1. Effectivity difference

HARPER, HAGAN & M A R T I N S (1985) e v a l u a t e some case s t u d i e s o f s m a l l - s c a l e
p r o p p a n t and non-proppant f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s . A l t h o u g h p r o p p a n t - f r e e hydrau-
l i c s t i m u l a t i o n s do p r o v i d e some c o n d u c t i v i t y as r e f l e c t e d by p r o d u c t i v i t y i n -
creases of t h e w e l l s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i f f l u i d - l o s s agents a r e added t o t h e f r a c t u -
r i n g f l u i d s , such as 100 mesh sand which has been proven t o have a c e r t a i n p r o p -
p i n g e f f e c t i t s e l f ; SINCLAIR 1980; CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VETTER 1981;
WARPINSKI 1988 a; c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.11.2.1. and 4.8.8.3.2.3.) and almost no e v i -
dence f o r a more r a p i d d e c l i n e i n w e l l c a p a b i l i t y a f t e r f r a c t u r i n g w i t h o u t prop-
p a n t r e l a t i v e t o p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n c o u l d be observed i n t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y de-
c l i n e curves, t h e p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s have an o v e r a l l markedly b e t -
t e r e f f e c t than t h e p r o p p a n t - f r e e s t i m u l a t i o n s .

I n some cases, non-proppant f r a c t u r i n g can e l i m i n a t e s a n d - r e l a t e d o p e r a t i n g

problems ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.3.5.2.), and a reason why f r a c t u r i n g w i t h o u t p r o p p a n t
may g i v e r i s e t o a c o n d u c t i v e channel i s shear displacement o f a magnitude com-
p a r a b l e t o sandstone g r a i n d i a m e t e r between opposing crack f a c e s s o t h a t a mis-
match r e s u l t s when t h e f r a c t u r e a t t e m p t s t o c l o s e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.7.7. and
6.2.2.3.2.), i n a s i m i l a r way as l a r g e b l o c k s l i d i n g and d i l a t i o n o f j o i n t s oc-
c u r s o c c a s i o n a l l y i n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s , g i v i n g r i s e t o some i n c r e a -
sed c r a c k roughness (TSANG & WITHERSPOON 1983).

4.8.2.5.2. C m a r a t i v e assessment
R e l a t i v e l y s o f t r o c k s e x p e r i e n c e more shear displacements l e a d i n g t o i n c r e a -
s i n g f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y t h a n s t i f f e r r o c k s , and h i g h s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s f a -
vour r e l a t i v e l y h i g h shear displacements (HARPER, HAGAN & MARTINS 1985). The
d i s t a n c e f o r which p r o p a g a t i o n i n t h e w e l l b o r e p l a n e occurs r a t h e r than c u r v i n g
i n t o a p r i n c i p a l p l a n e m i g h t be maximized by h i g h pumping r a t e s d u r i n g t h e f r a c -
t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t . The s m a l l - s c a l e shear displacements a r e l i k e l y t o a r i s e when
c r a c k s i n i t i a t e f r o m w e l l b o r e s i n c l i n e d t o p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s planes w i t h m i n o r
d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e b o r e h o l e f r o m t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s planes b e i n g commonplace,
because i t i s h i g h l y improbable t h a t a w e l l b o r e w i l l be d r i l l e d p r e c i s e l y i n a
p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s p l a n e . PEMPER, FLECKER, McWHIRTER & OLIVER (1988) r e p o r t non-
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e n a t u r a l gas p r o d u c t i o n by a p p l y i n g
f l u i d p r e s s u r e f o r enhancing communication between n a t u r a l c r a c k s .

The e v a l u a t i o n o f e a r l i e r r e p o r t s on p r o p p a n t - f r e e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s
(GHAURI 1980, LAMBERT & TREVIS 1980; MAHONEY, STUBBS, SCHWERER & OOBSCHA 1980;
FREEMAN, ABEL & K I M 1981) l e a d s HARPER, HAGAN & MARTINS (1985) t o t h e c o n c l u -
s i o n t h a t a t l e a s t s h o r t - t e r m improvement o f w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y i n low-permeabi-
l i t y r e s e r v o i r s can be achieved by s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h o u t proppants, even i n w e l l s
w i t h o u t s k i n damage o r w i t h o u t t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r access t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s o r
more permeable zones c l o s e t o t h e w e l l b o r e . Whenever comparisons a r e a v a i l a b l e ,
however, non-proppant f r a c t u r i n g has been c l e a r l y l e s s e f f e c t i v e than propped
t r e a t m e n t s . Aspects o f unpropped m i n i f r a c t u r i n g a r e a l s o mentioned by BRANAGAN,
CIPOLLA, LEE & WILMER (1985); BRITT & LARSEN (1986); BRANAGAN, CIPOLLA, LEE &
YAN (1987); HOLDITCH, ROBINSON & WHITEHEAD (1987) and HOLDITCH, ROBINSON, WHITE-
HEAD & ELY ( 1 9 8 7 ) . O t h e r t y p e s o f non-proppant f r a c t u r i n g a r e n i t r o g e n s t i m u l a -
t i o n o f s h a l e s (ABEL 1982; c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.4.2.) and w a t e r f r a c t u r i n g o f geo-
thermal ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.1.3.5.) and c h a l k ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 5 . 2 . ) r e s e r v o i r s as
w e l l as w a s t e - l i q u i d d i s p o s a l w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 7 . 2 . 2 . ) .
 564

4.8.2.5.3. Short p r e c i s e propped mini f rac tures

A special a p p l i c a t i o n o f proppant m i n i f r a c t u r i n g i s c r e a t i o n o f s h o r t pre-
c i s e hydraulic cracks f o r d i s t i n c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n o f s e n s i t i v e r e s e r v o i r s
(SMITH 1981) a i m i n g on g e n e r a t i o n o f a propped f r a c t u r e o f t h e r e q u i r e d l e n g t h
w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o t h e t o t a l h y d r a u l i c l e n g t h , and f o l l o w i n g t h a t on o p e r a t i o n
o f t h e w e l l below f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e . Some aspects o f p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n as w e l l as impact o f batch-mix f r a c t u r i n g a r e e v a l u a t e d
as f o l l o w s .

4.8.2.5.3.1. Proppant concent r a t i o n and d i s t r i but i o n

I n comparable s i t u a t i o n s , f o r m e r l y l o w - r a t e , l o w - v i s c o s i t y , low-proppant con-
c e n t r a t i o n approaches have been used t o d r i b b l e - i n a s h o r t f r a c t u r e , b u t t h e
l a t t e r process had t h e disadvantages t h a t inadequate knowledge and p o o r p r e d i c -
t i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s c o n c e r n i n g p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g made i t d i f f i c u l t t o d e s i g n f r a c -
t u r e length accurately, low-viscosity f l u i d r e s u l t e d i n a triangular-shaped
p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n , and low p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n gave r i s e t o n o n - u n i f o r m and
inadequate f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . The b a s i c concept o f c r e a t i o n o f s h o r t p r e -
c i s e h y d r a u l i c c r a c k s i s t o pump a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e pad t h u s e n s u r i n g adequate
w i d t h , and then t o s w i t c h d i r e c t l y t o a h e a v y - c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o p p a n t s l u r r y . Ma-
j o r problems a r e t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f s m a l l e x a c t s l u r r y volumes and t h e e f f e c t
o f a f t e r f l o w o f the f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d . A f t e r w e l l shut-in, the s l u r r y continues
t o f l o w u n t i l t h e c r a c k c l o s e s t o l o c k t h e proppants i n p l a c e . The l e n g t h o f
t h i s a f t e r f l o w p e r i o d depends on f l u i d - l o s s r a t e and p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n .

4.8.2.5.3.2. Impact o f batch-mix f r a c t u r i n g

O p e r a t i o n o f s h o r t p r e c i s e small-volume f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s p l a c i n g h i g h
p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n c r a c k s c r o s s i n g moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r -
v o i r s can be o p t i m i z e d by batch-mix f r a c t u r i n g (CRAMER & SONGER 1988; c f . sec-
t i o n s 4.3.3.5.3. and 4 . 6 . 3 . 1 . ) c o m p r i s i n g use o f pre-mixed f l u i d / p r o p p a n t s l u r -
r i e s . H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i n moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s i n c r e a s e
b o r e h o l e t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y m a i n l y due t o bypass o f t h e w e l l b o r e - v i c i n i t y damage
zone ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.3.) and e x t e n s i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e b o r e h o l e r a d i u s . O p t i -
mal performance i n pay zones i n t e r s e c t e d by c l o s e l y - s p a c e d w e l l s r e q u i r e s u t i l i -
z a t i o n o f small p r e c i s e f l u i d volumes c o n t a i n i n g h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s . As
most continuous-mix equipment i s p o o r l y s u i t e d t o p r e p a r e and d i s p l a c e s m a l l
p r e c i s e s l u r r y volumes, such t r e a t m e n t s a r e p r e f e r a b l y c a r r i e d o u t by b a t c h m i x -
i n g where h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s can be p r e - b l e n d e d w i t h g e l l e d l i q u i d i n
t h e batch-mix i n v e n t o r y compartments and s l u r r y d e n s i t y can be v e r i f i e d b e f o r e
the s t a r t o f the job.

Batch m i x i n g assures placement o f an u n i f o r m p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e

f r a c t u r e s i n c e proppant s a t u r a t i o n s a t t h e s u r f a c e w i l l n o t be a f f e c t e d by
t r e a t m e n t r a t e f l u c t u a t i o n s , and i n c r e m e n t a l improvements i n w e l l b o r e t r a n s m i s -
s i b i l i t y can be achieved i n many cases due t o c r e a t i o n o f a s i g n i f i c a n t conduc-
t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between r e s e r v o i r and c r a c k . The use o f small p r e c i s e s l u r r y vo-
lumes a l s o s u c c e s s f u l l y l i m i t s v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n , a v o i d s
n e g a t i v e consequences o f i n t e r z o n a l communication and w a t e r f l o o d sweep i n e f f i -
c i e n c y , and reduces screenout f a i l u r e problems due t o achievement o f u n i f o r m
proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n and use o f a h i g h p a d l s l u r r y r a t i o .

4.8.2.6. Modified micro- and m i n i f r a c t u r i n g a n a l y s i s

f o r overpressure c a l i b r a t e d f r a c t u r e design

SHLYAPOBERSKY, WALHAUG, SHEFFIELD & HUCKABEE (1988) propose m o d i f i e d m i n i -

and m i c r o f r a c t u r e t e s t s i n o r d e r t o determine t h e f r a c t u r i n g parameters r e q u i -
r e d f o r o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d t r e a t m e n t design (SHLYAPOBERSKY, WONG & WALHAUG
 565

1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.2.3.). F r a c t u r e reopening p r e s s u r e i s d e f i n e d f r o m low-

r a t e i n j e c t i o n t e s t s , and f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e i s d e f i n e d f r o m flowback
and/or extended f a l l o f f t e s t s analyzed by g l o b a l p r e s s u r e match which r e s u l t s
i n more o b j e c t i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s and t o t a l l e a k o f f co-
e f f i c i e n t t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s . The r e v i s e d model a l s o d e f i n e s c o r r e c -
t e d i n s t a n t a n e o u s s h u t - i n pressure, f r a c t u r e o v e r p r e s s u r e and c r e a t e d c r a c k d i -
mensions. The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s focusses on l a y o u t and purpose o f c o n v e n t i o n a l
m i c r o f r a c t u r e s and m i n i f r a c t u r e s , m o d i f i e d m i c r o f r a c t u r e and m i n i f r a c t u r e p r o c e -
dures, and d e s i g n parameters f o r optimum m i c r o - and m i n i f r a c t u r e t e s t s .

4.8.2.6.1. Layout and Purpose of conventional

microfractures and minifractures
Conventional m i c r o f r a c t u r e s a r e small h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s p e r f o r -
med i n a s e l e c t e d i n t e r v a l and a r e t y p i c a l l y used t o determine a minimum i n - s i -
t u stress p r o f i l e o r v e r t i c a l s t r e s s v a r i a t i o n f o r p r e d i c t i n g v e r t i c a l crack
growth (SHLYAPOBERSKY, WALHAUG, SHEFFIELD & HUCKABEE 1988). Conventional m i c r o -
f r a c t u r e t e s t s assume t h a t t h e c r e a t e d c r a c k i s small and i s n e a r l y c l o s e d a t
t h e moment o f s h u t - i n . M i n i f r a c t u r e s a r e l a r g e r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s
and a r e used f o r d e t e r m i n i n g l e a k o f f c o e f f i c i e n t , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v a l u e s o f
gross f r a c t u r e i n t e r v a l , and c r e a t e d c r a c k dimensions o f l e n g t h and average
w i d t h , w i t h these parameters b e i n g o b t a i n e d f r o m p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e a n a l y s i s a f -
t e r s h u t - i n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 . ) . U n l i k e t h e m i c r o f r a c t u r e t e s t where t h e m i n i -
mum i n - s i t u s t r e s s i s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s s h u t - i n pressure, it is
d e r i v e d i n t h e m i n i f r a c t u r e t e s t f r o m e i t h e r an extended p r e s s u r e f a l l o f f o r a
c o n s t a n t - r a t e flowback. As f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e has r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e n e t f r a c t u r e
p r e s s u r e i s f r e q u e n t l y much h i g h e r than t h a t p r e d i c t e d by c l a s s i c a l design,
o v e r p r e s s u r e c a l i b r a t e d f r a c t u r e m o d e l l i n g (SHLYAPOBERSKY, WONG & WALHAUG 1988;
c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.2.3.) i s i n t r o d u c e d and m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f m i c r o - and m i n i f r a c -
t u r e t e s t a n a l y s i s (SHLYAPOBERSKY, WALHAUG, SHEFFIELD & HUCKABEE 1988) a r e p r o -
posed. O t h e r aspects o f t h e r e v i s e d m i c r o - and m i n i f r a c t u r i n g sequence a r e d i s -
cussed by HUCKABEE ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

D i s c r e p a n c i e s between n e t f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e s p r e d i c t e d by c o n v e n t i o n a l mo-
d e l s and those measured i n t h e f i e l d a r e t h e consequence o f t h e assumption o f
t h e c l a s s i c a l models t h a t t h e apparent f r a c t u r e toughness o f t h e f o r m a t i o n r o c k
i s a m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t , whereas i n r e a l i t y i t i s a scale-dependent parameter
( c f . section 4.3.4.2.3.3.). T h e r e f o r e apparent f r a c t u r e toughness must be d e t e r -
mined f r o m f i e l d measurements i n s t e a d o f l a b o r a t o r y e v a l u a t i o n s , and f r a c t u r e
p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e a n a l y s i s has t o i n c l u d e t h e e f f e c t o f f i e l d apparent f r a c t u r e
toughness (SHLYAPOBERSKY 1987).

4.8.2.6.2. Modified microfracture and mini fracture procedures

The approach f o r measuring f r a c t u r e parameters as proposed by SHLYAPOBERSKY,
WALHAUG, SHEFFIELD & HUCKABEE (1988) i n v o l v e s a s e l e c t e d sequence o f reopening,
p r o p a g a t i o n , s h u t - i n and flowback procedures which a r e s i m i l a r f o r b o t h m i c r o -
and m i n i f r a c t u r e t e s t s and d i f f e r o n l y i n t h e magnitude o f r a t e s and volumes
pumped and t h e types o f f l u i d used. B e f o r e c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n , a f i l t r a t i o n t e s t
can be performed i n o r d e r t o determine t h e m a t r i x l e a k o f f p r o p e r t i e s o f an un-
f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n and t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e b o r e h o l e f l u i d by pumping o f
w a t e r o r b r i n e a t a v e r y low r a t e f o r p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p w i t h o u t exceeding t h e ex-
p e c t e d minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s . The f i l t r a t i o n t e s t a l s o h e l p s t o i d e n t i f y an
adequate r e o p e n i n g r a t e and t h e f r a c t u r e breakdown i n j e c t i o n r a t e i n permeable
formations.

D u r i n g t h e f i r s t i n j e c t i o n a t a r a t e s u f f i c i e n t t o c r e a t e a s i n g l e dominant
f r a c t u r e , t h e f o r m a t i o n i s broken down f o r t h e purpose o f i n i t i a t i n g a s i n g l e
dominant c r a c k f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e . I n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y pays, i n j e c t i o n r a t e i s
n o r m a l l y much l a r g e r t h a n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e , whereas i n moderate- t o high-permea-
 566
b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s and n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d sequences, i n j e c t i o n r a t e h a s t o be
much g r e a t e r t h a n maximum l e a k o f f r a t e . F o l l o w i n g t h e breakdown, a s e r i e s o f r e -
opening, propagation, s h u t - i n and f l o w b a c k c y c l e s c a n b e c o n d u c t e d . Some a s -
p e c t s o f r e o p e n i n g , p r o p a g a t i o n , s h u t - i n and f l o w b a c k c y c l e s as w e l l as g l o b a l
v s . l o c a l p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e match a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.2.6.2.1. Reopening, propagat ion, shut-in and f lowback cycles

D u r i n g c o u r s e o f r e o p e n i n g , p r o p a g a t i o n , s h u t - i n and f l o w b a c k c y c l e s , t h e
f r a c t u r e i s p r o p a g a t e d t o a d e s i r e d s i z e , and s h u t - i n and f l o w b a c k p r o c e d u r e s
a r e performed t o i d e n t i f y crack c l o s u r e pressure, overpressure, f l u i d - l o s s coef-
f i c i e n t , f r a c t u r e d i m e n s i o n s and o t h e r c r a c k - s p e c i f i c p a r a m e t e r s (SHLYAPOBER-
SKY, WALHAUG, SHEFFIELD & HUCKABEE 1 9 8 8 ) . F r a c t u r e c l o s u r e and o p e n i n g p r e s s u -
r e s c a n measure t h e minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s o n l y i f m o s t o f t h e c r e a t e d c r a c k
s u r f a c e i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e minimum s t r e s s component. As t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r e may be i n i t i a t e d a t some a n g l e t o t h e p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f a r - f i e l d
minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s , and a f t e r p r o p a g a t i n g away f r o m t h e w e l l t h e c r a c k s u r -
f a c e w i l l be a l i g n e d w i t h t h i s d i r e c t i o n , t h e f r a c t u r e has t o b e p r o p a g a t e d f a r
enough f r o m t h e w e l l t o m i n i m i z e t h e e f f e c t o f i n i t i a l c r a c k o r i e n t a t i o n a t t h e
borehole.

Because v i s c o u s f r i c t i o n a l p r e s s u r e s c a n b e v e r y h i g h e v e n f o r l o w - v i s c o s i t y
f l u i d s pumped a t s m a l l r a t e s as a consequence o f s m a l l f r a c t u r e a p e r t u r e and am-
p l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t b y w a v i n e s s and r o u g h n e s s o f t h e r e a l c r a c k s u r f a c e ,
and s i n c e t h e p r e s s u r e measured a t t h e b o r e h o l e may d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m
t h e a v e r a g e p r e s s u r e i n t h e f r a c t u r e , and c r a c k o p e n i n g and c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e de-
t e r m i n e d f r o m r e o p e n i n g and f l o w b a c k p r o c e d u r e s may be v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o f l o w
r a t e s , t h e f r a c t u r e s h o u l d be s i z e d l a r g e enough, b u t n o t t o o l a r g e t o r i s k
b r e a k i n g i n t o a d j a c e n t t e s t i n t e r v a l s . The a c c u r a t e d e s i g n o f t h e i n j e c t e d vo-
lume f o r c r e a t i n g a c r a c k o f d e s i r e d d i m e n s i o n w h i c h i s c o n f i n e d i n t h e t e s t e d
zone has t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e f i e l d - d e t e r m i n e d o v e r p r e s s u r e and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
a p p a r e n t f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s as w e l l a s f o r t h e l e a k o f f c o e f f i c i e n t .

4.8.2.5.2.2. Global vs. local pressure decline match

I n l a t e r s t a g e s o f r e o p e n i n g , p r o p a g a t i o n , s h u t - i n and f l o w b a c k c y c l e s , t h e
f r a c t u r e i s r e o p e n e d a t a c o n s t a n t pumping r a t e t o d e t e r m i n e c r a c k r e o p e n i n g
p r e s s u r e . A f t e r t h e d e s i g n e d volume has been pumped, t h e w e l l i s s h u t i n a g a i n
and e x t e n d e d s h u t - i n a n d / o r f l o w b a c k t e s t s a r e p e r f o r m e d t o d e t e r m i n e f r a c t u r e
c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e (SHLYAPDBERSKY, WALHAUG, SHEFFIELD & HUCKABEE 1 9 8 8 ) . A more a c -
c u r a t e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c r a c k p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e c a n be p e r f o r m e d i f t h e t h e o r e t i -
c a l p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e i s matched w i t h f i e l d p r e s s u r e d a t a f o r a t i m e i n t e r v a l
( g l o b a l match) r a t h e r than matching t h e pressure d e r i v a t i v e ( l o c a l match) a t
one p o i n t o n l y . S e v e r a l r e o p e n i n g , p r o p a g a t i o n , s h u t - i n and f l o w b a c k c y c l e s
s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d a t d i f f e r e n t r e o p e n i n g and f l o w b a c k r a t e s i n o r d e r t o i d e n -
t i f y t h e bounds o f f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e and o p e n i n g p r e s s u r e s w h i c h a r e c o n s i d e r e d
t o be t h e e s t i m a t e s o f minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s . C o n s t a n t - r a t e f l o w b a c k p r o c e d u -
r e s a r e u s e d t o a c c e l e r a t e and a c c e n t u a t e f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e .

The d i s t i n c t f l o w b a c k p r e s s u r e c h a r a c t e r i s due t o t h e i n c r e a s e o f f r i c t i o -
n a l p r e s s u r e i n t h e f r a c t u r e a n d / o r t h e d e c r e a s e o f c r a c k c o m p l i a n c e d u r i n g con-
tinuous f r a c t u r e aperture r e d u c t i o n before complete mechanical c l o s u r e occurs.
Crack r e o p e n i n g a t a c o n s t a n t l o w r a t e may i d e n t i f y an u p p e r bound e s t i m a t e f o r
t h e minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s . As d u r i n g i n j e c t i o n i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e t h e measured
b o t t o m - h o l e p r e s s u r e i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e c r a c k because o f v i s -
c o u s f r i c t i o n a l l o s s e s , t h e f r a c t u r e r e o p e n i n g p r e s s u r e g i v e s an u p p e r l i m i t
f o r t h e minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s . A g l o b a l p r e s s u r e m a t c h a n a l y s i s o f t h e e x t e n -
ded f a l l o f f t e s t can a l s o be u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s o r f r a c -
t u r e c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e and t o t a l l e a k o f f c o e f f i c i e n t i n more objective and r e -
l i a b l e manner t h a n w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s (SHLYAPOBERSKY 1 9 8 8 ) .
 567

4.8.2.6.3. Design parameters for optimum micro- and minifracture

Design o f m i c r o - and m i n i f r a c t u r e t e s t s i n v o l v e s a p p r o p r i a t e s e l e c t i o n o f i n -
jection fluid, i n j e c t i o n r a t e and volume, p r e s s u r e f a l l o f f t i m e a f t e r s h u t - i n ,
and flowback r a t e and t i m e (SHLYAPOBERSKY, WALHAUG, SHEFFIELD & HUCKABEE 1988).
Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on t e s t f l u i d r a t e s and v i s c o s i t i e s as
w e l l as s h u t - i n t i m e and flowback r a t e .

4.8.2.6.3.1. Test fluid rates and viscosities

The m i c r o f r a c t u r e t e s t f l u i d s h o u l d i d e a l l y be a l o w - v i s c o s i t y p e n e t r a t i n g
f l u i d which m i n i m i z e s n e a r - w e l l b o r e and f r a c t u r e f r i c t i o n a l e f f e c t s . M i n i f r a c -
t u r e t e s t s o f t e n use two o r more d i f f e r e n t f l u i d s , w i t h a f l u i d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f t h e f u l l - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t h a v i n g t o be used t o determine t h e l e a k o f f c o e f f i -
c i e n t p r o p e r l y which i s r e q u i r e d f o r d e s i g n c a l i b r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . 1 . ) .
I n j e c t i o n r a t e s f o r r e s e r v o i r breakdown and f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n must be ade-
quate t o ensure c r e a t i o n and e x t e n s i o n o f a s i n g l e dominant c r a c k and t o gene-
r a t e s u f f i c i e n t f r a c t u r e volume f o r subsequent extended s h u t - i n and f l o w b a c k .
M i c r o f r a c t u r e t e s t s s h o u l d be pumped a t r a t e s as low as p r a c t i c a l i n o r d e r t o
m i n i m i z e f r i c t i o n and t o propagate t h e f r a c t u r e i n a q u a s i - s t a t i c manner, w h i l e
m i n i f r a c t u r e t e s t s s h o u l d be pumped a t t h e planned f u l l - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t r a t e s
i n o r d e r t o e v a l u a t e p o t e n t i a l f r a c t u r e containment b a r r i e r s and t o determine
t h e r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e c r a c k o v e r p r e s s u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.1.1.). Fracture
reopenings s h o u l d be performed a t s e v e r a l low i n j e c t i o n r a t e s i n o r d e r t o m i n i -
mize t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f f r i c t i o n i n p e r f o r a t i o n s and near t h e w e l l b o r e , as
c r a c k r e o p e n i n g p r e s s u r e can be v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e r e o p e n i n g r a t e because o f
t h e pressure-dependent f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y .

The c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n j e c t i o n r a t e and volume must c r e a t e a c r a c k w i t h ade-

quate f l u i d volume r e m a i n i n g i n t h e f r a c t u r e a t shutdown t o p r o v i d e a s t a b l e
c o n s t a n t - r a t e flowback b e f o r e c r a c k c l o s u r e . The o b j e c t i v e o f a m i c r o f r a c t u r e
t e s t i s t o generate a small r a d i a l c r a c k l i m i t e d t o t h e i n t e r v a l o f i n t e r e s t ,
whereas t h e o b j e c t i v e o f a m i n i f r a c t u r e i s t o provoke a c r a c k o f adequate dimen-
s i o n s as t o t e s t a l l f r a c t u r e parameters t o be encountered i n t h e f u l l - s c a l e
t r e a t m e n t , and t h e pumped volume should be enough t o propagate t h e f r a c t u r e t o
t h e expected containment boundaries f o r t h e main j o b .

4.8.2.6.3.2. Shut-in time and flowback rate

S h u t - i n t i m e between s t o p o f i n j e c t i o n and s t a r t o f flowback s h o u l d be l o n g
enough t o a l l o w t h e p r e s s u r e i n s i d e t h e f r a c t u r e t o e q u a l i z e and i s i n p r a c t i c e
o f t e n a t l e a s t 50 % o f t h e t o t a l i n j e c t i o n time, a l t h o u g h c o n s i d e r a b l e d e v i a -
t i o n s o f t h i s r u l e may be r e q u i r e d by s p e c i a l circumstances. Flowback r a t e
y i e l d i n g t h e d e s i r e d p r e s s u r e c h a r a c t e r depends s t r o n g l y on t h e a c t u a l t e s t con-
d i t i o n s and may v a r y between 5 % and 20 % o f t h e i n j e c t i o n r a t e . Minimum and ma-
ximum flowback r a t e s a r e determined by l e a k o f f r a t e and volume o f f l u i d remain-
i n g i n t h e f r a c t u r e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f f l o w b a c k . Minimum flowback r a t e must be
g r e a t e r t h a n l e a k o f f r a t e a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e flowback t o g e n e r a t e t h e c h a r a c t e -
r i s t i c i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e r a t e a t f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e . Maximum flowback
r a t e must p r o v i d e a s t a b l e p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e b e f o r e c r a c k c l o s u r e which i s depen-
d e n t on m a i n t a i n i n g adequate f r a c t u r e volume a t t h e s t a r t o f f l o w b a c k . O n - s i t e
m o d i f i c a t i o n s a r e c r i t i c a l f o r s u c c e s s f u l t e s t i n g because c r a c k i m p e r f e c t i o n s
may d o m i n a n t l y appear i n reopenings and flowbacks, and t h e proposed procedures
o f f e r t h r e e independent ways o f e s t i m a t i n g minimum i n - s i t u s t r e s s f r o m f r a c t u r e
reopening and c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e s .
 568

4.8.3. Formation damage around the wellbore

M i n i f r a c t u r i n g i n c l u d i n g i n s e r t i o n o f proppants t h u s g e n e r a l l y r e p r e s e n t s r e -
l a t i v e l i m i t a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n t o t h e n e a r e r s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e bo-
r e h o l e ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o f u l l - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t s ) and has t h e r e f o r e h i t h e r t o i n
most cases been used o n l y t o overcome f o r m a t i o n damage around t h e w e l l b o r e by
b r e a k i n g t h r o u g h t h e b e l t w i t h d e t e r i o r a t e d p e r m e a b i l i t y seaming t h e b o r e h o l e
i n t o t h e v i r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r (some o f t h e p r o p p a n t m i n i f r a c t u r e s can be compared
w i t h enhanced g r a v e l packs; D A V I E S & HAGELAARS 1981; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 5 . ) , with
t h i s s p e c i a l workover- o r r e p a i r - t y p e a p p l i c a t i o n b e i n g independent f r o m permea-
b i l i t y o f t h e v i r g i n a l f o r m a t i o n and t h u s h a v i n g been c a r r i e d o u t i n b o t h low-
and h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s . F o l l o w i n g some remarks on o r i g i n and t y p e s o f
f o r m a t i o n damage, b r e a k t h r o u g h methods by m i n i f r a c t u r i n g a r e b r i e f l y sketched.
Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on f o r m a t i o n damage removal by a c i d i z i n g .

4.8.3.1. Origin of formation damage

R e s e r v o i r damage comprises any impairment o f p r o d u c t i v i t y o r i n j e c t i v i t y
w i t h i n wellbore, perforations, formation adjacent t o the wellbore, o r f r a c t u r e s
communicating w i t h t h e w e l l b o r e t h a t u l t i m a t e l y reduce t h e n a t u r a l c a p a c i t y t o
produce o r i n j e c t f l u i d s o r gases (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982, HOLCOMB 1986; KRUEGER
1986, 1988). While most o f t h e m i n i f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s t o overcome f o r m a t i o n
damage a r e c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e e a r l y stage o f w e l l l i f e a f t e r d r i l l i n g , cement-
i n g and c o m p l e t i o n , a f u t u r e tendency w i l l be t o focus a l s o on o l d e r w e l l s i n
l a t e stage o f p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y i n o r d e r t o g e t s t i l l c o n s i d e r a b l e amounts o f
hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s o u t which o t h e r w i s e would remain w i t h i n t h e pay zone ( c f .
section 4.8.9.).

One o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s o f f o r m a t i o n damage i s d i s p e r s i o n and m i -

g r a t i o n o f c l a y m i n e r a l s in sandstones (GRAY & REX 1965), w i t h t h e p a r t i c l e s
b e i n g o f e i t h e r n a t u r a l p r i m a r y - d e t r i t a l provenance o r s e c o n d a r y - a u t h i g e n i c o r i -
g i n ( c f . section 3.5.1.) and b e i n g m o b i l i z e d by e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s d e r i v i n g
f r o m d r i l l i n g , c o m p l e t i o n , t e s t i n g and/or t r e a t i n g , o r b e i n g t e r t i a r y - a r t i f i -
c i a 1 and r e s u l t f r o m b e i n g s y n t h e t i c a l l y i n s e r t e d i n t o and d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h i n
t h e r e s e r v o i r by v a r i o u s a c q u i s i t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n processes. Some aspects o f
f o r m a t i o n exposure d u r i n g w e l l o p e r a t i o n and f l u i d l o s s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.3.1.1. Formation exposure during well operation

F o r m a t i o n damage comprises p h y s i c a l , chemical and/or b i o l o g i c a l r e d u c t i o n o f
r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e immediate s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e w e l l b o r e due t o va-
r i o u s d i f f e r e n t d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n i n f l u e n c e s (GIDLEY 1970) a t any t i m e du-
r i n g l i f e o f t h e w e l l (SCHAIBLE, AKPAN & AYDUB 1986). G e n e r a l l y e v e r y w e l l ope-
r a t i o n d i s t u r b s t h e n a t u r a l chemical, hydrodynamical and thermodynamical e q u i l i -
b r i u m and may thus p o t e n t i a l l y damage t h e f o r m a t i o n (ALEGRE & OOUGHERTY 1988).
P e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n around t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s can o c c u r as a consequence
o f m a t r i x c r u s h i n g and compaction caused by t h e shaped charge o r by gun d e b r i s
(WHITE, WALTER & DIEBOLD 1965).

Any o p e r a t i o n such as d r i l l i n g , cementing, p e r f o r a t i n g , c o m p l e t i o n , s t i m u l a -

t i o n , g r a v e l packing, i n j e c t i o n and workover t h a t exposes t h e f o r m a t i o n t o an
a l i e n f l u i d may r e s u l t i n adverse i n t e r a c t i o n s between w e l l b o r e f l u i d s and f o r -
m a t i o n f l u i d s and/or t h e f o r m a t i o n i t s e l f . S o l i d s suspended i n t h e w e l l b o r e
f l u i d s may p l u g t h e f o r m a t i o n , and o r g a n i c and/or i n o r g a n i c chemical s p e c i e s
may p r e c i p i t a t e o u t o f e i t h e r f l u i d group and reduce f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y
(HOUCHIN & HUDSON 1986). Clay m i n e r a l s w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r framework may i n
response t o chemical and/or mechanical f o r c e s change l o c a t i o n and c o n f i g u r a t i o n
and t h u s reduce f l u i d t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 5 . 2 . ) .
 569

4.8.3.1.2. F l u i d loss i n t o the reservoir

Loss o f c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s , f i l t r a t e s o r p a r t i c l e s f r o m d r i l l i n g mud may
cause c l a y s w e l l i n g (MONAGHAN, SALATHIEL, MORGAN & K A I S E R 1959), p a r t i c l e p l u g -
g i n g by d i s p e r s e d f o r m a t i o n f i n e s , p a r t i c l e i n v a s i o n (GLENN & SLUSSER 1957) o r
adverse changes i n f l u i d s a t u r a t i o n , f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and f o r m a t i o n w e t t a b i l i t y .
H i g h l y a l c a l i n e f i l t r a t e s o c c u r r i n g w i t h t h e cementing o p e r a t i o n may reduce e f -
f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y n e a r t h e w e l l b o r e , and p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n may a l s o
o c c u r d u r i n g hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n such as p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f scales, a s p h a l t e -
nes and o t h e r i n s o l u b l e s as f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e and temperature a r e lowered. Ma-
ny o f t h e adverse p e r m e a b i l i t y e f f e c t s c o r r e l a t e d i r e c t l y t o s w e l l i n g , disper-
s i o n and p l u g g i n g o f c l a y p a r t i c l e s i n t h e f i n e - g r a i n e d f r a c t i o n o f t h e r e s e r -
v o i r r o c k m a t r i x (GIDLEY 1970).

Most o f t h e e f f e c t s c a u s i n g f o r m a t i o n damage a r e provoked by c l o g g i n g o f po-

r e s w i t h f i n e s (RIESE, SCHECHTER & RIESE 1988). The u l t i m a t e n e t r e s u l t o f a l l
t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f f o r m a t i o n damage i s r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n . A
p r o g r e s s r e p o r t on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f e x p e r t systems f o r t h e d i a g n o s i s o f forma-
t i o n damage problems i s g i v e n by ALEGRE & DOUGHERTY ( 1 9 8 8 ) . An overview o f f o r -
m a t i o n damage by a1 t e r a t i o n o f p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e s e r v o i r r o c k s i n
n e a r - w e l l b o r e zones i s p r o v i d e d by MICHAJLOV (1987).

4.8.3.2. Types o f formation damage

D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between mud damage and n a t u r a l damage o f r e s e r v o i r
f o r m a t i o n s (GATEWOOD, HALL, ROBERTS & LASATER 1970). Mud damage o r i g i n a t e s by
d r i l l i n g mud permeating t h e p o r e spaces o f t h e f o r m a t i o n a d j a c e n t t o t h e w e l l -
bore. The degree o f damage i s u s u a l l y dependent upon d r i l l i n g time, pay zone
p e r m e a b i l i t y , mud type, and number o f t r i p s made d u r i n g t h e d r i l l i n g o p e r a t i o n ,
w i t h maximum p e n e t r a t i o n o f d r i l l i n g mud p a r t i c l e s i n t o t h e i n t e r s t i c e s o f t h e
f o r m a t i o n b e i n g s h a l l o w . A d d i t i o n a l damage may r e s u l t when mud f i l t r a t e l e a k s
i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r and c o n t a c t s n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g f o r m a t i o n c l a y s . I n pay zo-
nes w i t h h i g h percentages o f w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e c l a y s , f i l t r a t e damage c o u l d be as
severe as damage caused by mud p a r t i c l e i n v a s i o n . N a t u r a l l y damaged r e s e r v o i r s
e x h i b i t a r e d u c t i o n i n v i r g i n p e r m e a b i l i t y due t o s w e l l i n g o r m i g r a t i o n o f sen-
s i t i v e c l a y s t o p l u g t h e f o r m a t i o n f l o w channels. T h i s can o c c u r a f t e r a w e l l
has been exposed t o f r e s h water, b r i n e s , a c i d o r c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s , or after
mud f i l t r a t e l e a k o f f . Another t y p e o f damage i s w a t e r b l o c k i n g i n f r a c t u r e and
f o r m a t i o n (HOLDITCH 1979, LIN & HUANG 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 3.11.2.4.2.).

Aspects o f f o r m a t i o n damage a r e d i s c u s s e d by HOLDITCH (1979); McCORRISTON,

DEMBY & PEASE (1981); POTTER & DIBBLE (1983); ALLEN, RILEY & STRASSNER (1984);
AMAEFULE & MASUO (1984); AMAEFULE, PADILLA, MCCAFFERY & TEAL (1984); GOODE, BER-
RY & STACY (1984); MARX & RAHMAN (1984), POTTER (1984); SOMERTON, CHEN, SCHUH &
YUEN (1984); TODD, SOMERVILLE & SCOTT (1984); TYLER, METZGER & TWYFORD (1984);
DEURER, SAHR & UJMA (1985); MEYERS, SKILLMAN & HERRING (1985); HOLCOMB (1986),
MORGENTHALER (1986) ; AMAEFULE, AJUFO, PETERSON & DURST (1987) ; BARKER (1987),
LEONE & SCOTT (1987); PRIISHOLM, NIELSEN & HASLUND (1987); VITTHAL, GUPTA &
SHARMA (1987) and WOJTANOWICZ, KRILOV & LANGLINAIS ( 1 9 8 7 ) . The r o l e o f p e t r o g r a -
p h i c a l analyses i n t h e d e s i g n o f non-damaging t r e a t m e n t programs i s reviewed by
DERSEY ( 1 9 8 6 ) . K I N G & HOLMAN (1986) r e p o r t on hydrocarbon s o l v e n t s as an a l t e r -
n a t i v e t o a c i d f o r removing some f o r m a t i o n damage. MALY (1976) s t r e s s e s t h e i m -
portance o f paying close a t t e n t i o n t o the smallest j o b d e t a i l s f o r minimizing
f o r m a t i o n damage, and COLLE (1978) i n t r o d u c e s a c o m p l e t i o n t e c h n i q u e f o r o v e r -
coming f o r m a t i o n damage. SARKAR & SHARMA (1988) r e v i e w f o r m a t i o n damage by f i -
nes m i g r a t i o n i n two-phase f l o w .
 570

4.8.3.3. Formation damage breakthrough by m i n i f r a c t u r i n g

M i n i f r a c t u r i n g i n o r d e r t o overcome f o r m a t i o n damage has f r e q u e n t l y shown
v e r y p r o m i s i n g r e s u l t s and as a consequence o f t h e g a t h e r e d e x p e r i e n c e , r e c e n t -
l y a l s o some p r o p p a n t m i n i f r a c t u r e s were made as t h e f i r s t s t e p p r e c e d i n g an op-
t i o n a l f o l l o w i n g second expensive s t e p b e i n g t h e MHF t r e a t m e n t . Some p o i n t s o f
small p r o p p a n t volumes f o r p l u g g i n g o f s h o r t c r a c k s as w e l l as damage h a l o brea-
kage by s h o r t h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u r e s a r e discussed as f o l l o w s .

4.8.3.3.1. Small proppant volumes f o r plugging o f short cracks

F o r m a t i o n damage b r e a k t h r o u g h by m i n i f r a c t u r i n g r e q u i r e s o n l y v e r y s m a l l
p r o p p a n t volumes i n o r d e r t o p l u g t h e s h o r t c r a c k s e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e
i n t o i t s immediate s u r r o u n d i n g s . As most o f t h e r e s e r v o i r d e t e r i o r a t i o n zones
r e p r e s e n t r a d i a l m a n t l e s e n v e l o p i n g t h e w e l l b o r e and h a r d l y exceeding a c o u p l e
o f d e c i m e t r e s t h i c k n e s s , s i n g u l a r o r m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s i n t h e o r d e r o f a few
metres l e n g t h would be s u f f i c i e n t f o r o p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e d r a i n a g e . C a u t i o n has
t o be e x e r c i s e d c o n c e r n i n g s e l e c t i o n o f s u i t a b l e proppants, because t h e s m a l l -
s c a l e f r a c t u r e s i n t h e c l o s e s t v i c i n i t y o f t h e b o r e h o l e a r e s u b j e c t e d t o maxi-
mum p r e s s u r e drawdown upon d e p l e t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r d u r i n g course o f f i e l d
p r o d u c t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . 3 . and 4 . 1 2 . 4 . 2 . ) .

As i t has been proven t h a t i n many cases a l r e a d y t h e m i n i f r a c t u r e c o u l d r e -

s u l t i n a r e a s o n a b l e i n c r e a s e o f f l o w r a t e which i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r c o n v e r t i n g a
p r e v i o u s l y uncommercial w e l l i n t o an economical producer and t h u s t h e MHF t r e a t -
ment t h a t was scheduled t o f o l l o w was no l o n g e r necessary t o be c a r r i e d o u t ,
c o n s i d e r a b l e s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t c o u l d be saved i f m i n i f r a c t u r e s w i t h p r o p p a n t i n -
f i l l i n g o f t h e c r a c k s become a more common t o o l o f f o r m a t i o n e v a l u a t i o n p r i o r
t o p l a n n i n g and d e c i s i o n o f e x e c u t i o n of expensive MHF t r e a t m e n t s . T e c h n i c a l
performance o f s m a l l - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g has n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t o be done e x c l u s i v e -
l y by h y d r a u l i c pumping and i n j e c t i o n , b u t methods have a l s o been developed du-
r i n g t h e y e a r s f o r f r a c t u r i n g by v i b r a t i o n (METZGER 1958). F i e l d examples o f
s m a l l - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n f o r b r e a k i n g through w e l l b o r e - s u r r o u n d i n g f o r -
m a t i o n damage a r e r e p o r t e d by GRIFFIN ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

4.8.3.3.2. Damage h a l o breakage

by short high-conductivity f r a c t u r e s
NIEMEYER & REINART (1985) document complex f o r m a t i o n damage which i s caused
by i n t e r a c t i o n s between mud f i l t r a t e , cement f i l t r a t e and connate water, g i v i n g
r i s e t o c a l c i u m carbonate and b a r i u m s u l p h a t e p r e c i p i t a t i o n , w a t e r b l o c k f r o m
c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3.11.2.4.2. and 4 . 8 . 4 . 2 . ) , c l a y d i s p e r s i o n by a
d r i l l i n g f l u i d a d d i t i v e and m o b i l e f o r m a t i o n f i n e s . The small c o n d u c t i v i t y con-
t r a s t a t t a i n a b l e in t h e m o d e r a t e - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r made i t uneconomi-
c a l t o c r e a t e f r a c t u r e s any l o n g e r than necessary t o bypass n e a r - w e l l b o r e da-
mage and e s t a b l i s h reasonable w i t h d r a w a l r a t e s by f l o w e f f i c i e n c y improvement.
S h o r t h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u r e s have t u r n e d o u t t o be a s a t i s f a c t o r y v i n s t o
break through t h e f o r m a t i o n damage h a l o around t h e b o r e h o l e and t o access t h e
r e s e r v e s i n t h e pay zone.

Excessive f l u i d l e a k o f f i n t o t h e m o d e r a t e - p e r m e a b i l i t y m a t r i x i s compensated
by pumping a l a r g e pad c o m p r i s i n g more t h a n h a l f o f t h e t o t a l j o b volume ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.3.4.6.1.4.) and a d d i t i o n o f s i l i c a f l o u r and 100 mesh sand ( c f . sec-
t i o n s 1.4.11.2.1. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . M i n i f r a c t u r i n g w i t h r e d u c t i o n o f b o t h i n -
j e c t i o n r a t e and t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f t h e t r e a t m e n t p e r m i t s s u c c e s s f u l c r a c k
h e i g h t l i m i t a t i o n and p r e v e n t s v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e b r e a k t h r o u g h i n t o a d j o i n i n g
o t h e r pay zones i n cases where s e a l t h i c k n e s s i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o c o n t a i n a s t a n -
d a r d - s i z e j o b and f r a c t u r e e m i g r a t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be u n d e s i r a b l e due t o
o t h e r f l u i d and p r e s s u r e regimes i n t h e o v e r l y i n g n e x t r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y . As-
p e c t s o f w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n and s c a l e i n h i b i t o r s aiming on p r e v e n t i o n o f forma-
 571

t i o n damage a r e d i s c u s s e d by VETTER & LANKFORD (1988), and PRASAD (1985) e v a l u a -

t e s p r o d u c t i v i t y improvement o f a damaged w e l l by f r a c t u r i n g .

4.8.3.4. Formation damage removal by matrix acidizing

F o r m a t i o n damage removal has o f t e n been c a r r i e d o u t by m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g o r
a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i n s t e a d o f p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g f o r t h e reason o f c o s t c o n t a i n -
ment ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.1.1.1.). M a t r i x a c i d i z i n g , however, o n l y s u c c e s s f u l l y t a -
kes away f o r m a t i o n damage i n s h a l l o w depth around t h e borehole, whereas deep so-
l i d p e r m e a b i l i t y p l u g g i n g has t o be c o r r e c t e d by c r e a t i n g a c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e
through t h e damage zone by e i t h e r a c i d o r proppant f r a c t u r i n g (McLEOD 1984). On
t h e o t h e r hand, f o r m a t i o n s can be e a s i l y damaged b y improper use o f h y d r o f l u o -
r i c a c i d , because spent h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d w i l l p r e c i p i t a t e s i l i c a , c a l c i u m f l u o -
r i d e and o t h e r compounds, e s p e c i a l l y when n o t enough h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d p r e f l u s h
i s used t o remove c a l c i u m carbonate i n t h e r e s e r v o i r p r i o r t o h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d
pumping (WALSH, LAKE & SCHECHTER 1982; McLEOD 1984; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 1 . 1 . ) .
F l u i d b u f f e r s have t o be used t o i s o l a t e f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s f r o m a c i d i n o r d e r t o
a v o i d u n d e s i r e d r e s e r v o i r damage.

4.8.4. Field experiments and mHF vs. flHF

P a r t i c u l a r l y i n l i g h t o f t h e o i l p r i c e c r i s i s i n 1986 ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.1.2.) which i s i n p a r t s o f Europe and a l s o i n o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d
s t i l l s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c i n g t h e budget o f c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n
2 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 2 . ) , much p r o m o t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y can be expected i n t h e n e x t
y e a r s f r o m an abundant a p p l i c a t i o n o f cheap proppant m i n i f r a c t u r e s which c o u l d
f r e q u e n t l y r e p l a c e expensive MHF t r e a t m e n t s o r a t l e a s t postpone t h e i r execu-
t i o n w i t h o u t renouncing t o o much on t h e d e s i r e d e f f e c t o f a c c e l e r a t i o n o f p r o -
d u c t i o n and t h u s save a t l e a s t t h e c o s t f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y
which can comprise up t o a c o u p l e o f hundred t o n s o f a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l ( f o r
which t h e expenses may amount up t o 1 Mio. US $ ) f o r a MHF i n s t e a d o f a mHF.
Some aspects o f f r a c t u r i n g expenses vs. e f f e c t i v i t y and f l u i d l e a k o f f vs. w a t e r
b l o c k i n g a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.4.1. Fracturing expenses vs. effectivity

A p a r t f r o m p r o p p a n t and f l u i d c o s t , t h e o t h e r expenses o f t e n remain more o r
l e s s t h e same, because f o r o f f s h o r e j o b s t h e s t i m u l a t i o n vessel has t o go any-
way on l o c a t i o n and f o r onshore t r e a t m e n t s a l s o most p a r t s o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g
t r u c k assembly have t o be i n s t a l l e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 8 . ) . Proppant c o s t , however,
i s t h e l a r g e s t share o f t h e whole o p e r a t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y i n deep gas w e l l s ( c f .
section 2.3.4.), and thus t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f o n l y a b t . 10 - 25 % o f t h e prop-
p a n t q u a n t i t y and a b t . 20 - 50 % o f t h e f l u i d volume necessary f o r a MHF j o b i n
a mHF t r e a t m e n t i s r e a l l y a c h a l l e n g i n g a l t e r n a t i v e i f t h e l a t t e r o p e r a t i o n i s
s u f f i c i e n t f o r achievement o f an economical p r o d u c t i o n r a t e f r o m t h e r e s e r v o i r
a f t e r t h e o p e r a t i o n . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a m i n i - o r m i c r o f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t be-
f o r e t h e main j o b w i t h t h e o p t i o n o f p o s s i b l y t h e s m a l l - s c a l e o p e r a t i o n a l r e a d y
g i v i n g a s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t l e a d i n g t o suspension o r c a n c e l l a t i o n o f t h e expen-
s i v e b i g j o b i s a l s o emphasized by BRANAGAN & WILMER ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

H y d r a u l i c proppant m i n i f r a c t u r i n g i s s i g n i f i c a n t p r e d o m i n a n t l y f o r unconven-
t i o n a l r e s e r v o i r s where m i n i f r a c t u r e s can a l s o be regarded as f i e l d experiments
t o g e t r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n upon which then e s p e c i a l l y designed s t i m u l a t i o n p r o -
j e c t s c o u l d be based on. The p o p u l a r i z a t i o n o f cheap m i n i f r a c t u r e s i s t h u s assu-
med t o be a v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o o l f o r p r o m o t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n by h y d r a u l i c prop-
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g d u r i n g t h e n e x t years, because t h e economical f e a s i b i l i t y of
s m a l l e r t r e a t m e n t s i s much b e t t e r than t h a t o f l a r g e r j o b s and much expenses
can be saved i f t h e m i n i f r a c t u r e l e a d s a l r e a d y t o an a c c e p t a b l e s o l u t i o n i n
terms o f i n c r e a s e o f p r o d u c t i o n r a t e a t l e a s t f o r a c e r t a i n t i m e .
 572

An i n t e r e s t i n g example i s r e p o r t e d b y NORTHCUTT, ROBERTSON & HANNAH ( 1 9 8 8 )

f r o m an i n t e n d e d MHF s t i m u l a t i o n o f t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s . As a consequence o f
u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n o f f l u i d l e a k o f f i n t h e n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d p a y zone, t h e t r e a t -
ment s u f f e r e d f r o m v e r y e a r l y d e h y d r a t i o n s c r e e n o u t , b u t a l t h o u g h t e c h n i c a l l y
b e i n g a f a i l u r e w i t h o n l y having achieved a j o b s i z e comparable t o t h a t o f a
larger minifracture, i t was a c o n s i d e r a b l e commercial s u c c e s s b y s e v e r a l t i m e s
m u l t i p l y i n g t h e p r e - f r a c t u r i n g gas f l o w r a t e , t h u s e m p h a s i z i n g t h a t t h e m a i n e f -
f e c t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n was a l r e a d y a c h i e v e d a f t e r b r e a k i n g t h r o u g h t h e damage
zone i n t h e i m m e d i a t e b o r e h o l e v i c i n i t y w i t h a c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l t o v e r y
s m a l l t r e a t m e n t . The n e a r - w e l l b o r e f o r m a t i o n d e t e r i o r a t i o n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f l o w
i n h i b i t i o n without fracture job i s the r e s u l t o f fines migration, scaling, clo-
s u r e o f n a t u r a l gas r e s e r v o i r f l o w p a t h s o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e f a c t o r s .

4.8.4.2. Fluid l e a k o f f vs. water blocking

F l u i d l e a k o f f w h i c h i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r p r o p e r d e s i g n o f t h e j o b depends
o n f r a c t u r e f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , r e s e r v o i r r o c k p e r m e a b i l i t y , v i s c o s i t y and compres-
s i b i l i t y o f t h e h y d r o c a r b o n s i n t h e p a y f o r m a t i o n , and t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e s t i m u -
l a t i o n f l u i d t o d e p o s i t a mud c a k e a t t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l , w i t h f l u i d l o s s b e i n g
b e s t d e t e r m i n e d b y a m i n i f r a c t u r e o r p r e s s u r e breakdown t e s t ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 8 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) . I f t o o much f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d f i l t r a t e l e a k s o f f d u r i n g t h e t r e a t -
ment i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x and i s t h e r e f i x e d b y c a p i l l a r y and i n t e r f a c e
f o r c e s , w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n c a n c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e up t o r e s i d u a l gas c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n n e a r t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l , and e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y c a n be c o n s i d e r a b l y de-
t e r i o r a t e d b y w a t e r b l o c k i n g i n h i b i t i n g i n i t i a t i o n o f gas f l o w e s p e c i a l l y i n
t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s w i t h h i g h c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e (HOLDITCH 1979; c f . s e c t i o n
3.11.2.4.2.). M i t i g a t i o n o f w a t e r b l o c k i n g c a n b e a c h i e v e d by u s i n g a s o l v e n t
i n t h e pad f l u i d s w i t h a s u r f a c t a n t i n t h e r e s t o f t h e f l u i d , thereby r e d u c i n g
w a t e r b l o c k i n g i n t h e f r a c t u r e as w e l l as s i g n i f i c a n t l y e n h a n c i n g f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d r e c o v e r y and p r o d u c t i o n (PHILLIPS & WILSON 1 9 8 4 ) , because o t h e r w i s e c o n s i -
d e r a b l y h i g h excess pressures a r e necessary t o break through t h e w a t e r - b l o c k i n g
f l o w i n h i b i t i o n (ROODHART, KUIPER & DAVIES 1 9 8 6 ) .

R e s u l t s from pump-in/shut-in t e s t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.2.3.1.3.) can be used t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e maximum recommended j o b s i z e and c r i t i c a l p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
f o r l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s where l e a k o f f i n t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s o c c u r s
(SHELLEY & McGOWEN 1986; TAN, McGOWEN, LEE & SOLIMAN 1988) i f t h e f o r m a t i o n has
s u f f i c i e n t l y low m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y t h a t n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s predominantly con-
t r o l f l u i d loss.

4.8.4.3. Other aspects

Stimulation data analysis o n - s i t e ( c f . section 6.2.4.2.4.) a f t e r the mini-
f r a c t u r e i s a s u i t a b l e means o f e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e t r e a t m e n t and c a n h e l p t o de-
c i d e on n e c e s s i t y , d e s i g n and sequence o f f u r t h e r o p e r a t i o n s t a g e s (ELPHICK
1985, PALMER & VEATCH 1 9 8 7 ) . C l o s u r e s t r e s s c a n be checked b y s t e p - r a t e t e s t o r
p u m p - i n / f l o w - b a c k t e s t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . ) , and f l u i d l e a k o f f i s g i v e n b y an
u n p r o p p e d m i n i f r a c t u r e , w i t h c l o s u r e s t r e s s d e p e n d i n g on f o r m a t i o n p o r e p r e s -
s u r e w h i c h v a r i e s d u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n due t o f l u i d l o s s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
4.4.10.).

An i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t f o r t h e p l a n n i n g o f mHF v s . MHF, as w e l l as optimum

l e n g t h o f t h e f r a c t u r e wings independent from t h e s i z e o f t h e job, i s t h e f a c t
t h a t e v e r y g i v e n f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y has i t s a s s o c i a t e d optimum l e n g t h , w i t h
e x c e s s i v e l y l o n g f r a c t u r e s t h e n h a v i n g no f u r t h e r e f f e c t e x c e p t o f c a u s i n g unne-
c e s s a r y a d d i t i o n a l c o s t (BAUMGARTNER 1983, LEICHT 1 9 8 5 ) . T h i s means t h a t f r a c t u -
r e l e n g t h i s u l t i m a t e l y a l s o d e p e n d i n g on p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n and t h e c o n d u c t i v i -
t y of t h e d e s i g n e d p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) . A s p e c t s o f e x c e s s i -
ve f r a c t u r e l e n g t h a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y CIPOLLA & LEE ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
 573

4.8.5. Pilot stimulation of marginal reservoirs

L i t t l e cheap f r a c t u r i n g j o b s a r e a l s o q u i t e a t t r a c t i v e as p i l o t p r o j e c t s f o r
b o t h b e t t e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n and i n t r o d u c t o r y t r i a l t r e a t m e n t s ( w h i c h have t o be
r e i n f o r c e d by t h e s e r v i c e and p r o p p a n t companies by s p e c i a l p r o m o t i o n p r i c i n g )
i n m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n g i v e s an o u t l i n e o f a r e a l d i s -
t r i b u t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l r e s e r v o i r s , a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s i n un-
s t a b l e pay zones, t i p s c r e e n o u t f r a c t u r i n g , and d i r t y sandstone s t i m u l a t i o n .

4.8.5.1. Areal distribution o f potential reservoirs

P o t e n t i a l r e s e r v o i r s o f m a r g i n a l t y p e which can be s u c c e s s f u l l y approached
by m i n i f r a c t u r i n g as t h e f i r s t s t e p o f s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y a r e f o r example

* s i n g l e o r m u l t i p l e sandwich-type sandstone sheets and lenses,

* u n c o n s o l i d a t e d t o w e a k l y - l i t h i f i e d f i n e - g r a i n e d f l a s e r y o r m u d d y - s i l t y sand-
stones and s o f t u n s t a b l e c h a l k s ( w h i c h occur i n N o r t h Sea, G u l f Coast, Rocky
Mountain r e g i o n and M i d d l e East; BLANTON 1986),
* i n d i v i d u a l o r grouped carbonate s h e l l ( b i o c l a s t i c ) l a y e r s i n mudstone sequen-
ces,
* l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandstone b e l t s o r sheets h o r i z o n t a l l y o r v e r t i c a l l y separa-
t i n g h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y zones, and
* i s o l a t e d s h o e - s t r i n g o r l e n t i c u l a r sandstone bodies w i t h i n mudstone forma-
tions.

I n many o f these a p p l i c a t i o n s , i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y alumina s i -

l i c a t e proppants i n b o t h c o n v e n t i o n a l and r e s i n - c o a t e d f o r m (SINCLAIR & GRAHAM
1977, 1978; COSTEIN & MAYER 1978, SAUNDERS & McKENZIE 1979, KANAT 1980; UNDER-
DOWN; DAY & SPARLIN 1980; POPE, WILES & P I E R C E 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 6 . ) will
become i n c r e a s i n g l y s i g n i f i c a n t d u r i n g t h e n e x t years, as many e a r l i e r t r i a l
r u n s w i t h sand have n o t l e d t o p r o m i s i n g r e s u l t s and h e a v i e r proppants a r e n o t
an adequate m a t e r i a l i n t h e r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w d e p t h i n most o f t h e cases due
t o s e t t l i n g problems i n t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.2.) and t h e h i g h e r
p r i c e o f t h e m a t e r i a l (ATTARD, MATHES & MOWER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n s 1.3.2. and
2.2.2.3.).

S u i t a b l e t a r g e t f o r m a t i o n s f o r such p i l o t m i n i f r a c t u r i n g o f m a r g i n a l r e s e r -
v o i r s i n Europe a r e m a i n l y M i d d l e J u r a s s i c and Lower Cretaceous sandstones, Up-
p e r J u r a s s i c o r Lower Cretaceous carbonate s h e l l l a y e r s i n mudstone sequences,
and Upper Cretaceous and p a r t i a l l y a l s o Lower T e r t i a r y c h a l k i n Germany FRG and
t h e N e t h e r l a n d s ; J u r a s s i c sandstones and Upper Cretaceous t o Lower T e r t i a r y
c h a l k i n p a r t s o f t h e Norwegian and B r i t i s h N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea; and T e r t i a r y
sandstones i n A u s t r i a ( c f . DOLAK & PERNTHANER 1976, KRULL 1984; KREUTZER 1985,
1986; BRKUER 1987), B u l g a r i a , Czechoslovakia ( c f . THON 1985), I t a l y , Hungary
and Y u g o s l a v i a ( c f . D R A G I C E V I C , M A R I N O V I C , STANKOVIC, BATUSIC & NIKOLIC 1983).
R e q u i r e d p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t i e s f o r such s m a l l - s c a l e j o b s may be as low as
6 - 12 t, b u t may a l s o comprise h i g h e r o r even a l s o l o w e r volumes i n case o f
problems t o meet t h e average f i g u r e s (DOLAK & PERNTHANER 1 9 7 6 ) .

4.8.5.2. Appl icat ion o f res i n-coated

proppants in unstable pay zones

The main s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d proppants i n a s u i t e

o f t h e aforementioned cases i s t o p r o v i d e a s t a b l e aggregated package i n s o f t
t o i n s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s w i t h low embedment p r e s s u r e where con-
v e n t i o n a l proppants tend t o embed, t h e r e b y r e s u l t i n g i n a h e a l i n g e f f e c t t o oc-
c u r i n the f r a c t u r e ( i n c o n t r a s t t o crushing o f grains i n a f r a c t u r e d hard l i t h -
i f i e d r o c k w i t h h i g h embedment pressure; CLARK 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . ) . Some
 574

a s p e c t s o f p r o p p a n t wedge s t a b i l i z a t i o n and embedment p r e v e n t i o n as w e l l as

t a i l - i n p r o p p i n g f o r f l o w b a c k i n h i b i t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.5.2.1. Proppant wedge stabi 1 izat ion and embedment prevent ion
W h i l e i n many s o f t t o m o d e r a t e l y - c e m e n t e d f o r m a t i o n s , t h e c h o i c e o f a p r o p -
p a n t w i t h a l a r g e r d i a m e t e r i s a l r e a d y enough f o r s a t i s f a c t o r i l y l i m i t i n g p r o p -
p a n t embedment, o t h e r r o c k t y p e s l i k e t h e above enumerated ones have t o r e c e i v e
an a r t i f i c i a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n a t l e a s t w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e i n f i l l wedge a n d / o r
t h e g r a v e l pack m a n t l e b y s t i c k i n g t o g e t h e r o f r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a i n s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.12.3.3.). Thermal s t a b i l i t y o f r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s and t h e i r c o n s o l i d a t i o n
p r o p e r t i e s a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d b y RENSVOLD ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

R e s i n c o a t i n g c a n be c a r r i e d o u t f o r any c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e p r o p p a n t b y
a d d i n g a t h i n p e l l i c l e o f p h e n o l i c r e s i n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s (POPE, WILES
& P I E R C E 1 9 8 7 ) . When t e m p e r a t u r e s i n e x c e s s o f 140 OF and c l o s u r e s t r e s s a r e ap-
p l i e d t o the curable resin-coated proppants i n the r e s e r v o i r formation, the re-
s i n s o f t e n s , s t a r t s t o c u r e and c h e m i c a l l y bonds t o g e t h e r t o g e n e r a t e a c o n s o l i -
d a t e d p e r m e a b l e package ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 6 . ) .

4.8.5.2.2. Tail-in propping for flowback inhibition

C o n c e r n i n g t a i l - i n p r o p p i n g p o l i c y ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . 3 . ) , a t l e a s t one
t h i r d t o h a l f o f t h e amount o f t h e pumped p r o p p a n t s have t o be r e s i n - c o a t e d i n
o r d e r t o g e t an aggregated r i g i d p l u g o f t h e f r a c t u r e which i s w i t h s t a n d i n g c o l -
lapse ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.3.3.), whereas t h e o u t e r p a r t s o f t h e c r a c k n e a r t h e
t i p s may be i n f i l l e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l p r o p p a n t s i f a m u l t i - l a y e r package i s
g u a r a n t e e d . I n u n s t a b l e f o r m a t i o n s , however, any c o s t c o n t a i n m e n t a c h i e v e d b y
t h e p a r t i a l r e p l a c e m e n t o f r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s b y c o n v e n t i o n a l ones c a n be
more t h a n compensated by s e r i o u s c o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n b y p r o p p a n t embed-
ment and f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . ) . FRIEDMAN, SURLES & K I E K E ( 1 9 8 6 )
comment o n h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n . T a i l i n g - i n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p -
p a n t s i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y s u c c e s s f u l method f o r c o n t r o l l i n g p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k
n e a r t h e w e l l b o r e and t h u s a v o i d i n g f r a c t u r e damage ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . 3 . ) by
c r e a t i n g a s t a b l e c o n s o l i d a t e d wedge h o l d i n g t h e p r o p p a n t i n p l a c e i r r e s p e c t i v e
o f f l o w r a t e s and v e l o c i t i e s o f t h e p r o d u c e d f l u i d s .

4.8.5.3. Tip screenout fracturing

A n o t h e r t e c h n i q u e f o r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f weak, unstable formations i s t i p
s c r e e n o u t f r a c t u r i n g (SMITH, MILLER & HAGA 1987; c f . s e c t on 4 . 5 . 4 . 4 . 1 . ) w h i c h
p r i n c i p a l l y aims on c r e a t i n g s h o r t h i g h . - c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u es in s o f t r e s e r -
v o i r r o c k s such as c h a l k s , d i a t o m a c e o u s e a r t h s and u n s t a b l e s a n d s . Some p r i n c i p -
l e s and a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t i p s c r e e n o u t f r a c t u r i n g a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.5.3.1. Principles
The d e s i g n i s based on i n t e n t i o n a l l y s c r e e n i n g o u t t h e t i p o f t h e f r a c t u r e
w i t h p r o p p a n t s and t h e n c o n t i n u i n g t o pump s l u r r y t o i n c r e a s e c r a c k w i d t h and
t o pack t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h p r o p p a n t m u l t i l a y e r s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n h i g h c o n d u c t i -
v i t y (SMITH, M I L L E R & HAGA 1 9 8 7 ) . Because t h i s i n v o l v e s s e v e r e r i s k o f prema-
t u r e screenout ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.4.2.1.) and as f a i l u r e t o a c h i e v e t i p s c r e e n o u t
w i l l not y i e l d the desired stimulation, i t i s indispensible t o perform special
p r e f a c t u r e t e s t s i n o r d e r t o e x a c t l y determine design v a r i a b l e s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y
f l u i d leakoff coefficient).

T i p s c r e e n o u t f r a c t u r i n g c a n a l s o be p e r f o r m e d i n m u l t i f r a c t u r e systems w i t h
f o r example p e r f o r a t i n g t h e l o w e r i n t e r v a l and c a r r y i n g o u t a t i p s c r e e n o u t
 575

f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t t o c r e a t e a h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n d u i t f r o m t h e upper zone
t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s (SMITH, MILLER & HAGA 1987; i n t e r f a c e f r a c t u r i n g ; c f . sec-
t i o n 4.5.4.4.2.). As widely-propped c r a c k s a r e necessary t o m a i n t a i n f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y i n s o f t f o r m a t i o n s , c o n d u c t i v i t y l o s s r e s u l t i n g f r o m p r o p p a n t em-
bedment i n t o weak u n s t a b l e r e s e r v o i r s would make t h e f l o w c o n d u i t f r o m t h e up-
p e r i n t e r v a l t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s i n e f f e c t i v e . Aspects o f p e r f o r a t i n g i n one
zone and f r a c t u r i n g i n t o another h o r i z o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by HOLM (1975); AH-
MED, WILSON & STRAWN (1983) and ATTARD, MATHES & MOWER ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.8.5.3.2. Applications
T i p screenout f r a c t u r i n g has t h e drawback o f s i g n i f i c a n t p r e s s u r e drop and
l o s s o f p r o d u c t i v i t y through t h e crack which m i g h t o c c u r a t h i g h hydrocarbon
o f f t a k e r a t e s (SMITH, MILLER & HAGA 1 9 8 7 ) . I f t i p screenout f r a c t u r i n g i s n o t
s u c c e s s f u l l y executed, hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s r e a c h a p o i n t where f u r t h e r
w e l l h e a d p r e s s u r e r e d u c t i o n has v e r y l i t t l e o r no e f f e c t on w e l l performance.
I n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h i s c h o k i n g e f f e c t , f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y has t o be i n -
creased and/or d i s t a n c e between upper zone and p e r f o r a t i o n s has t o be decrea-
sed. I n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y can be achieved by r e d e s i g n i n g t h e opera-
t i o n s such as t o r e f l e c t t r i p l e o r quadruple w i d t h i n s t e a d o f p r i m a r y double-
w i d t h design p h i l o s o p h y , a l o n g w i t h i n c r e a s i n g maximum proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
I n a d d i t i o n , d e t r i m e n t a l p r e s s u r e drops through t h e c r a c k can be avoided by c a r -
r y i n g out a m u l t i f r a c t u r e completion instead o f a s i n g l e s t i m u l a t i o n job. M u l t i -
f r a c t u r e c o m p l e t i o n may be executed as separate t i p screenout o p e r a t i o n s i n d i s -
c r e t e l a y e r s which a r e l a t e r commingled ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.10.1.1.), o r as j o i n t
m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g i n c l u d i n g c r e a t i o n o f communication pathways between t h e
v e r t i c a l l y superimposed r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y s i f necessary and d e s i r a b l e ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.10.1.2.). T i p screenout f r a c t u r i n g i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e technique
i n w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e s o f t f o r m a t i o n s where a c i d i z i n g cannot be done ( c f . a l s o sec-
t i o n 4.5.4.3.1.).

M i n i f r a c t u r i n g i s a l s o c o n s i d e r e d t o be a s u i t a b l e p i l o t s t i m u l a t i o n means
f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l approach o f o t h e r u n c o n v e n t i o n a l t a r g e t s such as geopressu-
r e d r e s e r v o i r s , c o a l seams, s h a l e s and h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . a l s o
s e c t i o n 4.4.).

4.8.5.4. Dirty sandstone s t irnulat ion

M i n i f r a c t u r i n g as p r e c u r s o r - o r e x p e r i m e n t a l - t y p e t r e a t m e n t i s a l s o a s u i t a -
b l e method f o r t h e approach o f d i r t y sandstones which comprise 80 % o f t h e
w o r l d - s c l a s t i c p e t r o l e u m r e s e r v o i r s , b u t o n l y 15 % o f t h e w o r l d - s o i l f i e l d s
(DAVIES 1980). W h i l e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f c l e a n sandstones i s p r a c -
t i c e d s i n c e l o n g e r time, d i r t y r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n has o n l y moved i n t o t h e f o -
cus o f t r e a t i n g schedules i n t h e l a s t decades. P a r t i c u l a r l y as a consequence o f
t h e n e c e s s i t y o f i n c r e a s i n g o i l r e s e r v e s i n s p i t e o f p r o d u c t i o n exceeding a d d i -
t i o n a l d i s c o v e r i e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.5.2.), hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g o f
d i r t y sandstones w i l l become p r o g r e s s i v e l y more i m p o r t a n t i n t h e near f u t u r e .
W i t h p r o p e r l y designed s t i m u l a t i o n procedures, 80 % o f t h e w o r l d ' s p r o s p e c t i v e
sandstone p o t e n t i a l become h i g h l y p r o s p e c t i v e e x p l o r a t i o n and development t a r -
gets.

4.8.6. Horizontal well or drainhole drilling and fracturing

I n a d d i t i o n t o c o n v e n t i o n a l v e r t i c a l d r i l l i n g and a l t h o u g h b e i n g q u i t e expen-
s i v e as w e l l as t e c h n i c a l l y complicated, p o t e n t i a l o f enhanced hydrocarbon r e c o -
v e r y i s a l s o seen f o r h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t s m a l l e r - o r l a r g e r - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g o f
h o r i z o n t a l o r d r a i n h o l e w e l l s (GIGER 1983, STEENBOCK 1985, V I C A N E K 1985, JOSH1
1987) i n v a r i o u s r e s e r v o i r s o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y t h i n s h e e t - l i k e sandstone t y p e .
The most common procedures f o r a c c e l e r a t i o n o f o i l p r o d u c t i o n a r e h y d r a u l i c
 576

f r a c t u r i n g , h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g and v e r t i c a l i n f i l l d r i l l i n g (PLAHN, STARTZMAN

& WATTENBARGER 1987). V a r i o u s aspects o f h o r i z o n t a l h o l e d r i l l i n g and f r a c t u -
r i n g a r e b r i e f l y sketched as f o l l o w s .

4.8.6.1.Horizontal hole drilling

H o r i z o n t a l o r d r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g has a l r e a d y r e p e a t e d l y been performed i n Eu-
rope i n France (Lacq and C a s t e r a Lou f i e l d s ; WINNOCK & PONTALIER 1970; MONTIG-
NY, SORRIAUX, LOUIS & LESS1 1988), Germany FRG (Georgsdorf, Berkhopen and L e h r -
t e f i e l d s ; PREVEDEL 1985, 1987), I t a l y (Rospo Mare f i e l d ; G I G E R 1983, BEUDELL
1985 a, ERDOEL-ERDGAS AKTUELL 1985 e, R E I S S 1985, FOX 1986, OFFSHORE ENGINEER
1986; DUSSERT, SANTORO & SOUDET 1988), N e t h e r l a n d s (MURPHY 1988), England (HARD-
MAN 1986; BORNER, HALDORSEN, HARRISON, HOPWOOD & MACDONALD 1988; MACDONALD
1988; OIL GAS JOURNAL 1988 b, PETROLEUM REVIEW 1988 e ) , Denmark (WENANDE 1987;
#' .'ERSEN, HANSEN & FJELDGAARO 1988), Norway (FANTOFT, KROGH & POLLEN 1988), I n -
d i a (KHIN 1988) and i n t h e USA (where h o r i z o n a l w e l l d r i l l i n g has been a p p l i e d
f o r speeding-up o f oil p r o d u c t i o n s i n c e o v e r 40 years; STORMONT 1935, RANNEY
1941, LANDRUM & CRAWFORD 1955, ROEMERSHAUSEN & HAWKINS 1955, DIAMOND & OYLER
1980, MOORE 1980, STIEGLER 1982, GORODY 1984, D I C K I N S O N & D I C K I N S O N 1985, B O S I O
1986; D I C K I N S O N , ANDERSON & D I C K I N S O N 1986; L I , CHANDELLE & BRYCH 1986; WILKIR-
SON, SMITH, STAGG & WALTERS 1986; SHERRARD, B R I C E & MacDONALD 1986; OVERBEY,
YOST & WILKINS 1988) as w e l l as i n t h e USSR (where t h e t e c h n o l o g y i s a l s o ap-
p l i e d s i n c e a l s o more than 40 years; B O R I S O V 1964, G R I G O R I A N 1969, BUTLER 1984,
R E I S S 1985, ERDUL UND KOHLE - EROGAS - PETROCHEMIE 1987 e ) w i t h o u t m a j o r t e c h n i -
cal d i f f i c u l t i e s .

4.8.6.1.0. Historical development and status o f horizontal wells

While e a r l y h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g i n b o t h USA and USSR i n t h e 1950's t o e a r l y
1970's l e a d t o c o n c l u s i o n t h a t h o r i z o n t a l o r h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s a r e t e c h n i -
c a l l y f e a s i b l e b u t e c o n o m i c a l l y d i s a p p o i n t i n g (AUSTIN, ROSE & SCHUH 1988), t h e
development o f improved d i r e c t i o n a l d r i l l i n g methods r e s u l t i n g f r o m e x p e r i e n c e
g a i n e d i n G u l f o f Mexico and N o r t h Sea i n t h e l a t e 1970's and 1980's t u r n e d t h e
key and gave way t o economical a t t r a c t i v i t y o f h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d and h o r i z o n t a l
b o r e h o l e s f o r p r o f i t a b l e r e s e r v o i r e x p l o i t a t i o n (REISS, JOUROAN & G I G E R 1984).

I n t h e l a s t decade, a b t . 150 i m p o r t a n t h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s have been d r i l -

l e d i n t h e w o r l d (PETZET 1988), and c u r r e n t l y a b t . 30 h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s a r e suc-
c e s s f u l l y p r o d u c i n g o i l w o r l d w i d e a t e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e r a t e s (JOSH1 1986 a,
1987 a ) . Some e s t i m a t e s even p l a c e t h e c u r r e n t number o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s b e t -
ween 300 and 600 (AUSTIN, ROSE & SCHUH 1988). H o r i z o n t a l d r a i n h o l e l e n g t h s up
t o 2,000 m (6,000 f t ) i n r e s e r v o i r depth up t o 3,000 m (9,000 f t ) have been
achieved (ARMESSEN, JOURDAN & M A R I O T T I 1 9 8 8 ) . D r i l l i n g f a i l u r e s o f h o r i z o n t a l
w e l l s a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y r a r e , p e n e t r a t i o n r a t e s approach those o f v e r t i c a l
w e l l s , d r i l l i n g o f a c c u r a t e t r a j e c t o r i e s has proven t o be c o m p l e t e l y f e a s i b l e ,
and d r i l l i n g c o s t s a l s o a r e n o t s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r than those o f c o n v e n t i o n a l
w e l l s i f compared on a base o f d r i l l i n g p r o g r e s s u n i t . F o l l o w i n g an o u t l i n e o f
the main t a r g e t s , t h e d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s on aspects o f d i s t i n c t i o n o f h o r i -
z o n t a l w e l l s and d r a i n h o l e s , h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s vs. extended-reach d r i l l i n g ,
i n v e r t e d d r i l l i n g , s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r r e s e r v o i r drainage, and h o r i z o n t a l h o l e com-
p l e t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n .

4.8.6.1.1. Main targets o f horizontal wells

The main t a r g e t s o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l d r i l l i n g a r e t i g h t gas f o r m a t i o n s and
heavy o i l r e s e r v o i r s which a r e p a r t i a l l y a l s o t r e a t e d by steam i n j e c t i o n f l o o d -
i n g (BUTLER & STEPHENS 1980, RIAL 1984, GOODE & THAMBYNAYAGAM 1985, HUANG &
HIGHT 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 4 . ) , r e s e r v o i r s w i t h gas and w a t e r c o n i n g problems
(CHAPERON 1986; KUSSACK, KLEPPE & AASEN 1987), n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d pay zones
 577

w i t h v e r t i c a l cracks (MERCER, PRATT & YOST 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.6.1.5.1.),

t h i n p r o s p e c t i v e s e c t i o n s (JOSHI 1986 a, 1987 a; FANTOFT, KROGH & POLLEN 1988),
and edge water o r gas d r i v e r e s e r v o i r s (BOSIO & G I A N N E S I N I 1988, PETZET 1988).
Subordinate a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e coal-seam d e g a s i f i c a t i o n w e l l s (ERTEKIN, SUNG &
SCHWERER 1986; KING, ERTEKIN & SCHWERER 1986; SUNG, ERTEKIN & SCHWERER 1986;
LOGAN, SCHWOEBEL & HORNER 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.3.6.) and gas shale e x p l o i t a -
t i o n holes (SALAMY, SARADJI, OKOYE, MERCER & YOST 1987; YOST, OVERBEY, SALAMI,
OKOYE & SARADJI 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.4.3.2.).

I n o i l f i e l d s , h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s can be a l s o used t o c o n t r o l and t o d i m i n u i s h

severe coning problems (REISS 1985), t o a c c e l e r a t e g r a v i t y - d r a i n a g e o i l produc-
t i o n (BEZAIRE & MARKIW 1979), t o enhance o f f t a k e from s o l u t i o n - g a s - d r i v e reser-
v o i r s (PLAHN, STARTZMAN & WATTENBARGER 1987), and t o reduce drawdown (MACDONALD
1988). H o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g a l s o improves o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n from r e s e r v o i r s
w i t h gas caps and bottom water (PETZET 1988; FANTOFT, KROGH & POLLEN 1988).
Other candidates are pay zones w i t h sparsely d i s t r i b u t e d v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s
t h a t a normal w e l l has l i t t l e chance o f i n t e r s e c t i n g (JOSHI 1986 a ) . S h o r t - r a -
d i u s l a t e r a l holes can serve as h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e replacement i n c h a l k and
o t h e r n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d formations. H o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g i s n o t o n l y s u i t a b l e
f o r o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r e x p l o i t a t i o n , b u t a l s o p r o f i t a b l e f o r condensate pay
zone d e p l e t i o n (HOWES 1988).

Summaries o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l d r i l l i n g are compiled by R E I S S , JOURDAN, GIGER

& ARMESSEN (1984); JOURDAN, R E I S S & JOLY (1986) and JOSHI (1987 a), and a s t a -
t u s r e p o r t o f o p e r a t i o n a l aspects i s g i v e n by PETZET (1988). H o r i z o n t a l boreho-
l e s aim on p r o d u c t i o n from plane o r p a r a l l e l f l o w w i t h u n i f o r m pressure drop i n
c o n t r a s t t o v e r t i c a l w e l l s which operate under r a d i a l c i r c u l a r f l o w w i t h concen-
t r a t e d pressure drop (HOWES 1988), and f o r achievement o f plane flow, b o t h h i g h
angle and l o n g r e s e r v o i r i n t e r s e c t i o n p a t h are c r i t i c a l , w i t h h o r i z o n t a l h o l e
t r a j e c t o r y through the pay zone being p r e f e r a b l y a t l e a s t 10 times the r e s e r -
v o i r thickness ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.11.3.).

4.8.6.1.2. Horizontal wells vs. drainholes

D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s and d r a i n h o l e s (JOSHI
1987 a ) . H o r i z o n t a l w e l l s are n o r m a l l y new boreholes reaching a l e n g t h o f the
h o r i z o n t a l s e c t i o n o f 1,000 - 3,000 f t (300 - 1,000 m) and are d r i l l e d from the
surface by s t a r t i n g o f f v e r t i c a l l y and then a t the k i c k - o f f p o i n t p r o g r e s s i v e l y
i n c r e a s i n g i n c l i n a t i o n by b u i l d i n g - u p d e v i a t i o n angle up t o f i n a l l y subhorizon-
t a l and h o r i z o n t a l . Drainholes o r l a t e r a l holes are s i d e t r a c k s from e x i s t i n g
v e r t i c a l w e l l s and a t t a i n a l e n g t h o f 100 - 700 f t (30 - 250 m). E i t h e r s i n g l e
o r m u l t i p l e d r a i n h o l e s can be d r i l l e d through a s i n g l e v e r t i c a l w e l l , w i t h mul-
t i p l e d r a i n h o l e s emanating from the same o r from d i f f e r e n t e l e v a t i o n s o f the pa-
r e n t w e l l and generating a b i r d f o o t p a t t e r n . Drainholes r e p r e s e n t secondary
high-angle t o h o r i z o n t a l holes which are d r i l l e d r a d i a l l y from p r i m a r y v e r t i c a l
o r low-angle holes (TRACY 1988). The l a r g e r the diameter o f the h o s t v e r t i c a l
w e l l , t h e more high-angle o r h o r i z o n t a l d r a i n h o l e s can be d r i l l e d o u t o f i t
(PETZET 1988). Most o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l boreholes d r i l l e d so f a r have been i n s t a l -
l e d as d r a i n h o l e s o u t o f v e r t i c a l w e l l s t h a t have a l r e a d y been reasonably good
producers (AUSTIN, ROSE & SCHUH 1988). F o l l o w i n g some comments on r a d i u s f o r
borehole t r a j e c t o r y t u r n i n g , a p p l i c a t i o n s o f d r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g are o u t l i n e d .

4.8.6.1.2.1. Radius for borehole trajectory turning

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l and d r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g techniques can be
made i n t o f o u r broad c a t e g o r i e s depending on the r a d i u s r e q u i r e d t o t u r n the bo-
r e h o l e t r a j e c t o r y from v e r t i c a l t o h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n o r the r a t e o f angle
b u i l d i n g , thus d i s t i n g u i s h i n g u l t r a - s h o r t - , short-, medium- and l o n g - r a d i u s
d r a i n h o l e s (EDLUND 1987, JOSHI 1987; AUSTIN, ROSE & SCHUH 1988; HOWES 1988, JUR-
GENS 1988, LOGAN 1988, MAHONEY 1988, TRACY 1988, ZALESKI & SPATZ 1988). DICKIN-
 578

SON, ANDERSON & DICKINSON ( 1 9 8 6 ) o u t l i n e m u l t i p l e r a d i a l d r i l l i n g . The primary

d i f f e r e n c e between c o n v e n t i o n a l o r e x t e n d e d - r e a c h d i r e c t i o n a l d r i l l i n g and s h o r -
t e r - r a d i u s d r a i n h o l e t e c h n i q u e s i s b u i l d a n g l e , with a c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r
b u i l d a n g l e f o r s h o r t e r - r a d i u s d r a i n h o l e s r e s u l t i n g in l e s s b o r e h o l e t r a j e c t o r y
and t h u s l e s s c o s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o c o n v e n t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n a l d r i l l i n g (LOGAN
1988).

4.8.6.1.2.2.Drainhole drilling applications

D r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g i s a promising technology enhancing o i l r e c o v e r y and im-
proving p r o d u c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y and economics (TRACY 1 9 8 8 ) . I t s major a p p l i c a -
t i o n s i n o i l and g a s i n d u s t r y a r e i r r e g u l a r r e s e r v o i r s which can be reached
w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l v e r t i c a l w e l l b o r e s , l i m i t a t i o n of i n v a s i o n of unwanted forma-
t i o n f l u i d s , p e n e t r a t i o n of v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s , and maximization of p r o d u c t i o n
of l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y and low-energy r e s e r v o i r s by i n c r e a s i n g f o r m a t i o n e x p o s u r e .
D r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g can a l s o be used i n mining i n d u s t r y t o i n c r e a s e r e c o v e r y e f -
f i c i e n c y and c o n t r o l i n s o l u t i o n mining, t o improve methane removal from coal
p r i o r t o mining s t a r t - u p , and t o f a c i l i t a t e underground g a s i f i c a t i o n in c o a l de-
posi t s .

4.8.6.1.3.Horizontal wells vs. extended-reach drilling

Another t y p e of h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d t o h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e a p p l i c a t i o n i s e x t e n -
ded-reach d r i l l i n g which has the o b j e c t i v e t o c r e a t e a d r a i n a g e p o i n t i n the r e -
s e r v o i r a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e from t h e s u r f a c e o u t l e t (BOSIO & GIANNESINI 1 9 8 8 ) .
Current technology a l l o w s t o d r i l l l a t e r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s of the e x t e n d e d - r e a c h
s e c t i o n s IJP t o 10 k m ( 6 mi) i n a t r u e v e r t i c a l t o t a l depth of a b t . 4 k m (HOWES
1988, OFFSHORE E N G I N E E R 1988) o r a b t . 32,000 f t l a t e r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t a t a t r u e
v e r t i c a l d e p t h of 12,000 f t a t an i n c l i n a t i o n of 72 - 75 d e g r e e s ( P E T R O L E U M E N -
G I N E E R INTERNATIONAL 1988 a ) . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d on h o r i z o n t a l d i s p l a c e -
ment and t o t a l a c c e s s i b l e a r e a a s well a s extended- vs- l i m i t e d - r e a c h d r i l l i n g
as follows.

4.8.6.1.3.1.Horizontal displacement and total accessible area

The c u r r e n t world r e c o r d of s u c c e s s f u l e x t e n d e d - r e a c h d r i l l i n g i s a b t .
15,100 f t ( 5 , 0 0 0 m) l a t e r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t a t a true v e r t i c a l d e p t h of a b t . 8,000
f t ( 2 , 6 0 0 m ) a t an a n g l e of a b t . 70 d e g r e e s . The h i t h e r t o maximum achievement
i n Germany FRG i s a b t . 2,100 m ( 6 , 3 0 0 f t ) l a t e r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t a t a t r u e v e r t i -
c a l depth of a b t . 1,400 m ( 4 , 2 0 0 f t ) a t a maximum a n g l e of 6 5 . 5 d e g r e e s ( G R E B E
1 9 8 1 ) . H o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s e c t i o n s u p t o 3,000 f t (1,000 m ) i n e x t e n d e d - r e a c h
w e l l s have been f r e q u e n t l y achieved (FERTL & N I C E 1 9 8 8 ) .

Extended-reach d r i l l i n g i s g e n e r a l l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h i n c l i n a t i o n a n g l e s b e t -
ween 60 and 90 d e g r e e s and u s u a l l y aims a t h o r i z o n t a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s i n e x c e s s
of 2 m i l e s (HOWES 1 9 8 8 ) . The reason f o r e x t e n d e d - r e a c h d r i l l i n g i s t o a c c e s s re-
mote t a r g e t s from a c e n t r a l p o i n t thus reducing t h e number of h i g h - c o s t p l a t -
forms o r subsea w e l l s t h a t a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r development of the f i e l d u s u a l l y
u p t o 50 % o r i n extreme c a s e s even up t o 75 % . I f d r i l l i n g from a p l a t f o r m i s
i n c r e a s e d from a maximum a n g l e of h o l e i n c l i n a t i o n from 40 t o 80 d e g r e e s , the
t o t a l a c c e s s i b l e a r e a i s r i s i n g by a f a c t o r of 30 ( M O O R E 1987 a ) . Extended-
r e a c h d r i l l i n g i n f i e l d a p p r a i s a l i s i l l u s t r a t e d by LOCKE, JOHNSON & JEWKES
(1988).

4.8.6.1.3.2. Extended- vs. 1 imited-reach dri 1 1 ins

Extended-reach d r i l l i n g i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by two main b u i l d i n g c u r v e s t h a t
are i n i t i a t e d by two k i c k - o f f p o i n t s and which a r e connected by a long s t r a i g h t
 579

s e c t i o n between t h e k i c k - o f f marks, w i t h t h e upper b u i l d u p c u r v e b e i n g o f t e n s i -

t u a t e d f a i r l y h i g h i n t h e w e l l , and t h e l o w e r c o n n e c t i n g t h e o b l i q u e s t r a i g h t
s e c t i o n w i t h t h e h o r i z o n t a l o r s u b v e r t i c a l l a n d i n g t r a c e depending on d e p l e t i o n
and s t i m u l a t i o n requirements (JOURDAN, ARMESSEN & POUSSELET 1988). L i m i t e d -
reach d r i l l i n g i s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by o n l y one b u i l d u p c u r v e
and a J - t y p e shape o f t h e b o r e h o l e t r a j e c t o r y , w i t h t h e s i n g l e k i c k - o f f p o i n t
b e i n g s i t u a t e d a t a f a i r l y deep l e v e l . F o r b e t t e r r e s e r v o i r p e n e t r a t i o n geome-
t r y e s p e c i a l l y i n case o f v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l packing, a
S-shaped b o r e h o l e t r a j e c t o r y w i t h one o r two k i c k - o f f p o i n t s i s p r e f e r e n t i a l ,
w i t h t h i s shape b e i n g c r e a t e d by r e d u c i n g a g a i n t h e w e l l b o r e i n c l i n a t i o n p r i o r
t o p r o p a g a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e pay complex (BRUIST, JEFFERIS & BOTTS 1983).

4.8.6,1.4*Inverted drilling
A s p e c i a l t y p e o f h i g h - a n g l e t o h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g i s i n v e r t e d d r i l l i n g and
c o m p l e t i o n (PETZET 1988) which i n v o l v e s c r e a t i o n o f b o r e h o l e t r a j e c t o r i e s i n ex-
cess o f 90 degrees. I n v e r t e d w e l l s s t a r t v e r t i c a l l y and then g r a d u a l l y b u i l d up
an i n c l i n a t i o n up t o 90 degrees which i s t h e n i n t h e t e r m i n a l phase exceeded up
t o a b t . 100 - 110 degrees by t u r n i n g a g a i n upwards, t h u s p r o p a g a t i n g i n i n v e r s e
d i r e c t i o n i n t h e f i n a l stage. I n v e r t e d d r i l l i n g may l e a v e a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e o r
s t a n d o f f between t h e g a s - o i l - c o n t a c t i n a r e s e r v o i r and t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s which
extends l o n g - t e r m w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y and p r a c t i c a l l y e l i m i n a t e s gas c h a n n e l l i n g .
Examples o f i n v e r t e d d r i l l i n g w i t h t e r m i n a l angles i n excess o f 90 degrees a r e
a l s o r e p o r t e d by GREENER, SAUVAGEAU & PASTERNACK (1988), and STEENBOCK & MOL-
LER-LINK (1987) p r e s e n t a l t e r n a t i v e d r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g w i t h an a r t i c u l a t e d
s p r i n g f o r i n v e r t e d d r i l l i n g up t o 110 degrees h o l e i n c l i n a t i o n . Examples o f i n -
v e r t e d d r i l l i n g w i t h f i n a l angles o f a b t . 100 degrees a r e a l s o documented by
WESTERN OIL WORLD ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.8.6.1.5. Significance f o r reservoir drainage

H o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g aims on r a d i c a l l y changing o f t h e f l o w c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e
r e s e r v o i r by c r e a t i o n o f a p l a n a r f l o w p a t t e r n i n s t e a d o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l r a -
d i a l c i r c u l a r f l o w network ( B O S I O & G I A N N E S I N I 1988) which i s t h e c o n t r o l l i n g
f a c t o r o f p r o d u c t i v i t y and/or r e c o v e r y improvement ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . 3 . ) . The
most fundamental parameter o f h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g i s t h e r e f o r e t h e l e n g t h o f
t h e d r a i n a g e s e c t i o n t r a v e r s i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r h o r i z o n t a l l y , o r more s p e c i f i c a l -
l y the r e l a t i v e length o f the drainage i n t e r v a l i n r e l a t i o n t o r e s e r v o i r t h i c k -
ness and d r a i n a g e area dimensions. Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on com-
m u n i c a t i o n p a t h between w e l l b o r e t r a j e c t o r y and r e s e r v o i r , improved n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t i o n , choke e f f e c t on v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s , d i s t a n c e f r o m f l u i d
c o n t a c t s , r e d u c t i o n o f coning, s e l e c t i o n o f drainage and i n j e c t i o n d i r e c t i o n ,
r e s e r v o i r geometry and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , and w e l l b o r e i n s t a b i l i t y .

4.8.6.1.5.1. Comnunicat ion path between

wellbore trajectory and reservoir
H i g h e r p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s and i n many cases a l s o h i g h e r u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y r e -
s u l t s f r o m a l o n g communication p a t h between w e l l b o r e t r a j e c t o r y and r e s e r v o i r
i n a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e i n c o n t r a s t t o a v e r t i c a l w e l l where t h e l e n g t h o f t h e
pay f o r m a t i o n open t o t h e b o r e h o l e i s more o r l e s s l i m i t e d t o p r o s p e c t i v e zone
t h i c k n e s s (PETZET 1988). I n t h i s connection, however, a t t e n t i o n has t o be p a i d
t o the f a c t t h a t the r e s e r v o i r drainage e f f e c t o f h o r i z o n t a l boreholes t r a v e r -
sing s l i g h t l y - d i p p i n g formations is equivalent t o t h a t o f v e r t i c a l w e l l s cross-
i n g s t e e p l y - i n c l i n e d beds p r o v i d i n g t h e most s u i t a b l e c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f maximum
communication p a t h o f w e l l b o r e t r a j e c t o r y and pay zone, whereas t h e i n v e r s e com-
b i n a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s i n t e r s e c t i n g s t e e p l y - d i p p i n g s t r a t a and v e r t i -
c a l w e l l s p r o p a g a t i n g through g e n t l y - i n c l i n e d r e s e r v o i r s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e w o r s t
p o s s i b l e case o f s h o r t e s t c o n t a c t l e n g t h o f w e l l b o r e and pay i n t e r v a l ( c f . a l s o
 580

section 4.11.1.2.2.).

E x p l o i t a t i o n o f incremental reserves by h o r i z o n t a l boreholes i s f r e q u e n t l y

t h e consequence o f r e d u c e d c o n i n g , i m p r o v e d p r e s s u r e m a i n t e n a n c e , and l a r g e r
d r a i n a g e a r e a . Even i f t h e y do n o t r a i s e u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y , h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s
may i m p r o v e economics b y a l l o w i n g t h e b o r e h o l e s t o p r o d u c e a t r a t e s t h a t p a y o u t
f a s t e r . The e f f e c t i v i t y and p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s s t r o n g l y depends
f r o m p e r m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p y i n t h e r e s e r v o i r (JOSH1 1988, MUKHERJEE & ECONOMI-
DES 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 4 . 2 . ) .

4.8.6.1.5.2.Improved natural fracture intersection

An i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s i s t h e i r much b e t t e r and more e f -
f e c t i v e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f systems o f v e r t i c a l n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r
(REISS 1985) w h i c h a l l o w s much g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i o n p r o f i t f r o m t h e j o i n t f a b r i c
t h a n i n v e r t i c a l w e l l s . As a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r o c k s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n , vertical
o r h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a r e p r e s e n t i n m o s t o f t h e o i l and gas r e -
s e r v o i r s w h i c h c a n be b e t t e r d e v e l o p e d w i t h h o r i z o n t a l w e l l d r i l l i n g , t h i s ac-
q u i s i t i o n and c o m p l e t i o n t e c h n i q u e has c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r enhanced
e x p l o i t a t i o n o f b o t h m a t r i x - and f r a c t u r e - p o r o s i t y p a y systems.

Another advantage i s t h e l a r g e r spread o f t h e f o r m a t i o n i n t e r v a l i n t e r s e c t e d

by t h e b o r e h o l e w h i c h p e r m i t s s e l e c t i v e p r o d u c t i o n o f head o r t a i l o f t h e pene-
t r a t e d r e s e r v o i r segment i n a much more e f f i c i e n t way t h a n w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e
f o r v e r t i c a l w e l l s . The p r e s e n c e o f open n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r -
m a t i o n i s u s u a l l y i n d i c a t e d b y s e v e r e mud l o s s e s up t o t o t a l l e a k o f f o f c i r c u -
l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e d r i l l i n g phase. I n t e r s e c t i o n o f numerous v e r t i c a l n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s by t h e h o r i z o n t a l w e l l leads t o d r a s t i c a l increase o f w e l l p r o d u c t i v i -
ty, a l l o w i n g i n t u r n an o f f t a k e u n d e r v e r y l i m i t e d f l o w i n g p r e s s u r e w h i c h g i v e s
r i s e t o o n l y g e n t l e deformation o f the oil-water-contact, with this effect
b e i n g one o f t h e k e y s f o r a v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r y o i l sweep e f f i c i e n c y i n h o r i z o n -
t a l boreholes ( c f . a l s o section 4.8.6.2.4.2.).

4.8.6.1.5.3. Choke effect on vertical fractures

The c o n t a c t between h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s r e s u l t s i n a
choke b e i n g a s p e c i a l s k i n e f f e c t (MUKHERJEE & ECONOMIOES 1 9 8 8 ) . H y d r a u l i c a l l y -
f r a c t u r e d h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s c a n b e r e g a r d e d as choked v e r t i c a l c r a c k s because o f
t h e l i m i t e d c o n t a c t between b o r e h o l e and f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . 1 . ) . T h i s
choke e f f e c t i s n e g l i g i b l e i n t h e i d e a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e
plane o r i e n t a t i o n b e i n g p a r a l l e l t o h o r i z o n t a l borehole t r a j e c t o r y f o r t h e case
o f a s i n g l e f r a c t u r e , whereas i t s maximum i s r e a c h e d f o r t h e g e o m e t r i c a l r e l a -
t i o n s h i p o f mu1 t i p l e v e r t i c a l c r a c k s i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l we1 1 o r t h o g o -
n a l l y t o t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f i t s t r a j e c t o r y . On t h e o t h e r hand, m u l t i p l e f r a c t u -
r e s p r o p a g a t i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l borehole a i d i n the b e s t cove-
r a g e o f t h e d r a i n a g e a r e a . The c h o k e - t y p e s k i n e f f e c t r e s u l t s i n an a d d i t i o n a l
p r e s s u r e d r o p due t o t h e r a d i a l f l o w g e n e r a t e d a r o u n d t h e e n t r y p o i n t .

As t h e s k i n e f f e c t i s e q u a l t o z e r o when t h e w e l l i s v e r t i c a l o r i n c l i n e d
a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e d i r e c t i o n , d e v i a t e d h o l e s s h o u l d be p r e f e r e n t i a l l y d r i l l e d
such t h a t t h e y a r e t u r n e d v e r t i c a l l y downward f o r t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e r e s e r -
v o i r i n order t o minimize contact s k i n e f f e c t ( c f . a l s o section 4.8.6.1.3.). In
terms o f r e s e r v o i r e x p l o i t a t i o n , t h e performance o f a f r a c t u r e d h o r i z o n t a l w e l l
w h i c h has been d r i l l e d a l o n g t h e c r a c k p l a n e c a n n o t be b e t t e r t h a n t h a t o f a
f r a c t u r e d v e r t i c a l h o l e , whereas h o r i z o n t a l w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y c a n s u b s t a n t i a l l y
b e n e f i t v i a m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e completion despite the occurring s k i n e f f e c t s i n
t h e l a t t e r case i n comparison t o almost zero s k i n i n t h e former c o n s t e l l a t i o n .
 581

4.8.6.1.5.4. Distance from fluid contacts

O t h e r advantages o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s i n c l u d e l o n g e r completed i n t e r v a l s r e -
s u l t i n g f r o m i n c r e a s e d d i r e c t c o n t a c t between b o r e h o l e and pay zone and t h e r e -
f o r e increased production r a t e s i n the longer wellbores, increased standoff
f r o m f l u i d c o n t a c t s i n o i l r e s e r v o i r s o v e r l y i n g an a q u i f e r o r l o c a t e d under a
gas cap i m p r o v i n g p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s w i t h o u t c a u s i n g o r w i t h a t l e a s t d e f e r r i n g
coning, r e d u c t i o n o f drawdown f o r a g i v e n p r o d u c t i o n r a t e by t h e l o n g e r w e l l -
bore, f i e l d development w i t h fewer b o r e h o l e s because o f t h e l a r g e r d r a i n a g e
area o f each w e l l , and a l l o w i n g development o f some f i e l d s where c o n v e n t i o n a l
v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e s would be uneconomical (SHERRARD, BRICE & MACDONALD 1986) o r
t h e s u r f a c e a r e a i s u n a c c e s s i b l e due t o environmental reasons. The c r i t i c a l co-
ning r a t e f o r a h o r i z o n t a l w e l l i s higher than t h a t f o r a corresponding v e r t i -
c a l b o r e h o l e (MACDONALD 1988).

I f c o n i n g i s i n e v i t a b l e , h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s s t i l l p r o v i d e improved sweep e f f i -
c i e n c y , because t h e shape o f c o n v e n t i o n a l cones i n v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e s r e s u l t s
i n l e s s displacement o f hydrocarbons towards t h e producer t h a n t h e tent-shaped
cone which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s . The r a t i o o f v e r t i c a l t o ho-
r i z o n t a l permeability i s very important i n delaying water breakthrough i n h o r i -
z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s (GIGER 1986).

4.8.6.1.5.5. Reduction of coning

Concerning r e d u c t i o n o f gas- and w a t e r - c o n i n g tendencies, h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s
e x h i b i t b e t t e r performance t h a n v e r t i c a l boreholes, as i t r e q u i r e s much s m a l l e r
p r e s s u r e drawdown t o produce o i l a t t h e same r a t e and because i t has almost a
l i n e a r pressure gradient from the wellbore t o the drainage radius, r e s u l t i n g i n
a steady gas d i p o r w a t e r r i s e o v e r t h e l o n g p r o d u c i n g h o r i z o n t a l - w e l l l e n g t h
(SHERRARD, B R I C E & MACDONALD 1986). I n c o n t r a s t , i n a v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e a l o g -
l i n e a r pressure gradient from wellbore t o drainage radius, along w i t h a conical
f l o w a t a s i n g l e p o i n t , a c c e l e r a t e s c o n i n g problems. F u r t h e r p r o m i s i n g aspects
a r e t h e a b i l i t y t o complete s e v e r a l t o v a r i o u s h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d o r h o r i z o n t a l
w e l l s from a s i n g l e l o c a t i o n c o v e r i n g a l a r g e d r a i n a g e area which i s e s s e n t i a l
i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s e n s i t i v e o r h o s t i l e areas as w e l l as o f f s h o r e where p r e p a r a -
t i o n o f d r i l l i n g s i t e s i s a m a j o r expense (HUANG & HIGHT 1986).

P a r t i c u l a r l y f e a s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s a r e t h i n o i l zones
which a r e sandwiched between gas cap and a q u i f e r where p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s i n v e r -
t i c a l b o r e h o l e s a r e s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d by gas and w a t e r c o n i n g (FANTOFT, KROGH &
POLLEN 1988; GILHUUS 1988). The main advantages o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s i n such a
s e t t i n g a r e l o w e r f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s n e a r t h e w e l l b o r e due t o l o n g e r p r o d u c i n g
s e c t i o n and l o n g e r d i s t a n c e t o f l u i d c o n t a c t s , whereas a p o t e n t i a l disadvantage
i s t h e i n a b i l i t y t o s h i f t t h e v e r t i c a l d e p t h o f t h e p r o d u c i n g i n t e r v a l t o com-
pensate f o r movements o f t h e phase c o n t a c t s . H o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s l o c a t e d c l o s e
enough t o t h e g a s - o i l - c o n t a c t would have e a r l y gas breakthrough r a t h e r t h a n wa-
t e r breakthrough, and f o l l o w i n g r e c o m p l e t i o n f o r gas, p r o d u c t i o n can c o n t i n u e
w i t h l i t t l e o r no w a t e r c u t .

The h o r i z o n t a l w e l l has t o p e n e t r a t e a l l p e r m e a b i l i t y b a r r i e r s i n o r d e r t o
ensure h i g h l a y e r sweep e f f i c i e n c y and maximum o i l r e c o v e r y . While v e r t i c a l
w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y i s l i m i t e d by r e s e r v o i r t h i c k n e s s , h o r i z o n t a l w e l l e x p l o i t a b i -
l i t y can be improved by i n c r e a s i n g i t s l e n g t h (MACDONALD 1988). Water break-
t h r o u g h can be delayed by p l a c i n g t h e s t a n d o f f o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l s e c t i o n above
t h e o i l - w a t e r c o n t a c t as g r e a t as p o s s i b l e (GIGER 1986). Another a p p l i c a t i o n o f
h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s o r drainholes i s connection o f v e r t i c a l shafts o r h o r i z o n t a l
g a l l e r y systems t o improve t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f o i l m i n i n g (BEST, CORDELL & HAS-
TON 1987; ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE 1988 b, MOORE 1988 c ) . T h i s t e c h n i q u e aims on g r a -
v i t y d r a i n a g e o f heavy o i l sands v i a h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s emanating f r o m t h e under-
ground t u n n e l system.
 582

4.8.6.1.5.6.Selection o f drainage and injection direction

H o r i z o n t a l w e l l s a l s o a l l o w t o i n j e c t a n d / o r produce f l u i d s o r t h o g o n a l t o
t h o s e from a v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e , t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l of improving
sweep e f f i c i e n c y of a f l o o d and thus r e c o v e r y e f f i c i e n c y . The d e c i s i v e advan-
t a g e of h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s with r e s p e c t t o v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e s a n d / o r v e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 6 . 2 . 1 . ) i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of d r i l l i n g the h i g h l y - d e -
v i a t e d b o r e h o l e i n e v e r y d i r e c t i o n t h a t i s d e s i r a b l e from r e s e r v o i r d r a i n a g e
p o i n t of view, i n c o n t r a s t t o the more o r l e s s predetermined d i r e c t i o n of hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n ( a l s o a l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g does n o t a l l o w t o
turn t h e c r a c k i n t o e v e r y p o s s i b l e d i r e c t i o n , b u t only p e r m i t s t o s h i f t t h e
o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e f r a c t u r e i n s e v e r a l l i n e s more o r l e s s normally t o each
o t h e r ; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 4 . 1 . 3 . 1 . ) and the s t a n d a r d p e r p e n d i c u l a r p e n e t r a t i o n of
vertical wells.

I n j e c t i o n of steam from a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e e v e n t u a l l y p r o v i d e s a more ho-

mogeneous steam f r o n t and b e t t e r i n j e c t i v i t y i n d i c e s (RIAL 1984; SUNG, ERTEKIN
& SCHWERER 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 4 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) . H o r i z o n t a l w e l l s produce on a v e r a g e
around f o u r t i m e s more than v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e s , and a s they produce i n a wider
a r e a , i t i s n o t o n l y t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y , b u t a l s o the t o t a l e x p l o i t a t i o n t h a t can
be m u l t i p l i e d by a f a c t o r of a b t . f o u r ( D U D A & KUMAR 1988, HOWES 1 9 8 8 ) . A g r e a -
t e r p r o d u c t i o n i s achieved w i t h an i n c r e a s e d r e c o v e r y f a c t o r and wider d r a i n a g e
a r e a . Comparative e v a l u a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i v i t y and f e a s i b i l i t y of h o r i z o n t a l v s .
v e r t i c a l w e l l s are c a r r i e d o u t by HUANG & HIGHT ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; KOSSACK, KLEPPE & AASEN
( 1 9 8 7 ) ; DUDA & KUMAR (1988) and MUKHERJEE & ECONOMIDES ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.8.6.1.5.7. Reservoir geometry and natural crack distribution

I n summary, t h e main f i e l d s of a p p l i c a t i o n of h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g a r e t h u s
pay zones w i t h v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s t h a t a r e s p a r s e l y d i s t r i b u t e d and c a n n o t be
a c c i d e n t a l l y c r o s s e d by v e r t i c a l w e l l s o r v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c c r a c k s a l o n e , re-
s e r v o i r s w i t h coning problems where a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e can be p o s i t i o n e d
away from the f l u i d c o n t a c t and a l l o w s a lower drawdown of the unwanted f l u i d ,
in t h i n pay zones where t o o many v e r t i c a l w e l l s would be r e q u i r e d , i n edge wa-
t e r o r g a s d r i v e r e s e r v o i r s where a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e combines the e f f e c t of
a more e f f i c i e n t g r a v i t y d r a i n a g e and a wider d r a i n a g e a r e a , secondary o r t e r -
t i a r y r e c o v e r y p r o c e s s e s where h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s can improve i n j e c t i v i t y and
a r e a l sweep e f f i c i e n c y , e v a l u a t i o n w e l l s a f t e r a d i s c o v e r y i s made i n o r d e r t o
s t u d y t h e l a t e r a l e v o l u t i o n of t h e f a c i e s and t o p r o v i d e v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n
b e f o r e t h e f i n a l development d e c i s i o n i s made, t o h e l p s o l v i n g environmental
problems by r e d u c i n g the s p a c e occupied by d r i l l i n g s i t e s and p r o d u c t i o n l i n e s ,
and t o reduce t h e number of r e q u i r e d o f f s h o r e p l a t f o r m s (BOSIO & GIANNESINI
1988).

An i m p o r t a n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f both h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s and v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e s i s p e n e t r a t i o n of i s o l a t e d sand b o d i e s of l e n t i c u l a r geometry (MACDO-
N A L D 1 9 8 8 ) . The a m e l i o r a t i o n of r e s e r v o i r c o n t i n u i t y w i t h i n t e r s e c t i o n of more
sand b o d i e s p r o v i d e s a c c e s s t o l a r g e r hydrocarbon volumes ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.10.2.1.).

4.8.6.1.5.8. We1 lbore instabi 1 i ty

Highly-deviated t o horizontal boreholes a r e subjected t o considerable pro-
blems o f w e l l b o r e i n s t a b i l i t y which provoke f r e q u e n t l y b o r e h o l e c o l l a p s e and
f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g (FUH, WHITFILL & SCHUH 1 9 8 8 ) . Borehole c o l l a p s e pressure
g r a d i e n t i n c r e a s e s w i t h h o l e a n g l e , whereas f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t remains the same.
As a consequence of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e working range between t h e two g r a -
d i e n t s i s narrower a t h i g h e r h o l e a n g l e s and thus w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d e v i a t i o n
a n g l e of the b o r e h o l e , the p o t e n t i a l f o r unwanted a c c i d e n t a l f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u -
 583

r i n g d u r i n g d r i l l i n g i n c r e a s e s . Optimum mud w e i g h t f o r w e l l b o r e s t a b i l i t y i n
h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d t o h o r i z o n t a l h o l e s ranges between b o r e h o l e c o l l a p s e p r e s s u r e
g r a d i e n t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e l o w e r l i m i t and f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t b e i n g t h e
upper boundary. Aspects o f i n s t a b i l i t y o f h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d t o h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s
a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by BRADLEY (1979); HOTTMAN, SMITH & PURCELL (1979); AADN0Y &
CHENEVERT ( 1 9 8 7 ) , H S I A O (1987), MAURY & SAUZAY (1987) and YEW & LI ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

4.8.6.1.6.Horizontal hole completion and stimulation

R E I S S (1985) g i v e s an e x p e r i e n c e r e p o r t o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l p r o d u c t i o n a f t e r
f i v e y e a r s , and HUANG & H I G H T (1986) and PETZET (1987) e v a l u a t e s t e a m f l o o d p r o -
cesses i n h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s . A comparison o f e x p l o i t a b i l i t y o f h o r i z o n t a l
and v e r t i c a l w e l l s i s performed by KOSSACK, KLEPPE & AASEN ( 1 9 8 7 ) . H y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g o f h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d by YEW & L I (1987), and g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g o f h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s i n analyzed by D I C K I N S O N & ANDERSON (1987)
and SPREUX, GEORGES & L E S S I (1988; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 3 . ) . J O S H I (1987 a) p r e -
sents a r e v i e w o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l and d r a i n h o l e t e c h n o l o g y .

Logging methods i n h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s a r e e v a l u a t e d by BRATOVICH, B E L L &

KAAZ ( 1 9 7 7 ) ; BARON & W I T T R I S C H (1982), D A N I E L & FERTL (1984); JOLY, DORMIGNY,
CATALA & PINSON (1985); R E I S S (1985); DICKINSON, ANDERSON & D I C K I N S O N (1986);
ANDERSON & LATOS (1987), FERTL & HOTZ (1987), FERTL & MARTIN (1987); SPREUX,
L O U I S & ROCCA (1987); FERTL & N I C E (1988); MONTIGNY, SORRIAUX, L O U I S & L E S S I
(1988); MACEWEN (1988) and SPREUX, GEORGES & L E S S I (1988).

WEIRICH, Z A L E S K I & MULCAHY (1987) summarize p e r f o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s f o r h o r i -

z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s . P r o d u c t i v i t y o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s i s e v a l u a t e d by BABU & ODEH
(1988), J O S H I (1988) and MUKHERJEE & ECONOMIDES (1988). H o r i z o n t a l w e l l comple-
t i o n types comprise open hole, s l o t t e d o r p e r f o r a t e d l i n e r o r casing, e x t e r n a l
c a s i n g packers w i t h t u b i n g - o p e r a t e d subs, cemented l i n e r o r casing, prepacked
l i n e r , and screen w i t h e x t e r n a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g c o m p l e t i o n s (AUSTIN, ROSE &
SCHUH 1988).

4.8.6.1.7. Other aspects

O t h e r aspects o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s and d r a i n h o l e s a r e d i s c u s s e d by JOURDAN,
R E I S S , BARON & W I T T R I S C H (1982); PUGH (1982); JOURDAN, R E I S S , BARON, GIGER &
W I T T R I S C H (1983); GIGER, R E I S S & JOURDAN (1984); HYLAND (1984), JOURDAN & BARON
(1984), GIGER (1985, 1987), GOODE & THAMBYNAYAGAM (1985), CLONTS & RAMEY
(1986), J O S H I (1986); KARCHER, GIGER & COMBE (1986); SHERRARD, B R I C E & MACDO-
NALD (1986); D I E T R I C H (1987), FINCHER (1987), H S I A D (1987); LOGAN, SCHWOEBEL &
HORNER ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; MOORE (1987); PLAHN, STARTZMAN & WATTENBARGER (1987); SALAMY, SA-
R A D J I , OKOYE, MERCER & YOST ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; WEIRICH, Z A L E S K I & MULCAHY (1987); WILSON &
S A B I N S (1987) ; YOST, OVERBEY, SALAMY, OKOYE & SARADJI (1987); FUH, W H I T F I L L &
SCHUH (1988) ; GREENER, SAUVAGEAU & PASTERNACK (1988) ; KERR & BROUTHERS (1988),
KUCHUK & GOODE (1988), OZKAN & RAGHAVAN (1988), PETZET (1988); REICEY, STAGE &
V I D R I N E (1988) ; SHAW & SUTHERLAND (1988), STEWART & WILLIAMSON (1988), V R I E L I N K
& HIPPMANN (1988) and WINTERS, L U C I A & JOHNSON ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

A s p e c t a c u l a r h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d t o h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g o p e r a t i o n f o r t h e Grand
Canyon w a t e r l i n e p r o j e c t i s p r e s e n t e d by LATTIMORE, CARDEN & FISCHER ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
HERNANDEZ & CADE (1988) d i s c u s s s c r e e n i n g c r i t e r i a f o r h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s . A more
s o p h i s t i c a t e d technique i s s h o r t - r a d i u s l a t e r a l d r i l l i n g where v a r i o u s s h o r t ho-
r i z o n t a l r a d i a l h o l e s a r e made f r o m a v e r t i c a l w e l l b o r e ( D I C K I N S O N & D I C K I N S O N
1985, PENDLETON & RAMESH 1985; DICKINSON, ANDERSON & D I C K I N S O N 1986; PARSONS &
FINCHER 1987). The b u i l d i n g - u p o f t h e h i g h i n c l i n a t i o n a n g l e up t o f i n a l l y h o r i -
z o n t a l p o s i t i o n can i n s h a l l o w depths be supported by s l a n t d r i l l i n g r i g s w i t h
mast i n c l i n a t i o n s o f 30 - 45 degrees which a l l o w s t o access t a r g e t s t h a t c o u l d
n o t be reached by c o n v e n t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n a l d r i l l i n g (LOXAM 1982, BLEAKLEY 1985,
MOORE 1987 a, EDWARDS & STRELKOV 1988, HOWES 1987). REHM (1987) r e p o r t s h o r i z o n -
 584

t a l d r i l l i n g i n s l i m h o l e s . COOPER & THRONCOSO (1988) g i v e an o v e r v i e w o f h o r i -

zontal w e l l completion technology.

4.8.6.2. Horizontal hole f rac tur ins

Most o f t h e aforementioned r e s e r v o i r examples would a l s o be s u i t a b l e t a r g e t s
f o r h o r i z o n t a l o r d r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g i n c l u d i n g subsequent m i n i f r a c t u r i n g and
o t h e r s m a l l e r - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n . The c o m b i n a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l
d r i l l i n g and v e r t i c a l o r h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r i n g i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e o n l y
a v a i l a b l e method t o enable e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s t o be a c h i e -
ved f r o m some t h i n sheet r e s e r v o i r s . Comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on h o r i z o n -
t a l h o l e d r i l l i n g vs. f r a c t u r i n g , h o r i z o n t a l h o l e d r i l l i n g i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h
f r a c t u r i n g , p r e p e r f o r a t e d l i n e r c o m p l e t i o n and p r o p p a n t requirements, and mul-
t i p l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r i n g o f h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d boreholes.

4.8.6.2.1. Horizontal hole drilling vs. fracturing

H o r i z o n t a l w e l l s and d r a i n h o l e s can be m o d e l l e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g s t i m u l a t e d
b o r e h o l e s where f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i s l i m i t e d by t h e w e l l b o r e d i a m e t e r (JOSH1 1987
a; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . 1 . ) . A p r o p e r l y designed h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e would t h e r e -
f o r e be e q u i v a l e n t t o a v e r t i c a l w e l l w i t h a f u l l y p e n e t r a t i n g f r a c t u r e and i n
f a c t r e p r e s e n t s a l o n g c o n t r o l l e d t u b e - l i k e i n s t e a d ' o f sheet-shaped v e r t i c a l
c r a c k . A f t e r d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l aspects o f a l t e r n a t i v e o r combination,
t h e o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a t e s on t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r drainage, identical
exposed s u r f a c e s i n c o a l seams, s i n g l e - vs. m u l t i p l e - l a y e r r e s e r v o i r s , and
o r i e n t a t i o n t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and p e r m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p i e s .

4.8.6.2.1.1.Alternative or combination
W h i l e i n most h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o ob-
t a i n i n f i n i t e c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y which even decreases over time, a h o r i z o n t a l
b o r e h o l e o f f e r s an a l m o s t permanent i n f i n i t e - c o n d u c t i v i t y f l u i d f l o w p a t h . I n
a d d i t i o n , i n r e s e r v o i r s where t h e b o t t o m w a t e r o r t o p gas cap r e n d e r s f r a c t u -
r i n g d i f f i c u l t , a h o r i z o n t a l w e l l o f f e r s an a l t e r n a t i v e t o o b t a i n h i g h produc-
t i o n r a t e s w i t h o u t gas o r w a t e r coning. A h o r i z o n t a l w e l l t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s a
v i a b l e c o m p l e t i o n o p t i o n and w i l l compete w i t h h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e f u -
t u r e (JOSH1 1987 a ) .

H o r i z o n t a l h o l e s can be approached as r e p r e s e n t i n g and behaving l i k e t h i n

l o n g t u b e - l i k e i n f i n i t e - c o n d u c t i v i t y induced f r a c t u r e s (SNOW & HOUGH 1 9 8 8 ) . Ho-
r i z o n t a l w e l l s p e r f o r m s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n t h i n r e s e r v o i r s w i t h good v e r t i c a l p e r -
m e a b i l i t i e s , whereas i n t h i c k and/or l a y e r e d pays o r i n case o f low v e r t i c a l
p e r m e a b i l i t y , s e v e r a l h o r i z o n t a l stems a r e r e q u i r e d . I n such occasions, a h i g h -
a n g l e w e l l o f more than 60 degrees i n c l i n a t i o n has t h e advantages o f b o t h expo-
s i n g more b o r e h o l e l e n g t h t o t h e f o r m a t i o n and o f p e n e t r a t i n g s e v e r a l l a y e r s o f
t h e r e s e r v o i r . I n case o f e f f e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , there
i s an i n c r e a s e d l i k e l i h o o d o f h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s t o i n t e r s e c t m u l t i p l e h o r i -
zons.

As t h e c o s t o f s t i m u l a t i o n i s u s u a l l y o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f t h e d r i l l i n g expen-
ses ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.3.4. and 3 . 7 . ) , h o r i z o n t a l o r d r a i n h o l e w e l l s s h o u l d n o t be
regarded as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (VICANEK 1985), b u t emphasis
s h o u l d be p u t on optimum r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n by a c o m b i n a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l o r
d r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e enhancement o f p r o d u c t i o n
f r o m l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay f o r m a t i o n s . SUNG & ERTEKIN (1987) g i v e a performance
comparison o f v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s and h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s i n
l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s . Aspects o f l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r development
w i t h h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by GIGER ( 1 9 8 7 ) . DUDA & KUTSKA (1988)
s t u d y gas p r o d u c t i o n f r o m t i g h t sandstone r e s e r v o i r s v i a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s
 585

by s i m u l a t i o n r u n s .

4.8.6.2.1.2. Tight gas reservoir drainage

KRUYADIJK & NIKO (1988) d i s c u s s h o r i z o n t a l h o l e d r i l l i n g vs. massive hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g f o r d r a i n i n g t i g h t n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d gas r e s e r v o i r s . The break-
even p o i n t f o r a massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t i n g a n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d zo-
ne w i t h r e s p e c t t o a h o r i z o n t a l w e l l i s determined by t h e balance between e x t r a
f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e and p r e s s u r e drop o v e r t h e crack w i n g i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e f r a c t u -
r e d i n t e r v a l . S h o r t c r a c k s r e q u i r e v e r y h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t i e s i n o r d e r t o be com-
p e t i t i v e w i t h h o r i z o n t a l h o l e s , and o p e r a t i o n a l disadvantages and l a c k i n f r a c -
t u r e d i r e c t i o n c o n t r o l a r e m a j o r concerns i n MHF s c e n a r i o s . As h o r i z o n t a l bore-
h o l e s can be o r i e n t e d a c c o r d i n g t o r e s e r v o i r n e c e s s i t y which t h e r e f o r e a l l o w s
s e l e c t i o n o f a favourable d i r e c t i o n w i t h respect t o hydrocarbon-water-contact
and/or v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e p a t t e r n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.6.1.5.), h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s are
a r e a l a l t e r n a t i v e t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e development o f t i g h t n a t u r a l -
l y j o i n t e d gas r e s e r v o i r s . I n view o f t h e l a r g e c o n t r a s t between f r a c t u r e d zone
and r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y , w e l l b o r e l e n g t h i s o f no importance, and b o r e h o l e
d e v i a t i o n angle i s s i g n i f i c a n t o n l y w i t h regard t o the wellbore surface i n t e r -
secting the f r a c t u r e d i n t e r v a l .

Extended e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e l e n g t h by l i n k i n g o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s b y t h e hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e g i v e s r i s e t o p r o l o n g e d b i l i n e a r f l o w ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.11.3.),
w i t h then f r a c t u r e d s e c t i o n c o n d u c t i v i t y h a v i n g o n l y a minimal e f f e c t on p r e s -
s u r e response d u r i n g t h i s f l o w p e r i o d . H o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g as s i d e t r a c k s o u t o f
e x i s t i n g v e r t i c a l h o l e s can i n some cases a l s o be c o m p a r a t i v e l y more f e a s i b l e
a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e than r e m e d i a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g (MURPHY 1988). H o r i z o n -
t a l b o r e h o l e s o f optimum l e n g t h can o c c a s i o n a l l y produce a b t . t w i c e as much gas
as a v e r t i c a l w e l l i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i n b l a n k e t
sandstones, whereas i n l e n t i c u l a r sands, t h e l a r g e r i n t e r s e c t i o n p l a n e o f t h e
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e may be more p r o f i t a b l e t h a n t h e l i m i t e d t r a j e c t o r y o f t h e ho-
r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e (DUDA & KUMAR 1988). I n t h e case o f an i d e a l i z e d v e r t i c a l i s o -
t r o p i c medium, h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s appear t o be p r e f e r a b l e t o v e r t i c a l w e l l s i n a l -
most a l l cases, whereas f o r reasonable v e r t i c a l a n i s o t r o p y and low p e r m e a b i l i -
ty, even an extended-reach h o r i z o n t a l w e l l does n o t o u t p e r f o r m a v e r t i c a l w e l l
i n t e r s e c t e d by a v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e (MUKHERJEE & ECONOMIDES 1988).

4.8.6.2.1.3. Identical exposed surfaces in coal seams

ERTEKIN, SUNG & SCHWERER (1986) and LOGAN (1988) d i s c u s s t h e comparative e f -
f e c t i v i t y o f v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s and h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s i n c o a l
seams which a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a dual p o r o s i t y system c o n s i s t i n g o f m a t r i x po-
r e s and n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s c o m p r i s i n g f a c e and b u t t c l e a t s . W h i l e f a c e c l e a t s
a r e c o n t i n u o u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e s e r v o i r , b u t t c l e a t s a r e d i s c o n t i n u o u s and end
a t t h e f a c e c l e a t s . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p c r e a t e s t h e a n i s o t r o p i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y na-
t u r e o f t h e c o a l seam macropore s t r u c t u r e , w i t h p e r m e a b i l i t y i n f a c e c l e a t d i -
r e c t i o n b e i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r t h a n t h a t i n b u t t c l e a t d i r e c t i o n . Some as-
p e c t s o f c l e a t system o r i e n t a t i o n and m u l t i p l e - w i n g b o r e h o l e s a r e o u t l i n e d as
follows.

4.8.6.2.1.3.1. Cleat system orientat ion

W i t h r e s p e c t t o a v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e t h a t has more o r l e s s random
o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e c l e a t system which i s governed by t h e s t r e s s p a t t e r n i n t h e
g e o l o g i c a l sequence, h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s i n c o a l seams have t h e d e c i s i v e advan-
tage t h a t t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n t o f a c e and b u t t c l e a t s i s c o n t r o l l a b l e , and a l s o
p e n e t r a t i o n l e n g t h o f h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s can be much e a s i e r v a r i e d t h a n propa-
g a t i o n d i s t a n c e o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s (ERTEKIN, SUNG & SCHWERER 1986; LOGAN
1988). V e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s u s u a l l y e x t e n d p a r a l l e l t o t h e maximum
 586

s t r e s s o r f a c e c l e a t d i r e c t i o n and t h e r e f o r e may n o t a d e q u a t e l y a c c e s s an a n i s o -
t r o p i c r e s e r v o i r , and a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e p l a c e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f a c e
c l e a t s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e maximum p e r m e a b i l i t y d i r e c t i o n may b e a more e f f e c t i v e
s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e due t o p r o v i d i n g maximum access t o p r i m a r y f l o w c h a n n e l s .
Short- and medium-radius directional d r i l l i n g techniques ( c f . section
4.8.6.1.2.) a r e f r e q u e n t l y used t o s u c c e s s f u l l y p l a c e h o r i z o n t a l d r a i n h o l e s
i n t o c o a l seams. H o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s d r i l l e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e f a c e c l e a t
d i r e c t i o n p r o v i d e t h e h i g h e s t gas p r o d u c t i o n p o t e n t i a l (ERTEKIN, SUNG & SCHWE-
RER 1 9 8 6 ) .

4.8.6.2.1.3.2.Mult iple-wing boreholes

F u r t h e r improvement o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l d r i l l i n g i n t h i n c o a l seams c a n be
achieved by m u l t i p l e boreholes c o n s i s t i n g o f several wings, w i t h a two-wing
w e l l b o r e o r i g i n a l l y b e i n g a b l e t o i n f l u e n c e a drainage area t h a t i s two times
l a r g e r than t h a t a f f e c t e d by a four-wing borehole d u r i n g e a r l y e x p l o i t a t i o n ,
whereas in l a t e p r o d u c t i o n , t h e f o u r - w i n g b o r e h o l e s y s t e m i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a
more u n i f o r m movement o f p r e s s u r e t r a n s i e n t due t o i t s p o s i t i o n in t h e c e n t e r
o f a s q u a r e r e s e r v o i r (ERTEKIN, SUNG & SCHWERER 1986; LOGAN 1 9 8 8 ) . Coal seam
t h i c k n e s s i s a more c r i t i c a l f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g v e r t i c a l c r a c k p e r f o r m a n c e t h a n
t h a t o f a h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e , because f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e a r e a i n c r e a s e s as c o a l
seam t h i c k n e s s i n c r e a s e s , whereas t h e exposed s u r f a c e a r e a f o r a g i v e n - d i a m e t e r
b o r e h o l e i n c r e a s e s o n l y when i t s l e n g t h i s i n c r e a s e d .

C o m p a r a t i v e m o d e l l i n g based on i d e n t i c a l exposed s u r f a c e a r e a s r e v e a l s t h a t
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i n i t i a l l y p r o d u c e gas a t h i g h e r r a t e s t h a n h o r i z o n t a l b o r e -
h o l e s , because t h e d i s t a n c e f o r t h e gas t o t r a v e l i s s h o r t e r i n a f u l l y c o n t a i -
ned c r a c k t h a n i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l w e l l . I n l a t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n , d e p l e t i o n o f t h e
c l e a t s y s t e m and movement o f p r e s s u r e t r a n s i e n t s t o d i s t a n c e s f a r t h e r away f r o m
v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e and h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e r e s u l t s i n w e l l b o r e l e n g t h becoming
t h e g o v e r n i n g p a r a m e t e r and t h e h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e t h e n p e r f o r m i n g b e t t e r t h a n
t h e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s b e f o r e and
a f t e r c r o s s o v e r a l s o r i s i n g w i t h i n c r e a s i n g c o a l seam t h i c k n e s s .

4.8.6.2.1.4.Single- vs. mult iple-layer reservoirs

W h i l e h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s a r e v e r y e f f e c t i v e and s u p e r i o r i n p e r f o r m a n c e t o
b o t h u n s t i m u l a t e d and v e r t i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e s i n t h i n s i n g l e -
l a y e r r e s e r v o i r s , p a y zones w i t h h i g h v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y and p r o s p e c t i v e i n -
t e r v a l s w i t h g a s - and w a t e r - c o n i n g p r o b l e m s , v e r t i c a l w e l l s o f e i t h e r f r a c t u r e d
o r unstimulated nature are better solutions f o r t h i n multiple-layer reservoirs
and p a y zones w i t h l o w v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y where h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s a r e un-
s u i t a b l e (JOSH1 1986 a ) . V e r t i c a l w e l l s w h i c h a r e s t i m u l a t e d b y v e r t i c a l f r a c t u -
r e s a r e g e n e r a l l y more e f f e c t i v e t h a n u n f r a c t u r e d b o r e h o l e s , and m u l t i p l e v e r t i -
c a l f r a c t u r i n g o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s c a n be a c o m p e t i t i v e p r o c e d u r e in i n t e r m e d i a -
t e r e s e r v o i r s . I f the length o f a horizontal borehole is s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r
than pay thickness, then horizontal w e l l production i s i n the long time the
same as t h a t o b t a i n e d f r o m a f u l l y p e n e t r a t i n g i n f i n i t e - c o n d u c t i v i t y v e r t i c a l
fracture.

V e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n has c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p a c t on p r o d u c t i v i t y
a u g m e n t a t i o n t h r o u g h h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s , w i t h l o w and h i g h v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y
r e d u c i n g and e n h a n c i n g h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e p r o d u c t i v i t y , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A h o r i -
z o n t a l w e l l r e p l a c e s more v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e i n a t h i n - l a y e r r e s e r v o i r t h a n i n a
t h i c k - b e d p a y zone, whereas in c o n t r a s t t o h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s , s l a n t b o r e h o l e s
( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.6.2.2.2.) a r e more p r o d u c t i v e i n t h i c k r e s e r v o i r s t h a n i n t h i n
p a y zones. Thus m a x i m i z a t i o n o f h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n c a n b e p e r f o r m e d b y se-
l e c t i o n between v e r t i c a l , s l a n t and h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s d e p e n d i n g on r e s e r v o i r
t h i c k n e s s and a n i s o t r o p y .
 587

4.8.6.2.1.5. Orientat ion to natural

fractures and permeab i 1 it y an i sot r op i es
I n terms o f t h e g e o m e t r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and p e r -
m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p i e s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n , h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s can be v e r y
e a s i l y d r i l l e d i n any d i r e c t i o n t o a d j u s t t o t h e optimum c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f n o r -
mal p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e w e l l b o r e t r a j e c t o r y through t h e n a t u r a l j o i n t s . The p r o -
p a g a t i o n of h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s i s i n most cases d i r e c t i o n a l l y de-
t e r m i n e d by t h e e x i s t i n g g e o s t r e s s f i e l d , and w i t h o u t thermal i n f l u e n c e , o n l y
a l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g (WARPINSKI & BRANAGAN 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4.9.4.1.3.1.)
can g i v e r i s e t o d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n s o f crack e x t e n s i o n and p e r m i t t h e op-
t i o n t o model t h e a n g l e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r e s . A l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g may u l t i m a t e l y even l e a d t o i n t e r c o n n e c t e d n e t -
works c o n s i s t i n g o f c r a c k s p r o p a g a t i n g i n a l t e r n a t i n g s t a n d a r d d i r e c t i o n and i n
t h a t p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o i t . The o r i e n t a t i o n o f b o t h h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a n d / o r ho-
r i z o n t a l w e l l s i n hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r s i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t e c -
t o n i c a l d i p d i r e c t i o n as w e l l as sand body geometry and e x t e n s i o n .

4.8.6.2.2.Horizontal hole dri 1 1 ing

in combination with fracturing
SUNG & ERTEKIN (1987) p r e s e n t a performance comparison o f v e r t i c a l and h o r i -
z o n t a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s and h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r -
v o i r s . The r e s u l t s o f a s u i t e o f numerical s i m u l a t i o n e x e r c i s e s show t h a t f o r
equal s u r f a c e area, t h e p r o d u c t i o n from h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s i s expected t o be
g r e a t e r than t h a t from h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i n v e r t i c a l w e l l s . P r o d u c t i o n r a t e s
f r o m b o t h h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s r i s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g r e s e r -
v o i r p e n e t r a t i o n l e n g t h , b u t achievement o f g r e a t e r i n t e r s e c t i o n l e n g t h s i s
t e c h n i c a l l y more f e a s i b l e i n case o f h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s . Some comments a r e
g i v e n as f o l l o w s on r e s e r v o i r t h i c k n e s s and p e r m e a b i l i t y , and w e l l b o r e angle
b u i l d u p t e c h n o l o g y and s l a n t h o l e s .

4.8.6.2.2.1. Reservoir thickness and permeabi 1 i t y

Concerning r e s e r v o i r t h i c k n e s s and p e r m e a b i l i t y , t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f h o r i z o n -
t a l w e l l s becomes more apparent i n t h i n n e r and t i g h t e r f o r m a t i o n s , whereas t h e
e f f e c t i v i t y o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s improves i n t h i c k e r pay zones. I n case o f an-
i s o t r o p i c r e s e r v o i r s , h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s s h o u l d be d r i l l e d and h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r e s s h o u l d be propagated p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l a r g e s t p e r m e a b i l i t y d i r e c -
t i o n . Under comparable c o n d i t i o n s , t h e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e f r o m a h o r i z o n t a l crack
system i s g r e a t e r than t h a t f r o m a v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e system, because a more u n i -
f o r m p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e o v e r t h e e n t i r e r e s e r v o i r caused by t h e h o r i z o n t a l c r a c k
helps achieving b e t t e r drainage.

The best, b u t c e r t a i n l y a l s o t h e most expensive s o l u t i o n , however, i s a com-

b i n a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e maxi-
mum d r a i n a g e area i n t h e r e s e r v o i r . P a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e t a r g e t s f o r t h i s dual
approach a r e o i l - b e a r i n g c h a l k s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . ) and g a s - b e a r i n g s h a l e s
( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 4 . ) . MERCER, PRATT & YOST (1988) document t h a t two h y d r a u l i c a l -
l y f r a c t u r e d o r f o u r u n s t i m u l a t e d h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s can produce 1 . 5 t i m e s as
much gas as 16 u n t r e a t e d v e r t i c a l w e l l s i n case o f b o t h i n f i l l d r i l l i n g and v i r -
g i n r e s e r v o i r development ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 3 . 6 . ) . Comparative performance eva-
l u a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l w e l l s i s c a r r i e d o u t by BORNER, HALDORSEN,
HARRISON, HOPWOOD & MACDONALD (1988); K I N G & ERTEKIN (1988) and WOOTEN, MUKHER-
JEE & MACH ( 1 9 8 8 ) . S p e c i a l f e a t u r e s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d
o r h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 4.11. F i e l d aspects o f hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s e c t i o n s a r e a l s o discussed by G I G E R , R E I S S &
JOURDAN (1984) ; YOST, OVERBEY, SALAMY, OKOYE & SARADJI (1987) ; PEMPER, FLECKER,
McWHIRTER & OLIVER (1988); SOLIMAN, HUNT & EL RABAA (1988) and SPREUX, GEORGES
 588

& LESS1 ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

DOSCHER, Y I N G & KOSTURA (1988) d i s c u s s t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f s p e c i a l l y f r a c t u -

r e d h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s t o improve s t e a m - d r i v e enhanced r e c o v e r y o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y
hydrocarbons. P r o p e r l y p o s i t i o n e d and f r a c t u r e d h o r i z o n t a l p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s p e r -
m i t commercial e x p l o i t a t i o n o f many heavy o i l and bitumen r e s e r v o i r s which
o t h e r w i s e would be c o m p l e t e l y e c o n o m i c a l l y u n f e a s i b l e .

4.8.6.2.2.2.Wellbore angle buildup technology and slant holes

Apart from v e r t i c a l d r i l l i n g a t the beginning o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l generation,
b u i l d i n g o f a n g l e i n s h a l l o w s l a n t h o l e s can be a c c e l e r a t e d by i n c l i n e d r i g po-
s i t i o n (VRIELINK & HIPPMAN 1988). Using s l a n t w e l l technology, the required
w e l l spacing u n i t i s achieved w i t h minimum s u r f a c e l a n d usage, optimum h o l e qua-
l i t y and minimum e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact, w i t h s l a n t w e l l d r i l l i n g t h e r e f o r e p r o v i -
d i n g an a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e t o c o n v e n t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n a l m u l t i w e l l pad p r o -
j e c t s . S l a n t borehole d r i l l i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r shallow r e s e r v o i r s
w i t h reduced i n t e r w e l l spacing, h i g h f a c i l i t i e s and t i e - i n c o s t p e r b o r e h o l e
head, h i g h o p e r a t i n g and maintenance c o s t p e r l o c a t i o n , and r e q u i r e m e n t t o
d r i l l d e v i a t e d s t r a i g h t h o l e s i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e t u b u l a r wear (RICHARDSON
1985). M o d e l l i n g o f spud i n c l i n a t i o n , spud azimuth and s u r f a c e l o c a t i o n can be
done f o r o p t i m i z a t i o n o f s u r f a c e d i s t a n c e , w e l l b o r e c u r v a t u r e and downhole sepa-
r a t i o n . V e r t i c a l l y spudded w e l l s a r e n o t t o be c r o s s - d r i l l e d i n o r d e r t o e l i m i -
n a t e t h e c o l l i s i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n danger. R i g i n c l i n a t i o n i n s l a n t h o l e
d r i l l i n g i s u s u a l l y a b t . 10 - 30 degrees, b u t can i n extreme cases a l s o r e a c h
45 - 60 degrees.

4.8.6.2.3. Preperforated 1 iner

corn let ion and proppant requirement
Long h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s a r e t y p i c a l l y completed w i t h p r e p e r f o r a t e d l i n e r s t o
p r e s e r v e h o l e i n t e g r i t y (YOST, OVERBEY, WILKINS & LOCKE 1988). The disadvantage
o f t h i s type o f completion i s the associated r i s k o f p u l l i n g the l i n e r a t a l a -
t e r stage o f p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y and r e - r u n n i n g and cementing a c a s i n g s t r i n g
such t h a t s e l e c t i v e placement o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s can be accomplished. An a l -
t e r n a t i v e approach i s zone i s o l a t i o n performed by i n s t a l l a t i o n o f e x t e r n a l ca-
s i n g packers and p o r t c o l l a r s as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a c a s i n g s t r i n g r u n a l o n g
t h e h o r i z o n t a l s e c t i o n . Such a c o m p l e t i o n arrangement p r o v i d e d s t i m u l a t i o n i n -
t e r v a l s w i t h ready-made p e r f o r a t i o n s i n j e c t i n g f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i n t o an open-
h o l e s t i m u l a t i o n c o n d i t i o n b e h i n d p i p e . The l a t t e r method a v o i d s t h e problems
o f f o r m a t i o n damage a s s o c i a t e d w i t h cementing and e l i m i n a t e s t h e need f o r t u -
bing-conveyed p e r f o r a t i n g o f numerous t r e a t m e n t i n t e r v a l s .

Comparison o f d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n designs i n h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s t r a -
v e r s i n g s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s i n d i c a t e s t h a t carbon d i o x i d e s t i m u l a t i o n can be
more than f o u r t i m e s b e t t e r than n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g i n i t i a l l y and can l a s t
t w i c e as l o n g p r i o r t o c r a c k c l o s u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 4 . 2 . ) . The d e n s i t y con-
t r a s t between n i t r o g e n and carbon d i o x i d e may have caused t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f
more and w i d e r f r a c t u r e s w i t h carbon d i o x i d e r e s u l t i n g i n h i g h improvement r a -
t i o s . Proppants a r e d e f i n i t e l y r e q u i r e d f o r f r a c t u r i n g o f l o w - s t r e s s s h a l e gas
r e s e r v o i r s t o s u s t a i n gas p r o d u c t i o n beyond b a s e l i n e c o n d i t i o n s .

4.8.6.2.4.Mu1 t ip le vertical f rac tur ins

o f highly-inclined boreholes
A s u i t a b l e t e c h n i q u e t o maximize d r a i n a g e e f f e c t i v i t y o f h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d t o
h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s i s m u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r i n g (STRUBHAR, FITCH & GLENN
1974; STRUBHAR & GLENN 1974; c f . s e c t i o n 4.11.) which i n t e g r a t e s e x t e n s i o n o f
 589

geometry and f l o w c a p a c i t y o f e x i s t i n g c r a c k s as w e l l as c r e a t i o n o f new f r a c t u -

r e s (OVERBEY, YOST & WILKINS 1988). Using m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s i n a h o r i z o n t a l
w e l l , t h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e same amount o f t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n w i l l be r e c o v e r e d a t an
a c c e l e r a t e d r a t e and t h u s economical payout o f t h e b o r e h o l e w i l l be o b t a i n e d i n
a s h o r t e r p e r i o d o f t i m e (AUSTIN, ROSE & SCHUH 1988). Aspects o f s e t s o f p a r a l -
l e l f r a c t u r e planes, n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t i o n , m u l t i p l e - vs. l i m i t e d - e n t r y
f r a c t u r i n g , f r a c t u r e morphology and o r i e n t a t i o n , and i n f l u e n c e o f i n j e c t i o n r a -
t e s a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.6.2.4.1.Sets of parallel fracture planes

The o b j e c t o f t h e m u l t i f r a c t u r e c o m p l e t i o n concept i s t o o b t a i n g r e a t e r f r a c -
t u r e area t h r o u g h c l o s e r c r a c k spacing than c o u l d be achieved f r o m t h e same num-
b e r o f w e l l s w i t h s i n g l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s (PASINI & OVERBEY 1969). O p t i m i z a -
t i o n o f m u l t i p l e s t i m u l a t i o n i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d b o r e h o l e s r e q u i r e s t h e azimuth
o f t h e w e l l b o r e t o be a t h i g h a n g l e ( p r e f e r e n t i a l l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r ) t o t h e f r a c -
t u r e azimuth. Some aspects o f a n g u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between w e l l b o r e t r a j e c t o r y
and induced c r a c k s as w e l l as f r a c t u r e spacing vs. d r a i n a g e e f f e c t i v i t y a r e o u t -
l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.5.2.4.1.1. Angular relationship between

we1 lbore trajectory and induced cracks
There a r e a l l stages o f t r a n s i t i o n o f d i s t a n c e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l f r a c t u r e s
and a n g u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e w e l l b o r e t r a j e c t o r y between t h e end p o i n t s o f a
s i n g u l a r v e r t i c a l crack p r o p a g a t i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e t r a j e c -
t o r y i n case o f o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e l a t t e r p a r a l l e l t o f r a c t u r e azimuth, and mul-
t i p l e p a r a l l e l v e r t i c a l cracks extending perpendicularly t o the h o r i z o n t a l bore-
h o l e t r a j e c t o r y i n case o f o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e l a t t e r o r t h o g o n a l t o f r a c t u r e a z i -
muth. P r e d i c t i o n o f t h e induced f r a c t u r e azimuth can be made f r o m s t r a i n r e l a x a -
t i o n o f o r i e n t e d c o r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.2.3.3.4.), borehole breakout elongation
a n a l y s i s ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 8 . ) , o r d i r e c t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c r a c k s genera-
t e d d u r i n g m i c r o - o r m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s i n a d j o i n i n g o r prece-
d i n g v e r t i c a l w e l l s (AUSTIN, SCHUH & ROSE 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . ) .

4.8.6.2.4.1.2. Fracture spacing vs. drainage effectivity

The d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e s have t o be k e p t p a r a l l e l and s e p a r a t e i n o r d e r n o t
t o d e t e r i o r a t e t h e d r a i n a g e e f f e c t by c r a c k i n t e r f e r e n c e and i n t e r s e c t i o n , w i t h
t h e l a t t e r drawback b e i n g a b l e t o be avoided by s u f f i c i e n t l a t e r a l spacing o f
t h e i n d i v i d u a l f r a c t u r e s and c a r e f u l c o n t r o l o f t h e i r azimuth, i n c l i n a t i o n and
l e n g t h f o r making sure t h a t c o n t a c t o f two independent c r a c k s does n o t o c c u r
(ROEGIERS & DETOURNAY 1988). Several v e r t i c a l i n d e p e n d e n t l y p r o d u c i n g c r a c k s
c r o s s i n g a s i n g l e d e v i a t e d w e l l b o r e a r e much more economical than i n d i v i d u a l
v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s i n separate v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e s and r e p r e s e n t t h e most f e a -
s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l w e l l d r i l l i n g and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , and c e r -
t a i n l y a l t h o u g h b e i n g t h e most expensive r e s e r v o i r t r e a t m e n t , d e f i n i t e l y r e p r e -
s e n t t h e most e f f e c t i v e means o f d r a i n a g e m a x i m i z a t i o n .

F i e l d examples of m u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s i n h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s and en-

hanced p r o d u c t i v i t y m o d e l l i n g i n comparison t o s i n g l e - f r a c t u r e d v e r t i c a l w e l l s
a r e p r e s e n t e d b y STRUBHAR, FITCH & GLENN (1974); GIGER, COMBE & R E I S S (1983);
GIGER (1985); KARCHER, GIGER & COMBE (1986); ANDERSEN, HANSEN & FJELDGAARD
(1988) and OVERBEY, YOST & WILKINS ( 1 9 8 8 ) .
 590

4.8.6.2.4.2. Natural fracture intersect ion

Similar aspects apply f o r optimization of drainage of n a t u r a l l y fra c ture d re-
s e r v o i r s where e f f e c t i v e depletion i s reached when a h o r i z o n t a l well i s d r i l l e d
perpendicularly t o the o r i e n t a t i o n of the n a t u r a l cracks thereby i n t e r s e c t i n g a
whole bundle of p a r a l l e l p r e- ex i s t i n g f r a c t u r e s (JOSH1 1987; c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.6.1.5.1.). Influences of natural cracks on horizontal borehole performance
are a l s o discussed by CARVALHO & ROSA (1988). Insights t o hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g
of horizontal wells i n n a t u r a l l y j o i n t ed formations a r e a l s o given by LAYNE &
SIRINARDANE (1988).Mu1 t i p l e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s p r o p a g a t i n g from h o r i z o n t a l bo-
reholes a r e a l s o the optimum s o l u t i o n f o r gas drainage from coal seam r e s e r -
v o i r s because of s u i t a b l e combination of b o t h elements, as the former a n d the
l a t t e r give r i s e t o higher production r a t e s i n e a r l y a n d l a t e e x p l o i t a t i o n s t a -
ges, r e s p e c t i v e l y (ERTEKIN, SUNG & SCHWERER 1986; c f . se c tion 4.4.3.6.).

O p t i m i z a t i o n of number a n d s i z e of multiple hydraulic f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g

horizontal wells can be performed w i t h r es er voir simulators based on the ne t
present value concept ( M E N G & BROWN 1987; BALEN, MENG & ECONOMIDES 1988; MUKHER-
JEE & ECONOMIDES 1988; c f . s ect i o n s 1.4.12.2. and 4.8.11.4.). I n horizontal
w e l l s, the sum of the maximum n et present values of the individual m ultiple
f r a c t u r e s must be s u b s t a n t i a l l y l a r g e r than the net present value of a v e r t i c a l
crack i n t e r s e c t i n g a v e r t i c a l borehole i n order to be comparatively more p r o f i -
table.

4.8.6.2.4.3. Mu1 t iple- vs. limited-entry f ractur ins

AUSTIN, R O S E & SCHUH (1988) present simultaneous m ultiple -e ntry hydraulic
f r a c t u r i n q i n h o r i z o n t a l wel l s . Limited-entry pe rfora tion a t several crack i n i -
t i a t i o n points allows equal placement of proppants a n d f l u i d s i n one stimula-
tion treatment, and i n carbonates, proppant f r a c t u r i n g can a l s o be replaced by
acid f r a c t u r i n g i f economically f e a s i b l e . The number of crack i n i t i a t i o n points
can be maximized i f the horizontal borehole i s orie nte d perpendicularly t o the
azimuth of the induced f r a c t u r e s . Unless the s p e c i f i c re se rvoir re quire s some-
thing e l s e , the individual crack i n i t i a t i o n points should ge ne ra lly be spaced
250 - 300 f t a p a r t . Before the actual treatment i s c a r r i e d out, each s e t of per-
f o r a t i o n s a t each f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n point should be broken down a n d a s t a b l e
in j e c t i o n r a t e e s t a b l i s h e d .

4.8.6.2.4.4.Fracture morphology and orientation

Si m i l a r l y as multiple v e r t i c a l hydraulic f r a c t u r e s emanating from highly-in-
c li n e d t o horizontal boreholes represent s u b sta ntia l r e s e r v o i r drainage improve-
ment with r e sp e c t t o s i n g u l ar cracks f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g deviated wells o r
even v e r t i c a l boreholes in some cas es , success proba bility of e xplora tion a n d
appraisal of n a t u r a l l y f r act u r ed pay zones can be considerably increased i f d i -
r e c t i o n a l iqells ar e d r i l l e d perpendicularly t o the orie rtta tion of the natural
cracks instead of normal boreholes ( A G U I L E R A 1983; c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 8 . 6 . 1 . 5 . 1 . a n d
4.8.6.2.4.2.).
BEN NACEUR & R O E G I E R S (1988) i n v es t i g at e simultaneous propagation of m u 1 t i -
ple v e r t i c a l hydraulic f r a c t u r e s . Di s t i n ct i o n can be made between c o l l i n e a r
s e t s emanating from v e r t i c a l boreholes a n d p a r a l l e l s e t s i n t e r s e c t i n g horizon-
t a l wellbores. The e l a s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n between c o l l i n e a r f r a c t u r e s i n v e r t i c a l
wells r e s u l t s i n l a r g e r f r a c t u r e widths o r lower apparent s t i f f n e s s e s , whereas
the consequences f o r p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s in horizontal wells a r e opposite. There-
f o r e individual f r a c t u r e s a r e i n v ar i ab l y shorte r in the f i r s t case ( c f . a l s o
s e c t i o n 4.2.2.1.3.4.).

Se l e c t i v e multiple f r a c t u r i n g w i t h introduction of several e q u i d i s t a n t p l a n -

p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s from horizontal drainholes can considerably improve producti-
 591

v i t y index (ANDERSEN, HANSEN & FJELDGAARD 1988). W h i l e i n t h e e a r l y stage o f ex-

p l o i t a t i o n t h e r e i s no i n t e r f e r e n c e between t h e c r a c k s , a f t e r some p e r i o d of
p r o d u c t i o n t h e f r a c t u r e planes s t a r t i n t e r f e r i n g , w i t h t h e degree o f i n t e r f e -
rence s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g .

4.8.6.2.4.5.Influence o f injection rates

OVERBEY, YOST & WILKINS (1988) and YOST, OVERBEY, W I L K I N S & LOCKE (1988) s t u -
dy m u l t i p l e v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e o r i g i n i n h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s t r a v e r -
s i n g s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s t h a t a r e e x t e n s i v e l y n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d . N u l t i p l e hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s can be propagated i n a w e l l b o r e which has been completed t o
p r o v i d e adequate access t o m u l t i p l e n a t u r a l cracks. Low i n j e c t i o n r a t e s d u r i n g
a hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g operation allow the propagation o f n a t u r a l cracks w i t h a
low-angle r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s o r i e n t a t i o n , whereas h i g h e r i n -
j e c t i o n r a t e s g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t i n i n d u c i n g f r a c t u r e s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s t r e s s
f i e l d . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g and s t r e s s
f i e l d r e l a t i o n s h i p s as w e l l as i n f l a t i o n and b a l l o o n i n g o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s .

4.8.6.2.4.5.1. Dendr i t ic fracturing

and s t r e s s field relationships
Low i n j e c t i o n r a t e s thus l e a d t o development o f a d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r e p a t t e r n
by p r e f e r e n t i a l l y e n t e r i n g and b a l l o o n i n g p r e - e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l c r a c k s ( c f . sec-
t i o n s 4.5.4.4.3. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 4 . ) , whereas h i g h pumping r a t e s g i v e r i s e t o abandon-
ment o f t h e o r i g i n a l j o i n t s c r e a t e d by t h e p a l a e o s t r e s s f i e l d and g e n e r a t i o n o f
new f r e s h f r a c t u r e s t h a t a r e i n accordance t o t h e a c t u a l s t r e s s f i e l d i n case
o f changes o f palaeomagnetical and p a l a e o t e c t o n i c a l s t r e s s s i t u a t i o n between
c r e a t i o n o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s and i n d u c t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s . I n t h e s p e c i a l
case o f n e i t h e r r o t a t i o n n o r t i l t i n 9 o f t h e c r u s t a l b l o c k s between f o r m a t i o n o f
n a t u r a l j o i n t s and t r i g g e r i n g o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s , a l s o h i g h e r i n j e c t i o n r a -
t e s can o n l y r e s u l t i n l a t e r a l and l o n g i t u d i n a l expansion o f p r e - e x i s t i n g n a t u -
r a l c r a c k s i n c l u d i n g some breakthroughs between i n d i v i d u a l j o i n t s which a l s o
leads t o d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g .

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e propagated f r a c t u r e s i s more random a t low than a t h i g h

i n j e c t i o n r a t e s , w i t h t h e l a t t e r seeming t o t r i g g e r a u t o - s e l e c t i o n by t h e forma-
t i o n c o n c e r n i n g spacing and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c r a c k s . M u l t i p l e h y d r a u l i c v e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r e s can be induced f r o m a h o r i z o n t a l w e l l b o r e d u r i n g a s i n g l e pumping
e v e n t . Even though s t r e s s r a t i o s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d area i s n e a r l y
t e c t o n i c a l l y r e l a x e d , proppants a r e s t i l l needed t o m a i n t a i n permeable f l o w
paths f o r more than s e v e r a l weeks. D i f f e r e n t c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e s h a v i n g been r e -
corded i n d i f f e r e n t s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s can be t h e consequence o f i n d u c t i o n
o f d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e s h a v i n g n e a r - a d j a c e n t angles, and subsequent p r e s s u r e
drops i n d i c a t e t h a t some o f t h e c r e a t e d c r a c k s were c l o s i n g o f f .

4.8.6.2.4.5.2.Inflation and ballooning o f natural cracks

Improvement o f gas r e c o v e r y e f f i c i e n c y o f h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d o r h o r i z o n t a l bore-
h o l e s i n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s by e x t e n s i o n o f geometry and f l o w capa-
c i t y o f e x i s t i n g c r a c k s and c r e a t i o n o f new h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s can
be b e s t accomplished by s t i m u l a t i n g t h e n a t u r a l j o i n t s which e x i s t i n t h e r e s e r -
v o i r by i n f l a t i n g them w i t h a non-damaging f l u i d and p r o p p i n g t h e b a l l o o n e d
f r a c t u r e s t o m a i n t a i n t h e enhanced f l o w c a p a c i t y and t o induce a d d i t i o n a l f r a c -
t u r e s b y i n c r e a s i n g i n j e c t i o n r a t e (OVERBEY, YOST & WILKINS 1988; c f . a l s o sec-
t i o n 4.8.8.6.). M u l t i p l e n a t u r a l c r a c k s e t s a r e generated by b o t h normal o r
b l o c k f a u l t i n g and t h r u s t i n g . F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e r e v e a l s t h a t d u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n
operations, two s e t s o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s were opened and propagated, and i n d u -
ced c r a c k s were c r e a t e d a l o n g a t h i r d d i r e c t i o n c o n t r o l l e d by t h e r e g i o n a l
s t r e s s f i e l d . M u l t i p l e - o r i e n t e d h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s can be generated f r o m a ho-
 592

r i z o n t a l w e l l b o r e under openhole c o n d i t i o n s where t h e orientations of natural

and induced c r a c k s f o r m an a n g l e o f a b t . 15 degrees.

4 . 8 . 7 . Uptake capacity enhancement o f injection wells

M i n i f r a c t u r i n g and o t h e r s m a l l e r - s c a l e s t i m u l a t i o n a r e a l s o regarded t o be
s u i t a b l e means t o i n c r e a s e t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n s u r r o u n d i n g t h e b o r e -
h o l e f o r enhanced uptake o f water, t e n s i d , polymer, a c i d o r steam i n i n j e c t i o n
w e l l s , and t o a m e l i o r a t e t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d r e s e r v o i r s by
s m a l l e r - o r l a r g e r - s c a l e a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r i n g . The most s i g n i f i c a n t i t e m s o f
a p p l i c a t i o n o f i n j e c t i o n - w e l l uptake c a p a c i t y improvement by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g a r e o i l - f i e l d w a t e r - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s and w a s t e - l i q u i d d i s p o s a l w e l l s .

4 . 8 . 7 . 1 . Oil-field water-injection wells

The most abundant u t i l i z a t i o n o f uptake c a p a c i t y a m e l i o r a t i o n o f i n j e c t i o n
w e l l s by h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t s m a l l - o r l a r g e - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g i s t h e s t i m u l a t i o n
o f o i l - f i e l d w a t e r - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s . D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between c o n t r o l l e d
f r a c t u r i n g by a p r o p e r l y designed h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t and acciden-
t a l f r a c t u r i n g by i n j e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n above f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t .

4 . 8 . 7 . 1 . 1 . Control led f ractur ins

I n many cases, t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f sandstone r e s e r v o i r s i s p o o r e r i n t h e
a q u i f e r zone s u r r o u n d i n g t h e o i l f i e l d than i n t h e o i l - b e a r i n g column due t o
e a r l y o i l i m m i g r a t i o n i n t o embryonic s t r u c t u r e s which r e s u l t e d i n r e t a r d e d d i a -
genesis and t h u s b e t t e r p e r m e a b i l i t y p r e s e r v a t i o n i n t h e o i l - s a t u r a t e d b e l t
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e w a t e r - c o n t a i n i n g m a r g i n a l seam t h a t was o f t e n more t i g h t l y
cemented. T h e r e f o r e i n many f i e l d s t h e o i l - p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s do n o t o r o n l y t o
s u b o r d i n a t e amounts r e q u i r e s t i m u l a t i o n , whereas t h e w a t e r - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s need
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n o r d e r t o a m e l i o r a t e t h e i r uptake c a p a c i t y and t h u s en-
hance r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e improvement and maintenance by i n c r e a s i n g i n j e c t i o n r a -
t e s . A p a r t f r o m enhanced r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n by secondary r e c o v e r y , w a t e r f l o o d -
i n g a m e l i o r a t i o n i s an i m p o r t a n t measure f o r c o u n t e r a c t i n g pay recompaction and
r e s u l t i n g o i l - f i e l d subsidence ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 1 . 6 . ) . A f t e r discussion o f
some g e n e r a l aspects, a few p o i n t s o f p r o p p a n t s i z e and r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e as
w e l l as d e c r e a s i n g i n - s i t u s t r e s s by c o l d w a t e r i n j e c t i o n , and sweep e f f i c i e n c y
vs. i n j e c t i v i t y a r e o u t l i n e d .

4 . 8 . 7 . 1 . 1 . 1 . General aspects
An a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n o f s m a l l e r o r l a r g e r s i z e performed i n a l -
ready n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d r e s e r v o i r s can a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l y enhance t h e c o n d u c t i v i -
t y o f t h e l a t t e r and can be t e c h n i c a l l y handled much e a s i e r by j u s t e n l a r g i n g
and p r o p p i n g t h e a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g zones o f weakness ( a s p e c t s o f n a t u r a l l y f r a c -
t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s a r e d i s c u s s e d by P I N E & BATCHELOR 1982, RUMFlEL 1985, BLANTON
1986; GATENS, OLAREWAJU & LEE 1986; GUEVARA & TYLER 1986, HARRISON & TILOEN
1986, NELSON 1986; TANSOE, K I N G & HOLMAN 1986; RUMMEL, HEUSER, MULLER & OTTO
1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . ) . Comments on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f i n j e c t i o n w e l l s
a r e g i v e n by RILEY (1959), JONES (1960), HOWELL & THOMAS (1978), ILSENG & COR-
TEZ (1985), K O N I N G ( 1 9 8 5 ) , KONING & N I K O (1985), PERKINS & GONZALEZ (1985);
B I O T , MASSE & MEDLIN (1986); CHEN ( 1 9 8 6 ) , R E V I E R E & WU (1986), HOLZHAUSEN &
EGAN (1987) and WILLIAMS, SHERRARD & LIN ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

As a consequence o f i n j e c t i o n w e l l f r a c t u r i n g , i n j e c t i o n r a t e may be i n c r e a -
sed a t a n e a r - c o n s t a n t i n j e c t i o n pressure, o r i f necessary i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e
may be reduced w h i l e a c o n s t a n t i n j e c t i o n r a t e i s m a i n t a i n e d (GUERREDO 1958, PO-
WELL & JOHNSTON 1960, HARTSOCK & SLOBOD 1961). W i t h i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r i n p u t , t h e
 593

f l o o d o u t t i m e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r r e s e r v o i r would be reduced (HOWARD & FAST 1970

a ) . Large-volume f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n s i n a u a t e r f l o o d o p e r a t i o n a r e r e p o r t e d
by ILSENG & CORTEZ ( 1 9 8 5 ) . F r a c t u r i n g f o r a s s i s t a n c e o f s t e a m - f l o o d i n g i s eva-
l u a t e d by BXITTON, MARTIN, LEIBRECHT & HARMON (1983) and STANG & SON1 (1987;
c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 4 . ) . F l u i d f l o w and l e a k o f f p r o p e r t i e s f r o m f r a c t u r e s i n -
duced i n i n j e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d by SETTARI ( 1 9 8 8 ) . H y d r a u l i c s t i m u -
l a t i o n o f o i l - f i e l d w a t e r - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s has i n t h e p a s t a l r e a d y f r e q u e n t l y
been performed i n t h e USSR.

4.8.7.1.1.2. Proppant size and reservoir pressure

HOOVER & ADAMS (1988) o u t l i n e t h a t proppant s e l e c t i o n f o r w a t e r f l o o d p r o -
j e c t s has t o be based on s i z e and u l t i m a t e performance of i n j e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n .
S w i t c h i n g f r o m 20/40 t o 12/20 mesh proppants i s o f t e n f a v o u r a b l e i n o r d e r t o
a v o i d o r t o d i m i n u i s h f i l t e r cake b u i l d u p on t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e which a f f e c t s
proppant performance and i s i n essence a r e d u c t i o n i n u l t i m a t e propped c r a c k
w i d t h . Pumping o f l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f l a r g e - s i z e d proppants p a r t i a l l y o f f s e t s
t h e d i m i n u t i o n o f propped f r a c t u r e w i d t h a t t r i b u t e d t o s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d - c a u s e d
f i l t e r cake remnants. The damage aspects a r e a c o m b i n a t i o n o f f l u i d r e t e n t i o n ,
f i n e s p r e s e n t i n t h e p r o p p a n t package, f i n e s h a v i n g m i g r a t e d f r o m t h e forma-
t i o n , and embedment due t o c l o s u r e s t r e s s .

The pay h o r i z o n s t o be t r e a t e d by more o r l e s s m i n i f r a c t u r i n g and o t h e r

s m a l l - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n i n c l u d e b o t h hydropressured and geopressured
f o r m a t i o n s ( q u e s t i o n s o f geopressured r e s e r v o i r s a r e r e p o r t e d by SAMUELS 1979,
TUCKER 1979, WEEKS 1979; McCOY, HARTSOCK & DOBSON 1980; AMIRIJAFARI, SHARER &
R I G B Y 1982; HAMMERSHAIMB & KUUSKRAA 1982, ROSE & DOHERTY 1982; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
4.4.2.), w i t h normal h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s b e i n g a b t . 0.45 p s i / f t and hyperhy-
d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s r e a c h i n g up t o 0.9 p s i / f t o r even more (BRIM 1986). KUO,
HANSON & BRISAY (1984) e v a l u a t e p r e d i c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n d u r i n g w a t e r -
f l o o d o p e r a t i o n , and GARON, Y I N & DUNAYEVSKY (1988) s i m u l a t e t h e r m a l l y - i n d u c e d
w a t e r f l ood f r a c t u r i n g .

4.8.7.1.1.3. Decreasing in-situ stress by cold water injection

S p e c i a l f e a t u r e s i n water-, thermal- o r c h e m i c a l - i n j e c t i o n p r o j e c t s a r e de-
c r e a s i n g i n - s i t u s t r e s s o r f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e w i t h d e c l i n i n g pore pressu-
r e when f i n a l l y c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e i n sandstone r e s e r v o i r s i s much lower t h a n i n
t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s h a l e s (SMITH 1981), w i t h such an i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t p r o -
v i d i n g a s t r o n g b a r r i e r t o v e r t i c a l growth, and p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e t i p
beyond t h e r e l a t i v e l y p r e s s u r i z e d area o f t h e i n j e c t i o n p r o j e c t i n t o r e g i o n s o f
low r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e and/or c l o s u r e s t r e s s . Some aspects o f r e s e r v o i r p r e s -
s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n as w e l l as coupled f o r m a t i o n c o o l i n g
and f r a c t u r e e l o n g a t i o n a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.7.1.1.3.1. Reservoir pressure

distribution and fracture penetration
I n c r e a s e and r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e by i n j e c t i o n o f l i q u i d s
f o r p r e s s u r e maintenance o r enhanced r e c o v e r y has t h e r e s u l t t h a t as t h e f r a c -
t u r e p e n e t r a t e s beyond t h e i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e r e g i o n , i t would be e n t e r i n g a l o -
wer c l o s u r e s t r e s s area t h u s p o s s i b l y p r o d u c i n g e x c e s s i v e a f t e r f l o w o f t h e f r a c -
t u r i n g f l u i d . The l a t t e r e f f e c t t a k e s p l a c e when a f t e r s h u t - i n o f t h e w e l l , t h e
s l u r r y continues t o flow u n t i l the f r a c t u r e closes t o lock the proppant i n
p l a c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.2.2.1.), w i t h t h e l e n g t h o f t h i s a f t e r f l o w p e r i o d de-
pending on f l u i d - l o s s r a t e and p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n . T h i s s p e c i a l problem o f
p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n i n r e s e r v o i r s where i n j e c t i o n p r o j e c t areas a r e a c t i v e needs
s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g and r e c o g n i z i n g these s y n t h e t i c pay zone
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n c o r r e c t l y and t o a d j u s t t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t t o i t .
 534

I n - s i t u s t r e s s i s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by f l u i d leakoff during fractu-

ring.

I n j e c t i o n o f c o o l w a t e r can r e d u c e e a r t h s t r e s s e s a r o u n d u p t a k e w e l l s c o n s i -
d e r a b l y , c a u s i n g them t o f r a c t u r e a t p r e s s u r e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y l o w e r t h a n w o u l d
be e x p e c t e d i n t h e absence o f t h e t h e r m o e l a s t i c e f f e c t (PERKINS & GONZALEZ
1 9 8 5 ) . Depending on t h e shape o f t h e c o o l r e g i o n and t h e d i f f e r e n c e between m i -
nimum and maximum i n - s i t u h o r i z o n t a l e a r t h s t r e s s e s , m i n o r f r a c t u r e s p e r p e n d i c u -
l a r t o t h e m a i n f r a c t u r e e v e n t u a l l y open, t h u s c r e a t i n g a j o i n t e d s y s t e m o f p r i -
mary and s e c o n d a r y f r a c t u r e s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 5 . ) .

4 . 8 . 7 . 1 . 1 . 3 . 2 . Coupled formation cooling and fracture elongation

R e s e r v o i r behaviour a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o l d water i n j e c t i o n i n t o a h o t forma-
t i o n a r e v e r y complex because o f t h e c o u p l e d n a t u r e o f t h e m e c h a n i s m i n v o l v e d
(GARON, L I N & DUNAYEVSKY 1 9 8 8 ) . Water i n j e c t i o n c o o l s t h e r e s e r v o i r b y conduc-
t i o n and c o n v e c t i o n . P r i o r t o f r a c t u r i n g , f l o w d i s t r i b u t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d b y r e -
s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and t e m p e r a t u r e f i e l d i s g o v e r n e d b y f l o w p a t t e r n . In-
s i t u s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s s u b s e q u e n t l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e
f i e l d s , and f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t may be d e c r e a s e d u n t i l a t some i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u -
r e s , f o r m a t i o n p a r t i n g o c c u r s . F l o w p a t t e r n i s s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by any f r a c -
t u r e s d e v e l o p i n g w h i c h c o n t r o l s u b s e q u e n t t e m p e r a t u r e and s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s .
X e d u c t i o n s o f s t r e s s n e a r t h e f r a c t u r e t i p s r e s u l t i n f r a c t u r e e l o n g a t i o n and
f u r t h e r stress diminution, w i t h t h i s coupling e f f e c t being able t o g i v e r i s e t o
r a p i d f r a c t u r e extension ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.9.5,). Other aspects o f thermally-indu-
c e d w a t e r f l o o d f r a c t u r i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d b y PERKINS & GONZALEZ ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; MORALES,
ABOU-SAYED, JONES & AL-SHAFFAR ( 1 9 8 6 ) and WILLIAMS, SHERRARD & L I N ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

4 . 8 . 7 . 1 . 1 . 4 . Sweep efficiency vs. injectivity

HOlJELL & THOMAS ( 1 9 7 8 ) ernphasize t h e r o l e o f i n j e c t i o n w e l l f r a c t u r i n g f o r
m a x i m i z a t i o n o f sweep e f f i c i e n c y . F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t i n j e c t i v i t y
o f s h o t h o l e s i s i n f e r i o r t o a l l o t h e r t y p e s o f s t i m u l a t i o n , and i n p a r t i c u l a r
f r a c t u r i n g o f s h o t h o l e s i s l e s s e f f e c t i v e t h a n f r a c t u r i n g i n gauge h o l e s . Some
w e l l s t r e a t e d w i t h l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d have g r e a t e r d e c l i n e b e f o r e s t a b i l i z i n g
t h a n t h o s e s t i m u l a t e d w i t h h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s , whereas h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d
j o b s e x h i b i t fewer mechanical screenout problems than l o w - v i s c o s i t y ones. Shot
h o l e s may p r o v i d e o n l y s m a l l open f r a c t u r e s .

In a d d i t i o n t o o r as an a l t e r n a t i v e o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , s e l e c -
t i v e a c i d i z i n g o f sandstone r e s e r v o i r s i n i n j e c t i o n w e l l s can d i s c r e t e l y stimu-
l a t e i n e f f e c t i v e i n t e r v a l s and s i g n i f i c a n t l y i m p r o v e i n j e c t i v i t y p r o f i l e s (EL-
LENBERGER & ASELTINE 1976; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 3 . ) . S t i m u l a t i o n o f w a t e r i n j e c t i o n
w e l l s i s a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y CLEMENTZ ( 1 9 8 2 ) .

4 . 8 . 7 . 1 . 2 . Acc iden ta 1 fracturing

I n j e c t i o n w e l l s c a n a l r e a d y be a c c i d e n t a l l y s t i m u l a t e d by e x c e e d i n g t h e f o r -
m a t i o n f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t by t o o h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s . Such a c c i -
d e n t a l u n p l a n n e d f r a c t u r i n g i n w a t e r - f l o o d o r - d i s p o s a l p r o j e c t s have t o be
a v o i d e d i n many c a s e s f o r r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g and e n v i r o n m e n t a l s a f e t y r e a -
sons. Some o f t h e m a i n drawbacks o f a c c i d e n t a l i n j e c t i o n - w e l l f r a c t u r i n g a r e i l -
l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f f l u i d b r e a k t h r o u g h v s . sweep e f f i c i e n -
c y , and open c r a c k s above f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e and n o n - p r o p p a n t h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a -
tion.
 595

4.8.7.1.2.1. F l u i d breakthrough vs. sweep e f f i c i e n c y

P r e m a t u r e f r a c t u r i n g o f i n j e c t i o n w e l l s may r e s u l t i n bypass o f r e s e r v o i r r e -
g i o n s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t o i l and gas r e s e r v e s (AMAEFULE & MASUO 1 9 8 4 ) , t h e r e b y de-
t e r i o r a t i n g sweep p a t t e r n and e f f i c i e n c y as w e l l as r e c o v e r y f a c t o r . E x c e s s i v e
i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s c a n a l s o g i v e r i s e t o w a t e r c h a n n e l l i n g i n t h e cement
s h e a t h between c a s i n g and b o r e h o l e w a l l o r w a t e r passage t h r o u g h t h e n a t u r a l
c r a c k s y s t e m i n t h e p a y s a n d s t o n e i n t o v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s and h o r i z o n t a l bed-
d i n g planes o f o v e r l y i n g boundary shales, w i t h t h e water causing s w e l l i n g o f
c l a y m i n e r a l s w h i c h l e a d s t o s e r i o u s c a s i n g damage (CHEN 1 9 8 6 ) .

A c c i d e n t a l i n j e c t i o n - w e l l f r a c t u r i n g may l e a d t o p r e m a t u r e b r e a k t h r o u g h o f
i n j e c t e d f l u i d s , p o o r sweep e f f i c i e n c y , r e d u c e d r e c o v e r y and l o s s o f c o s t l y i n -
j e c t i o n f l u i d s (SINGH & AGARWAL 1 9 8 8 ) . I n some r e s e r v o i r s , f r a c t u r i n g i s n o t r e -
commended a t a l l , because r a d i a l f l o w has a more f a v o u r a b l e i m p a c t o n w a t e r -
f l o o d performance than t h e l i n e a r f l o w paths which u s u a l l y r e s u l t f r o m f r a c t u -
r i n g (SLOAT 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . 3 . ) . Aspects o f a c c i d e n t a l i n j e c t i o n - w e l l
f r a c t u r i n g by i n j e c t i o n pressure exceeding formation o r f r a c t u r e p a r t i n g pres-
s u r e ( f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n / p r o p a g a t i o n p r e s s u r e ) a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y DICKEY &
ANDRESEN ( 1 9 4 5 ) , JONES ( 1 9 6 0 ) , IIILLIAMS ( 1 9 7 7 ) ; HAGOORT, WEATHERHILL & SETTARI
( 1 9 8 0 ) ; HAGOORT ( 1 9 8 1 ) , KONING & N I K O ( 1 9 8 5 ) ; TANG; L I U & J I A N G ( 1 9 8 6 ) and PRA-
DO, KRUYSDIJK, NIKO, SANCEVIC & RODRIGUEZ ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.8.7.1.2.2. Open cracks above f r a c t u r e pressure

and non-proppant h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n
Injection well fracturing, however, has t o t a k e a l w a y s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n
t h a t i n case o f c o n t i n u o u s i n j e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n above f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e , open
c r a c k s e x i s t w h i c h a r e k e p t open b y t h e permanent o v e r p r e s s u r e and c o n d u c t i v i t y
m i g h t be s e v e r e l y d e t e r i o r a t e d i f t h e f r a c t u r e s a r e i n f i l l e d w i t h p r o p p a n t s
(BARBY & BARBEE 1 9 8 7 ) . I f an i n j e c t i o n w e l l has i n s u f f i c i e n t u p t a k e c a p a c i t y a t
o r above f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e , i t may be p o s s i b l e t o i n c r e a s e i n j e c t i v i t y b y h y -
d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r u s i n g a high-rate, low f l u i d - l o s s , s l i c k -
water treatment w i t h o u t proppant.

The h i g h r a t e and l a r g e volume may e x t e n d v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l communica-

t i o n t o more p e r m e a b l e l a y e r s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r . Once t h e b a r r i e r s a r e b r o k e n
t h r o u g h , t h e r e g u l a r i n j e c t i o n above t h e f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e s h o u l d keep t h e f r a c -
t u r e s open, t h e r e b y n o t n e c e s s i t a t i n g a p r o p p a n t t o s u p p o r t t h e c r a c k and t h u s
n o t r e q u i r i n g t o r e d u c e t h e maximum f l o w c a p a c i t y o f an open f r a c t u r e b y i n f i l -
l i n g w i t h proppants. Non-proppant h y d r a u l i c r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n i s a l s o s i g n i -
f i c a n t i n some m i n i f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s o f s a n d s t o n e s and c a r b o n a t e s ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.8.2.5.), water f r a c t u r i n g o f chalks ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.5.2.) and g e o t h e r -
mal r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 7 . 3 . 5 . ) , and n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g o f gas s h a l e s
( c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.4.2.).

4.8.7.1.2.3. Other aspects

A c c i d e n t a l f r a c t u r i n g o f w a t e r - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s has u n f o r e s e e n consequences
o n w a t e r f l o o d sweep e f f i c i e n c y (DIKKEN & NIKO 1 9 8 7 ) . F r a c t u r i n g o f t e n causes
c o o l i n g o f h o t formations by c o l d i n j e c t i o n water. Another undesired e f f e c t i s
c r a c k w a l l i m p a i r m e n t as a r e s u l t o f f i l t e r c a k e b u i l d - u p due t o p o o r - q u a l i t y
i n j e c t i o n w a t e r . On t h e o t h e r hand, i n j e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n f a r b e l o w t h e f o r m a t i o n
o r f r a c t u r e p a r t i n g p r e s s u r e l e a d s t o i n j e c t i o n volumes much l o w e r t h a n t h e a l -
l o w a b l e maximum and t h e r e b y r e s u l t i n a c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d r a t e o f o i l r e c o v e -
ry. A r e l i a b l e e s t i m a t e o f t h e f r a c t u r e o r f o r m a t i o n p a r t i n g pressure i s thus
o f c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e i n c o n d u c t i n g s e c o n d a r y and t e r t i a r y r e c o v e r y p r o j e c t s
(SINGH & AGARWAL 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . 3 . 1 . ) . WILLIAMS ( 1 9 7 7 ) e v a l u a t e s t h e
i n f l u e n c e o f i n d u c e d v e r t i c a l c r a c k s on o v e r a l l r e s e r v o i r p e r f o r m a n c e i n a c c i -
d e n t a l l y f r a c t u r e d w a t e r - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s as a consequence o f o p e r a t i o n above
 596

f r a c t u r e pressure.

P r i o r t o i n t r o d u c t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t o t h e hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y so-
me 40 y e a r s ago, a c c i d e n t a l f r a c t u r i n g as a consequence o f i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s
exceeding f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t o c c u r r e d d u r i n g a c i d i z i n g (HOWARD & FAST
1970 a ) , w a t e r i n j e c t i o n (GREBE 1943, DICKEY & ANDERSON 1945, YUSTER & CALHOUN
1945) and squeeze cementing (TORREY 1940, REISTLE 1945, TEPLITZ & HASSEBROEK
1946, HOWARD & FAST 1950) as r e f l e c t e d by acceptance o f c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r vo-
lumes by t h e w e l l than p r e d e t e r m i n e d by r e s e r v o i r e v a l u a t i o n and c a l c u l a t i o n .
F o r m a t i o n l i f t i n g and p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g r e s u l t e d i n much h i g h e r u p t a k e c a p a c i t y
o f t h e pay than u s u a l .

4.8.7.2.Waste-liquid disposal wells

Cheap m i n i f r a c t u r e s may a l s o be t h e o n l y f e a s i b l e way f o r some s p e c i a l a p p l i -
c a t i o n s o f s t i m u l a t i o n such as t o open zones f o r take-up o f disposed waste li-
q u i d s d e r i v i n g f r o m d r i l l i n g , gas p r o d u c t i o n and p u r i f i c a t i o n ( m a i n l y sour-gas
t r e a t i n g ) , o i l and w a t e r s e p a r a t i o n i n f i e l d s p r o d u c i n g w i t h h i g h e r w a t e r c u t s ,
steam-drive enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y (excess w a t e r ) , and o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l process-
i n g , i n o r d e r t o remove them s a f e l y i n t o p r o p e r l y s e a l e d underground f o r m a t i o n s
( u n l e s s t h e y a r e s t o r e d w i t h i n s a l t caverns) w i t h i n p r e f e r e n t i a l l y i s o l a t e d de-
p l e t e d o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s . A f t e r commenting on s a f e removal o f waste li-
q u i d s by underground d i s p o s a l , some aspects o f p r o p p a n t v s . non-proppant d i s p o -
sal f r a c t u r i n g are o u t l i n e d .

4.8.7.2.1. Safe removal o f waste liquids by underground disposal

The e x p e r i e n c e o f l o o k i n g f o r s u i t a b l e d i s p o s a l h o r i z o n s t h a t c o u l d t a k e up
reasonable q u a n t i t i e s o f waste l i q u i d s o f d i f f e r e n t v i s c o s i t y and w i t h v a r y i n g
amounts o f d i s p e r s e d s o l i d s has shown t h a t t h e r e a r e n o t many g e o l o g i c a l l y s a f e
and u n o b j e c t i o n a b l e harmless f o r m a t i o n s f o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , and t h e few pos-
s i b l e t a r g e t l a y e r s p r e d o m i n a n t l y r e q u i r e p e r m e a b i l i t y enhancement by f r a c t u -
r i n g i n o r d e r t o a v o i d r a p i d p l u g g i n g o f t h e i n j e c t i o n w e l l s by p a r t i c l e s f i l -
t r a t e d o u t o f t h e disposed f l u i d s .

I t i s t h e r e f o r e assumed t h a t h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f underground
w a s t e - l i q u i d d i s p o s a l w e l l s w i l l change f r o m b e i n g u n c o n v e n t i o n a l t o more o r
l e s s p o p u l a r i n l i g h t o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g need of s a f e c l e a r a n c e o f v a r i o u s
f l u i d s i n t h e near f u t u r e when c o n v e n t i o n a l i n j e c t i o n c a p a c i t i e s a r e approach-
i n g e x h a u s t i o n ( t h i s a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r waste l i q u i d s t h a t cannot be d i s -
posed i n t o a q u i f e r s s u r r o u n d i n g p r o d u c i n g o i l and gas f i e l d s w i t h o u t r i s k i n g t o
d e t e r i o r a t e t h e hydrocarbon q u a l i t y o r t o s e r i o u s l y d i s t u r b o i l and gas d r a i -
nage). F r a c t u r e containment i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n i s i n t h i s s p e c i a l a p p l i c a -
t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e reason o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l and r e s e r v o i r
e n g i n e e r i n g s a f e t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . ) . Aspects o f so f a r common p r a c t i c e s o f
d i s p o s a l o f excess w a t e r a r e d i s c u s s e d by SPRINGER & MOLLER ( 1 9 8 5 ) , and econorni-
c a l q u e s t i o n s o f d i s p o s a l methods f o r N o r t h Sea o i l and gas f i e l d s a r e s t u d i e d
by FISHMAN ( 1 9 8 6 ) . WILSON & K I S E R (1987) a l s o comment on aspects o f hazardous
w a s t e - l i q u i d d i s p o s a l by i n j e c t i o n i n t o subsurface f o r m a t i o n s , and SUN & MONGAN
(1974), DOSCHER & EL-ARAB1 (1983) and McBANE & JEU (1988) r e p o r t examples o f
waste w a t e r d i s p o s a l a t p r e s s u r e s above f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t o r breakdown p r e s -
sure.

4.8.7.2.2. Proppant vs. non-proppant disposal fracturing

I t has been r e c o g n i z e d v e r y e a r l y i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g h i s t o r y t h a t s t i m u -
l a t i o n o f d i s p o s a l b o r e h o l e s can e s t a b l i s h a low-pressure, h i g h - f l u i d - i n j e c t i o n
c a p a c i t y w e l l almost everywhere i n t h e hydrocarbon f i e l d complex (HOWARD & FAST
1970 a ) , w i t h t h u s d i s p o s a l f r a c t u r i n g b e i n g an easy s o l u t i o n o f l a c k i n g waste
 597

d i s p o s a l c a p a c i t i e s i n r e a s o n a b l y c l o s e s i t u a t i o n t o o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n and

p r o c e s s i n g . I n terms o f f r a c t u r e propping, t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d c r a c k may
be l e f t open i f s u f f i c i e n t l y supported by permanent i n j e c t i o n above f r a c t u r e
p r e s s u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.7.1.2.2.), because p r o p p a n t packages p l u g g i n g t h e
c r a c k may be s u b j e c t e d t o r a p i d p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n by i n v a s i o n o f f i n e
s o l i d s d i s p e r s e d w i t h i n t h e disposed waste f l u i d s i n t o t h e proppant i n t e r s t i -
t i a l s and t h u s d e s t r o y i n g uptake c a p a c i t y .

I f w a s t e - l i q u i d disposal i s n o t continuously c a r r i e d o u t a t s u f f i c i e n t over-

p r e s s u r e t o keep t h e f r a c t u r e open o r t o enable u n p r o b l e m a t i c r e p e a t e d reopen-
i n g o f t h e c r a c k upon r e t u r n t o i n j e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n , t h e f r a c t u r e s h o u l d be
plugged w i t h coarse t o v e r y coarse proppants i n bank o r p i l l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n
( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.3.2.) i n s t e a d o f c o n t i n u o u s i n f i l l i n g , and wide c r a c k s h o u l d
be supported by p r o p p a n t m u l t i l a y e r s i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e as much poros t y and
p e r m e a b i l i t y as p o s s i b l e and t o e n a b l e maximum f l u i d acceptance c a p a c i t y

4.8.8. Combination of natural and artificial fractures

Smaller- o r larqer-scale hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n q w i t h i n natural y j o i n -
t e d r e s e r v o i r s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t ; as t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g c r a c k network
can be s u c c e s s f u l l y employed f o r enhancement o f t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e a r t i f i -
c i a l s t i m u l a t i o n operation. N a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d ( a l s o c a l l e d double-porosity)
pays a r e sedimentary f o r m a t i o n s which were a f t e r d e p o s i t i o n f r a c t u r e d by t e c t o -
n i c a l o r chemical processes, and t h e r e f o r e have a p r i m a r y i n t e r g r a n u l a r m a t r i x
p o r o s i t y which i s c o n t r o l l e d by sedimentary environment and d i a g e n e t i c a l e v o l u -
t i o n , and a secondary f r a c t u r e p o r o s i t y t h a t i s governed by f r a c t u r i n g o r j o i n t -
i n g as a r e s u l t o f f a i l u r e d u r i n g mechanical d e f o r m a t i o n (BARUA, KUCUK & GOMEZ-
ANGULO 1985; HENSEL 1988). N a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d r e s e r v o i r s can be t h u s regarded as
d o u b l e - p o r o s i t y media c o n s i s t i n g o f i s o t r o p i c heterogeneous p r i m a r y r o c k m a t r i x
and a n i s o t r o p i c heterogeneous secondary f r a c t u r e system (HOUZE, HORNE & RAMEY
1984; NAKORNTHAP & EVANS 1986). ABDASSAH & ERSHAGHI (1986) i n t r o d u c e a t r i p l e
p o r o s i t y model f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g n a t u r a l l y c r a c k e d pays. Some i m p o r t a n t n a t u r a l -
l y f r a c t u r e d o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s i n c l u d e Monterey F o r m a t i o n and o v e r t h r u s t
sandstone f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e western USA, c h a l k f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e N o r t h Sea i n
Europe ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.), and carbonate f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t (BER-
GOSH, LORD & OWEN 1987).

U n f o r t u n a t e l y some c o n f u s i o n occurs due t o simultaneous a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e

t e r m secondary p o r o s i t y i n sedimentary p e t r o g r a p h y t o d e s c r i b e renewed o r i g i n
o f v o i d spaces by m i n e r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and d i s s o l u t i o n w i t h i n t h e r o c k m a t r i x
d u r i n g course o f b u r i a l d i a g e n e s i s independent f r o m any i n f l u e n c e o f f r a c t u r e s
(SCHMIDT & McDONALD 1979 a, 1979 b; AL-SHAIEB & NALKER 1986), and i n p e t r o p h y -
s i c s f o r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r s i n c l u d i n g p r i m a r y m a t r i x and secondary
crack p o r o s i t y . T h e r e f o r e f r a c t u r e p o r o s i t y i n p e t r o p h y s i c a l sense s h o u l d b e t -
t e r named t e r t i a r y p o r o s i t y t o a l l o w f o r p r o p e r d i s t i n c t i o n o f a l l t h e p o s s i b l e
p o r o s i t y t y p e s ( t h e same a p p l i e s f o r p e r m e a b i l i t y ) . The v a r i o u s phenomena a r i -
s i n g f r o m c o e x i s t e n c e o f n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e summarized i n sec-
t i o n s commenting on f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e and s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n , f r a c t u r e d i v e r -
gence, temporary n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e damage, d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g technique, t a i l o -
r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g , proppant p l u g g i n g o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s , and o t h e r aspects.

4.8.8.1. Fracture interference and superimposition

I n t e r f e r e n c e and s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n o f n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e t h e
r e s u l t s o f c a r r y i n g o u t a r t i f i c i a l s t i m u l a t i o n treatments i n o r i g i n a l l y j o i n t e d
f o r m a t i o n s . Aspects o f d i s t r i b u t i o n and g e n e r a t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s , inter-
a c t i o n between n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s , and i n t e r f r a c t u r e communication
a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .
 5 98

4.8.8.1.1.Distribution of natural fractures

Two t y p e s of n a t u r a l crack systems can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d comprising m u l t i p l e
f r a c t u r e s e t s a s s o c i a t e d with s t r u c t u r a l l y deformed s t r a t a and s i n g l e r e g i o n a l
c r a c k s e t s ( L O R E N Z & FINLEY 1987, NORTHROP & FROHNE 1 9 8 7 ) . F r a c t u r e s of t h e
f i r s t type a r e caused by l o c a l f a u l t i n s o r foldincj and commonly c u t i n d i s c r i m i -
n a n t l y a c r o s s l i t h o l o g i c a l b o u n d a r i e s . F r a c t u r e s of t h e second type a r e caused
by r e s i o n a l s t r e s s e s of much l e s s magnitude i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h hiqh pore p r e s -
s u r e s and o c c u r in s t r u c t u r a l l y undeformed f o r m a t i o n s . Some a s p e c t s of s t r e s s
d i f f e r e n c e s and d e p o s i t i o n a l environment a s well a s r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y and
communication are o u t l i n e d a s f o l l o w s ( v a r i o u s t y p e s and d i s t r i b u t i o n s of n a t u -
r a l f r a c t u r e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d on p l a t e s I - X I i n s e c t i o n 3 . 1 3 . ) .

4.8.8.1.1.1.Stress differences and depositional environment

The d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e g i o n a l f r a c t u r e s i s s e n e r a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by s u b t l e
s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s of the v a r i o u s l i t h o l o g i e s , w i t h thus d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n -
ment t h a t governs t h e s e d i m e n t a r y h e t e r o g e n e i t y of t h e r e s e r v o i r a l s o s u p e r v i -
s i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e g i o n a l f r a c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e pay zone ( L O R E N Z & FIN-
L E Y 1987, NORTHROP & FROHNE 1 9 8 7 ) . T h e r e f o r e chancjes i n c r a c k - r e l a t e d produc-
t i o n from r e s e r v o i r s w i t h r e g i o n a l f r a c t u r e s can be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h changes i n
d e p o s i t i o n a l m i l i e u , and some s e d i m e n t a r y environments have a b e t t e r p r o s p e c t i -
v i t y f o r c r a c k - c o n t r o l l e d hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n than o t h e r s . F r a c t u r i n g s t y l e
o f t e n changes with depth from s h e a r f r a c t u r i n g n e a r t h e s u r f a c e t o e x t e n s i o n
f r a c t u r i n g a t d e p t h i n t h e hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r ( C L A R K 1983; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
6 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) . Shear c r a c k s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h movement p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e w i t h
no p e r p e n d i c u l a r motion, whereas e x t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e s a r e c r e a t e d a s the w a l l s
move a p a r t ( H E N S E L 1 9 8 8 ) . AGUILERA ( 1 9 8 7 ) d i s t i n g u i s h e s t e c t o n i c a l , r e g i o n a l
and c o n t r a c t i o n a l n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s .

4.8.8-1.1.2.Reservoir permeability and comnunication

R e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y enhanced by t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s y s -
tem, b u t t h e i r r e g u l a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d o r i g i n a l c r a c k s allow o n l y i m p e r f e c t commu-
n i c a t i o n a c r o s s t h e pay and r e p r e s e n t an u n i d i r e c t i o n a l accomodating p e r m e a b i l i -
t y enhancement o n l y i n a p r e f e r r e d d i r e c t i o n ( L O R E N Z & FINLEY 1987, NORTHROP &
FROHNE 1 9 8 7 ) . T h e r e f o r e h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n q s t i m u l a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d
t o f u l l y c o n n e c t a l l r e s e r v o i r segments t o t h e w e l l b o r e , b u t t h e f r a c t u r e per-
m e a b i l i t y system i s e a s i l y damaged by t r e a t m e n t f l u i d s and s t r e s s e s . Crack-domi-
n a t e d p e r m e a b i l i t y systems a r e thus an i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t i g h t g a s re-
s e r v o i r modelling ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 . ) , w i t h in c e r t a i n c a s e s f a c t o r s such a s
r e s e r v o i r pressure, s i z e s and h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s p r o v i d i n g secondary c o n t r o l s on
fracture-dominated production.

Typical n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s a r e composed of b r i t t l e rock w i t h low

i n t e r g r a n u l a r p o r o s i t y (HENSEL 1 9 8 8 ) . Occurrence and extent of n a t u r a l j o i n t s
i s governed by i n i t i a l s h e a r s t r e n g t h , i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n , rock d u c t i l i t y , e f f e c -
t i v e c o n f i n i n g stress, t e m p e r a t u r e , d e p t h o f b u r i a l , rock t y p e , bed t h i c k n e s s ,
and a d j a c e n c y t o o t h e r l a y e r s . Crack p o r o s i t y i s mainly a f u n c t i o n of block
s i z r and f r a c t u r e w i d t h . F r a c t u r e s have such a d r a m a t i c impact on r e s e r v o i r p e r -
formance t h a t t h e i r hydrocarbon s t o r a g e c a p a c i t i e s tend t o be i n f l a t e d .

4.8.8.1.2.Generation of natural fractures

Natural f r a c t u r e s a r e g e n e r a t e d by d i a s t r o p h i s m in c a s e of fGlding ( c f .
p l a t e I / 1 - 7 ) and f a u l t i n g ( c f . p l a t e X I / 3 - 4 ) where c r a c k s a r e c r e a t e d along
the l i n e of t h e f a u l t which in turn produce a zone of d i l a t a n c e , deep e r o s i o n
of t h e overburden t h a t p e r m i t s t h e upper p a r t s t o expand, u p l i f t and f r a c t u r e
through p l a n e s of weakness ( f r e q u e n t l y i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h o r i g i n of unconformi-
 559
t i e s ; c f . p l a t e I / 1 - 7), and volume s h r i n k a g e as i n c a s e o f c o o l i n g o f i g n e o u s
r o c k s ( c f . p l a t e XI/5 - 6) and d e s i c c a t i o n o f s e d i m e n t s ( c f . p l a t e s V I / 1 - 7
and X I / 7 ; AGUILEXA 1983). A s t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f i n t e r c e p t i n g v e r t i c a l f r a c t u -
r e s w i t h a v e r t i c a l h o l e a r e v e r y s l i m , e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l s u c c e s s i n na-
t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s w o u l d be g r e a t e r i f d i r e c t i o n a l w e l l s a r e d r i l l e d
perpendicular t o the orientation o f the natural cracks (cf. sections
4.8.6.1.5.2. and 4.8.6.2.4.2.).
The common o f f s h o r e e x p l o r a t i o n s t r a t e g y o f d r i l l i n g a v e r t i c a l w e l l i n t h e
c r e s t a l a r e a o f a n t i c l i n a l s t r u c t u r e s may be a d o u b l e p i t f a l l , because f i r s t
the v e r t i c a l hole might not intercept vertical o r high-inclination natural frac-
t u r e s and second, i n c o n t r a s t t o p o p u l a r b e l i e f , t h e c r e s t a l a r e a o f asymrnetri-
c a l a n t i c l i n e s m i g h t c o n t a i n o n l y l i t t l e f r a c t u r e p o r o s i t y . The d i s c u s s i o n as
f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a t e s on i m p a c t o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s , f r a c t u r e s p a c i n g
v s . bed t h i c k n e s s , and f r a c t u r e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n and s t r e s s s e n s i t i v i t y .

4.8.8.1.2.1. Impact of reservoir heterogeneities

LORENZ, BRANAGAN, WARPINSKI & SATTLER (1586); LORENZ & FINLEY (1587), NORTH-
ROP (1988) and NORTHROP & FROHNE (1988) d e s c r i b e r e s e r v o i r s c o n t a i n i n g a s y s t e m
o f u n i d i r e c t i o n a l s u b p a r a l l e l n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s which occur p r i n c i p a l l y i n
s a n d s t o n e s and s i l t s t o n e s and t e r m i n a t e a t mudstone c o n t a c t s b o t h i n v e r t i c a l
and h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n as w e l l as b o t h a t i n t e r r e s e r v o i r and i n t r a r e s e r v o i r
l i t h o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y p l a n e s . T h i n mudstone i n t e r b e d d i n g s i n s a n d s t o n e com-
p l e x e s such as o v e r b a n k f l o o d p l a i n members o f f l u v i a l b r a i d e d - r i v e r c y c l o t h e m s
( c f . p l a t e s I I I / l - 2, IV/3 - 5, VII/3, V I I I / 3 and IX/1 - 3), i n t e r d u n e pond
d e p o s i t s i n a e o l i a n dune and s h e e t sand as w e l l as p l a y a sequences ( c f . p l a t e
V I I I / 1 - 2), and l o w - w a t e r d r a p e s i n f l u v i a l c h a n n e l sand u n i t s ( c f . p l a t e s
IV/6 - 8, V I I / 5 - 6, VIII/8 and IX/4 - 8) a r e a l r e a d y s u f f i c i e n t m e c h a n i c a l p r o -
p e r t y and r o c k s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s t o s t o p n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n .

D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s such as u n c o n f o r m i t i e s between f o l d e d basement and f l a t - l y -

i n g c o v e r s t r a t a ( c f . p l a t e I / 1 - 7 ) o r m a s s i v e c a r b o n a t e r e e f domes i n t e r s p e r -
sed i n bedded c a r b o n a t e s e d i m e n t s ( c f . p l a t e I/8) a r e a l s o a r e a s o f f r a c t u r e e x -
t e n s i o n t e r m i n a t i o n and change o f g e o m e t r i c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f t h e c r a c k s a t
t h e t r a n s i t i o n between two d i f f e r e n t j o i n t systems o f d i f f e r e n t g e n e s i s . N a t u -
r a l f r a c t u r e s o c c u r i n a w i d e s p e c t r u m o f l e n g t h s , w i d t h s , s p a c i n g s and d e n s i -
t i e s , and t h e c r a c k s and t h e i r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s a r e o f t e n n a r r o w a n d / o r m i n e r a -
l i z e d , r e s u l t i n g i n a s t r e s s - s e n s i t i v e , e a s i l y damaged system.

4.8.8.1.2.2.Fracture spacing vs. bed thickness

The a v e r a g e f r a c t u r e s p a c i n g i n h e t e r o g e n e o u s r e s e r v o i r s i s a l w a y s s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y l e s s t h a n w o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d b y a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between j o i n t spa-
c i n g and bed t h i c k n e s s . The n a t u r a l c r a c k s f o r m e d u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f h i g h p o r e
p r e s s u r e s and r e l a t i v e l y l o w h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s (LORENZ, BRANAGAN, WARPINSKI &
SATTLER 1986) w h i c h were p r o v i d e d by t e c t o n i c a l c o m p r e s s i o n o f t h e b a s i n . F r a c -
t u r i n g o c c u r r e d a t h i g h i n - s i t u p o r e p r e s s u r e s t h a t were caused b y gases r e l e a -
sed d u r i n g m a t u r a t i o n o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l i n t h e f o r m a t i o n w h i c h d e c r e a s e d t h e
average e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s s u f f i c i e n t l y t o a l l o w f a i l u r e t o take p l a c e a t r e l a t i -
v e l y l o w h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s (NORTHROP 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.8.8.1.2.3. Fracture mineralization and stress sensitivity

I n many t i g h t sands, gas p r o d u c t i o n i s p r i n c i p a l l y c o n t r o l l e d b y a n e t w o r k
o f open and p a r t l y m i n e r a l i z e d n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s (PITMAN & STRUNT 1986) w h i c h
formed i n response t o h i g h p o r e - f l u i d pressures t h a t developed d u r i n g hydrocar-
bon g e n e r a t i o n as w e l l as t o w i d e s p r e a d t e c t o n i c a l s t r e s s w i t h l a t e - s t a g e b a s i n
s u b s i d e n c e and s e d i m e n t l o a d i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p e r i o d s o f u p l i f t and e r o s i o n .
 600
S p a c i n g , o r i e n t a t i o n and mode o f c r a c k s a r e r e l a t e d t o r e s e r v o i r l i t h o l o g y ( v a -
r i o u s examples o f g e o m e t r y and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a r e i l l u s t r a -
t e d on p l a t e s I - X I i n s e c t i o n 3.13.).

F r a c t u r e s a r e e i t h e r open and n o n - m i n e r a l i z e d o r a r e p a r t l y t o c o m p l e t e l y oc-

c l u d e d b y f i n e - t o c o a r s e - c r y s t a l l i n e c a l c i t e (LORENZ, BRANAGAN, WARPINSKI &
SATTLER 1986; LORENZ & FINLEY 1 9 8 7 ) . I n c o m p l e t e c a l c i t e c r y s t a l cjrowths a l o n g
j o i n t w a l l s a r e v e r y common and may keep t h e c r a c k s p r o p p e d open w h i c h h e l p s t o
m a i n t a i n t h e i n c r e a s e d p e r m e a b i l i t y p r o d u c e d b y f r a c t u r i n g . On t h e o t h e r hand,
j o i n t s c o m p l e t e l y cemented b y c a l c i t e may b a r f l u i d f l o w a t d e p t h . V e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r e s i n s a n d s t o n e s p r e d o m i n a n t l y r e s u l t f r o m e x t e n s i o n , because t h e y a r e
i n m o s t c a s e s open w i t h r e a s o n a b l e w a l l s e p a r a t i o n and show l i t t l e i f any e v i -
dence o f l a t e r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t . C r a c k s i n s h a l e s a r e numerous and t e n d t o be
n o n - m i n e r a l i z e d and c l o s e d . T h e i r h i g h l y i r r e g u l a r s u r f a c e s w h i c h a r e i n c l i n e d
a t l o w a n g l e s t o b e d d i n g and w h i c h a r e commonly p o l i s h e d and s l i c k e n s i d e d i n d i -
c a t e t h a t t h e c r a c k s o r i g i n a t e d b y s h e a r , and p e r m e a b i l i t y a l o n g t h e s e f r a c t u -
r e s under overburden s t r e s s i s n e g l i g i b l e .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t r e s s s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , p r o d u c t i o n c a n be e s -
s e n t i a l l y s h u t o f f b y r e d u c i n g f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e w h i c h e f f e c t i v e l y squeezes
t h e c r a c k s c l o s e d , whereas c o n v e r s e l y h i g h - p r e s s u r e gas i n j e c t i o n g i v e s r i s e t o
d r a m a t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e d p a y p e r m e a b i l i t y due t o j o i n t o p e n i n g (RANDOLPH, SOEDER
& CHOWDIAH 1984; NORTHROP & FROHNE 1 9 8 8 ) . O t h e r n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s w h i c h a p p e a r
t o be d i s c o n t i n u o u s o n c o r e s c a l e a r e b e l i e v e d t o enhance m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y
and i n c r e a s e p e r m e a b i l i t y a n i s o t r o p y r a t h e r t h a n a c t i n t h e manner o f c r a c k s as-
s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e d u a l - p o r o s i t y s y s t e m (BELFIELD 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.8.8.1.3. Interaction between natural and hydraulic fractures

N a t u r a l c r a c k s have an i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e o n m o d i f i c a t i o n o r a l t e r a t i o n o f
propagation o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced f r a c t u r e s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4.5.1.). Pre-
e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l j o i n t s a r e s e c o n d a r i l y e n l a r g e d f i r s t b y d r i l l i n g mud and l a -
t e r b y s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s (KULANDER & DEAN 1988; NURMI, WATERHOUSE, KHOBAR & AK-
BAR 1 9 8 8 ) . A n a t u r a l c r a c k w h i c h i s c r o s s e d b y a h y d r a u l i c a l l y - g e n e r a t e d f r a c -
t u r e behaves l i k e a h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y s t r e a k o r a r e a s o n a b l e l i t h o l o g i c a l d i s -
c o n t i n u i t y ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 4 . 2 . ) and i s a b l e t o d e f l e c t o r c o m p l e t e a r -
r e s t i t s growth ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.4.3.). A s i g n i f i c a n t increase i n bottom h o l e
t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e i s o f t e n r e q u i r e d t o r e i n i t i a t e f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n and r e -
s u l t s i n f o r m a t i o n o f a m u l t i p l e c r a c k n e t w o r k w i t h v e r y s h o r t e f f e c t i v e pene-
t r a t i o n i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r (BLANTON 1980; CONWAY, McGOWEN, GUNDERSON & KING
1 9 8 5 ) . C o n n e c t i v i t y o f t h e s y s t e m o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i s a s i g n i f i c a n t parame-
t e r (NIJESINGHE 1985, WIJESINGHE & KECECIOGLU 1986 a ) .

Many n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d f o r m a t i o n s a r e f a u l t - r e l a t e d , and s i n g l e and i n t e r -

c e p t i n g s e a l i n g f a u l t s have an i m p o r t a n t i m p a c t o n r e s e r v o i r c o m m u n i c a t i o n
(AGUILERA 1 9 8 5 ) . A s p e c t s o f c o m b i n a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a r e
a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y BEN NACEUR ( 1 9 8 8 ) , and e x p e r i m e n t a l m o d e l l i n g o f t h e i n t e r a c -
t i o n between h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d and p r e - e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e s i s p e r f o r m e d b y
BLANTON ( 1 9 8 2 ) . N a t u r a l c r a c k s c o n t r o l t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f many t i g h t gas r e s e r -
v o i r s and c a n c r e a t e t e n s - o f - m i l l i d a r c y p a y zones o u t o f s u b m i c r o d a r c y r o c k s
(NOIITHROP 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 . ) . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l a s -
p e c t s , o r i e n t a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s as w e l l as r e l a t i o n s h i p
between a n c i e n t and a c t u a l s t r e s s s y s t e m a r e o u t l i n e d .

4.8.8.1.3.1.General aspects
?lost t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s are n a t u r a l l y fissured, w i t h the cracks e i t h e r being
v e r y s m a l l and i r r e l e v a n t t o f l o w t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e pay t o a homogeneous and li-
k e l y i s o t r o p i c medium, o r w i t h p r o d u c t i o n b e i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d b y i n t e r -
s e c t i o n o f w e l l b o r e and c r a c k s i n m a s s i v e n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d f o r m a t i o n s (BEN NA-
 601

CEUR & ECONOMIDES 1988). D u r i n g e x e c u t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g treatments,

t h e presence o f f i s s u r e s and c r a c k s a f f e c t s induced f r a c t u r e geometry, because
major n a t u r a l c r a c k s l e a d t o a change o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p a t h (JEFFREY E VAN-
DAMME 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.4.3.) t h e r e b y c a u s i n g problems f o r p r o p p a n t t r a n s -
p o r t , and t h e h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y o f f i s s u r e s r e s u l t s i n t h e i r a c t i o n as t h i e f zo-
nes where f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d - l o s s i s enhanced. Depending on c r a c k magnitude, i t
i s p o s s i b l e t h a t l e a k o f f c o n t r o l w i t h o u t s u i t a b l e d i v e r t i n g agents does n o t
work because f i l t e r cakes f r o m polymer r e s i d u e s may be i m p o s s i b l e t o o r i g i n a t e .
I n l i m e s t o n e f o r m a t i o n s and d u r i n g a c i d f r a c t u r i n g , f i s s u r i n g may enhance worm-
h o l e growth (BEN NACEUR & ECONOMIDES 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.2.1.). Influences
o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s on p r o p a g a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by
TEUFEL E WARPINSKI ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.8.8.1.3.2.Orientation of natural and hydraulic fractures

JEFFREY, VANDAMME & ROEGIERS (1987) comment on mechanical i n t e r a c t i o n s i n
branched o r s u b p a r a l l e l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s . H y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o f n a t u r a l l y
j o i n t e d r e s e r v o i r s can r e s u l t i n g e n e r a t i o n o f complex geometries such as
o f f s e t s a t c r o s s c u t t i n g n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s . Pumping f l u i d i n t o a c r a c k e d r o c k
f o r m a t i o n can i n f l a t e t h e n a t u r a l j o i n t s , and t h e r e s u l t i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e
may propagate as a system o f p a r a l l e l t o s u b p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s w i t h b o t h
opening and s l i d i n g movement across t h e c r a c k s u r f a c e s (PINE & BATCHELOR 1984).
Some aspects o f c r o s s - c u t t i n g and mu1 t i p l e b r a n c h i n g o f induced f r a c t u r e s as
w e l l as h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n p a r a l l e l t o n a t u r a l c r a c k s a r e o u t l i n e d
as f o l l o w s .

4.8.8.1.3.2.1.Cross-cutting and
multiple branching of induced fractures
I f t h e n a t u r a l j o i n t s a r e more widely-spaced, t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e may p r o -
pagate as a s i n g l e f r a c t u r e b u t i n t e r a c t w i t h n a t u r a l c r a c k s one by one as i t
approaches them, w i t h o f f s e t t i n g and b r a n c h i n g o f t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e r e s u l t -
i n g f r o m such i n t e r a c t i o n s (JEFFREY, VANDAMME & ROEGIERS 1987; c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 2 . 4 . 3 . ) . S l i p o c c u r r i n g on weakness p l a n e s a f t e r t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e c r o s -
ses them l e a d s t o a r e d u c t i o n i n c r a c k w i d t h a t t h e s i t e o f o f f s e t which may
cause p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g .

The s t u d y o f t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e branched f r a c t u r e s and i n t e r a c t i o n

o f a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e w i t h a c r o s s - c u t t i n g n a t u r a l crack r e v e a l s t h a t m u l t i -
p l e branched f r a c t u r e s a r e a q u i t e common r e s u l t o f such i n t e r f e r e n c e s . The i n -
t e r a c t i o n between t h e two ( o r more) branches o f t h e f r a c t u r e g i v e s r i s e t o i n -
c r e a s i n g t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e as compared w i t h t h e s i n g l e c r a c k . H y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a -
t i o n o f sandstone r e s e r v o i r s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s u b p a r a l l e l u n i d i r e c t i o n a l n a t u -
r a l f r a c t u r e s s u f f e r i n e f f e c t i v i t y from the f a c t t h a t the hydraulic cracks pro-
pagate p a r a l l e l t o t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e t r e n d (LORENZ & FINLEY 1987).

4.8.8.1.3.2.2. Hydraulic fracture

propagation parallel to natural cracks
As h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s a r e g e n e r a l l y p a r a l l e l t o n a t u r a l and t o
t h e p r i n c i p a l h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s o f t h e system, t h e a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s conse-
q u e n t l y o f t e n f a i l t o i n t e r c e p t t h e main n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s (AGUILERA 1983). Con-
j u g a t e c r a c k s m i g h t be c r o s s e d and connected by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s , b u t have
lower t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t i e s than t h e main n a t u r a l j o i n t s which g u i d e t h e propaga-
t i o n d i r e c t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s t o e x t e n d more o r l e s s p a r a l -
l e l t o them. I n a d d i t i o n , s i n c e c o n j u g a t e c r a c k s a r e under compressive s t r e s s ,
t h e y p r o b a b l y t e n d t o c l o s e as t h e p r e s s u r e w i t h i n t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i s
reduced, t h e r e b y p r o v o k i n g sharp d e c l i n e s i n p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s . Another s t i m u l a -
 602

tio n problem a r i s e s from the usually l ar g e thickness of n a t u r a l l y fra c ture d re -

s e r v o i r s w i t h o u t p l a s t i c l ay er s i n bet\Jeen. Even i f only a s h o r t inte rva l i s
perforated a n d t r e a t e d according t o the 1 irni ted-entry technique, the hydraulic
f r a c t u r e grows upwards a n d downwards u n t i l i t reaches the p l a s t i c b a r r i e r s
bounding the r e s er v o i r complex, and consequently the e xte nt of the f r a c t u r e
away from the wellbore i n l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n i s lim ite d ( c f . se c tion 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . ) .

4.8.8.1.3.3.Relationship between
ancient and actual stress system
The combination of impacts of depositional environment, natural c ra c ks, a n d
i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s places c o n s t r a i n t s on the ef fe c tive ne ss of hydraulic f r a c t u -
ring as a means of s t i mu l at i n g n a t u r a l l y j o i n te d re se rvoirs (NORTHROP 1988, NOR-
THROP & FROHNE 1988). I f p al aeo s t r es s s t a t e having c re a te d the n a t u r a l crack
system a n d actual s t r e s s s t a t e g u i d i n g the o r i g i n of hydraulic f r a c t u r e s have
the same o r i e n t a t i o n , the hydraulic f r a c t u r e w i l l p a r a l l e l the natural j o i n t s
and thus i n t e r s e c t r e l a t i v e l y few of the more conductive pa ths, w i t h thus short
hydraulic f r a c t u r e s perpendicular t o the n a t u r a l crack d i r e c t i o n being j u s t as
e f f e c t i v e as a much l ar g er hydraulic f r a c t u r e which p a r a l l e l s the n a t u r a l j o i n t
system (BRANAGAN, C I P O L L A , L E E & CHEN 1987). Ac c e ssibility of gas re se rve s i n
such n a t u r a l l y cracked r e s e r v o i r s t h er ef o r e sometimes even renders a r t i f i c i a l
a l t e r a t i o n of the s t r e s s s t a t e f e a s i b l e i n order t o t r i g g e r hydraulic f r a c t u r e
propagation perpendicular t o the n a t u r a l j o i n t system (WARPINSKI & BRANAGAN
1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 4 . 1 . 3 . 1 . ) .

I f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s ar e o r i en t ed in an acute angle t o the princ ipa l s t r e s s

d i r e c t i o n , they can be i n f l a t e d during s t i mu la tion and can propagate f u r t h e r be-
f o r e the t r e a t i n g pressure i s inducing f a i l u r e i n the stress-determined d i r e c -
t i o n (OVERBEY, YOST & YOST 1988). The sequential development of t h i s p a t t e r n i s
describsd by YOST, OVERBEY, NILKINS & LOCKE (1988) as a succession of f i r s t
opening a n d widening of natural f r a c t u r e s a t lower i n j e c t i o n pressures i n a
low-angle p o s i t i on t o the p r i n ci p al s t r e s s a n d second c re a tion of newly induced
cracks i n the predetermined d i r e c t i o n a t higher pre ssure s. EASON (1985) a l s o
p o i n t s o u t t h a t a successful hydraulic stimulation comprises l a t e r a l penetra-
tio n of the induced f r a c t u r e away from the wellbore and i n t e r s e c t i o n of a la rge
number of n a t u r a l cr ack s .

4.8.8.1.4. Interfracture comnunication

LORENZ, BRANAGAN, NARPINSKI & SATTLER (1986) describe a system of unidire c -
tio n a l s u b p a r a l l el or anastomosed n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s t h a t origina te d under condi-
tio n s of h i g h pore pressures and r e l a t i v e l y low d i f f e r e n t i a l horizontal s t r e s -
ses r a t h e r than by s t r u c t u r a l deformation which control the evolution of secon-
dary permeability i n many t i g h t l e n t i c u l a r non-marine f l a t - l y i n g c l a s t i c r e s e r -
v o i r rocks. The cracks a r e s u b p ar al l el w i t h infrequent low-angle i n t e r s e c t i o n s
allowing only l i mi t ed i n t e r f r a c t u r e communication, a n d orthogonal connecting
j o i n t s a r e r a r e . Some aspects of permeability c ontinuity a n d s t r e s s s e n z i t i v i t y
a r e o u t l i n e d as follows.

4.8.8.1.4.1. Permeability continuity

Permeability co n t i n u i t y across the f r a c t u r e pa tte rn within r e s e r v o i r s does
e x i s t , b u t r e q u i r es t h a t f l u i d s t r av el along the j o i n t s a n d z i g - z a g back a n d
f o r t h t h r o u g h low-angle i n t e r s e c t i o n s of adjacent subpa ra lle l c ra c ks, w i t h
these paths being a n order of magnitude or more longer t h a n the d i r e c t route
(LORENZ, BRANAGAN, WARPINSKI & SATTLER 1986). Co-linear f r a c t u r e s a re connected
by en-echelon o f f s e t s t h a t may coalesce t o become a n apparent s i n g u l a r crack d u -
r i n g erosional s t r e s s r e l i e f , a n d j o i n t s occur i n a spectrum uf lengths a n d spa-
c in g s. The en-echelon connections commonly c r e a t e e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e lengths
 603
t h a t a r e bounded o n l y by t h e l i m i t s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r o r by l a r g e - s c a l e internal
heterogeneities.

4.8.8.1.4.2. Stress sensitivity

Most f r a c t u r e s t e r m i n a t e v e r t i c a l l y w i t h i n r e s e r v o i r sandstones a t m i n o r li-
t h o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s such as mudstone i n t e r b e d s and l e n s e s i n f l u v i a l
channel sands ( c f . p l a t e s I I / 7 - 8, III/l- 2, I V / 7 - 8, V I I / 5 - 6 and
I X / 4 - 8 ) as w e l l as mudstone c o n t a c t s bounding t h e sandstone pays ( c f . p l a t e s
I V / 4 - 5, V I I / 3 , V I I I / 6 - 8 and I X / 1 - 3 ) , w i t h t h e r e f o r e f r a c t u r e s w i t h i n d i f -
f e r e n t r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y s b e i n g p o o r l y connected t o c r a c k s w i t h i n t h e o v e r - and
u n d e r l y i n g beds which r e s u l t s i n r e s t r i c t e d v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e c o n t i n u i t y (LO-
RENZ, BRANAGAN, WARPINSKI & SATTLER 1986). As a consequence o f t h e i r m a i n l y n a r -
row w i d t h , most o f t h e j o i n t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be h i g h l y s t r e s s - s e n s i t i v e due
t o c l o s u r e o f gaps between a s p e r i t i e s i n t h e same way t h a t l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y ma-
t r i x r o c k s a r e s t r e s s s e n s i t i v e t o m i c r o c r a c k s , and many o f t h e f l o w p a t h s may
be s u f f i c i e n t l y narrow t o c r e a t e l a r g e c a p i l l a r y f o r c e s t h e r e b y i n h i b i t i n g li-
q u i d f l o w which emphasizes t h e n o n - l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f f r a c t u r e w i d t h and
transmi s s i b i 1 it y .

H i g h t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e s d u r i n g h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o f such n a t u r a l l y j o i n -
t e d r e s e r v o i r s i n d i c a t e complex f r a c t u r i n g due t o i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e p r e -
e x i s t i n g c r a c k s . Decreasing f l o w r a t e and average f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f t h e na-
t u r a l l y j o i n t e d pay d e s p i t e t h e presence o f a new a r t i f i c i a l h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y
f r a c t u r e r e f l e c t s damage o f t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g c r a c k s h a v i n g been i n t e r s e c t e d by
the hydraulic f r a c t u r e ( c f . section 4.8.8.3.).

4.8.8.2. Fracture divergence

The i n i t i a l l y p a r a l l e l elements o f t h e f r a c t u r e bundle d i v e r g e f r o m one an-
o t h e r a t an a n g l e t h a t d i m i n i s h e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g i n j e c t i o n r a t e , f l u i d v i s c o s i -
ty, f i e l d s t r e s s , and i n i t i a l spacing (LORENZ, BRANAGAN, WARPINSKI & SATTLER
1986). Such u n i f o r m d i v e r g e n c e and simultaneous p r o p a g a t i o n a r e n o t expected t o
be observed i n a c t u a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s , because s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e between
t h e two branches would l i k e l y l e a d t o one branch d o m i n a t i n g and c o n t i n u i n g t o
grow a t t h e expense o f t h e o t h e r . Branching i s n e v e r t h e l e s s expected t o a f f e c t
t h e w i d t h o f t h e dominant f r a c t u r e n e a r t h e d i v i s i o n by p o s s i b l y c a u s i n g l o c a l
r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a t m i g h t g i v e r i s e t o p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g and screenout (BLANTON
1982, 1986; JEFFREY, VANDAMME & ROEGIERS 1987). Abnormal t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s i n
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d by MEDLIN & FITCH ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

Thus a c o m b i n a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r i n g s h o u l d p r e f e r e n t i a l -
l y aim on enlargement o f t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k s p a r a l l e l t o t h e n r a t h e r than crea-
t i o n o f an independent system o f s y n t h e t i c f i s s u r e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r o r o b l i q u e t o
them, thus i m p l y i n g t h a t p r e - f r a c t u r i n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e g e o s t r e s s f i e l d by
w e l l b o r e b r e a k o u t e l o n g a t i o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.8.1.) and p r o -
b a b l y a l s o n a t u r a l c r a c k m o n i t o r i n g by b o r e h o l e t e l e v i s i o n (FLECKENSTEIN 1984,
CLERKE & AKKEREN 1986, DARILEK 1986; c f . s e c t i o n s 6.2.1.9. and 6.2.1.10.1.) to
be necessary f o r optimum d e s i g n and performance o f a r t i f i c i a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g i n a n a t u r a l l y c r a c k e d o r j o i n t e d r e s e r v o i r . Aspects o f i n t e r a c t i o n b e t -
ween p r e - e x i s t i n g ( p r i m a r y ) and h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d (secondary) f r a c t u r e s a r e
a l s o discussed by BLANTON ( 1 9 8 2 ) . HOUZE, HORNE & RAMEY (1984); LANCASTER & GA-
TENS (1986), MURPHY & FEHLER (1986); BRANAGAN, CIPOLLA, LEE & CHEN (1987) and
BEN NACEUR & ECONOMIDES (1988) a l s o comment on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f n a t u r a l -
l y j o i n t e d f o r m a t i o n s . I n terms o f o r i e n t a t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e
g e o s t r e s s f i e l d , DULA (1981) comments on c o r r e l a t i o n between d e f o r m a t i o n l a m e l -
l a e m i c r o f r a c t u r e s , m a c r o f r a c t u r e s and i n - s i t u s t r e s s measurements.
 604

4.8.5.3. Temporary natural fracture damage

Due t o the l a r g e hydrocarbon reserves held by n a t u r a l l y fra c ture d pays,
t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n has become a challenging task f o r the petroleum industry
( P R A D O & PRAT 1987) and much p o t en t i al i s seen f o r the near f u t u r e . A r t i f i c i a l
enhancement of natural f r a c t u r e systems i s expected t o play a major r o l e f o r i n -
c r e a s i n g p r o d u c ti v i t y of these r e s e r v o i r s . There i s , however, the danger t h a t
hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g may r e s u l t i n a t l e a s t temporary subsequent decrease of
the flow capacity of the natural j o i n t system near the wellbore and the a r t i f i -
c i a l l y induced crack, thus l i mi t i n g production capacity of the well (BRANAGAN,
CIPOLLA, L E E & YAN 1987). Natural f r a c t u r e damage by water a n d stim ula tion
f l u i d s can be u p t o such an ex t en t t h a t post-treatment o f f t a k e i s l e s s than
pre-job e x p l o r a t i o n r a t e s (SATTLER, R A I B L E & GALL 1985). Aspects of i n t e r a c -
t i o n s between natural f r a c t u r e s a n d stimulation f l u i d s , f l u i d l o s s , lim ite d
f r a c t u r e interconnectedness, el ev at ed treatment pressure, a n d s t r e s s s e n s i t i v i -
t y behaviour a n d a s p e r i t y shearing a r e o u t l i n e d as follows.

4.8.8.3.1. Interactions between

natural fractures and stimulation fluids
Natural f r a c t u r e damage can be the r e s u l t of residual treatment l i q u i d s and/
o r st i m u l a t i o n f l u i d blockage ( s i m i l a r as water blocking due t o c a p i l l a r y pres-
s u r e ; HOLDITCH 1979; c f . s ect i o n s 3 . 1 1 . 2 . 4 . 2 . ) impairing the permeability o f
the natural j o i n t s i n t er s ect ed by the a r t i f i c i a l crack, b u t i s ofte n of t r a n s i -
to r y nature a n d can be overcome by a n extended shut-in period t o enable s i g n i f i -
c a n t clean-up. As l i q u i d impairment o f natural f r a c t u r e s could se ve re ly reduce
t h e i r r e l a t i v e gas permeability, the high c a p i l l a r y pressures of the matrix
rock cause during a n extended s h u t - i n period the l i q u i d i n the natural cracks
t o imbibe i n t o the m a t r i x a n d thus the almost t o t a l l i q u i d s a t u r a t i o n of the na-
tu r a l j o i n t s decreases with time.

Fracturing f l u i d residue blocking a l s o degrades due t o increasing molecular

weight of the polymers with time and temperature, with thereby b o t h processes
leading t o increasing gas permeability. The worst case of n a t u r a l crack damage
occurs i n a n i so t r o p i c systems where a d i r e c t i o n of the subsequently induced hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p a r a l l e l t o the maximum-permeability natural j o i n t s can magni-
f y the d e t e r i o r a t i o n e f f e c t s a n d minimize production enhancement (BRANAGAN, C I -
POLLA, L E E & YAN 1987).

GALL, MALONEY, SATTLER & R A I B L E (1988) r eport permeability d e t e r i o r a t i o n of

n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s caused by s t i mu l at i o n f l u i d polymers, a n d SATTLER, RAIBLE,
GALL & GILL (1988) describe s u i t a b l e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s f o r n a t u r a l l y cracked
t i g h t gas sandstones in order t o minimize natural j o i n t damage. I n many t i g h t
gas sandstones, natural f r a c t u r e s dominate pre-stimulation production, and a
very important question of post-stimulation offta ke i s how well the n a t u r a l
cracks remain open. I n t e r a c t i o n s between n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a n d treatment f l u i d s
a r e r e f l e c t e d by high operating p r es s u r es , acc e le ra te d or dual leakoff ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) , and highly increased values of a c c e ssible r e s e r v o i r surfa c e
upon reversal of gas flow. The summary as follows includes comments on natural
crack width, d u a l f l u i d l eak o f f , c a p i l l a r y f o r c e s , impact of breaker systems
a n d water blocking.

4.8.8.3.1.1. Natural crack width

The narrowness of many natural cracks makes them susc e ptible b o t h t o f l u i d
damage during s t i mu l at i o n a n d t o changes in the local s t r e s s f i e l d as a r e s u l t
of hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g o r drawdown from production. Very h i g h pore c a p i l l a r y
pressures may tend t o keep the narrow natural j o i n t s r e l a t i v e l y f r e e o f water.
Abnormally h i g h treatment pressures above the c losure s t r e s s e s or even above
the containment b a r r i e r s as determined from i n - s i t u s t r e s s t e s t i n g a n d a l s o oc-
 605

c u r r i n g d u r i n g screenouts ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) suggest t h a t t h e n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s open up under such h i g h t r e a t i n g , p r e s s u r e s o r t h a t s t i m u l a t i o n g e l i s
f o r c e d i n t o them o r b o t h . F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d once f o r c e d i n t o t h e narrow n a t u r a l
c r a c k s would be d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o v e r a t e x i s t i n g r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e .

4.8.8.3.1.2. Dual fluid leakoff

Opening up o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s w i t h t r e a t m e n t f l u i d i n j e c t i o n a t h i g h e r s t i -
m u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e s i s a l s o i n d i c a t e d by dual f l u i d l e a k o f f c o n s i s t i n g o f normal
l e a k o f f a t l o w e r p r e s s u r e s and a c c e l e r a t e d l e a k o f f a t a p r e s s u r e h i g h enough t o
t r i g g e r t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k s t o open up (WARPINSKI 1988 a ) . I f g e l s t a b i l i z e d by
methanol and c o n t a i n i n g l i t t l e b r e a k e r i s pumped i n t o t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e sys-
tem, p o s t - s t i m u l a t i o n workover o p e r a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f w a t e r
may suppress f o r m a t i o n temperatures and r e t a r d d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e g e l t r a p p e d
i n t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k network. 100 mesh sand does n o t i n c r e a s e p e r m e a b i l i t y da-
mage i n t h e presence o f a b r e a k e r , b u t seems t o i n c r e a s e p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a -
t i o n w i t h o u t a breaker, and b r e a k e r added t o b i o g e l may m i t i g a t e p e r m e a b i l i t y
damage (SATTLER, RAIBLE, GALL & GILL 1988). The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s focusses
on 100 mesh sand as f l u i d - l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e and microproppant, c o n v e n t i o n a l
f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s vs. 100 mesh sand, and f l i p - f l o p i n s e r t i o n o f 100 mesh
sand.

4.8.8.3.1.2.1. 100 mesh sand as

f hid-loss additive and microproppant
100 mesh sand i s v e r y e f f e c t i v e as a c o m b i n a t i o n o f f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e and
m i c r o p r o p p a n t by r e d u c i n g f l u i d l e a k o f f due t o h a i r l i n e f i s s u r e p l u g g i n g , b u t
i n s t a l l i n g a s u f f i c i e n t l y permeable s u p p o r t i n g wedge w i t h i n t h e m i c r o c r a c k s t o
a l l o w them l a t e r t o e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r i b u t e t o r e s e r v o i r d r a i n a g e (WARPINSKI
1988 a; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . 100 mesh sand d i m i n i s h e s secondary
f l u i d loss t h r o u g h i n t e r s e c t i n g h a i r l i n e f i s s u r e s , b u t does n o t r e s t r i c t f l u i d
t r a v e l down t h e p r i n c i p a l f r a c t u r e and t h u s p e r m i t s t h e subsequent s t i m u l a t i o n
f l u i d t o e x t e n d t h e main c r a c k t o t h e d e s i r e d d i s t a n c e i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r
(THOMPSON 1977; c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.11.2.1.). 100 mesh sand i s p r i m a r i l y used as an
added c o n d i t i o n i n g s t e p i n t h e pad f l u i d s . I n p a r t i a l l y d e p l e t e d zones which
have been h e a v i l y a c i d i z e d , i t i s necessary t o use l a r g e volumes o f 100 mesh
sand i n o r d e r t o f i l l a l l t h e p r e v i o u s l y c r e a t e d v o i d s so t h a t t h e new t r e a t -
ment can e n t e r e a r l i e r u n s t i m u l a t e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e i n t e r v a l . H a i r l i n e f i s s u r e s
t h i e v i n g o f f some o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and t h u s p r e v e n t i n g achievement o f
the predicted penetration are e i t h e r n a t u r a l l y occurring o r are stress f r a c t u -
r e s caused d u r i n g t h e process o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and a s s o c i a t e d d i l a t a n c y
( c f . section 4.8.1.3.1.).

4.8.8.3.1.2.2. Conventional fluid-loss agents vs. 100 mesh sand

The p a r t i c l e s i z e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s i s t o o small t o e f f e c -
t i v e l y b r i d g e o f f and l i m i t f l u i d l e a k o f f i n t h e m i n i a t u r e c r a c k s (NARPIMSKI
1988 a ) . The h a i r l i n e f i s s u r e s a r e a c t u a l l y propagated w i t h f l u i d o n l y and
serve as escape r o u t e s f o r t h e f l u i d t o l e a v e t h e p r i m a r y c r a c k and t o l i m i t
i t s e x t e n s i o n . F l u i d l o s s t h r o u g h t h e h a i r l i n e f i s s u r e s causes a b u i l d u p o f
proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e p r i n c i p a l f r a c t u r e which aggravates t h e s i t u a -
t i o n , and when t h e p r e s s u r e i s r e l e a s e d a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t , t h e m i c r o f r a c t u r e s
c o n t a i n i n g o n l y f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s can o n l y v e r y l i t t l e c o n t r i b u t e t o hydro-
carbon p r o d u c t i o n .

100 mesh sand p e r f e c t l y b r i d g e s o f f t h e f i s s u r e s b e f o r e t r a v e l l i n g v e r y f a r

down t h e h a i r l i n e and b u i l d s up a secondary g r a n u l a r m a t r i x w i t h i n t h e c r a c k s
which serves as a base f o r o t h e r f l u i d - l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s t o work a g a i n s t , t h e r e -
by f u r t h e r l i m i t i n g f l u i d loss i n t o t h e h a i r l i n e s and keeping t h e r e s t o f t h e
 605

f l u i d w i t h i n t h e p r i n c i p a l f r a c t u r e . I n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h 100 mesh sand, o n l y so-

l u b l e f l u i d - l e a k o f f a g e n t s s h o u l d be used, because i n v a s i o n i n t o t h e 100 mesh
sand may cause such a d e g r e e o f p l u g g i n g t h a t a l o w - p r e s s u r e f o r m a t i o n c a n n o t
k i c k o u t . 100 mesh sand p e r m i t s t h e m a i n f r a c t u r e t o p e n e t r a t e d e e p e r i n t o t h e
r e s e r v o i r w h i c h i n t u r n r e s u l t s i n c o n n e c t i o n o f more and more h a i r l i n e s t o t h e
p r i n c i p a l c r a c k t h a t u l t i m a t e l y l e a d s t o more p r o d u c t i o n avenues c a u s i n s b o t h
higher i n i t i a l offtake, l o n g e r l a s t i n g w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y , and g r e a t e r c u m u l a -
t i v e e x p l o i t a b i l i t y . 100 mesh sand p l u g g i n g o f h a i r l i n e c r a c k s c a n a l s o h e l p t o
c o n t a i n v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.4.).

4.8.8.3.1.2.3. Flip-flop insertion of 100 mesh sand

I n t e r m s o f o p e r a t i o n s , t h e f l i p - f l o p method has t u r n e d o u t t o be t h e b e s t
t e c h n i q u e , c o n s i s t i n g o f a l t e r n a t i n g s l u g s o f p a d f l u i d and 100 mesh sand s l u r -
r y i n t h e same f l u i d b e i n g pumped ahead o f t h e a c i d o r p r o p p a n t s l u r r y (WARPIN-
SKI 1988 a ) . These s p a c e r s s e r v e as make-up f l u i d f o r t h a t f l u i d l o s t t o t h e
h a i r l i n e f r a c t u r e s i n t h e b r i d g i n g p r o c e s s and m a i n t a i n an e v e n f l o w o f con-
s t a n t 100 mesh sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n . The o v e r a l l r e s u l t o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ment seems t o be b e t t e r i f t h e t o t a l volume o f 100 mesh sand i s a b t . e q u a l t o
t h e t o t a l p r o p p a n t volume i n s m a l l e r j o b s o r i f a t l e a s t 50,000 l b s o f 100 mesh
sand a r e used i n l a r g e r o p e r a t i o n s . 100 mesh sand c a n be a p p l i e d i n v a r i o u s c o n -
c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e range o f 1 - 6 l b s / g a l .

I n many c a s e s , u s i n g 100 mesh sand pads a l l o w s t o p l a c e l a r g e r s a t u r a t i o n s

and h i g h e r q u a n t i t i e s o f p r o p p a n t i n t o t h e m a i n f r a c t u r e a t l o w e r pumping r a t e s
and w i t h l e s s e f f i c i e n t s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s t h a n i n c a s e o f t r e a t m e n t w i t h o u t
100 mesh sand pads. E f f e c t i v e t r a p p i n g o f 100 mesh sand i n t h e h a i r l i n e c r a c k s
when p r e s s u r e i s r e l e a s e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e j o b l e a v e s a p r o p p e d m i c r o f r a c t u r e
t h a t i s f u l l y capable o f feeding accelerated hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e
main f r a c t u r e .

4.8.8.3.1.3.Capi 1 lary forces

N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage b y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i s m a i n l y c o n t r o l -
l e d b y i n i t i a l p a y p e r m e a b i l i t y and p o l y m e r g e l t y p e (GALL, SATTLER, MALONEY &
RAIBLE 1 9 8 8 ) . C a p i l l a r y f o r c e s c o u l d cause r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l i q u i d s w i t h i n t h e
r e s e r v o i r and r e s u l t i n r e m o v a l o f w a t e r f r o m t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k s , and p o l y m e r
r e s i d u e s i n t h e f r a c t u r e c o u l d decompose a t p a y t e m p e r a t u r e s o f 200 OF. As g e l -
l e d p o l y m e r f l u i d s c a n e n t e r n a r r o w n a t u r a l j o i n t f l o w c h a n n e l s and l e a v e be-
h i n d r e s i d u e s w h i c h c o u l d n o t be removed b y gas f l o w , a t l e a s t p a r t s o f t h e na-
t u r a l f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage caused by p o l y m e r r e m n a n t s has t o be assumed
t o be p e r m a n e n t . I n c r e a s e d l e a k o f f r a t e s w i t h p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g b r e a -
kers suggest t h a t b u i l d u p o f polymer residues i n the crack i s slower than w i t h
non-breaker-bearing g e l s . Polymer remnants deposited i n n a t u r a l c r a c k s i n t e r s e c -
t e d by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s r e s u l t i n r e s t r i c t e d gas f l o w , w i t h t h e o v e r a l l i n -
crease a f t e r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n treatment being considerably l e s s than expected.
The a d d i t i o n o f b r e a k i n g a g e n t s a t l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n s may be o f some h e l p i n r e -
d u c i n g p o l y m e r r e s i d u e s and damage t o gas f l o w i n n a r r o w f r a c t u r e s . As c r a c k
p e r m e a b i l i t y i s a l s o s e n s i t i v e t o s t r e s s changes, p r e s s u r e drawdown i n a n a t u -
r a l l y j o i n t e d r e s e r v o i r c o u l d cause r e d u c t i o n s i n gas p e r m e a b i l i t y .

As i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a c o n d u c t i v e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i s o f t e n accompanied b y
diminution o f flow capacity o f the natural j o i n t s that are i n contact w i t h the
induced crack, e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n i n t i g h t l e n t i c u -
l a r n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d gas sands i s dependent on p r e s e r v i n g t h e f l o w c a p a c i t y o f
t h e e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems (BRANAGAN, CIPOLLA, LEE & bJILNER 1 9 8 5 ) .
 607

4.8.8.3.1.4. Impact of breaker systems

A b r e a k e r system g e n e r a l l y s h o u l d a l l o w t h e v i s c o s i t y o f a s t i m u ? a t i o n f l u i d
t o remain r e a s o n a b l y h i g h and s t a b l e o v e r t h e s h o r t e r term t o c a r r y proppants
and f i n e - g r a i n e d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e sand o u t i n t o t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y - c r e a t e d
f r a c t u r e , whereas i n t h e l o n g e r term, t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d
system s h o u l d degrade t o f a c i l i t a t e cleanup and r e c o v e r y o f t h e polymer (GALL,
SATTLER, MALONEY & RAIBLE 1988). Oamage f r o m t r e a t m e n t f l u i d polymers i s respon-
s i b l e f o r most o f t h e e a r l y p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n problems, and o t h e r
forms o f mechanical d e t e r i o r a t i o n as w e l l as c l o s u r e due t o drawdown can make
t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k s even more narrow and can compound polymer damage which m i g h t
be m i t i g a t e d by use o f a prepad c o n s i s t i n g o f a b r e a k e r s o l u t i o n .

T h i s approach would p u t a d d i t i o n a l b r e a k e r i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n and would en-

t a i l l i t t l e r i s k o f premature v i s c o s i t y degradation, because t h e g e l has no con-
t a c t w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l b r e a k e r u n t i l b e i n g i n t h e r e s e r v o i r i t s e l f . F i e l d and
l a b o r a t o r y evidence i n d i c a t e t h a t f l u i d systems i n c l u d i n g a b r e a k e r prepad a r e
a p p a r e n t l y s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r s t i m u l a t i o n s o f n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d t i g h t gas sand-
stone r e s e r v o i r s , whereas f a i l u r e t o use a p r o p e r l y v i s c o s i f i e d base f l u i d w i t h
adequate l e a k o f f and foam s t a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s would r i s k an uphole o r
downhole screenout.

BRANAGAN, LEE, CIPOLLA & WILMER (1988) a l s o emphasize t h e extreme s e n s i t i v i -

ty o f n a t u r a l c r a c k systems i n some t i g h t gas sandstones t o i n v a d i n g c o m p l e t i o n
and h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n l i q u i d s . A l t h o u g h r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x damage i s conside-
r e d t o be d e t r i m e n t a l , t h e more s e r i o u s problem i s c l e a r l y m a i n t a i n i n g t h e h i g h -
l y p r o d u c t i v e f l o w p a t h s o f t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k s i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l s t a t e . The de-
t e r i o r a t i o n mechanisms t o t h e j o i n t s a r e so severe t h a t f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y
c o u l d be d i m i n i s h e d t o t h e p o i n t o f r e n d e r i n g them u s e l e s s as c u r r e n t c o n d u i t s
(BRANAGAN & WILHER 1988).

4.8.8.3.1.5. \dater blocking

Water b l o c k i n g o f f r a c t u r e and/or f o r m a t i o n o c c u r s i f t h e drawdown p r e s s u r e
g r a d i e n t i n t h e r e s e r v o i r near t h e c r a c k f a c e does n o t exceed t h e r o c k c a p i l l a -
r y p r e s s u r e s u f f i c i e n t l y f o r e n a b l i n g gas t o f l o w (HOLDITCH 1979; ABRAMS & V I N E -
GAR 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 3.11.2.4.2.). Water b l o c k i n g i s g e n e r a l l y n o t a s e r i o u s
problem i n most t i g h t f o r m a t i o n s because drawdown p r e s s u r e and gas m o b i l i t y a r e
u s u a l l y h i g h enough f o r e f f i c i e n t displacement o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d f r o m t h e r e -
s e r v o i r , b u t may develop i f pay p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s i n t h e n e a r f r a c t u r e - f a c e r e -
g i o n a r e low o r i f f l u i d m o b i l i t i e s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced by f o r m a t i o n o r
c r a c k damage. C a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s when c a p i l l a r i e s a r e s m a l l , s u r f a c e
and i n t e r f a c i a l t e n s i o n s a r e high, and t h e c o n t a c t a n g l e between l i q u i d and
r o c k i s l e s s than 90 degrees (BROADDUS 1988). When c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e exceeds
bottom-hole pressure, t h e i n t e r v a l i s w a t e r - b l o c k e d .

The b e s t s o l u t i o n t o a v o i d w a t e r b l o c k i n g i s p e r f o r m i n g t h e s t i m u l a t i o n ope-
r a t i o n w i t h o n l y p a r t i a l l y aqueous o r even non-aqueous t r e a t m e n t media such as
foam, e n e r g i z e d f l u i d s , n i t r o g e n o r carbon d i o x i d e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3.11. and
4.8.8.3.2.1.). P r e v e n t i o n can a l s o be made by adding a s u r f a c t a n t t o t r e a t i n g
f l u i d s which i m p a r t s low s u r f a c e t e n s i o n and changes t h e a n g l e a t which f l u i d
contacts the rock face.

4.8.8.3.2. Fluid loss

Damage o f f l o w and uptake c a p a c i t i e s o f n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d i n t e r v a l s o f r e -
s e r v o i r complexes may a l s o be caused d u r i n g d r i l l i n g when s e r i o u s l o s t c i r c u l a -
t i o n problems occur, e s p e c i a l l y when complete mud l o s s e s t a k e suddenly p l a c e
and l e a k o f f r a t e s exceed r i g pumping c a p a b i l i t i e s as a consequence o f p r e s s u r e s
w i t h i n t h e d i s t u r b e d zone b e i n g commonly w e l l below t h a t o f a f r e s h w a t e r g r a -
 608

d i e n t (CANSON 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 6 . ) . P a r t i a l p l u g g i n g o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c -
t u r e system i s achieved by b l i n d d r i l l i n g o r i n s e r t i o n o f b r i d g i n g s o l i d s i n t o
t h e f l u i d stream i n o r d e r t o c o n t r o l t h e b o r e h o l e and t o a l l o w f u r t h e r d r i l l i n g
p r o g r e s s , o r even by r e p e a t e d cementing o f t h e i n t e r v a l s t a k i n g up e x c e s s i v e
amounts o f mud. P e n e t r a t i o n o f a low-pressure n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r o c k i n t e r v a l
i s u s u a l l y s i g n a l e d by a sudden l o s s o f r e t u r n s a t a h i g h r a t e accompanied by a
n o t a b l e i n c r e a s e i n r o t a r y t o r q u e and r e l a t i v e d r i l l i n g roughness w h i c h a r e a
consequence o f c r o s s i n g openings t h a t a r e l a r g e enough f o r b i t t e e t h t o f a l l
i n t o o r hang up i n . Some aspects o f breakdown f r a c t u r i n g procedures, c a p i l l a r y
p r e s s u r e and s u r f a c e t e n s i o n , and dual l e a k o f f b e h a v i o u r a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l -
lows.

4.8.8.3.2.1. Breakdown fracturing procedures

BRANAGAN & WILMER (1988) d i s c u s s breakdown procedures designed t o m i n i m i z e
n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r damage ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . 2 . ) . I n t h e course o f
d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i n g a w e l l , a number o f mechanisms degrades t h e o r i g i n a l
h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y o f n a t u r a l cracks, i n c l u d i n g i n v a s i o n o f d r i l l i n g mud t h a t
may u l t i m a t e l y a c t as a p l u g , cements squeezed i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e , p e r f o r a t i o n s
and n e a r - w e l l b o r e s t r e s s changes t h a t c o u l d tend t o c l o s e t h e c r a c k , and t h e
i n t e r f a c i a l t e n s i o n a l f o r c e s g e n e r a l l y d e s c r i b e d by c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e o f
invaded c o m p l e t i o n l i q u i d s which l i m i t f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y . Some aspects o f
f r a c t u r e a p e r t u r e r e s t r i c t i o n by w a t e r and non-aqueous t e c h n i q u e s f o r a v o i d i n g
o f w a t e r b l o c k i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.8.3.2.1.1. Fracture aperture restriction by water

L i q u i d s p r e s e n t i n t h e n a t u r a l j o i n t system r e s t r i c t t h e a v a i l a b l e fracture
a p e r t u r e t h r o u g h which gas can f l o w . I f w a t e r i s used i n t h e breakdown process,
i t w i l l u n d o u b t e d l y f i l l most o f t h e nearby c r a c k s . When t h e w e l l i s ater put
on p r o d u c t i o n , t h e i n j e c t e d w a t e r must e i t h e r be removed f r o m any fracture
t h r o u g h t h e b o r e h o l e o r i t must be a l l o w e d t o imbibe i n t o t h e m a t r i x because
o t h e r w i s e gaseous f l o w w i l l be almost t o t a l l y impeded due t o t h e i n a b lity of
gas t o f l o w h o r i z o n t a l l y t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r ( t h i s phenomenon i s known l s o from
h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s as w a t e r b l o c k i n g ; HOLDITCH 1979; c f . sections
3.11.2.4.2. and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 5 . ) .

4.8.8.3.2.1.2.Non-aqueous techniques
for avoiding of water blocking
Non-aqueous m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g breakdown t r e a t m e n t s a v o i d i n g w a t e r b l o c k i n g com-
p r i s e h y d r a u l i c n i t r o g e n f r a c t u r i n g u s i n g s u r f a c e pump t r u c k s , p e r f o r a t i n g w i t h
an underbalanced n i t r o g e n column, h i g h - p r e s s u r e n i t r o g e n impulse p e r f o r a t i n g / m i -
c r o f r a c t u r i n g , n i t r o g e n impulse i n j e c t i o n u s i n g a t u b i n g pump-out p l u g , and t a i -
l o r e d pulse explosive f r a c t u r i n g .

N i t r o g e n impulse perforating/microfracturing s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p e r f o r a t e s t h e
w e l l and c r e a t e s c r a c k s t h a t e x t e n d f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e and i n t e r s e c t t h e n a t u r a l
j o i n t system i n t h e w e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y . Dynamically, n i t r o g e n impulse f r a c t u r i n g
i s more e x p l o s i v e r a t h e r than i n j e c t i v e , as t h e compressional energy s t o r e d i n
t h e h i g h - p r e s s u r e n i t r o g e n column i s almost i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n s i n t h e moment when t h e y a r e c r e a t e d . T a i l o r e d p u l s e e x p l o s i v e
breakdown procedure ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 3 . ) e n t a i l s t h e use o f a r e l a t i v e l y
slow b u r n i n g p r o p e l l a n t designed t o c r e a t e a m u l t i p l e s e t o f f r a c t u r e s r a d i a -
t i n g l i k e spokes f r o m t h e p e r f o r a t e d w e l l b o r e . I n o r d e r t o c r e a t e t h e c o r r e c t
environment f o r t h e t a i l o r e d p u l s e e x p l o s i v e t o p r o p e r l y i n i t i a t e m u l t i p l e f r a c -
t u r e s , a f l u i d w i t h a d e n s i t y about t h a t of w a t e r b u t c o n s i d e r a b l y i n excess o f
most a v a i l a b l e gases i s r e q u i r e d as tamping medium i n t h e c a s i n g , w i t h l i q u i d
carbon d i o x i d e b e i n g an i d e a l w e l l b o r e tamping f l u i d . P u l s e d e x p l o s i v e s can be
 609

successfully applied f o r c r e a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e sets o f unobstructed f r a c t u r e s

t h a t connect w e l l b o r e and n a t u r a l c r a c k system. The same e f f e c t can be achieved
by p e r f o r a t i n g i n a d r y underbalanced w e l l b o r e column o f n i t r o g e n .

4.8.8.3.2.2. Capillary pressure and surface tension

Enhanced s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d r e c o v e r y can a l s o be achieved by i m p r o v i n g p r o p -
p a n t pack d r a i n a g e and m i n i m i z i n g c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e i n t h e f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h
j u d i c i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n o f s u r f a c e a c t i v e agents which i s a p p l i c a b l e p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s and low-pressure o i l w e l l s and may be used i n a l l aque-
ous f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i n c l u d i n g s l i c k and g e l l e d w a t e r as w e l l as foamed
and c r o s s l i n k e d systems (PHILLIPS & WILSON 1984 a ) . The t e c h n i q u e i n v o l v e s u t i -
l i z a t i o n o f a s o l v e n t i n t h e pad f l u i d s and a s u r f a c t a n t system (CLARK, PIKE &
RENGEL 1979, 1980) t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t , w i t h t h i s combi-
n a t i o n i m p r o v i n g p r o p p a n t pack d r a i n a g e and m i n i m i z i n g c a p i l l a r y w a t e r b l o c k s
i n t h e invaded f o r m a t i o n w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e water-wet c o n d i t i o n o f b o t h prop-
p a n t pack and f o r m a t i o n (PHILLIPS & WILSON 1984 a ) . T h i s dual c o m b i n a t i o n ac-
counts f o r t h e complex r e l a t i o n s h i p o f e f f e c t i v e o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y and t h u s o i l
r e c o v e r y b e i n g h i g h e s t when t h e s u b s t r a t e i s s t r o n g l y water-wet and w a t e r s a t u -
r a t i o n i s low, and c o n v e r s e l y a s t r o n g l y o i l - w e t s u b s t r a t e and low o i l s a t u r a -
t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n h i g h r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o w a t e r and enhanced l o a d w a t e r
r e c o v e r y (OWENS & ARCHER 1971).

Another i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t m i n i m i z i n g w a t e r damage i s t h a t u l t r a - l o w s u r f a c e
t e n s i o n p r o v i d e d by t h e s u r f a c t a n t s h e l p s r e d u c i n g c a p i l l a r y i m b i b i t i o n o f i n -
j e c t e d w a t e r i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n a t t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e (PHILLIPS & WILSON 1984
a ) , and m i n i m i z a t i o n o f c a p i l l a r y i m b i b i t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l l e a k o f f f l u i d i s
achieved by adding methanol t o t h e pre-pad and pad stages ( c f . s e c t i o n
3 . 1 1 . 4 . ) . R e s e r v o i r s w i t h low c l o s u r e s t r e s s and g r e a t e r development o f n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s r e q u i r e an e n e r g i z e d system f o r improved r e t u r n o f s t i m u l a t i o n
f l u i d s , w i t h up t o 40 % n i t r o g e n w i t h i n delayed c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s f o r m i n g a
s t a b l e foam s t r u c t u r e i n s i d e t h e f l u i d and s u p p l y i n g adequate energy f o r t h e r e -
t u r n o f l o a d w a t e r (EASON 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 3.11.2.).

D i m i n u t i o n o f f l u i d l o s s d u r i n g t h e p r o p p a n t - l a d e n main f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t
stages can be s i m i l a r l y as f o r r e s e r v o i r c o o l i n g be achieved by f o r m a t i o n s a t u -
r a t i o n w i t h l a r g e amounts o f f l u i d due t o pre-pad and pad enlargement ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.3.4.6.1.4.), w i t h t h e cheap and s i m p l e pre-pad and pad f l u i d s b e i n g sa-
c r i f i c e d t o save t h e expensive and complex main s t a g e f l u i d s . The purpose o f
r u n n i n g e x t r e m e l y l a r g e pads i s t o a l l o w ample l e a k o f f i n t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s
and m a t r i x i n o r d e r t o b l o c k t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g c r a c k s and t o a v o i d f u r t h e r f l u i d
l o s s i n t o t h e t e c t o n i c a l and sedimentary d i s c o n t i n u i t y p l a n e s and f i s s u r e s du-
r i n g t h e p r o p p a n t - l a d e n main t r e a t m e n t stages. I n e x c e p t i o n a l cases, t h e pad
stage can comprise up t o 60 - 80 % o f t h e whole t r e a t m e n t q u a n t i t y (TAN, McGO-
WEN, LEE & SOLIMAN 1988).

4.8.8.3.2.3. Dual leakoff behaviour

N a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s w i t h more o r l e s s w e l l i n t e r c o n n e c -
t e d j o i n t systems a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by dual l e a k o f f b e h a v i o u r o f f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d s d u r i n g course o f h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s (WARPINSKI 1988 a ) . A t
r e l a t i v e l y low i n j e c t i o n pressures, t h e base f l u i d - l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t i s v e r y low
and has a magnitude t h a t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e f f e c t i v e r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t i e s
o f t e n s o f m i c r o d a r c i e s . Above some c r i t i c a l pressure, however, l e a k o f f a c c e l e -
r a t e s and becomes as much as 50 t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e base l e v e l . When p r o p -
p a n t - l a d e n stages e n t e r t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s under these e l e v a t e d secondary l e a k o f f
c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s l u r r y r a p i d l y s u f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n v i s c o s i t y and
p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n due t o f l u i d d i s s i p a t i o n , and d e h y d r a t i o n s c r e e n o u t f a i -
l u r e o c c u r s . The a s s o c i a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p r e s s u r e b e h a v i o u r i s r a p i d f l a t t e n -
i n g o f t h e p r e s s u r e c u r v e above some c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e v a l u e .
 610

A s e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t g r o w t h c a n b e e x c l u d e d due t o s i m i l a r c o m p l i a n -
ces o f a l l t h e r o c k s i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t e r v a l o f t h e case s t u d i e s , high
l e a k o f f i s t h e l i k e l y candidate f o r t h i s behaviour, although the pressure d e c l i -
ne p a t t e r n has i n v a r i a b l y y i e l d e d a l o w f l u i d - l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t even a t e a r l y t i -
mes. Thus an a c c e l e r a t e d l e a k o f f above a t h r e s h o l d p r e s s u r e t a k e s p l a c e t h r o u g h
t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system. Some a s p e c t s o f mechanisms o f p r i m a r y and seconda-
r y f l u i d l o s s , i n s e r t i o n o f 100 mesh sand, i m p a c t on r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n , 100
mesh sand v s . o t h e r f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s , h i g h - q u a l i t y 100 mesh m i c r o p r o p p a n t s ,
and d e g r a d a b l e f l u i d - l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.8.3.2.3.1. Mechanisms o f primary and secondary fluid loss

Dual f l u i d l e a k o f f c a n be t r i g g e r e d b y two mechanisms. The f i r s t p o s s i b i l i t y
i s o p e n i n g o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e s a n d s t o n e pays, w i t h t h r e s h o l d p r e s -
s u r e t h e n b e i n g d e p e n d e n t upon d i f f e r e n c e s i n h o r i z o n t a l i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s and
o t h e r r e s e r v o i r and t r e a t m e n t f a c t o r s (WARPINSKI 1988 a ) . The second way i s due
t o f r a c t u r e h e i g h t g r o w t h i n t o a d j a c e n t s i l t s t o n e s and s a n d s t o n e s c o n t a i n i n g
wide n a t u r a l cracks, w i t h t h r e s h o l d pressure being r e l a t e d t o the pressure a t
w h i c h enough h e i g h t p r o p a g a t i o n o c c u r s f o r t h e s e open j o i n t s t o be i n t e r s e c t e d .
I n some t i g h t gas f o r m a t i o n s , s t r e s s e s and o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s have such m a g n i t u -
des t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h o f t h e two modes i s t h e r e a l l y d e c i -
s i v e one.

I n c a s e o f r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m b e i n g f l u i d l e a k o f f and n o t f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t g r o w t h , complex s t i m u l a t i o n o r some o t h e r p r o c e s s , f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l
m u s t be e f f e c t e d t h r o u g h some a d d i t i v e o r change i n t h e t r e a t m e n t s c h e d u l e t o
keep i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e b e l o w t h r e s h o l d v a l u e . A s i t has t u r n e d o u t t o be impos-
s i b l e t o l o w e r t h e pumping p r e s s u r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y and s t i l l t r a n s p o r t r e a s o -
n a b l e amounts and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f p r o p p a n t s , l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s have t o be se-
l e c t e d which are n o t e n t i r e l y plugging the n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s t h a t represent t h e
p r i m a r y p r o d u c t i o n p a t h s . 100 mesh sand i s an optimum a d d i t i v e , because i t b r i d -
ges o f f e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f , b u t a l s o l e a v e s p r o p p e d c o n d u c t i v e f l o w p a t h s
f o r s u b s e q u e n t p r o d u c t i o n ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) .

4.8.8.3.2.3.2.Insertion o f 100 mesh sand

E x p e r i m e n t a l s t i m u l a t i o n work has r e v e a l e d t h a t 100 mesh sand can r e d u c e t h e
l e a k o f f d u r i n g pumping by a f a c t o r o f 3 . 5 f r o m 70 t i m e s t h e base l e v e l t o o n l y
20 t i m e s t h e i n i t i a l r a t e i f added o n l y i n s m a l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . 100 mesh sand
a l s o helps t o b r i d g e - o f f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth a t l e a s t w h i l e i t i s a c t i v e l y
i n j e c t e d , and a l s o g i v e s r i s e t o i n c r e a s i n g f l u i d - l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t d u r i n g p r e s -
s u r e d e c l i n e (WARPINSKI 1988 a; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) . This behaviour
i s t r i g g e r e d b y p r o p p i n g o f t h e n a t u r a l j o i n t s b y t h e 100 mesh sand, t h e r e b y
p r o v i d i n g an enhanced f l o w p a t h f o r h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e h y d r a u l i c
fracture.

Optimum p e r f o r m a n c e o f 100 mesh sand i s g i v e n b y c o n t i n u o u s a d d i t i o n o f

s m a l l s a t u r a t i o n s t h r o u g h a l m o s t t h e e n t i r e t r e a t m e n t w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f an
i n i t i a l pad, w i t h t h e q u a n t i t i e s , however, h a v i n g t o be l i m i t e d t o such an
amount t h a t c o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n as a consequence o f i n t e r m i x i n g o f 2 0 / 4 0
p r o p p a n t s and 100 mesh sand ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . ) i s s t i l l s u b o r d i n a t e and
i n s i g n i f i c a n t . A f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y r e d u c t i o n b y a b t . a f a c t o r o f two w h i c h
can be a c c e p t e d i n m o s t o f t h e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s because s t i l l a v e r y
h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t i s l e f t p e r m i t s t o add a l r e a d y such c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
o f 100 mesh sand t h a t t h e d u a l t a s k o f m i c r o p r o p p i n g t h e h a i r l i n e c r a c k s and
c o n t r o l l i n g f l u i d l e a k o f f r a t e c a n be s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d o u t .
 611

4.8.8.3.2.3.3. Impact on reservoir stimulation

Dual f l u i d - l o s s m o d e l l i n g and c o n t r o l i s a s u i t a b l e mechanism t o improve s t i -
mulation r e s u l t s i n low-permeability highly-anisotropic n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d
t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s which are o t h e r w i s e unable t o be t r e a t e d w i t h o u t e n c o u n t e r -
i n g an e a r l y screenout t h a t g i v e s r i s e t o o n l y s h o r t propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s
and h i g h p r e s s u r e s above c l o s u r e (WARPINSKI 1988 a ) . D e h y d r a t i o n s c r e e n o u t i s a
r e s u l t o f h i g h l e a k o f f c o n d i t i o n s a t e l e v a t e d i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s and can be
t r i g g e r e d by e i t h e r opening o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e pay o r h e i g h t propa-
g a t i o n i n t o nearby l a y e r s c o n t a i n i n g many wide open c r a c k s ( c f . s e c t i o n
6.2.4.2.1.). I f the f r a c t u r e s i n the r e s e r v o i r d i l a t e a t pressure conditions
above some t h r e s h o l d , t h e damage i s p r o b a b l y due t o i n j e c t i o n o f l a r g e amounts
o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d i n t o t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s , and cleanup o f these c r a c k s
would be d i f f i c u l t because o f o c c u r r i n g under low-pressure c l o s e d c o n d i t i o n s .
R e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e dual l e a k o f f phenomenon r e q u i r e s a n a l y s i s o f b o t h p r e s s u r e
d e c l i n e a f t e r s h u t - i n and i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e e v o l u t i o n i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a
h i s t o r y match o f t h e t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e .

4.8.8.3.2.3.4. 100 mesh sand vs. other fluid-loss additives

W h i l e i n some t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s a c c e l e r a t e d f l u i d l e a k o f f due t o opening
o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s can be avoided by s i m p l y keeping t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e s below
t h e c r i t i c a l l e v e l , i n o t h e r f o r m a t i o n s economical s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h correspond-
i n g low i n j e c t i o n r a t e s i s n o t p o s s i b l e and f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s a r e r e q u i r e d
i n o r d e r t o a l l o w t o r a i s e o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e s t o t h e l e v e l needed f o r p r o f i -
t a b l e t r e a t m e n t (WARPINSKI 1988 a ) . As t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o t h e prima-
r y gas p r o d u c t i o n pathways, f l u i d l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s t o t a l l y p l u g g i n g t h e h a i r -
l i n e c r a c k s such as s i l i c a f l o u r cannot be employed because t h e r e i s no guaran-
t e e t h a t complete cleanup o f t h e f i s s u r e s i n c l u d i n g e j e c t i o n o f t h e b l o c k i n g ma-
t e r i a l s c o u l d be e f f e c t e d . 100 mesh sand i s a b l e t o c o n t r o l b o t h f l u i d l o s s
i n t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and p r o v i d e enhanced p e r m e a b i l i t y p a t h s by a c t i n g as a
p l u g g i n g m i c r o p r o p p a n t i n t h e narrow j o i n t s ( c f . a l s o 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) . Some enhan-
ced b r i d g i n g o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s may even r e s u l t f r o m i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e 20/40
mesh main p r o p p a n t s .

As a d d i t i o n o f 100 mesh sand does n o t c o m p l e t e l y s t o p a c c e l e r a t e d f l u i d l e a k -

o f f a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s which do n o t y e t s e r i o u s l y d e s t r o y p r o p p a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y
( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . ) , r e t a r d e d f l u i d loss s t i l l l i m i t s t h e amount o f prop-
pants t h a t can be p l a c e d i n t o such r e s e r v o i r s w i t h o u t s u f f e r i n g f r o m an e a r l y
screenout. U n d e r e s t i m a t i o n o f f l u i d - l e a k o f f c o e f f i c i e n t g i v i n g r i s e t o prema-
t u r e s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b i s a l s o r e p o r t e d by NORTH-
CUTT, ROBERTSON & HANNAH (1988). The use o f 100 mesh sand i n n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u -
r e d r e s e r v o i r s as a t r a n s i t i o n a l stage between pad and p r o p p a n t - l a d e n f l u i d
( c f . a l s o HOLDITCH, ROBINSON, WHITEHEAD & ELY 1987) serves as f l u i d - l o s s a d d i -
t i v e and as i n i t i a l p r o p p a n t and a l l o w s s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e o f proppant concen-
t r a t i o n due t o e f f e c t i v e l e a k o f f c o n t r o l .

4.8.8.3.2.3.5.High-qua1 i ty 100 mesh microproppants

and degradable fluid-leakoff additives
I n deeper r e s e r v o i r s w i t h h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s , i t would be d e s i r a b l e t o
use 100 mesh i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h - s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants as an e f f e c t i v e
m i c r o p r o p p a n t f o r h a i r l i n e cracks, b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s g r a i n s i z e o f a r t i f i -
c i a l h i g h - q u a l i t y proppants i s n o t y e t c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e ( c f . s e c t i o n s
1 . 3 . 4 . and 1 . 5 . 1 . 1 . ) . A s u i t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e would be r e s i n - c o a t e d 100 mesh
sand which s i m i l a r l y as c o n v e n t i o n a l 100 mesh sand has a b t . 5 - 7 d a r c y permea-
b i l i t y a t almost any c l o s u r e s t r e s s (FRACFAX 1988 f ) , w i t h r e s i n bonding c r e a -
t i n g a s t a b l e m i c r o p r o p p a n t package i f no flowback can be t o l e r a t e d ( c f . sec-
t i o n 1.2.6.).
 612

Another approach t o dual f l u i d leakoff control i s a degradable a d d i t i v e

which l a t e r a f t e r f u l f i l l i n g of i t s function of re ta rding o r even preventing
f l u i d escape i s removed by d i s s o l u t i o n or d i s i n t e g r a t i o n a n d ultim a te ly leaves
the natural f r a c t u r e s open in order t o enable them t o c ontribute t o production
without any r e s t r i c t i o n (CANTU & BOYD 1988; NORTHCUTT, ROBERTSON & HANNAH 1988;
c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . 4 . ) . On the o t h e r hand, however, primarily plugged a n d se-
condarily reopened h a i r l i n e cracks as a consequence of l a t e r degradation of the
o r i g i n a l l y i n se r t ed f l u i d - l o s s ad d i t i v e may r e s u l t in c losure of the open f i s s u -
r e s in high-pressure r e s e r v o i r s as a consequence of absence of support a ga inst
the compressive s t r e s s , w i t h the natural f r a c t u r e s thus no longer being a ble t o
c o n t r i b u t e t o gas production. Micropropping of h a i r l i n e cracks with m a t e r i a l s
t h a t can adequately r e s i s t t o the cl o s u r e s t r e s s i s the re fore the p r e f e r e n t i a l
s o l u t i o n of d u a l f l u i d leakoff c o n t r o l . The signific a nc e of secondary f l u i d -
lo ss i n t o n a t u r a l and s y n t h et i c h a i r l i n e f r a c t u r e s and the successful control
of dual f l u i d leakoff by 100 mesh sand i s a l s o discussed by CROW (1977).

4.8.8.3.3. Limited fracture interconnectedness

LORENZ, BRANAGAN, WARPINSKI & SATTLER (1986) a l s o i l l u s t r a t e temporal damage
of a complex n a t u r a l crack system due t o influence by l i q u i d s d u r i n g hydraulic
f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n , N a t u r a l j o i n t s ar e common i n numerous geological s e t t i n g s
where major s t r u c t u r a l movements a r e important, b u t they a l s o form in provinces
of l i t t l e o r no s t r u c t u r a l deformation i f s u f f i c i e n t i n - s i t u pore pressures a n d
some horizontal s t r e s s anisotropy e x i s t . These conditions give r i s e t o a f r a c -
tu r e network c o n s i s t i n g of u n i d i r ect i o n al subpa ra lle l cracks t h a t a r e aligned
w i t h the maximum horizontal s t r e s s and which a re limited v e r t i c a l l y by irre gu-
l a r l i t h o l o g i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s in the r e s e r v o i r . Fra c ture s r a r e l y extend
across intervening s h al es between major sandstones and thus each r e s e r v o i r sand-
stone st o r e y r ep r es en t s a n i s o l a t e d s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l t r a p i f surrounded by mud-
stone a l s o in terms of crack d i s t r i b u t i o n . With s u f f i c i e n t time of shut-in a f -
t e r the hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g operation, l i q u i d s in the natural j o i n t s could
then be imbibed i n t o the even smaller pore spaces of the matrix rock, thus a l -
l o w i n g gas flow i n the natural cracks t o r et urn t o the origina l undamaged condi-
tion.

Naturally f r a ct u r ed r e s e r v o i r s w i t h l i mite d crack interconnectedness a r e

s t r e s s - s e n s i t i v e (NORTHROP 1988). Production can be e s s e n t i a l l y shut-off by re -
ducing the bottomhole p r es s u r e, w i t h the increasing e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s being suf-
f i c i e n t t o squeeze the n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s shut. Conversely i n j e c t i o n of gas a t
high pressures r e s u l t s i n a d r amat i cal l y increased volume of a c c e s s i b l e r e s e r -
v o i r s u r f a c e due t o opening of the f r a c t u r e s . Depending on s t a b i l i t y o r m o b i l i -
t y of s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n s during course of the geological h i s t o r y of the petro-
leum-prospective basin, h y d r au l i cal l y induced f r a c t u r e s w ill propagate in a d i -
r e c t i o n p a r a l l e l o r a t an angle t o the o r i e n t a t i o n o f the na tura l cracks ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 3 . 2 . ) . The most favourable s i t u a t i o n f o r interconnection of na-
t u r a l j o i n t s by the hydraulic f r a c t u r e i s a r o t a t i o n of the princ ipa l s t r e s s d i -
r e c t i o n a f t e r formation of the n a t u r a l cracks t o enable an acute angle between
n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a n d i n t e r s e c t i n g hydraulic f r a c t u r e t o occur.

I n case of s t i l l p a r a l l e l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n , the hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g process

e i t h e r only includes i n f l a t i o n a n d enlargement of e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l c ra c ks, or
the s t r e s s s t a t e has t o be a r t i f i c i a l l y a l t e r e d by mechanical o r thermal i n -
fluences ( c f . sect i o n 4 . 9 . 4 . ) . G R I (1988) de sc ribe s t i g h t gas sandstones i n an
area of t e c t o n i c a l quiescence where natural f r a c t u r e s , d r i l l i n g - a n d coring-in-
duced cracks a n d hydraulic f r a c t u r e s have a l l the same trend in the f i e l d .

4.8.8.3.4. Elevated treatment pressure

Temporary n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e damage i s b es t expressed by abnormally high t r e a t -
ment pressures being u p t o four times g r e a t e r t h a n pre dic te d. As the hydraulic
 613

f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t s s u b p a r a l l e l c r a c k s t h a t a r e d e v i a t e d a t some angle, i t i s
l i k e l y t h a t some o r many o f these n a t u r a l j o i n t s open up and i n i t i a t e secondary
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s t r a n d s , g i v i n g r i s e t o a wide zone o f f r a c t u r i n g . The e x t r a
t o r t u o s i t y and a d d i t i o n a l w a l l s u r f a c e s o f t h e many c r a c k s t r a n d s i n c r e a s e
f l u i d f r i c t i o n and t h u s g i v e r i s e t o c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s .
The damage o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system i s a s e l f - d r i v e n mechanism which tem-
p o r a r i l y i m p a i r s p r o d u c t i v i t y by e l i m i n a t i n g t h e most f a v o u r a b l e d e p l e t i o n me-
chanism of t h e t i g h t gas sands.

The h i g h e r t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e s t r i g g e r e d by i n c r e a s i n g f r i c t i o n i n t h e n a t u -
r a l j o i n t system r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r f l u i d l e a k o f f i n t o t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s ,
l a r g e r shear s t r e s s e s and h i g h e r p o r e p r e s s u r e s t o induce shear s l i p p a g e , and
g r e a t e r e f f e c t i v e propped w i d t h s t o e l e v a t e proppant-induced s t r e s s e s . I n c r e a -
s i n g o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e i n response t o t h e presence o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e sys-
tem g i v e s a l s o r i s e t o i n c r e a s i n g d e t e r i o r a t i o n . The damage s c e n a r i o i s most ea-
s i l y seen f o r small h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s . L a r g e r t r e a t m e n t s c o n t a c t more e x t e n -
s i v e m a t r i x areas and t h u s l o s t p r o d u c t i o n through t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i s com-
pensated somewhat by i n c r e a s e d m a t r i x f l o w . W i t h s m a l l jobs, productivity loss
i s a c l e a r signal o f deleterious operation.

Concerning damage o f narrow n a t u r a l c r a c k systems by s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s ,

h i g h f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e s e i t h e r open t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g n a t u r a l j o i n t s o r f o r c e
f l u i d and i t s a s s o c i a t e d o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s i n t o them under h i g h d i f f e r e n t i a l
p r e s s u r e (NORTHROP 1988, NORTHROP & FROHNE 1988). Opening o f t h e c r a c k system
i s i n d i c a t e d by s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d l e a k o f f c o e f f i c i e n t s above a t h r e s h o l d
p r e s s u r e . O t h e r reasons o f v e r y h i g h t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e s a r e h i g h s t r e s s e s i n
t h e c o n f i n i n g l i t h o l o g i e s , backstresses, m u l t i s t r a n d f r a c t u r i n g , o r presence o f
t h i n h i g h - s t r e s s s t r i n g e r s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r . A p a r t f r o m damage o f t h e n a t u r a l
c r a c k system, a n o t h e r d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t o f h i g h s t i m u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e s i s t h e
c r e a t i o n o f s h o r t e r and w i d e r f r a c t u r e s w i t h l e s s e f f e c t i v e d r a i n a g e . E f f e c t i v e -
ness o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s l i m i t e d b y an a n i s o t r o p i c n a t u r a l j o i n t system,
h i g h f r a c t u r i n g pressures, a c c e l e r a t e d o r dual f l u i d l e a k o f f ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.8.3.2.3.), and damage t o t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k network. Breakdowns and extended
cleanup and t e s t t i m e s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r a c c u r a t e r e s e r v o i r assessment, and i n -
s i t u s t r e s s b e h a v i o u r v a r i e s w i t h d e p t h and l i t h o l o g y , i s complex, and s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y a f f e c t s s t i m u l a t i o n and gas p r o d u c t i o n .

4.8.8.3.5. Stress-sensit ivity behaviour and asperity shearing

Damage mechanisms o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems by h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t -
ments i n c l u d e a p a r t f r o m l i q u i d s problems a l s o s t r e s s - s e n s i t i v i t y b e h a v i o u r and
a s p e r i t y s h e a r i n g w i t h subsequent f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e . L i q u i d s problems comprise
g e l r e s i d u e phenomena, b u t may a l s o c o v e r c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e e f f e c t s ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.8.8.3.2.2.) o f l i q u i d s i n t h e narrow passageways o f t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k s .
I f many o f t h e passages through t h e f r a c t u r e s a r e e x t r e m e l y s m a l l , w a t e r move-
ment becomes d i f f i c u l t and cleanup v e r y slow. C a p i l l a r y e f f e c t s a r e exacerbated
by l a r g e m o l e c u l a r g e l r e s i d u e s i n t h e f r a c t u r e .

S t r e s s - s e n s i t i v i t y problems o r i g i n a t e i f t h e propped h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i m -
p a r t s a l a r g e s t r e s s on a d j a c e n t n a t u r a l c r a c k s thus r e d u c i n g t h e i r e f f e c t i v e
w i d t h s . As t h i s s t r e s s cannot be g r e a t e r t h a n t h e t r e a t m e n t i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e
above c l o s u r e s t r e s s , t h i s mechanism may n o t e n t i r e l y s h u t down f l o w i n t h e na-
t u r a l f r a c t u r e s , b u t may a l s o a c t i n c o n c e r t w i t h g e l o r c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e p r o -
blems ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.8.3.1.5.). A s p e r i t y - s h e a r i n g a l o n g n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and
t h e r e s u l t a n t c l o s u r e and t r a p p i n g o f f i n e s , g e l s o r w a t e r i s caused by f l u i d
l e a k o f f and/or induced t r e a t m e n t s t r e s s e s , w i t h unknown parameters b e i n g e x t e n t
o f t h e shear s l i p p a g e r e g i o n and amount o f c l o s u r e r e p r e s e n t i n g damage s e v e r i -
t y . Aspects o f temporary n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by
BRANAGAN, CIPOLLA, LEE & YAN (1987).
 614

4.8.8.4. Dendrit ic fracturing technique

A s p e c i a l h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t method f o r v a r i o u s n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d r e s e r -
v o i r s i s t h e d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e ( K I E L 1977; LOPUS, SEIFERT & S C H E I N
1 9 8 7 ) . T h i s p r o c e s s i s t o overcome t h e p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g a i n i n g v e r t i -
c a l s e l e c t i v i t y and c o n n e c t i n g o r o p e n i n g t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k n e t w o r k , whereas
c o n v e n t i o n a l s t i m u l a t i o n i n t h e p a s t c o u l d o n l y a f f e c t a modest p o r t i o n o f t h e
p a y i n t e r v a l . A s p e c t s o f c o n n e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s as w e l l
as s h e a r s l i p p a g e v s . t e n s i l e f a i l u r e ae summarized as f o l l o w s .

4.8.8.4.1. Connection o f natural and hydraulic fractures

The d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g p r o c e d u r e c o n f i n e s t h e o p e r a t i o n t o a l r e a d y e x i s t -
i n g n a t u r a l j o i n t s b y t h e use o f l a r g e volumes o f l i g h t l y g e l l e d f r e s h w a t e r
pumped a t h i g h r a t e s and v e l o c i t i e s r a t h e r t h a n c r e a t i n g new c r a c k s as more v i s -
cous f l u i d s w o u l d ( K I E L 1977; LOPUS, SEIFERT & S C H E I N 1 9 8 7 ) . The h i g h r a t e s e f -
f e c t i v e l y d i s s o l v e f r a c t u r e - b r i d g i n g c a l c i t e , s a l t and o t h e r s e c o n d a r y m i n e r a l
d e p o s i t s t o improve t h e i r p e r m e a b i l i t y . Various stages o f t h e t r e a t m e n t incorpo-
r a t e s m a l l amounts o f p r o p p a n t s i n o r d e r t o a i d i n a b r a s i o n o f e x i s t i n g f r a c t u -
r e s as w e l l as f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l , o r b r i d g i n g t o cause s l i g h t changes i n d i f f e -
r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e w i t h i n a c r a c k t o a s s i s t i n d i v e r t i n g i n t o o t h e r j o i n t s . The
f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t s measured d u r i n g b o t h c o n v e n t i o n a l and d e n d r i t i c s t i m u l a t i o n
treatments a r e considerably lower than the u n f r a c t u r e d m a t r i x gradient, which
i n d i c a t e s t h a t c r a c k c l o s u r e i n t h e s t a n d a r d sense does n o t o c c u r , b u t t h e r e a -
sons f o r t h e w e l l r e s p o n s e t o t h e d e n d r i t i c s t i m u l a t i o n p r o c e s s i n c l u d e d i s s o l u -
t i o n o f s e c o n d a r y m i n e r a l d e p o s i t s f r o m f r a c t u r e o p e n i n g s and f r a c t u r e w a l l s ,
thereby p r o v i d i n g a consequential increase i n f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . I n s o l u b l e
m a t e r i a l s p l u g g i n g t h e c r a c k s a r e e r o d e d b y t h e p r o p p a n t - l a d e n f l u i d s t r e a m and
t r a n s p o r t e d away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e d u r i n g t r e a t m e n t .

C o n v e n t i o n a l f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n v a r i o u s f o r m a t i o n s s u f f e r f r o m t h e be-
h a v i o u r o f t h e p r o p p a n t wedge i n t h e c r a c k as a f i l l e r c a u s i n g t h e s o l u b i l i z e d
m i n e r a l s i n t h e r e t u r n t r e a t m e n t f l u i d s t o r e p r e c i p i t a t e s a l t and c a l c i t e w i t h -
i n t h e p r o p p a n t package, w i t h c e m e n t a t i o n b e i n g p o s s i b l e t o t h e p o i n t t h a t
f l u i d f l o w i s s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d and a r e s e r v o i r o f l i m i t e d e x t e n s i o n and r a -
p i d d e p l e t i o n i s m i m i c k e d b y t h e l o w b o t t o m h o l e f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e . In s u c h
situations, h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d u t i l i z e d i n the d e n d r i t i c s t i m u l a t i o n process
w i t h h i g h f l u i d v e l o c i t y has s u c c e s s f u l l y h e l p e d i n removal o f t h i s damage.
Some p o i n t s o f d i v e r t i n g s t a g e s and r e v e r s e - f l o w p u l s e s t i m u l a t i o n a r e s k e t c h e d
as f o l l o w s .

4.8.8.4.1.1.Diverting stages
P a s t a t t e m p t s a t l i m i t e d e n t r y and s e l e c t i v e p e r f o r a t i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.2.2.) i n c l u d i n g t h e use o f b a l l s e a l e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . ) have p r o -
ven t o be i n e f f e c t i v e i n a m e l i o r a t i n g z o n a l c o v e r a g e , because r e g a r d l e s s o f
f l u i d c o n t r o l i n s i d e o r d i r e c t l y behind the pipe, t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g f r a c t u r e
n e t w o r k r e s u l t e d i n o n l y t h e w e l l - d e v e l o p e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e p a y zone a c c e p t i n g
m o s t o f t h e t r e a t i n g f l u i d ( K I E L 1977; LOPUS, SEIFERT & S C H E I N 1 9 8 7 ) . The den-
d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e p r o v i d e s d i v e r t i n g s t a g e s u s i n g a g e l l e d f l u i d con-
t a i n i n g r o c k s a l t and p r o p p a n t s pumped a t s u f f i c i e n t r a t e s t o a c h i e v e d i v e r s i o n
away f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e . S m a l l v a r i a t i o n s i n s u r f a c e and b o t t o m - h o l e t r e a t i n g
p r e s s u r e s d u r i n g t h e d i v e r t i n g s t a g e s a r e t h e consequence o f l o w g r a d i e n t s i n
many n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n s , w i t h t h e r e f o r e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f p r e s s u r e
changes r e q u i r e d f o r good d i v e r s i o n b e i n g l o w and o f t e n a p p e a r i n g i n s i g n i f i -
cant.

I n d e p e n d e n t o f number of d i v e r t e r s t a g e s and amount o f s o l i d d i v e r t e r used,

i t i s imperative during treatment t o maintain the highest possible velocity
w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e s , w i t h t h e o n l y r e a s o n f o r r e d u c t i o n o f r a t e d u r i n g t h e ope-
 615

r a t i o n b e i n g t o mix and pump t h e d i v e r t e r stages a t p r o p e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (HAR-

R I S O N 1971 g i v e s a h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w o f t h e use o f v a r i o u s d i v e r t i n g agents i n
o i l - and g a s - f i e l d o p e r a t i o n ) . The h i g h f l u i d v e l o c i t y c r e a t e s a mechanism f o r
c a r r y i n g t h e sand used f o r i t s b r i d g i n g and a b r a s i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . D u r i n g r e -
t r e a t m e n t s o f c o n v e n t i o n a l l y f r a c t u r e d w e l l s , h i g h f l u i d v e l o c i t y i s necessary
t o c a r r y t h e i n i t i a l proppant q u a n t i t y away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.9.5.), w i t h h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d having t o be i n c l u d e d i n these i n s t a n c e s t o
break t h e p r o p p a n t package f r e e o f c a l c i t e and s a l t cementing i t t o g e t h e r .

I f c o n t i n u e d pumping p e r m i t s t h e r a t e t o be i n c r e a s e d w i t h no s i g n i f i c a n t
r i s e i n s u r f a c e o p e r a t i o n pressure, t h i s c o u l d i n d i c a t e a change in i n j e c t i v i t y
because o f reduced d i v e r s i o n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o r t h e r e s u l t o f pumping i n t o p r e -
v i o u s l y untreated f r a c t u r e s c r e a t i n g less flow r e s t r i c t i o n . I f the slope o f the
p r e s s u r e versus t i m e graph f o r t h e v a r i o u s s t i m u l a t i o n stages u s u a l l y shows a
p o s i t i v e t r e n d , t h i s r e f l e c t s r e s t r i c t i o n o r r e s i s t a n c e t o f l o w caused by t h e
new f r a c t u r e e n t r y , o r t h a t t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d has m i n i m a l l y e f f i c i e n t p r o p p a n t
t r a n s p o r t c a p a b i l i t i e s l e a d i n g t o f o r m a t i o n o f a sand bank t h a t , as i t b u i l d s ,
w i l l a c t t o c r e a t e p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l across t h e c r a c k c a u s i n g f l u i d t o en-
t e r o t h e r secondary f r a c t u r e s . Aspects o f d e n d r i t i c s t i m u l a t i o n o f n a t u r a l l y
j o i n t e d r e s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by HANNAH (1976) and HUBBARD & PIERSON
( 1 9 8 6 ) . A p p l i c a t i o n o f r o c k s a l t as d i v e r t i n g agent f o r s t i m u l a t i o n b l o c k s t a -
ges i s a l s o r e p o r t e d by HUCKABEE (1988).

4.8.8.4.1.2.Reverse-f low pulse st imulat ion

D e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g i s a reverse-flow s t i m u l a t i o n technique w i t h respect t o
c o n v e n t i o n a l o r normal p l a n a r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and i s v e r y s u i t a b l e f o r geo-
thermal w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n , because i t o f f e r s t h e b e s t chance o f i n t e r s e c t i n g ma-
j o r n a t u r a l cracks, whereas a s i n g l e p l a n a r f r a c t u r e m i g h t o n l y p a r a l l e l and
n o t c r o s s t h e p r i n c i p a l n a t u r a l j o i n t s (CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VETTER
1981; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 3 . 2 . ) . D e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r e s a r e provoked by r e v e r s e -
f l o w p u l s i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , t h e r e b y i n d u c i n g f o r m a t i o n s p a l l i n g and d i v e r -
s i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e wings by downhole s t r e s s m o d i f i c a t i o n . M u l t i p l e i n j e c t i o n
p e r i o d s a r e used w i t h each stage u t i l i z i n g l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s , sand s l u g s ,
and s e v e r a l flow-back times, w i t h h i g h f l o w r a t e s and f r i c t i o n r e d u c t i o n b e i n g
a p p l i e d i n these t r e a t m e n t s . The b e s t r e s u l t s o f d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g a r e a c h i e -
ved i n n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d f o r m a t i o n s where m a j o r and m i n o r c r a c k systems a l r e a d y
e x i s t b u t may n o t have f l o w c a p a b i l i t y .

4.8.8.4.2. Shear slippage vs. tensile failure

The o r i g i n o f a m u l t i p l e branched j o i n t system o r d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g i s
n o t c o n t r o l l e d by t e n s i l e r o c k f a i l u r e as assumed by KIEL (1977), b u t i s r a t h e r
governed by shear s l i p p a g e which r e s u l t s i n l o c a l r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s e s
(MURPHY & FEHLER 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4.7.7.). I f f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e t o shear
s l i p p a g e i s low and maximum d i l a t a n c y due t o shear i s l a r g e , o n l y a s i n g l e
j o i n t i s s t i m u l a t e d . I n case o f h i g h shear r e s i s t a n c e o r small d i l a t a n c y ( c f .
section 4.8.1.3.1.), however, m u l t i p l e c r a c k s t i m u l a t i o n o c c u r s . Shear s l i p p a g e
a l o n g t h e j o i n t s i s accompanied by s h e a r - s t r e s s drops, and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f
these s t r e s s drops w i t h t h e a c t i n g e a r t h s t r e s s e s r e s u l t s i n opening o f c r a c k s
more p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e maximum s t r e s s , t h e r e b y g i v i n g r i s e t o f o r m a t i o n o f a
branched o r d e n d r i t i c p a t t e r n .

D e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g i n hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n (KIEL 1977) i s

t e c h n i c a l l y performed by r e p e t i t i v e f r a c t u r i n g w i t h p r o p p a n t - b e a r i n g f l u i d s ,
s h u t t i n g - i n and v e n t i n g . The f i r s t c y c l e o f p r e s s u r i z a t i o n r e s u l t s i n s p a l l i n g
and s e l f - p r o p p i n g o f t h e main f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.7.7.4.), and i n t h e subse-
quent c y c l e s , t h e proppant p u r p o s e l y i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e t r e a t i n g f l u i d b r i d g e s
the spa]]-proppants, t h e r e b y l e a d i n g t o p r e s s u r e r i s e and p r o p a g a t i o n o f l a t e -
r a l f r a c t u r e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e main c r a c k ( K I E L 1977). T h i s model, how-
 616

e v e r , does n o t work when c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s occur, because t h e

p r e s s u r e r i s e i n t h e b l o c k e d main f r a c t u r e then s i m p l y r e s u l t s i n f u r t h e r l i f t -
o f f o f t h e l a r g e c r a c k , overcoming t h e temporary blockage and a l l o w i n g t h e main
f r a c t u r e t o c o n t i n u e i t s p r o p a g a t i o n (MURPHY & FEHLER 1986).

D e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g i s r a t h e r c o n t r o l l e d by shear which p e r m i t s t h e necessa-

r y r e d u c t i o n o f t h e e a r t h s t r e s s p a r a l l e l t o t h e main f r a c t u r e t o i n i t i a t e open-
i n g o f l a t e r a l j o i n t s . Aspects o f shear s l i p p a g e g i v i n g r i s e t o a s p e r i t y shear-
i n g a l o n g n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and temporary damage o f t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g c r a c k sys-
tem due t o h y d r a u l i c r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by LORENZ, BRANA-
GAN, W A R P I N S K I & SATTLER ( 1 9 8 6 ) . F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e o f d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g i s
a l s o r e p o r t e d by McKETTA, K O Z I A R & COOK ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

4.8.8.5. Tailored pulse loading

T a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g comprises i n t e r m e d i a t e s t r a i n r a t e r o c k f r a c t u r i n g
processes t h a t a r e capable o f g e n e r a t i n g m u l t i p l e c r a c k networks which have a
much h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y o f i n t e r s e c t i n g n a t u r a l j o i n t systems t h a n s t a n d a r d ex-
p l o s i v e and c o n v e n t i o n a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g (STOLLER 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s
4.2.2.1.3.3. and 4.7.3.). C o n d u c t i v i t y maintenance o f t h e non-propped m u l t i p l e
f r a c t u r e s can be achieved by c h a n n e l l i n g and gouging which o c c u r on t h e c r a c k
s u r f a c e s , and by t r a n s l a t i o n o f one f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e r e l a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r i f
t h e c r a c k s a r e n o t o r i e n t e d i n t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n s , w i t h t h e shear-
i n g s t r e s s i n f l u e n c e on t h e o f f - a x i s f r a c t u r e s b e i n g v e r y i m p o r t a n t .

I n terms o f c r e a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s , d i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made b e t -

ween e a r l y stage when f r a c t u r e - f r a c t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n s must be c o n s i d e r e d t o a l -
low a l l t h e i n d i v i d u a l c r a c k s t o grow, and l a t e stage when o p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e
p r e s s u r e p u l s e i s r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e maximum f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s . The c r a c k geo-
m e t r y c r e a t e d by t a i l o r e d p u l s e l o a d i n g tends towards r e c t i l i n e a r as opposed t o
r a d i a l , which r e s u l t s f r o m t h e more dynamic n a t u r e o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g process
t h a t masks o u t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s t a t i c e f f e c t s such as i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s .

4.8.8.6.Proppant plugging of natural fractures

Hydraulic s t i m u l a t i o n treatments o f n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d formations o f t e n suf-
f e r f r o m t h e u n c e r t a i n t y whether t h e r e s e r v o i r has been r e a l l y broken down w i t h
c r e a t i o n of new c r a c k p l a n e s o r whether o n l y p r e - e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l j o i n t s have
been e n l a r g e d and i n f i l l e d w i t h p r o p p a n t s . I n many n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d f o r -
mations, f l u i d and proppants cannot be p u t down f a s t enough t o a v o i d l e a k o f f
i n t o t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g c r a c k system o r even i n t o t h e r o c k m a t r i x . T h i s i s a l r e a -
dy h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d r e s e r v o i r s f r e q u e n t l y cause
s e r i o u s d r i l l i n g problems due t o l o s t c i r c u l a t i o n d u r i n g p e n e t r a t i o n , w i t h mud
l o s s r a t e s o f t e n exceeding r i g pumping c a p a b i l i t i e s and r e q u i r i n g temporary
p r o g r e s s by b l i n d d r i l l i n g u n t i l t h e zone i s c r o s s e d (CANSON 1985; c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.8.3.2.). I n terms o f h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o f e x t e n s i v e l y naturally
f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s , two p o s s i b i l i t i e s e x i s t c o m p r i s i n g p l u g g i n g o f n a t u r a l
c r a c k s w i t h p r o p p a n t s and o r i g i n of i n c l i n e d f r a c t u r e s by Coulomb f a i l u r e . The
d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s i n c l u d e s aspects of p r o d u c t i o n a c c e l e r a t i o n by p r o p p i n g
o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s , f r e s h r e s e r v o i r volume a c q u i s i t i o n and r e c o v e r y enhancement
by a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r i n g , and n a t u r a l p r o p p i n g o f sedimentary s h r i n k a g e c r a c k s .

4.8.8.6.1. Production acceleration by propping of natural cracks

N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e propping, however, does n o t r e s u l t i n a d d i t i o n a l h y d r o c a r -
bon e x p l o i t a t i o n , because t h e i n i t i a l peak p r o d u c t i o n i s l a t e r compensated b y
f a s t e r d e c l i n e o f o u t p u t r a t e s and c u m u l a t i v e o f f t a k e volume. The reason f o r
t h i s e f f e c t i s t h e l a c k of newly c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e p l a n e s w h i c h c o u l d access i n -
cremental hydrocarbon q u a n t i t i e s t h a t a r e n o t reached by t h e e x i s t i n g d r a i n a g e
 617

system. O n l y h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g can g i v e r i s e t o s u b s t a n t i a l p r o d u c t i v i t y i m -
provement by exposing f r e s h surfaces and g e n e r a t i n g new i n t e r s e c t i o n s through
t h e t i g h t m a t r i x a l o n g w h i c h h i t h e r t o i n a c c e s s i b l e r e s e r v e s can be a c q u i r e d ,
w i t h t h e n n a t u r a l c r a c k s t h a t a r e c r o s s e d b y t h e induced f r a c t u r e and t h u s t i e d
i n t o t h e a c t i v e system connected d i r e c t l y t o t h e b o r e h o l e a l s o a c h i e v i n g c o n s i -
d e r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r i b u t i o n , and i n t h i s case p r o p p i n g o f
n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a s c e r t a i n i n g t h a t t h e y s t a y open a l s o w i t h r e t u r n i n g c l o s u r e
s t r e s s and keep b e i n g permeable and c o n d u c t i v e hydrocarbon d e l i v e r y p a t h s t o
t h e main h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e stem and t h e r e b y u l t i m a t e l y t o t h e w e l l b o r e .

N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e p r o p p i n g r e s u l t s i n s i m p l e a c c e l e r a t i o n by f a s t e r f l o w o f
t h e hydrocarbons t h a t a r e a l r e a d y w i t h i n t h e reach o f t h e e x i s t i n g d r a i n a g e p a t -
t e r n t o t h e w e l l b o r e as a consequence o f i n c r e a s i n g c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e f l o w
paths. Concerning comparative assessment o f e f f e c t i v i t y , h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s
have t h e advantage o f b e i n g f r e s h s u r f a c e s , whereas many n a t u r a l c r a c k s can be
c l a y - c o v e r e d o r m i n e r a l i z e d which may c o n s i d e r a b l y reduce t h e i r p e r m e a b i l i t y
and/or c o n d u c t i v i t y . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n t h e
g e o l o g i c a l column i s heterogeneous, w i t h t i g h t gas sands c o n t a i n i n g v e r y few na-
t u r a l cracks, whereas h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandstones and carbonates have a l o t o f
natural fractures.

4.8.8.6.2. Fresh reservoir volume acquisition

and recovery enhancement by artificial fracturing
Enhancement o f t h e d r a i n a g e e f f e c t i v i t y o f n a t u r a l j o i n t s t o g e t h e r w i t h i m -
provement o f c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t i v i t y can o n l y be achieved by i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g na-
t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c o r e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r e s . A r t i f i c i a l l y c r e a t e d c r a c k s propaga-
t i n g a t h i g h r a t e s r u n through n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and c o n t i n u e t o e x t e n d i n t o
t h e m a t r i x , whereas those t r a v e l l i n g a t low r a t e s t u r n i n t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f na-
t u r a l j o i n t s once a c r i t i c a l v e l o c i t y o f p r o p a g a t i o n i s no l o n g e r exceeded. I n
terms o f e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g , however, h i g h p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e s r e q u i r e h i g h de-
t o n a t i o n r a t e s w h i c h r e s u l t i n p u l v e r i z a t i o n o f t h e r o c k and c r e a t i o n o f a l o t
o f f i n e s , u n l e s s t h e e x p l o s i v e charge i s s e l e c t i v e l y p u t i n t o n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s
and i g n i t e d t h e r e i n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.7.3.). A s u i t a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c
and e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.9.6.) would be t h e performance o f a
h y d r a u l i c m i n i f r a c t u r e i n t o which t h e e x p l o s i v e charge i s i n s e r t e d .

I f l o n g - t e r m p r o d u c t i o n m a x i m i z a t i o n i s d e s i r e d t o be achieved, h y d r a u l i c o r
e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r e s s h o u l d be i n t e r c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e s m a l l e s t n a t u r a l c r a c k
system f o r r e c o v e r y f a c t o r o p t i m i z a t i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, i f opening-up o f
t h e f o r m a t i o n and h i g h i n i t i a l p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s a r e wanted, h y d r a u l i c o r e x p l o -
s i v e f r a c t u r e s s h o u l d be i n t e r c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e l a r g e s t n a t u r a l c r a c k system.
T h i s guarantees good f l o w r a t e s , b u t as a consequence o f o n l y l a r g e m a t r i x
b l o c k s b e i n g i n c l u d e d i n t h e coarse network, r e c o v e r y f a c t o r s a r e low, whereas
e n c l o s u r e o f s m a l l m a t r i x b l o c k s by t h e f o r m e r t e c h n i q u e r e s u l t s i n good a r e a l
d r a i n a g e and h i g h r e c o v e r y f a c t o r s .

ZUBER, LEE & GATENS (1987) r e v i e w v a r i o u s s t i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s f o r Devo-

n i a n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s . The h i s t o r i c a l l y abundantly a p p l i e d s t a n d a r d e x p l o s i -
ve f r a c t u r i n g method by d e t o n a t i n g g e l a t i n a t e d n i t r o g l y c e r i n e i n t h e b o r e h o l e
( w e l l shooting; c f . s e c t i o n 4.4.4.6.) has i n t h e l a s t y e a r s been more and more
r e p l a c e d by s i n g l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g w i t h o r w i t h o u t p r o p p a n t i n s e r t i o n as
w e l l as m u l t i p l e r a d i a l t a i l o r e d - p u l s e f r a c t u r i n g r e p r e s e n t i n g s e l e c t i v e and
c o n t r o l l e d e x p l o s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.7.3.). The n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e sys-
tem i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e s h a l e c r e a t e s an a n i s o t r o p i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n .
T h i s r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and t h e access o f a d d i t i o n a l gas volumes o n l y by
opening o f new c r a c k s r a t h e r than e n l a r g i n g p r e - e x i s t i n g j o i n t s a r e t h e reason
f o r a much b e t t e r performance o f w e l l s w i t h induced f r a c t u r e s r u n n i n g p e r p e n d i -
c u l a r t o t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e t r e n d t h a n such w i t h a r t i f i c i a l l y c r e a t e d c r a c k s
b e i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l j o i n t system.
 618

4.8.8.6.3. Natural propping o f sedimentary shrinkage cracks

Sedimentary shrinkage cracks of s u b aer i al de sic c a tion o r subaqueous synaere-
sis o r i g i n i n f l u v i a l and l a c u s t r i n e mudstones a r e e x c e l l e n t examples t o i l l u -
s t r a t e a n a t u r a l p r o p p i n g mechanism of f r a c t u r e s ( c f . p l a t e s VI/1 - 7 and
X I / 7 ) . Contraction of the mud s u r f ace i n q u i e t environment e i t h e r by atmosphe-
r i c d r y i n g or subaqueous shrinkage gives r i s e t o opening of extension c ra c ks.
Subsequent high-energy f l u v i a l or aeolian depositional events lead t o re turn of
sand accumulation which does n o t only cover the sedimentary surfa c e , b u t a l s o
plugs the open syndepositional cr ack s . The i n f i l l i n g of the shrinkage f r a c t u r e s
by sand of d i f f e r e n t grain s i z e according t o the granulometrical spectrum sup-
p li e d by the provenance area a n d transported by wind or water re pre se nts n a t u -
ral p r o p p i n g of natural f r a c t u r e s which r e s u l t s in keeping the cracks open a n d
a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e i r function of high-permeability avenues a l s o in post-deposi-
t io n a l h i s t o r y .

4.8.8.7. Other aspects

KOHLHAAS (1982) describes a r e s e r v o i r with l a t e r a l change of patches w i t h
and w i t h o u t natural f r a c t u r e s . The zones w i t h natural cracks have b e t t e r pre-
a n d post-treatment r e s u l t s than the s p o t s without natural j o i n t s . I n j e c t i o n of
f l u i d a n d proppants leads t o enlargement of natural f r a c t u r e s and p a r t i a l p l u g -
ging with proppants i n addition t o cr eat i on of new hydra ulic a lly induced
c r a c k s . T h i s example underlines the e f f e c t i v i t y of a combination o f na tura l and
a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r i n g f o r t h e successful stimulation of hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r s
o f limited thickness a n d extension.

Reservoir management aspects i n n a t u r a l l y fra c ture d o r f i s s u r e d pay forma-

t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y in terms of g r av i t y drainage, a r e discussed by JACQUIN, L E -
GAIT, MARTIN, NECTOUX, ANTERION & R I O C H E (1987) and NECTOUX (1987). NELSON
(1986) presents a summarizing geological an alysis of n a t u r a l l y fra c ture d forma-
tio n s with emphasis on s t r a t e g i e s of r es er v o ir management, de te c tion a n d predic-
t i o n of f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n a n d spacing, r ese rvoir anisotropy a n d s t a t i s t i c a l
modelling, a n d p o s s i b i l i t i e s of s t i mu l at i o n of n a t u r a l l y jointe d pays. H E N N I N G -
TON (1980) reviews unconventional exploration f o r natural f r a c t u r e s , and RUOTSA-
LA & WILLIAMS (1982) s t r e s s the s i g n i f i can ce of r e f l e c t i o n seismology as a n ex-
p lo r a t i o n tool f o r f r act u r ed zones. ABDASSAH & ERSHAGHI (1986) de fine n a t u r a l l y
cracked r e s e r v o i r s as t r i p l e - p o r o s i t y systems, whereas WARREN & ROOT (1963)
id e a l i z e d the n a t u r a l l y j o i n t ed pay as co n s i sting of two d i s t i n c t systems being
matrix a n d f r a c t u r e s . NAJURIETA (1979) a n d D E R U Y C K , BOURDET, PRAT & RAMEY
(1982) comment on the s i g n i f i can ce of i n t er f ere nc e a n d pulse t e s t i n g f o r the
evaluation of communication within n a t u r a l l y fra c ture d r e s e r v o i r s .

B O U R D E T & G R I N G A R T E N (1980) as s es s determination of f i s s u r e volume a n d block

s i z e i n n a t u r a l l y f r act u r ed formations. ULDRICH & ERSHAGHI (1979) pre se nt e s t i -
mations o f the i n t e r p o r o s i t y flow parameter. Well log e va lua tion of n a t u r a l l y
jo i n t e d r e s e r v o i r s i s discussed by AGUILERA (1976) a n d AGUILERA & ACEVEDO
( 1 9 8 2 ) , a n d REYNOLDS, C H A N G , Y E H & RAGHAVAN (1985) comment on wellbore pressure
response. Various points of n a t u r a l l y f r act u r e d pays a re summarized by A G U I L E R A
( 1 9 8 0 ) . Aspects of n a t u r a l l y cracked r es e rvoirs a re a l s o t r e a t e d by A G U I L E R A
(1975, 1976, 1985), KOSTURA & RAVENSCROFT (1977); BRANAGAN, COTNER & L E E
( 1 9 8 4 ) ; BLASINGAME & L E E ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; BRANAGAN, C I P O L L A & L E E (1987) and EVANS & UBA-
NI ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
 619

4.8.9. Late-stage refracturing o f old wells

Another mHF o r r e l a t e d s m a l l - s c a l e s t i m u l a t i o n a p p l i c a t i o n , b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y
a l s o l a r g e r - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t t o even MHF u t i l i z a t i o n , i s r e f r a c t u r i n g o f p a r t i c u -
l a r l y s h a l l o w o i l w e l l s c o m p r i s i n g renewed f r a c t u r i n g i n h o r i z o n s which had a l -
ready been f r a c t u r e d once l o n g t i m e ago ( o r e q u i v a l e n t l y o r i g i n a l f r a c t u r i n g i n
advanced d e p l e t i o n stages o f r e s e r v o i r s i n t e r s e c t e d by b o r e h o l e s t h a t had never
been s t i m u l a t e d b e f o r e ) . A f t e r an o u t l i n e o f g e n e r a l r e f r a c t u r i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e ,
t h e d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s comments on r e f r a c t u r i n g c a n d i d a t e w e l l choice, a r e a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l r e s e r v o i r s , m o b i l i z a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l hydrocarbon r e -
serves, p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g , f r a c t u r e r e o p e n i n g and proppant
placement d u r i n g r e f r a c t u r i n g , and c o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c and e x p l o s i v e f r a c -
turing.

4.8.9.0. General refracturing significance

R e f r a c t u r i n g can be v e r y s u c c e s s f u l by reopening t h e o l d f r a c t u r e ( t h a t has
i n t h e meantime become c o m p l e t e l y c l o s e d due t o c r u s h i n g o f n e a r l y a l l t h e f o r -
m e r l y i n s e r t e d p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l ) which a c t s as a p r e - e x i s t i n g zone o f weakness
and i s i n f i l l e d again w i t h proppants, w i t h r e f r a c t u r i n g becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y
i m p o r t a n t f o r workover o f o l d o i l f i e l d s . Since t h e advent o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t f r a c t u r i n g , p e r i o d i c a l r e s t i m u l a t i o n has been employed as a v i a b l e means
o f e c o n o m i c a l l y i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s and c a p t u r i n g r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s ,
and i n many i n s t a n c e s , r e t r e a t m e n t o f e x i s t i n g w e l l s has become a f e a s i b l e a l -
t e r n a t i v e t o new e x p l o r a t i o n o r d r i l l i n g a d d i t i o n a l development w e l l s . I n some
g e o g r a p h i c a l areas, p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s f r o m r e s t i m u l a t i o n have demonstrated
t h a t r e c o m p l e t i o n o f t a r g e t e d w e l l s can be one o f t h e b e s t i n v e s t m e n t o p p o r t u n i -
t i e s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e producer (HALLIBURTON 1987). R e f r a c t u r i n g o f w e l l s h a v i n g
a l r e a d y passed c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y and h a v i n g been e a r l i e r s t i m u l a -
t e d s h o r t e r o r l o n g e r t i m e ago has become p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g a f t e r t h e
1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h as a consequence o f b e i n g a c o m p a r a t i v e l y cheap investment
l e a d i n g t o r a p i d payout i n comparison t o much more expensive f r a c t u r i n g o f new
w e l l s w i t h a much more u n f a v o u r a b l e d i s c o u n t e d cash f l o w r a t e ( c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.5.3.).

R e f r a c t u r i n g i s a remedy o p e r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o improve p r o d u c t i v i t y o f such

w e l l s t h a t have a l r e a d y been f r a c t u r e d some t i m e ago w i t h poor t e c h n i c a l p e r f o r -
mance, i n s u f f i c i e n t r e s e r v o i r response, o r inadequate s t i m u l a t i o n designs (MAR-
T I N S 1987) o r i n a more u n f a v o u r a b l e economical environment. C o n s i s t e n t success
can be achieved by r e f r a c t u r i n g i f t h e o r i g i n a l t r e a t m e n t has been performed
some t i m e ago and b o t h t e c h n i c a l and economical framework have changed, whereas
i f r e c e n t l y a good l a r g e - s c a l e j o b has been c a r r i e d o u t w i t h s a t i s f a c t o r y r e -
s u l t s , an enhancement by r e f r a c t u r i n g may be d i f f i c u l t t o achieve. I f t h e f o r -
mer c r a c k i s t o o densely propped, t h e new s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t p r o b a b l y does
n o t a m e l i o r a t e t h e r a t e and c o u l d even by p o o r e r t h a n t h e o l d o p e r a t i o n . There
i s a complete range between j u s t b r e a k i n g down t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s o r pumping t h e
whole o l d t r e a t m e n t away when c a r r y i n g o u t r e f r a c t u r i n g .

The environment f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g o f a l r e a d y e a r l i e r s t i m u l a t e d b o r e h o l e s as
w e l l as i n i t i a l f r a c t u r i n g o f l a t e - s t a g e i n f i l l p r o d u c t i o n p o i n t s i s d e p l e t e d
r e s e r v o i r pore p r e s s u r e which i n c r e a s e s t h e c o n f i n i n g s t r e s s c o n t r a s t between
pay zone and s h a l e b a r r i e r s , t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g b e t t e r f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth con-
t r o l ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.2.) which l e a d s t o l o w e r p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y b e i n g r e q u i r e d
t o p l u g t h e s m a l l e r c r a c k (HUEBINGER, WEBSTER, CHISHOLM, VENDITTO & HUNT 1988).

4.8.9.1. Refracturing candidate well choice

I n t h e c u r r e n t u n f a v o u r a b l e economical c l i m a t e caused by u n c e r t a i n o i l p r i c e
( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.3.) and a c u r t a i l e d gas m a r k e t ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.6.3.; in
Europe and o t h e r p a r t s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l markets a l s o u n f a v o u r a b l y superimposed
 620

by t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s US $ weakness; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) , r e s t i m u l a t i o n o f
e x i s t i n g w e l l s t o increase production r a t e s and/or economically recoverable r e -
s e r v e s has become an a l t e r n a t i v e t o e x p l o r a t i o n o r d r i l l i n g d e v e l o p m e n t w e l l s
(CONWAY, McMECHAN, McGOWEN, BROWN, CHISHOLM & VENDITTO 1985; c f . s e c t i o n
2.2.1.5.3.). Production increases r e a l i z e d from r e f r a c t u r i n g i n several areas
have d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t r e c o m p l e t i o n o f c e r t a i n w e l l s c a n be one o f t h e b e s t i n -
v e s t m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e . Improvement o f t h e e f f e c t o f t h e
o r i g i n a l s t i m u l a t i o n b y t h e renewed o p e r a t i o n c a n b e a c h i e v e d because o f r e c e n t
advances i n f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n o l o g y e m p l o y i n g more e f f i c i e n t f l u i d s t h a t a r e c a -
pable o f transporting higher proppant concentrations, with i n combination with
m o d i f i e d s u r f a c e e q u i p m e n t now t r e a t m e n t s b e i n g a b l e t o b e p e r f o r m e d t h a t i n
t e r m s of f l u i d and p r o p p a n t volume as w e l l as p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n w e r e p r e v i o u s -
l y n o t possible.

P e r i o d i c a l r e f r a c t u r i n g has been employed as a method f o r i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c -

t i o n r a t e s and/or economically r e c o v e r a b l e reserves s i n c e t h e advent o f hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g , and f o c u s s e s p a r t i c u l a r l y on w e l l s w h i c h f o r m e r l y have been un-
d e r e s t i m a t e d b y u t i l i z a t i o n o f t o o l o w p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and t o o s m a l l
j o b s . S I N H A & ELBEL ( 1 9 8 3 ) comment o n p a r t i a l r e h e a l i n g o f f r a c t u r e s as p r e s s u -
r e d e c l i n e s w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e d e p l e t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , w i t h a n advanced s t a g e
o f c l o s u r e o f t h e o r i g i n a l c r a c k b e i n g an i n d i c a t o r f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g p r o v i d e d
s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s have been o b t a i n e d a f t e r t h e p r i m a r y o p e r a t i o n .
W e l l p e r f o r m a n c e a n a l y s i s a f t e r o r i g i n a l s t i m u l a t i o n as a base f o r f u r t h e r
t r e a t m e n t p l a n n i n g i n c l u d e s a c o m p a r a b l e a p p r o a c h f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g c a n d i d a t e se-
l e c t i o n and m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t e v a l u a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 2 . ) .

As a consequence o f p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g e x p e r i e n c e f r o m e a r l i e r t r e a t -
ments and r e s u l t i n g d e s i g n o p t i m i z a t i o n s f o r s u c c e s s i v e o p e r a t i o n s b o t h i n con-
nection w i t h r e f r a c t u r i n g o f o l d w e l l s long time a f t e r the o r i g i n a l s t i m u l a t i o n
j o b s and i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h f r a c t u r i n g campaigns in new f i e l d s w i t h s h o r t p e -
r i o d s o f t i m e between t h e i n d i v i d u a l t r e a t m e n t s , an e v o l u t i o n o f f r a c t u r e o p e r a -
t i o n d e s i g n and p e r f o r m a n c e (TINDELL, NEAL & HUNTER 1981) t a k e s o f t e n p l a c e
f r o m e a r l y more o r l e s s e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a g e s t h r o u g h advanced r o u t i n e phases u p
t o a m a t u r e h i g h - t e c h n o l o g y l e v e l . HOWARD & FAST ( 1 9 7 0 a ) summarize t h e p u r p o s e
o f r e f r a c t u r i n g as b e i n g e x t e n s i o n o f t h e e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e system, r e o p e n i n g
o f p r e v i o u s l y g e n e r a t e d c r a c k s , w a s h i n g o f f r a c t u r e f a c e s , r e p l e n i s h i n g o f em-
bedded p r o p p a n t s , and o p e n i n g o f new c r a c k s i n p r e v i o u s l y u n s t i m u l a t e d i n t e r -
v a l s . The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s i l l u s t r a t e s w e l l p e r f o r m a n c e a f t e r o r i g i n a l s t i m u -
l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t and c h a r a c t e r i z e s a l s o t h e c o m p a r a b l e a p p r o a c h o f r e f r a c t u r i n g
c a n d i d a t e s e l e c t i o n and m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t e v a l u a t i o n .

4.8.9.1.1.We1 1 performance after original st imulat ion treatment

Concerning r e f r a c t u r i n g candidate s e l e c t i o n , p r e v i o u s l y f r a c ured w e l l s w i t h
s u f f i c i e n t r e m a i n i n g r e s e r v e s f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n c a n be d i v i d e d n t o f o u r c a t e g o -
r i e s . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l a s p e c t s , s u c c e s s v s . f a i l u r e o f o r i -
g i n a l f r a c t u r e j o b i s analyzed.

4.8.9.1.1.1.General aspects
The f i r s t c l a s s c o m p r i s e s w e l l s w i t h i n s u f f i c i e n t p r o d u c t o n i n c r e a s e f r o m
t h e f i r s t h v d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n .job due t o p r e m a t u r e s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e . A n a l y -
s i s o f t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e f r o m 'the f i r s t o p e r a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y t o i d e n t i f y t h e
p r o b l e m and t o m o d i f y t h e second t r e a t m e n t such as t o overcome t h e f o r m a t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t cause t h e f i r s t j o b t o f a i l ( c f . CONWAY, McGDWEN, GUNDER-
SON & KING 1 9 8 5 ) . The second g r o u p i n c l u d e s b o r e h o l e s w i t h i n s u f f i c i e n t p r o d u c -
t i o n i n c r e a s e f o l l o w i n g s u c c e s s f u l pumping o f t h e f i r s t f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n . A
m o d i f i e d r e f r a c t u r i n g p r o c e d u r e has t o b e s e t u p w h i c h i s p r o m i s i n g i n t e r m s of
b o t h t e c h n i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l a s D e c t s .
 62 1

The t h i r d c l a s s c o n t a i n s w e l l s t h a t were f o r m e r l y a l r e a d y s u c c e s s f u l l y f r a c -
t u r e d , b u t p r o d u c t i o n has f a l l e n below p r o j e c t e d d e c l i n e l e v e l s i n t h e mean-
t i m e . S e v e r i t y and t i m e frame o f t h e abnormally reduced p r o d u c t i o n h e l p t o de-
t e r m i n e t h e degree o f m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l d e s i g n which i s necessary
f o r s u c c e s s f u l r e s t i m u l a t i o n . The f o u r t h assemblage bears b o r e h o l e s w i t h suc-
cessful o r i g i n a l treatment t h a t are s t i l l producing a t projected decline r a t e s .
I n t h i s case, t h e main q u e s t i o n i s whether improvements i n f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n o l o -
gy have made i t p o s s i b l e t o achieve a l a r g e enough p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e o v e r
t h a t from the f i r s t s t i m u l a t i o n j o b t o j u s t i f y the c o s t o f the r e f r a c t u r i n g
t r e a t m e n t (CONWAY, McMECHAN, McGOWEN, BROWN, CHISHOLM & VENDITTO 1 9 8 5 ) .

4.8.9.1.1.2. Success vs. failure of original fracture job

I f a w e l l responded f a v o u r a b l y t o o r i g i n a l s t i m u l a t i o n , i t i s probably a
good c a n d i d a t e f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g , because b o r e h o l e s d r i l l e d i n areas o f h i g h po-
t e n t i a l b u t t r e a t e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l d e s i g n show i n many cases s a t i s f a c t o r y
e a r l y p r o d u c t i o n t h a t l a t e r d e c l i n e s r a p i d l y (VENDITTO, CHISHOLM, W I G G I N S & CON-
WAY 1986). Where t h e i n i t i a l f r a c t u r i n g j o b screened o u t , good p o t e n t i a l may
e x i s t f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g a f t e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s c r e e n o u t mode and s o l u t i o n
o f t h e problem which caused t h e premature f a i l u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . So-
metimes a s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n i s a t e c h n i c a l success, b u t an economical f a i -
l u r e due t o d i s a p p o i n t i n g r e s u l t i n g p r o d u c t i o n . I f i t can be determined what
t h e o r i g i n a l t r e a t m e n t accomplished and i f i t was d e f e c t i v e i n some way, r e f r a c -
t u r i n g may be e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d . R e s t i m u l a t i o n i s a l s o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e so-
l u t i o n where a w e l l was s u c c e s s f u l l y f r a c t u r e d , b u t e x p l o i t a t i o n d e c l i n e i n d i -
c a t e s t h a t t h e c r a c k i s no l o n g e r e f f e c t i v e . W e l l s h a v i n g been s t i m u l a t e d and
p r o d u c i n g a t p r o j e c t e d d e c l i n e r a t e s may even be c a n d i d a t e s i f t h e y were o r i g i -
n a l l y f r a c t u r e d u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l l o a d s pumped a t low p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .
R e f r a c t u r i n g o f s t i l l p r o d u c i n g w e l l s w i t h massive t r e a t m e n t s and h i g h p r o p p a n t
s a t u r a t i o n s has h i g h economical f e a s i b i l i t y p o t e n t i a l .

O l d e r w e l l s t h a t were never s t i m u l a t e d b u t have good p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r i e s

can o f t e n be r e j u v e n a t e d by l a t e - l i f e f r a c t u r i n g . R e s t i m u l a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y a
v i a b l e way t o r e a c h untapped hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s . W h i l e r e f r a c t u r i n g by MHF
technology i s h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l , a l s o s m a l l - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g and a c i d i z i n g have
given e x c e l l e n t production increase returns. Other r e f r a c t u r i n g candidates are
w e l l s where f o r m e r l y bad and damaging f l u i d s , i n s u f f i c i e n t p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s o r inadequate p r o p p a n t t y p e s have been used. CROWELL & JENNINGS (1979)
analyze r e f r a c t u r i n g c a n d i d a t e s e l e c t i o n i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas r e s e r v o i r s and
u n d e r l i n e t h e d e f i n i t e need o f w e l l performance d i a g n o s i s p r i o r t o r e s t i m u l a -
t i o n . An i m p o r t a n t source o f i n f o r m a t i o n f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g d e c i s i o n i s p r e s s u r e
development o b t a i n e d a f t e r o r i g i n a l s t i m u l a t i o n (TUCKER 1979).

4.8.9.1.2. Comparable approach of refracturing candidate

selection and minifracture calibration test evaluation
I n some t i g h t gas f i e l d s , w e l l s which had i n i t i a l l y been s u c c e s s f u l l y comple-
t e d w i t h small-volume f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t s can be s u c c e s s f u l l y r e s t i m u l a t e d by
MHF o p e r a t i o n s , whereas w e l l s t h a t responded p o o r l y t o o r i g i n a l small-volume
f r a c t u r e j o b s w i l l n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y r e a c t t o r e f r a c t u r i n g on l a r g e r s c a l e t o
pay o u t t h e expenses o f t h e r e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t (PARROT & LONG 1979). I n
o r d e r t o f i n d o u t these r e l a t i o n s h i p s as a t o o l o f c o n t a i n i n g f r a c t u r i n g expen-
ses and t o t e s t t h e f o r m a t i o n i n r e a l i t y r a t h e r than r e l y i n g c o m p l e t e l y on more
o r l e s s t h e o r e t i c a l p l a n n i n g , m i n i f r a c t u r i n g w i t h i n s e r t i o n o f small q u a n t i t i e s
of proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.2.3.) s h o u l d be done b e f o r e MHF t r e a t m e n t s espe-
c i a l l y i n areas w i t h l i t t l e e x p e r i e n c e from o t h e r w e l l s i n t h e f i e l d . The s i g n i -
f i c a n c e o f p r o p p a n t m i n i f r a c t u r i n g o f t i g h t gas sands r e q u i r i n g MHF s t i m u l a t i o n
f o r u l t i m a t e economical p r o d u c t i o n i s n o t o n l y f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t ,
f l u i d - l e a k o f f c o e f f i c i e n t , and c l o s u r e s t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n by c a l i b r a t i o n t e s t -
i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.2.1.), b u t a l s o f e a s i b i l i t y c h e c k i n g by p r o b i n g f o r m a t i o n
 622

r e s p o n s e , a n d thus comprehensive MHF t r e a t m e n t p l a n n i n g i n c l u d i n g p r e c e d i n g mi-

n i f r a c t u r e can be compared t o l a r g e - s c a l e r e f r a c t u r i n g of w e l l s having been f o r -
merly s u b j e c t e d t o s m a l l - s c a l e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s .

4.8.9.2. Areal distribution of potential reservoirs

High-rank t a r g e t s f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g i n Europe a r e seen e s p e c i a l l y i n Lower
C r e t a c e o u s o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s i n the l a r g e o i l f i e l d s i n the boundary b e l t
between Germany FRG and the N e t h e r l a n d s a s well a s i n v a r i o u s o t h e r o l d e r p r o -
d u c t i o n p a t c h e s i n the seam of J u r a s s i c and Lower C r e t a c e o u s o i l f i e l d s i n t h e
Lower Saxony Basin i n the n o r t h e r n p a r t of Germany FRG ( f o r l o c a t i o n maps c f .
B O I G K 1980, SCHRODER 1986), and i n T e r t i a r y o i l - and g a s - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s i n
t h e b i g f i e l d s i n t h e Vienna Basin i n A u s t r i a ( D O L A K & PERNTHANER 1976) and
Czechoslovakia. A high p o t e n t i a l f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g i s a l s o c o n s i d e r e d t o be p r e -
s e n t i n l a r g e o i l f i e l d s in t h e USSR such a s f o r example around t h e Caspian Sea
and in S i b e r i a .

Another r e s t i m u l a t i o n goal a r e g a s - b e a r i n g R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s sand-

s t o n e s i n the Mid-European Basin ( S o u t h e r n Permian Basin; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 1 .
and 3 . 3 . ) which had been a l r e a d y f r a c t u r e d b e f o r e the a d v e n t of i n t e r m e d i a t e -
and h i g h - s t r e n g t h ceramic p r o p p a n t s and where s t i l l s u f f i c i e n t reserves a r e
l e f t t o j u s t i f y an improvement of the u n s a t i s f y i n g e a r l i e r t r e a t m e n t by perform-
ing a modern high-technology o p e r a t i o n .

4.8.9.3. Mobi 1 izat ion o f additional hydrocarbon reserves

The m o b i l i z a t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s by r e f r a c t u r i n g of e a r -
l i e r s t i m u l a t e d b o r e h o l e s o r even f i r s t f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e l a t e s t a g e of well
and f i e l d h i s t o r y i s s u p p o r t e d by an a m e l i o r a t e d f e a s i b i l i t y due t o a l r e a d y
a m o r t i z a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l d r i l l i n g and completion investment through p r o l o n -
ged p r o d u c t i o n . The t e c h n i c a l e x e c u t i o n of t h e r e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t i s e a -
s i e r than t h a t of an o r i g i n a l j o b because of t h e a l r e a d y e x i s t e n c e of a weak-
n e s s p l a n e l e a d i n g t o f o r m a t i o n opening a t lower i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s than usual
( c f . section 4.8.9.5.), and the c r e a t i o n of new d r a i n a g e p a t h s improves flow
c o n d i t i o n s and a c q u i s i t i o n a r e a and thus l e a d s t o r e c o v e r y enhancement indepen-
d e n t from r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n s t a g e . Some comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on produc-
t i o n d e c l i n e o f f s e t t i n g and r e s e r v o i r t y p e s s u i t a b l e f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g .

4.8.9.3.1.Ameliorated feasibility due to well amortization

The main s i g n i f i c a n c e of r e f r a c t u r i n g o r p a r t i a l l y a l s o even f i r s t s t i m u l a -
t i o n i n t h e l a t e s t a g e of hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n and r e s e r v o i r pressure d e p l e -
t i o n i s t o m o b i l i z e p a r t s of t h e remaining hydrocarbon q u a n t i t i e s from t i g h t e r
s t r e a k s and l a y e r s in o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e the r e c o v e r y f a c t o r and thus more e f f e c -
t i v e l y d r a i n p a r t i c u l a r l y huge s h a l l o w o i l f i e l d s c o n t a i n i n g enormous amounts
of r e s e r v e s ( a t l e a s t in terms of r e l a t i v e view when comparing t h e s i z e of a l l
the domestic p r o d u c t i o n p a t c h e s w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o u n t r i e s ) p r i o r t o plug-
g i n g and abandoning of the w e l l s . L a t e - s t a g e r e f r a c t u r i n g of h o r i z o n s t h a t have
a l r e a d y been e x p l o i t e d f o r p a r t i a l l y more than h a l f a c e n t u r y can be i n p l a c e s
combined w i t h s t i m u l a t i o n of marginal r e s e r v o i r s over- o r u n d e r l y i n g the main
producing s t o r e y i n l i t t l e d i s t a n c e which had been p r e v i o u s l y n o t p e r f o r a t e d
due t o the much l a r g e r reserves i n the main t a r g e t f o r m a t i o n and the much b e t -
t e r o u t p u t r a t e s from t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l s t h e r e i n , w i t h the marginal
l a y e r s t h e r e f o r e having been p u t on a b a c k s e a t p o s i t i o n i n t h e ranking l i s t a s
long a s o f f t a k e from t h e main h i g h - c a p a c i t y r e s e r v o i r was s a t i s f a c t o r y .

Once the main producer i s more o r l e s s d e p l e t e d , however, the f e a s i b i l i t y s i -

t u a t i o n f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g of s e n i l e h o r i z o n s along w i t h f i r s t t r e a t m e n t of juve-
n i l e marginal pays i s very f a v o u r a b l e , because t h e o n l y expenses f o r then a c c e s -
 623

s i n g t h e o i l i n t h e m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r a r e t h e c o s t f o r r e c o m p l e t i o n and s t i m u -
l a t i o n , as t h e w e l l i s a l r e a d y t h e r e and would a f t e r w a r d s anyway have t o be
plugged w i t h cement, and a l s o a f t e r up t o s e v e r a l decades o f p r o d u c t i o n f r o m
t h e main t a r g e t h o r i z o n t h e r e i s n o t h i n g l e f t f o r s t i l l w r i t i n g o f f , and l o n g -
term e x p l o i t a t i o n has r a t h e r n o t o n l y p a i d o f f a l l t h e p r e v i o u s investment, b u t
a l s o g i v e n r i s e t o c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o f i t . Aspects o f l a t e d e p l e t i o n stage and end
o f f i e l d l i f e economics i n N o r t h Sea hydrocarbon patches a r e o u t l i n e d by KEMP,
KELLAS & ROSE ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

4.8.9.3.2. Product ion decline offsett ins

GRIFFITH & MADISON (1988) o u t l i n e f i e l d examples where p r o d u c t i o n d e c l i n e s
have been p a r t i a l l y o f f s e t by r e f r a c t u r i n g . I t i s n o t uncommon f o r a w e l l t o
have been r e f r a c t u r e d s e v e r a l times t h r o u g h o u t i t s p r o d u c i n g l i f e . W h i l e a c i d
s t i m u l a t i o n s have t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e s u l t e d i n s h o r t - l i v e d p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s
w i t h l i m i t e d e f f e c t s on t h e u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y o f t h e borehole, r e f r a c t u r i n g has
l e d t o a greater production increase sustained over a longer period o f time. Ex-
t e n s i o n o f propped f r a c t u r e l i f e and p r e v e n t i o n o f e a r l y c o n d u c t i v i t y d e s t r u c -
t i o n by m o b i l e f i n e s and s c a l e d e p o s i t i o n can be achieved w i t h l a r g e r f r a c t u r e
w i d t h and i n c r e a s i n g proppant s a t u r a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e d u r i n g course o f s t i m u -
lation evolution, small multi-staged low-proppant-concentration f r a c t u r i n g
t r e a t m e n t s were r e p l a c e d by l a r g e r s i n g l e - s t a g e l i m i t e d - e n t r y h i g h - p r o p p a n t - s a -
t u r a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g j o b s . The b e n e f i t s o f t h e s i n g l e - s t a g e l i m i t e d - e n t r y f r a c -
t u r e o p e r a t i o n i n c l u d e l a r g e r propped f r a c t u r e w i d t h , b e t t e r a r e a l coverage o f
n e t pay zone, and s t i m u l a t i o n o f p r e v i o u s l y u n f r a c t u r e d pay zones ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.2.2.).

4.8.9.3.3. Easier technical treatment

performance by presence of weakness plane
Restimulation options include r e f r a c t u r i n g , reacidizing, reperforating, hea-
t e d a c i d t r e a t m e n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.1.2.4.), closed f r a c t u r e acidizing, water
f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.4.2.), subzone redevelopment, and h o r i z o n t a l w e l l
o r d r a i n h o l e d r i l l i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 6 . ) , o f which r e f r a c t u r i n g i s by f a r t h e
most e f f e c t i v e method (JOURNAL PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY 1987). W h i l e f r a c t u r i n g o f
a d e p l e t e d w e l l f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i s much more d i f f i c u l t t h a n s t i m u l a t i n g a
v i r g i n w e l l because i t r e q u i r e s a much h i g h e r f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n pressure, r e -
f r a c t u r i n g i s f a c i l i t a t e d by a c r a c k a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g r e p r e s e n t i n g a weakness
p l a n e i n t h e r o c k f a b r i c which does no l o n g e r r e q u i r e t o overcome t h e t e n s i l e
s t r e s s o f t h e f o r m a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 9 . 5 . ) . T h e r e f o r e l e s s p r e s s u r e i s nee-
ded t o reopen t h e o l d f r a c t u r e . The proppant package p l u g g i n g t h e o r i g i n a l
c r a c k i s a l r e a d y suspended, and i n many cases, t h e r e i s an e f f i c i e n t b a r r i e r a t
t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f r a c t u r e as a consequence o f p r o p p a n t b a n k i n g which a c t s as a
b l o c k l i m i t i n g downwards f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 4 . 3 . ) and t h u s
p r e v e n t s t h e c r a c k f r o m m i g r a t i n g i n t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g w a t e r zone.

WYMAN, HOLDITCH & RANDOLPH (1979) r e p o r t s p e c i a l displacement techniques f o r

proppants w i t h i n o l d f r a c t u r e s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f r e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s . I n
o r d e r t o ensure t h a t a s c r e e n o u t would n o t r e s u l t f r o m p i c k u p o f t h e p r o p p a n t
i n s e r t e d d u r i n g t h e e a r l i e r t r e a t m e n t by t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e pad d u r i n g t h e
r e f r a c t u r i n g j o b , combined and a l t e r n a t e d n i t r o g e n , methanol and w a t e r m i x t u r e
i n j e c t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t . I n t h e m i d d l e o f t h i s displacement procedure, a small
foam s l u g i s pumped i n t o t h e annulus f o r t h e purpose o f f u r t h e r s c o u r i n g any
o l d proppant f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s , w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g n i t r o g e n b r e a k i n g i t
up and a l l o w i n g any e n t r a i n e d p r o p p a n t t o s e t t l e t o t h e bottom.
 624

4.8.9.3.4. Recovery enhancement

independent from reservoir depletion stage
L a t e - s t a g e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n a l s o o f d e p l e t e d w e l l s i s suppor-
t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t f r a c t u r i n g i s t h e most e f f e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t t e c h n i q u e by su-
perimposing a n e w l y - c r e a t e d h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r
which i s i n communication w i t h t h e w e l l b o r e , a l t h o u g h t h e o v e r a l l pay permeabi-
l i t y cannot be changed (ECONOMIDES 1987 b ) , and t h i s i n c r e a s e o f f o r m a t i o n s u r -
f a c e which i s a c c e s s i b l e f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e through t h e f r a c t u r e system and t h a t
can c o n t r i b u t e t o d r a i n a g e o f hydrocarbons f r o m t h e r o c k m a t r i x t o t h e b o r e h o l e
through t h e c r a c k network i s t h e reason f o r r e c o v e r y enhancement i n pay sec-
t i o n s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r d e p l e t i o n stage. I n t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s , f l u i d l o a d
r e c o v e r y i n o r i g i n a l t r e a t m e n t s can r e q u i r e a few weeks t o s e v e r a l y e a r s , and
f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g , i t may need even l o n g e r t i m e because o f d e c l i n e d r e s e r v o i r
p r e s s u r e due t o p r o d u c t i o n (PARROT & LONG 1979).

R e f r a c t u r i n g o f w e l l s which were a l r e a d y once t r e a t e d b e f o r e i s a l s o r e p o r -

t e d by KOHLHAAS (1982) who a l s o d e s c r i b e s s u c c e s s f u l f i r s t f r a c t u r i n g i n a matu-
r e o i l f i e l d i n l a t e stages o f d e p l e t i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n access t o a d d i t i o n a l r e -
m a i n i n g r e s e r v e s t h a t would never have come o u t o f t h e r e s e r v o i r w i t h o u t s t i m u -
l a t i o n . Renewed f r a c t u r i n g o f a gas and condensate w e l l a f t e r a f i r s t s m a l l e r
t r e a t m e n t by a second l a r g e r o p e r a t i o n i s o u t l i n e d by ECONOMIDES, C I K E S , PFOR-
TER, U D I C K & URODA ( 1 9 8 6 ) . WATERS (1980) a l s o emphasizes t h e n e c e s s i t y o f many
s h a l l o w s t r i p p e r w e l l s t o be f r a c t u r e d i n o r d e r t o remain p r o d u c t i v e . Aspects
of r e f r a c t u r i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by COULTER & M E N Z I E (1973), CROWELL & JEN-
N I N G S (1978), PARROT & LONG (1979), HUNTER (1985) and SAUCIER (1988), and S I N H A
& ELBEL (1983) i n v e s t i g a t e s t i m u l a t i o n o f o l d p r o d u c i n g w e l l s . Recompletion
proppant f r a c t u r i n g f o r improving p r o d u c t i v i t y o f multipay i n t e r v a l s i s also
e v a l u a t e d by DARR & CARLTON ( 1 9 8 8 ) . GRIFFITH & MADISON (1988) o u t l i n e o p t i m i z a -
t i o n o f p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and p r o f i t a b i l i t y f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g . DOLAK & PERN-
THANER (1976) document t h a t a l s o i n o l d h i g h l y - w a t e r e d r e s e r v o i r s w i t h v e r y low
f o r m a t i o n pressure, c o m p a r a t i v e l y cheap and r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l - s c a l e f r a c t u r i n g
t r e a t m e n t s can l e a d t o p r o d u c t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f a d d i t i o n a l o i l .

4.8.9.3.5. Reservoir types suitable for refracturing

W h i l e most o f t h e r e f r a c t u r i n g work t a k e s p l a c e i n sandstone r e s e r v o i r s ,
a l s o g a s - b e a r i n g s h a l e s can be an e c o n o m i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e and t e c h n i c a l l y c h a l -
l e n g i n g t a r g e t f o r p r o p p a n t r e s t i m u l a t i o n (LANCASTER, GUIDRY, GRAHAM, CURTIS,
SHAW & BLAKE 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 4 . ) . Coal r e f r a c t u r i n g i s o u t l i n e d by JEU,
LOGAN & McBANE (1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 3 . ) . R e s t i m u l a t i o n can a l s o comprise a c i d
non-proppant f r a c t u r i n g e s p e c i a l l y i f g e l l e d o r c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d i s a p p l i e d ,
and i n some cases, such a t r e a t m e n t can f o l l o w an u n s u c c e s s f u l h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
p a n t t r e a t m e n t t h a t was t e r m i n a t e d by s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e i n carbonate r e s e r v o i r s
(JOHNSON, FOX, BURNS & O'MARA 1988). BRINKMANN (1982) d e s c r i b e s an example o f
unwanted a c c i d e n t a l r e f r a c t u r i n g of an e a r l i e r s t i m u l a t e d i n t e r v a l d u r i n g
course o f a MHF campaign c a r r i e d s u c c e s s i v e l y o u t i n s e v e r a l h o r i z o n s w i t h i n
one we1 1 .

4.8.9.4. Proppant select ion for ref ractur ins

I m p o r t a n t g u i d e l i n e s f o r p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n f o r advanced-stage f i r s t o r r e -
p e a t e d f r a c t u r i n g o f o i l - o r gas-bearing r e s e r v o i r s a r e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t -
ween d i s c o u n t e d o p e r a t i n g cash income, t i m e and p r o p p a n t t y p e (HOLDITCH 1984).
Some aspects o f s y n t h e t i c proppants vs. n a t u r a l sand as w e l l as r e s e r v o i r p r e s -
s u r e vs. p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .
 625

4.8.9.4.1. Synthetic proppants vs. natural sand

Examination o f f i e l d examples r e v e a l s t h a t d i s c o u n t e d income d u r i n g t h e
f i r s t few y e a r s i s g r e a t e r when u s i n g s y n t h e t i c b a u x i t e proppants i n s t e a d o f na-
t u r a l sand due t o h i g h e r i n i t i a l gas f l o w r a t e s as a consequence o f g r e a t e r
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y which r e s u l t s i n p r o d u c t i o n o f a g r e a t e r percentage o f
gas d u r i n g e a r l y f i e l d h i s t o r y and b e t t e r a c c e l e r a t i o n o f c u m u l a t i v e gas recove-
r y . On t h e o t h e r hand, however, t h e average p r o d u c t i o n r a t e o f a f r a c t u r e p r o p -
ped w i t h sand i s u s u a l l y s l i g h t l y h i g h e r i n comparison t o p l u g g i n g o f t h e c r a c k
w i t h b a u x i t e proppants d u r i n g t h e l a t e r p r o d u c t i o n p e r i o d s as a consequence o f
l e s s pronounced a c c e l e r a t i o n , w i t h t h e s l i g h t l y h i g h e r r a t e produced through
t h e s a n d - i n f i l l e d f r a c t u r e i n comparison t o t h a t coming s t i l l o u t o f t h e bau-
x i t e - p l u g g e d c r a c k ( w h i c h has a l r e a d y f a r more s t r o n g l y d e p l e t e d t h e r e s e r v o i r
w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h a t t r e a t e d w i t h sand) b e i n g t h e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e h i g h e r
d i s c o u n t e d p r o f i t generated d u r i n g l a t e f i e l d l i f e f o r t h e case o f a sand-prop-
ped f r a c t u r e .

Some c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s which g i v e r i s e t o low w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y and cha-

r a c t e r i z e r e f r a c t u r i n g c a n d i d a t e s a r e low proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n , polymer degra-
d a t i o n o r f i l t e r cake p l u g g i n g , crushed proppants o r f o r m a t i o n p a r t i c l e s , and
embedment and flowback o f proppants (FRACFAX 1988 h ) . Curable r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p -
pants are f r e q u e n t l y a s u i t a b l e material f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . section 1.2.6.).
When t h e y a r e i n j e c t e d i n t o an o l d f r a c t u r e f i l l e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l proppants,
t h e v i s c o u s pad pushes back t h e o l d proppant, and c u r a b l e r e s i n - c o a t e d p a r t i c -
l e s a r e t h e n pumped i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y t o cover t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l up
t o a d e s i r e d f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , w i t h r e s i n bonding l o c k i n g t h e c o a t e d p a r t i c l e s
i n p l a c e a t t h e f r a c t u r e f a c e t o g e t h e r t o f o r m a s t a b l e mass which p r e v e n t s
flowback o f u n s t a b i l i z e d o l d proppants as w e l l as guarantees i n v a l i d i z a t i o n o f
new proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . ) .

4.8.9.4.2.Reservoir pressure vs. proppant concentration

I n terms o f t r e a t m e n t s i z e and proppant s a t u r a t i o n , r e f r a c t u r i n g u s u a l l y t a -
kes p l a c e i n an environment o f d e p l e t e d r e s e r v o i r p o r e p r e s s u r e which c r e a t e s
more e f f e c t i v e boundaries between pay zone and a d j a c e n t s h a l e s because o f t h e
increased f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t and i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4.2.2.3.1. and 4.2.3.2.2.) between t h e two media (HUEBINGER, WEBSTER, CHISHOLM,
VENDITTO & HUNT 1988). The i n c r e a s e d f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t f o l l o w i n g somewhat deple-
t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r pore pressure allows t o design f r a c t u r i n g operations t h a t
w i l l be more c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l . W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e o r i -
g i n a l s t i m u l a t i o n jobs, b o t h l e s s t o t a l p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y and l e s s p r o p p a n t sa-
t u r a t i o n a r e r e q u i r e d t o f i l l i n a s h o r t e r f r a c t u r e d u r i n g r e t r e a t m e n t which i s
c o n c e n t r a t e d t o t h e c o r e o f t h e pay zone, and thus r e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s t u r n o u t
t o be c o n s i d e r a b l y cheaper t h a n i n i t i a l t r e a t m e n t s when r e s e r v o i r p o r e p r e s s u r e
was a t i t s v i r g i n l e v e l (case s t u d i e s show t h a t p r o p p a n t volume can be reduced
up t o a b t . 40 % t o a c h i e v e a comparable e f f e c t ) .

T h i s i s t h e reason why r e f r a c t u r i n g can s t i l l be economical even w i t h d e c l i -

n i n g p r o d u c t i o n and f a l l i n g o i l p r i c e . The o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y opened by h i g h e r
f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t i s p r o p a g a t i o n o f a l a r g e r c r a c k i n f i l l e d by l a r g e r amounts
o f proppants t h a n would have been s a f e l y enabled by i n i t i a l r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e ,
t h e r e b y g i v i n g r i s e t o deeper pay p e n e t r a t i o n by a more c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e
which c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e s hydrocarbon d r a i n a g e and c u m u l a t i v e o f f t a k e , b u t
also requires higher i n i t i a l c a p i t a l expenditure r e s u l t i n g i n longer amortiza-
t i o n time.

Proppant pumping i n r e f r a c t u r i n g s h o u l d f o l l o w an a g g r e s s i v e schedule (VEN-

DITTO, CHISHOLM, WIGGINS & CONWAY 1986; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 1 3 . ) . The b e s t way
t o achieve l o n g f r a c t u r e s and h i g h volumes o f p r o p p a n t d e p o s i t i o n i s t o p r o -
gress q u i c k l y f r o m t r e a t m e n t pad t o heavy p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n w h i c h propagates
t h e c r a c k r a p i d l y and h e l p s t o ensure p r o p p a n t d e l i v e r y s u f f i c i e n t l y f a s t t o
 626

the fracture l i m i t s . I n terms o f c h o i c e o f sand v s . h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s ,

f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t h i g h sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n s c a n be more e f f e c t i v e
t h a n m o d e r a t e s a t u r a t i o n s o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s t h a t have
been k e p t l i m i t e d due t o e c o n o m i c a l r e a s o n s .

4.8.9.5. Fracture reopening and

proppant placement during r e f r a c t u r i n g

P r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n f o r r e f r a c t u r i n g has t o be combined w i t h t r e a t m e n t de-

s i g n . An i m p o r t a n t p o i n t o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s t h e r e s i d u a l p r o p p a n t package i n
t h e e a r l i e r c r a c k w h i c h has t o be e f f e c t i v e l y removed when r e o p e n i n g t h e f r a c -
t u r e i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t premature screenout f a i l u r e o f t h e r e f r a c t u r i n g opera-
t i o n by g e t t i n g s t u c k a t t h e o l d e r p l u g w i t h i n t h e c r a c k ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.9.3.3.). The f o l l o w i n g summary c o n t a i n s e v a l u a t i o n o f i n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e
w i d t h and p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n as w e l l as p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r e i n j e c t i o n c o m p l i -
cations.

4.8.9.5.1. Increasing f r a c t u r e width and proppant concentrat i o n

F r a c t u r e mouth c l e a r a n c e b y d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e e a r l i e r i n s e r t e d s u p p o r t i n g
m a t e r i a l can be a c h i e v e d by c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e w i d t h and p r o p p a n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , w i t h t h e optimum s h i f t i n g e f f e c t o f t h e h i g h - d e n s i t y c a r r i e r
s l u r r y being obtained i f the m i x t u r e t r a v e l s by p l u g f l o w . Transport c a p a c i t y
o f t h e f l u i d i s c e r t a i n l y enhanced by c h o o s i n g a l i g h t p r o p p a n t t y p e ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . ) , p l u g f l o w b e h a v i o u r c a n be i m p r o v e d b y a d d i n g r e s i n as g r a i n p e l -
l i c l e s o r d i s p e r s e d p a r t i c l e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 6 . and 5 . 8 . 5 . ) , and p l a c e m e n t
a m e l i o r a t i o n and embedment m i n i m i z a t i o n o f t h e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s c a n be s e c u r e d
b y r e s i n f i l m s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e p a r t i c l e s w h i c h g i v e r i s e t o a r t i f i c i a l cementa-
t i o n o f t h e p r o p p a n t package t o a s t a b l e r i g i d wedge s u p p o r t i n g t h e c r a c k . The
f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e f o c u s s e s on a s p e c t s o f a r r a n g e m e n t o f p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y
p r o p p a n t l o a d , r e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s i z e , p r e s s u r e and s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
and p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n .

4.8.9.5.1.1. Arrangement o f primary and secondary proppant load

P r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l f r a c t u r e s g e n e r a l l y do n o t
d i s t u r b t h e r e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n . As t h e o l d c r a c k i s s t i l l a weakness p l a n e
and opens e a r l i e r t h a n an u n f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n , t h e f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t i s l o w e r
t h a n u s u a l , b u t on t h e o t h e r hand f l u i d l o s s i s h i g h e r due t o t h e t h i e f e f f e c t
o f the e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e . Displacement o f the o l d proppant p l u g c o n s i s t i n g o f
e i t h e r s t i l l i n t a c t o r a l r e a d y c r u s h e d g r a i n s i s p r i n c i p a l l y no p r o b l e m p r o v i -
ded s u f f i c i e n t w i d t h o f t h e n e w l y e n l a r g e d f r a c t u r e . Arrangement o f p r i m a r y and
s e c o n d a r y p r o p p a n t l o a d i s t h e r e f o r e g e n e r a l l y v e r y good, and o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y
some s u b o r d i n a t e r e i n j e c t i o n c o m p l i c a t i o n s o c c u r ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 9 . 5 . 2 . ) .

F i e l d examples o f l a r g e - s c a l e r e f r a c t u r i n g w i t h h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
i n r e s e r v o i r s t h a t have f o r m e r l y been s t i m u l a t e d w i t h s m a l l - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t s
and l o w p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s r e v e a l a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n p r o d u c t i o n r a t e
and c o m p a r a t i v e l y r a p i d p a y - o u t e v e n i f t h e f r a c t u r i n g j o b expenses a p p r o a c h
50 % o f t h e t o t a l w e l l c o s t s (BRINKMANN 1982; GREGORCZYK, PAULS, HOLTMYER, VEN-
DITTO & CHISHOLM 1984). R e f r a c t u r i n g does n o t o n l y a p p l y f o r renewed t r e a t m e n t s
months o r y e a r s a f t e r t h e o r i g i n a l o p e r a t i o n s , b u t a l s o f o r c o n t i n u a t i o n o f
j o b s a f t e r s e v e r a l days i n c a s e o f n e c e s s a r y i n t e r r u p t i o n o f t h e pumping sche-
d u l e due t o bad w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s o r s e v e r e m e c h a n i c a l p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e e q u i p -
ment (PEARSON, LYNCH, SCHMIDT & McCASLIN 1 9 8 8 ) .
 627

4.8.9.5.1.2. Ref ractur ing treatment size

R e f r a c t u r i n g can be c a r r i e d o u t as s m a l l - s c a l e j o b s w i t h a b t . 10,000 l b s
(5 t ) o f proppants t h r o u g h a l l stages o f c o n v e n t i o n a l and massive o p e r a t i o n s up
t o jumbo t r e a t m e n t s c o m p r i s i n g 3 Mio. l b s (1,500 t ) o f proppants (VENDITTO,
CHISHOLM, W I G G I N S & CONWAY 1986). I n many cases, massive h y d r a u l i c r e f r a c t u r i n g
t r e a t m e n t s w i t h h i g h proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d o u t i n w e l l s h a v i n g
e x p e r i e n c e d s m a l l - s c a l e s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h low p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n i n a p e r i o d o f
1 - 40 y e a r s ago. The b e n e f i t s o f massive h i g h - c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e f r a c t u r i n g i n -
c l u d e r e d u c t i o n o f e f f e c t s o f f i n e s on f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y as a consequence
o f t h e p r o p p a n t bed b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o l e s s p l u g g i n g by f i n e s m i g r a t i o n , more
e f f e c t i v e d r a i n a g e o f s t r i n g e r sands, l e a v i n g o f t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e propped
f o r a much h i g h e r percentage o f i t s e n t i r e h e i g h t and l e n g t h , and improvement
o f b o t h c o n d u c t i v i t y and l e n g t h o f f r a c t u r e t h u s a m e l i o r a t i n g p r o d u c t i o n r a t e
and t o t a l r e c o v e r a b l e hydrocarbons i n v e r y t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s .

4.8.9.5.1.3. Pressure and stress distribution

When l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas w e l l s a r e f r a c t u r e d upon i n i t i a l c o m p l e t i o n , r e s e r -
v o i r p r e s s u r e and h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s a r e u n i f o r m t h r o u g h o u t t h e pay f o r m a t i o n
(HOLDITCH, ROBINSON, ELY & R A H I M 1988). I f t h e b o r e h o l e i s produced p r i o r t o
t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t o r i f l a t e r - s t a g e r e f r a c t u r i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t , how-
ever, t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r amount b o t h a p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and s t r e s s g r a -
d i e n t a r e developed i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , w i t h s t r e s s i n t h e r o c k b e i n g l a r g e r i n
t h e areas away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e where p r e s s u r e has n o t been a f f e c t e d by produc-
t i o n . I n such a s i t u a t i o n , t h e s t r e s s a t t h e f r a c t u r e t i p and t h e r e s u l t i n g b o t -
tomhole t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e as t h e c r a c k propagates i n t o r e s e r v o i r areas
n o t h a v i n g been d r a i n e d so f a r by t h e e x i s t i n g w e l l b o r e . S t r e s s changes a t t h e
f r a c t u r e t i p t h e r e f o r e deserve s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g r e f r a c t u r i n g d e s i g n .

4.8.9.5.1.4. Perf orated interval configuration

I n many cases, h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t o r a c i d f r a c t u r i n g has t o be performed by
l i m i t e d - e n t r y t e c h n i q u e i n o r d e r t o a v o i d unwanted e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n
i n e i t h e r upward o r downward d i r e c t i o n i n t o n o n - p r o d u c t i v e h o r i z o n s (HUCKABEE
1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) . W h i l e i n new completions t h i s goal can be achieved
by s e l e c t i v e p e r f o r a t i o n placement a c c o r d i n g t o r e s e r v o i r requirements, r e s t i m u -
l a t i o n i s o f t e n confronted w i t h the f a c t t h a t a long perforated section e x i s t s
i n t h e b o r e h o l e and communication occurs w i t h a much t h i c k e r segment o f t h e pay
complex t h a n can be a l l o w e d f o r f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n . R e f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s
t h e r e f o r e f r e q u e n t l y have t o a p p l y mechanical d i v e r s i o n methods such as sand
plugbacks, s t r a d d l e packer assemblies, and r e t r i e v a b l e b r i d g e p l u g s and
packers. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e h i g h e r i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t between pay and
b a r r i e r as a consequence o f d e p l e t e d r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e d i m i n i s h e s t h e danger
o f u n c o n t r o l l e d e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth and t h u s l i m i t e d - e n t r y t e c h n i -
que which i s necessary t o i n e v i t a b l y i n o r i g i n a l s t i m u l a t i o n a t v i r g i n r e s e r -
v o i r pressure i s f r e q u e n t l y n o t required i n late-stage r e f r a c t u r i n g .

4.8.9.5.2. Poss i bi 1 it ies o f reinject ion cornp 1 icat ion

W h i l e i n most cases no d i f f i c u l t i e s have been encountered d u r i n g reopening
o f o l d f r a c t u r e s , replacement o f t h e o r i g i n a l proppant i n f i l l and i n s e r t i o n o f
t h e new p r o p p a n t l o a d d u r i n g course o f r e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s , BEGNAUD & CLAI-
BORNE (1985) r e p o r t t h e o c c a s i o n a l occurrence o f p r e s s u r e - o u t c o m p l i c a t i o n s due
t o i n t e r f e r e n c e o f e a r l i e r and c u r r e n t p r o p p a n t l o t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n case o f new
t r e a t m e n t s b r e a k i n g t h r o u g h b a r r i e r s t o g e t i n communication w i t h o l d f r a c t u r e s
i n a d j o i n i n g h o r i z o n s . Such i n t e r f e r e n c e s can r e s u l t i n p r o p p a n t bed r e d i s t r i b u -
t i o n which may have t h e e f f e c t t h a t a g a i n o f p r o d u c t i v i t y i n one s t o r e y i s j e o -
p a r d i z e d by a r e d u c t i o n o f e x p l o i t a b i l i t y i n t h e o t h e r l a y e r .
 628

Occasional h i g h e r f r a c t u r e reopening p r e s s u r e s i n c o a l seam gas r e s e r v o i r r e -

f r a c t u r i n g can be c r e a t e d by accumulation o f c o a l f i n e s near t h e w e l l b o r e which
b r i d g e t h e c r a c k and c o n s t r i c t t h e b o r e h o l e v i c i n i t y (ZUBER, REEVES, JONES &
SCHRAUFNAGEL 1988; c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.7. and 4 . 4 . 3 . 3 . ) . Coal seams can become
p a r t i c u l a r l y f r i a b l e i f l o o s e n i n g o f t h e f a b r i c i s exacerbated by shear s t r e s -
ses imposed by f a u l t s i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e b o r e h o l e . I n r a r e events, i t
can be imagined t h a t pushing o f t h e o l d p r o p p a n t package i n f i l l i n g t h e o r i g i n a l
c r a c k i n f r o n t o f t h e pad i n t o t h e now w i d e r opening and deeper p e n e t r a t i n g
f r a c t u r e can t a k e p l a c e f a s t e r than c r a c k e x t e n s i o n and thus r e a c h i n g o f t h e
o l d proppant l o t a t t h e f r o n t o f t h e r e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t t o t h e f r a c t u r e
t i p c o u l d provoke s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.4.2.1.). As most o f
t h e r e f r a c t u r i n g j o b s , however, p e r f o r m smoothly w i t h o u t s c r e e n o u t problems,
propagation o f the crack during r e f r a c t u r i n g probably takes place a t a r a t e fas-
t e r than t h a t o f p r o p p a n t - l a d e n f l u i d advance. O t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n s may o c c u r i n
r e s e r v o i r r o c k s w i t h m u l t i p l e n a t u r a l j o i n t systems t h a t a r e p a r t i a l l y h e a l e d
(DOLAK & PERNTHANER 1976). I n such cases, one o f t h e main problems i s opening
up o f a d d i t i o n a l f i s s u r e systems f o r uptake o f a d d i t i o n a l amounts o f p r o p p a n t s .

4.8.9.6. Combination of hydraulic and explosive fracturing

L a t e - s t a g e r e f r a c t u r i n g o f w e l l s where an e a r l i e r h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t has been performed some t i m e ago can c o n s i d e r a b l y p r o f i t f r o m e x p l o -
s i v e f r a c t u r i n g superimposed on t h e o l d e r h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t (YOUNG, BARKER &
CLARK 1984). T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y due t o t h e independency o f o r i e n t a t i o n o f
c r a c k s generated by stem-induced h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g which a r e v e r t i c a l even
i n r e s e r v o i r columns where t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s s t a t e would d i c t a t e t h e o r i g i n o f
h o r i z o n t a l c r a c k s . The i n t e r s e c t i o n o f e a r l i e r h o r i z o n t a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s
by l a t e r v e r t i c a l e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r e s t h e r e f o r e i s a v e r y e f f e c t i v e means o f i n -
c r e a s i n g t h e d r a i n a g e area by combining s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t c r a c k systems ( c f .
also section 4.9.4.2.1.4.).

I n a d d i t i o n , f r a c t u r e s generated by e x p l o s i v e d e t o n a t i o n may o f t e n a l s o i n -
t e r s e c t l a r g e r p o r t i o n s o f t h e pay zones t h a t were n o t a d e q u a t e l y tapped by t h e
e a r l i e r h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s . The l a r g e f l u s h i n p r o d u c t i o n r e s u l t -
i n g f r o m e x p l o s i v e r e f r a c t u r i n g o f w e l l s t h a t had been p r e v i o u s l y h y d r a u l i c a l l y
s t i m u l a t e d u n d e r l i n e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n t b e n e f i t o f stem-induced e x p l o s i v e r e t r e a t -
ments i n o r d e r t o a c q u i r e new p a r t s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r t h a t have so f a r n o t been
d r a i n e d by t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d c r a c k . Combination o f h y d r a u l i c and e x p l o -
s i v e f r a c t u r i n g a r e p a r t i a l l y r e v i v i n g o i l - w e l l s h o o t i n g by f i r i n g e x p l o s i v e
charges which has been abundantly c a r r i e d o u t p r i o r t o i n t r o d u c t i o n o f hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g t o t h e hydrocarbon market, w i t h w e l l s h o o t i n g a i m i n g on f r a c t u -
r i n g o r r u b b l i z i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e b o t h i n i t i a l f l o w and
u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y o f o i l , w a t e r and gas w e l l s (GRANT, DUVALL, OBERT, ROUGH & AT-
CHISON 1950).

4.8.10. Combination of acid and proppant fracturing

M i n i a t u r e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g c o u l d a l s o be a p r o m i s i n g improve-
ment o f a c i d f r a c t u r i n g by h a v i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t o f d i s s o l u t i o n by
t h e a c i d and p r o p p i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e t h a t was opened by t h e pad, and i n case
of good r e s u l t s c o u l d be t h e i n i t i a l s t e p f o r changing towards l a r g e r - s c a l e hy-
d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f carbonate f o r m a t i o n s i n Europe. Some combined
p r o p p a n t - a c i d - f r a c t u r i n g j o b s have a l r e a d y been c a r r i e d o u t i n Cretaceous c h a l k
i n t h e Norwegian and Danish N o r t h Sea (TANSOE, K I N G & HOLMAN 1986; c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 5 . 4 . 2 . ) and i n M i d d l e T r i a s s i c carbonates i n A u s t r i a . A p a r t i c u l a r l y impor-
t a n t marketing p o t e n t i a l o f m i n i f r a c t u r e s c a r r i e d out w i t h intermediate- t o
h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants i s seen a t l e a s t i n p a r t s of E a s t e r n Europe where admi-
n i s t r a t i v e i n h i b i t i o n s o f f a s t approval o f m a j o r i n v e s t m e n t s would f a v o u r t o
p e r f o r m some i n i t i a l t r e a t m e n t s as m i n i f r a c t u r e s w i t h own equipment and s e r v i c e
 629

( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.4.4.) and t h u s o n l y c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i t t l e amounts o f proppants

would have t o be purchased i n t h e west. Aspects o f p r o p p a n t d i s s o l u t i o n , t r e a t -
ment schedule and a c i d improvement, and s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i -
ned as f o l l o w s .

4.8.10.1. Proppant d i s s o l u t i o n
Concerning c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c i d and proppant f r a c t u r i n g (cf. section
4.5.4.2.), a t t e n t i o n has t o be p a i d t o t h e f a c t t h a t under a c i d c o n d i t i o n s , na-
t u r a l q u a r t z sand has t h e l o w e s t s o l u b i l i t y i n HCl/HF a c i d (CHEUNG 1985, COBB &
FARRELL 1986). S i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e proppants d i s -
s o l v e more o r l e s s q u i c k l y when exposed t o HCl/HF-acid by l e a c h i n g and forma-
t i o n o f p i t s i n t h e p a r t i c l e s . The r a t e o f s o l u b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s w i t h h i g h e r HF
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , l o n g e r exposure t i m e t o a c i d , and a g i t a t i o n o f t h e f l u i d ( c f .
s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 3 . 2 . ) . HCl/HF-mixtures i n t h e r a t i o 12 : 3 a t t a c k a l l t h e proppants
much more r a p i d l y than e i t h e r h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d o r h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d i n d i v i d u a l -
l y . The presence o f c o r r o s i o n i n h i b i t o r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.1.1.3.2.) which a r e
t o p r o t e c t t h e t u b i n g s o n l y slow down, b u t do n o t s t o p t h e d i s s o l u t i o n r a t e o f
alumina o x i d e - c o n t a i n i n g p r o p p a n t s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o chemical d i s s o l u t i o n , t h e alumina oxide-based proppants l o s e

c o n s i d e r a b l e percentages o f t h e i r mechanical s t r e n g t h , and s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e
even becomes weaker than n a t u r a l q u a r t z sand t h a t has been s i m i l a r l y t r e a t e d .
T h e r e f o r e c o m b i n a t i o n o f proppant and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g has t o f o c u s on a p p l i c a -
t i o n o f n a t u r a l q u a r t z sand as p r o p p i n g agent when HCl/HF-mixtures a r e used as
a c i d phase, and f o r deep w e l l s propped w i t h alumina oxide-based proppants, e x -
treme c a u t i o n s h o u l d be taken i n t h e use o f HCl/HF-acid and p r e f e r a b l y o n l y hy-
d r o c h l o r i c a c i d s h o u l d be a p p l i e d which does n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i s s o l v e o r
change t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f g r a v e l s and p r o p p a n t s .

4.8.10.2. Treatment schedule and a c i d imrovement

I n terms o f t r e a t m e n t schedule, d i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between j o i n t o r
separated o p e r a t i o n o f a c i d and proppant f r a c t u r i n g . As a c i d a l o n e i s o n l y a
poor f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d w i t h i n s u f f i c i e n t proppant t r a n s p o r t p r o p e r t i e s , i t s e f -
f e c t i v i t y f o r p r o p p a n t c a r r i a g e has t o be f r e q u e n t l y improved by g e l l i n g and/or
c r o s s l i n k i n g o f t h e a c i d ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.3.4.3.4.1. and 4.5.1.2.). Some com-
ments on s u i t a b l e successions o f stages a r e a l s o o f f e r e d .

4.8.10.2.1. Joint or separated operation

Combination o f a c i d and proppant f r a c t u r i n g has t o d i s t i n g u i s h between tempo-
r a l l y j o i n t o r separated o p e r a t i o n . CHEUNG (1985) i s f a v o u r i n g a c i d i z i n g a f t e r
g r a v e l p a c k i n g o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , b u t t h i s can i n c l u d e o n l y a c i d washing
o r m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g . A c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g always s h o u l d be executed mo-
r e o r l e s s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , because i n case o f f i r s t p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and se-
cond a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n o f carbonates o r c a r b o n a t e - b e a r i n g sandstones, t h e c r a c k
would be e n l a r g e d by a c i d l e a c h i n g and t h e proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n would be no
l o n g e r s u i t a b l e t o s u p p o r t t h e f r a c t u r e and p r e v e n t i t s c l o s u r e .

I n v e r s e l y , f i r s t a c i d i z i n g o r a c i d f r a c t u r i n g and second h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g could r e s u l t i n propagation o f the large p r o p p a n t - i n f i l l e d crack i n
another d i r e c t i o n o r a l o n g o t h e r predetermined cleavage p l a n e s than t h e a c i d - i n -
duced v o i d spaces, which would mean t h a t no c o m b i n a t i o n e f f e c t i s achieved, b u t
t h e two s e p a r a t e s t e p s o f o p e r a t i o n r a t h e r a c t i n d i v i d u a l l y and s p a t i a l l y d i s -
t i n c t . Simultaneous p r o p p a n t and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g guarantees t h a t a f t e r t h e main
r e a c t i o n p e r i o d o f t h e a c i d , t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y induced and c h e m i c a l l y e n l a r g e d
f r a c t u r e i s i n f i l l e d by t h e proppants which s u p p o r t t h e whole f i n a l geometry
and shape o f t h e c r a c k .
 630

4.8.10.2.2.Acid gelling and crosslinking

On t h e o t h e r hand, a c i d i s a v e r y u n s u i t a b l e f r a c t u r i n g o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g
f l u i d w h i c h p e r f o r m s much w o r s e t h a n w a t e r - o r o i l - b a s e d g e l s due t o p o o r l e a k -
o f f c o n t r o l and l o w v i s c o s i t y u n l e s s u p g r a d e d ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . ) . A c i d i m -
provement, however, c a n be done b y g e l l i n g o r c r o s s l i n k i n g , o r by u s i n g a l t e r n a -
t i n g s t a g e s o f a c i d and g e l o r f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e (ELPHICK 1985; c f . a l s o sec-
t i o n s 4.3.4.3.4.1. and 4 . 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) . H i g h - s t r e n g t h c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d systems w i t h
e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s t a b i l i t y (PABLEY & HOLCOMB 1982; SMITH, DAWSON & SCOGGINS
1983) have e x c e l l e n t p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y and a r e t h e r e f o r e t h e optimum
medium f o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g . C r o s s l i n k i n g o f t h e
a c i d c a n be done b o t h i n c o n v e n t i o n a l and d e l a y e d manner ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . )
which i s considerably i n c r e a s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f reducing t u b u l a r f r i c t i o n
pressure.

The l o w pH o f a c i d g e l systems m i n i m i z e s c l a y damage and t h u s a l l o w s c r o s s -

l i n k e d a c i d systems t o be a r e a s o n a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e t o foam and e n e r g i z e d f r a c t u -
r i n g f l u i d s i n w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e sandstone r e s e r v o i r s . F l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l i d e n t i -
c a l o r l a r g e r t h a n t h a t o b t a i n e d b y c r o s s l i n k e d w a t e r - b a s e d f l u i d s i n s u r e s deep
p e n e t r a t i o n o f l i v e a c i d , and an e x t r e m e l y r e t a r d e d r e a c t i o n r a t e a l l o w s i n
many c a s e s t h e c r o s s l i n k e d a c i d t o be p l a c e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n w i t h l i t t l e o r
no d e c r e a s e i n a c i d s t r e n g t h . A s p e c t s o f e f f e c t i v e a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n i n f r a c t u r e
systems a r e d i s c u s s e d b y REN & XIONG ( 1 9 8 6 ) , and h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e s t a b i l i t y o f
a c i d g e l l i n g p o l y m e r s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d by NORMAN, CONWAY & WILLIAMS ( 1 9 8 1 ) and
NORMAN & CONWAY ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

4.8.10.2.3. Succession of stages

C o n c e r n i n g t e c h n i c a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f combined a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ,
i t may be i n many c a s e s t h e optimum s o l u t i o n t o pump a c i d f i r s t w i t h o u t p r o p -
p a n t s , open t h e f r a c t u r e h y d r a u l i c a l l y w i t h t h e a c i d pad, and f o l l o w t h e n w i t h
i n j e c t i o n o f a g e l l e d c a r r i e r f l u i d t h a t i s s a t u r a t e d w i t h p r o p p a n t s once t h e
r e a c t i o n o f the a c i d i n the f r a c t u r e d formation i s almost terminated. Caution
has t o be e x e r c i s e d c o n c e r n i n g p r o p p a n t c h o i c e and a c i d s e l e c t i o n , because
w h i l e h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d i s g e n e r a l l y n o t h a z a r d o u s t o any p r o p p a n t t y p e , HC1-
H F - m i x t u r e s s e v e r e l y c o r r o d e p r o p p a n t s c o n s i s t i n g o f a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i l i -
c a t e , whereas n a t u r a l q u a r t z sand i s t h e c h e m i c a l l y m o s t s t a b l e p r o p p i n g mate-
r i a l i n a c i d e n v i r o n m e n t (CHEUNG 1985, COBB & FARRELL 1986) ( a s p e c t s of sand-
stone a c i d i z i n g are discussed i n s e c t i o n 4.5.5.).

4.8.10.3. Special appl icat ions

A s p e c i a l t y p e o f c o m b i n a t i o n o f a c i d and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g has t o b e ap-
p l i e d i n some c h a l k f o r m a t i o n s where s h o r t w i d e c r a c k s a r e i n d u c e d h y d r a u l i c a l -
l y and s u b s e q u e n t l y e n l a r g e d b y c r e a t i o n o f w i d e l y - s p a c e d e t c h e d r i d g e s b y a c i -
d i z i n g i n o r d e r t o make t h e f r a c t u r e s s u f f i c i e n t l y w i d e f o r i n f i l l i n g w i t h p r o p -
p a n t m u l t i - l a y e r s t h a t m i n i m i z e embedment o f g r a i n s i n t o t h e s o f t f o r m a t i o n
(SHELL 1979, HARTLEY & BOSMA 1985; TANSOE, K I N G & HOLMAN 1986; c f . s e c t i o n
4.5.4.2.2.). A s u i t a b l e t e c h n i q u e f o r such weak u n s t a b l e r e s e r v o i r s i s t i p
s c r e e n o u t f r a c t u r i n g (SMITH, MILLER & HAGA 1987; c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 4 . 4 . 1 . and
4.8.5.3.).

From t h e d i s c u s s e d p o i n t s , c o n c l u s i o n c a n t h u s b e made t h a t m i n i f r a c t u r i n g
and r e l a t e d s m a l l - s c a l e s t i m u l a t i o n i s a h i g h - r a n k means t o expand t h e h y d r a u -
l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g m a r k e t i n b o t h Western and E a s t e r n Europe b y n o t o n l y
a l l o w i n g t o c u t s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t , b u t a l s o p e r m i t t i n g t o b e t t e r j u s t i f y t h e ap-
p r o a c h o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s a t l e a s t a t an e x p e r i m e n t a l
s t a g e where so f a r no sound t e c h n i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l s t i m u l a t i o n c o n c e p t has
 631

been devel oped,

4.8.11. Fracture length and height optimization

A d i s c u s s i o n of mHF vs. MHF and o t h e r s m a l l e r - o r l a r g e r - s c a l e p r o p p a n t s t i -
m u l a t i o n s a u t o m a t i c a l l y has t o f o c u s on t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h ( e x -
pressed as h a l f l e n g t h f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e t o t h e t i p o f one wing) and f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t and t h e i r c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r s and i n f l u e n c e s . H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ments do n o t o n l y r e p r e s e n t a l a r g e f r a c t i o n o f i n i t i a l w e l l expenses ( c f . sec-
t i o n s 2.3.4. and 3 . 7 . ) , b u t a l s o determine t h e economical v i a b i l i t y of a p a r t i -
c u l a r b o r e h o l e o r f i e l d (NEWBERRY, NELSON & AHMED 1985). A s t i m u l a t i o n j o b
b e i n g t o o l a r g e can be an unnecessary waste o f c o m p l e t i o n funds, whereas a f r a c -
t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n b e i n g t o o small may r e s u l t i n such i n e f f i c i e n t r e s e r v o i r d r a i -
nage as t o r e n d e r a w e l l u n p r o f i t a b l e .

T h i s economical double-edged sword n e c e s s i t a t e s t h a t h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g

t r e a t m e n t s have t o be designed i n such a way t h a t optimum d e p l e t i o n o f t h e pay
zone i s reached, w i t h p r o p p a n t t y p e and g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n b e i n g one o f t h e
key elements o f t h i s procedure ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 2 . ) , b u t an almost e q u i v a l e n t
c o n t r o l e x e r t e d by c h o i c e o f adequate f r a c t u r e l e n g t h which i s t h e i t e m govern-
i n g t o t a l j o b s i z e g i v e n more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t f r a c t u r e h e i g h t w i t h i n t h e li-
m i t s o f r e s e r v o i r t h i c k n e s s between t h e upper and lower bounding s e a l s . The o u t -
l i n e as f o l l o w s focusses on r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y and w e l l spacing vs. f r a c -
t u r e l e n g t h , f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y vs. f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y
vs. proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n , n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e o p t i m i z a t i o n and f r a c t u r e h e i g h t .
Some f i e l d examples a r e a l s o mentioned.

4.8.11.1. Reservoir Permeability and

well spacing vs. fracture length
R e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y and w e l l spacing a r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g
f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s e l e c t i o n . Long and s h o r t f r a c t u r e s have t o be chosen i n low-
and h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay zones, r e s p e c t i v e l y , and t h e t i g h t e r t h e r e s e r v o i r ,
t h e c l o s e r t h e b o r e h o l e s have g e n e r a l l y t o be spaced. The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n
a l s o i n c l u d e s comments on r e s e r v o i r and f r a c t u r e parameters v s . economical as-
p e c t s , p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e and f l u i d f l o w p a t t e r n , and f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n vs. r e -
s e r v o i r shape.

4.8.11.1.1. Long and short fractures

in low- and high-permeability reservoirs
G e n e r a l l y , f r a c t u r e l e n g t h i s s i m i l a r l y as w e l l spacing determined by t h e
d r a i n a g e r a d i u s i n t h e hydrocarbon-bearing f o r m a t i o n which i s i n t u r n a f u n c -
t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y (MONTGOMERY & STEANSON 1985, POULSEN & SOLIMAN
1987). T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p a l r e a d y l e a d s t o c o n c l u s i o n t h a t l o n g f r a c t u r e s i n con-
n e c t i o n w i t h MHF t r e a t m e n t s a r e r e q u i r e d i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay h o r i z o n s and
p a r t i c u l a r l y t i g h t gas sands, whereas moderate- and h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y forma-
t i o n s can be s u c c e s s f u l l y approached by s h o r t e r c r a c k s o f h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y
( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.4.2.2. and 4 . 6 . ) and s m a l l e r j o b s i z e s and thus a r e s u i t a b l e
t a r g e t s f o r m i n i f r a c t u r i n g and i t s a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e v a r i o u s examples o u t l i n e d
i n the preceding sections.

As fracture length i s also linked w i t h fracture flow capacity o r conductivi-

t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.10.), t h i s means t h a t s u p p o r t o f l o n g f r a c t u r e s i n t i g h t r e -
s e r v o i r s has t o be p r o v i d e d by i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c prop-
pants, whereas i n f i l l i n g o f s h o r t e r c r a c k s i n moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y
pay h o r i z o n s may a l s o i n c l u d e n a t u r a l sand i n many cases, a l t h o u g h a b e t t e r con-
d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t i s always achieved by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a high-performance
 632

man-made p r o p p a n t . S h o r t e r f r a c t u r e s i n m o d e r a t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r -
v o i r s r e q u i r e a l s o e f f i c i e n t m u l t i l a y e r p r o p p i n g t o a v o i d embedment ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.3.3.1.). The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s on r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y
and f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , n e a r - w e l l b o r e damage zone bypass, and f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i -
t y and l e n g t h o p t i m i z a t i o n .

4.8.11.1.1.1. Reservoir permeability and fracture length

As l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s w i t h b r o a d d r a i n a g e r a d i i r e s p o n d f a v o u r a b l y
t o c r e a t i o n o f l o n g p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e s w h i c h i s a c h i e v e d b y l a r g e f l u i d and p r o p -
p a n t volumes, f r a c t u r i n g r e s e a r c h has f o r y e a r s c o n c e n t r a t e d o n f r a c t u r e l e n g t h
improvement (CRAMER & SONGER 1 9 8 8 ) . T h i s f o c u s has u n f o r t u n a t e l y l e d f o r a l o n g
t i m e t o b e l i e f t h a t w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t r e a t m e n t vo-
lume and f r a c t u r e l e n g t h r e g a r d l e s s o f r e s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A d i f f e r e n t
approach, however, i s r e q u i r e d f o r m o d e r a t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y p a y zones
where o p t i m a l r e s u l t s a r e a c h i e v e d b y c r e a t i o n o f s h o r t h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c -
t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5.4.2.2. and 4 . 6 . ) . I n h y d r o c a r b o n - b e a r i n g i n t e r v a l s i n -
t e r s e c t e d by closely-spaced w e l l s , t h i s i s most e f f i c i e n t l y accomplished b y
u s i n g a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s l u r r y volume c o n t a i n i n g h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
W e l l b o r e t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y i s i n c r e a s e d by b o r e h o l e v i c i n i t y damage zone b y p a s s
( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 3 . ) and e x t e n s i o n o f e f f e c t i v e w e l l b o r e r a d i u s .

4.8.11.1.1.2. Near-wellbore damage zone bypass

Damage zone b y p a s s i s a c h i e v e d b y c r e a t i o n o f a f l o w p a t h w i t h s u f f i c i e n t
c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t f r o m w e l l b o r e t o v i r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n and i s n o r -
m a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m o s t o f t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y improvement a t t a i n e d f r o m f r a c -
t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n o f m o d e r a t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y p a y zones (CRAMER & SONGER
1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 3 . ) . E x t e n s i o n o f e f f e c t i v e w e l l b o r e r a d i u s a l s o r e q u i r e s
e x i s t e n c e o f a l a r g e c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e and r e s e r -
v o i r p o r e n e t w o r k ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 1 . 1 . 2 . and 4 . 6 . 1 . ) . W i t h a l l o t h e r t h i n g s
b e i n g c o n s t a n t , t h e b e n e f i t s o f c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t and r e s u l t i n g t r a n s m i s s i -
b i l i t y c o n t i n u a l l y diminuish w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e length. W i t h i n t h e range
o f achievable f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s , optimal f r a c t u r e h a l f - l e n g t h v a r i e s from
10 - 30 % o f t h e w e l l d r a i n a g e r a d i u s . The p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t o b j e c t i v e s i n mode-
r a t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s a r e t o bypass w e l l b o r e damage, m a x i m i z e
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , a v o i d e x c e s s i v e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t and l e n g t h , and m i n i m i z e
operation cost.

L e n t i c u l a r t i g h t gas sands ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 . ) r e q u i r e more c o m p l i c a t e d so-

l u t i o n s , because t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between sand body l o n g a x i s o r i e n t a t i o n and
f r a c t u r e a z i m u t h as a consequence o f h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n has i m p o r t a n t
i m p a c t on t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e and t h u s s t i m u l a t i o n e f f e c t
d e t e r i o r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.10.5.1.). Given f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , square d r a i -
nage p a t t e r n s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t f r a c t u r e s a r e more e f f i c i e n t i n r e s e r v o i r s
w i t h h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y ( o v e r 0 . 1 md), whereas r e c t a n g u l a r d r a i n a g e c o n f i g u r a -
t i o n s w i t h l o n g f r a c t u r e s a r e t h e optimum p o s s i b i l i t y f o r p a y zones w i t h l o w e r
p e r m e a b i l i t y ( b e l o w 0 . 1 md; KUUSKRAA, BRASHEAR, ELKINS & MORRA 1 9 7 9 ) .

4.8.11.1.1.3. Fracture flow capacity and length optimization

Based on known r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o o p t i m i z e f r a c t u r e
l e n g t h and c o n d u c t i v i t y by c o m p a r i n g t r e a t m e n t c o s t and e x p e c t e d p r o d u c t i o n r e -
venue (MONTGOMERY & STEANSON 1 9 8 5 ) . P r e s s u r e d r o p a l o n g a p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e ( o f
f i n i t e c o n d u c t i v i t y ; i n f i n i t e - c o n d u c t i v i t y cases a r e h a r d l y , i f a t a l l , develo-
ped i n n a t u r e ; c f . R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & H U E N I 1985) t h a t has an i n s u f -
f i c i e n t f l o w c a p a c i t y w i l l s e r i o u s l y l i m i t w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y , whereas a f r a c -
t u r e w i t h e x c e s s i v e f l o w c a p a c i t y i s n o t e f f e c t i v e and i s r a t h e r a w a s t e o f mo-
ney, because t h e i n c r e m e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t i s n o t compensated and r e t u r n e d b y f u r -
 633

t h e r a d d i t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n ( t h i s a p p l i e s f o r excess o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , whereas
a d d i t i o n a l c r a c k h e i g h t may have a p o s i t i v e impact on w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y ; CIPOL-
LA & LEE 1987).

When t h e e f f e c t i v e i n - s i t u r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y i s g r e a t e r than a b t . 0 . 1
md, t h e d e s i r e d f r a c t u r e l e n g t h i s g e n e r a l l y a b t . 1,000 f t ( a b t . 300 m) o r
l e s s , whereas i n t i g h t pay h o r i z o n s w i t h l e s s than 0 . 1 md, p r o d u c t i o n can be a l -
most d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o c r a c k l e n g t h b e f o r e boundary c o n d i t i o n s a r e r e a -
ched and w i t h adequate f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y , t h e g e n e r a l r u l e i s t h e l o n g e r
t h e crack, t h e h i g h e r t h e p r o d u c i n g r a t e . I n t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s , thus f r a c t u r e
l e n g t h i s u s u a l l y a b t . 2,500 - 4,500 f t ( a b t . 750 - 1,500 m; BAKER 1981, VEATCH
1983), w i t h l o n g e r f r a c t u r e s p a r t i c u l a r l y b e i n g necessary i n l e n t i c u l a r i n s t e a d
o f c o n t i n u o u s b l a n k e t sandstone pay segments ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 . ) . MEEHAN,
HORNE & A Z I Z (1988) o u t l i n e e f f e c t s o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and f r a c t u r e a z i -
muth on o p t i m i z a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and w e l l spacing.

4.8.11.1.2. Reservoir and f r a c t u r e

parameters vs. economical aspects
F r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t o p t i m i z a t i o n has t h r e e b a s i c s t e p s compri-
s i n g e v a l u a t i o n o f i n c r e a s e d income which m i g h t be expected f r o m o i l - o r gas-
p r o d u c i n g performance r e s u l t i n g f r o m v a r i o u s f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s and c o n d u c t i v i -
t i e s , d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c o s t s r e q u i r e d t o achieve t h e d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h s and con-
d u c t i v i t i e s , and assessment o f n e t revenue vs. f r a c t u r e l e n g t h t o p i c k up t h e
t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n which y i e l d s t h e maximum payback (VEATCH & M O S C H O V I D I S 1986).
A l t h o u g h f r a c t u r e l e n g t h r e q u i r e m e n t s depend g r e a t l y on r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y ,
fracture conductivity, f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n and f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y , o t h e r
f a c t o r s such as f r a c t u r e h e i g h t and n e t pay t h i c k n e s s can become i m p o r t a n t con-
s i d e r a t i o n s i n f r a c t u r e economics by h a v i n g s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e m e n t a l e f f e c t s .
Some comments on f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n vs. n e t pay t h i c k n e s s and o t h e r aspects
a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s .

4.8.11.1.2.1. Fracture p e n e t r a t i o n vs. net pay thickness

Optimum f r a c t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n g e t s l o n g e r as n e t pay t h i c k n e s s i n c r e a s e s f o r
moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s , b u t remains r a t h e r c o n s t a n t f o r low-
permeabi 1 it y hydrocarbon-bearing i n t e r v a l s (VEATCH & MOSCHOVIDIS 1986). Optimum
c r a c k l e n g t h can t h e r e f o r e v a r y w i d e l y f o r a g i v e n pay p e r m e a b i l i t y and f r a c -
t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y depending on n e t pay magnitude. F r a c t u r e h e i g h t can have s i g -
n i f i c a n t impact on optimum economical c r a c k p e n e t r a t i o n which i n t u r n a f f e c t s
w e l l spacing, because t h e d i s t a n c e between n e i g h b o u r i n g b o r e h o l e s can be i n c r e a -
sed i f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and/or h e i g h t i n c r e a s e , t h e r e b y r e p l a c i n g r e l a t i v e l y
h i g h d r i l l i n g expenses by l o w e r s t i m u l a t i o n c o s t s . O p t i m i z a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e
l e n g t h and f r a c t u r e h e i g h t t h e r e f o r e has i m p o r t a n t consequences on p l a n n i n g o f
w e l l spacing and t h u s f i e l d development expenses.

4.8.11.1.2.2. Other aspects

Additional factors requiring consideration f o r fracturing stimulation treat-
ment o p t i m i z a t i o n a r e d u r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n f o r e c a s t f r o m which n e t p r e s e n t
w o r t h ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.12.2. and 4.8.11.4.) i s c a l c u l a t e d , n e t d i s c o u n t e d p r o -
d u c t i o n revenue, and amount o f investment r e q u i r e d t o achieve t h e d e s i g n o p t i o n
(WAREMBOURG, KLINGENSMITH, HODGES & ERDLE 1985), as w e l l as hydrocarbon p r i c e
( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . ) , i n t e r e s t ( d i s c o u n t ) f a c t o r s , t e c h n o l o g y l e v e l and r i s k
(ROSENBERG, O'SHEA, MERCER, MORRA & BRASHEAR 1983; BRASHEAR, ROSENBERG & MERCER
1984). BRITT (1985) documents economical b e n e f i t s o f s h o r t h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y
f r a c t u r e s i n m o d e r a t e - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.6.) and docu-
ments t h e impact o f d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s and f l o w c a p a c i t i e s on incremen-
t a l present worth.
 634

I n r e s e r v o i r s where f r a c t u r i n g i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o -
gram, w e l l s p a c i n g and a p p r o p r i a t e f r a c t u r e l e n g t h r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e paramount
(VEATCH 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 3 . 4 . ) . The i m p a c t o f l a t e t i m e w e l l i n t e r f e r e n c e
f r o m o v e r l a p p i n g d r a i n a g e a r e a s o f i n e f f i c i e n t w e l l p a t t e r n s on economics i s
c o n s i d e r a b l y i n f l u e n c e d b y f r a c t u r e a z i m u t h w h i c h has a p r o m i n e n t c o n t r o l on
w e l l s p a c i n g i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t unwanted c r a c k c o n n e c t i o n and c u t t i n g o f f d r a i -
nage p a t h s . BARBA ( 1 9 8 8 ) comments on r e s e r v o i r j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r m a x i m i z i n g hy-
draulic fracture length.

4.8.11.1.3. Pressure d e c l i n e and f l u i d flow p a t t e r n

L o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s i n t e r s e c t e d by l o n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e cha-
r a c t e r i z e d b y r a p i d d e c l i n e r a t e s d u r i n g t h e f i r s t months o f p r o d u c t i o n a f t e r
t h e t r e a t m e n t (HOLDITCH & LEE 1 9 7 9 ) . U n s u c c e s s f u l s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s as a con-
sequence o f e x t r e m e l y q u i c k r a t e d i m i n u t i o n beyond n o r m a l r a n g e s a r e t h e r e s u l t
o f an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y l o w f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y ( l e s s t h a n 0 . 0 0 1 md), insuffi-
c i e n t f r a c t u r e l e n g t h w h i c h i s u s u a l l y caused b y f r a c t u r i n g o u t o f zone o r b y
p o o r p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t , i n s u f f i c i e n t f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y due t o p r o p p a n t
c r u s h i n g and embedment, o r i n s u f f i c i e n t g a s - i n - p l a c e . I n v e r y t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s ,
l o n g e r f r a c t u r e s c a n be c r e a t e d b y pumping l a r g e r t r e a t m e n t volumes, and conduc-
t i v i t y improvement c a n be made b y e m p l o y i n g h i g h e r g e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , s m a l l e r
p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s , and d e n s i t y - c o n t r o l l e d f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 6 . ) .

I n many c a s e s , however, t h e a v e r a g e t r e a t m e n t a c h i e v e s o n l y a b t . 70 % o f t h e
designed f r a c t u r e length, i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e a c t u a l c r a c k i s w i d e r and s h o r t e r
and f l u i d l o s s i s l a r g e r t h a n p r e d i c t e d b y c o n v e n t i o n a l d e s i g n t e c h n i q u e s , and
t h e b a r r i e r s c o n t r o l l i n g f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m i g h t be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . W h i l e i n r e -
s e r v o i r s w i t h p e r m e a b i l i t i e s o f 0 . 0 0 1 - 0 . 0 5 md and w i t h f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s o f
500 - 1,500 f t ( 1 5 0 - 500 m), e v e n c r u s h e d sand o r p r o p p a n t s u s u a l l y p r o v i d e
s u f f i c i e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y t o a d e q u a t e l y d r a i n t h e p a y zone ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 4 . ) ,
c r u s h i n g a n d / o r embedment o f p r o p p a n t s c a n c r e a t e s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s i n o t h e r h y -
drocarbon-bearing i n t e r v a l s .

Low f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y g i v e s r i s e t o an e s s e n t i a l l y r a d i a l f l o w p a t t e r n
i n t h e r e s e r v o i r ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . 3 . ) , whereas h i g h f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y t r i g -
g e r s an u n i q u e f l o w p a t t e r n , and an u n i q u e h i s t o r y m a t c h i s o n l y o b t a i n e d when
the dimensionless f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s 10 o r g r e a t e r ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 8 . 1 1 . 3 . ) . A s t h e m a j o r i t y o f p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s a p p e a r s t o have r e a c h e d
o n l y a b t . 70 % o f t h e d e s i g n e d l e n g t h s (HOLDITCH & LEE 1979, SCOTT 1 9 7 9 ) , i t
may be a d v i s a b l e t o o v e r d e s i g n a s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t i n t e r m s o f l e n g t h , espe-
c i a l l y when s e l e c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e b a r r i e r s i s d i f f i c u l t . C o n c e r n i n g e x c e s s i v e
c r a c k l e n g t h , l a r g e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e a r e a s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r o d u c e p r o p o r t i o -
n a l l y more, w i t h o f f t a k e f r o m any g i v e n f o r m a t i o n a l s o b e i n g c o n t r o l l e d b y non-
homogeneous p e r m e a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , c a p i l l a r y p o r e s i z e , c r u s h e d p r o p p a n t
beds and f l u i d i n t e r f a c i a l t e n s i o n (DERBY & SMITH 1 9 7 9 ) .

4.8.11.1.4. Fracture extension vs. r e s e r v o i r shape

F r a c t u r e l e n g t h m o d e l l i n g has c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n d r a i n a g e o f l e n t i -
c u l a r t i g h t gas sands where c r a c k l e n g t h a l s o depends on t h e a n g u l a r r e l a t i o n -
s h i p between h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n and sand l e n s a x i s o r i e n t a t i o n (KUUS-
KRAA, BRASHEAR, ELKINS & MORRA 1 9 7 9 ) . D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between f r a c -
t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n p a r a l l e l t o l o n g and s h o r t axes o f t h e sand l e n s as w e l l as i n -
t e r m e d i a t e o b l i q u e e x t e n s i o n . The optimum c a s e i s f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n p a r a l l e l
t o t h e l o n g a x i s o f t h e l e n t i c u l a r sand body where maximum f r a c t u r e l e n g t h c a n
be a c h i e v e d i n o r d e r t o a l l o w f o r e f f i c i e n t and f e a s i b l e gas r e c o v e r y . When r e -
gional tectonical forces are essentially perpendicular t o lens direction, frac-
t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g i s o l a t e d l e n s e s have t o be k e p t s h o r t i n o r d e r t o a v o i d
waste o f f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n i n surrounding b a r r i e r r o c k s . F r a c t u r e l e n g t h can
 635
o n l y be maximized i f l e n s spacing i s so narrow t h a t s e v e r a l s e p a r a t e l e n s e s can
be connected t o g e t h e r and t o t h e b o r e h o l e by a l o n g f r a c t u r e . I f t h e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p between c r a c k azimuth and sand l e n s l o n g a x i s i s random, optimum f r a c t u r e
e x t e n s i o n i s a l s o l i m i t e d by t h e l e n s boundary u n l e s s o t h e r a d j o i n i n g l e n s e s
can be reached by t h e same c r a c k .

Thus f r a c t u r e l e n g t h i n l e n t i c u l a r t i g h t gas sandstones i s m a i n l y a f u n c t i o n

of l e n s diameter, c r a c k o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o l e n s a x i s , and frequency
and spacing o f lenses i n comparison t o e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e f r a c t u r e l e n g t h .
I n c o n t r a s t t o l e n t i c u l a r t i g h t gas sands, crack azimuth has no s i g n i f i c a n c e i n
b l a n k e t sandstones e x c e p t o f w e l l p a t t e r n p l a n n i n g f o r a v o i d i n g f r a c t u r e i n t e r -
f e r e n c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.10.5.1.), and f r a c t u r e l e n g t h can be designed e x c l u -
s i v e l y a c c o r d i n g t o p e r m e a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n and r e c o v e r a b l e gas r e s e r v e s ba-
sed on n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e o p t i m i z a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.1.2.2.and 4.8.11.4.).

Connection o f i s o l a t e d sand l e n s e s does n o t o n l y i n c l u d e a c q u i s i t i o n o f

s t r i c t l y l a t e r a l l y a d j o i n i n g lenses, b u t i n c o r p o r a t e s a l s o o b l i q u e l y d i s p l a c e d
lower and h i g h e r l e n s e s i n u n d e r l y i n g and o v e r l y i n g r e s e r v o i r l e v e l s . T h e r e f o r e
d r a i n a g e o p t i m i z a t i o n i n l e n t i c u l a r t i g h t gas sands a l s o i n c l u d e s f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t m o d e l l i n g which a u t o m a t i c a l l y a l s o has i t s i n f l u e n c e on f r a c t u r e l e n g t h .
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m a x i m i z a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c crack e x t e n s i o n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r
l i m i t s o f sand lenses i s a l s o emphasized by PETERSON & KOHOUT (1983).

4.8.11.2. Fracture conductivity vs. fracture length

The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y and c r a c k l e n g t h can be summarized
i n t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f s h o r t e r h i g h e r - c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u r e s f o r moderate- t o
h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s and l o n g e r f r a c t u r e s f o r t i g h t pay i n t e r v a l s which
do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y have t o be o f h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y n a t u r e , b u t can a l s o be o f
a b s o l u t e l o w - c o n d u c t i v i t y type, as even i n the l a t t e r case s t i l l a s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i v e c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between t h e l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r o c k m a t r i x and t h e
p r o p p a n t package i n t h e f r a c t u r e i s c r e a t e d ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.5,l.l.Z.and
4.6.1.). The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e a l s o focusses on impact o f p r o p p a n t type, f r a c -
t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y o p t i m i z a t i o n , f r a c t u r e p r o d u c t i v i t y and f l u i d f l o w p a t t e r n ,
a c c e l e r a t i o n vs. u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y enhancement, and d i f f e r e n c e s between c r e a -
ted, propped and e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e l e n g t h .

4.8.11.2.1. Impact of proppant type

Fracture length i s l i n k e d w i t h crack conductivity, w i t h longer f r a c t u r e s i n
t i g h t e r formations j u s t i f y i n g the a p p l i c a t i o n o f a better-performing proppant
i n o r d e r t o maximize d r a i n - o f f r a t e s o f hydrocarbons t o t h e w e l l b o r e . T h i s i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t most o f t h e t i g h t f o r m a t i o n s which have t o be
s t i m u l a t e d b y MHF t r e a t m e n t s i n v o l v i n g l o n g f r a c t u r e s a r e s i t u a t e d i n g r e a t e r
depth where h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s i n d i s p e n s i b l y r e q u i r e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f i n -
t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h s y n t h e t i c proppants, and even i n case o f doubt o f
t h e i r n e c e s s i t y because o f t h e c l o s u r e s t r e s s s t i l l b e i n g i n t h e range o f t h e
boundary s t a b i l i t y o f sand, i t i s f o r t h e reason o f s e c u r i n g l o n g - t e r m produc-
t i o n h i s t o r y up t o 20 - 30 y e a r s recommended t o go on t h e a b s o l u t e l y s a f e s i d e
and choose a proppant t y p e t h a t would be a b l e t o r e s i s t t o any p o s s i b l e p r e s -
s u r e drawdown d u r i n g course o f p r o g r e s s i v e d e p l e t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r ( c f . sec-
t i o n s 1.3.2. and 2.4.1.).

F r a c t u r e l e n g t h has t o be o p t i m i z e d by v a r i a t i o n o f c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y , b u t
a l s o c a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d t o c o n t a i n t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h i n t h e planned v e r -
t i c a l i n t e r v a l f o r r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g and e n v i r o n m e n t a l s a f e t y reasons ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.2.2.). As a r u l e o f thumb, h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s r e q u i r e h i g h
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s b u t do n o t need deeply p e n e t r a t i n g cracks, whereas low-
p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n s demand d e e p l y p e n e t r a t i n g f r a c t u r e s b u t can t o l e r a t e l o -
wer c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t i e s (VEATCH 1983).
 636

4.8.11.2.2. Fracture flow capacity optimization

D e e p l y p e n e t r a t i n g f r a c t u r e s a r e u s u a l l y recommended f o r l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e -
s e r v o i r s , b u t t h e i n c r e m e n t a l improvement on w e l l p r o d u c t i o n d i m i n i s h e s w i t h
c r a c k l e n g t h due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y o r
f l o w c a p a c i t y decreases w i t h i n c r e a s i n g crack length, w i t h thus a balance b e t -
ween f r a c t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s h a v i n g t o be a c h i e v e d in
o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e p a y d e l i v e r a b i l i t y (MENG & BROWN 1 9 8 7 ) . I n r e a l i t y , however,
t h e s e l e c t i o n o f an optimum p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e l e n g t h based o n r e s e r v o i r c o n d i -
t i o n s i s i n f l u e n c e d t o g r e a t e x t e n t b y n o n - t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s such as o p e r a t o r
b u d g e t and common a r e a p r a c t i c e s (PHILLIPS & ANDERSON 1985; ANDERSON & PHILLIPS
1986, 1 9 8 7 ) , and based on t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s as w e l l as on p a y p r o p e r t i e s , pe-
n e t r a t i o n d i s t a n c e and p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e a r e o b t a i n e d u s i n g f r a c t u -
r e d e s i g n p r o g r a m s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 1 2 . ) . T h e r e f o r e t h e optimum d i m e n s i o n l e s s
c o n d u c t i v i t y o r f l o w c a p a c i t y o f a t l e a s t 10 i n t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s can n o t always
be e c o n o m i c a l l y o r o p e r a t i o n a l l y o b t a i n e d .

I n t e r m s o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y v s . l e n g t h , a t t e n t i o n has a l s o t o b e p a i d
t o c o n d u c t i v i t y v a r i a t i o n s a l o n g t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e w i n g s away f r o m
t h e b o r e h o l e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 6 . ) . F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s i n p r a c t i c e a de-
c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n o f d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e (BENNETT, ROSATO, REYNOLDS &
RAGHAVAN 1 9 8 1 ) . I f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y d e c r e a s e s m o n o t o n i c a l l y w i t h d i s t a n c e
from the borehole, then a t l a t e production time t h e v a r i a b l e f r a c t u r e conducti-
v i t y s o l u t i o n s behave l i k e a c o n s t a n t c o n d u c t i v i t y c r a c k w i t h c o n d u c t i v i t y
equal t o t h e a r i t h m e t i c c o n d u c t i v i t y average. Decreasing f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y
a l o n g t h e c r a c k e x t e n s i o n c a n be due t o c h a n g i n g p r o p p a n t t y p e s a n d / o r g r a i n
s i z e as a consequence o f t a i l - i n o p e r a t i o n s , o r due t o n a r r o w i n g f r a c t u r e w i d t h
away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e i n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c r a c k t i p . I n c a s e o f p r e s e n c e o f a
l o w e r c o n d u c t i v i t y zone i n t h e f r a c t u r e r e a c h , t h e c r a c k l i m i t s t h e c a p a c i t y o f
h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t e r v a l s beyond i t t o s u p p l y f l u i d o r gas t o t h e w e l l .
F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y n e a r t h e b o r e h o l e c a n be d e t e r m i n e d o n l y i f d a t a a r e r e -
corded d u r i n g t h e b i l i n e a r f l o w p e r i o d .

4.8.11.2.3.Fracture productivity and fluid flow pattern

A w i d e and v a r i e d a s s o r t m e n t o f methods o f b o t h g r a p h i c and c o m p u t e r i z e d n a -
t u r e a r e a v a i l a b l e t o e s t i m a t e e f f e c t s of f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and c o n d u c t i v i t y on
r e s e r v o i r p r o d u c t i v i t y , and v a r i o u s c r a c k g e o m e t r y m o d e l s e x i s t w h i c h may p r e -
d i c t d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s f o r a g i v e n amount o f i n j e c t e d f l u i d a t a g i v e n
r a t e w i t h a l l t h e o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s b e i n g t h e same, w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s
b e i n g a consequence o f t h e b a s i c p r e m i s e s u s e d t o d e v e l o p t h e m o d e l s (VEATCH
1 9 8 3 ) . I n h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s where s t e a d y - s t a t e o r s e m i - s t e a d y s t a t e
f l o w i s dominant, l e s s than a t h r e e - f o l d p r o d u c t i o n increase i s a v a i l a b l e r e -
g a r d l e s s o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and c o n d u c t i v i t y , whereas i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y p a y
s e c t i o n s w i t h c h i e f l y u n s t e a d y ( t r a n s i e n t ) p e r f o r m a n c e b e h a v i o u r , t h e more deep-
l y p e n e t r a t i n g f r a c t u r e s enhance t h e f o l d s o f p r o d u c t i o n r a t e i n c r e a s e , b u t con-
d u c t i v i t y - f u n c t i o n v a l u e s o f 5 o r more a r e r e q u i r e d t o r e a l i z e s i g n i f i c a n t o f f -
t a k e enhancement, and i n o r d e r t o m a x i m i z e e x p l o i t a t i o n r a t e , a d i m e n s i o n l e s s
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e r a n g e o f 100 - 500 s h o u l d be a c h i e v e d .

CALLANAN, CIPOLLA & LEE ( 1 9 8 3 ) o u t l i n e t h a t d i m e n s i o n l e s s f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i -

v i t i e s g r e a t e r t h a n 10 i m p l y enough p e r m e a b i l i t y t o h a n d l e a l l t h e gas w h i c h
t h e f o r m a t i o n c a n s u p p l y , whereas v a l u e s i n e x c e s s o f 100 a r e r e p r e s e n t i n g i n f i -
n i t e l y c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e s . DAVIES & K U I P E R ( 1 9 8 8 ) a r g u e t h a t a d i m e n s i o n l e s s
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y of 15 i s an a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n v a l u e f o r p s e u d o - s t e a -
dy-state flow conditions, but t i g h t reservoirs w i t h high i n i t i a l transient pro-
d u c t i o n r a t e s r e q u i r e h i g h e r v a l u e s because o f t h e p r o l o n g e d d u r a t i o n o f t h e
t r a n s i e n t r a t e s ( c f . section 4.8.11.3.).
 637

4.8.11.2.4. Acceleration vs. ultimate recovery enhancement

I n h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s w i t h s t e a d y - s t a t e o r semi-steady s t a t e f l o w ,
hydraulic fracture s t i m u l a t i o n increases e a r l y - l i f e production r a t e s which inc-
reases cash f l o w , b u t has l i t t l e o r no impact on u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y and t h u s ba-
s i c a l l y represents acceleration o f r e s e r v o i r depletion ( c f . section 4 . 6 . ) . I n
l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n s w i t h u n s t e a d y - s t a t e ( t r a n s i e n t ) performance beha-
v i o u r , however, d e e p l y p e n e t r a t i n g f r a c t u r e s can s i g n i f i c a n t l y improve u l t i m a t e
r e c o v e r y , w i t h advanced t e c h n o l o g y such as l o n g and c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e s b e i n g
a b l e t o i n c r e a s e r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s f r o m t i g h t gas sands by 40 - 75 % (BAKER
1981, VEATCH 1981). LANCASTER, GUIDRY, GRAHAM, CURTIS, SHAW & BLAKE (1987) c a r -
r y o u t f r a c t u r e l e n g t h o p t i m i z a t i o n i n s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s and conclude t h a t
w h i l e l o n g e r f r a c t u r e s l e a d t o i n c r e a s e d gas p r o d u c t i o n a t some p o i n t of time,
t h e i n c r e a s e d e x p l o i t a t i o n may become i n s u f f i c i e n t t o o f f s e t t h e i n c r e a s e d
c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h pumping of l a r g e r t r e a t m e n t s .

4.8.11.2.5. Created, propped and effective fracture length

The c r e a t e d c r a c k l e n g t h always has t o be a b t . 10 % l a r g e r than t h e sub-
s e q u e n t l y propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a
s c r e e n o u t a t t h e c r a c k t i p (POULSEN & SOLIMAN 1987). F o r any f r a c t u r e l e n g t h ,
c r a c k w i d t h has t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e f o r p r e v e n t i o n o f b r i d g i n g o f
proppants between t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s . Crack w i d t h a t t h e d e s i r e d propped
f r a c t u r e l e n g t h a t t h e t i m e o f j o b c o m p l e t i o n has t o exceed t w i c e t h e d i a m e t e r
o f t h e p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e s i n o r d e r t o a l l o w unhindered passage o f t h e proppants
throughout the crack.

F o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y , f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y and c r a c k p e n e t r a t i o n i n terms
o f length o f the drainage path are a f f e c t i n g production r a t e f o l d s o f increase
and r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e i n c r e a s e s (VEATCH 1986). Cash f l o w f r o m r a t e a c c e l e r a -
t i o n has a s i g n i f i c a n t impact on economics even w i t h o u t any r e s e r v e i n c r e a s e .
D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made n o t o n l y between f l u i d - c r e a t e d and a c t u a l l y - p r o p p e d
f r a c t u r e l e n g t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.5.2.), b u t a l s o between propped and e f f e c -
t i v e f r a c t u r e l e n g t h (ZAHNER & CRAFTON 1985). E f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e l e n g t h i s t h e
p o r t i o n o f propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h which c o n t r i b u t e s t o p r o d u c t i o n and i s smal-
l e r than t o t a l propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h due t o f o r m a t i o n damage a d j o i n i n g t o t h e
c r a c k w a l l by i n c r e a s i n g r e l a t i v e w a t e r p e r m e a b i l i t y and w a t e r i m b i b i t i o n which
a r e r i s i n g w i t h b o t h t i m e and s u r f a c e area o f exposure t o i n v a d i n g f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d s . R e d u c t i o n o f c r a c k area by i n c r e a s i n g r e l a t i v e w a t e r p e r m e a b i l i t y and
water i m b i b i t i o n thus represents reduction o f f r a c t u r e length a t the bottom o f
t h e l i n e i f c r a c k h e i g h t i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be c o n s t a n t .

4.8.11.3. Fracture f l o w capacity vs. proppant distribution

I n terms o f d i m e n s i o n l e s s f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y o r f l o w c a p a c i t y , t h e o p t i -
mum l e n g t h - t o - w i d t h r a t i o i n h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s exceeding 1 md permea-
b i l i t y o r i n case o f c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n d u r i n g l o n g - t e r m f i e l d o p e r a t i o n i s
1.26 (PRATS 1961). F o r t i g h t f o r m a t i o n s , however, t h e e a r l y - t i m e t r a n s i e n t p r o -
d u c t i o n r a t e s p r i o r t o r e a c h i n g pseudo s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s a r e i m p o r t a n t
when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e economics o r p a y - o u t o f a f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t (MORSE &
GONTEN 1972), and t h e r e f o r e h i g h e r values o f f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y a r e more
f e a s i b l e . ELBEL (1985) documents t h a t i n t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y range o f 0 . 1 - 0.001
md, a d i m e n s i o n l e s s f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y o f 5 s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d when t h e
proppant volume has been predetermined, and HOLDITCH & LEE (1979) and PHILLIPS
& ANDERSON (1985) p o i n t o u t t h a t an u n i q u e h i s t o r y match can o n l y be o b t a i n e d
when t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y i s 10 o r g r e a t e r .

V a r y i n g p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r a g i v e n proppant volume and crack l e n g t h

can a f f e c t p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s depending on f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n
 638

4.3.6.). CINCO-LEY, SAMANIEGO & DOMINGUEZ ( 1 9 7 8 ) and AGARWAL, CARTER & POLLOCK
( 1 9 7 9 ) recommend as a r u l e - o f - t h u m b t o d e s i g n f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y t o be a t
l e a s t 10 w h i c h a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f ELBEL ( 1 9 8 5 ) has o b v i o u s bene-
f i t s , b u t on t h e o t h e r hand r e q u i r e s e i g h t t i m e s t h e amount o f p r o p p a n t t h a n
f o r a v a l u e o f 1 . 2 6 . O p t i m i z a t i o n m o d e l l i n g can be p e r f o r m e d g i v i n g p r o d u c t i o n
f o r e c a s t s f o r v a r i o u s e q u a l p r o p p a n t volume f r a c t u r e g e o m e t r i e s w i t h v a r i o u s
formation permeabilities, constant f r a c t u r e length w i t h d i f f e r e n t proppant volu-
mes, and e q u a l f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and p r o p p a n t volume w i t h v a r y i n g p r o p p a n t d i s t r i -
b u t i o n s . Square d r a i n a g e s i m u l a t i o n c a n be r e p l a c e d b y more a p p r o p r i a t e r e c t a n -
g u l a r d r a i n a g e m o d e l l i n g i n c a s e o f l o n g f r a c t u r e s i n t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s (HOL-
DITCH, JENNINGS, NEUSE & WYMAN 1978), and i f f r a c t u r e a z i m u t h (SMITH, HOLMAN,
FAST & COVLIN 1978) i s known and t h e w e l l s c a n be spaced f o r r e c t a n g u l a r d r a i -
nage, t h e n i t may be p o s s i b l e t o economize t h e t r e a t m e n t b y d e s i g n i n g f o r l o w e r
f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t i e s . Crack c o n d u c t i v i t y i n c r e a s e can be f u r t h e r a c h i e v e d
b y improvement o f gas p e r m e a b i l i t y w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e p o s s i b l y by r e m o v a l o f
s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d o r b y f l u i d s e g r e g a t i o n , as w e l l as b y s u s t a i n e d p r o d u c t i o n
(SCOTT 1 9 7 9 ) .

Proppant t r a n s p o r t e f f e c t i v i t y i s d e c i s i v e f o r t h e success o f a h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g j o b , because f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s c o n t r o l l e d b y p r o p p a n t d i s t r i -
b u t i o n (NOVOTNY 1 9 7 7 ) . As t h e s l u r r y t r a v e l s away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e a l o n g t h e
c r a c k , p r o p p a n t s and f l u i d a r e h e a t e d and t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k i s c o o l e d ( c f . s e c -
t i o n 4.3.4.6.1.4.). Because c a r r i e r f l u i d i s c o n t i n u o u s l y l o s t t o t h e f o r m a t i o n
b y l e a k o f f , p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and s l u r r y v i s c o s i t y i n c r e a s e and f l u i d v e l o -
c i t y d i m i n i s h e s . F r a c t u r e w i d t h a l s o d e c r e a s e s away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e w h i c h a l -
t e r s f l u i d v e l o c i t y . As i s c a n n o t b e assumed t h a t e v e n a c o m p l e t e l y s u s p e n d i n g
f l u i d c a r r i e s t h e proppants t o t h e t i p s a t t h e end o f t h e f r a c t u r e , l e n g t h o f
the p r o p p a n t - f l u i d s l u r r y i s u s u a l l y a b t . 2/3 o f t h e t o t a l f r a c t u r e l e n g t h .

4.8.11.4. Net present value optimization

N e t p r e s e n t v a l u e ( b e i n g d e f i n e d a s h y d r o c a r b o n r e v e n u e by s t i m u l a t i o n m i n u s
treatment cost; c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.12.2.) d r a s t i c a l l y increases with r i s i n g f r a c -
t u r e h a l f l e n g t h , i n c r e a s i n g p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and i n c r e a s i n g p r o p p a n t
g r a i n s i z e . A f t e r some d i s t a n c e o f s t e e p r i s e , n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e a c h i e v e s a p l a -
t e a u and does n o t i n c r e a s e f u r t h e r when f r a c t u r e l e n g t h i s c o n t i n u e d t o be p r o -
g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s e d . The u n f e a s i b i l i t y o f e x c e s s i v e c r a c k l e n g t h i s b e s t r e -
f l e c t e d b y t h e n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e even a g a i n d e c l i n i n g a f t e r t h e p l a t e a u sec-
tion, because t h e c r e a t i o n o f s u c c e s s i v e l y l o n g e r f r a c t u r e s i s l i n k e d w i t h
a g a i n i n c r e a s i n g t r e a t m e n t expenses t h a t a r e n o t compensated b y r i s i n g a d d i t i o -
n a l h y d r o c a r b o n r e c o v e r y and t h u s t h e i n c r e a s i n g o p e r a t i o n a l c o s t s g i v e r i s e t o
d i m i n u t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e d e f i n i n g n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e . Many s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s ,
however, r e m a i n i n t h e p r e - p l a t e a u s t a g e o f t h e f r a c t u r e l e n g t h v s . n e t p r e s e n t
v a l u e p l o t w h i c h t e s t i f i e s t o l a c k o f a c h i e v e m e n t o f optimum f r a c t u r e l e n g t h
(ECGNGMIDES & NGLTE 1987).

I t i s in p r a c t i c e c e r t a i n l y n o t e a s y t o r e a c h e x a c t l y t h e optimum p o i n t o f
t h e n e t revenue curve a t which c o s t t o achieve l o n g e r f r a c t u r e s s t a r t s t o ex-
ceed t h e r e v e n u e g e n e r a t e d b y p r o d u c t i o n f r o m t h e a d d i t i o n a l f r a c t u r e l e n g t h
(VEATCH 1983, 1 9 8 6 ) , b u t t h i s optimum s o l u t i o n c a n be c l o s e l y approached espe-
c i a l l y i n l a r g e f i e l d - w i d e campaigns a f f e c t i n g up t o s e v e r a l dozens o f w e l l s i n
one b i g p a t c h where s u f f i c i e n t c o m p a r i s o n o f t r e a t m e n t s u c c e s s and e c o n o m i c a l
payback c a n be done between t h e i n d i v i d u a l w e l l s . ZAHNER & CRAFTON ( 1 9 8 5 ) a l s o
emphasize t h a t t h e r e i s no c o r r e l a t i o n between p e r f o r m a n c e and p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e
l e n g t h beyond a maximum and c o n s e q u e n t l y optimum v a l u e o f t h e l a t t e r .

I n terms o f o p e r a t i o n s , i t i s e a s i e r t o c r e a t e l o n g f r a c t u r e s i n t h i n r e s e r -
v o i r s t h a n i n t h i c k p a y f o r m a t i o n s (JOSH1 1 9 8 7 ) . W h i l e g e n e r a t i o n o f s h o r t f r a c -
t u r e s o f a b t . 100 - 200 f t ( 3 0 - 70 m) l e n g t h i s q u i t e e a s y and cheap, c r e a t i o n
o f l o n g f r a c t u r e s o f a b t . 3,000 f t (1,000 m) l e n g t h i s b o t h d i f f i c u l t and expen-
s i v e (FAST, HOLMAN & COVLIN 1 9 7 7 ) . A s p e c t s o f f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t o p t i m i z a t i o n
 639

by n e t p r e s e n t v a l u e m o d e l l i n g a r e a l s o discussed by COCIANCIG, GRIFFITHS &

SCHULER ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

4.8.11.5. Field examples

MONTGOMERY & STEANSON (1985) p r e s e n t an example showing t h a t i n t h e g i v e n
d r a i n a g e r a d i u s and t h u s a l s o f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , an u n s t i m u l a t e d w e l l would p r o -
duce 8 % o f t h e i n i t i a l gas i n p l a c e i n 20 years, whereas i n case o f c r e a t i n g a
c r a c k o f a b t . 1,300 f t ( a b t . 400 m) l e n g t h , t h e same w e l l would d e p l e t e 34 % o f
t h e i n i t i a l gas i n p l a c e i n t h e same amount o f t i m e . The i n i t i a l r a t e s f o r t h e
f r a c t u r e d w e l l would be h i g h e r t h a n those f o r t h e u n s t i m u l a t e d one and u l t i m a t e
r e c o v e r y would a l s o be g r e a t e r . These two f a c t o r s a r e key p o i n t s i n determina-
t i o n o f t h e economics o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and w e l l spacing. Aspects o f f r a c t u r e
l e n g t h a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by POOLLEN, TINSLEY & SAUNDERS (1958); McGUIRE & S I -
KORA (1960), PRATS & LEVINE (1963); BENNETT, ROSATO & REYNOLDS (1981); HOL-
DITCH, LEE & G I S T (1981); CLARK (1983) and CAMACHO, RAGHAVAN & REYNOLDS ( 1 9 8 4 ) .
BARBA (1988) e v a l u a t e s r e s e r v o i r j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r maximizing h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r e l e n g t h , and BARBA (1986) comments on i m p r o v i n g r e t u r n on h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t
i n v e s t m e n t w i t h w i r e l i n e i n p u t s . The importance o f v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e h e i q h t on
s t e a d y - s t a t e p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e i s commented by TINSLEY, WILLIAMS, TINNER & MA-
LONE ( 1 9 6 9 ) .

The MHF o p e r a t i o n s i n R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s g a s - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s i n

Germany FRG which a r e p a r t i a l l y t h e l a r g e s t s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s c a r r i e d o u t i n Eu-
rope w i t h i n t h e most i m p o r t a n t gas r e s e r v o i r s i n t h i s area ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1.
and 3 . 3 . ) have been performed i n pay h o r i z o n s w i t h p e r m e a b i l i t i e s o f l e s s than
0 . 1 md and i n extreme cases as low as 0.5 m i c r o d a r c y (REINICKE, BRINKMANN,
SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985). Proppant q u a n t i t i e s up t o 550 t (1,100,000 l b s ) have
been i n j e c t e d i n t o f r a c t u r e s r e a c h i n g i n l e n g t h between 200 and 550 m (600 and
1,600 f t ) and i n h e i g h t between 10 and 115 m ( 3 0 and 345 ft; KLOSE & KRUMER
1983). FAST, HOLMAN & COVLIN (1977) o u t l i n e MHF t r e a t m e n t s i n t i g h t gas sands
i n Colorado/USA where proppant volumes up t o 500 t have been pumped i n t o
f r a c t u r e s up t o 3,000 f t (1,000 m) i n l e n g t h .

4.8.11.6. Fracture height

I n c o n t r a s t t o f r a c t u r e l e n g t h which beyond an optimum w i l l be i n e f f e c t i v e
w i t h r e s p e c t t o f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e o f t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y index and t h e r e f o r e i s eco-
n o m i c a l l y n o t j u s t i f i e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.11.4.), excess crack h e i g h t may have a
p o s i t i v e impact on t h e r e s u l t o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b (CIPOLLA & LEE 1987).
W h i l e c o n v e n t i o n a l f r a c t u r e d e s i g n i s based on c o n s t a n t c r a c k h e i g h t b e i n g
equal o r l e s s t h a n r e s e r v o i r t h i c k n e s s (PERKINS & KERN 1961, GEERTSMA & DEKLERK
1969; TINSLEY, WILLIAMS, TINNER & MALONE 1969; NORDGREN 1972), more r e c e n t f r a c -
t u r e modelling i n d i c a t e s t h a t hydraulic f r a c t u r e s are o f t e n n o t l i m i t e d t o re-
s e r v o i r t h i c k n e s s (CLEARY 1980, PALMER & CARROLL 1982, SETTARI & CLEARY 1982;
ABOU-SAYED, SINHA & CLIFTON 1984; MEYER 1985).

F r a c t u r e h e i g h t s e l e c t i o n i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e i n h y d r a u l i c t r e a t -
ment design, because i t d i c t a t e s volumes and r a t e s r e q u i r e d f o r e x e c u t i o n o f
t h e o p e r a t i o n (GARBIS, BROWN & MAURITZ 1985). F r a c t u r e h e i g h t can be d i v i d e d
i n t o n e t h e i g h t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e amount o f zone where f l u i d l e a k o f f occurs, and
gross h e i g h t b e i n g t h e d i s t a n c e between zone b a r r i e r s .

Three-dimensional r e s e r v o i r s i m u l a t i o n s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t propped f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t i n excess o f t h e p r o d u c t i v e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r can add t o
w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y when f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s r e l a t i v e l y low
compared t o f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y (CIPOLLA & LEE 1987). The magnitude o f t h e
p r o d u c t i v i t y increase i s a f u n c t i o n o f the dimensionless crack flow capacity
and excess h e i g h t . F r a c t u r e h e i g h t e x t e n d i n g above and below t h e r e s e r v o i r i n t o
n o n - p r o d u c t i v e s t r a t a can s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t t r a n s i e n t p r e s s u r e b e h a v i o u r o f
 640

v e r t i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d w e l l s . I n t e r m s o f p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n and c r a c k d e s i g n , e x -
cess f r a c t u r e h e i g h t can r e s u l t i n requirement o f l e s s proppant q u a n t i t y f o r a
given crack length ( c f . section 4.3.), necessity o f a less conductive (and the-
r e f o r e e x p e n s i v e ) p r o p p a n t t y p e ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 2 . ) , i n c r e a s e o f t h e optimum
economic f r a c t u r e l e n g t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) a n d / o r i n c r e a s e d e s t i m a t e d p o s t -
s t i m u l a t i o n p r o d u c t i o n . TINSLEY, WILLIAMS, TINNER & MALONE (1969) p r e s e n t c u r -
v e s s h o w i n g p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e as a f u n c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t , f r a c t u r e
length, r e s e r v o i r height, drainage radius, f r a c t u r e f l o w capacity, formation
p e r m e a b i l i t y and w e l l b o r e r a d i u s .

4.9. Oil-reservoir fracturing

In c o n t r a s t t o t h e USA where b o t h o i l - and g a s - r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g i s com-
mon sense and h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n has a l r e a d y e v o l v e d t o t h e s t a g e
o f b e i n g one o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f w e l l c o m p l e t i o n (WATERS 1980; RO-
B I N S O N , HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 3 . 4 . ) , i n E u r o p e and o t h e r
p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d p r e f e r e n t i a l l y gas w e l l s a r e t r e a t e d . A f t e r d i s c u s s i o n o f
some g e n e r a l p o i n t s , s e v e r a l a s p e c t s a r e o u t l i n e d w h i c h i l l u m i n a t e t h e b e n e f i t
o f o i l - r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g w i t h high-performance s y n t h e t i c proppants i n view
o f c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t and e c o n o m i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d
o n s t e a m - d r i v e e f f e c t s on f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n and c o l d w a t e r i n j e c t i o n e f f e c t s
on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g .

4 . 9 . 1 . General aspects
The o u t l i n e o f some g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t o r y a s p e c t s c o m p r i s e s s k e t c h i n g o f gas
v s . o i l r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n as w e l l as p r o p p a n t a p p l i c a t i o n p r i n c i p l e s .

4 . 9 . 1 . 1 . Gas vs. oil reservoir stimulation

I n comparison t o t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f gas-bearing formations, o i l - r e s e r v o i r
f r a c t u r i n g i s i n Europe and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d o n l y p e r f o r m e d i n a c o n s i -
d e r a b l y l o w e r s h a r e and i n s m a l l e r s c a l e and i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y r e s t r i c t e d t o spe-
c i a l c a s e s where a p a r t f r o m a f e w e x c e p t i o n s , a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y n a t u r a l sand
i s u s e d as p r o p p i n g a g e n t due t o s h a l l o w d e p t h r e a s o n a b l y b e l o w t h e c r i t i c a l
p r e s s u r e s t a b i l i t y o f s a n d and as a consequence o f s e r i o u s c o s t c o n t a i n m e n t f o r
economical reasons o f investment l i m i t a t i o n . Although t h e general f e a s i b i l i t y
s i t u a t i o n i n t h e y e a r s a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . )
does n o t a l l o w i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new t e c h n i q u e s , c o n s i d e r a b l e improvement o f o i l
p r o d u c t i o n f r o m m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s c a n be a c h i e v e d i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e b y i n -
c r e a s i n g t h e s t i m u l a t i o n a c t i v i t y i n o i l - b e a r i n g p a y h o r i z o n s and p e r f o r m i n g
t h e o p e r a t i o n s i n r i s i n g amounts w i t h s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s i n s t e a d o f u s i n g
sand, w i t h t h e e f f e c t o f o b t a i n i n g a more p r o n o u n c e d c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t b e t -
ween f r a c t u r e and e s p e c i a l l y m o d e r a t e - t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n s and t h u s
a b e t t e r d r a i n a g e o f t h e o i l ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 1 . 1 . 2 . and 4 . 6 . 1 . ) .

W h i l e s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f o i l - r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g have a l r e a d y been d i s c u s -
sed i n t h e d i v i s i o n s on c h a l k s t i m u l a t i o n ( s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . ) , high-permeability
reservoir fracturing (section 4.6.) and l a t e - s t a g e r e f r a c t u r i n g o f o l d w e l l s
( s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 9 . ) , some p o i n t s a r e c o m p i l e d h e r e t o o u t l i n e i n a s u m m a r i z i n g man-
n e r t h e advantages o f o i l - p a y f r a c t u r i n g w i t h placement o f s y n t h e t i c high-con-
d u c t i v i t y p r o p p a n t s i n t h e c r a c k as a p e r s p e c t i v e o f n e a r - f u t u r e enhanced o i l
recovery.

4.9.1.2.Proppant application principles

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g f o r i m p r o v i n g w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y i s
a f u n c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y (TINSLEY, WILLIAMS, TIN-
 641

NER & MALONE 1969; c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.10. and 4.8.11.) and i n o r d e r t o achieve

t h e most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y o p t i m i z a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e f l o w
c a p a c i t y i s e s s e n t i a l which i s p r i m a r i l y governed by t y p e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
t h e proppants (NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 1.3.2.). I n moderate-
t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r s , h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s p l u g g i n g wide
c r a c k s i n m u l t i l a y e r s a r e one way t o improve s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s (COULTER &
WELLS 1972; SHAH, SMITH & DONALDSON 1983; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . ) , b u t a more
s i g n i f i c a n t a m e l i o r a t i o n can be o b t a i n e d by v a r y i n g p r o p p a n t t y p e and p a r t i a l l y
a l s o g r a i n s i z e . W h i l e i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants a r e w i d e l y ap-
p l i e d i n deep gas r e s e r v o i r s where t h e i r usage i s i n e v i t a b l e due t o correspond-
i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s , so f a r c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i t t l e f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e e x i s t s on
t h e p o t e n t i a l o f these h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y proppants i n low- t o m o d e r a t e l y - s t r e s -
sed r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w o i l - b e a r i n g pay h o r i z o n s (KOHLHAAS 1982; NORMAN, CIPOLLA
& WEBB 1983). The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e p a r t i c u l a r l y emphasizes c o n d u c t i v i t y con-
t r a s t and economical f e a s i b i l i t y .

Aspects o f s h a l l o w t o moderate-depth o i l - r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g a r e a l s o d i s -
cussed by BRITT (1985), B R I T T & BENNETT (1985), BRITT & LARSEN (1986), L I & ZHU
(1986) and MARPLE, RULEY, WORLEY & FREEMAN ( 1 9 8 7 ) . GRAHAM, MONAGHAN & OSOBA
(1959) o u t l i n e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p r o p p i n g sand w e t t a b i l i t y on p r o d u c t i v i t y of hy-
d r a u l i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d o i l w e l l s . R I C E & SHURR (1978); BLACK, RIPLEY, BEECROFT &
PAMPLIN (1979) and NYDEGGER, R I C E & BROWN (1979) comment on s t i m u l a t i o n o f low-
permeabil i t y , low-pressure s h a l l o w gas r e s e r v o i r s . SINHA & ELBEL (1983) p r e s e n t
p r o d u c t i v i t y i n c r e a s e o f many o l d w e l l s by p r o p e r l y designed s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t -
ments.

4.9.2. Conductivity contrast

I n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants have n o t o n l y t h e advantage o f r e -
s i s t i n g t o h i g h e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s than sand, b u t t h e y a l s o o f f e r up t o t e n t i -
mes t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f sand even a t t h e low c l o s u r e s t r e s s l e v e l s encountered
i n most o i l w e l l s as a consequence o f t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f b e t t e r roundness and
s p h e r i c i t y , l e s s c r u s h i n g and narrower s i z i n g i n comparison t o sand (NORMAN, C I -
POLLA & WEBB 1983). The h i g h e r b u l k d e n s i t y o f t h e ceramic proppants t o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e i r b e t t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o sand e n a b l e t o reduce t h e p r o p -
ped f r a c t u r e w i d t h s and t h u s t o s t r e a m l i n e t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n . Comments
a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on p r o p p a n t t y p e and g r a i n s i z e .

4.9.2.1. Proppant type

I n many m o d e r a t e - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r s , p r o d u c t i v i t y i n c r e a s e s and op-
timum f r a c t u r e l e n g t h f r o m t h e i n d i v i d u a l w e l l s a r e l i m i t e d by f r a c t u r e conduc-
t i v i t y . G e n e r a l l y , l o n g e r f r a c t u r e s r e q u i r e more c o n d u c t i v e , high-performance
proppants i n o r d e r t o achieve i n c r e a s i n g p r o f i t a b i l i t y (NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB
1983). I n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e l e n g t h can s i g n i f i c a n t l y a m e l i o r a t e hydrocarbon p r o -
d u c t i o n when p r o p p a n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s moderate t o h i g h ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
4.8.11.). As t h e u l t i m a t e c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r o f t h e success o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n
j o b i s t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between f r a c t u r e and f o r m a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4.5.1.1.2. and 4.6.1.; which a c c o r d i n g t o WATERS 1980 has t o be a t l e a s t 100 t i -
mes c o n d u c t i v i t y d i f f e r e n c e , and P A I , GARBIS & HALL 1983 recommend f l o w c a p a c i -
t y c o n t r a s t r a t i o s between f r a c t u r e and r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x o f 1,000 - 1,000,000,
w i t h f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y b e i n g a f u n c t i o n o f type, s i z e , s t r e n g t h , q u a l i t y ,
and d e n s i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t as w e l l as f o r m a t i o n overburden p r e s s u r e ) , a
h i g h e r - q u a l i t y i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppant has t o be s e l e c t e d i n -
s t e a d o f sand p a r t i c u l a r l y i n case o f h i g h e r pay i n t e r v a l p e r m e a b i l i t y i n o r d e r
t o accomplish t h e necessary c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t f o r p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s maxi-
m ization.

I n terms o f comparative e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f n a t u r a l sand and s y n t h e t i c ceramic

proppants, t h e performance d i f f e r e n c e s a r e i n c r e a s i n g and d i m i n i s h i n g a t h i g h e r
 642

and l o w e r c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The p r o p p a n t s w i t h t h e h i g h e s t conduc-

t i v i t y a l s o show t h e l e a s t r e v e n u e l o s s due t o f r a c t u r e damage b y p r o p p a n t
c r u s h i n g , embedment, f l o w b a c k o r p l u g g i n g (NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB 1983; c f .
also section 4.12.).

4.9.2.2. Proppant g r a i n s i z e
C r e a t i o n o f s u f f i c i e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between t h e m o d e r a t e - t o h i g h -
p e r m e a b i l i t y s h a l l o w o i l sand and t h e f r a c t u r e i n f i l l i n g c a n a l s o be p e r f o r m e d
b y s e l e c t i n g c o a r s e r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s such as 1 0 / 2 0 o r e v e n 8 / 1 2 (MARPLE,
RULEY, WORLEY & FREEMAN 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 5 . 1 . ) . A d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t i n con-
d u c t i v i t y c a n be a c h i e v e d b y i n c r e a s i n g f r a c t u r e w i d t h and p l a c e m e n t o f h i g h e r
p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s p e r u n i t a r e a o f t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s b y m u l t i l a y e r depo-
s i t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 . ) . Case s t u d i e s show t h a t m o d i f i e d t r e a t m e n t s u s i n g
o n e - t h i r d l e s s t o t a l volume and t w i c e as much p r o p p a n t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e o r i -
g i n a l o p e r a t i o n d e s i g n g i v e r i s e t o s i g n i f i c a n t improvements i n w e l l p r o d u c t i v i -
t y . The p e r f o r m a n c e seen on n e w l y c o m p l e t e d b o r e h o l e s even s u g g e s t s t h a t r e f r a c -
t u r i n g o f o l d e r w e l l s w i t h t h e r e v i s e d j o b s c h e d u l e may have e c o n o m i c a l v i a b i l i -
ty ( c f . section 4.8.9.).

NIEMEYER & R E I N A R T ( 1 9 8 6 ) r e p o r t e f f e c t i v e bypass o f n e a r - w e l l b o r e damage

and r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n b y s h o r t h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y f r a c t u r e s i n m o d e r a t e - p e r -
m e a b i l i t y o i l zones. Complex f o r m a t i o n damage i n t h e s e p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l s r e -
s u l t e d f r o m i n t e r a c t i o n s between mud f i l t r a t e , cement f i l t r a t e and c o n n a t e wa-
t e r l e a d i n g t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e and b a r i u m s u l p h a t e , w a t e r
b l o c k f r o m c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3 . 1 1 . 2 . 4 . 2 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 1 . 5 . ) , clay
d i s p e r s i o n b y a d r i l l i n g mud a d d i t i v e and m o b i l e f o r m a t i o n f i n e s ( c f . s e c t i o n
3 . 5 . 2 . ) . I n o r d e r t o compensate f o r e x c e s s i v e l e a k o f f i n t o t h e moderate-permea-
b i l i t y m a t r i x , a l a r g e p a d e x c e e d i n g h a l f o f t h e t o t a l j o b volume had t o be pum-
p e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.6.1.4.), and s i l i c a f l o u r and 100 mesh sand were a l s o i n -
c l u d e d t o r e s t r i c t f l u i d l o s s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . and 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) .

W h i l e f r a c t u r i n g w i t h c o a r s e p r o p p a n t s o f 12/20 mesh s i z e has t u r n e d o u t t o

be a p r o b l e m due t o b o t h p e r f o r a t i o n and f o r m a t i o n s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e , satisfac-
t o r y c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t s have been a c h i e v e d w i t h 2 0 / 4 0 p r o p p a n t s i n v a r i o u s
s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s . S m a l l - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t s w i t h r e d u c e d r a t e s and c u m u l a t i v e
q u a n t i t i e s have been p e r f o r m e d w i t h s u c c e s s f u l f r a c t u r e h e i g h t l i m i t a t i o n in
w e l l s where t h e r e s e r v o i r i s o n l y capped b y a t h i n s e a l o f i n s u f f i c i e n t t h i c k -
n e s s t o p r e v e n t b r e a k t h r o u g h t o a n o t h e r p a y s t o r e y w i t h d i f f e r e n t f l u i d and
p r e s s u r e r e g i m e . Some a s p e c t s o f c o n d u c t i v i t y improvement b y c o a r s e p r o p p a n t
g r a i n s i z e s i n o i l r e s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y LAMBERT, DOLAN & GALLUS
(1983).

4.9.3. Economical feas i b i 1i t y

E x a m i n i n g t h e c o m p a r a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f n a t u r a l sand and s y n t h e t i c p r o p -
p a n t s i n a v a r i e t y o f o i l r e s e r v o i r s in d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s and p r e s s u r e r e g i m e s ,
e c o n o m i c a l a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s f r e q u e n t l y t h a t t h e i n c r e m e n t a l p r e s e n t v a l u e ob-
t a i n e d b y f r a c t u r i n g c a n be a m e l i o r a t e d b y u s i n g a h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e p r o p p a n t
e v e n t h o u g h p r o p p a n t c o s t i s h i g h e r , because c e r a m i c p r o p p a n t s o f f e r s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y more p e r m e a b i l i t y t h a n t h e same s i z e sand even a t l o w c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s
as e n c o u n t e r e d in m o s t o i l w e l l s (NORMAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB 1 9 8 3 ) . Some a s p e c t s o f
s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s v s . n a t u r a l sand as w e l l as f r a c t u r e d e s i g n and p l u g g i n g
a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.9.3.1. Synthetic proppants vs. n a t u r a l sand

S i m u l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t i f a h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e p r o p p a n t i s used i n s t e a d o f
sand, g r e a t e r r e c o v e r y e f f i c i e n c i e s are obtained i n a shorter p e r i o d o f time
 643

and up t o 25 % g r e a t e r r e t u r n s can be achieved. KOHLHAAS (1982) r e c o r d s i n an

i n t e r m e d i a t e - d e p t h oil f i e l d return-on-investment r a t i o s from the a d d i t i o n a l i n -
come o f 5.6 : 1 and 23 : 1 when u s i n g n a t u r a l sand and man-made b a u x i t e prop-
pants f o r p l u g g i n g t h e fracture, respectively.

High-performance s y n t h e t i c proppants a r e e c o n o m i c a l l y d e s i r a b l e f o r forma-

t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t i e s o f l - 10 md o r more even a t c l o s u r e s t r e s s l e v e l s n o t ex-
ceeding 2,000 p s i , and below 1 md r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y , t h e use o f manufactu-
r e d proppants can be e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d a t c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s o f a b t . 4,000
p s i o r more. As t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants
enables t o p l u g l o n g e r , more f e a s i b l e f r a c t u r e s and because o f t h e much h i g h e r
c o n d u c t i v i t y t h a n sand even a t low c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 2 . ) , NOR-
MAN, CIPOLLA & WEBB (1983) recommend t o c o n s i d e r man-made proppants f o r use i n
oil r e s e r v o i r s even below t h e c r u s h i n g p o i n t o f sand. KOHLHAAS (1982) emphasi-
zes t h e p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f such an investment n o t o n l y i n e a r l y - s t a g e f i e l d p r o -
d u c t i o n , b u t a l s o i n l a t e - s t a g e o f f t a k e w i t h advanced r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n when
s t i l l c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s o f o i l can be d r a i n e d t h r o u g h a h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y
f r a c t u r e t h a t would o t h e r w i s e never come o u t o f t h e pay h o r i z o n ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.9.).

4.9.3.2. Fracture design and plugging

BRITT (1985) documents t h e economical b e n e f i t s o f s h o r t h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y
f r a c t u r e s even i n m o d e r a t e - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r s undergoing b o t h p r i m a r y
and secondary d e p l e t i o n . LI & ZHU (1986) p r e s e n t comparative performance e v a l u a -
t i o n o f sand and b a u x i t e proppants i n moderate- t o h i g h - d e p t h o i l r e s e r v o i r s .
F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t i n v a r i o u s cases, f r a c t u r e s propped w i t h lower
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f b a u x i t e have b e t t e r c o n d u c t i v i t i e s t h a n those propped w i t h
h i g h e r s a t u r a t i o n s o f sand. The use o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants as a t a i l - i n a f -
t e r t h e i n j e c t i o n o f sand as main proppant l o a d g i v e s l i t t l e s u p e r i o r i t y i n ob-
t a i n i n g b e t t e r f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , w i t h t h e optimum b e i n g p r o v i d e d by an u n i -
f o r m p r o p p a n t package. Moderate- t o h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r s can f r e -
q u e n t l y a l r e a d y be s u c c e s s f u l l y s t i m u l a t e d by m i c r o f r a c t u r i n g o r m i n i f r a c t u r i n g
(CRAMER & SONGER 1988; c f . c h a p t e r 4 . 8 . ) .

4.9.4. Steam-drive e f f e c t s on f r a c t u r e propagation

Steam-drive o p e r a t i o n i s a common means o f enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y i n heavy-
o i l r e s e r v o i r s and has a l r e a d y been abundantly a p p l i e d i n many p a r t s o f t h e
w o r l d . S t e a m - f l o o d i n g r e s u l t s i n h e a t i n g o f t h e pay zone t h a t f o r m e r l y belonged
t o t h e r e g i o n a l g e o t h e r m i c a l temperature regime up t o an a r t i f i c i a l l e v e l ac-
c o r d i n g t o t h e temperature o f steam o r condensed h o t w a t e r e n t e r i n g t h e i n j e c -
t i o n w e l l and m i g r a t i n g towards t h e p r o d u c t i o n b o r e h o l e . I n many h e a v y - o i l sand
r e s e r v o i r s , i n j e c t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f steam o f t e n r e q u i r e s c r e a t i o n
o f f r a c t u r e s , and m o n i t o r i n g of i n i t i a t i o n , p r o p a g a t i o n and c o l l a p s e o f f r a c t u -
r e s may p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n j e c t e d f l u i d s
w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r (SINGHAI & CARD 1988).

A p a r t f r o m s h a l l o w - d e p t h h e a v y - o i l r e s e r v o i r s , s t e a m - f l o o d i n g can a l s o be
s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d i n i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - d e p t h l i g h t - o i l pay zones where
steam d i s t i l l a t i o n i s more i m p o r t a n t and g r a v i t y o v e r r i d e i s l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t
(SARATHI, ROARK & STRYCKER 1988). Steam-drive i s c a r r i e d o u t i n v e r t i c a l , i n c l i -
ned and h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s (JAIN & KHOSLA 1985, PETZET 1987). T e r t i a r y thermal
o i l r e c o v e r y f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e s f r a c t u r e - a s s i s t e d s t e a m - f l o o d t e c h n o l o g y (SON1
& HARMON 1986), because c o n v e n t i o n a l s t e a m - f l o o d i n g i n t h i n r e s e r v o i r s g e n e r a l -
l y s u f f e r s f r o m e x c e s s i v e h e a t l o s s e s t o t h e o v e r - and underburden, and h i g h -
r a t e steam i n j e c t i o n i s o f t e n c o n s t r a i n e d by l i m i t e d r e s e r v o i r i n j e c t i v i t y .
F r a c t u r e - a s s i s t e d steam-drive a l l o w s h i g h r a t e s o f steam i n j e c t i o n i n t o s h a l l o w
pay sands t h r o u g h h y d r a u l i c a l l y - c r e a t e d h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s which l i m i t s h e a t
l o s s e s by s h o r t e n i n g s t e a m f l o o d p r o j e c t l i f e .
 644

Heating o f the r e s e r v o i r formation associated w i t h steam-drive operations

c a n p r o v o k e a f u n d a m e n t a l change o f t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s s t a t e o f t h e g e o l o g i c a l
column, l e a d i n g from a geostress regime f a v o u r i n g p r o p a g a t i o n o f v e r t i c a l f r a c -
t u r e s a t t h e c o l d g e o t h e r m i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e l e v e l b e f o r e steam i n j e c t i o n o n s e t
t o a g e o s t r e s s framework s u p p o r t i n g c r e a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l c r a c k s a t t h e h o t
t e m p e r a t u r e n i v e a u t h a t was a r t i f i c i a l l y c r e a t e d b y s t e a m - f l o o d i n g (HOLZHAUSEN,
CARD, RAISBECK & DOBECKI 1 9 8 5 ) . F o l l o w i n g an o u t l i n e o f t h e c h a n g i n g s t r e s s r e -
gime b y t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r e x p a n s i o n , t h e c o n c e p t o f c o m b i n a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l
and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s f o r s t e a m - d r i v e r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d .
Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d o n changes o f f r a c t u r e a z i m u t h o r i e n t a t i o n .

4.9.4.1.Changing stress regime by thermal reservoir expansion

B a s i c a l l y t w o t y p e s o f h o t w a t e r and steam i n j e c t i o n p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d i n g
f l u i d d i s p l a c e m e n t a r e i n use i n enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y (BRITTON, MARTIN, L E I -
BRECHT & HARMON 1 9 8 3 ) . The f i r s t t y p e i n c l u d e s d r i v e o r m a t r i x f l o w p r o c e s s i n
w h i c h h o t w a t e r o r steam o r some i n t e r m e d i a t e m i x t u r e i s c o n t i n u o u s l y i n j e c t e d
i n t o a r e s e r v o i r a t r e l a t i v e l y l o w r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s t o h e a t and d i s p l a c e o i l
i n a m o d i f i e d w a t e r f l o o d i n g manner. T h i s t e c h n i q u e w o r k s s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i f o i l
a t n a t u r a l p a y c o n d i t i o n s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y m o b i l e t o be moved a t p r a c t i c a l r a t e s
by h o t f l u i d i n j e c t i o n w i t h o u t pressure p a s t i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r o r u n c o n t r o l l e d
f i n g e r i n g . The second t y p e c o m p r i s e s c o n d u c t i o n h e a t i n g o f t h e p a y b y h o t f l u i d
p a s s i n g t h r o u g h a h i g h l y p e r m e a b l e zone such as a h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e , a gas
cap a t t h e t o p o f t h e p r o s p e c t i v e s e c t i o n , o r a r e l a t i v e l y t h i n i n t e r v a l w i t h i n
o r a d j a c e n t t o t h e m a i n r e s e r v o i r complex such as a w a t e r h o r i z o n a t t h e b o t t o m
o f t h e d e p o s i t . H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g f o r enhanced u p t a k e o f i n j e c t e d steam i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e l a t t e r t y p e o f enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y o p e r a -
tion.

The r e s e r v o i r s e c t i o n a d j a c e n t t o t h e h i g h l y p e r m e a b l e zone i s h e a t e d b y v e r -
t i c a l c o n d u c t i o n o f h e a t f r o m steam o r h o t w a t e r i n t h e c h a n n e l and a l s o b y c o n -
v e c t i o n o f steam o r h o t w a t e r w h i c h may have l e a k e d f r o m t h e c h a n n e l . When
steam i s i n j e c t e d i n t o a p a y c o n t a i n i n g v i s c o u s i m m o b i l e f l u i d s , steam t e n d s t o
e i t h e r c h a n n e l and push i t s way t h r o u g h t h e i m m o b i l e f l u i d s t o w a r d s t h e l o w -
p r e s s u r e s i n k , o r steam f l o w s t o p s m o m e n t a r i l y and t h e p r e s s u r e b u i l d s u p u n t i l
t h e f o r m a t i o n p a r t s s o t h a t f l u i d i n j e c t i o n c a n c o n t i n u e (GESHELIN, GRABOWSKI &
PEASE 1981; S E T T A R I & RAISBECK 1 9 8 1 ) . As such f r a c t u r e s seldom d e v e l o p a t t h e
b e s t l o c a t i o n and w i t h t h e m o s t s u i t a b l e o r i e n t a t i o n , i t i s h e l p f u l t o h y d r a u l i -
c a l l y s t i m u l a t e t h e w e l l s p r i o r t o steam i n j e c t i o n , w i t h m a i n l y h o r i z o n t a l f r a c -
t u r e s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r d e p t h o f m o s t h e a v y - o i l sands (REY-
NOLDS, SCOTT, POPHAM & COFFER 1961; MARTIN, ALEXANDER, DEW & TYNAN 1972; DO-
SCHER, LABELLE, SAWATSKY & ZWICKY 1964; CLOSMANN 1971, SETTARI & RAISBECK 1981,
CHHINA 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 8 . ) . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f f r a c t u r e p r e h e a t i n g i n t h e r -
mal o i l r e c o v e r y a r e d i s c u s s e d b y BRITTON, MARTIN, McDANIEL & WAHL ( 1 9 8 1 ) and
RESTINE (1983).

Low steam i n j e c t i v i t y in many h e a v y - o i l r e s e r v o i r s n e c e s s i t a t e s f r a c t u r i n g

o f t h e f o r m a t i o n f o r enhanced u p t a k e i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e c o m m e r c i a l r a t e s o f
steam i n j e c t i o n , w i t h e n e r g y d i s t r i b u t i o n and o i l d e p l e t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e f r a c -
t u r e t r e n d s (VITTORATOS 1 9 8 6 ) . The change i n g e o s t r e s s s t a t e i s caused b y t h e r -
mal e x p a n s i o n o f t h e o i l p a y d u r i n g steam i n j e c t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e c o n -
c e n t r a t e s on s t r e s s i n v e r s i o n due t o a n i s o t r o p i c r e s e r v o i r e x p a n s i o n as w e l l as
o n c y c l i c f r a c t u r e c o l l a p s e and o p e n i n g . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on o t h e r t y -
pes o f c h a n g i n g s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n .
 645

4.9.4.1.1. Stress inversion due

to anisotropic reservoir expansion
W i t h p r o g r e s s i v e h e a t i n g , some v e r t i c a l expansion o f t h e f o r m a t i o n m a t e r i a l
s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e i n s p i t e o f r e s t r i c t i o n by overburden and l i t h o s t a t i c p r e s -
sure, whereas h o r i z o n t a l enlargement may be suppressed by t h e c o n f i n i n g e f f e c t
o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g r o c k s which a r e compacted and l i t h i f i e d by overburden s t r e s s
and d i a g e n e t i c a l cementation, r e s p e c t i v e l y (HOLZHAUSEN, CARD, R A I S B E C K & OO-
BECK1 1985). Suppression o f l a t e r a l expansion would g i v e r i s e t o an i n c r e a s e i n
t h e magnitude o f h o r i z o n t a l i n - s i t u s t r e s s components, l e a v i n g t h e v e r t i c a l
stress l a r g e l y unaffected.

T h e r e f o r e h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s s t a r t t o o r i g i n a t e when h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s
exceed t h e v e r t i c a l i n - s i t u compression, w i t h more than two weeks o f steam i n -
j e c t i o n being required f o r t r i g g e r i n g t h i s stress d i s t r i b u t i o n m o d i f i c a t i o n . In-
j e c t e d steam and h o t w a t e r may i n i t i a l l y e n t e r t h e f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h v e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r e s t h a t have been h y d r a u l i c a l l y c r e a t e d p r i o r t o t h e o n s e t o f steam
f l o o d i n g , whereas w i t h i n c r e a s i n g r e s e r v o i r temperature, t h e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s
may c l o s e due t o thermal expansion o f t h e o i l sands u n l e s s propped w i t h s u i -
t a b l e m a t e r i a l s , and h o r i z o n t a l c r a c k s open i f enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y o p e r a t i o n
i s performed above f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e w h i c h g u i d e t h e i n j e c t e d steam
and h o t w a t e r away f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n .

H o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e g e n e r a t i o n d u r i n g s t e a m - d r i v e o p e r a t i o n s o f t e n takes
p l a c e i n c y c l e s c o m p r i s i n g p r o p a g a t i o n and c o l l a p s e (HOLZHAUSEN, CARD, RAISBECK
& OOBECKI 1985). As f l u i d e n t r y i n t o t h e h e a v y - o i l r e s e r v o i r i s r e s t r i c t e d by
t h e h i g h v i s c o s i t y o f t h e p o r e f l u i d , p r e s s u r e r a p i d l y b u i l d s up w i t h c o n t i n u -
ous steam i n j e c t i o n a f t e r t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e o p e r a t i o n . Once a c r i t i c a l p r e s -
s u r e i s reached, f o r m a t i o n breakdown r e s u l t s i n p r o p a g a t i o n o f a h o r i z o n t a l
f r a c t u r e away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e .

4 . 9 . 4 . 1 . 2 . Cyclic fracture collapse and opening

The volume i n c r e a s e o f t h e system due t o t h e aforementioned processes causes
f l u i d p r e s s u r e t o drop which i n t u r n g i v e s r i s e t o f l a s h i n g o f some w a t e r i n
t h e w e l l b o r e i n t o steam (VITTORATOS 1986). Aspects o f w a t e r f l a s h i n g , thermal
r e s e r v o i r expansion and p l a s t i c i t y changes, steam i n j e c t i v i t y improvement by r e -
s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g , i n t e r w e l l communication and f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e , and g r a -
v i t y d r a i n a g e t h r o u g h t h e f r a c t u r e s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4 . 9 . 4 . 1 . 2 . 1 . Water flashing
The p r e s s u r e drop i n t h e newly c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e f i n a l l y d e c l i n e s t o a v a l u e
t h a t i s t o o low t o c o n t i n u e t o l i f t t h e overburden, w i t h t h e c r a c k then c o l l a p -
s i n g and c l o s i n g (HOLZHAUSEN, CARD, R A I S B E C K & DOBECKI 1985; VITTORATOS 1986).
Some p r e s s u r e l o s s b e f o r e c o l l a p s e may be t h e consequence o f steam condensation
a f t e r t h e f r a c t u r e propagated i n t o c o o l e r p o r t i o n s o f t h e o i l sand. R e h e a l i n g
o f t h e c r a c k a f t e r c o l l a p s e provokes a g a i n r e s t r i c t e d f l u i d e n t r y , p r e s s u r e
b u i l d u p and f r a c t u r e g e n e r a t i o n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n e x t c y c l e . T i l t m e t e r
m o n i t o r i n g r e v e a l s t h a t i n t e r r u p t i o n s o f steam i n j e c t i v i t y correspond t o open-
i n g and c l o s i n g episodes o f f r a c t u r e s (SINGHAI & CARD 1988; c f . s e c t i o n
6.2.2.3.4. and 6.2.2.4.1.). C y c l i c f r a c t u r e opening and r e h e a l i n g depending on
steam i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e i s a l s o r e p o r t e d by ZIEGLER ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

Water f l a s h i n g t a k e s p l a c e i f t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e f o r m a t i o n heated by steam

i n j e c t i o n f a l l s below t h e steam s a t u r a t i o n p r e s s u r e (VITTORATOS 1986). T h i s oc-
c u r s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e s t i m u l a t e d w e l l b o r e as t h e p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e s a t t h e
end o f steam i n j e c t i o n , and a l s o f u r t h e r o u t i n t h e r e s e r v o i r a t l o w e r tempera-
t u r e s i f t h e p r e s s u r e drops s u f f i c i e n t l y due t o h i g h f l u i d p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s .
 646

F l a s h i n g o f t e n occurs i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h convective f l o w which b o t h g i v e r i s e

t o r e g i o n s o f u n i f o r m r e s e r v o i r t e m p e r a t u r e . GUDMUNDSSON, MENZIES & HORNE
( 1 9 8 3 ) a n a l y z e s t e a m t u b e r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n s f o r f l a s h i n g steam-wa-
t e r flow i n fractures.

4.9.4.1.2.2.Thermal reservoir expansion and plasticity changes

The change o f t h e g e o s t r e s s s t a t e by t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n d u r i n g s t e a m - d r i v e
o p e r a t i o n c a n a l s o be e x p l a i n e d b y c h a n g i n g p l a s t i c i t y o f t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k
and d e c r e a s i n g m a t r i x s t r e s s c o n t r a s t between v a r i o u s l i t h o t y p e s (CONSTANT &
BOURGOYNE 1 9 8 6 ) . I n g e o t h e r m i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e s i t u a t i o n s , the cohesive r e s i s -
t a n c e o r i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n o f a s a n d s t o n e i s g r e a t e r thari t h a t o f many m u d s t o -
nes, t h e r e b y p e r m i t t i n g a g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e between v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l ma-
t r i x s t r e s s t o develop ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.3.1. and 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 2 . ) . With r i s i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e due t o a r t i f i c i a l h e a t i n g b y steam i n j e c t i o n , t h e f o r m a t i o n s become
more p l a s t i c a l ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 2 . 3 . 2 . 3 . and 4 . 9 . 4 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 1 and t h u s t h e r e a r e
l e s s d i f f e r e n c e s between h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l m a t r i x s t r e s s . Comments on i n -
s i t u s t r e s s changes d u r i n g s t e a m - d r i v e s t i m u l a t i o n o f o i l r e s e r v o i r s a r e a l s o
g i v e n b y CLOSMANN & PHOCAS ( 1 9 7 6 ) , DUSSEAULT & SIMMONS ( 1 9 8 2 ) and WONG ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

4.9.4.1.2.3. Steam injectivity

improvement by reservoir fracturing
C y c l i c steam s t i m u l a t i o n e f f e c t s i n m u l t i - w e l l systems ( i n s t e a d o f s i n g l e -
w e l l systems as u s u a l l y assumed and m o d e l l e d ) a r e d i s c u s s e d b y VITTORATOS,
SCOTT & BEATTIE ( 1 9 8 8 ) i n v o l v i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r w e l l c o m m u n i c a t i o n o r i n t e r -
f e r e n c e upon f o r m a t i o n f a i l i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 0 . 5 . 1 . 4 . ) . Steam i n j e c t i v i t y i s
g e n e r a l l y a c h i e v e d b y r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g (BUCKLES 1979, VITTORATOS 1 9 8 6 ) .
T h e r e i s e s s e n t i a l l y no w a t e r o r steam i n j e c t i v i t y u n l e s s f o r m a t i o n f a i l u r e o c -
c u r s (VITTORATOS, SCOTT & BEATTIE 1 9 8 8 ) . B o t h v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u -
r i n g t a k e p l a c e a t c r a c k i n i t i a t i o n , w i t h h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s b e i n g more com-
mon n e a r a r e a s t h a t have undergone i n t e n s i v e steam i n j e c t i o n . E x t e n s i v e i n t e r -
w e l l i n t e r a c t i o n s a r e t h e r e s u l t o f p a y f a i l u r e t h a t i s r e q u i r e d in o r d e r t o
a c h i e v e c o m m e r c i a l l e v e l s o f steam i n j e c t i v i t y . R e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g c a n e x t e n d
t o d i s t a n c e s e q u a l t o t h a t o f w e l l s p a c i n g o r more and t h u s o v e r l a p p i n g o f t h e
f a i l e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e p a y zone may o c c u r . The d i s t u r b e d i n t e r v a l s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h t h e w e l l s c r e a t e c o n d u i t s o f enhanced p r e s s u r e and f l u i d p r o p a g a t i o n b e t -
ween t h e b o r e h o l e s , w i t h t h e c o n d u i t s embedded i n a m a t r i x w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l y
s l o w e r p r e s s u r e and f l u i d p r o p a g a t i o n .

4.9.4.1.2.4. Interwell communication and fracture interference

I n f e r e n c e s o n t h e shape o f t h e i n t e r w e l l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e g i o n c a n b e made
f r o m t h e h e a t t o w a t e r b r e a k t h r o u g h r a t i o , w i t h c y l i n d r i c a l c h a n n e l s h a v i n g va-
l u e s o f 2 - 3, whereas f r a c t u r e s have v a l u e s o f 6 and more, because t h e i r l a r -
g e r s u r f a c e f o r a g i v e n r e s e r v o i r volume p e r m i t s more h e a t t o be t r a n s f e r r e d
i n t o t h e p a y zone (VITTORATOS, SCOTT & BEATTIE 1 9 8 8 ) . S i n c e f r a c t u r i n g i s n e c e s -
s a r y f o r steam i n j e c t i v i t y , i n t e r w e l l c o m m u n i c a t i o n and c r a c k i n t e r f e r e n c e c a n
o n l y be a v o i d e d b y i n c r e a s i n g w e l l s p a c i n g , o r b y p l a c i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n and i n -
j e c t i o n w e l l s i n f a v o u r a b l e geometrical p a t t e r n s according t o t h e geostress sys-
tem ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 0 . 5 . 1 . ) . A n o t h e r method i s t o l a y o u t t h e s y s t e m i n such a
way t h a t t h e f i e l d i s d i s s e c t e d i n t o c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o u p l e t s between i n j e c t i o n
and p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s .

The h i g h e s t r e c o v e r y , however, i s a c h i e v e d w i t h z e r o o v e r l a p o f f r a c t u r e s e x -
t e n d i n g f r o m n e i g h b o u r i n g b o r e h o l e s , b u t i n p r a c t i c e , t h e h i g h i n t e r w e l l commu-
n i c a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n o o v e r l a p l e a d s t o h i g h w e l l downtime because o f
s a n d - r e l a t e d pump f a i l u r e s . T h e r e f o r e a 50 % o v e r l a p appears t o be t h e optimum
f o r s p r e a d i n g t h e h e a t between t h e w e l l s , i n c r e a s i n g o f f - t r e n d movement o f
 647

steam, r e t a r d i n g t h e tendency o f t h e r e s e r v o i r t o f o r m c o u p l e t s , and minimizing

o p e r a t i o n a l l y d i s r u p t i v e borehole i n t e r a c t i o n s .

4.9.4.1.2.5. Gravity drainage through fractures

D u r i n g f r a c t u r e - a s s i s t e d s t e a m - f l o o d i n g , t h e o i l d r a i n s by g r a v i t y i n t o t h e
open h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e where i t i s r a p i d l y t r a n s p o r t e d as d i s p e r s i o n o r en-
t r a i n m e n t t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n w e l l v i a t h e c r a c k , t h u s bypassing t h e r e l a t i v e l y
c o l d m a t r i x between i n j e c t o r and o f f t a k e p o i n t (SON1 & HARMON 1986). Growth o f
t h e steam-heated zone above t h e h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y more t h a n
t h a t below (CLOSMANN & SMITH 1983), r e f l e c t i n g a h o r i z o n t a l c r a c k which r i s e s
s l o w l y by slumping o f t h e u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sand above t h e f r a c t u r e as a g r a v i t y -
dominated h e a t t r a n s f e r i n which t h e movement o f t h e upper boundary o f t h e v e r -
t i c a l l v crrowinq steam zone i s l i m i t e d bv c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t f l u i d r e d i s r i bu t i on.
As a consequence o f t h i s upwards growth, o r i g i n a l i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e h o r i z o n -
t a l c r a c k by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g should be performed low i n t h e pay.

4.9.4.1.2.6. Other aspects

Comparable thermal expansion o f t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k as i n steam-dr ve opera-
t i o n s i s known f r o m i n - s i t u combustion enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y where p a r t i a l ' c l o -
s i n g o f t h e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e pay zone m a t r i x may o c c u r due t o
f o r m a t i o n h e a t i n g and may a m e l i o r a t e r e s e r v o i r d r a i n a g e and sweep e f f i c i e n c y
(SCHULTE & V R I E S 1985). C y c l i c steaming o f t a r sands t h r o u g h h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u -
ced f r a c t u r e s i s d i s c u s s e d by D I E T R I C H (1983), and WATKINS, KALFAYAN & BLASER
(1987) o u t l i n e c y c l i c steam s t i m u l a t i o n o f t i g h t c l a y - r i c h r e s e r v o i r s . MILHEM &
AHMED (1987) and SYLVESTER & CHEN (1988) r e p o r t f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e o f c y c l i c
steam s t i m u l a t i o n p r o j e c t s . Improvement o f steam s t i m u l a t i o n performance by che-
m i c a l emulsion v i s c o s i t y r e d u c t i o n i s assessed by CURRENT ( 1 9 8 8 ) . Aspects o f
c y c l i c steam s t i m u l a t i o n above f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by I T 0
(1984), KENNEDY (1984) ; PETHRICK, SENNHAUSER & HARDING (1986), LlN (1988) and
TORTIKE & ALI ( 1 9 8 9 ) .

As a consequence o f t h e s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r depth o f most h e a v y - o i l sand depo-

s i t s , p r e d o m i n a n t l y h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s o r i g i n a t e (REYNOLDS, SCOTT, POPHAM &
COFFER 1961; DOSCHER, LABELLE, SAWATSKY & Z W I C K Y 1064; WAHL 1965, CLOSMANN
1971; MARTIN, ALEXANDER, DEW & TYNAN 1972; SETTARI & RAISBECK 1981, CHHINA
1986; c f . s e c t i o n 1.2.8.). W e l l s a r e notched and h o r i z o n t a l l y f r a c t u r e d and
then s t i m u l a t e d w i t h h i g h - p r e s s u r e steam i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a heated t a r g e t
(BRITTON, MARTINS, LEIBRECHT & HARMON 1982). H o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s a r e then c r e a -
t e d f r o m t h e i n j e c t i o n w e l l t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n boreholes, and steam i s i n j e c t e d
a t v e r y h i g h r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s t o h o l d t h e f r a c t u r e open, p r e h e a t t h e forma-
t i o n and m o b i l i z e t h e heavy o i l .

4.9.4.1.3. Other possibilities o f changing stress direction

A p a r t f r o m s t e a m - d r i v e r e s e r v o i r h e a t i n g , expansion and f r a c t u r i n g , o t h e r
p o s s i b i l i t i e s e x i s t t o change t h e s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n i n t h e r o c k complex and t o
e x p l o i t t h i s advantage o f m a n i p u l a t i o n o f main f o r m a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n f o r d i s -
t i n c t i v e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g . Some techniques a r e b r i e f l y i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l -
lows by commenting on a l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g as w e l l as s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l
vs. s t r e s s c o n t r o l .

4.9.4.1.3.1. Altered-stress fracturing

W A R P I N S K I & BRANAGAN (1988) p r e s e n t a l t e r e d s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g which i s a l s o
a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y t a k i n g advantage o f a r t i f i c i a l changes o f t h e g e o s t r e s s p a t -
t e r n . The purpose o f a l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g i s t o c r e a t e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s
 648

propagating perpendicularly o r obliquely t o the natural crack system and across

the p r e - e x i st i n g j o i n t s in t i g h t gas sandstones instead of p a r a l l e l t o them
( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . 3 . ) , thereby opening u p a much l a r g e r surfa c e of the r e s e r -
v o i r a n d connecting numerous natural f r a c t u r e s t o the hydraulically-induced
drainage p a t h . Al t er ed - s t r es s f r a c t u r i n g i s a concept whereby in most cases a
hydraulic f r a c t u r e in one well i s r eo r i ente d by another hydraulic crack i n a
nearby l o c a t i o n . While t r a d i t i o n a l l y most e f f o r t s t o control f r a c t u r e height
growth a n d azimuth propagation have been modifications of stim ula tion design
a n d d r i l l i n g p a t t e r n with emphasis on well spacing a n d c onfigura tion, a l t e r i n g
the s t r e s s f i e l d t o a more favourable o r i e n t a t i o n o r magnitude i s a s u i t a b l e me-
thod p a r t i c u l a r l y in o l d e r f i e l d s where borehole d i s t r i b u t i o n i s given and can
be n e i t h e r changed nor supplemented by renewed d r i l l i n g . As s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s
p e r t u r b a t i o n s a r e induced by any process t h a t changes r e s e r v o i r pressure o r
f r a c t u r e s the rock, a hydraulic crack i s an e f f e c t i v e mechanism f o r a l t e r i n g
the s t r e s s f i e l d because of the high pressures needed f o r f r a c t u r e d i l a t i o n and
the l a r g e su r f a c e area cr eat ed .

I n order t o overcome coalignment of n a t u r a l a n d hydraulic f r a c t u r e s , e a r l i e r

approaches included p r o p el l an t f r a c t u r i n g and d i r e c t i o n a l d r i l l i n g . Prope lla nt
f r a c t u r i n g or t a i l o r e d pulse loading (CUDERMAN & NORTHROP 1984; c f . se c tions
4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 3 . a n d 4 . 8 . 8 . 5 . ) induces multiple r a d i a l l y orie nte d c ra c ks, b u t f r a c -
tu r e length t h a t can be achieved i s very lim ite d. Directional high-angle o r
even h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g i n l e n t i c u l a r sands i n t e r s e c t s more natural j o i n t s i f
the hole i s o r i en t ed perpendicular t o natural f r a c t u r e azimuth ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4 . 8 . 6 . 1 . 5 . 1 . and 4 . 8 . 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . ) , b u t i f d r i l l i n g damages the natural cracks o r
i f too few natural f r a c t u r e s a r e encountered i n a r e s t r i c t e d sand body, conven-
tio n a l s t i m u l a t i on s i n a d i r e c t i o n a l l y d r i l l e d well a r e not more e f f e L t i v e than
in v e r t i c a l boreholes. Al t er ed - s t r es s f r a c t u r i n g i s discussed a s follows f o r
two-well a n d one-well ap p l i cat i o n s . Some comments a r e a l s o offe re d on s t r e s s
c o n t r a s t a n d leakoff c o n t r o l .

4 . 9 . 4 . 1 . 3 . 1 . 1 . Two-well a p p l i c a t i o n
A l t e r e d - st r e ss f r a c t u r i n g i s a n attempt t o r e o r i e n t the s t r e s s f i e l d in a re-
gion by conducting a hydraulic f r a c t u r e nearby (SHUCK 1977). While the o r i g i n a l
concept of s t r e s s a l t e r a t i o n using mu l t i p le w e lls i s somewhat lim ite d because
of borehole spacing c r i t e r i a , r ecen t innovation allowed the technique t o be
a l s o a p p l i c a b l e in a s i n g l e deviated hole ( U H R I 1987), and some s t r e s s modifica-
tio n s can a l s o be c a r r i e d o u t i n v e r t i c a l wells (WARPINSKI & BRANAGAN 1988). An
o f f s e t well i s used t o c r e a t e a hydraulic f r a c t u r e t h a t a l t e r s the s t r e s s f i e l d
around the borehole under d i s cu s s i o n , w i t h the o f f s e t well being fra c ture d
f i r s t and then being continued t o be t r e a t e d with h i g h pressure while the pro-
duction borehole i s f r a c t u r e d .

I f the s t r e s s d i f f er en ce i s not too l ar g e, the w e lls a r e r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e ,

a n d treatment pressure and f r a c t u r e s i z e in the o f f s e t well a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y
l a r g e , enough s t r e s s can be added t o the v i r g i n minimum horizontal i n - s i t u
s t r e s s t o convert i t t o the maximum horizontal s t r e s s . Pumping has t o be main-
tained in the o f f s e t well f r a c t u r e , because s t r e s s pe rturba tion w i l l decay a s
pressure d e c l i n es . I f a treatment in the production borehole i s s t a r t e d under
these c o n d i t i o n s, the hydraulic f r a c t u r e i n the production well w ill propagate
perpendicular t o the u s u a l d i r e c t i o n of propagation and extends a c e r t a i n d i s -
tance before i t i s turning i n t o the o r i g i n al o r i e n t a t i o n because of weakening
conversion pressure f a r t h e r away from the pressurized f r a c t u r e in the o f f s e t
w e l l . Thus a l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g enables to c r e a t e an inte rloc king network
of orthogonally-oriented induced crack systems f o r optimum i n t e r s e c t i o n and
drainage of the r e s e r v o i r .

As s t r e s s p e r t u r b at i o n decays r ap i d l y w i t h dista nc e in both horizontal and

v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n representing f r a c t u r e length and he ight, the two w e lls
should be as c l o s e together as p o s s i b l e, and a l s o the diffe re nc e between the
 649

two h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s must n o t be l a r g e , because s t r e s s p e r t u r b a t i o n i s p r o -

p o r t i o n a l t o p r e s s u r e i n t h e o f f s e t w e l l f r a c t u r e which has o p e r a t i o n a l l i m i t s .
High t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e s i n t h e o f f s e t w e l l can be o b t a i n e d by r e s e r v o i r f e a t u -
r e s such as good s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s o r by induced f e a t u r e s such as screenouts.
S t r e s s c o n t r a s t s a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t because f r a c t u r e w i d t h i n h i g h - s t r e s s r e -
g i o n s w i l l be s m a l l so t h a t l e s s s t r a i n w i l l be induced and t h e e f f e c t o f e x t r a
h e i g h t growth w i l l be l e s s t h a n i n a homogeneous f o r m a t i o n . High s t r e s s e s i n
s u r r o u n d i n g mudstones reduce t h e magnitude o f t h e s t r e s s change, w i t h t h e e f -
f e c t i n c r e a s i n g w i t h c r a c k s i z e , w h i l e l o w - s t r e s s l a y e r s o f course enhance t h e
induced s t r e s s change. Lower and h i g h e r a n i s o t r o p y r a t i o s reduce and increase,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e advantage o f t h e a1 t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r e .

4.9.4.1.3.1.2. One-we1 1 application

As a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f a l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g i n s e p a r a t e w e l l s i s l i m i t e d ,
emphasis has t o be p u t on c a r r y i n g o u t t h e o p e r a t i o n i n a s i n g l e d i r e c t i o n a l l y
d r i l l e d b o r e h o l e ( U H R I 1987). The f i r s t t r e a t m e n t i s conducted down t h e annulus
w h i l e t h e second j o b i s performed down t h e t u b i n g , r e s u l t i n g i n much c l o s e r d i s -
tances t h a n c o u l d be o b t a i n e d i n m u l t i p l e w e l l s and t h e r e f o r e p r o f i t i n g f r o m
l e s s pressure decline. I n addition, i f the f i r s t operation t o a l t e r the stress
i s i n i t i a t e d i n a h i g h - s t r e s s muddy b a r r i e r ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.3.1. and
4.2.3.2.2.), h i g h t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s and l a r g e h e i g h t a r e f a c i l i t a t e d so t h a t
much g r e a t e r s t r e s s changes o c c u r . A l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g cannot be used t o
r e v e r s e t h e h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s i n a v e r t i c a l w e l l when overburden s t r e s s i s a l s o
vertical, b u t i f d i p p i n g s t r a t a , b u r i e d topography ( c f . p l a t e I / 1 - 7 ) o r o t h e r
e f f e c t s a r e m i s a l i g n e d w i t h t h e normal d i r e c t i o n , a l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g g i -
ves f e a s i b l e r e s u l t s (WARPINSKI & BRANAGAN 1988).

I f c a r r i e d o u t i n one w e l l , however, i t may n o t be p o s s i b l e t o guarantee s u f -

f i c i e n t pressure i n the o f f s e t f r a c t u r e t o reverse the stress f i e l d , and a l s o
t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s can be a problem. Unusual f r a c t u r e designs f o r
such cases a r e t i p s c r e e n o u t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.4.1.) f o r the f i r s t f r a c t u r e
which ensures h i g h p r e s s u r e s as w e l l as making maintenance o f those easy by a l -
l o w i n g f o r r e l a t i v e l y slow pumping of o n l y l i q u i d s a f t e r t h e t i p s c r e e n o u t has
formed. I t may a l s o be p o s s i b l e t o induce a t i p screenout and pack enough p r o p -
p a n t s i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e so t h a t no a d d i t i o n a l pumping i s needed, w i t h t h e p r o p -
ped f r a c t u r e w i d t h and t h e s t r a i n i t produces b e i n g e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e p r e s s u r e
r e q u i r e d t o c r e a t e t h a t w i d t h . As s t r e s s p e r t u r b a t i o n a t some d i s t a n c e f r o m a
f r a c t u r e i s independent o f modulus, t h e compliance o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i s n o t
a t t e n u a t ing t h e decay d i stance .

4.9.4.1.3.1.3. Stress contrast

Another p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s t r e s s - m o d i f i c a t i o n concept i s f o r a l t e -
r a t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e minimum h o r i z o n t a l i n - s i t u s t r e s s ,
because a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e n o t o n l y c r e a t e s a l a r g e compressive s t r e s s i n t h e
l a y e r i t r e s i d e s , b u t a l s o induces l a r g e t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s above and below which
c o u l d be used t o advantage i f h y d r a u l i c c r a c k s a r e p r o p a g a t i n g i n t o u n d e s i r a b l e
zones such as a q u i f e r s (WARPINSKI & BRANAGAN 1988). Changing o f i n s u f f i c i e n t l y
Tow t o s a t i s f a c t o r i l y h i g h s t r e s s c o n t r a s t can be performed i n a v e r t i c a l w e l l ,
a d e v i a t e d w e l l o r two a d j a c e n t w e l l s . A l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g does n o t
change f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n from v e r t i c a l t o h o r i z o n t a l as provoked by steam
f l o o d i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r and r e s u l t i n g pay expansion due t o h e a t i n g , b u t
r a t h e r g i v e s r i s e t o changes o f c r a c k azimuth i n a d i r e c t i o n r u n n i n g perpendicu-
l a r l y t o t h a t determined by t h e u n d i s t r i b u t e d g e o s t r e s s f i e l d . The e f f e c t o f a l -
t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g can be even accentuated by staggered steam i n j e c t i o n
which combines g e o s t r e s s p a t t e r n d i s t u r b a n c e by p r e s s u r e impact f r o m a hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r e and f r o m r e s e r v o i r expansion as a consequence o f i n c r e a s i n g pay
temperature i n s t e a m - d r i v e o p e r a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.9.4.3.2.).
 650

I f a n a l t e r e d - s t r e s s concept i s used t o r e o r i e n t the f r a c t u r e , the i n i t i a l

breakdown technique in the production well should be c a r e f u l l y considered. Nor-
mal breakdown o r b al l - o u t ( c f . s ect i o n 4 . 4 . 2 . 3 . ) i n i t i a t e s hydraulic f r a c t u r e s
in the usual o r i e n t a t i o n , and afterwards attempts t o s t a r t a n a l t e r e d - s t r e s s
crack may be d i f f i c u l t a n d s t r e s s p er t u r b at ions may be m itiga te d. I t i s the re -
f o r e b e t t e r t o break down under reversed s t r e s s conditions so t h a t the f r a c t u r e
i s o r i e n t e d c o r r e c t l y from the s t a r t . An a l t e r n a t e breakdown technique i s using
p r o p e l l a n t f r a c t u r i n g (CUDERMAN & NORTHROP 1984) through pe rfora tions with a t
l e a s t 90 degrees phasing, w i t h cracks i n i t i a t i n g o u t of each s e t of pe rfora -
tio n s giving reasonable i n i t i a t i o n s i t e s f o r the follow-on treatment (WARPINSKI
& BRANAGAN 1988).

4.9.4.3.1.4. Leakof f control

Another important consideration f o r a l t e r e d - s t r e s s operations i s leakoff con-
t r o l . I f the hydraulic f r a c t u r e i s a l t e r e d t o c ross the most permeable natural
cracks r a t h e r than running p a r a l l e l t o them, then f l u i d leakoff may be much
g r e a t e r t h a n normally found in the r e s e r v o i r . Height containment c onditions may
a l s o s u f f e r p a r t i c u l a r l y i f maximum a n d minimum s t r e s s have d i f f e r e n t v e r t i c a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n , which occurs i f v i s c o e l a s t i c s h a le s a r e present (WARPINSKI & TEU-
FEL 1987) a n d i f t ect o n i c or o t h e r s t r a i n s a r e induced d i f f e r e n t l y i n the two
principal d i r e c t i o n s . Accurate f r a c t u r e height e stim a tions can be made i f
s t r e s s measurements ar e c a r r i e d out in an o f f s e t well which enables t o r e l a t i v e -
ly e a s i l y determine the beginning of s i g n i f i c a n t f r a c t u r e height growth.

Another p o s s i b i l i t y t o c r e a t e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s in shallow r e s e r v o i r s t o -
reys where u s u al l y horizontal cracks o r i g i n a t e i s limited-entry stim ula tion
( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) of mu l t i p l e l ay er s u n t i l proppant abrasion of perfora-
t i o n tunnels r e s u l t s in t h e i r enlargement a n d consequently pressure d r o p f o l l o -
wed by screenout of various p er f o r at i o n s , a s well as leading t o i n i t i a t i o n o f a
v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e a f t e r termination of propagation of the e a r l i e r horizontal
crack (SCHRAUFNAGEL & LAMBERT 1988). The change of o r i e n t a t i o n from an o r i g i n a l
h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e t o a subsequently v e r t i c a l crack due t o pressure r i s e a t
screenout s t a g e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y pronounced when p r o p p a n t bridging and s t i c k i n g
leads t o considerably increasing treatment pressure e a r l y d u r i n g proppant inje c -
tio n (HANSON 1988).

4.9.4.1.3.2. Structural control vs. stress control

McLENNAN, R O E G I E R S & MARX (1983) even conclude t h a t the re i s l i t t l e argument
t h a t hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g i s a s t r e s s - c o n t r o l l e d phenomenon wherein the crack
tends t o open perpendicularly t o the s mal l es t princ ipa l s t r e s s . I n a ddition t o
s t r e s s government, s t r u c t u r a l supervision in the te c tonic a l framework of the
o i l a n d / o r gas d e p o s i t e x e r t s a modifying influence on f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n .
Therefore s i g n i f i c a n t anisotropy due t o layering a n d ofte n consequently higher
horizontal permeability can enhance the likelihood of horizontal f r a c t u r e gene-
r a t i o n a t s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r depths (KOMAR & FROHNE 1973, SUN & MONGAN 1974). T h e
s t r u c t u r a l control i s most important when v e r t i c a l s t r e s s and minimum horizon-
t a l s t r e s s a r e approximately equal (McLENNAN, R O E G I E R S & MARX 1983).

This c o n s t e l l a t i o n f r eq u en t l y r e s u l t s i n development of a zone w i t h horizon-

t a l f r a c t u r e s followed by a t r a n s i t i o n a l region where horizontal and v e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r e s may co ex i s t ( o r may be generated vice ve rsa ) t h a t i s g r a d i n g i n t o an
in t e r v a l w i t h ex cl u s i v el y v e r t i c a l cracks in g r e a t e r depth ( c f . se c tion
1 . 2 . 8 . ) . I n considerably t e c t o n i c a l l y deformed a r e a s , f r a c t u r e propagation
trend may p a r a l l e l the f a u l t i n g t r en d , w i t h e i t h e r the f a u l t s themselves con-
t r o l l i n g crack extension d i r e c t i o n o r the regional s t r e s s f i e l d b e i n g dominant.
Under some circumstances, i t may be f e a s i b l e t o a l t e r i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s
by pore-pressure manipulation, f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a n d r a t e c o n t r o l , pe rfora tion
placement, a n d prenotching t o provoke generation of v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s instead
 651

o f h o r i z o n t a l ones in s h a l l o w e r depth s t o r e y s (CLEARY 1980 b; McLENNAN, ROE-

G I E R S & MARX 1983).

4.9.4.2. Combination of horizontal and vertical fracturing

Steam-drive enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y can be c o n s i d e r a b l y s u p p o r t e d by u t i l i z i n g
t h e changing g e o s t r e s s regime ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.9.4.1.) f o r an e x t r a o r d i n a r y de-
sign o f special hydraulic s t i m u l a t i o n treatments comprising a combination o f
v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s which would be i m p o s s i b l e i n o t h e r r e s e r v o i r s
n o t s u b j e c t e d t o a r t i f i c i a l h e a t i n g and t h u s c o n t r o l l e d thermal expansion. As-
p e c t s o f c r e a t i o n , management and d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l f r a c -
t u r e s a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.9.4.2.1. Fracture creation

C r e a t i o n o f a v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e by h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n p r i o r t o t h e o n s e t
o f steam i n j e c t i o n p r o v i d e s a base f o r improved e n t r y o f steam i n t o t h e heavy-
o i l - b e a r i n g pay zone. Aspects o f thermal r e s e r v o i r expansion and i n c r e a s i n g c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s , h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s and h o r i z o n t a l vs. v e r t i c a l boreholes, mul-
t i p l e h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e propagation, and c o m b i n a t i o n o f hydrau-
l i c and e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.9.4.2.1.1. Thermal reservoir expansion

and increasing closure stress
I f a v e r t i c a l c r a c k i s generated h y d r a u l i c a l l y b e f o r e t h e s t a r t o f steam
f l o o d i n g , c a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d f o r adequate p r o p p i n g o f t h e v e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r e , because thermal expansion o f t h e r e s e r v o i r due t o h e a t i n g by t h e
steam g i v e s r i s e t o i n c r e a s i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s as a consequence o f an a d d i t i o -
n a l p r e s s u r e component coming f r o m volume enlargement o f t h e r o c k m a t r i x . Prop-
p a n t c h o i c e t h e r e f o r e has t o r e s p e c t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f h i g h e r r e s i s t i v i t y t h a n
a c c o r d i n g t o d e p t h and f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e t o a v o i d c o l l a p s e o f t h e c r a c k by
p r o p p a n t f a i l u r e due t o thermal expansion s t r e s s , and a l s o has t o be made ac-
c o r d i n g t o t h e subsequent h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e environment i n terms o f thermal s t a -
b i l i t y o f the m a t e r i a l supporting the f r a c t u r e walls, and r e s i s t i v i t y a g a i n s t
a g g r e s s i v e a l c a l i n e s o l u t i o n s ( s i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r s t e a m - i n j e c t i o n w e l l
g r a v e l packing; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 7 . ) .

Another aspect which has t o be taken i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s i n c r e a s i n g p l a s t i -

c i t y o f t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k w i t h r i s i n g temperature ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.2.3.2.3. and
4.9.4.1.2.2.) which provokes i n c r e a s i n g embedment o f t h e proppants, and t h u s
m u l t i l a y e r p r o p p i n g o f t h e c r a c k has t o be planned ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 . ) . Con-
c e r n i n g p r o p p a n t type, a l l t h e mentioned adverse c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e high-tempera-
t u r e h i g h - a l c a l i n i t y s t e a m - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s can o n l y be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y met by
s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 7 . ) .

4.9.4.2.1.2. Horizontal fractures

and horizontal v s . vertical wells
Horizontal f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g v e r t i c a l w e l l s s u f f e r considerably from
t h e v e r y l i m i t e d communication i n t e r v a l between w e l l b o r e and f r a c t u r e p l a n e i n
a s i m i l a r way as a p p l y i n g f o r v e r t i c a l c r a c k s c r o s s i n g h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d o r h o r i -
z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 . ) . The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e i n thermal enhan-
ced o i l r e c o v e r y p r o j e c t s i s t h e steam-induced c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h v e r t i c a l f r a c t u -
r e s t h a t g i v e s r i s e t o a c r o s s i n g p a t t e r n o f two f r a c t u r e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o
each o t h e r and r e p r e s e n t i n g a s p e c i a l case which cannot be achieved b y e i t h e r
h o r i z o n t a l cracks i n t e r s e c t i n g h o r i z o n t a l boreholes o r v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s c u t -
 652

t i n g v e r t i c a l wellbores.

The e f f e c t i v i t y of horizontal f r a c t u r e s generated by s t r e s s regime inversion

due t o steam flooding ( c f . s ect i o n 4 . 9 . 4 . 1 . ) , however, can be considerably i m -
proved w i t h horizontal steam-injection wells where the horizontal f r a c t u r e s
have a l o n g communication i n t er v al with the wellbore comparable to t h a t of ver-
t i c a l f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g v e r t i c a l boreholes. Thus horizontal w e lls i n
steam-flood operations provide the unique opportunity t o increase the d i r e c t
c o n t a c t between wellbore a n d pay zone, between wellbore and f r a c t u r e , and bet-
ween f r a c t u r e and pay zone, with t h i s combination being the optimum solution
and leading t o maximum hydrocarbon recovery from the r e s e r v o i r . Other impacts
of h o r i z o n t a l wells on steam-drive processes a re outline d by BUTLER & STEPHENS
(1980), R I A L ( 1 98 4 ) , GOODE & THAMBYNAYAGAM (1985) a n d HUANG & HIGHT (1986; c f .
also section 4 . 8 . 6 . ) .

F i e l d examples of hydraulic cr eat i o n of a v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e p r i o r t o steam

in j e c t i o n a n d subsequent formation of a horizontal crack as a r e s u l t of steam
s t i m u l a t i o n a r e reported by SINGHAI & CARD (1988). Aspects of f r a c t u r i n g of hea-
vy-oil sand r e s e r v o i r s d u r i n g course of steam i n j e c t i o n a r e a l s o discussed by
BABCOCK ( 1 9 7 5 ) ; GESHELIN, GRABOWSKI & PEASE (1981); G E S H E L I N & GRABOWSKI
( 1 9 8 2 ) , ABAD & HENSLEY (1984) and PEAKE ( 1 9 8 4). I t has t o be emphasized t h a t
only the combined e f f e c t w i t h the v e r t i c a l cracks renders the horizontal f r a c t u -
r e s s u f f i c i e n t l y e f f e c t i v e , because they alone would be hampered in performance
by l i m i t e d c r o s s - s ect i o n with the borehole in a s i m i l a r way a s applying f o r ver-
t i c a l cracks crossing highly-deviated or horizontal boreholes ( c f . se c tion
4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 . ) . The very small communication i nte rva l between pe rfora te d zone a n d
f r a c t u r e plane h a s a s u i t e of negative impacts on treatment performance a n d e f -
f e c t which, however, i n the s p eci al case of combined design a r e compensated by
the c o e x i st i n g v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e .

4 . 9 . 4 . 2 . 1 . 3 . Multiple horizontal
and vertical fracture propagation
Developing interwell communication between i n j e c t o r s a n d producers i n e a r l y
steam-flood operation i s very important f o r e f f e c t i v e enhanced o i l recovery ( K U -
IAR, C H H I N A , BEST & MACKENZIE 1988). For more e f f e c t i v e r e s e r v o i r heating, the
p r e f e r r e d interwell communication p a t h i s e i t h e r low o r in the middle o f the
pay zone, w i t h f r a c t u r e geometry playing an important r o l e . Princ iple s a n d s i g -
n if i c a n c e o f m u l t i p l e horizontal and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e propagation a r e outline d
a s follows.

4 . 9 . 4 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 1 . Principles
Achieving horizontal f r a c t u r e s a t d e p t h where i n - s i t u s t r e s s i s in ne a r-iso-
tr o p i c s t a t e i s uncertain because of pore-pressure increase due t o f l u i d leak-
o f f , thermal expansion a n d f r a c t u r e loading which may a l t e r the s t r e s s f i e l d ,
thereby inducing a change i n f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n o r r e s u l t i n g i n m u l t i d i r e c t i o -
nal cracks (KULAR, CHHINA, BEST & M A C K E N Z I E 1988). Heat i n j e c t i o n a n d various
f r a c t u r e loadings induce changes of i n - s i t u s t r e s s regime. Crack loading which
i s defined as d i f f er en ce between f r a c t u r e extension pressure a n d formation c l o -
sure s t r e s s has s i g n i f i c a n t influences on changes o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s ( C H H I N A &
AGAR 1985, WONG 1986). I n case of smaller f r a c t u r e loadings, horizontal cracks
may s t a y horizontal and may only be moderately inc line d, whereas f o r g r e a t e r
f r a c t u r e loadings, an i n i t i a l l y horizontal crack may progress i n t o m ultiple
f r a c t u r e s with varying o r i e n t a t i o n s which i s caused by s t r e s s r e v e r s a l s occur-
ring i n a n e a r - i s o t r o p i c s t r e s s environment. Q u a l i t a t i v e l y h i g h crack loadings
can induce changes i n the horizontal t o v e r t i c a l s t r e s s r a t i o s t o favour m u l -
t i p l e fracturing.
 653

While i m m e d i a t e l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e f r a c t u r e t h e i n i t i a l t o t a l s t r e s s r a t i o
does not change s i g n i f i c a n t l y because b o t h h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l t o t a l s t r e s s
increase, some d i s t a n c e away f r o m t h e c r a c k f a c e t h e s t r e s s r a t i o has changed,
w i t h a r e v e r s a l o f t h e minimum s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n h a v i n g o c c u r r e d f r o m o r i g i n a l l y
v e r t i c a l t o now h o r i z o n t a l . I f a p r o p a g a t i n g h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e o r h i g h f l u i d
p r e s s u r e reaches t h e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e zone o r s t r e s s r e v e r s a l i n t e r v a l , a con-
j u g a t e v e r t i c a l c r a c k s t a r t s p r o p a g a t i n g . I n i t i a t i o n and e x t e n s i o n o f t h i s se-
condary v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e depends on sand f a i l u r e mechanism and pore p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f t h e c r a c k f a c e ( a s p e c t s o f composed T-shaped o r mushroom f r a c -
ture complexes are also discussed i n s e c t i o n s 1.2.8.4., 4.4.3.4.3.,
4.9.4.2.3.2. and 6 . 2 . 2 . 4 . 4 . ) . Pore p r e s s u r e can i n c r e a s e i n t h e f o r m a t i o n due
t o l e a k o f f o r due t o f r a c t u r e l o a d i n g under u n d r a i n e d c o n d i t i o n s . As o i l sands
a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h f l u i d l o s s and low t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r e s propagate by b o t h shear and t e n s i l e f a i l u r e (DUSSEAULT 1985), w i t h shear
f a i l u r e generally occurring p r i o r t o t e n s i l e f a i l u r e .

4.9.4.2.1.3.2. Significance
Shear f a i l u r e r e g i o n , h i g h f l u i d l e a k o f f , o r pore p r e s s u r e g e n e r a t i o n due t o
u n d r a i n e d f r a c t u r e l o a d i n g a r e some o f t h e mechanisms by w h i c h t h e h o r i z o n t a l
c r a c k c o u l d p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e zone p a s t t h e b u f f e r zone
where t h e i n i t i a l s t r e s s r a t i o d i d n o t change. Pressure drop i s p r i m a r i l y a f f e c -
t e d by s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d v i c o s i t y and o n l y s e c o n d a r i l y by f l u i d i n j e c t i o n r a t e
(KULAR, CHHINA, BEST & MACKENZIE 1988). F o r u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s , t r e a t -
ment f l u i d v i s c o s i t y i s a c r i t i c a l f r a c t u r e d e s i g n parameter due t o i t s i n -
f l u e n c e on c r a c k l o a d i n g which i n t u r n d i c t a t e s f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n . Apparent
s l u r r y v i s c o s i t y tends t o i n c r e a s e crack l o a d i n g as p r o p p a n t i n j e c t i o n i s i n i -
tiated.

Mu1 t i p l e h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s emanating i n d i f f e r e n t r e s e r v o i r l e v e l s and

from d i f f e r e n t w e l l s which are i n t e r l i n k e d w i t h a conjugate v e r t i c a l crack are
e f f i c i e n t means o f pay zone and b o r e h o l e c o n n e c t i o n t h r o u g h a network o f f r a c t u -
r e s o f d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n . T h i s g e o m e t r i c a l combinatory c o n s t e l l a t i o n p r o v i -
des an i m p o r t a n t p o s s i b i l i t y o f b u i l d i n g b r i d g e s between v a r i o u s r e s e r v o i r seg-
ments i n h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n and thus much more e f f i c i e n t pay com-
p l e x i n t e r s e c t i o n t h a n c o u l d be achieved by h o r i z o n t a l o r v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s
a1 one.

4.9.4.2.1.4, Combi nat ion of hydrau1 ic and explos ive fracturing

The secondary h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e environment o f s t e a m - d r i v e p r o j e c t s i n prima-
r y low-temperature r e s e r v o i r s and t h e a s s o c i a t e d change i n g e o s t r e s s s t a t e
which leads t o i n v e r s i o n o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n f r o m o r i g i n a l l y
v e r t i c a l t o subsequently h o r i z o n t a l a l s o enables p r o f i t a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f hy-
d r a u l i c and e x p l o s i v e f r a c t u r i n g . W h i l e t h e c r a c k s generated by e x p l o s i v e d e t o -
n a t i o n i n the borehole are u s u a l l y propagating i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n , the prima-
r y g e o s t r e s s s t a t e i n many s h a l l o w o i l r e s e r v o i r s and t h e secondary g e o s t r e s s
s t a t e i n s t e a m - f l o o d o p e r a t i o n s t r i g g e r h y d r a u l i c a l l y - g e n e r a t e d c r a c k s t o pene-
t r a t e t h e pay i n t e r v a l i n h o r i z o n t a l o r i e n t a t i o n . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p p e r m i t s i n
b o t h mentioned cases a s u i t a b l e a d d i t i o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y improvement o f t h e r e -
s e r v o i r by h o r i z o n t a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g superimposed by v e r t i c a l e x p l o s i v e
s t i m u l a t i o n , e n a b l i n g enhanced o i l o f f t a k e i n p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.9.6.) and a m e l i o r a t e d steam uptake c a p a c i t y i n thermal i n j e c t i o n b o r e h o l e s .

4.9.4.2.2. Fracture management

Once a s u i t a b l y equipped v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e has been i n s t a l l e d w i t h -
i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , steam i n j e c t i o n a t h i g h r a t e s w i l l f i r s t l e a d t o f l u i d e n t r y
p r e f e r e n t i a l l y v i a t h e v e r t i c a l c r a c k . I n c r e a s i n g i n j e c t i o n r a t e s exceeding up-
 654

t a k e c a p a c i t y o f t h e d r a i n a g e p a t h w i l l t h e n g i v e r i s e t o p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p , and
achievement o f a c r i t i c a l pressure l e v e l r e s u l t s i n g e n e r a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l
f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e e a r l i e r v e r t i c a l c r a c k s . C o n t i n u o u s steam i n j e c t i o n
w i t h s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h r a t e s keeps t h e h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e open and t h u s a l l o w s
f l u i d e n t r y t h r o u g h two p e r p e n d i c u l a r c r a c k systems. As p r o p p a n t i n s e r t i o n i n t o
the horizontal f r a c t u r e s i s n o t possible i n the h o t high-pressure steam-drive
e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h a l s o m u s t n o t be i n t e r r u p t e d o r d i s t u r b e d i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e
an optimum e f f e c t o f o i l m o b i l i z a t i o n , t h e h o r i z o n t a l c r a c k s c a n o n l y b e k e p t
open b y m a i n t a i n i n g i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y e l e v a t e d n i v e a u , o r
c y c l i c a l g e n e r a t i o n and c o l l a p s e o f h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e model
o f HOLZHAUSEN, CARD, RAISBECK & DOBECKI ( 1 9 8 5 ) has t o be a c c e p t e d .

I n v e r y s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r d e p t h above 3,000 f t (1,000 m), an i n v e r s e p r o c e -

dure i s possible w i t h f i r s t hydraulic generation o f a h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e which
i s s t a b l e i n t h i s l o w - o v e r b u r d e n e n v i r o n m e n t , and second e i t h e r e n l a r g i n g t h e
e x i s t i n g f r a c t u r e b y steam p r e s s u r e o r c r e a t i o n o f new c r a c k s r u n n i n g p r e f e r e n -
t i a l l y p a r a l l e l t o t h e o l d e r f r a c t u r e . V e r t i c a l c r a c k s w o u l d i n such s h a l l o w
d e p t h o n l y o r i g i n a t e when t h e f o r m a t i o n i s s p l i t i n t o s e a l e d f a u l t b l o c k s o r
t h e r e s e r v o i r sand i s p r e s e n t as d i s c o n t i n u o u s l e n s e s and c h a n n e l s p i n c h i n g o u t
w i t h i n t h i c k e r mudstone complexes, w i t h t h u s l a t e r a l e x p a n s i o n o f t h e p a y zone
upon h e a t i n g b e i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y r e s t r i c t e d and i n some c a s e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
s h a l l o w d e p t h b e i n g e v e n more l i m i t e d t h a n v e r t i c a l e x p a n s i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , p e r -
f o r a t i o n f r i c t i o n o c c u r s due t o l i m i t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n between w e l l b o r e and a ho-
r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e i n s h a l l o w d e p t h , and t h i s e f f e c t c a n cause a s m a l l v e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r e t o open w h i c h b r e a k s down t h e w e l l b o r e , b u t t h e n soon t u r n s i n t o t h e
proper d i r e c t i o n . Aspects o f f r a c t u r e - a s s i s t e d steam-flood technology a r e a l s o
d i s c u s s e d b y BRITTON, MARTIN, LEIBRECHT & HARMON ( 1 9 8 3 ) and SON1 & HARMON
(1986).

4.9.4.2.3. Fracture determination

The method m o s t commonly u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i s
v e r t i c a l o r h o r i z o n t a l i s comparison o f t h e pressure r e q u i r e d t o propagate t h e
f r a c t u r e (which i s represented by t h e instantaneous s h u t - i n pressure) t o t h e
v e r t i c a l i n - s i t u s t r e s s a t t h e i n j e c t i o n d e p t h (HOLZHAUSEN, CARD, RAISBECK & DO-
BECK1 1 9 8 5 ) . I f t h e p r e s s u r e i s l e s s t h a n t h e v e r t i c a l s t r e s s , t h e f r a c t u r e c a n -
n o t be h o r i z o n t a l because t h e p r e s s u r e i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o l i f t t h e o v e r b u r d e n .
The a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l s t r e s s i s a p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s l e a d s t o c o n c l u -
s i o n t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e i s v e r t i c a l , because i t s h o u l d f o r m i n a p l a n e p e r p e n d i -
c u l a r t o t h e l e a s t c o m p r e s s i v e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s w h i c h m u s t be h o r i z o n t a l .

On t h e o t h e r hand, i f t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e f r a c t u r e exceeds t h e v e r t i c a l
stress, t h e c r a c k p l a n e i s taken. t o be h o r i z o n t a l u n d e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e
v e r t i c a l s t r e s s i s t h e l e a s t c o m p r e s s i v e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s . Thus i n g e n e r a l o n l y
e i t h e r v e r t i c a l o r h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s c a n o r i g i n a t e i n a g i v e n r e s e r v o i r , and
t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f b o t h t y p e s o f c r a c k s one a f t e r e a c h o t h e r t o f i n a l l y c o e x i s t
i n t h e f o r m a t i o n and make up t w o p e r p e n d i c u l a r i n t e r s e c t i n g d r a i n a g e p a t h s i s
n o t p o s s i b l e u n l e s s s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e present, w i t h t h e most i m p o r t a n t
means o f c h a n g i n g g e o s t r e s s r e g i m e b e i n g t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n o f t h e r o c k c o l u m n
as d i s c u s s e d above. O t h e r methods o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n between h o r i z o n t a l and v e r -
t i c a l c r a c k s a r e t i l t m e t e r m o n i t o r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 6 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 4 . and 6 . 2 . 2 . 4 . 1 . )
and t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l i n g (VITTORATOS 1 9 8 6 ) . Some a s p e c t s o f f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t
v s . o v e r b u r d e n s t r e s s g r a d i e n t as w e l l as r e s e r v o i r e x p a n s i o n and c h a n g i n g i n -
s i t u s t r e s s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.9.4.2.3.1. Fracture gradient vs. overburden stress gradient

I n t e r m s o f c r a c k d e t e r m i n a t i o n in s h a l l o w - d e p t h r e s e r v o i r s , f r a c t u r e g r a -
d i e n t s e x c e e d i n g t h e o v e r b u r d e n s t r e s s g r a d i e n t may r e f l e c t v e r t i c a l c r a c k s ,
whereas f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t s a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e o v e r b u r d e n s t r e s s
 655

g r a d i e n t a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as i n d i c a t i n g c r e a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l c r a c k s (STOLLER
1985). Temperature p r o f i l e m o n i t o r i n g i s a s u i t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t t o determine
f r a c t u r e shape and s i z e , thermal d i f f u s i v i t y o f t h e f o r m a t i o n , and f l u i d f l o w
v e l o c i t i e s i n c o n v e c t i v e r e g i o n s (VITTORATOS 1986). T i l t m e t e r survey can d i s t i n -
g u i s h v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s which produce a r a d i a l symmetrical up-
l i f t o f t h e ground and a t r o u g h a t t h e s u r f a c e p a r a l l e l t o f r a c t u r e s t r i k e , r e -
s p e c t i v e l y (HOLZHAUSEN, CARD, RAISBECK & DOBECKI 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s 6.2.2.3.4.
and 6 . 2 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) .

4.9.4.2.3.2. Reservoir expansion and changing i n - s i t u stress

Steam-drive o p e r a t i o n s i n h e a v y - o i l f i e l d s thus p r o v i d e t h e u n i q u e p o s s i b i l i -
ty o f r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l f r a c -
t u r e s as a consequence o f t h e changing i n - s i t u s t r e s s regime by thermal pay ex-
pansion which would be i m p o s s i b l e i n o t h e r f o r m a t i o n s t h a t a r e n o t s u b j e c t e d t o
t e m p e r a t u r e - r e l a t e d enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y . Aspects o f h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s i n
s h a l l o w h e a v y - o i l r e s e r v o i r s s t i m u l a t e d by steam f l o o d i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by
CLOSMANN & PHOCAS (1976); REDDY, PROWSE & REDFORD (1980); CLOSMANN & SMITH
(1983) and VITTORATOS (1986), and DUSSEAULT & SIMMONS (1982) analyze i n j e c t i o n -
induced s t r e s s and f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n changes.

CLOSMANN & PHOCAS (1976) conclude t h a t f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s f o r h o r i z o n t a l

f r a c t u r e s can be c r e a t e d by h e a t i n g a l o n g two p a r a l l e l v e r t i c a l c r a c k s . DUSSE-
AULT & SIMMONS (1982) document t h a t p o r e p r e s s u r e has more s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s
than temperature on i n d u c i n g s t r e s s changes, and t h a t t h e s t r e s s f i e l d i s a l t e -
r e d enough f r o m f l u i d i n j e c t i o n a l o n e t o a l l o w h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s t o be c r e a -
t e d . CLEARY, CROCKETT, MARTINEZ, NARENDRAN & SLUTSKY (1983) p u t f o r w a r d t h a t
f l u i d l e a k o f f i n c r e a s e s t h e p o r e p r e s s u r e around t h e c r a c k and t h a t t h e induced
b a c k s t r e s s e s a c t t o c l o s e t h e f r a c t u r e subsequently. CROCKETT, VO & CLEARY
(1984) show t h a t t h e r m a l l y - i n d u c e d s t r e s s e s a r e s m a l l compared w i t h those gene-
r a t e d by f l u i d l o s s o v e r t h e t i m e s c a l e o f t y p i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n
t i g h t reservoirs.

Combinations o f v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s o r i g i n a t e a l s o i n r e s e r -
v o i r s w i t h normal geotemperature w i t h o u t i n f l u e n c e o f a r t i f i c i a l f o r m a t i o n h e a t -
i n g by opening o f a p r i m a r y v e r t i c a l c r a c k which s e c o n d a r i l y t u r n s i n t o a h o r i -
z o n t a l f r a c t u r e i n s h a l l o w depth t h a t breaks o u t a t t h e t o p o f t h e v e r t i c a l
c r a c k (WOOD, PARKIN, YOTAM, HANSON, SMITH, ABBOTT, COX & O'SHEA 1983; c f . sec-
t i o n 6.2.3.). T-shaped f r a c t u r e s c o n s i s t i n g o f v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l compo-
nents a l s o o r i g i n a t e i n c o a l seams t h a t a r e bounded by s h a l e s due t o a b n o r m a l l y
h i g h t r e a t i n g p r e s s u r e s (JEU, LOGAN & McBANE 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 3 . 8 . ) . O t h e r
aspects o f composed mushroom-shaped f r a c t u r e assemblages a r e d i s c u s s e d i n sec-
t i o n s 1.2.8.4., 4.4.3.4.3., 4.9.4.2.1.3. and 6.2.2.4.4.

4.9.4.3. Changes o f f r a c t u r e azimuth o r i e n t a t i o n

I n - s i t u s t r e s s changes d u r i n g steam s t i m u l a t i o n o f h e a v y - o i l sand r e s e r v o i r s
do n o t o n l y g i v e r i s e t o g e n e r a t i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s i n o r i g i n a l geo-
s t r e s s regimes f a v o u r i n g f o r m a t i o n o f v e r t i c a l c r a c k s w i t h o u t thermal i n -
f l u e n c e , b u t a l l o w a l s o changes o f v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t
t o t h e azimuth o f t h e c r a c k p r e f e r e n t i a l l y i n deeper r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y s where ho-
r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o c r e a t e a l s o under a r t i f i c i a l l y e l e v a t e d pay
zone temperatures and p r e s s u r e s (WONG 1986). T h i s has i m p o r t a n t consequences
f o r p l a n n i n g o f b o r e h o l e p a t t e r n and spacing as w e l l as u t i l i z a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e
i n t e r f e r e n c e and c r e a t i o n o f c r a c k s p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o each o t h e r f o r enhanced
hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n . The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s focusses on o n - t r e n d and o f f -
t r e n d w e l l p a t t e r n s , staggered steam i n j e c t i o n i n t o o f f - t r e n d w e l l p a i r s , and
mechanisms o f f r a c t u r e azimuth o r i e n t a t i o n changes.
 656

4.9.4.3.1. On-trend and o f f - t r e n d w e l l p a t t e r n s

A n a l y z i n g two w e l l s , d i s t i n c t i o n can be made between o n - t r e n d p a t t e r n when
both boreholes are aligned along the f r a c t u r e d i r e c t i o n according t o the undis-
t u r b e d g e o s t r e s s f i e l d , and o f f - t r e n d arrangements when b o t h w e l l s a r e p l a c e d
i n such a way t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n l i n e r u n s p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e c r a c k d i r e c -
t i o n determined by t h e i n h e r e n t g e o s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n (WONG 1986). I n terms o f
steam s t i m u l a t i o n , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n can be made between simultaneous and stagge-
r e d steam i n j e c t i o n o f two n e i g h b o u r i n g b o r e h o l e s . I f two o n - t r e n d w e l l s a r e
steamed s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o r i n a staggered manner, t h e f r a c t u r e s which a r e c r e a -
t e d a r e o r i e n t e d i n i t i a l l y i n t h e n a t u r a l c r a c k d i r e c t i o n where t h e y do n o t i n -
t e r a c t w i t h each o t h e r b e f o r e t h e y s t a r t t o grow c o n s i d e r a b l y i n l e n g t h , w i t h
t h e amount and r a p i d i t y o f i n t e r a c t i o n by i n t e r f e r e n c e and c o n n e c t i o n depending
on w e l l s p a c i n g and i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e . Continued growth o f t h e f r a c t u r e s i n
o n - t r e n d d i r e c t i o n w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e steam i n j e c t i o n occurs because t h e p r e f e r -
r e d c r a c k o r i e n t a t i o n ahead o f t h e f r a c t u r e does n o t change.

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e o n - t r e n d case, t h e i n j e c t i o n sequence has s i g n i f i c a n t i m -

p a c t on t h e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f f r a c t u r e s i n two o f f - t r e n d w e l l s . Simultaneous
steam i n j e c t i o n i n t o two o f f - t r e n d b o r e h o l e s r e s u l t s again i n c r a c k o r i e n t a t i o n
and growth i n t h e v i r g i n a l f r a c t u r e d i r e c t i o n as l o n g as t h e y do n o t i n t e r a c t
w i t h each o t h e r , and once a f r a c t u r e l e n g t h has been reached t o a l l o w f o r con-
n e c t i o n and i n t e r f e r e n c e , t h e c r a c k s a l s o c o n t i n u e t o propagate i n t h e o r i g i n a l
fracture orientation.

4.9.4.3.2. Staggered steam i n j e c t i o n i n t o o f f - t r e n d w e l l p a i r s

Remarkable changes i n f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n , however, a r e provoked by stagge-
r e d steam i n j e c t i o n i n t o two o f f - t r e n d w e l l s (WONG 1986). I f steam s t i m u l a t i o n
i s s t a g g e r e d i n such a way t h a t i n j e c t i o n a t t h e f i r s t b o r e h o l e has g e n e r a t e d a
c r a c k o f l e n g t h i n t h e o r d e r o f w e l l spacing, t h e n i n j e c t i o n a t t h e second w e l l
causes a f r a c t u r e growing p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e f i r s t one and p r o p a g a t i n g i n
o f f - t r e n d d i r e c t i o n as a consequence o f s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n t h e p r i n c i p a l
o r i e n t a t i o n s along the o f f - t r e n d d i r e c t i o n from a crack.

Staggered steam i n j e c t i o n o f b o r e h o l e p a i r s p l a c e d i n an o f f - t r e n d p a t t e r n
i s t h e r e f o r e a p o s s i b i l i t y t o make use o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n changes
by r e s e r v o i r h e a t i n g i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e f a b r i c s o f two f r a c t u r e systems r u n n i n g
p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o each o t h e r which a l l o w t o d r a i n t h e pay zone i n much w i d e r
e x t e n t t h a n c o u l d be done by a number o f p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s , because a d d i t i o n a l
q u a n t i t i e s o f hydrocarbons can be accessed w i t h fewer w e l l s by normal connec-
t i o n s o f p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s and g e n e r a t i o n o f o r t h o g o n a l l y l i n k e d o r approach-
i n g c r a c k s i n s t e a d o f a s u i t e o f p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s . Staggered steam i n j e c t i o n
o f o f f - t r e n d w e l l p a i r s t h u s r e p r e s e n t s a s p e c i a l method o f a l t e r e d - s t r e s s f r a c -
t u r i n g by b e i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n between g e o s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n d i s t u r b a n c e and
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n by t h e f i r s t h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e and t h e p r e s s u r e necessary t o ge-
n e r a t e i t and t o keep i t open ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 4 . 1 . 3 . 1 . ) , and t h e a d d i t i o n a l i m -
p a c t o f r e s e r v o i r h e a t i n g by steam f l o o d i n g which provokes changes o f g e o s t r e s s
p a t t e r n due t o pay expansion.

4.9.4.3.3. Mechanisms o f f r a c t u r e azimuth o r i e n t a t i o n changes

Steam s t i m u l a t i o n t h e r e f o r e e f f e c t s s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n magnitudes and
o r i e n t a t i o n s o f s t r e s s e s (WONG 1986). Steam i n j e c t i o n b a s i c a l l y i n c r e a s e s t h e
i n - s i t u stresses, w h i l e the stress a l t e r a t i o n s are recovered mainly e a r l y i n
t h e p r o d u c t i o n c y c l e . A t t h e end o f an i n j e c t i o n c y c l e , most o f t h e s t r e s s chan-
ges a r e around t h e m i d d l e o f t h e f r a c t u r e i n the o f f - t r e n d d i r e c t i o n , whereas
ahead o f t h e crack, o n l y small a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e p r i n c i p a l o r i e n t a t i o n s o c c u r .
F r a c t u r e l o a d i n g i s t h e dominant mechanism r e s u l t i n g i n changes o f b o t h magni-
tude and d i r e c t i o n o f s t r e s s , because t h e magnitude o f f r a c t u r e l o a d i n g i s r e l a -
 657

t i v e l y h i g h compared w i t h t h e average p r e s s u r e / t e m p e r a t u r e a l t e r a t i o n . Pressure

and temperature changes s i m p l y a l t e r t h e s t r e s s magnitudes, b u t l e a v e t h e p r i n -
c i p a l s t r e s s o r i e n t a t i o n s almost u n a f f e c t e d .

The maximum a l t e r a t i o n s t a k e p l a c e around t h e t i p o f t h e d i s t u r b e d zones o f

p r e s s u r e / t e m p e r a t u r e changes where t h e l a r g e s t g r a d i e n t s o c c u r . A t t h e end o f
production cycles, the i n - s i t u stresses r e t u r n e s s e n t i a l l y t o t h e i r i n i t i a l sta-
t e s as a consequence o f l i n e a r - e l a s t i c behaviour and small average pressure/tem-
p e r a t u r e changes, b u t r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s and d e f o r m a t i o n s a r e expected once non-
l i n e a r b e h a v i o u r i s t a k e n i n t o account. From t h e a n a l y s i s o f s t r e s s a l t e r a t i o n s
d u r i n g c y c l i c steam s t i m u l a t i o n , f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n can be m a n i p u l a t e d t o a
c e r t a i n e x t e n t by choosing an a p p r o p r i a t e c o m b i n a t i o n o f w e l l l a y o u t and opera-
t i n g schedule, t h e r e b y o p t i m i z i n g hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n . S t r e s s changes i n d u -
ced by p o r e f l u i d p r e s s u r e and/or temperature changes a r e a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d by
CLOSMANN & PHOCAS (1976), DUSSEAULT & SIMMONS (1982); CLEARY, CROCKETT, M A R T I -
NEZ, NARENDRAN & SLUTSKY (1983); CROCKETT, VO & CLEARY (1984) and P E R K I N S & GON-
ZALEZ (1984, 1985).

An a l t e r n a t i v e t e c h n o l o g y t o s t e a m - d r i v e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f heavy o i l i s m i n i n g
o f t h e h i g h - v i s c o s i t y d e p o s i t s (HARDING & ALI 1984; LYMAN, PIPER & RIDDELL
1984) which, however, i s f r e q u e n t l y o f v e r y l i m i t e d economical f e a s i b i l i t y i n
comparison t o thermal enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y . The e f f e c t o f o i l m i n i n g can be en-
hanced by h o r i z o n t a l w e l l b o r e s c o n n e c t i n g v e r t i c a l s h a f t s and p a r t i a l l y r e p l a -
c i n g h o r i z o n t a l g a l l e r i e s o r t o c r e a t e o r t h o g o n a l communication tubes between
p a r a l l e l g a l l e r i e s (BEST, CORDELL & HASTON 1987, ERDUL-ERDGAS-KOHLE 1988 b,
MOORE 1988 c ) .

4.9.5. Cold water injection effects on hydraulic fracturing

A p a r t f r o m steam d r i v e c o m p r i s i n g t e r t i a r y - r e c o v e r y h o t steam and w a t e r i n -
j e c t i o n , a l s o c o l d w a t e r i n j e c t i o n by c o n v e n t i o n a l secondary-recovery w a t e r
f l o o d i n g i n t o o i l r e s e r v o i r s can have s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g by m o d i f y i n g o r changing t h e i n i t i a l i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e
pay i n t e r v a l (PERKINS & GONZALEZ 1985). F o r t y p i c a l w a t e r f l o o d i n g o f a modera-
t e l y deep o i l r e s e r v o i r , h o r i z o n t a l e a r t h s t r e s s e s may be reduced by s e v e r a l
hundred p s i . I f t h e i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e i s t o o h i g h o r i f suspended s o l i d s i n
t h e w a t e r p l u g t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e a t t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , t h e pay w i l l be f r a c t u -
r e d h y d r a u l i c a l l y . As t h e c r a c k grows, t h e f l o w system e v o l v e s f r o m an essen-
t i a l l y c i r c u l a r geometry i n t h e p l a n view t o one c h a r a c t e r i z e d more n e a r l y as
e l l i p t i c a l . Aspects o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s and f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e r e d u c t i o n , r e s e r -
v o i r p r e s s u r e and f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t r e d u c t i o n , f o r m a t i o n p a r t i n g and s t r e s s r e -
d u c t i o n a t f r a c t u r e t i p , p r i m a r y and secondary f r a c t u r e s ; and r e s e r v o i r p r e s -
sure, i n j e c t i v i t y and f r a c t u r e l e n g t h a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.9.5.1. In-situ stress and fracture pressure reduction

Temperatures o f i n j e c t e d f l u i d s a r e t y p i c a l l y l o w e r than i n - s i t u r e s e r v o i r
temperatures, and t h e r e f o r e a r e g i o n o f c o o l e d r o c k forms around each i n j e c t i o n
w e l l and grows as a d d i t i o n a l f l u i d i s i n j e c t e d (PERKINS & GONZALEZ 1985). Forma-
t i o n r o c k w i t h i n t h e c o o l e d r e g i o n c o n t r a c t s , and t h i s l e a d s t o d e c r e a s i n g h o r i -
z o n t a l e a r t h s t r e s s near t h e i n j e c t i o n b o r e h o l e . I n a d d i t i o n , w a t e r s n o r m a l l y
a v a i l a b l e f o r i n j e c t i o n c o n t a i n suspended s o l i d s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y p l u g g i n g o f
f o r m a t i o n r o c k occurs t h e r e b y p o s s i b l y s e v e r e l y l i m i t i n g i n j e c t i v i t y . I n f i e l d
operations, i n j e c t i o n o f t e n s i m p l y c o n t i n u e s a t a bottomhole p r e s s u r e t h a t i s
h i g h enough t o i n i t i a t e and e x t e n d h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s which then enable t h e i n -
j e c t e d f l u i d t o l e a k o f f r e a d i l y through t h e l a r g e c r a c k f a c e area ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.7.1.2.). Because o f t h e l o w e r i n g o f h o r i z o n t a l e a r t h s t r e s s e s t h a t r e s u l t
f r o m c o l d f l u i d i n j e c t i o n , h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e s can be much lower
than would be expected f o r an o r d i n a r y l o w - l e a k o f f h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t -
ment.
 658

I n terms of i n i t i a l f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n , moderately deep formations a r e t y -

p i c a l l y i n a s t a t e of t r i a x i a l compression w i t h the l a r g e s t princ ipa l s t r e s s
o r i e n t e d v e r t i c a l l y , w i t h t h er ef o r e v e r t i c a l hydraulic cracks tending t o i n i -
t i a t e and propagate perpendicularly t o the minimum horizontal s t r e s s ( c f . sec-
t i o n 1 . 2 . 8 . ) . When cold f l u i d i s i n j ect ed i n t o an unfractured w e ll, the region
of cooled rock might be considered r a d i a l l y symmetrical w i t h re spe c t t o the
borehole. Superimposition of the thermoelastic s t r e s s thus w ill decrease the ma-
ximum a n d minimum horizontal s t r e s s e s by an equal amount. Although the well can
be f r a c t u r e d h yd r au l i cal l y a t a reduced pressure, the re w i l l be no e f f e c t of a
r a d i a l l y symmetrical cooled region on the i n i t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n of an induced
crack.

4.9.5.2. Reservoir temperature and fracture gradient reduction

Considerable r e s e r v o i r temperature reductions in waterflood ope ra tions lead
t o s i g n i f i c a n t d ecl i n e of f r a c t u r e g r ad i en t a n d re quire s diminution of i n j e c -
t i o n pressures t o avoid accidental formation p a r t i n g (GARON, LIN & D U N A Y E V S K Y
1988). Thermally induced s t r e s s reduction a n d f r a c t u r i n g f a c i l i t a t i o n i s of con-
s i d e r a b l e importance f o r proper waterflood design and modelling, because chan-
ges i n r e s e r v o i r temperature and pore pressure f i e l d s r e s u l t i n g from cold water
in j e c t i o n can cause changes in i n - s i t u s t r e s s l e v e l s . Decreasing r e s e r v o i r tem-
perature r e s u l t s in t o reduction of compressive s t r e s s , while r i s i n g pore pres-
sure i n c r e a se s i n - s i t u s t r e s s . Uncontrolled v e r t i c a l a n d l a t e r a l f r a c t u r e
growth could s e r i o u s l y impact v e r t i c a l a n d areal sweep e f f i c i e n c i e s , whereas re -
duction of i n j e c t i o n pressures could provoke severe underinjection irl many wa-
t e r f l o o d p a t t e r n s . Reservoir behaviour associated with cold water i n j e c t i o n
i n t o a hot formation a r e very complex because of the coupled nature of the me-
chanisms involved. Water i n j e c t i o n cools the pay by conduction a n d convection.
P ri o r t o f r a c t u r i n g , flow d i s t r i b u t i o n i s c ontrolle d by r e s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s , and temperature f i e l d i s governed by flow p a t t e r n . The i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i s -
t r i b u t i o n i s subsequently determined by temperature a n d pressure f i e l d s , and
f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t may be decreased.

4.9.5.3. Formation parting and stress reduction at fracture tip

A t some i n j e c t i o n p r es s u r e, formation p ar ting occurs. Flow pa tte rn i s ob-
viously s t r o n g l y influenced by any f r a c t u r e s which develop a n d t h i s c o n t r o l s
the subsequent temperature a n d s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s . S t r e s s d i m i n u t i o n near the
crack t i p s r e s u l t s in f r a c t u r e elongation a n d f u r t h e r s t r e s s reduction, with
t h i s coupling e f f e c t being able t o give r i s e t o rapid f r a c t u r e extension ( P E R -
KINS & GONZALEZ 1985). The maximum level of s t r e s s reduction inc re a se s a n d the
region of s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n expands as the cooling region grows with c o n t i -
n u i n g water i n j e c t i o n . The maximum s t r e s s decline occurs a t some dista nc e from
the wellbore because of the combination of thermal a n d pore-pressure e f f e c t s .

Simulation of f r a c t u r e opening a n d continuous crack propagation can be per-

formed by u t i l i z a t i o n of a pressure-dependent permeability m u l t i p l i e r which be-
low f r a c t u r e pressure has a co n s t an t value of one a n d above crack pressure
equals the assigned f r a c t u r e permeability divided by the product of o r i g i n a l re -
s e r v o i r permeability and r e l a t i v e permeability to water and re sidua l o i l s a t u r a -
t i o n . Vertical permeability b a r r i e r s o f t en have a higher undisturbed minimum ho-
r i z o n t a l s t r e s s t h a n the adjacent pay sandstones a n d a re l e s s a ffe c te d by cool-
ing, thereby providing a r e l a t i v e b a r r i e r t o i n h i b i t v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e g r o w t h .
Other aspects of thermally induced waterflood f r a c t u r i n g a re a l s o discussed by
PERKINS & GONZALEZ ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; MORALES, ABOU-SAYED, JONES & AL-SAFFAR (1986) a n d
WILLIAMS, SHERRARO & L I N ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
 659

4.9.5.4. Primary and secondary fractures

D i f f e r e n t i n j e c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . I f t h e i n j e c t i o n r a t e
exceeds s l i g h t l y t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e u n f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n t o accept t h e f l u i d ,
a s h o r t c r a c k extends f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e , and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g r e g i o n o f c o o l e d
r o c k i s n e a r l y c i r c u l a r i n shape and o n l y s l i g h t l y e l l i p t i c a l , w i t h t h e r e f o r e
the thermoelastic reduction o f h o r i z o n t a l stresses being n e a r l y uniform i n a l l
d i r e c t i o n s (PERKINS & GONZALEZ 1985). I f t h e i n j e c t i o n r a t e i s much l a r g e r o r
some f r a c t u r e - f a c e damage has occurred, t h e c r a c k extends a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e
from the well, and t h e c o o l e d r e g i o n becomes more e l o n g a t e d i n shape. As t h e
c o o l e d area e l o n g a t e s , t h e t h e r m o e l a s t i c r e d u c t i o n i n s t r e s s p a r a l l e l t o t h e
f r a c t u r e exceeds t h e t h e r m o e l a s t i c s t r e s s d i m i n u t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e
c r a c k which tends t o decrease t h e d i f f e r e n c e between s t r e s s e s w i t h i n t h e c o o l e d
r e g i o n t h a t a r e p a r a l l e l and p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f r a c t u r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

I f c o n t i n u e d i n j e c t i o n causes t h e f r a c t u r e t o e x t e n d f u r t h e r , a f l a t t e r
shape o f t h e c o o l e d area causes t h e s t r e s s e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e c r a c k t o become
l e s s than those across t h e f r a c t u r e , and t h u s m i n o r c r a c k s o r j o i n t s perpendicu-
l a r t o t h e main f r a c t u r e would open p r e f e r e n t i a l l y . The shape o f t h e j o i n t e d r e -
g i o n then presumably a d j u s t s i t s e l f c o n t i n u a l l y t o m a i n t a i n open f r a c t u r e s i n
b o t h d i r e c t i o n s as t h e s i z e o f t h e c o o l e d area expanded. The opening o f seconda-
r y c r a c k s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e main f r a c t u r e system i s a l s o known f r o m g e o t h e r -
mal w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n where a l s o c o l d w a t e r i s i n j e c t e d i n t o a h o t r e s e r v o i r (BA-
ZANT 1979, BARR 1980; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 7 . ) .

4.9.5.5. Reservoir pressure, injectivity and fracture length

F r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n p r e s s u r e s a r e a f u n c t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r pressure, permeabi-
l i t y and s i z e o f t h e r e g i o n c o o l e d by i n j e c t i o n w a t e r . Low pay p r e s s u r e enables
t h e f l u i d t o l e a k o f f t h r o u g h a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t crack, whereas h i g h e r r e s e r -
v o i r p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e s a l o n g e r f r a c t u r e t o accommodate f l u i d a t t h e i n j e c t e d
r a t e . I n j e c t i o n o f c o o l w a t e r can reduce e a r t h s t r e s s around i n j e c t i o n w e l l s
s u b s t a n t i a l l y , c a u s i n g them t o f r a c t u r e a t p r e s s u r e s c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r than
would be expected i n t h e absence o f t h e t h e r m o e l a s t i c e f f e c t . Depending on t h e
shape o f t h e c o o l r e g i o n and t h e d i f f e r e n c e between minimum and maximum i n - s i t u
h o r i z o n t a l e a r t h s t r e s s e s , m i n o r f r a c t u r e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e main c r a c k open
t h u s c r e a t i n g a j o i n t e d f r a c t u r e system c o n s i s t i n g o f p r i m a r y and secondary
f r a c t u r e s . S h o r t c r a c k s r e s u l t i n g f r o m low i n j e c t i o n r a t e , h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y o r
low r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e do n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y change t h e shape o f t h e w a t e r f l o o d
f r o n t f r o m t h e c i r c u l a r shape t h a t would be expected f o r an u n f r a c t u r e d w e l l ,
whereas l o n g e r c r a c k s d e r i v i n g f r o m h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s , low p e r m e a b i l i t y ,
h i g h pay p r e s s u r e o r poor w a t e r q u a l i t y cause t h e w a t e r f l o o d e d r e g i o n t o become
n o t i c e a b l y e l l i p t i c a l i n shape.

4.10. Comnunication fracturing

Conventional h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g i s c o n f i n e d t o one s i n g u l a r hydro-
carbon-bearing s t o r e y i n t h e p r o s p e c t i v e column. When s e v e r a l s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s
have been c a r r i e d o u t so f a r i n one w e l l i n Europe, t h e r e was g e n e r a l l y a c l e a r
temporal succession o f f i r s t p e r f o r m i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t i n t h e lowermost sand, a f -
t e r w a r d s t e s t i n g and/or p r o d u c i n g i t u n t i l d e p l e t i o n i n case o f success o f t h e
s t i m u l a t i o n j o b o r up t o d e c l a r a t i o n as a f a i l u r e , then p a r t i a l l y p l u g g i n g back
t h e b o r e h o l e by cementing, sanding-up and/or s e t t i n g b r i d g e s s e a l i n g o f f t h e l o -
wer h o r i z o n which i s t o be abandoned, and subsequently f r a c t u r i n g s e p a r a t e l y
t h e n e x t p o t e n t i a l sandstone h i g h e r up i n t h e s e c t i o n . F o l l o w i n g an o u t l i n e o f
c o n v e n t i o n a l s t o r e y - w i s e f r a c t u r i n g i n d i s c r e t e t i m e steps, some aspects o f ap-
p l i c a t i o n o f simultaneous communication f r a c t u r i n g i n p r o d u c t i o n and a p p r a i s a l
d r i l l i n g as w e l l as f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e a r e discussed. Comments a r e a l s o o f f e -
r e d on i n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n arrangement.
 660

4.10.1. Conventional storey-wise f ractur ins

Conventional h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g by s t o r e y - w i s e t r e a t m e n t o f v e r t i c a l l y suc-
c e s s i v e s e p a r a t e r e s e r v o i r s u b u n i t s and i n t e r v a l s i n d i s c r e t e t i m e s t e p s has
been a p p l i e d v e r y widespread i n Europe and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d d u r i n g t h e
l a s t decades. S t a r t i n g a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e b o r e h o l e and c l i m b i n g up t h e s t a i r -
case o f pay zones r e q u i r e s s e a l i n g o f f o f t h e i n f e r i o r u n i t and p e r f o r a t i n g o f
t h e s u p e r i o r u n i t a f t e r p l u g g i n g o f t h e b o r e h o l e f l o o r i n each s t i m u l a t i o n
s t e p . Some aspects o f r e p e a t e d s t e p w i s e f r a c t u r i n g i n R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e -
r o u s o f Germany FRG, commingling o f separate l a y e r s a f t e r i n d i v i d u a l f r a c t u -
r i n g , m u l t i l a y e r r e s e r v o i r s w i t h and w i t h o u t c r o s s f l o w , and c o n n e c t i o n o f sepa-
r a t e l a y e r s by j o i n t f r a c t u r i n g a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.10.1.1. Repeated stepwise fracturing i n

Rot 1 iegend and Carboniferous of Germany FRG
Examples o f such r e p e a t e d s t e p w i s e f r a c t u r i n g w i t h f o l l o w i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n i n
v e r t i c a l l y s u c c e s s i v e r e s e r v o i r s a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y t h e g a s - b e a r i n g sandstone co-
lumns i n t h e Upper C a r b o n i f e r o u s and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o i n p a r t s o f t h e R o t l i e -
gend ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.1.1. and 3.3.2.) o f N o r t h w e s t Germany ( m a i n l y t h e Wech-
s e l f o l g e in t h e Hannover-Formation o r Ten Boer-Formation a t t h e t o p where s i m i -
l a r l y as i n t h e Upper C a r b o n i f e r o u s t h e more o r l e s s t h i n i n d i v i d u a l sandstone
h o r i z o n s a r e separated by t h i c k e r o r t h i n n e r mudstone i n t e r v a l s ; BRINKMANN
1982; R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) .

S e p a r a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t r e a t m e n t s i n R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s
w e l l s was achieved by sand p l u g g i n g . I n some cases, t o o small i n t e r v a l s between
p e r f o r a t i o n s and i n s u f f i c i e n t cement bond caused communication b e h i n d c a s i n g
and reduced t h e s t i m u l a t i o n r a t i o . M u l t i s t a g e t r e a t m e n t s i n c l u d i n g p e r f o r a t i n g ,
f r a c t u r i n g , s e t t i n g a sand p l u g t o i s o l a t e t h e i n t e r v a l , and moving u p h o l e f o r
t h e n e x t stage have a l s o been performed i n t h e C o t t o n V a l l e y F o r m a t i o n (Upper
J u r a s s i c ) i n E a s t Texas and Louisiana/USA (JENNINGS & SPRAWLS 1975, HUFFT 1977)
and i n m u l t i p l e c o a l seam sequences (SCHRAUFNAGEL & LAMBERT 1988; c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 4 . 3 . ) . Successive m u l t i s t a g e f r a c t u r i n g can be conducted f r o m one h o r i z o n t o
t h e n e x t i n upwards d i r e c t i o n by mechanical d i v e r s i o n w i t h sand plugback,
s t r a d d l e packer assemblies, and r e t r i e v a b l e b r i d g e p l u g s and packers (HUCKABEE
1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) .

Conventional s t o r e y - w i s e f r a c t u r i n g w i t h i s o l a t i o n o f t h e l o w e r zone a f t e r
t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e t r e a t m e n t and upwards movement f o r t h e n e x t j o b i s u n a v o i -
d a b l e i f v e r t i c a l l y s u c c e s s i v e h o r i z o n s have t o be s t i m u l a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t
f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d types (HOEL 1988) o r c r a c k s w i t h i n them have t o be i n f i l l e d
w i t h d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t t y p e s due t o s p e c i f i c r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e con-
s i d e r a b l y changing w i t h i n t h e p r o s p e c t i v e complex. I f t h e same f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d
and t h e same p r o p p a n t t y p e can be u t i l i z e d f o r s e v e r a l s u c c e s s i v e l a y e r s , then
m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g i n one r u n w i t h o u t d i s c r e t e h a n d l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l h o r i z o n s
i s possible ( c f . section 4.2.2.1.3.) provided the i n - s i t u stresses i n a l l the
l e v e l s i s comparable t o a l l o w more o r l e s s simultaneous opening o f t h e s e p a r a t e
f r a c t u r e s i n a l l t h e zones ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 5 . ) . I n case o f s i g n i f i c a n t i n - s i t u
s t r e s s d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e i n d i v i d u a l h o r i z o n s , c o n v e n t i o n a l s t o r e y - w i s e
s t i m u l a t i o n i n s t e a d o f m u l t i s t a g e f r a c t u r i n g has t o be performed.

4.10.1.2. Comingling of separate layers

after individual fracturing
Many o f t h e R o t l i e g e n d and Carboniferous w e l l s i n Germany FRG were s t i m u l a -
t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y i n s e v e r a l h o r i z o n s and then commingled f o r p r e s s u r e b u i l d - u p
a n a l y s i s and p a r t i a l l y a l s o p r o d u c t i o n ( t h u s r e p r e s e n t i n g m u l t i l a y e r l m u l t i f r a c -
 661

t u r e systems; BENNETT, REYNOLDS & RAGHAVAN 1982 a, 1982 b; c f . s e c t i o n s

2.4.1.1. and 3 . 3 . 2 . ) . Commingled systems comprise m u l t i s t o r e y r e s e r v o i r s where
t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a y e r s do n o t communicate i n terms o f f l u i d f l o w through t h e f o r -
mation, b u t a l t h o u g h c r o s s f l o w i s absent, t h e y may be completed t o g e t h e r and
produced by t h e same w e l l b o r e (KUCHUK & WILKINSON 1988). Many d i f f e r e n t t y p e s
of commingled systems e x i s t , w i t h t h e b o r e h o l e b e i n g v e r t i c a l , h o r i z o n t a l , i n -
c l i n e d , f r a c t u r e d o r p a r t i a l l y p e n e t r a t e d , and t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e s e r v o i r s b e i n g
homogeneous, heterogeneous o r f r a c t u r e d , w i t h d i f f e r e n t o u t e r boundary c o n d i -
t i o n s such as i n f i n i t e e x t e n t , c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e o r n o - f l o w b e i n g developed.

I n t h e R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s f o r m a t i o n s i n Germany FRG, t h e mudstone

beds between t h e d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e d h o r i z o n s a r e t h i c k e r t h a n necessary f o r
containment o f t h e cracks, w i t h communication between t h e h o r i z o n s t h u s o n l y
b e i n g expected t o o c c u r t h r o u g h t h e w e l l b o r e (REINICKE, BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ &
HUENI 1985), w i t h t h e r e f o r e no t r u e commingling by c o n t a c t and exchange o n l y
v i a t h e f r a c t u r e i n c o n t r a s t t o v e r t i c a l communication everywhere i n t h e r e s e r -
v o i r (BENNETT, REYNOLDS & RAGHAVAN 1982 b ) b e i n g g i v e n (commingfing comprises
communication o f s e v e r a l l a y e r s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y complex o n l y through
t h e w e l l b o r e s ; ONUR, REYNOLDS & RAGHAVAN 1986).

4.10.1.3. Multilayer reservoirs with and without crossflow

Aspects o f m u l t i p l e - z o n e f r a c t u r i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by AHMED, NEWBERRY &
CANNON (1985); EASON (1985), CHOO & WU (1987) and SULLIVAN, LEE & HOLDITCH
(1987), and some p o i n t s o f commingled mu1 t i l a y e r e d r e s e r v o i r s a r e r e p o r t e d by
COBB, RAMEY & MILLER (1972); LARSEN (1981), GREENFIELD & AHMED (1983); ONUR,
REYNOLDS & RAGHAVAN (1986); CHEN (1987); HATZIGNATIOU, OGBE, DEHGHANI & ECONOMI-
DES (1987) and SMITH, MILLER & HAGA ( 1 9 8 7 ) . SULLIVAN, LEE & HOLDITCH (1987) p r e -
s e n t a s p e c i a l case o f m u l t i l a y e r r e s e r v o i r s where small t h i n h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y
channel sands o f v e r y l i m i t e d a r e a l e x t e n t a r e a l r e a d y n a t u r a l l y commingled
w i t h much l a r g e r t h i c k e r l o w e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y b l a n k e t sands o f r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e
areal extent.

DEANS & GAO (1983), GAO (1983), GAO & DEANS (1983), PRATS (1983); PRIJAMBO-
DO, RAGHAVAN & REYNOLDS (1985); WIJESINGHE & KECECIOGLU (1986 b ) and LEE & OLA-
REWAJU (1988) o u t l i n e m u l t i l a y e r r e s e r v o i r s w i t h c r o s s f l o w , and EARLOUGHER,
KERSCH & KUNZMAN (1974); RAGHAVAN, TOPALOGLU, COBB & RAMEY (1974); OTUOMAGIE &
MENZIE (1976); KUCUK, KARAKAS & AYESTARAN (1984); KUCUK, SHAW, AYESTARAN & N I -
CHOLSON (1986); FETKOVICH, BRADLEY, WORKS & TRASHER (1988) and KUCHUK & WILKIN-
SON (1988) comment on m u l t i l a y e r pays w i t h o u t c r o s s f l o w . OLAREWAJU & LEE (1988)
d i s c u s s combinations o f c r o s s f l o w and commingling. LEUNG (1986 b) p r e s e n t s
d u a l - p o r o s i t y and - p e r m e a b i l i t y a q u i f e r s as w e l l as two i n t e r c o n n e c t e d s i n g l e -
porosity aquifers.

4.10.1.4. Connection of separate layers by joint fracturing

J o i n t f r a c t u r i n g o f s e v e r a l v e r t i c a l l y superimposed sandstones by i n j e c t i o n
o f proppants and f l u i d s through s e v e r a l p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.2.2.) w i t h i n one j o b (BENNETT, REYNOLDS & RAGHAVAN 1982 b ) , w i t h t h e i n d i v i -
dual f r a c t u r e s r e m a i n i n g c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l h o r i z o n s , have h i t h e r -
t o n o t been c a r r i e d o u t i n Europe beyond t h e p o i n t o f e x p e r i m e n t a l stage.

I n a l l t h e cases, so f a r c r e a t i o n of a v e r t i c a l o r h o r i z o n t a l communication
f r a c t u r e between s e v e r a l s i m i l a r o r d i f f e r e n t r e s e r v o i r f a c i e s zones t h r o u g h a
s e p a r a t i n g b a r r i e r has g e n e r a l l y n o t been attempted i n European hydrocarbon p r o -
d u c t i o n w e l l s and has o n l y i n a few cases been made i n w a t e r - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s
near t h e margin o f t h e f i e l d i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e w a t e r uptake, w i t h t h e de-
s i g n o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n h a v i n g g e n e r a l l y aimed on confinement w i t h i n one
h o r i z o n i n o r d e r n o t t o break t h r o u g h t h e bounding s e a l s o f t h e r e s e r v o i r . L i m i -
t e d communication f r a c t u r i n g between two v e r t i c a l l y superimposed pay i n t e r v a l s
 662

has been p e r f o r m e d i n t h e N o r t h Sea c h a l k (SMITH, MILLER & HAGA 1987; c f . sec-

t i o n 4.5.4.) where o n l y one zone has been p e r f o r a t e d and t h e f r a c t u r e has been
extended i n t o t h e o t h e r horizon by i n t e r f a c e f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.4.2;
some a s p e c t s o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y HOLM 1975; AHMED, WILSON &
STRAWN 1983 and BRITT & LARSEN 1 9 8 6 ) . M u l t i p l e - s t a g e f r a c t u r i n g and communica-
t i o n t r e a t m e n t s , however, have a l r e a d y been f r e q u e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e USA
and o c c a s i o n a l l y a l s o i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d
h e r e c o n c e r n i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g in p r o d u c t i o n a n d ap-
p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g as w e l l as f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e as f o l l o w s .

4.10.2. Application in production drilling

P r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s i n h y d r o c a r b o n - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s w i t h c o m p l i c a t e d geo-
m e t r y o f sand b o d i e s i n h o r i z o n t a l a n d / o r v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n , however, s u p p o r t
a t l e a s t f o r t h e f u t u r e a m e l i o r a t i o n o f e x p l o i t a t i o n ( g i v e n an e c o n o m i c a l l y
more f a v o u r a b l e o i l p r i c e s c e n a r i o w h i c h i s e x p e c t e d t o be r e a c h e d s o o n e r o r l a -
t e r ; OEHME 1986; and i n Europe a l s o n e c e s s a r i l y enhanced b y an a g a i n s t r o n g e r
U S $; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p a r t i a l l y b e i n g s o l v e d w i t h un-
c o n v e n t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g where h o r i z o n t a l o r v e r t i c a l c o n n e c t i o n
i s made between s e v e r a l f a c i e s zones, t h e r e b y a d a p t i n g t o p r o c e d u r e s w h i c h a r e
a l r e a d y common i n t h e USA s i n c e q u i t e some t i m e . Some a s p e c t s o f c o n n e c t i o n o f
i s o l a t e d sand b o d i e s and s e p a r a t e d r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y s a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as
follows.

4.10.2.1. Connection o f isolated sand bodies

Examples o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t i m u l a t i o n c o m p r i s e f r a c t u r i n g
f r o m one i s o l a t e d c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e i n t o a n o t h e r i n h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n i n o r -
d e r t o i m p r o v e w a t e r - and s t e a m - f l o o d p r o j e c t s o r t o i n c r e a s e t h e p r o d u c t i o n r a -
dius, f r a c t u r i n g f r o m one h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y zone t o a n o t h e r i n h o r i z o n t a l o r
v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n t h r o u g h a s e p a r a t i n g l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sandy o r muddy b a r r i e r
( w h e r e some o p e r a t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o f s e l f - c o n t a i n m e n t o f t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h i n
one s a n d s t o n e body s t i l l have t o be overcome by f i n d i n g t h e r i g h t p r e s s u r e d i s -
t r i b u t i o n f o r p e r f o r m i n g t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r a c t u r e a c r o s s l i t h o f a c i e s bounda-
r i e s , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s k e e p i n g h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n r e a s o -
n a b l y u n d e r c o n t r o l ) i n o r d e r t o enhance t h e d r a i n a g e r a d i u s o r t o a l l o w j o i n t
i n s t e a d o f s e l e c t i v e c o m p l e t i o n i n one w e l l , and f r a c t u r i n g f r o m one b o r e h o l e
t o a n o t h e r f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g a g u i d e c h a n n e l f o r t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f t e n s i d s , po-
l y m e r s o r steam d u r i n g t e r t i a r y o i l r e c o v e r y i n m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s o r f o r a l -
l o w i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n o f g e o t h e r m a l e n e r g y b y pumping c o l d w a t e r t h r o u g h a h o t
d r y f o r m a t i o n where i t h e a t s up ( c f . c h a p t e r 4 . 7 . ) . Some a s p e c t s o f v e r t i c a l i n -
t e r f e r e n c e t e s t i n g a c r o s s a l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y zone w h i c h i s p a r t i a l l y based on
c o m m u n i c a t i n g f r a c t u r e s a r e d i s c u s s e d b y EHLIG-ECONOMIDES & AYOUB ( 1 9 8 6 ) . The
o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s f o c u s s e s on m a g n i t u d e o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t , f r a c t u r e
w i d t h v s . l e n s a x i s o r i e n t a t i o n , and sand body s i z e and s p a c i n g .

4.10.2.1.1. Magnitude o f in-situ stress contrast

Communication f r a c t u r i n g f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f c o n n e c t i o n o f many i s o l a t e d sand-
s t o n e u n i t s o f l e n t i c u l a r o r r i b b o n - t y p e c h a r a c t e r t o t h e w e l l b o r e , however, i s
o n l y f e a s i b l e i n c a s e o f p r e s e n c e o f s m a l l t o a l m o s t n e g l i g i b l e (in t e r m s o f
r o c k m e c h a n i c s ) i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s between d i f f e r e n t l i t h o l o g i e s (NOR-
THROP 1988, NORTHROP & FROHNE 1 9 8 8 ) . I n c a s e o f l a r g e i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i f f e r e n -
ces, a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e does n o t e a s i l y b r e a k o u t o f a l o w - s t r e s s s a n d s t o n e ,
traverse the high-stress confining rocks i n horizontal o r v e r t i c a l direction,
and c r o s s a n o t h e r s a n d s t o n e o f c o n t i n u o u s o r i s o l a t e d n a t u r e . Thus i n t e r s e c -
t i o n , p r o p p i n g and d r a i n a g e o f a l a r g e number o f r e m o t e r e s e r v o i r u n i t s i s h a r d -
l y f e a s i b l e i n t h e presence o f l a r g e s t r e s s c o n t r a s t s . Models o f f r a c t u r e
g r o w t h t h r o u g h l i t h o l o g i c a l o r t e c t o n i c a l b a r r i e r s a r e p r e s e n t e d b y LUISKUTTY,
 663

TOMUTSA & PALMER (1986). R e s e r v o i r communication can be checked by m u l t i p l e i n -

t e r f e r e n c e t e s t i n g which enables d e t e c t i o n o f pay l i m i t s and e x t e n s i o n o f t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g b l o c k s (EARLOUGHER & RAMEY 1973; LEAVER, SAGEEV & RAMEY 1986; c f .
section 4.2.4.1.2.2.).

4.10.2.1.2. Fracture azimuth vs. lens axis orientation

Connection o f i s o l a t e d sand bodies by communication f r a c t u r i n g i s v e r y impor-
t a n t i n l e n t i c u l a r t i g h t gas sandstones where r e c o v e r y e f f i c i e n c y and t h u s eco-
nomical f e a s i b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s w i t h c r a c k p e n e t r a t i o n t h r o u g h s e p a r a t e i e n s e s
t h a t a r e n o t i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e b o r e h o l e (KUUSKRAA, BRASHEAR, ELKINS &
MORRA 1979; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) . A t a r a t e o f one a d d i t i o n a l l e n s accessed
by t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e f o r each l e n s encountered a t t h e w e l l b o r e , t h e i n i -
t i a l ten-year gas r e c o v e r y c o u l d be up t o 70 % h i g h e r than f o r t h e s i n g l e - l e n s
case.

F r a c t u r e azimuth as a consequence o f h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n -
s h i p t o l o n g a x i s o r i e n t a t i o n o f sand l e n s e s i s a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r i n c o n t r o l -
l i n g f r a c t u r e l e n g t h , and spacing and diameter o f sand l e n s e s i n h o r i z o n t a l and
v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n a l s o i n f l u e n c e s c r a c k h e i g h t . Maximum f r a c t u r e l e n g t h can be
achieved i f t h e c r a c k propagates p a r a l l e l t o t h e l o n g a x i s o f t h e i s o l a t e d sand
body. I f t h e f r a c t u r e i s o r i e n t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r o r o b l i q u e t o sand l e n s l o n g
a x i s , f r a c t u r e l e n g t h has t o be k e p t s h o r t e r u n l e s s n e i g h b o u r i n g sand l e n s e s
can be accessed by t h e same c r a c k and can a l s o be connected t o t h e w e l l b o r e .
The importance o f f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r l i m i t s o f l e n t i c u l a r sand
b o d i e s i s a l s o s t r e s s e d by PETERSON & KOHOUT (1983), and MEEHAN, HORNE & A Z I Z
(1988) o u t l i n e e f f e c t s o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y and c r a c k azimuth on o p t i m i z a -
t i o n o f f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and w e l l spacing.

4.10.2.1.3. Sand body size and spacing

Communication f r a c t u r i n g between separated sand l e n s e s depends i n d e s i g n on
s i z e and s p a c i n g o f t h e i s o l a t e d b o d i e s which i s a f u n c t i o n o f p r i m a r y deposi-
t i o n a l environment and secondary e r o s i o n a l condensation o f t h e sedimentary se-
quence ( c f . MADER 1985 a ) . L i m i t e d n a t u r a l i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n o f o r i g i n a l sand bo-
d i e s may even s t i l l p e r s i s t i n m u l t i s t o r e y and m u l t i l a t e r a l complexes o f v e r t i -
c a l l y and h o r i z o n t a l l y amalgamated p o l y l e n t i c u l a r aggregates due t o s e p a r a t i n g
mud drapes ( c f . p l a t e s III/l- 2, I V / 4 - 8, V I I / 5 - 6 and I X / 1 - 8 ) and g r a i n
s i z e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n sand-dominated cyclothems. T h e r e f o r e even f r a c t u r e i n t e r -
s e c t i o n o f such heterogeneous sand l e n s assemblages cannot c o m p l e t e l y remove
t h e phenomenon t h a t some r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l s a r e q u i c k l y d r a i n e d w h i l e o t h e r
nearby segments a r e o n l y s l o w l y d e p l e t e d (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, CIPOL-
LA, LORENZ & THORNE 1988). I n s u f f i c i e n t n a t u r a l o r i g i n a l sand body i n t e r c o n n e c -
t i o n by p r i m a r y - d e p o s i t i o n a l o r secondary-erosional j u x t a p o s i t i o n has t o be a r -
t i f i c i a l l y compensated by communication f r a c t u r i n g i n o r d e r t o a l l o w f o r p r o f i -
t a b l e r e s e r v o i r a c q u i s i t i o n and d r a i n a g e .

4.10.2.2. Connection o f separated reservoir storeys

Communication f r a c t u r i n g f r o m one r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y t o a n o t h e r a i m i n g on l a -
t e r j o i n t c o m p l e t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n i s o n l y reasonable i f b o t h h o r i z o n s a r e n o t
t o o f a r away i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n and t h e i r t h i c k n e s s i s i d e a l l y each c l o s e t o
m a r g i n a l , w i t h t h e r e f o r e s i n g l e c o m p l e t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n b e i n g h a r d l y f e a -
s i b l e . While two superimposed hydrocarbon-bearing s t r a t a can a l s o be e x p l o i t e d
by two pumps i n dual b o r e h o l e c o m p l e t i o n , m u l t i p l e l a y e r - c a k e - t y p e o i l - and
gas-bearing s e c t i o n s w i t h c r i t i c a l t h i c k n e s s e s , p e t r o p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s and
t h u s a l s o p r o d u c t i v i t i e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l sheets can o n l y be e c o n o m i c a l l y ex-
p l o i t e d by communication f r a c t u r i n g and t h e n f o l l o w i n g j o i n t d e p l e t i o n .
 664

Considerable s i g n i f i can ce of communication f r a c t u r i n g i s seen f o r c re a ting a

connection path between l a t e r a l l y or diagonally c oe xisting s i m i l a r f a c i e s bo-
d ie s t h a t a r e separated by t i g h t i n t er v en t i o ns, in order t o allow proper perfor-
mance of secondary and t e r t i a r y o i l recovery by guaranteing the a r r i v a l of the
in j e c t e d f l u i d s o r gases a t the margin of the drainage cone of the production
well and not being stuck a t f a c i e s an i s otropie s i n heterogeneous r e s e r v o i r s
(the experience of o i l e x p l o i t a t i o n in Middle Europe in the l a s t decades has
shown t h a t f r e q u en t l y f a i l u r e s of water flooding were caused by i n t e r c a l a t e d im-
permeable f a c i e s u n i t s which prevented communication between i n j e c t i o n and pro-
duction w e l l s ) .

A special type of communication f r a c t u r i n g i s generation of connections from

steam i n j e c t i o n wells t o neighbouring production boreholes via a horizontal
f r a c t u r e according t o the shallow r e s e r v o i r depth of most heavy o i l de posits
(BRITTON, MARTIN, LEIBRECHT & HARMON 1982; c f . se c tion 4 . 9 . 4 . 2 . ) . An a l t e r n a -
t i v e method t o communication f r a c t u r i n g i s connection of v e r t i c a l wellbores by
l a t e r a l boreholes or drainholes which resemble hydraulic f r a c t u r e s t h a t a re re-
duced from a plane t o a l i n e and condensed in the wellbore tube ( F I N C H E R 1985;
c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 6 . 1 . ) . This method, however, i s only s u i t a b l e f o r t h i n r e s e r -
v o i r sands, whereas connection of boreholes through thick pay zone bodies can
only be performed by l ar g e- s cal e hydraulic p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g .

4.10.3. I n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n arrangement
The success of communication f r a c t u r i n g between several boreholes can be op-
timized by an o r i e n t a t i o n of the l i n e connecting the boreholes p a r a l l e l t o the
g e o s t r e ss f i e l d by ap p r o p r i at e well l o cat i o n p r i o r t o d r i l l i n g of the t a r g e t
boreholes, a n d by improving f r a c t u r e propagation through both well axes by
o r i e n t e d p r e c i s i on p er f o r at i o n s (JARED, SCOTT & EVANS 1984). Aspects of perfora-
tio n placement optimization a r e a l s o discussed by McLEOD (1978); AHMED, THOMP-
SON, KELKAR, VEGHTE & HATHAWAY (1984); TARIQ, ICHARA & AYESTARAN (1985); HUSH-
BECK (1986), SCOTT (1986) a n d I C H A R A & CANNON (1987). CHENEVERT (1985) comments
on p e r f o r a t i o n s t a b i l i t y in low-permeability gas r e s e r v o i r s , a n d TODD & BRADLEY
(1986) i l l u s t r a t e the influence of p er f o ra tion geometry on well produc tivity
and f r a c t u r e performance. AHMED & K E L L E R (1984) document the s i g n i f i c a n c e of
p e r f o r a t i o n placement techniques f o r modification of hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ments. The following o u t l i n e d i s cu s s es some aspects of pe rfora tion o r i e n t a t i o n
and s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n , angular d i s t r i b u t i o n of pe rfora tions, a n d breakdown of
perforations.

4.10.3.1. P e r f o r a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n and s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n
Concerning r e l a t i o n s h i p s between p er f o r at i ons and hydraulic f r a c t u r e s , the
influence of p e r f o r at i o n s on the created hydraulic crack depends on s t r e s s d i s -
t r i b u t i o n a r o u n d the wellbore, because cracks o r i g i n a t e whenever the maximum
t e n s i l e s t r e s s induced a t the borehole w a l l exceeds t h a t of the formation ( D A -
NESHY 1973 b ) . I n terms of arrangement, a h elic a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of the perfora-
tio n s enables b e t t e r matching of the r e s e r v o i r s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n s than l i n e a r
rows where coincidence with the o r i e n t a t i o n of formation s t r e s s may be d i f f i -
c u l t t o achieve, because p er f o r at i o n l i n e s may not be in a d i r e c t i o n c lose t o
the f r a c t u r e plane. I n comparison t o open holes, the e xiste nc e of a pe rfora te d
casing g r e a t l y i ncr eas es breakdown pressure t o almost twice i t s value.

W i t h progressive deviation o f the p er fora tions from the expected f r a c t u r e

plane, the chances t h a t cracks i n i t i a t e from pe rfora tions decreases, with t h u s
hydraulic f r a c t u r e s not n eces s ar i l y i n s e r t i n g a t the pe rfora tions. BRANAGAN &
WILMER (1988) i l l u s t r a t e the two extreme cases of la rge - or small-scale f r a c t u -
r e s r u n n i n g p a r a l l e l o r orthogonal t o p er f ora tion tunne ls. Cracks propagating
p a r a l l e l t o p e r f o r at i o n holes a r e the continuous f u r t h e r extension of them away
from the wellbore in case of p er f o r at i o n tunnel d i r e c t i o n matching with geo-
 665

s t r e s s o r i e n t a t i o n ( w i t h then g r a v e l - f i l l e d p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s p r o v i d i n g a
smooth t r a n s i t i o n f r o m mechanical sand c o n t r o l t o r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a -
t i o n ; c f . s e c t i o n 5.3.5.). Propagation o f the large- o r small-scale cracks per-
p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and i n s e r t i n g a t t h e end o f it, how-
ever, p r o v i d e s o n l y v e r y l i m i t e d c o n t a c t t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e i n c a s i n g and
cement sheath and t h u s i s c o n s i d e r a b l y i m p a i r i n g t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n
o r breakdown t r e a t m e n t i n case o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l d i r e c t i o n b e i n g normal t o
geostress o r i e n t a t i o n .

4.10.3.2. Angular distribution of perforat ions

Experiments w i t h two d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e l i n e s o f p e r f o r a t i o n s i n t h e ca-
s i n g showed t h a t f o r an a n g l e between p e r f o r a t i o n s and expected f r a c t u r e p l a n e
up t o 30 degrees, most o f t h e c r a c k s s t a r t t o propagate f r o m p e r f o r a t i o n s on
b o t h s i d e s o f t h e hole, whereas f o r an a n g l e up t o 60 degrees, t h e f r a c t u r e s
u s u a l l y e x t e n d o n l y f r o m one s i d e and i g n o r e t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s on t h e o t h e r s i d e
(DANESHY 1973 b, BRANAGAN & WILMER 1988). F o r an a n g l e up t o 90 degrees, t h e
f r a c t u r e m o s t l y i g n o r e s a l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and i n i t i a t e s on t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l
perpendicularly t o the l e a s t l a t e r a l p r i n c i p a l stress, w i t h s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d
e n t e r i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and t r a v e l l i n g between f o r m a t i o n and o u t e r c a s i n g
w a l l b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e f r a c t u r e . T h i s f l u i d m i g r a t i o n can e a s i l y become t h e
source o f s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e due t o p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g i n t h e narrow p a t h which
causes p l u g g i n g o f t h e c r a c k by s l u r r y s t i c k i n g and p r o p p a n t b l o c k i n g . H e l i c a l
c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f p e r f o r a t i o n arrangement assures t h a t a t l e a s t some p e r f o r a -
t i o n s a r e always v e r y c l o s e t o t h e f r a c t u r e p l a n e i n terms o f a n g u l a r r e l a t i o n -
ship.

4.10.3.3. Perforat ion breakdown

Breakdown p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s show t h a t i f t h e f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n i s
known w i t h s u f f i c i e n t c e r t a i n t y , i t i s b e t t e r t o p e r f o r a t e t h e w e l l a l o n g a
l i n e i n t h e c r a c k p l a n e than t o p e r f o r a t e h e l i c a l l y . S h o r t e r p e r f o r a t i o n s have
a l o w e r breakdown p r e s s u r e than l o n g e r ones, and l a r g e r p e r f o r a t i o n s l e a d t o a
l o w e r t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f t h e f o r m a t i o n t h a n s m a l l e r ones.

P r e c i s i o n p e r f o r a t i o n breakdown h e l p s t o i n c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f f r a c t u -
r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n s (HUSHBECK 1986). The b e n e f i t s o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e i n c l u d e c l e a -
n i n g o u t o f p e r f o r a t i o n s and s l i g h t f o r m a t i o n breakdown i n o r d e r t o g i v e t h e
t r e a t m e n t an opening t o b e g i n an a c i d j o b o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . I n
a d d i t i o n , t h e s t a t u s o f p e r f o r a t i o n s i s e s t a b l i s h e d , which i s i m p o r t a n t due t o
t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f pumping r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s t o number and diameter o f p e r f o -
r a t i o n s . Limited-entry s t i m u l a t i o n ( c f . section 4.2.2.2.) i s considerably aided
by d e t a i l e d knowledge o f p e r f o r a t i o n s t a t u s .

4.10.4. Application in appraisal drilling

Communication f r a c t u r i n g f r o m a poor f a c i e s b e l t i n t o t h e a d j o i n i n g b e t t e r
zone o f r e s e r v o i r development c o u l d s u p p o r t and improve t h e a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g
s t r a t e g y concepts o f f i e l d s i n c o m p l i c a t e d f o r m a t i o n s w i t h f a c i e s changes t h a t
a r e d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t and i n s i t u a t i o n s where hydrocarbon-bearing sandstones
l a p on and o f f a basement w i t h pronounced t o p o g r a p h i c a l h i g h s and lows ( s u c h as
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u n c o n f o r m i t i e s and p a l a e o r e l i e f s ; c f . p l a t e I / 1 - 7 ) . Conventio-
n a l f i e l d a p p r a i s a l so f a r i n c l u d e d p l u g g i n g back and p o s s i b l e s i d e t r a c k i n g o f
a w e l l t h a t encountered a n o n - r e s e r v o i r f a c i e s b e l t o r a basement h i g h , w i t h
t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e b o r e h o l e a i m i n g on r e a c h i n g a b e t t e r f a c i e s zone o r meet-
i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k s i n depressions between t h e basement e l e v a t i o n s ( a s p e c t s
o f palaeotopography on e x p l o r a t i o n and a p p r a i s a l w e l l s i t i n g and c o n s e q u e n t l y
a l s o h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g p l a n n i n g a r e discussed by THOMAS, SONNEN-
BERG, LANGENBAHN & MURPHY 1988).
 666

The p u r p o s e o f r e s e r v o i r f a c i e s b e l t b r i d g i n g and a p p r a i s a l d r i l l i n g i m p r o v e -
ment c o u l d a t l e a s t i n some c a s e s be r e a c h e d c o n s i d e r a b l y c h e a p e r by s m a l l e r -
o r l a r g e r - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i n s t e a d o f c o m p a r a t i v e l y expen-
sive directional sidetrack d r i l l i n g , with the p a r t i a l l y big difference i n in-
v e s t m e n t a t l e a s t j u s t i f y i n g t o t r y t o t u r n t h e p r e s e n t f a i l u r e i n t o a commer-
c i a l producer by c a r r y i n g o u t a communication f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t b e f o r e i n
case o f n e g a t i v e r e s u l t o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n , p a r t i a l p l u g g i n g back and d e v i a t i o n
d r i l l i n g i s s t i l l a r e m a i n i n g p o s s i b i l i t y b e f o r e f i n a l l y c e m e n t i n g and abandon-
i n g t h e w h o l e w e l l . Thus a l s o c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g i s e x p e c t e d t o be i n va-
r i o u s c a s e s a s u i t a b l e method t o r e d u c e t h e o v e r a l l d e v e l o p m e n t expenses p a r t i -
c u l a r l y in l i g h t o f n e c e s s a r y c o s t c o n t a i n m e n t when t h e g e n e r a l e c o n o m i c a l s i -
t u a t i o n r e s t r i c t s t h e d r i l l i n g budget.

D r i l l i n g o f a p p r a i s a l w e l l s in f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r s and s u b s e q u e n t a i m i n g o n
connection o f t h e borehole s e c t i o n t o a nearby l a r g e - s c a l e n a t u r a l crack o r
f a u l t b y a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t c a n be c o n s i d e r a b l y o p t i m i z e d b y imme-
d i a t e l y d r i l l i n g t h e w e l l on i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f m a j o r n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s as r e v e a -
l e d f r o m p h o t o g r a m m e t r y and i m a g e r y (REYNOLDS 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 7 . ) .

4.10.5. Fracture interference

W h i l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g f r o m one b o r e h o l e t o a n o t h e r i n c l u d e s o n l y
one h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n in o n l y one s o u r c e w e l l , w i t h t h e c r a c k
then p r o p a g a t i n g t o t h e t a r g e t borehole, i n t e r f e r e n c e o f several f r a c t u r e s can
o c c u r when a c o u p l e o f n e i g h b o u r i n g w e l l s in gas o r o i l f i e l d s a r e s e p a r a t e l y
t r e a t e d and i f t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n l i n e i s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e g e o s t r e s s s y s -
tem. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e d e s i r e d e f f e c t o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g o f s e v e r a l
b o r e h o l e s b y one c r a c k , f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e b y o v e r l a p p i n g o r c o n n e c t i o n o f
s e v e r a l c r a c k s p r o p a g a t i n g f r o m d i f f e r e n t w e l l s may be unwanted in o i l and gas
exploitation, as t h i s e f f e c t s e r i o u s l y r e d u c e s t h e a t t a i n a b l e p r o d u c t i v i t y im-
p r o v e m e n t f o r each b o r e h o l e b y d i m i n i s h i n g d r a i n a g e r a d i u s and o f f t a k e a r e a o f
t h e i n d i v i d u a l w e l l (VISSER & DOMSELAAR 1974, SCHOLS 1983, LEICHT 1 9 8 5 ) .

C a r e f u l p l a n n i n g o f b o r e h o l e s p a c i n g , f r a c t u r e l e n g t h ( w h i c h depends o n d r a i -
nage r a d i u s and i s a l s o l i n k e d t o f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y ; McDANIEL & WILLINGHAM
1978, MONTGOMERY & STEANSON 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 1 1 . ) and w e l l o r i e n t a t i o n has
t h u s t o be made p r i o r t o j o b e x e c u t i o n i n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c -
t i o n w i t h i n f i e l d s of l i m i t e d e x t e n s i o n and r e s o u r c e s . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f f r a c -
t u r e a z i m u t h p r o g n o s i s f o r t h e improvement o f h y d r o c a r b o n r e c o v e r y i s a n a l y z e d
b y HASSAN ( 1 9 8 2 ) . F r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e assessment i s d i f f e r e n t i n h y d r o c a r b o n
and g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r s .

4.10.5.1. O i l and gas reservoirs

I n o i l and gas f i e l d s w i t h more o r l e s s n a r r o w s p a c i n g o f w e l l s w i t h i n p r e s -
s u r e - and flow-homogeneous r e s e r v o i r b l o c k s , c a u t i o n has n o t o n l y t o be e x e r c i -
sed f o r a v o i d i n g d i r e c t f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e b y merging o f s e v e r a l intit ;dual
cracks t o a d e n d r i t i c system ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.8.4.), b u t a l s o f o r p r e v e n t i n g i n -
t e r f e r e n c e o f cracks emanating from t h e i n d i v i d u a l boreholes w i t h t h e drainage
cones o f o t h e r w e l l s . T h e r e f o r e t h e t i p - t o - t i p l e n g t h o f t h e f r a c t u r e s does n o t
o n l y have t o be r e a s o n a b l y i n t o l e r a n c e w i t h t h e w e l l - t o - w e l l distances, but
s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d i n such a way t h a t i n t e r s e c t i o n o f n e i g h b o u r i n g d r a i n a g e c o -
nes does n o t o c c u r . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n i l l u s t r a t e s a s p e c t s o f f r a c t u r e
l e n g t h and w e l l d r a i n a g e r a d i u s , f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n p r e d i c t i o n and i n t e r f e -
r e n c e a v o i d a n c e , l e n t i c u l a r t i g h t gas sands, and s t e a m - d r i v e o p e r a t i o n .
 667

4.10.5.1.1. Fracture length and well drainage radius

I n t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s o f m i c r o d a r c y p e r m e a b i l i t y range, f r a c t u r e l e n g t h s
g r e a t e r than normal w e l l d r a i n a g e r a d i u s a r e o f t e n necessary t o achieve economi-
c a l l y f e a s i b l e p r o d u c t i o n (SMITH, REN, SORRELS & TEUFEL 1985). I n these cases,
i t i s necessary t o determine f r a c t u r e azimuth p r i o r t o i n f i l l d r i l l i n g i n o r d e r
n o t t o d e s t r o y t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e l o n g l i n e a r d r a i n a g e p a t h s by premature
t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f l o w channels a t n e i g h b o u r i n g b o r e h o l e s . F r a c t u r e azimuth mo-
n i t o r i n g techniques ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) represent invaluable support f o r
w e l l p a t t e r n p l a n n i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n design i n o r d e r t o a v o i d i n t e r f e r e n c e
w i t h p r e - e x i s t i n g w e l l s and t o p r e v e n t i n t e r f e r e n c e as f i e l d development p r o -
ceeds (OVERBEY, YOST & YOST 1988). Knowledge o f a z i m u t h a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f i n d u -
ced f r a c t u r e s i n h y d r a u l i c a l l y s t i m u l a t e d b o r e h o l e s i n t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s can
i n c r e a s e r e c o v e r a b l e gas r e s e r v e s by as much as one t h i r d t h r o u g h o p t i m a l spa-
ng o f p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s w i t h i n t h e gas f i e l d .

4.10.5.1.2. Fracture orientation prediction

and interference avoidance
Even w i t h massive h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n , much o f t h e gas r e s e r v e s
t i g h t sandstone r e s e r v o i r s may be l e f t unrecovered because t h e d r a i n a g e p a t -
t e r n around a f r a c t u r e - t r e a t e d w e l l i s e l l i p t i c a l r a t h e r than r a d i a l i n low-per-
m e a b i l i t y pay zones (TEUFEL 1981), w i t h t h e e l l i p t i c a l d r a i n a g e network b e i n g
even accentuated and enhanced as t h e f r a c t u r e i n c r e a s e s i n l e n g t h . T h e r e f o r e
b o r e h o l e l o c a t i o n and spacing based on r a d i a l d r a i n a g e may n o t be t h e optimum
economical gas r e c o v e r y procedure i n a p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d due t o o v e r l a p p i n g d r a i -
nage a t c r a c k t i p s as a consequence o f f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e and due t o dead zo-
nes between c r a c k f l a n k s . Thus r e l i a b l e methods o f f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n p r e d i c -
t i o n a r e o f g r e a t importance t o gas i n d u s t r y , as knowledge o f c r a c k d i r e c t i o n
enables t o a v o i d f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e and a l l o w s t o achieve a h i g h e r d e p l e t i o n
stage i n r e s e r v o i r e x p l o i t a t i o n ( t e c h n i q u e s f o r f r a c t u r e azimuth p r o g n o s i s and
d e t e r m i n a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n s 6.2.1.8. and 6.2.2.3., r e s p e c t i v e l y ) .

Another reason f o r f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n f o r e c a s t and d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s be-

cause massive h y d r a u l i c c r a c k s propagate p a r a l l e l t o t h e maximum h o r i z o n t a l
s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n , knowledge o f t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n p r i o r t o s t i m u l a t i o n p e r m i t s op-
t i m a l placement o f s e i s m i c sensors which can t r a c k p o s i t i o n and advance o f t h e
f r a c t u r e (CLARK 1983). E f f e c t s o f s t r e s s s t a t e on f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n a r e a l s o
discussed by ZOBACK, ZOBACK & SEEBURGER ( 1 9 8 1 ) . FORGOTSON, FORGOTSON & BROWN
(1980) i l l u s t r a t e p r e d i c t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n .

4.10.5.1.3. Lenticular tight gas sands

Achievement o f optimum r e s e r v o i r d r a i n a g e and avoidance o f f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e -
rence i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n l e n t i c u l a r t i g h t gas sands where w e l l spa-
c i n g and crack l e n g t h a r e a f u n c t i o n of h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s o r i e n t a t i o n c o n t r o l -
l i n g f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n and azimuth o f sand body l o n g a x i s h a v i n g
s i g n i f i c a n t impact on c r a c k l e n g t h and h e i g h t m o d e l l i n g . The g e o m e t r i c a l r e l a -
t i o n s h i p between sand l e n s o r i e n t a t i o n , f r a c t u r e azimuth and w e l l p a t t e r n go-
verns d r a i n a g e c o n f i g u r a t i o n where depending on p r e v e n t i o n o f crack i n t e r f e -
rence and c o n t r o l l e d by p e r m e a b i l i t y l e v e l , e i t h e r square d r a i n a g e networks
w i t h r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t f r a c t u r e s o r rectangular patterns w i t h long f r a c t u r e s are
t h e more e f f i c i e n t and f e a s i b l e s o l u t i o n (KUUSKRAA, BRASHEAR, ELKINS & MORRA
1979).

4.10.5.1.4. Steam-drive operations

VITTORATOS, SCOTT & B E A T T I E (1988) r e p o r t f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e i n steam-
d r i v e o p e r a t i o n s i n heavy o i l sand r e s e r v o i r s . I n t e r w e l l communication w i t h
 668
f r a c t u r e b r e a k t h r o u g h f r o m i n j e c t o r t o p r o d u c e r and f o r m a t i o n o f numerous o f
such b o r e h o l e c o u p l e t s c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e s sweep e f f i c i e n c y and p a y zone e x -
p l o i t a t i o n ( c f . section 4.9.4.1.2.). The e x t e n s i v e i n t e r w e l l i n t e r a c t i o n s a r e a
r e s u l t o f r e s e r v o i r f a i l u r e t h a t i s r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o achieve commercial l e -
v e i s o f steam i n j e c t i v i t y . As f a i l u r e c a n e x t e n d u p t o d i s t a n c e s e q u a l t o b o r e -
h o l e s p a c i n g , o v e r l a p p i n g o f t h e f a i l e d p a y p o r t i o n s o c c u r s , and t h e d i s t u r b e d
zones a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e w e l l s c r e a t e c o n d u i t s o f enhanced p r e s s u r e and f l u i d
p r o p a g a t i o n between t h e b o r e h o l e s , w i t h t h e p a t h s embedded i n a m a t r i x w i t h s i g -
n i f i c a n t l y s l o w e r p r e s s u r e and f l u i d p r o p a g a t i o n . A p a r t f r o m w e l l s p a c i n g and
f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n o p t i m i z a t i o n b y p r o p e r g e o m e t r i c a l p l a n n i n g o f t h e enhan-
ced o i l recovery operations according t o t h e geostress p a t t e r n i n o r d e r t o
a v o i d f r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e and steam e x p a n s i o n s h o r t c u t t i n g a l o n g b o r e h o l e con-
n e c t i o n c o u p l e t s c r e a t e d b y f r a c t u r e b r e a k t h r o u g h , s t e a m i n g o f r o w s o f w e l l s se-
q u e n t i a l l y w i t h 50 % o v e r l a p i n i n j e c t i o n t i m e between a d j a c e n t rows s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y r e d u c e s w a t e r t r a n s f e r between b o r e h o l e s and i n c r e a s e s t h e c o n f o r m a n c e
o f i n j e c t e d heat.

4.10.5.2. Geothermal reservoirs

On t h e o t h e r hand, i n t e r f e r e n c e f r a c t u r i n g may be a n o t h e r means t o i n c r e a s e
t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f geothermal h e a t e x p l o i t a t i o n ( c f . c h a p t e r 4.7.) by having
f l o w f r o m and t o t h e b o r e h o l e f r o m s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s and t h u s o p t i m i z i n g pump-
i n g o f t h e i n j e c t e d c o l d w a t e r through a h o t d r y formation, w i t h i n case o f a
s u i t a b l e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e w e l l s t o t h e g e o s t r e s s f i e l d even a l l o w i n g t o save
some i n j e c t i o n w e l l s and p u t more i n v e s t m e n t i n p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s and s t i m u -
l a t i o n design.

F r a c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e m o d e l l i n g in e i t h e r n e g a t i v e manner t o a v o i d i t t o hap-
pen o r i n a p o s i t i v e way t o a c h i e v e t h i s e f f e c t , however, has t o t a k e i n t o a c -
count t h a t i r r e s p e c t i v e o f the general r u l e t h a t f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n takes
p l a c e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e g i o n a l s t r e s s f i e l d , l o c a l d e v i a t i o n s up t o 15 d e g r e e s
a r e p o s s i b l e as a consequence o f p a t c h y c o m p r e s s i o n a l i n f l u e n c e s p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n anticlinal structures.

4.11. Fracturing o f deviated wells

W i t h i n c r e a s i n g o f f s h o r e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t i g h t gas f i e l d s where l a r g e s t i m u l a -
t i o n campaigns have t o be c a r r i e d o u t and i n some p a t c h e s n e a r l y a l l t h e w e l l s
have t o b e t r e a t e d , h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g o f m o d e r a t e l y - t o h i g h l y - d e -
v i a t e d h o l e s i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y s i g n i f i c a n t . T h i s i s a consequence o f t h e
standard o f f s h o r e development s t r a t e g y t o d r i l l d i r e c t i o n a l l y i n a l l p o s s i b l e
ways f r o m a c e n t r a l p l a t f o r m f r o m w h i c h a l o t o f p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s emanate i n a
s t a r - o r s p i d e r - l i k e p a t t e r n . One o f t h e m a j o r examples o f o f f s h o r e h y d r a u l i c
p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g campaigns i n an a r e a w i t h numerous h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s i s
t h e R o t l i e g e n d r e s e r v o i r b e l t i n t h e B r i t i s h S o u t h e r n N o r t h Sea ( c f . s e c t i o n s
2.4.1.2. and 3 . 7 . t o 3 . 9 . ) . The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s f o c u s s e s on f r a c t u r e p r o -
p a g a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n , p r o p p a n t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and f l u i d l a y e r i n g , h y d r o c a r -
bon p r o d u c t i o n and f l o w r e g i m e s , and improvements o f f r a c t u r e e f f e c t i v i t y i n de-
viated wells.

4.11.1. Fracture propagation and orientation

The e f f e c t s o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n in h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d t o ho-
r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y commenting on w e l l b o r e a x i s b e i n g n o t pa-
r a l l e l t o i n - s i t u p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n , and l i m i t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t e r -
v a l between f r a c t u r e p l a n e and w e l l b o r e s e c t i o n .
 669

4.11.1.1. Wellbore axis not parallel to

in-situ principal stress direction
The key f e a t u r e o f d e v i a t e d w e l l s i s t h a t t h e i r a x i s i s g e n e r a l l y n o t a l i g -
ned w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s components i n t h e r o c k medium, b u t
i s o r i e n t e d a t an a n g l e o t h e r than normal and/or p a r a l l e l t o i t (YEW & L I 1987)
u n l e s s o r i e n t e d h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d t o h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g i s made a l o n g o r o r t h o g o -
nal t o the geostress pattern. Therefore the t r a j e c t o r i e s o f deviated boreholes
a r e n o t p a r a l l e l t o t h e l e a s t p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s (BUCHANAN 1987), and t h e medium
s u r r o u n d i n g t h e w e l l i s under t h e combined a c t i o n o f normal and shear s t r e s s e s
and i s t h u s i n a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t r e s s s t a t e (BRADLEY 1979, YEW & L I 1987).
H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i n i t i a t e when t h e maximum t e n s i l e s t r e s s induced on t h e
w e l l b o r e w a l l exceeds t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f t h e f o r m a t i o n r o c k ( K I M , CHAMPION
& COOPER 1985), and propagate i n a p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l e a s t i n - s i t u
p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s . I n v e r t i c a l w e l l s , one o f t h e i n - s i t u p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s i s
u s u a l l y p a r a l l e l t o t h e b o r e h o l e a x i s , and t h e r e s u l t i n g f r a c t u r e p l a n e i s h o r i -
z o n t a l i n s h a l l o w e r and v e r t i c a l i n deeper f o r m a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 8 . ) .

I n d e v i a t e d w e l l s , none o f t h e i n - s i t u p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s i s p a r a l l e l o r n o r -
mal t o t h e b o r e h o l e a x i s , and t h e r e f o r e i n i t i a t i o n o f a f r a c t u r e t a k e s p l a c e
f r o m two o p p o s i t e p o i n t s a l o n g t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f t h e w e l i b o r e . The c r a c k
sweeps t h e e n t i r e p e r f o r a t e d o r open zone i n t h e d e v i a t e d w e l l o n l y i n case o f
t h e b o r e h o l e azimuth b e i n g v e r y n e a r t o t h a t o f t h e f r a c t u r e p l a n e . As a conse-
quence o f t h e g e o m e t r i c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n , t h e b e s t case o f c r a c k o r i e n t a t i o n i s
r e p r e s e n t e d by c o i n c i d e n c e o f c r a c k p l a n e and w e l l t r a j e c t o r y azimuth ( e s p e c i a l -
l y i f t h e b o r e h o l e i s d e v i a t e d t o h o r i z o n t a l ) , whereas t h e w o r s t case comprises
a w e l l b o r e b e i n g normal t o t h e f r a c t u r e p l a n e (BUCHANAN 1987). I t i s a l s o pos-
s i b l e t o c r e a t e s e v e r a l p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s i n t h e same w e l l b o r e ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.6.2.4.).

On t h e o t h e r hand, AADNOY (1987, 1988) p o s t u l a t e s t h a t i n d e v i a t e d w e l l s ,

v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e always i n i t i a t e d a l o n g t h e w e l l b o r e a x i s r e -
g a r d l e s s o f b o r e h o l e i n c l i n a t i o n , which means t h a t f r a c t u r e s c u t t i n g t h e h o l e
a t an a n g l e a r e n o t expected, w i t h t h e r e f o r e t h e l e n g t h o f t h e cracked w e l l sec-
t i o n d e t e r m i n i n g s t i m u l a t i o n success. As t h e y propagate away f r o m t h e borehole,
t h e f r a c t u r e s change d i r e c t i o n and o r i e n t themselves normal t o t h e l e a s t i n - s i -
t u s t r e s s . SNOW & HOUGH (1988) r e p o r t t h a t i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s , a t l e a s t
i n t h e n e a r - w e l l b o r e r e g i o n c r a c k growth i s n o t i d e a l , b u t w i l l e i t h e r r e s u l t
i n m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s o r i n a c o n t i n u o u s o r en-echelon bending o f t h e c r a c k t o
v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n ( c f . a l s o STRUBHAR, FITCH & GLENN 1988).

4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 , Limited comnunicat ion interval between

fracture plane and we1 lbore sect ion
Unless t h e a z i m u t h a l o r i e n t a t i o n s o f f r a c t u r e p l a n e and w e l l t r a j e c t o r y c o i n -
c i d e , t h e r e i s o n l y a v e r y small communication i n t e r v a l between p e r f o r a t e d bore-
h o l e s e c t i o n and crack p l a n e i n m o d e r a t e l y - t o h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s (BUCHANAN
1987) i n comparison t o a v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e i n a v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e where a f t e r a
successful s t i m u l a t i o n treatment, the e n t i r e v e r t i c a l e x t e n t o f the formation
s h o u l d be i n communication w i t h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e f r a c t u r e (HOLDITCH
& LEE 1979). H o r i z o n t a l w e l l s and d r a i n h o l e s even a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y v e r y l i m i -
t e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i n t e r s e c t i o n which i s equal t o w e l l b o r e d i a m e t e r (JOSH1
1987). A f t e r d i s c u s s i o n o f some drawbacks i n o p e r a t i o n and performance o f v e r t i -
c a l f r a c t u r e s i n highly-deviated t o horizontal boreholes t r a v e r s i n g s l i g h t l y
d i p p i n g r e s e r v o i r s , t h e comparable s i t u a t i o n o f v e r t i c a l w e l l s c r o s s i n g s t e e p l y
dipping prospective formations i s i l l u s t r a t e d .
 670

4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 . Drawbacks in operation and performance

The u n f a v o u r a b l e g e o m e t r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g
highly-deviated t o horizontal wells w i t h only a very r e s t r i c t e d contact plane
r e s u l t s i n h i g h pressure losses d u r i n g treatment, low s t i m u l a t i o n r a t e s , small
f r a c t u r e s o f l i m i t e d e x t e n s i o n away f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e i n t e r s e c t i o n , and w e l l -
b o r e p l u g g i n g and p e r f o r a t i o n l e a k o f f . M u l t i p l e f r a c t u r i n g t h r o u g h d i f f e r e n t
p e r f o r a t i o n s may o c c u r as a consequence o f r e p e a t e d o n s e t o f t h e c r a c k a t seve-
r a l s p a t i a l l y s e p a r a t e d p l a c e s a l o n g t h e o b l i q u e b o r e h o l e s e c t i o n , because a t
any o f t h e s e p o i n t s , t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r f r a c t u r e i n i t i a t i o n a r e s i m u l -
t a n e o u s l y f u l f i l l e d and t h e i n d i v i d u a l c r a c k s p r o p a g a t e e a c h i n t h e d i r e c t i o n
normal t o t h e l e a s t p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s , g i v i n g r i s e t o v a r i o u s p a r a l l e l t r a v e l -
l i n g s m a l l e r f r a c t u r e p l a n e s i n s t e a d o f one l a r g e c o h e r e n t c r a c k f a c e i n v e r t i -
c a l w e l l s . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on w e l l b o r e i n s t a b i l i t y and
f r a c t u r e h e i g h t determination by w e l l logging.

4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 1 . Wellbore instability
T w i s t i n g e f f e c t s o c c u r as t h e f r a c t u r e r e o r i e n t a t e s i t s e l f f r o m t h e d e v i a t e d
w e l l b o r e i n case i t s t a r t e d t o propagate i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . I n h i g h l y - d e -
v i a t e d and h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s , s t i m u l a t i o n b o a t c a p a c i t y i s t h e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r
f o r o f f s h o r e f r a c t u r i n g , w i t h t h e l o n g e r b o r e h o l e s r e s t r i c t i n g pumping r a t e and
p r e s s u r e t h a t c a n be a c h i e v e d and m a i n t a i n e d b y t h e v e s s e l s (LOUVIERE 1987; c f .
s e c t i o n 3 . 8 . 1 . 2 . ) . F r a c t u r i n g i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d b o r e h o l e s even b e a r s c o n s i d e r a -
b l e r i s k o f w e l l b o r e s c r e e n o u t due t o h i g h f l u i d l e a k o f f t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s . With i n c r e a s i n g borehole i n c l i n a t i o n , w e l l b o r e i n s t a b i l i t y problems i n -
c r e a s e and g i v e more f r e q u e n t l y r i s e t o b o r e h o l e c o l l a p s e and f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u -
ring (WILSON & WILLIS 1986; FUH, WHITFILL & SCHUH 1988; c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.6.1.5.8.). I t i s t h e r e f o r e e s s e n t i a l t o p r e d i c t any s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s chan-
ges a r o u n d t h e w e l l b o r e when t h e h o l e a n g l e i n c r e a s e s u n d e r c e r t a i n g e o l o g i c a l
and i n - s i t u s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s . B o r e h o l e c o l l a p s e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t i n c r e a s e s
w i t h w e l l a n g l e , whereas f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t r e m a i n s t h e same, and as a r e s u l t ,
t h e w o r k i n g r a n g e between t h e two g r a d i e n t s i s n a r r o w e r a t h i g h e r h o l e a n g l e s .

The same r e l a t i o n s h i p as a p p l y i n g f o r h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d t o h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s
traversing gently-dipping t o f l a t - l y i n g formations i s also true f o r v e r t i c a l
boreholes i n t e r s e c t i n g steeply-dipping rocks ( c f . section 4.11.1.2.2.). Optimum
mud w e i g h t f o r w e l l b o r e s t a b i l i t y i n h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d h o l e s r a n g e s between b o r e -
h o l e c o l l a p s e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e l o w e r l i m i t and f o r m a t i o n f r a c -
t u r e g r a d i e n t b e i n g t h e upper boundary ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.3.2.6.). Aspects o f in-
s t a b i l i t y o f h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d b o r e h o l e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y BRADLEY ( 1 9 7 9 ) ;
HOTTMAN, S M I T H & PURCELL ( 1 9 7 9 ) ; AADNOV & CHENEVERT ( 1 9 8 7 ) , H S I A O ( 1 9 8 7 ) , MAURY
& SAUZAY ( 1 9 8 7 ) and YEW & L I ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 2 . Fracture height determination by well logging

The l i m i t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t e r v a l between v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e and h i g h l y - d e -
v i a t e d w e l l b o r e t r a j e c t o r y has a l s o n e g a t i v e i m p a c t o n t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n b y w e l l l o g g i n g t e c h n i q u e s (PEETERS & HARTLEY 1984;
c f . section 6.2.1.10.8.5.). As a l l methods o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t d e t e c t i o n b y w i r e -
l i n e l o g g i n g have o n l y a s m a l l r a d i u s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n and c a n n o t r e g i s t e r
c r a c k h e i g h t f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e , m o n i t o r i n g o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i s
p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e t e r i o r a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g b o r e h o l e i n c l i n a t i o n and s u c c e s s i v e -
l y s h o r t e r c o n t a c t i n t e r v a l s between w e l l b o r e t r a j e c t o r y and c r a c k p l a n e . Hy-
draulic fracture direction determination i n highly-deviated wells i s also dis-
c u s s e d by EL RABAA (1988).
 67 1

4.11.1.2.2. Comparable situation in vertical wells

t raver s i ng steep 1 y dipping r eservoi r s
A geometrical situation comparable to horizontal drilling traversing flat-ly-
ing to gently-inclined beds can be generated by vertical wells penetrating
steeply-dipping formations (ELBEL & SCHOTTLER 1977). This constellation also gi-
ves a long borehole intersection with the reservoir and represents the most fa-
vourable stimulation situation in vertical wells by enabling a very long con-
tact interval between vertical fracture, highly-inclined pay formation and well-
bore trajectory, in contrast to horizontal drilling of flat-lying or low-angle
dipping strata where the vertical fracture in greater depth allows only a limi-
ted communication path between borehole and crack and a favourable geometrical
arrangement comparable to vertical fractures intersecting steeply-dipping reser-
voir rocks in vertical wells can only be reached by horizontal fractures cross-
ing slightly-inclined pay zones in highly-deviated to horizontal boreholes in
shallower depth storeys. The same geometrical constellation of very small commu-
nication interval between perforated section and fracture plane as applying for
vertical cracks crossing highly-deviated or horizontal boreholes is valid for
horizontal fractures traversing vertical wells in shallow reservoir depth.
In order to improve the geometrical constellation of wellbore trajectory and
vertical hydraulic fracture, extended-reach drilling should whenever technical-
ly possible and economically feasible not be carried out in a J-shaped manner,
but in case of necessity of subsequent vertical hydraulic fracturing or gravel
packing, preference should be given to a S-shape which is generated by again re-
ducing borehole inclination to an angle below 45 degrees prior to penetration
of the pay complex (BRUIST, JEFFERIS & BOTTS 1983; cf. section 4.8.6.1.). Such
adjustments, however, are not possible in case of horizontal drainholes that
are installed parallel to the reservoir boundaries for the purpose of hydrocar-
bon exploitation improvement by prolongation of the contact path between well-
bore trajectory and pay stratification.

4.11.2. Proppant stratification and fluid layering

Proppant transport in highly-deviated wells follows tortuous paths. Dehydra-
tion of the proppant-fluid-slurry is very high due to extensive fluid loss
through the perforations. Proppant stratification during pumping also occurs,
because segregation into high-density slurry on the lower side and low-density
slurry at the upper side of tubing or casing takes place which gives higher
friction pressure and looses hydrodynamic head. The heavier the proppant
grains, the more pronounced is the settling and bedding effect (a similar bank-
ing and bedding of proppants occurs during gravel pack operations in highly-de-
viated wells; cf. section 5.8.3.1.). Extreme cases of stratification might even
lead to origin of a settled bank of proppants. Gravity layering of fluids in de-
viated wells during displacement flushing also occurs.

4.11.3. Hydrocarbon product ion and flow regimes

The influences of the special geometrical relationship between highly-devia-
ted boreholes and intersecting hydraulic fractures are highlighted by discus-
sing aspects of reduction of long-term well productivity by changing flow pat-
tern, and non-Darcy flow and skin factor as follows.

4.11.3.1. Reduct ion of long-term we1 1 productivity

by changing flow pattern
Concerning production in formations where the wellbore is not in communica-
tion with the created fracture over its total height, but is restricted to only
 672

a small i n t e r v a l of i t as a consequence of the deviated borehole ( c f . se c tion

4 . 1 1 . 1 . 2 . ) , major drawbacks ar e high-pre'ssure losse s d u r i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n , high
v e l o c i t i e s in the f r a c t u r e near the wellbore i n t e r s e c t i o n , diminished f r a c t u r e
conductivity because of non-Darcy flow, and reduced ove ra ll well produc tivity
( L E E & HOLDITCH 1979, SCHULTE 1984). I f the f r a c t u r e i s in communication with
the wellbore over i t s t o t a l height in v e r t i c a l boreholes, a b i l i n e a r flow re-
gime i s developed co n s i s t i n g of t r a n s i e n t l i n e a r horizontal flow within the f o r -
m a t i o n towards the f r a c t u r e i n combination w i t h t r a n s i e n t l i n e a r horizontal
flow within the f r a c t u r e towards the wellbore. The d i f f e r e n t flow i n t e r v a l ty-
pes i n v e r t i c a l a n d horizontal wel l s ar e o u t l ine d as follows.

4.11.3.1.1. Flow interval types in vertical wells

D i st i n c t i o n can be made between f o u r d i f f e r e n t flow i n t e r v a l s f o r drawdowns
I v e r t i c a l l y f r act u r ed wells comprising f r a c t u r e - l i n e a r , b i l i n e a r , formation-
l i n e a r a n d pseudoradial flow ( C I N C O - L E Y & SAMANIEGO 1981). If the communication
between wellbore and f r a c t u r e i s l i mi t ed in deviated boreholes, a l i n e a r / r a d i a l
flow p a t t e r n i s developed which comprises t r a n s i e n t l i n e a r horizontal flow w i t h -
in the formation towards the f r a c t u r e in combination w i t h t r a n s i e n t ra dia l cur-
r e n t within the crack towards the i n t er v al of the f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t i n g the
wellbore ( L E E & HOLDITCH 1979, SCHULTE 1979). I n a semiradial f r a c t u r e , the
flow regime following l i n e a r / r a d i a l cu r r en t i s t r a n s i e n t l i n e a r flow in the f o r -
mation a n d s t e a dy - s t at e c u r r e n t in the crack, whereas in a very elongated f r a c -
t u r e , the l i n e a r / r a d i a l flow regime i s followed by the b i l i n e a r c u r r e n t regime.
I n both c a s e s , pressure l o s s r e s u l t i n g from the lim ite d inflow inte rva l a t the
wellbore i s seen as a skin f a c t o r . A n intermediate behaviour i s pseudo-radial
c u r r e n t (RUSSELL & TRUITT 1 9 6 4 ) .

CINCO-LEY & MENG (1988) introduce two additional flow periods being t r i l i -
near and formation b i l i n e a r c u r r e n t , thereby increasing the number of flow in-
t e r v a l s t o be d i s t i n g u i s h ed t o s i x . T r i l i n e a r c urre nt i s present inste a d of the
b i l i n e a r flow regime during the s t a b i l i z a t i o n period f o r small volumes of dimen-
s i o n l e s s f r a c t u r e s t o r a t i v i t y , and formation b i l i n e a r c urre nt occurs during the
pseudolinear flow period when most of the f l u i d expansion i s provided by the ma-
t r i x i n l i n e a r c u r r en t regime under the same c onditions.

4.11.3.1.2. Flow intervals in horizontal wells

I n horizontal wel l s , the typical i n f i n i t e a c ting ra dia l flow pa tte rn of ver-
t i c a l wells i s complicated by f l u i d cu r r en t i n the wellbore v i c i n i t y perpendi-
c u l a r as well as p a r a l l e l t o the sedimentary bedding ( K U C H U K , GOODE, WILKINSDN
& THAMBYNAYAGAM 1988). As a consequence of r e s e r v o i r anisotropy, horizontal
wells s t a r t w i t h an e l l i p t i c c y l i n d r i c a l flow pa tte rn which l a t e r gives way t o
r a d i a l c u r r e n t t h a t i n turn i s followed by a hemi-cylindrical flow pe riod. An
intermediate time l i n e a r cu r r en t may develop once the pressure t r a n s i e n t rea-
ches the upper a n d lower boundaries t h a t pass i n t o intermediate time ra dia l
flow a f t e r the e f f e c t s of t o p and bottom boundaries reach s t e a d y - s t a t e .

4.11.3.2. Non-Darcy flow and skin factor

The l i m i t a t i o n of the communication between wellbore a n d f r a c t u r e t o only a
p a r t of the f r a c t u r e height in highly-deviated boreholes s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t s the
long-term p r o d uct i v i t y of the wel l . The flow i n the formation follows Darcy's
law, whereas i n si d e the f r a c t u r e , non-Darcy flow e f f e c t s have t o be taken i n t o
account which may s i g n i f i c a n t l y increase the skin f a c t o r as a r e s u l t of p a r t i a l
communication. The d e t e r i o r a t i n g influence can be so la rge t h a t the semi-steady
s t a t e flow i s only one t h i r d of t h a t where wellbore a n d crack a r e in f u l l commu-
n ic a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , the apparent f r a c t u r e conductivity may be an orde r lower
t h a n the real value as a consequence o f non-Darcy flow e f f e c t s . Marked layering
 673

o f t h e pay zone i s a l s o c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e o v e r a l l r e s u l t s , because t h e va-

r i o u s beds s t a r t t o d e l i v e r hydrocarbons t o t h e c r a c k a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s and
p o s s i b l y a l s o w i t h d i f f e r e n t r a t e s . The d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f l o n g - t e r m p r o d u c t i v i t y
due t o a w e l l i n f l o w i n t e r v a l b e i n g much s m a l l e r than t o t a l c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t must be t a k e n i n t o s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e d e s i g n o f
c r a c k s f r o m h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d o r even h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s and d r a i n h o l e s i n t o t i g h t
gas r e s e r v o i r s ( o t h e r aspects o f non-Darcy f l o w a r e d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n
4.3.3.3.).

4.11.4. IrrQrovement of fracture effectivity in deviated wells

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s can be c o n s i d e r a b l y improved
i f t h e pay zone c o u l d be p e n e t r a t e d by an almost v e r t i c a l b o r e h o l e s e c t i o n
which, however, causes h i g h a d d i t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n a l d r i l l i n g expenses. The b o r e -
h o l e t r a j e c t o r y s h o u l d be planned i n such a way t h a t a t l e a s t across t h e r e s e r -
v o i r i n t e r v a l , azimuth o f w e l l b o r e a x i s and f r a c t u r e p l a n e a r e more o r l e s s co-
i n c i d i n g , because t h i s g i v e s maximum i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e b o r e h o l e by t h e f r a c -
t u r e . An example o f such f r a c t u r e - s u i t a b l e d i r e c t i o n a l d r i l l i n g m o d e l l i n g i s r e -
p o r t e d by OIL GAS JOURNAL (1988 b) where a l t h o u g h maximum i n c l i n a t i o n a n g l e o f
t h e b o r e h o l e was 76 degrees, a n g u l a r w e l l b o r e d e v i a t i o n was reduced t o 27 de-
grees f o r p e n e t r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e pay zone which i s r e a s o n a b l y s u b v e r t i c a l t o
c o n s i d e r a b l y d i m i n u i s h o r even c a n c e l t h e problems t h a t would have been occur-
r e d i n the high-angle hole.

On t h e o t h e r hand, an azimuth o f t h e w e l l b o r e a x i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h a t o f
the crack plane gives r i s e t o m u l t i p l e p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e s crossing the borehole
l i k e a s e t o f s l i c e s w h i c h m i g h t be d e s i r a b l e i n some s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.8.6.2.4.). O t h e r i m p o r t a n t measures f o r i m p r o v i n g s t i m u l a t i o n a r e i n -
c r e a s i n g e f f e c t i v e w e l l b o r e diameter, u s i n g m u l t i p l e d e e p - p e n e t r a t i n g p e r f o r a -
t i o n charges, e n l a r g i n g p e r f o r a t i o n s and p l a n n i n g a staged f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t
( c f . section 4.2.2.1.3.). P e r f e c t p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t can be achieved w i t h
shear-independent f l u i d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) .

4.12. Fracture damage

F o l l o w i n g t h e o u t l i n e o f v a r i o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l improvement
o f t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y European f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l by more o r l e s s u n c o n v e n t i o -
n a l s t i m u l a t i o n techniques i n m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s , t h e d i s c u s s i o n c o m p r i s i n g a
s u i t e o f g e o l o g i c a l , r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g and t e c h n i c a l aspects w i l l be c o n c l u -
ded i n t h i s s e c t i o n by r e v i e w i n g s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s which a r e c o n t r o l l i n g
a m e l i o r a t i o n o r d e t e r i o r a t i o n of f r a c t u r e e f f e c t i v i t y . The summary i s p r e s e n t e d
i n t h e f i n a l d i v i s i o n o f t h e r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t on h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g because o f i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e a l s o f o r c r o s s l i n k i n g t h e c h a p t e r on
p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n w i t h t h e account o f t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . F o r e f -
f e c t i v e p r o p p a n t c h o i c e and a p p l i c a t i o n as w e l l as f o r s u c c e s s f u l performance
o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o c o n s i d e r aspects o f p o s s i b l e
f r a c t u r e damage a f t e r t h e end o f t h e o p e r a t i o n and ways o f i t s m i n i m i z a t i o n o r
even complete p r e v e n t i o n which a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s . A f t e r d i s c u s s i o n o f
some g e n e r a l aspects, t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f proppant s e t t l i n g , p r o p p a n t flowback
and p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g a r e o u t l i n e d . The impact o f f l u i d s i s a l s o b r i e f l y s k e t -
ched.

4.12.1. General aspects

Important p o i n t s f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t d e t e r i o r a t i o n are
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y vs. f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y damage as w e l l as p r o p p a n t
c r u s h i n g and embedment vs. c l o s u r e s t r e s s .
 674

4.12.1.1. Fracture conductivity

vs. formation permeability damage
F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage c a n o c c u r b y p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k i n t o t h e w e l l -
b o r e , embedment o r c r u s h i n g o f p r o p p a n t g r a i n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) , and
plugging o f t h e proppant p o r o s i t y by formation f i n e s , i n s o l u b l e f l u i d - l o s s addi-
t i v e s and g e l r e s i d u e s (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986) and has c o n s i d e -
r a b l y d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s on w e l l p e r f o r m a n c e (COOKE 1973, HOLDITCH 1 9 7 9 ) . I n
comparison, damage o f t h e f o r m a t i o n a r o u n d t h e f r a c t u r e c o u l d be caused b y s w e l -
l i n g c l a y s ( c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 5 . 2 . ) , m e c h a n i c a l movement o f s o l i d f i n e s , chemical
p r e c i p i t a t i o n s i n t h e p o r e space, p l u g g i n g o f i n t e r s t i t i a l s b y u n b r o k e n g e l ,
and v a r i o u s o t h e r p h y s i c a l o r c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s between t h e i n j e c t e d s y n t h e t i c
m a t e r i a l s and t h e f o r m a t i o n and i t s n a t u r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s . Some a s p e c t s o f con-
t r a s t m a g n i t u d e , r e l a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e , and b r e a k e r t y p e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.12.1.1.1. Contrast magnitude

F r a c t u r e damage i s much more i m p o r t a n t t h a n f o r m a t i o n damage a r o u n d t h e
c r a c k , because d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t p o r o s i t y i s much s t r o n g e r d i m i n i s h i n g
t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t between f r a c t u r e and f o r m a t i o n t h a n d e s t r u c t i o n o f
p a r t s o f r e s e r v o i r r o c k m a t r i x p o r o s i t y (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986 e s -
t i m a t e t h a t i t r e q u i r e s a 1000 f o l d d e c r e a s e i n f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y b e f o r e
t h e e f f e c t s a r e c o m p a r a b l e t o o n l y a 40 f o l d d e c r e a s e i n f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i -
t y ) . The o n l y m a j o r e x c e p t i o n a r e p r o b a b l y l o w - p r e s s u r e w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e r e s e r -
v o i r s where f o r m a t i o n damage c a n s e v e r e l y c u r t a i l gas o r o i l p r o d u c t i o n .

Other types o f f r a c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n a r e r e l a t e d t o non-achievement o f t h e

i d e a l r e s u l t o f a highly-conductive crack i n t e r s e c t i n g the r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x i n
i t s o r i g i n a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n and i n f u l l v e r t i c a l t h i c k n e s s o f t h e p a y i n t e r v a l
(ECONOMIDES 1 9 8 6 ) . Damaged f r a c t u r e s a r e s u r r o u n d e d b y an e l l i p s o i d a l o r c y l i n -
d r i c a l zone o f f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x d e t e r i o r a t i o n as a consequence o f s t i m u l a t i o n
f l u i d l e a k o f f i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x o r w a t e r b l o c k i n g i n t h e p a y zone a d j a -
c e n t t o t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 3.11.2.4.2.). Choked c r a c k s s u f f e r f r o m r e d u -
c e d c o n d u c t i v i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e i m m e d i a t e w e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y as a r e -
s u l t o f p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k o r c r u s h i n g due t o e i t h e r u n s u i t a b l e c l o s u r e t i m e o r
i n a d e q u a t e c l e a n u p and p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t - u p p r o c e d u r e s (CINCO-LEY & SAMANIEGO
1 9 8 1 b ) . P a r t i a l l y p e n e t r a t i n g f r a c t u r e s f a i l t o span t h e e n t i r e r e s e r v o i r
t h i c k n e s s i n h e i g h t due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t volume and p r e s s u r e d u r i n g t r e a t m e n t
execution.

4.12.1.1.2. Relative significance

P r o p p a n t p a c k p e r m e a b i l i t y damage m i n i m i z a t i o n i s c o n s i d e r a b l y more i m p o r -
t a n t t h a n f o r m a t i o n d e t e r i o r a t i o n m i n i m i z a t i o n , because r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x damage
has a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t - t e r m e f f e c t o n p r o d u c t i v i t y , whereas p r o p p a n t p a c k d e t e -
r i o r a t i o n has a v e r y p r o l o n g e d d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t (ECONOMIDES 1 9 8 6 ) . F r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d s become more c o n c e n t r a t e d as t h e t r e a t m e n t p r o g r e s s e s , because p o l y m e r s
and s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s a r e f i l t e r e d o u t on t h e r o c k s u r f a c e . W h i l e e a r -
l i e r s t u d i e s assumed t h a t t h e f i l t e r c a k e i s r e d i s p e r s e d and d i s t r i b u t e d e v e n l y
t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o p p a n t package (STEPHEN-PYE & S M I T H 1 9 7 3 ) , l a t e r i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n s have shown t h a t t h i s model i s i n c o r r e c t and t h e f i l t e r c a k e p r o g r e s s i v e l y
b u i l d s on t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 5 . and 4 . 3 . 4 . 1 . 4 . ) and g i -
ves r i s e t o p r o p p a n t embedment (McDANIEL 1987, 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) .
R e d u c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s c a u s e d b y a c o m b i n a t i o n of p r o p p a n t embed-
ment i n t o f i l t e r c a k e a n d / o r f o r m a t i o n , p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g , proppant compaction
and pack c o n f i g u r a t i o n changes, and p r o p p a n t i n t e r s t i t i a l p l u g g i n g b y f o r m a t i o n
f i n e s and r e s i d u e f r o m f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s (ECONOMIDES 1 9 8 6 ) .
 675

4.12.1.1.3. Breaker type and concentration

F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y can be c o r r e l a t e d t o m o l e c u l a r s i z e o f t h e f l u i d r e s i -
due, and complete breakage o f t h e f l u i d i s e s s e n t i a l t o achieve good c o n d u c t i v i -
t y (ALMOND 1982). E x c e s s i v e l y h i g h i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s a r e r e q u i r e d t o pump p a r -
t i a l l y broken f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s through t h e c r a c k . H i g h e r b r e a k e r c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s i n c r e a s e f l o w c a p a c i t y , whereas f l o w r e d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e s as c r o s s l i n k e r
and/or g e l l i n g agent s a t u r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s . F o r t h e purpose o f s t u d y i n g f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y damage, each s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d must be e v a l u a t e d as a system compo-
sed o f polymer, g e l l i n g agent, c r o s s l i n k e r , b r e a k e r and a d d i t i v e s . Enzyme o x i d i -
z e r and thermal b r e a k i n g mechanisms have d i f f e r e n t d e g r a d a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y f o r
d i f f e r e n t polymer f l u i d systems (ALMOND & BLAND 1984, GALL & RAIBLE 1985, K I M &
LOSACANO 1985). The l o w e r t h e proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h e h i g h e r t h e f r a c t u r e
c o n d u c t i v i t y damage (COOKE 1975). Residue s a t u r a t i o n i n t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d i s
a f u n c t i o n o f g e l l i n g agent, b r e a k e r t y p e and b r e a k e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and f a c -
t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage a r e proppant p o r o s i t y and permea-
b i l i t y , r e s i d u e s a t u r a t i o n i n t h e f l u i d , and r e t a i n e d r e s i d u e i n t h e f r a c t u r e .

4.12.1.2. Proppant crushing and embedment vs. closure stress

F r a c t u r e damage o f t e n may o c c u r by p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g o r embedment. I n h a r d
f o r m a t i o n s , proppants t e n d t o crush, w h i l e i n s o f t f o r m a t i o n s , t h e y a r e l i k e l y
t o embed i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) . Simultaneous severe
proppant c r u s h i n g and embedment, however, can t a k e p l a c e i n deep s o f t r e s e r -
v o i r s (such as t h e V i c k s b u r g F o r m a t i o n i n South Texas; ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHI-
TEHEAD 1986). I n t h i s r e s p e c t , an i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n and i t s succession d u r i n g course o f t h e t r e a t m e n t . High p r o p p a n t s a t u r a -
t i o n s r e s u l t i n wide f r a c t u r e s i n f i l l e d w i t h proppant m u l t i l a y e r s and t h u s f r a c -
t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y i s p r o p o r t i o n a l l y i n c r e a s e d and t h e e f f e c t s o f c r u s h i n g and
embedment a r e n o t so c r i t i c a l .

S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s , t h e normal g r a -
d u a l c l o s u r e b e h a v i o u r o f p r e - e x i s t i n g n a t u r a l c r a c k s around a b o r e h o l e d u r i n g
v a r i o u s stages o f d e p l e t i o n when t h e e f f e c t i v e normal s t r e s s o r c l o s u r e s t r e s s
( b e i n g e q u i v a l e n t t o t o t a l p r e s s u r e minus p o r e p r e s s u r e ) i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y r i -
s i n g has a m a j o r impact on changes o f f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y and subsequent w e l l
p r o d u c t i o n (BAKHTAR, BARTON, RAKOP & JONES 1985). While d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f n a t u -
r a l c r a c k s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.8.3.) cannot o r o n l y t o m i n o r e x t e n t be i n f l u e n c e d ,
t h e damage o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s can be c o n t r o l l e d by b o t h l a y o u t
o f t h e proppant package and d e s i g n o f clean-up and e a r l y p r o d u c t i o n schedules.

4.12.2. Proppant settling

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s a r e g e n e r a l l y performed t o i n c r e a s e w e l l p r o -
d u c t i v i t y by e n l a r g i n g t h e s u r f a c e area a v a i l a b l e f o r f l o w f r o m t h e f o r m a t i o n
and by p r o v i d i n g a more permeable c o n d u i t f o r c u r r e n t from t h e e x t r e m i t i e s o f
t h e d r a i n a g e area t o t h e w e l l b o r e (POULSEN & LEE 1984). Proppants a r e p l a c e d i n
t h e f r a c t u r e by m i x i n g them w i t h t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d , t h e r e b y g e n e r a t i n g a
s l u r r y which i s pumped i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e t o c r e a t e t h e f r a c t u r e , w i t h i d e a l l y
on c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e t r e a t m e n t t h e p r o p p a n t b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d such t h a t i t co-
v e r s t h e e n t i r e exposed p r o d u c i n g i n t e r v a l . As p r o p p i n g agents a r e g e n e r a l l y
denser than t h e f l u i d t r a n s p o r t i n g them, t h e y may s e t t l e toward t h e f r a c t u r e
bottom t h r o u g h o u t t h e j o b and c o n t i n u e s e t t l i n g u n t i l t h e c r a c k c l o s e s , t h e r e b y
p o s s i b l y l e a v i n g t h e upper p o r t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e unsupported as a consequence
o f banking i n t h e l o w e r p a r t o f t h e f r a c t u r e . Proppant s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y i s
m a i n l y c o n t r o l l e d by f l o w b e h a v i o u r of t h e t r a n s p o r t i n g f l u i d which i s a l t e r e d
t h r o u g h s e l e c t i o n o f g e l l i n g agent, c r o s s l i n k e r , s t a b i l i z i n g a d d i t i v e s and
t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . F o r a g i v e n f l u i d , f l o w b e h a v i o u r as w e l l as
proppant t r a n s p o r t and suspension a b i l i t y change w i t h t i m e and temperature.
 676

Since f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s o f t e n t a k e hours t o complete and f l u i d temperature

can change r a d i c a l l y f r o m w e l l b o r e t o c r a c k t i p , b o t h t i m e and temperature a r e
i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n design.

Proppant s e t t l i n g d u r i n g t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e a f t e r a hy-
d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n j o b can have an i m p o r t a n t b e a r i n g on p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n
i n t h e c r a c k and may determine success o r f a i l u r e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n (NOVOTNY
1977). I n a h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t , a f r a c t u r e i s c r e a t e d by r u p t u r i n g
t h e f o r m a t i o n a t h i g h p r e s s u r e by means o f a s p e c i a l f l u i d t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e hy-
d r a u l i c energy, and proppants t r a n s p o r t e d by t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d a r e p l a c e d i n
t h e induced f r a c t u r e channel t o p r e v e n t t h e c r a c k f r o m c l o s i n g and r e h e a l i n g
a f t e r p r e s s u r e r e l e a s e (ROODHART 1985).

P r o d u c t i v i t y improvement i s m a i n l y determined by p r o p p a n t dimensions and d i s -

t r i b u t i o n which i n t u r n a r e l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y i n
the f l u i d , w i t h high s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s r e s u l t i n g i n t r i g g e r i n g o f proppant
banking a t t h e f r a c t u r e bottom, whereas a v e r y low s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y p e r m i t s
t h e p r o p p a n t t o remain i n suspension d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e t o t a l f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t . Some aspects o f p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e , p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t
and banking, c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , pad and c a r r i e r f l u i d volumes, and s l u r r y
c o n s i s t e n c y and proppant c l u s t e r i n g a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.12.2.1.Post-f ractur ing pressure decline

A n a l y s i s o f s t i m u l a t i o n i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s d u r i n g t h e j o b and p r e s s u r e de-
c l i n e a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t (NOLTE 1979, NOLTE & S M I T H 1981; ROBINSON, HOLDITCH &
WHITEHEAD 1986) i s i m p o r t a n t f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e
which i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal t o t h e l e a s t p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s . The c o n t r o l by p r e s -
s u r e e v a l u a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l , because t h e c r a c k must have a l r e a d y c l o s e d b e f o r e
t h e w e l l is opened f o r c l e a n - u p and t h e t i m i n g of f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e must be
p r i o r t o b e g i n n i n g o f g e l breakage i n o r d e r t o t r a p t h e p r o p p a n t s b e f o r e t h e y
can s e t t l e i n t h e decomposing f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d . The r a t e o f p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g
p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e depends on f l u i d l e a k o f f which i s a f u n c t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n p e r -
m e a b i l i t y ( b o t h p r i m a r y m a t r i x and secondary j o i n t p e r m e a b i l i t y ; c f . s e c t i o n
4.8.8.1.), w i t h i n high-permeability r e s e r v o i r rocks the pressure f a l l i n g o f f
r a p i d l y , thereby allowing the f r a c t u r e t o close i n a r e l a t i v e l y short p e r i o d o f
time, whereas i n t i g h t pay h o r i z o n s , f l u i d l e a k o f f may be r e t a r d e d and t h u s t h e
f r a c t u r e w i l l s t a y open f o r some l o n g e r t i m e .

4.12.2.2. Proppant transport and banking

Proppant t r a n s p o r t p r e d i c t i o n models a r e g e n e r a l l y based on S t o k e s ' law f o r
l a m i n a r o r c r e e p i n g f l o w o f Newtonian f l u i d s a t low Reynolds numbers as w e l l as
on Newton's law f o r t u r b u l e n t f l o w a t h i g h t o v e r y h i g h Reynolds numbers (CLARK
& Q U A D I R 1981, SHAH 1982, VEATCH 1 9 8 3 ) . While some f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s e x h i b i t a
Newtonian f l o w b e h a v i o u r , o t h e r s a r e non-Newtonian f l u i d s b u t e s s e n t i a l l y be-
have as power-law f l u i d s , and t h e c r o s s l i n k e d polymers commonly used f o r MHF
t r e a t m e n t s a r e v e r y complex non-power-law m i x t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . ) . Prop-
p a n t s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s i n Newtonian f l u i d s a r e a f u n c t i o n o f g r a v i t a t i o n a l ac-
c e l e r a t i o n , f l u i d d e n s i t y , p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y , p a r t i c l e diameter, f l u i d v i s c o s i t y
and s u r f a c e roughness. I n s l u r r i e s , s e t t l i n g takes p l a c e in a somewhat d i f f e -
r e n t manner because o f p a r t i c l e i n t e r f e r e n c e and/or clumping (CLARK & GULER
1983) and c l u s t e r e d p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t which i s h i n d e r i n g g r a v i t y s e g r e g a t i o n
(SIEVERT, WAHL, CLARK & HARKIN 1981).

Aspects o f p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and s e t t l i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by LOCKETT &

AL-HABBOOBY (1973), BARNEA & MEDNICK (1975), NOVOTNY (1977), DANESHY (1978 b ) ;
HARRINGTON, HANNAH & WILLIAMS (1979); M I R Z A & RICHARDSON ( 1 9 7 9 ) , ZIGRANGE & SYL-
VESTER (1981), SHAH (1982, 1986), PEDEN & LUO (1987) and CLIFTON & WANG (1988,
1989). Proppant s e t t l i n g , p r o p p a n t banking and f o r m a t i o n g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u -
 677

t i o n , f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , and o t h e r aspects a r e b r i e f l y d i s -

cussed as f o l l o w s .

4.12.2.2.1, Proppant s e t t l i n g
While proppant i s i n j e c t e d i n t o the fracture, i t t r a v e l s along w i t h the
f l u i d away from t h e w e l l b o r e and s e t t l e s downward a t a r a t e t h a t depends on
f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s and s u r r o u n d i n g c o n d i t i o n s (NOVOTNY 1977). Movement p a t h s o f
proppants a r e o f t e n t o r t u o u s due t o secondary f l o w caused by i r r e g u l a r morpho-
l o g y of t h e c r a c k w a l l s (VEATCH & MOSCHOVIDIS 1986). As c a r r i e r f l u i d i s l o s t
t h r o u g h t h e permeable w a l l s o f t h e f r a c t u r e , t h e c r a c k s t a r t s t o c l o s e a t t h e
end o f t h e t r e a t m e n t , w i t h proppant c o n t i n u i n g t o s e t t l e u n t i l a p r o p p a n t bank
i s formed a t t h e bottom o f t h e crack, t h e p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e s l u r r y
becomes so h i g h t h a t i t can no l o n g e r s e t t l e , o r t h e f r a c t u r e c l o s e s on t h e
s l u r r y thereby trapping the proppant.

Proppant banking beneath t h e p r o d u c t i v e r e s e r v o i r sand i n t e r v a l b e f o r e c l o -

s u r e o f t h e f r a c t u r e s t o p s s e t t l i n g by t r a p p i n g o f t h e p r o p p a n t s between t h e
w a l l s o f t h e crack, and t h i s process can r e s u l t i n such f r a c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n
t h a t almost a l l t h e s t i m u l a t i o n e f f e c t i s gone. As i t i s n o t u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e
c r a c k c l o s e s i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y a t t h e end o f p r o p p a n t i n j e c t i o n , p r o p p a n t s e t t -
l i n g d u r i n g t h e t i m e t h e f r a c t u r e s t a y s open has t o be reduced as much as pos-
s i b l e by m o d i f y i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o i m -
prove p r o p p a n t suspension i n t h e c a r r i e r medium. Some aspects o f c l u s t e r e d p r o p -
p a n t t r a n s p o r t and h i n d e r e d s e t t l i n g , f o r c e d f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e , and w e l l b o r e v i -
c i n i t y and t a i l - i n a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.12.2.2.1.1. Clustered proppant transport and hindered s e t t l i n g

I n non-Newtonian f l u i d s , p r o p p a n t g r a i n s a r e t r a n s p o r t e d i n c l u s t e r s r a t h e r
t h a n as s i n g l e p a r t i c l e s (SIEVERT, WAHL, CLARK & HARKIN 1981). When t h e f l o w i s
stopped, t h e c l u s t e r s f a l l a t a much f a s t e r r a t e t h a n s i n g l e p a r t i c l e s t o t h e
b o t t o m of t h e crack, w i t h t h e suspended proppants t h u s s e t t l i n g i n a v e r y s h o r t
time. I f grains f a l l through a l i q u i d containing other p a r t i c l e s , the terminal
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y i s d i f f e r e n t than t h a t o f a s i n g l e g r a i n f a l l i n g t h r o u g h t h e
same l i q u i d as a consequence o f h i n d e r e d s e t t l i n g (CLARK & QUADIR 1981; c f .
a l s o s e c t i o n 4.12.2.5.1.). Terminal s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s o f proppants i n hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s a r e governed by f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , f l u i d v e l o c i t y , f r a c -
t u r e w i d t h , p a r t i c l e s i z e and p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y , and a r e a l s o a f u n c t i o n o f g r a -
v i t a t i o n a l and d r a g f o r c e s . An absence o f e x t e r n a l shear on t h e f l u i d produces
l o w e r s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s and hence l o n g e r p r o p p a n t packages. Apparent p r o p p a n t
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s decrease w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n (SIEVERT,
WAHL, CLARK & HARKIN 1981).

Hindered s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s which account f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i n t e r a c t i o n s

between p a r t i c l e s i n a s l u r r y on t h e f r e e - f a l l v e l o c i t y o f t h e g r a i n s a r e n o t
s u f f i c i e n t l y pronounced t o e x p l a i n t h e whole magnitude o f d e v i a t i o n between ap-
p a r e n t and a c t u a l s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s . I f t h e p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e s move a t a h o r i -
z o n t a l r a t e l e s s than t h a t o f t h e c a r r y i n g f l u i d , p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e
s l u r r y i n c r e a s e s which i n non-Newtonian f l u i d s i n t u r n i n c r e a s e s pack growth
r a t e , w h i l e Newtonian f l u i d s do n o t e x h i b i t a c l e a r - c u t i n f l u e n c e o f p r o p p a n t
s a t u r a t i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, d o u b l i n g o f t h e v i s c o s i t y o f Newtonian f l u i d s
has o n l y a s m a l l e f f e c t on t r a n s p o r t b e h a v i o u r i n these systems, whereas i n
non-Newtonian systems, a s e v e r a l f o l d i n c r e a s e i n t r a n s p o r t and suspension capa-
b i l i t y takes p l a c e . Impingement o f p r o p p a n t g r a i n s a g a i n s t f r a c t u r e w a l l s du-
r i n g t r a n s p o r t and s e t t l i n g i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o be a m a j o r i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r ,
because most o f t h e p a r t i c l e s s t a y i n t h e c e n t r a l h i g h - v e l o c i t y zone and a r e
n o t t e n d i n g t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n t h e m a r g i n a l l o w - v i s c o s i t y zone.
 678

4.12.2.2.1.2.Forced fracture closure

ROSE (1988) presents a technique allowing a f t e r placement of the proppants
i n the f r a c t u r e t o induce cl o s u r e of the crack so t h a t the proppants a r e t r a p -
ped in the producing i n t er v al instead of s e t t l i n g t o the bottom of the f r a c -
t u r e . Simple methods o f as cer t ai n i n g proppant deposition within the prospective
in t e r v a l and avoiding s i g n i f i c a n t a n d unacceptable s e t t l i n g a re se pa ra te t r e a t -
ment of each i n t er v al of the r es er v o i r column ( c f . se c tion 4.10.1.) and limi-
ted-entry p e r f o r a t i o n a n d f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s ec tion 4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) . A s crack height
may s t i l l be excessive or n o t completely contained within the perforated i n t e r -
v a l , a forced f r a c t u r e cl o s u r e technique can be applied t o forc e the crack t o
s h u t before proppant s e t t l i n g can occur.
Forced f r a c t u r e cl o s u r e can be accomplished by c o n t r o l l i n g flowback r a t e of
t r e a t i n g f l u i d s thus reducing the pressure d i f f e r e n t i a l near the wellbore a n d
allowing f r a c t u r e f aces t o cl o s e and t o t r a p the high p r o p p a n t c onc e ntra tion,
thus stopping flowback of e a r l i e r p r o p p a n t s t age s a n d r e s u l t i n g i n b e t t e r well
p r o d u c t i v i t y . Rapid r et u r n of carbon dioxide foam f l u i d s supports forced crack
c lo su r e by quick pressure drop within wellbore and f r a c t u r e during f l u i d recove-
ry, thereby allowing the crack walls t o shut upon proppant suspended within the
perforated i n t e r v a l .

Wellbore vicinity and tail-in

4.12.2.2.1.3.
The most s i g n i f i c a n t proppant s e t t l i n g occurs a t the place where f r a c t u r e
width i s l a r g e s t which i s i n the immediate surroundings of the wellbore ( E L Y
1988). As p a r t i a l f r a c t u r e rehealing as a consequence of proppant s e t t l i n g i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y detrimental in the most proximal se c tion of the crack, a s s i s t a n c e
has t o be given t o f r a c t u r e cl o s u r e by immediate flowback of the well a f t e r t e r -
mination ( c f . sect i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 1 . ) of the treatment or t o enhancement of cleanup
by energizing components or foams ( c f . s ection 3 . 1 1 . 2 . ) . Excessive proppant
s e t t l i n g e i t h e r i n pipe or f r a c t u r e during p u m p i n g may r e s u l t i n premature
screenout termination of the job (SHAH, SMITH & DONALDSON 1983; c f . se c tion
6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) . F r act u r e cl o s u r e can be observed by monitoring surfa c e pressure
following a treatment. By insuring t h a t the crack i s completely closed before
returning the well t o hydrocarbon o f f t a k e , proppant production can be mitiga-
te d .

P r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g does not stop when i n j e c t i o n i s terminated, b u t continues

u n t i l the proppant e i t h e r s e t t l e s on t o p of the e x i s t i n g proppant bed i n the lo-
wer p a r t of the crack or becomes trapped between the walls as the f r a c t u r e c lo-
s e s (POULSEN & L E E 1984). While near the wellbore the proppants a re nearly per-
f e c t l y suspended a n d only very l i t t l e s e t t l i n g occurs, the suspended p r o p p a n t
height drops more r ap i d l y c l o s e r t o the leading edge of the proppant-laden
f l u i d f a r t h e r outwards within the crack, thereby indic a ting f l u i d degradation
which provokes higher s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s . If la rge portions of the p r o p p a n t
load a r e deposited a t the f r a c t u r e bottom, much of the upper inte rva l of the
crack i s l e f t unpropped. Near the wellbore where conditions of time a n d tempera-
tu r e a r e l e a s t severe, the l a r g e s t amount of p r o p p a n t i s suspended when the
f r a c t u r e c l o se s a t t h a t l o cat i o n . This e f f e c t even occurs although crack w i d t h
i s i n i t i a l l y g r e a t e s t next t o the wellbore a n d the f r a c t u r e takes the longest
time t o c l o s e t h e r e .

A s f l u i d s t a b i l i t y in the immediate borehole surroundings i s very good, how-

e v e r , the pronounced f r a c t u r e width and extended time of crack c losure a r e n o t
e f f e c t i v e f o r giving r i s e t o enhanced proppant s e t t l i n g . Two means e x i s t f o r in-
creasing propped f r a c t u r e height a t cl o s u r e comprising decreasing p r o p p a n t s e t t -
l i n g r a t e by s e l e c t i n g a more s t a b l e or viscous f l u i d , or increasing f l u i d loss
to provoke sooner crack cl o s u r e. Since f l u i d leakoff a f f e c t s the f l u i d portion
a v a i l a b l e f o r f r a c t u r e c r e a t i o n , the l a t t e r solution may re quire some compro-
mise as t o w h a t f l u i d l o s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e d e s i r a b l e . T a i l - i n p r o p p a n t sche-
 679

d u l i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.1.2.3. and 4.12.3.3.) increases proppant s e t t l i n g i n

t h e w e l l b o r e v i c i n i t y due t o h i g h e r d e n s i t y o r l a r g e r g r a i n s i z e o f t h e t a i l - i n
material, w i t h the t a i l e d - i n proppant l o t therefore also r e q u i r i n g greater gel
s t r e n g t h and s t a b i l i t y t o keep i t suspended.

4.12.2.2.1.4. Other aspects

F r a c t u r e temperature c a l c u l a t i o n s which a i m on p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g e s t i m a t i o n
have t o employ more a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d f l o w r a t e s and f l u i d - l o s s r a t e s .
F r a c t u r e c l o s u r e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e d e t e r m i n i n g proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e c l o -
sed c r a c k . Treatment c o s t s a r e reduced by s t a g i n g g e l , s t a b i l i z e r and b r e a k e r
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s based on f l u i d b e h a v i o u r i n t h e f r a c t u r e .

F l u i d l o s s t o t h e f o r m a t i o n by l e a k o f f decreases f l u i d v e l o c i t y and i n c r e a -
ses proppant s a t u r a t i o n and s l u r r y v i s c o s i t y , t h e r e b y d i m i n i s h i n g p r o p p a n t s e t t -
l i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s . Drag o f f l u i d and p r o p p a n t towards t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s i s ne-
g l i g i b l e f o r most s t i m u l a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . S e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t -
f l u i d s l u r r y i s i n f l u e n c e d by t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e geometry, f l u i d l o s s ,
f l u i d h e a t i n g and r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n c o o l i n g (BABCOCK, PROKOP & KEHLE 1967; NO-
VDTNY 1977).

4.12.2.2.2. Proppant banking and

formation g r a i n size d i s t r i b u t i o n
Proppant banking i n t h e f r a c t u r e decreases t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area f o r t h e
f l o w which i n c r e a s e s f l u i d v e l o c i t y . Since proppant bank p e r m e a b i l i t y i s much
g r e a t e r than f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y , f l u i d l o s s can be assumed t o o c c u r o v e r
t h e e n t i r e permeable r e s e r v o i r sand even i f i t i s covered by a p r o p p a n t bank.
W i t h c o n t i n u i n g b u i l d i n g o f t h e p r o p p a n t bank, f l u i d v e l o c i t y across i t s t o p
may become so l a r g e t h a t no more p r o p p a n t can be deposited, w i t h t h e p r o p p a n t
bank then r e a c h i n g i t s e q u i l i b r i u m h e i g h t . Some aspects o f f i n i n g - and coarsen-
ing-upwards g r a i n - s i z e sequences as w e l l as hydrocarbon d i s t r i b u t i o n i n g r a n u l o -
m e t r i c a l cyclothems a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

4.12.2.2.2.1. Fining- and coarsening-upward grain-size sequences

Proppant banking may be d e s i r e d t o c r e a t e a p a r t i c u l a r l y dense p r o p p a n t pack-
age i n t h e l o w e r p o r t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e i n such r e s e r v o i r s where most of t h e
hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n i s coming f r o m t h e b o t t o m o f t h e p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l
(LEE & DANESHY 1985), such as f o r example i n f i n i n g - u p w a r d s g r a i n s i z e sequen-
ces where t h e h i g h e s t p e r m e a b i l i t i e s o c c u r a t t h e base o f t h e pay zone. I n t h e
r e v e r s e case o f coarsening-upwards g r a n u l o m e t r i c a l successions, however, prop-
p a n t banking w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t i n g t h e f r a c t u r e a t t h e
b o t t o m o f t h e r e s e r v o i r would cause c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f e x p l o i t a t i o n
p o s s i b i l i t i e s , because t h e b e s t s e c t i o n a t t h e t o p o f t h e pay zone would h a r d l y
r e c e i v e any proppant p l u g . Proppant banking i s a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d by SCHOLS &
VISSER (1974).

S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r coarsening-upwards c l a s t i c r e s e r v o i r s w i t h f u l l
o i l s a t u r a t i o n , p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g and banking i s d e t r i m e n t a l t o sandstone pay
i n t e r v a l s o f e i t h e r g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t a r e d i v i d e d
i n t o an upper o i l - b e a r i n g s e c t i o n and a l o w e r w a t e r - b e a r i n g p o r t i o n by t h e o i l -
w a t e r - c o n t a c t . Proppant s e t t l i n g p r i o r t o f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e would l e a d i n such
r e s e r v o i r s t o reduced proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e upper i n t e r v a l w i t h h i g h
o i l s a t u r a t i o n s and t o i n c r e a s e d p r o p p a n t package d e n s i t y a d j a c e n t t o t h e l o w e r
w a t e r - p r o d u c t i v e s e c t i o n (CRAMER & SONGER 1988).
 680

4.12.2.2.2.2. Hydrocarbon distribution

in granulometrical cyclothems
I n i d e a l cases r e p r e s e n t i n g f u l l y h y d r o c a r b o n - b e a r i n g f i n i n g - u p w a r d s o r c o a r -
sening-upwards sandstone sequences, p r o p p a n t b a n k i n g can be t h e optimum s o l u -
t i o n i f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n i n downwards d i r e c t i o n s t o p s a t t h e r e s e r v o i r base
t o a l l o w upwards bank growth f r o m t h e a c t u a l b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n e t pay i n t e r v a l
and n o t w a s t i n g p r o p p a n t m a t e r i a l by s e t t l i n g i n t o t h e b a r r e n s e c t i o n below t h e
t a r g e t zone. I n such cases, banking r e s u l t s i n p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g i n t o t h e f u l l
c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e w i d t h i n s t e a d o f t h e c r a c k c l o s i n g on a l e s s c o n c e n t r a t e d and
n a r r o w e r pack such as s e t i n p l a c e by p e r f e c t - t r a n s p o r t f l u i d s (HOEL 1988). I f
h i g h - q u a l i t y proppants a r e used, a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t i s always
g i v e n everywhere i n t h e f r a c t u r e r e g a r d l e s s o f whether t h e p r o p p a n t banks a r e
o p p o s i t e f i n e r - g r a i n e d l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y o r c o a r s e r - g r a i n e d h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y ba-
s a l members o f c o a r s e n i n g - o r f i n i n g - u p w a r d s cyclothems, r e s p e c t i v e l y , o r whe-
t h e r t h e open f l o w channel i s s i t u a t e d n e x t t o t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g upper coarse
and f i n e u n i t s .

4.12.2.2.3. Fracture closure and fluid viscosity

C r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s have t h e u n i q u e advantage o f y i e l d i n g h i g h v i s -
c o s i t y f o r modest polymer c o n c e n t r a t i o n which makes them i d e a l f o r p l a c i n g
h i g h e r p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s due t o i n h e r e n t h i g h e f f i c i e n c y , the a b i l i t y t o
c r e a t e wide f r a c t u r e s , and e x c e l l e n t p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t and suspension c h a r a c t e -
r i s t i c s (HANNAH, HARRINGTON & POTTER 1980; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . ) . I n case o f
l a r g e t r e a t m e n t s , f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e does n o t o c c u r f o r s e v e r a l hours w h i c h would
a l l o w ample t i m e f o r complete p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g i n water-based g e l s , whereas
c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g g e l s can r e t a i n t h e a b i l i t y t o s u p p o r t p r o p p a n t s f o r se-
v e r a l hours a t e l e v a t e d temperatures u n l e s s t h e i r v i s c o s i t y i s degraded t o some
c r i t i c a l p o i n t by b r e a k e r a c t i o n o r a b s o l u t e thermal d e g r a d a t i o n .

I f b r e a k e r a c t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduces t h e t i m e d u r i n g w h i c h p e r f e c t p r o p -
p a n t s u p p o r t i s p r e s e n t and f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e i s r e t a r d e d , t h e n i m p e r f e c t p r o p -
p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l r e s u l t and t h e o v e r a l l performance may be no b e t t e r than
i f a s i m p l e g e l were used. On t h e o t h e r hand, i f breakers s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n -
crease f l u i d l o s s d u r i n g c l o s u r e , then f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e t i m e may be reduced and
t h u s a f a v o u r a b l e p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n may be s a f e l y t r a p p e d between t h e s h u t -
t i n g c r a c k w a l l s . I n l o w - v i s c o s i t y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s , p r o p p a n t s may s e t t l e r a -
p i d l y , t h e r e b y l e a v i n g a s h o r t c r a c k w i t h low bed h e i g h t which c o u l d r e s u l t i n
o n l y t h e b o t t o m few f e e t o f t h e zone o f i n t e r e s t a c t u a l l y b e i n g propped w i t h a
c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e (KUNDERT & SMINK 1979). F r a c t u r e c l o s u r e u s u a l l y occurs a t
t h e end o f l i n e a r f l o w (KULAR, CHHINA, BEST & MACKENZIE 1988; c f . s e c t i o n
4.11.3.).

4.12.2.2.4. Other aspects

P r i n c i p a l l y p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g i s a f u n c t i o n o f f l u i d shear r a t e , b u t when
p a r t i c l e s a r e f l o w i n g t h r o u g h a f r a c t u r e , d r a g g i n g near t h e c r a c k w a l l s h i n d e r s
g r a i n s e t t l i n g , w i t h w a l l roughness a l s o b e i n g an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r (ACHENBACH
1974). Proppant s a t u r a t i o n p r o b a b l y has t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on s e t t l i n g v e l o c i -
t y o f t h e s o l i d p a r t i c l e s , w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e f l u i d l o s s d u r i n g course o f t h e hy-
d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n treatment r e s u l t i n g i n successively higher f l u i d v i s c o s i t y
and p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and t h e r e b y p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g o c c a s i o n a l l y b e i n g se-
vere d u r i n g i n i t i a l stages, b u t b e i n g i n h i b i t e d more and more towards t h e end
o f t h e o p e r a t i o n by b e t t e r suspending and s u p p o r t i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e more sa-
t u r a t e d and more v i s c o u s c a r r i e r medium (NOVOTNY 1977). S t a t i c and dynamic prop-
pant s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s are d i f f e r e n t i n shear-sensitive f l u i d s .

Experimental work by B I O T & MEDLIN (1985) and MEDLIN, SEXTON & ZUMWALT
 681

(1985) f o r t h i n u n c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s has r e v e a l e d f o u r r e g i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t
p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t phenomena. The l o w e s t zone i s t h e s e t t l e d bank where concen-
t r a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o f p r o p p a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n upwards d i r e c t i o n , t h e
f o l l o w i n g segments o f t h e f l o w p r o f i l e comprise bed l o a d b e i n g a f l u i d i z e d
l a y e r o f r e l a t i v e l y small h e i g h t , zone o f v i s c o u s d r a g t r a n s p o r t where p r o p p a n t
s a t u r a t i o n i s more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t , and i n t e r v a l o f t u r b u l e n t t r a n s p o r t
through which c o n c e n t r a t i o n d e c l i n e s t o zero.

Aspects o f p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by KERN, PERKINS & WYANT

(1959), LOWE & H U I T T (1966); CLARK & QUADIR (1981); SIEVERT, WAHL, CLARK & HAR-
K I N (1981); CLARK & GULER (1983); GOTTSCHLING, ROYCE & SHUCK (1983); AHMED
(1984); CLARK, HALVACI, GHAELI & PARKS (1985); ROODHART (1985) and ACHARYA
(1986, 1987). S i m i l a r e f f e c t s o f t r a n s p o r t and s e t t l i n g as e x h i b i t e d by prop-
p a n t s i n f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s a p p l y f o r r o c k c u t t i n g s i n d r i l l i n g mud
(PEDEN & LUO 1987).

4.12.2.3. Carrier fluid viscosity

O p t i m i z a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e and m i n i m i z a t i o n
o f p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g can be b e s t achieved by u s i n g h i g h p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n s
( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.) and s h o r t e n i n g c l o s u r e t i m e o f t h e f r a c t u r e (BARBY & BARBEE
1987). The f o l l o w i n g overview p r e s e n t s some aspects o f c r o s s l i n k i n g types, prop-
p a n t t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y , and f l u i d r h e o l o g y s t a b i l i t y .

4.12.2.3.1. Cross1 inking types

Proppant s e t t l i n g r a t e s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c a l i n l o w - v i s c o s i t y c a r r i e r
f l u i d s and w i t h l o n g f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e times. Concerning v i s c o s i t y m o d e l l i n g ,
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f c r o s s l i n k e r s can be used, and shear f o r c e s caused b y pumping
o f t h e v i s c o u s c r o s s l i n k e d g e l down t h e t u b u l a r s c o u l d provoke r e d u c t i o n o f t h e
e f f e c t i v e v i s c o s i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.3.). Conventional c r o s s l i n k i n g agents
l e a d t o immediate c r o s s l i n k i n g , whereas a delayed c r o s s l i n k e r c o u l d be t i m e d t o
c r o s s l i n k as moving downhole, t h e r e b y b u i l d i n g up v i s c o s i t y d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e
pumping t i m e . D u a l - v i s c o s i t y c r o s s l i n k e r s f o r m a t once a s l i g h t c r o s s l i n k i n g
and t h e n i n c r e a s e v i s c o s i t y by f u r t h e r c r o s s l i n k i n g w h i l e b e i n g d i s p l a c e d . De-
l a y e d and d u a l - v i s c o s i t y c r o s s l i n k e r s s h o u l d n o t be as e x t e n s i v e l y a f f e c t e d by
t h e s h e a r i n g f o r c e i n t h e t u b u l a r s as t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c r o s s l i n k e r (GARDNER &
EIKERTS 1982).

4.12.2.3.2. Proppant transport capacity

Concerning f l u i d v i s c o s i t y vs. p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g , l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s (10 -
20 c p ) l e a d t o g r a v i t a t i o n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f much p r o p p a n t
m a t e r i a l t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f r a c t u r e , and bed h e i g h t can be i r r e g u l a r i f d i f -
f e r e n t p a r t i c l e s i z e s a r e used d u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1.2.3.).
M e d i u m - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s (50 - 200 cp) p r o v i d e good, b u t n o t p e r f e c t p r o p p a n t
t r a n s p o r t , and p r o p p a n t beds can s t i l l be i r r e g u l a r . M e d i u m - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s
c a r r y o n l y 20/40 o r s m a l l e r proppants f o r l o n g d i s t a n c e s , whereas l a r g e r g r a i n s
w i l l s e t t l e more r a p i d l y ( t h e dependency o f s e t t l i n g r a t e f r o m p a r t i c l e s i z e i s
a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d by LOCKETT & AL-HABBOOBY 1973 and M I R Z A & RICHARDSON 1979).
H i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s can t r a n s p o r t a l l p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e s w i t h o n l y minimal
s e t t l i n g , and t h e r e s u l t a n t f r a c t u r e u s u a l l y i s v e r y u n i f o r m (HOLDITCH 1984).

Aspects o f p r o p p a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n i n v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d by
CLARK & QUADIR (1981); SIEVERT, WAHL, CLARK & HARKIN (1981) and BABCOCK, PROKOP
& KEHLE ( 1 9 8 7 ) . Proppant s e t t l i n g i s d i s c u s s e d by KIRKBY & ROCKEFELLER (1985),
ROODHART (1985) and SHAH (1986). CLARK, HALVACI, GHAELI & PARKS (1985); DUNAND
& SOUCEMARIANADIN (1985) and ACHARYA (1986, 1987) comment on p a r t i c l e t r a n s p o r t
i n v i s c o u s and v i s c o e l a s t i c f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s . SHAH & LEE (1986) a n a l y z e f r i c -
 682

t i o n pressures o f proppant-laden hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s .

4.12.2.3.3. Fluid rheology stability

The r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d can v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y due
t o temperature changes in t h e f r a c t u r e and t h e t i m e d u r a t i o n of exposure t o
each temperature (LEE & DANESHY 1985). V i s c o s i t y l o s s o f t h e c a r r i e r due t o
t i m e and temperature can l e a d t o i n a b i l i t y o f f u r t h e r p r o p p a n t suspension, b u t
p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g can be p r e v e n t e d by replacement by two-stage g e l l e d f l u i d s
where t h e second g e l l i n g agent i s a c t i v a t e d a t h i g h e r temperature. Many f l u i d s ,
however, can m a i n t a i n t h e i r v i s c o s i t y even up t o temperatures approaching 300
OF and t h u s p r o p p a n t suspension a t l e a s t f o r s e v e r a l hours i s guaranteed. T a i l -
i n pumping schedules w i t h i n s e r t i o n o f f i r s t s t r o n g e r and second weaker g e l s o r
v i c e v e r s a a r e a l s o p o s s i b l e . D r i l l i n g and f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e g e n e r a l l y r e -
p r e s e n t i n g power-law-type f l u i d s , and t h e problem o f r o c k c u t t i n g s e t t l i n g o u t
f r o m d r i l l i n g mud and o f proppants f r o m f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e
shear-dependent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f l u i d s (PEDEN & LUO 1987).

4.12.2.4. Pad and carrier fluid volumes

The danger o f e x c e s s i v e p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g can a l s o be m i n i m i z e d by f a v o u -
r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s o f pad and c a r r i e r f l u i d volumes (LEE & OANESHY 1 9 8 5 ) . When
f l u i d e f f i c i e n c y i s low, e i t h e r a l a r g e amount o f p r i m a r y pad i s r e q u i r e d t o
complete t h e t r e a t m e n t , o r i f t h e l e a d i n g p r o p p a n t - l a d e n elements l o s e t h e i r
suspended proppants, t h e y can serve as secondary pad and t h u s t h e q u a n t i t y o f
p r i m a r y pad can be reduced. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f an optimum amount o f p r i m a r y pad
has t o be based on t h e j o i n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f f l u i d l o s s and p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g .
I f t h e l e a d i n g p r o p p a n t does n o t s e t t l e o u t , propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h can be con-
t r o l l e d b y v a r y i n g t h e p r i m a r y pad volume. The l e s s pad r e m a i n i n g a t t h e end o f
t h i s stage, t h e l o n g e r t h e propped f r a c t u r e w i l l be. As f r a c t u r e w i d t h a t t h e
t i p i s narrow and a l i t t l e e x t r a volume o f pad w i l l occupy a l o n g r e g i o n , p r o p -
ped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h may t h e r e b y be reduced. Too l i t t l e pad, however, w i l l i n -
crease t h e chance o f p r o p p a n t r e a c h i n g t h e f r a c t u r e t i p , t h e r e b y c r e a t i n g h i g h
p r e s s u r e . A l t e r n a t i v e t r e a t m e n t s i n c l u d e two-stage g e l l e d f l u i d pumping where
t h e second g e l l i n g agent i s a c t i v a t e d a t h i g h e r temperatures.

I n t i g h t f o r m a t i o n s w i t h low f l u i d l e a k o f f r a t e s , f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e t i m e i s
i n e v i t a b l y v e r y h i g h , and t h u s i t i s p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o keep p r o p p a n t
f r o m s e t t l i n g t o t h e f r a c t u r e b o t t o m a t c l o s u r e . In o r d e r t o p r o v i d e an ade-
quate amount o f proppant i n t h e pay zone, proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n and volume
s h o u l d be as h i g h as p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t r i s k i n g premature s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e ( c f .
section 6.2.4.2.1.).

F r a c t u r e geometry i s most i n f l u e n c e d by t h e f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a t t h e t i p o f
t h e c r a c k , w i t h t h e h i g h e r t h e v i s c o s i t y , t h e s h o r t e r the f r a c t u r e l e n g t h f o r a
g i v e n i n j e c t e d volume. T h e r e f o r e i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e narrow l o n g f r a c t u r e s ,
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a t t h e t i p o f t h e c r a c k has t o be m a i n t a i n e d low, whereas f o r
w i d e r f r a c t u r e s , f l u i d sequences r e s u l t i n g in h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y a t t h e c r a c k t i p
have t o be s e l e c t e d .

4.12.2.5. Slurry consistency and proppant clustering

K I R K B Y & ROCKEFELLER (1985) analyze p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s i n n o n - f l o w -
ing slurries, because s t a t i c s e d i m e n t a t i o n b e h a v i o u r i s i m p o r t a n t i n p r o p p a n t
t r a n s p o r t n o t o n l y p r i o r t o c l o s u r e when t h e p l a c e d s l u r r y i s s t a n d i n g i n t h e
c r a c k , b u t a l s o d u r i n g pumping and f l u i d i n s e r t i o n i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e , as a h i g h
percentage o f t h e p r o p p a n t s l u r r y r e s i d e s i n r e g i o n s o f low-shear r a t e . Sedimen-
t a t i o n b e h a v i o u r o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s i s dominated by p a r t i c l e c l u s t e r i n g which
g i v e s r i s e t o average s t a t i c s l u r r y s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t i e s many t i m e s f a s t e r t h a n
 683

t h a t o f s i n g l e p a r t i c l e s (CLARK, HARKIN, WAHL & SIEVERT 1977; SIEVERT, WAHL,

CLARK & HARKIN 1981; c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.2.2.1.), w i t h t h e consequence o f c l u s t e r -
i n g b e i n g an inhomogeneous s l u r r y and a time-dependent d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s e t t l i n g
v e l o c i t i e s (TORY & PICKARD 1977). Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on p r o p -
p a n t c l u s t e r i n g and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y v a r i a t i o n as w e l l as s l u r r y s e d i m e n t a t i o n
and proppant c l u s t e r f o r m a t i o n .

4.12.2.5.1. Proppant clustering and fluid viscosity variation

Proppant c l u s t e r i n g occurs i n a l l f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a t t y p i c a l p r o p p a n t con-
c e n t r a t i o n s , w i t h s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y depending on proppant s a t u r a t i o n i n a much
d i f f e r e n t manner t h a n assumed by c o n v e n t i o n a l proppant t r a n s p o r t models (NOVOT-
NY 1977). Proppant c l u s t e r i n g can t h e r e f o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e p r o p p a n t
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y independent o f f l u i d t y p e (KIRKBY & ROCKEFELLER 1985).

F r a c t u r i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y v a r i e s g r e a t l y w i t h i n t h e c r a c k due t o wide v a r i a -
t i o n s i n l o c a l shear r a t e (KIRKBY & ROCKEFELLER 1985), w i t h t h e v i s c o s i t y o f
some o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s b e i n g e x t r e m e l y s e n s i t i v e t o shear r a t e (CLARK
1979). The p r o p p a n t p l u g f l o w i n g i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e crack r e s i d e s i n a r e g i o n
o f v e r y low shear r a t e (NOLTE 1982). As a consequence o f v i s c o s i t y d i f f e r e n c e s
a t low shear r a t e s and s t a t i c s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y , r h e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
o f t h e f l u i d s a t low shear r a t e s i s e s s e n t i a l f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g suspension
performance ( c f . a l s o CLARK, HALVACI, GHAELI & PARKS 1985).

4.12.2.5.2. Slurry sedimentation and proppant cluster formation

The s l u r r y s e d i m e n t a t i o n b e h a v i o u r i n d i c a t e s s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between
Newtonian and f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s (KIRKBY & ROCKEFELLER 1985). Newtonian f l u i d s
e x h i b i t r e l a t i v e l y u n i f o r m c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e s l u r r y phase as w e l l as d e f i n e d
f l u i d / s l u r r y and s l u r r y / p r o p p a n t bank i n t e r f a c e s , whereas f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s d i s -
p l a y m u l t i p l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n phases w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i n t e r f a c e s . As t h e p r i m a r y
s l u r r y body s e t t l e s , a s l o w - s e t t l i n g d i l u t e - s l u r r y phase remains above. Dense
p r o p p a n t banks f o r m v e r y s l o w l y , w i t h a s l o w - s e t t l i n g , l e s s dense s l u r r y phase
a p p e a r i n g above t h e bank. Some f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s d e p o s i t dense p r o p p a n t banks
t h a t a r e h i g h l y f l u i d and can r e a d i l y be r e d i s p e r s e d , whereas Newtonian f l u i d s
l a y down immobile p r o p p a n t banks.

An i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f c l u s t e r e d s e d i m e n t a t i o n i s t h e dependence o f s l u r r y -
s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y on d i s t a n c e , t i m e and l o c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n (TORY & P I C K A R D
1977, K I R K B Y & ROCKEFELLER 1985). R a p i d s e t t l i n g does n o t o c c u r u n t i l t h e p a r -
t i c l e s have t r a v e r s e d s u f f i c i e n t d i s t a n c e t o a l l o w t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c l u s t e r s .
The n a t u r a l i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e d e p o s i t i o n process l e a d s t o inhomogeneous prop-
p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n (THACKER & LAVELLE 1978). I f f l o w w i t h i n a f r a c t u r e i s h i g h -
l y non-uniform, average s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y i s determined by t h e suspension beha-
v i o u r o f t h e slow-moving zones which t e n d t o have h i g h e r v i s c o s i t i e s . Slow-mo-
v i n g h o r i z o n t a l f l u i d bands w i t h h i g h apparent y i e l d s t r e s s can g r e a t l y i n h i b i t
p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g , t h e r e b y a c t i n g as a s e d i m e n t a t i o n b a r r i e r .

4.12.3. Proppant flowback

Proppant flowback a f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n can s e r i o u s -
l y damage f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y by removing t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e c r a c k t o s t a y
open and t h u s a l l o w i n g t h e f r a c t u r e t o p a r t i a l l y c l o s e and t o d i s c o n n e c t t h e
d r a i n a g e path. Proppant flowback i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e i s t h u s g e n e r a l l y u n d e s i -
r a b l e s i n c e t h e p r i m a r y goal o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i s t o p l a c e p r o p p a n t i n
t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e t o i n c r e a s e c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y and t h e r e b y a m e l i o r a t e r e -
s e r v o i r p r o d u c t i v i t y v i a a g r e a t e r e f f e c t i v e w e l l b o r e r a d i u s (HOLCOMB 1983).
A p a r t f r o m f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e p r o x i m a l seam around
t h e borehole, p r o p p a n t flowback causes w e l l b o r e f i l l which must be c i r c u l a t e d
 684

o r b a i l e d o u t b e f o r e t h e b o r e h o l e can be produced e f f i c i e n t l y , and e r o s i o n a l

and p l u g g i n g damage t o t u b u l a r s , w e l l h e a d assemblies, valves, chokes and f l o w l i -
nes, w i t h t h i s equipment d e s t r u c t i o n b e i n g a s e r i o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f b o t h t e c h -
n i c a l performance and economical f e a s i b i l i t y . Proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h u s
a l s o o v e r a l l f r a c t u r e q u a l i t y a r e s e v e r e l y a f f e c t e d by p r o p p a n t i n f l o w i n t o t h e
w e l l b o r e (CLARK 1983).

I n a d d i t i o n , flowback o f h i g h l y a b r a s i v e s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e p r o p p a n t s can be
e x t r e m e l y hazardous, w i t h n o t o n l y c u t t i n g o u t o f v a l v e s and Christmas t r e e s oc-
c u r r i n g where l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e proppants a r e r e t u r n e d w i t h
w e l l f l u i d s , b u t a l s o i n extreme cases blowouts and f i r e s t a k i n g p l a c e (OSBOR-
NE, McLEOD & SCHROEDER 1981; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 4 . 6 . ) . The most i m p o r t a n t procedures
o f c o n t r o l l i n g and a v o i d i n g p r o p p a n t flowback a r e c a r e f u l cleanup o f t h e w e l l
a f t e r t h e f r a c t u r i n g j o b , pumping of a t a i l - i n of c u r a b l e r e s i n - c o a t e d sand i n
t h e t e r m i n a l s t a g e o f t h e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n j o b , u t i l i z a t i o n o f foam and
e n e r g i z e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s , and s h u t - i n t i m e adjustment.

4.12.3.1. We1 1 cleanup

Well cleanup has a v e r y i m p o r t a n t impact on f r a c t u r e performance due t o i t s
c o n t r o l on p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e a d j u s t m e n t d u r i n g c r a c k c l o s u r e w i t h d e c l i n i n g
p r e s s u r e l e v e l . The i n f l u e n c e s o f b o r e h o l e cleanup a r e summarized by b r i e f l y
commenting on f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e and proppant t r a p p i n g , p r o p p a n t flowback c o n t r o l
and d i m i n u t i o n , and e f f e c t s o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e on w e l l
cleanup.

4.12.3.1.1. Fracture closure and proppant trapping

The e f f e c t i v i t y o f a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t i s m a i n l y c o n t r o l l e d by
f i n a l pumped p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n and c r a c k w i d t h a t t h e w e l l b o r e , w i t h these
two f a c t o r s p r e d o m i n a n t l y d e t e r m i n i n g optimum w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y (OSBORNE,
McLEOD & SCHROEDER 1981). O f f t a k e c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e f r a c t u r e d w e l l i s t h u s o f -
t e n governed by t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e l a s t volume o f i n j e c t e d proppants t o t h e
w e l l b o r e . T h e r e f o r e n o t o n l y crack e v a c u a t i o n has a c o n s i d e r a b l y d e t r i m e n t a l e f -
f e c t on f r a c t u r e performance, b u t a l s o proppant o v e r d i s p l a c i n g can be d i s a s -
t r o u s when p r o p p a n t i s d i s c o n n e c t e d f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e (RAYMOND & BINDER 1967,
SMITH 1973). I n t h e l a t t e r case, f l u i d must f l o w o u t o f t h e f r a c t u r e and
through t h e low f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e o v e r t h e d i s c o n n e c t e d
d i s t a n c e . Some aspects o f p r e s s u r e d e p l e t i o n and f l u i d l e a k o f f as w e l l as p r e s -
sure d e c l i n e a s s i s t a n c e by c o n t r o l l e d f l u i d p r o d u c t i o n a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l -
lows.

4.12.3.1.1.1. Pressure depletion and fluid leakoff

I n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s , 12 - 24 h r s may be r e q u i r e d b e f o r e t h e p r e s -
sure d e p l e t e s s u f f i c i e n t l y t o p e r m i t f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e and t r a p p i n g o f t h e prop-
pants between t h e c r a c k w a l l s , whereas i n h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay h o r i z o n s , f r a c -
t u r e c l o s u r e may a l r e a d y be achieved i n a t i m e between a q u a r t e r t o a c o u p l e
o f h o u r s . As 12 - 24 hours i s a l s o t h e t i m e range when most o f t h e added g e l
b r e a k e r s s t a r t t o become a c t i v e and b e g i n t o decompose t h e g e l i n c l u d i n g v i s c o -
s i t y l o w e r i n g , i t may be necessary t o a s s i s t f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e by s l o w l y and ca-
r e f u l l y f l o w i n g t h e w e l l back on low r a t e s and t h r o u g h a narrow choke i n o r d e r
t o b l e e d o f f p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e c r a c k . P r o d u c t i o n r a t e s , however, have t o be ad-
j u s t e d t o keep p r o p p a n t flowback l i m i t e d t o a minimum i n o r d e r n o t t o d e t e r i o -
r a t e p r o p p a n t p l u g g i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e w e l l b o r e surround-
i n g s . A f t e r f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e i s d e t e c t e d o r when p r e s s u r e has f a l l e n down below
t h e known v a l u e o f c l o s u r e s t r e s s , t h e w e l l has t o be s h u t i n t o a l l o w t h e g e l
t o break. F o r f r a c t u r i n g and c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e p r e d i c t i o n and r e c o g n i t i o n as
w e l l as f o r d e s i g n o f mud, c a s i n g and cementing programs, f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e
 685

and p r o p p a n t type, a c c u r a t e v a l u e s o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s a r e needed.

C l o s u r e t i m e which i s v e r y c r i t i c a l f o r p r o p e r w e l l cleanup m o d e l l i n g can be

understood as t h e p e r i o d n e c e s s i t a t e d f o r e i t h e r complete f l u i d l e a k o f f o r t o -
t a l p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g and t r a p p i n g (LEE & DANESHY 1985). The t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r
a l l suspended proppants e i t h e r t o s e t t l e down o r t o be trapped between t h e f r a c -
t u r e w a l l s (POULSEN & LEE 1984) g i v e s a b e t t e r approach, because t h e p e r i o d nee-
ded f o r t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e volume t o l o s e a l l o f i t s f l u i d when pumping s t o p s
(NOLTE 1979) can be e x c e s s i v e l y h i g h i n case o f slow f l u i d l e a k o f f i n t i g h t r e -
servoir s .

4.12.3.1.1.2. Pressure decline assistance

by controlled fluid production
I t i s c e r t a i n l y a c r i t i c a l d e c i s i o n t o produce f l u i d back i n o r d e r t o a s s i s t
p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e which a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n v o l v e s flowback o f a t l e a s t l i t t l e quan-
t i t i e s o f proppants from the f r a c t u r e i n t o the wellbore, b u t i t i s o f t e n the
l e s s e r o f two e v i l s , because p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g down t o t h e b o t t o m o f a p e r s i s -
t e n t l y open wide c r a c k and even p o t e n t i a l l y o u t o f zone i s t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e
case of f r a c t u r e damage and would d e t e r i o r a t e t h e e f f e c t o f t h e whole t r e a t m e n t
(ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986). T h e r e f o r e e v e r y t h i n g has t o be u n d e r t a -
ken t o ensure t h a t t h e c r a c k h e a l s b e f o r e t h e g e l breaks and a l l o w s p r o p p a n t
s e t t l i n g , and cleanup and p r o d u c t i o n s h o u l d n o t be s t a r t e d b e f o r e t h e p r o p p a n t
i s trapped i n the closed f r a c t u r e .

S p e c i a l c a r e has t o be taken t o p r e v e n t proppant d i s c o n n e c t i o n i n case i t i s

necessary t o s h u t down pumping o p e r a t i o n s t o r e p a i r l e a k s o r t o work on e q u i p -
ment m a l f u n c t i o n (OSBORNE, McLEOD & SCHROEDER 1981). Shut-down has t o be made
w i t h c r o s s l i n k e d g e l and proppants s t i l l b e i n g i n t u b i n g and b l e n d e r u n t i l r e -
p a i r s a r e made and then enough volume o f base g e l w i t h o u t any f l u i d - l o s s a d d i -
t i v e , c r o s s l i n k e r o r proppants i s pumped t o r e - e s t a b l i s h r a t e and p r e s s u r e
which i s f o l l o w e d by s t a r t i n g of s i m u l t a n e o u s l y pumping c r o s s l i n k e r , f l u i d - l e a k -
o f f a d d i t i v e and p r o p p a n t a t t h e same c o n c e n t r a t i o n as b e f o r e shut-down. It i s
n o t advantageous t o s t a r t up a g a i n w i t h a l o w e r p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h a n p r e -
v i o u s l y pumped o r r u n n i n g any c r o s s l i n k e d g e l w i t h o u t p r o p p a n t . The t h i n non-
c r o s s l i n k e d g e l i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e stage f i n g e r s i n t o t h e more v i s c o u s c r o s s -
l i n k e d g e l and by t h i s as w e l l as by f l u i d l e a k o f f w i l l be absorbed t o t h e
p o i n t where no d i s c o n n e c t i o n w i l l o c c u r between t h e p r o p p a n t - l a d e n elements.

4.12.3.1.2. Proppant flowback control and diminution

Well flowback and cleanup a f t e r c l o s u r e o f t h e c r a c k has t o be performed
v e r y c a r e f u l l y , because i n t h e f i r s t hours t o days a f t e r t h e f r a c t u r e opera-
t i o n , t h e p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e s a r e a d j u s t i n g and p a c k i n g due t o t h e c l o s u r e
s t r e s s which i s e x e r t e d on t h e proppant. I f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e produced
back t o o f a s t a t t o o h i g h r a t e s , p r o p p a n t f a i l u r e o r flowback i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e
can o c c u r . Some p o i n t s o f f l u i d f l o w v e l o c i t y and p r e s s u r e drop, and f l u i d v i s -
c o s i t y and w e l l cleanup a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

4.12.3.1.2.1. Fluid flow velocity and pressure drop

Broken g e l s t i l l r e t a i n s some v i s c o s i t y and t h u s imposes a much g r e a t e r d r a g
on t h e proppants t h a n does d r y gas, and t h e r e f o r e a d j u s t i n g and p a c k i n g prop-
p a n t s can be c a r r i e d away f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e by t h e produced f l u i d s . As p r e s s u r e
drop and f l u i d v e l o c i t y reach t h e i r maximum i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y o f t h e
w e l l b o r e , p r o p p a n t flowback and c r u s h i n g i s g r e a t e s t i n t h e v e r y s u r r o u n d i n g s
o f t h e b o r e h o l e , and t h i s e f f e c t can o n l y be avoided by c a r e f u l l y a d j u s t i n g
cleanup t o v e r y low r a t e s and m a x i m i z i n g back-pressure a g a i n s t t h e f o r m a t i o n .
Proppant flowback can a l s o be r e t a r d e d by i n t e r m i x i n g a n g u l a r g r a i n s i n t o t h e
 686

p o p u l a t i o n o f round p a r t i c l e s (LARSEN & SMITH 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s 1.3.5. and

1 . 4 . 3 . ) o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s n-coated m a t e r i a l (POPE, WILES & P I E R C E 1987;
c f . section 4.12.3.3.).

F l u i d f l o w v e l o c i t y reaches t s maximum i n t h e n e a r e s t zone o f t h e w e l l b o r e

because o f f u n n e l l i n g o f t h e f l o w l i n e s f r o m t h e whole f r a c t u r e h e i g h t t o t h e
p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l which ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l i m i t e d - e n t r y technique; HOWARD &
FAST 1970 a, SMALL 1985, CRAMER 1987) comprises u s u a l l y o n l y p a r t s o f t h e f o r -
mer and p r e s s u r e drawdown becomes p a r t i c u i a r l y c r i t i c a l due t o c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o
the narrow f r a c t u r e where l i n e a r f l o w i n s t e a d o f r a d i a l f l o w i n u n s t i m u l a t e d r e -
s e r v o i r s occurs ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . 3 . ) and focusses t h e e f f e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s t o some small s e c t i o n s o f t h e pay h o r i z o n (such p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u -
t i o n f u n n e l l i n g i s i l l u s t r a t e d f o r R o t l i e g e n d and C a r b o n i f e r o u s gas w e l l s i n
Germany FRG by BRINKMANN, KRUMER & R E I N I C K E 1980 and R E I N I C K E , BRINKMANN,
SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . and 3 . 3 . 2 . ) .

4.12.3.1.2.2.Fluid viscosity and well cleanup

improved w e l l c l e a n u p w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l y decreased r i s k o f p r o p p a n t flowback
can be p r o v i d e d by delayed foamed c r o s s l i n k e d f r a c t u r i n g g e l s which i n compari-
son t o c o n v e n t i o n a l l i n e a r g e l s have much b e t t e r proppant t r a n s p o r t c a p a b i l i t y
and s u f f e r much l e s s f r o m f l u i d l o s s due t o t h e i r h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y and b e t t e r
developed two-phase i n t e r l o c k i n g s t r u c t u r e (FREEMAN, BILDEN & H O S S A I N I 1986;
c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . ) . C o n v e n t i o n a l l i n e a r foamed g e l s have t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e
t h a t i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e n i t r o g e n o r carbon d i o x i d e l e a k o f f f o r t h e purpose o f
m a x i m i z i n g l i q u i d r e c o v e r y and l i m i t i n g p r o p p a n t s e t t l i n g , w e l l cleanup has t o
s t a r t a l r e a d y a c o u p l e o f hours a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f pumping, w i t h energy and
v e l o c i t y o f foam r e t u r n s combined w i t h t h e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t s h u t - i n t i m e o f t e n
g i v i n g r i s e t o e x c e s s i v e p r o p p a n t flowback and r e c o v e r y . The h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y
and s t a b i l i t y o f delayed foamed c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s enables b e t t e r s u p p o r t and p r o -
f i l e o f t h e p r o p p a n t package w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e , and because phase s e p a r a t i o n
o r gas l e a k o f f i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced w i t h a c r o s s l i n k e d foam, the s t a r t o f
l o a d r e c o v e r y by w e l l cleanup can be delayed which a l l o w s f o r s u f f i c i e n t c r a c k
c l o s u r e r e s t r a i n i n g t h e p r o p p a n t package. The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n i t i a l produc-
t i o n v i a a s m a l l choke a t r e s t r i c t e d r a t e s f o r maintenance o f o p t i m a l f r a c t u r e
performance i s a l s o u n d e r l i n e d by KUNDERT & SMINK ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

OSBORNE, McLEOD & SCHROEDER (1981) recommend adding o f e x t r a b r e a k e r t o t h e

c r o s s l i n k e d g e l i n t h e l a s t f l u i d pumping stage which h e l p s t o o b t a i n l o w e r
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a f t e r f r a c t u r e closure i n the section a d j o i n i n g t o the w e l l -
bore, t h e r e b y i m p r o v i n g f l u i d r e c o v e r y and w e l l cleanup. A s s i s t a n c e can be g i -
ven by t a k i n g samples f r o m t h e l a s t f l u i d i n j e c t i o n stage i n t o t h e l a b o r a t o r y
and s u p e r v i s i n g b r e a k e r r e a c t i o n and v i s c o s i t y e v o l u t i o n i n o r d e r t o b e t t e r de-
t e r m i n e t h e most s u i t a b l e t i m e f o r t e r m i n a t i o n o f w e l l s h u t - i n and b e g i n n i n g o f
f l u i d cleanup.

4.12.3.1.3. Effects of fracturing fluid

and capillary pressure on well cleanup
SOLIMAN & HUNT (1985) i l l u s t r a t e some e f f e c t s o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d and c a p i l -
l a r y p r e s s u r e on w e l l cleanup which a l s o have i m p l i c a t i o n s on p r o p p a n t p e r f o r -
mance i n t h e f r a c t u r e . A f t e r t h e t o t a l s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t volume has been
pumped, f l u i d l o s s w i l l c o n t i n u e w h i l e t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e f r a c t u r e d i s s i p a t e s .
I m b i b i t i o n may cause t r e a t m e n t f l u i d t o p e n e t r a t e even deeper i n t o t h e forma-
t i o n a f t e r t h e f l u i d p r e s s u r e i n t h e c r a c k has e q u a l i z e d w i t h t h e pore p r e s s u r e
o f t h e r e s e r v o i r . As a r e s u l t o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n , s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d
e x i s t s i n s i d e t h e c r a c k and f o r a c e r t a i n d e p t h w i t h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n around t h e
f r a c t u r e . The invaded zone has a reduced r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o gas due t o
t h e presence o f b o t h gas and l i q u i d . W i t h b e g i n n i n g o f f t a k e , i n i t i a l l y m o s t l y
t r e a t m e n t f l u i d i s produced t h u s c l e a n i n g up t h e pay zone and l e a d i n g t o i n c r e a -
 687

s i n g gas s a t u r a t i o n i n t h e invaded i n t e r v a l , w i t h t h e cleanup p a t t e r n depending

on f o r m a t i o n and c r a c k p r o p e r t i e s . Aspects o f dimensionless f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i -
t y and c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.12.3.1.3.1. Dimensionless fracture conductivity

The dimensionless f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y o r f l o w c a p a c i t y has p a r t i c u l a r l y
s i g n i f i c a n t impact on w e l l cleanup (SOLIMAN & HUNT 1985), w i t h s p e c i a l emphasis
b e i n g on t i m e and l o c a t i o n o f gas b r e a k t h r o u g h i n t h e invaded zone. A t low d i -
mensionless f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s , t h e gas b r e a k t h r o u g h i n t o t h e c r a c k occurs
near t h e w e l l b o r e , i m p l y i n g t h a t e x c e p t f o r t h e b o r e h o l e v i c i n i t y , gas f l o w
i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e i s o b s t r u c t e d by t h e presence o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d t h u s g r e a t -
l y r e d u c i n g c r a c k e f f e c t i v e n e s s . I f p r e s s u r e t e s t s a r e conducted under such con-
ditions, t h e f r a c t u r e w i l l behave as i f b e i n g o f much s h o r t e r l e n g t h c o m p r i s i n g
o n l y a b t . 20 - 30 % o f t h e a c t u a l l e n g t h .

As t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y increases, t h e change i n t r e a t -
ment f l u i d s a t u r a t i o n i n s i d e t h e c r a c k becomes more g r a d u a l , and a t a v a l u e o f
a b t . 50, s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e f r a c t u r e g e t s almost u n i f o r m .
A t h i g h e r d i m e n s i o n l e s s f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t i e s between 200 and 1,000, a m i l d
gas b r e a k t h r o u g h occurs a t t h e c r a c k t i p . I n o r d e r t o h e l p a v o i d i n g e a r l y and
severe gas b r e a k t h r o u g h a t t h e w e l l b o r e , t h e dimensionless f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i -
t y s h o u l d be a t l e a s t 50. The optimum dimensionless f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y i s
i n t h e neighbourhood of 100 o r a b t . t h r e e times t h e v a l u e r e q u i r e d t o produce
t h e f o r m a t i o n f l u i d e f f i c i e n t l y and q u i c k l y ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4.8.11.1.1.).

4.12.3.1.3.2. Capillary pressure

I n t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s , c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e can be v e r y h i g h t h u s r e s t r i c t -
i n g f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d f l o w and r e q u i r i n g a v e r y h i g h p r e s s u r e drawdown f o r c l e a n -
up t o t a k e p l a c e (SOLIMAN & HUNT 1985). H i g h c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e reduces t h e e f -
f e c t i v e n e s s o f a f r a c t u r e t o produce s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s by p r e v e n t i n g w a t e r
f r o m f l o w i n g e a s i l y , w i t h a minimum d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e b e i n g r e q u i r e d b e f o r e
any w a t e r can b e g i n t o f l o w . High c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e a l s o i n h i b i t s e a r l y gas
b r e a k t h r o u g h a t t h e w e l l b o r e , w i t h gas breakthrough o c c u r r i n g i n areas w i t h
l e a s t w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n which a r e u s u a l l y s i t u a t e d a t t h e c r a c k t i p . W i t h i n c r e a -
s i n g c a p i l l a r y pressure, c u m u l a t i v e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d p r o d u c t i o n a t a c e r t a i n
t i m e d e c l i n e s . High c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e means l e s s w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h i n
t u r n r e s u l t s i n l e s s r e s e r v o i r cleanup.

Concerning w a t e r b l o c k e f f e c t s on gas o f f t a k e and w e l l cleanup, t h e phenome-

non has no s e r i o u s consequence as l o n g as no permanent damage t o t h e f o r m a t i o n
had o c c u r r e d (HOLDITCH 1979; c f . s e c t i o n s 3.11.2.4.2. and 4.8.8.3.1.5.). Water-
b l o c k i s a l s o o f no s i g n i f i c a n c e when drawdown p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t i n t h e near
f r a c t u r e f a c e r e g i o n o f t h e m a t r i x i s s e v e r a l hundred p s i / i n . higher than the
c a p i l l a r y e n t r y p r e s s u r e (ABRAMS & VINEGAR 1985). As a consequence o f a l l these
e f f e c t s , i t i s recommended t o d e s i g n c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h t o
adequately cleanup t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s (SOLIMAN & HUNT 1985). I n some i n s t a n -
ces, t h e optimum f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y necessary t o c l e a n up t h e f o r m a t i o n p r o -
p e r l y and r e a s o n a b l y q u i c k l y may be much h i g h e r than t h a t r e q u i r e d f o r gas p r o -
d u c t i o n f r o m t h e r e s e r v o i r . I t i s a l s o d e s i r a b l e t o a t t e m p t t o reduce c a p i l l a r y
p r e s s u r e e f f e c t by any means p o s s i b l e .

4.12.3.2. Proppant grain size

G e n e r a l l y t h e l a r g e r t h e p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e , t h e b e t t e r t h e p r o p p a n t would
s t a y i n t h e f r a c t u r e mouth and flowback can be a l s o m i n i m i z e d by s e l e c t i n g l a r -
g e r proppants (BARBY & BARBEE 1987). A d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t c o u l d be achieved by ca-
r e f u l s e l e c t i v e o v e r f l u s h i n g o f t h e m i d d l e and/or upper p a r t o f t h e p e r f o r a t e d
 688

i n t e r v a l , w i t h s l i g h t o v e r f l u s h i n g sometimes b e i n g a b l e t o save tremendous ex-

penses f o r pump r e p a i r and w e l l b o r e c l e a n o u t . Even w i t h l a r g e p r o p p a n t g r a i n
s i z e , however, some embedment must o c c u r t o h o l d t h e p r o p p a n t i n p l a c e . I f t h e
f r a c t u r e f a c e a t t h e w e l l b o r e i s s e v e r e l y eroded by h i g h l y - a b r a s i v e l a r g e p r o p -
p a n t s o r a n n i h i l a t e d by l a r g e volumes o f a c i d , e x c e s s i v e p r o p p a n t flowback may
o c c u r . These e f f e c t s can a l s o be avoided by t a i l i n g - i n r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t i n
o r d e r t o f o r m a s t a b l e wedge near t h e f r a c t u r e mouth ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . ) .

Proppant g r a i n s i z e s t a b i l i z a t i o n can a l r e a d y be achieved t o some e x t e n t by

conventional t a i l - i n comprising i n s e r t i o n o f coarser proppant grains i n the f i -
n a l stage t h a n i n t h e main p a r t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . ) .
The l a r g e r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s near t h e f r a c t u r e mouth a r e themselves s t a y i n g b e t -
t e r w i t h i n t h e c r a c k due t o h i g h e r d r a g r e s i s t a n c e and f r i c t i o n , b u t i n a d d i -
t i o n t o t h a t , t h e coarse proppant t a i l - i n a c t s l i k e a g r a v e l pack on t h e f i n e r
g r a i n s o f t h e medial t o d i s t a l p o r t i o n s o f propped f r a c t u r e l e n g t h ( c f . s e c t i o n
5 . 8 . 8 . ) . I n case o f p r o p e r g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n , t h e c o a r s e r t a i l - i n q u a n t i t y
grains bridge the f i n e r main-lot p a r t i c l e s a t the i n t e r f a c e o f both proppant
stages and p r e v e n t t h e i r f u r t h e r movement towards t h e w e l l b o r e and o u t o f t h e
f r a c t u r e mouth. The e f f e c t o f t h e c o a r s e r p r o p p a n t t a i l on t h e f i n e r p r o p p a n t
main stage i s comparable t o t h e impact o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l f i l l i n g s o r b o r e -
h o l e w a l l l i n i n g s w i t h g r a v e l on r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n sand i n mechanical sand
c o n t r o l ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 6 . 1 . ) . Aspects o f proppant r e t u r n m i n i m i z a t i o n by t a i l -
i n f u n c t i o n l i k e a screen a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by CROW ( 1 9 7 7 ) .

4.12.3.3. Resin-coated proppant tail-in

Proppant package s t a b i l i t y improvement by a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a i n s
i s a common and e f f i c i e n t means o f p r e v e n t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n f a i l u r e
by p r o p p a n t flowback. The most s i g n i f i c a n t aspects o f r e s i n - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t
t a i l - i n a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.12.3.3.1. Fracture operation failure by proppant flowback

D i f f e r e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f r a c t u r e o p e r a t i o n f a i l u r e by p r o p p a n t flowback
can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d c o m p r i s i n g damage s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n ,
s h o r t l y a f t e r w a t e r - f l o o d response, s h o r t l y a f t e r a c i d t r e a t m e n t and a t random
(POPE, WILES & P I E R C E 1983). Most o f t h e f a i l u r e s o c c u r w i t h i n 100 days o f t h e
f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n and can be a t t r i b u t e d t o low c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e and i n c r e a -
sed f l u i d v e l o c i t y t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s i n t h e s h a l l o w o i l w e l l s . The h i g h
p r o d u c i n g f l u i d l e v e l i n b o r e h o l e s t h a t respond w e l l t o t h e f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ment corresponds t o a h i g h bottomhole f l o w i n g p r e s s u r e and c o n s e q u e n t l y a low
c l o s u r e p r e s s u r e which can be i n s u f f i c i e n t t o keep t h e p r o p p a n t i n p l a c e , and
i n c r e a s e d f l u i d v e l o c i t y t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s can d i s p l a c e t h e p r o p p a n t
i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e . H i g h e r f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s and r a t e s t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s
a r e a l s o reasons f o r p r o p p a n t flowback a f t e r response t o w a t e r f l o o d i n g and a c i -
d i z i n g . A c i d i z i n g can even d e s t r o y a c a l c i t e s c a l e which a c t s as a cement h o l d -
i n g the proppant i n place i n the surroundings o f the wellbore.

Proppant flowback does n o t o n l y r e s u l t i n f r a c t u r e damage by removal o f t h e

s u p p o r t o f t h e c r a c k and t h e r e b y t r i g g e r i n g i t s p a r t i a l c l o s u r e , b u t s i m i l a r l y
as does sand p r o d u c t i o n a l s o l e a d s t o b o r e h o l e o p e r a t i o n a l problems such as
s t u c k pump p l u n g e r s , eroded pump v a l v e s , sucker r o d f a i l u r e s , s t u c k t u b i n g and
p r o p p a n t fill (POPE, WILES & P I E R C E 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) . Proppant f l o w -
back can a l s o f i l l s u r f a c e equipment w i t h sand which g i v e s r i s e t o i n a c c u r a t e
f l u i d measurements and e v e n t u a l l y r e q u i r e s e x t e n s i v e c l e a n i n g . I n many cases,
t h e c o s t t o r e t u r n a w e l l t o o i l p r o d u c t i o n a f t e r f a i l u r e by p r o p p a n t flowback
has been so e x c e s s i v e t h a t t h e w e l l had t o be p r e m a t u r e l y abandoned.

I n terms o f f r a c t u r e e v a c u a t i o n by p r o p p a n t flowback i n t h e n e a r - w e l l b o r e
area, RAYMOND & BINDER (1967) document t h a t n e a r l y a l l o f t h e p o t e n t i a l s t i m u l a -
 689

t i o n i s l o s t i f the u n f i l l e d p a r t o f the crack i s o n l y 0.5 % o f the t o t a l f r a c -

t u r e l e n g t h and i f t h i s p o r t i o n i s adjacent t o the borehole ( c f . a l s o SINCLAIR,
GRAHAM & SINCLAIR 1983). I n a d d i t i o n , crack evacuation by proppant flowback cau-
ses f r a c t u r e diameter narrowing t o t h a t w i d t h where crack h e a l i n g occurs, and
even i f complete c l o s u r e does n o t take place, a narrow f r a c t u r e can be e a s i l y
plugged by s p a l l e d pieces and f i n e f o r m a t i o n p a r t i c l e s .

4.12.3.3.2. Package stability inprovement

by resin-coated proppants
Several a l t e r n a t i v e methods have been used t o c o n t r o l proppant flowback f o l -
lowing f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n comprising r a i s i n g the pumping equipment above the
p e r f o r a t i o n s , u s i n g s p e c i a l sand pumps, i n s t a l l i n g a gravel pack, and r u n n i n g a
tubing-conveyed sand f i l t e r , b u t s u f f i c i e n t success was n o t achieved w i t h any
o f these procedures. S a t i s f a c t o r y c o n t r o l o f proppant flowback, however, c o u l d
be obtained by performing the f r a c t u r i n g treatment w i t h a t a i l - i n o f c u r a b l e r e -
sin-coated sand ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.2.6.) o f a b t . 10 - 20 % o f the t o t a l proppant
q u a n t i t y . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n summarizes some p o i n t s o f proppant flowback
c o n t r o l as w e l l as t a i l - i n l e n g t h and a d d i t i o n a l gravel packing s t a b i l i z a t i o n .

4.12 3.3.2.1. Proppant f lowback cont r ol

Under c o n d i t i o n s o f r e s e r v o i r temperature and pressure, the r e s i n c h e m i c a l l y
bonds together t o form a c o n s o l i d a t e d permeable b a r r i e r a g a i n s t proppant f l o w -
back once c a r r i e d o u t p r o p e r l y ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.2.6.). Resin-coated proppant
t a i l - i n e f f e c t i v e l y prevents f r a c t u r e evacuation i n the near-wellbore area, be-
cause the c o n s o l i d a t e d proppant package f i r m l y couples borehole and crack thus
l e a d i n g t o optimum drainage o f the p r o d u c t i v e f o r m a t i o n (SINCLAIR, GRAHAM & S I N -
CLAIR 1983). I n a d d i t i o n t o i n h i b i t i o n o f f r a c t u r e evacuation, proppant f l o w -
back p r e v e n t i o n g r e a t l y reduces w e l l maintenance, wear, e r o s i o n and abrasion
problems.

F a i l u r e r a t e s i n f r a c t u r e s w i t h a wedge o f r e s i n - c o a t e d proppants i n the t e r -

minal i n t e r v a l near the w e l l b o r e are much lower than i n c o n v e n t i o n a l l y equipped
boreholes. F a i l u r e s o f t h e r e s i n - c o a t e d sand t o c o n t r o l proppant flowback can
be a t t r i b u t e d t o f a i l u r e o f r e s i n bonding and f a i l u r e o f the r e s i n - c o a t e d sand
t o cover the whole p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l . I f the r e s i n cures b e f o r e the gel
breaks and thus b e f o r e the proppant g r a i n s come i n t o contact, the a b i l i t y o f
c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f the proppant package i s l o s t . I f the proppant i s being banked
near the w e l l b o r e d u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n , the c u r a b l e resin-coated sand i n the
t a i l - i n w i l l o v e r r i d e the top o f t h e banked proppant and cover o n l y the p e r f o r a -
t i o n s t h a t are t a k i n g f l u i d .

Subsequent a c i d i z i n g does n o t a f f e c t the s t a b i l i t y o f the c o n s o l i d a t e d pack-

age due t o r e s i n i n e r t n e s s . P r o d u c t i v i t y losses due t o f r a c t u r e evacuation near
the w e l l b o r e by flowback o f uncoated proppants have turned o u t t o be much
h i g h e r than r e d u c t i o n s o f e x p l o i t a t i o n due t o s l i g h t l y lower f l o w e f f i c i e n c i e s
o f r e s i n - c o a t e d proppant c o n s o l i d a t e d packages w i t h r e s p e c t t o those o f cracks
propped w i t h conventional sand, thus u n d e r l i n i n g t h a t a t a i l - i n o f resin-coated
sand i s an e f f e c t i v e method o f c o n t r o l l i n g proppant flowback f o l l o w i n g f r a c t u r e
s t i m u l a t i o n . Proppant flowback d i m i n u t i o n o r e l i m i n a t i o n by r e s i n - c o a t e d prop-
pant t a i l - i n i n - combination w i t h small-choke cleanup i s - a l s o o u t l i n e d by' GAR-
BIS, BROWN & MAURITZ (1985).

4.12.3.3.2.2. Tail-in length and

additional gravel packing stabi 1 izat ion
I n terms o f l e n g t h o f the r e s i n - c o a t e d proppant t a i l - i n , the optimum i s abt.
 690

100 f t i n m o s t t r e a t m e n t s o f s t a n d a r d o r a v e r a g e s i z e , because i n c a s e o f s h o r -
t e r t a i l s some p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k c a n s t i l l o c c u r due t o n o n u n i f o r m p r o p p a n t d i s -
t r i b u t i o n and l o n g e r t a i l s do n o t g i v e a s u p e r i o r e f f e c t , b u t a r e o n l y a p r e -
mium i n v e s t m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . 3 . ) . Proppant flowback m i n i m i z a t i o n a f t e r
f r a c t u r i n g treatments by a p p l i c a t i o n o f resin-coated t a i l - i n is a l s o discussed
b y JEU, PEREZ & WAY ( 1 9 8 8 ) . S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r t o t a l p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y ,
t a i l - i n volume and l e n g t h have t o be a d j u s t e d t o t o t a l c r a c k l e n g t h i n o r d e r t o
be e f f e c t i v e . W i d e r f r a c t u r e s n e a r t h e b o r e h o l e r e q u i r e l a r g e r t a i l - i n q u a n t i -
t i e s t o g e n e r a t e t h e m u l t i l a y e r p a c k i n g t o t h e d e s i g n e d l e n g t h , and may a l s o de-
mand l o n g e r t a i l - i n s i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l package s t a b i l i t y .

R e s i n b o n d i n g o f t a i l - i n l o t s f o r p r o p p a n t s t a b i l i z a t i o n and c r e a t i o n o f a
c o n s o l i d a t e d wedge i n t h e b o r e h o l e v i c i n i t y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n w i -
d e r c r a c k s where a t l e a s t i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t some more i n s t a b i l i t y t h a n u s u a l
c a n o c c u r . S h o r t e r t a i l - i n s t h a n a c c o r d i n g t o s t a n d a r d d e s i g n c a n be s u f f i c i e n t
i f t h e i r p r i m a r y purpose i s t o c a r r y r a d i o a c t i v e markers e i t h e r w i t h i n t h e prop-
p a n t c r y s t a l l a t t i c e o r as s u r f i c i a l p e l l i c l e s f o r f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g
b y gamma-ray l o g g i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) . I n e x t r e m e cases, t a i l - i n length
may r e a c h f r o m a b t . 1 m ( 3 f t ) i n v e r y s m a l l - s c a l e t r e a t m e n t s o f m i n i - o r m i -
c r o - s i z e t o a b t . 1,000 f t ( 3 3 0 m) i n j u m b o - t y p e m a s s i v e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n
j o b s where t o t a l f r a c t u r e l e n g t h c a n be up t o 4,500 f t (1,500 m). In t e r m s o f
c o m p a r i s o n o f j o b s i z e , p r o p p a n t q u a n t i t y and f r a c t u r e l e n g t h p o r t i o n r e q u i r e d
f o r a t a i l - i n o f a MHF o p e r a t i o n c a n b e l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e f o r a w h o l e s m a l l e r -
scale hydraulic s t i m u l a t i o n treatment.

P a r t i c u l a r l y i n p o o r l y - c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s , b o t h p r o p p a n t and f o r m a t i o n
sand f l o w b a c k i n t o t h e w e l l c a n be e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l l e d b y s e t t i n g a g r a v e l
pack a f t e r t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t ( t h i s a p p l i e s
e s p e c i a l l y f o r s o f t sands and c h a l k s ) . G r a v e l pack s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f b o t h r e s e r -
v o i r sand and p r o p p a n t package i n t h e f r a c t u r e i s t h e s a f e s t way o f maximum c o n -
d u c t i v i t y and e f f e c t i v i t y p r e s e r v a t i o n i n u n c o n s o l i d a t e d p a y zones, b e c a u s e p r o -
p e r l y s e t g r a v e l pack m a n t l e and p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g s h o l d back e v e r y t h i n g
w h i c h t r i e s t o move ( a s p e c t s o f c o m b i n a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
and g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 4 . 3 . and 5 . 3 . 5 . ) .

4.12.3.4. Foam and energized fracturing fluids

P r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k p r e v e n t i o n c a n a l s o be a c h i e v e d w i t h u t i l i z a t i o n o f foam
and e n e r g i z e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s (HOLCOMB 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 3 . 1 1 . 2 . ) . I f p r o p e r -
l y c a r r i e d o u t , w e l l c l e a n u p a f t e r foam o r e n e r g i z e d s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s p r o -
v i d e s maximum f l u i d l o a d r e c o v e r y and minimum p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k i n t o t h e b o r e -
h o l e o r t o t h e s u r f a c e . C a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d , however, on v e l o c i t y o f
w e l l cleanup, because t o o r a p i d f l u i d p r o d u c t i o n c o u l d cause foam r e g e n e r a t i o n
w h i c h w o u l d t h e n a g a i n be a b l e t o c a r r y p r o p p a n t f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e mouth i n t o
t h e b o r e h o l e . W h i l e some p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a l m o s t any t y p e
o f f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t and causes l i t t l e harm i f k e p t t o a minimum, t h e added
i n f l u e n c e o f g a s a s s i s t f r o m a foam f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n c a n i n c r e a s e t h e rnagni-
tude o f t h i s problem s i g n i f i c a n t l y i f cleanup i s n o t p r o p e r l y c a r r i e d o u t . Prop-
p a n t f l o w b a c k c a n be m i n i m i z e d b y a d e q u a t e l y f l u s h i n g t h e p r o p p a n t s a t l e a s t t o
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , s l i g h t foam o v e r f l u s h i n g i n o r d e r t o a n t i c i p a t e some r e g e n e r a -
t i o n , and u t i l i z a t i o n of an a d j u s t a b l e w e l l h e a d choke assembly w i t h a h i g h
s t e e l a l l o y o r tungsten carbide m a t e r i a l i n t h e valve seating. Proper procedure
f o r foam f l o w b a c k a l l o w s t h e foam t o b r e a k back u n i f o r m l y as i t l e a v e s t h e f r a c -
t u r e t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and t r a v e l s u p t h e w e l l b o r e t u b u l a r s t o t h e s u r -
face, thus l e a v i n g t h e proppant i n t h e f r a c t u r e .

A l t h o u g h i t i s g e n e r a l l y assumed t h a t once c r a c k c l o s u r e i s a c h i e v e d , i t i s
i r r e v e r s i b l e , i t c o u l d be p o s s i b l e f o r gas e x p a n s i o n w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e t o r e -
open t h e c r a c k and a l l o w some p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k , w i t h c o n t i n u o u s c l e a n u p m o n i -
t o r i n g helping t o prevent the occurrence o f t h i s e f f e c t . Therefore i t i s desi-
r a b l e t o m a i n t a i n t h e f l o w b a c k p r e s s u r e a t a l e v e l a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200 p s i b e l o w
 691

t h e p r e s s u r e necessary t o keep f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e s t r e s s and thereby leave the

proppant t r a p p e d w i t h i n t h e a p p a r e n t l y h e a l e d c r a c k system.

4.12.3.5. Shut-in time adjustment

S i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on w e l l cleanup and proppant flowback can a l s o be
achieved by s h u t - i n t i m e adjustment (PA1 & GARBIS 1983 b ) . P r o d u c t i v i t y as r e l a -
t e d t o f l u i d r e t e n t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o f s h u t - i n p e r i o d a f t e r t r e a t m e n t , and sub-
s t a n t i a l p r o d u c t i v i t y impairment occurs i f t h e w e l l i s l e f t s h u t - i n a f t e r s t i m u -
l a t i o n f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f time. I f f o r some reason t h e w e l l has t o be l e f t
s h u t - i n , i t s h o u l d be s t i m u l a t e d j u s t p r i o r t o opening. I n o r d e r t o e x p e d i t e
cleanup, t h e w e l l s h o u l d be opened w i t h i n a b t . 30 min a f t e r an a c i d t r e a t m e n t
and w i t h i n a b t . 2 - 4 h r s a f t e r a f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n , w i t h f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a -
t i o n s h a v i n g t o be l e f t s h u t - i n l o n g e r i n o r d e r t o a l l o w f o r t h e g e l t o break
and t h e c r a c k t o h e a l . E x c e s s i v e l y l o n g s h u t - i n times l e a d t o d i s s i p a t i o n o f
s t i m u l a t e d gas i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n , g i v i n g r i s e t o s u b s t a n t i a l energy and p r e s -
s u r e l o s s which i s then l a c k i n g i n f l u i d r e c o v e r y .

4.12.4. Proppant crushing

A p a r t f r o m o r i n a d d i t i o n t o p r o p p a n t flowback, more o r l e s s severe p r o p p a n t
c r u s h i n g can occur d u r i n g cleanup and b a c k - p r o d u c t i o n as a consequence o f l a r g e
p r e s s u r e drawdown and r e s u l t i n g h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH &
WHITEHEAD 1986). F o l l o w i n g t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n ,
t h e r e i s always a p r e s s u r e drop i n t h e f r a c t u r e due t o i t s f i n i t e c o n d u c t i v i t y
(CINCO-LEY, SAMANIEGO & OOMINGUEZ 1978; CINCO-LEY & SAMANIEGO 1981), as i n f i n i -
t e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s (GRINGARTEN, RAMEY & RAGHAVAN 1974, 1975) where no
p r e s s u r e d r o p o c c u r s i n t h e c r a c k a r e h a r d l y , i f a t a l l , developed i n n a t u r e
(REINICKE, BRINKMANN, SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985). Some aspects o f proppant shock
l o a d i n g , p r e s s u r e drawdown and hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s , and p r o d u c t i o n
c y c l i n g by r e p e a t e d w e l l s h u t - i n a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

4.12.4.1. Proppant shock loading

F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t because t h e maximum c l o s u r e s t r e s s d i d n o t
r e a c h t h e boundary l e v e l o f g e n e r a l p r o p p a n t s t a b i l i t y i n a number o f cases,
t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f abundant c r u s h i n g i s t h a t l a r g e r a p i d i n c r e a s e s i n c l o s u r e
s t r e s s l e a d t o shock l o a d i n g o f t h e proppants t h u s c a u s i n g g r e a t e r f a i l u r e than
u s u a l l y observed w i t h gradual l o a d i n g (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986). Ap-
p l i c a t i o n o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants m i n i m i z e s proppant c r u s h i n g by shock l o a d -
ing, b u t i n w e l l s where t h e f r a c t u r e i s i n f i l l e d w i t h low- t o i n t e r m e d i a t e -
s t r e n g t h proppants, shock l o a d i n g w i t h e x c e s s i v e c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s can be severe-
l y d e t r i m e n t a l t o b o r e h o l e performance, and s i g n i f i c a n t c r u s h i n g o f p r o p p a n t s
i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e w e l l b o r e where p r e s s u r e drawdown and f l u i d f l o w r a t e s
are greatest i s s e r i o u s l y d e t e r i o r a t i n g the effectiveness o f the e n t i r e created
f r a c t u r e (McDANIEL & WILLINGHAM 1978, CARROLL & BAKER 1979). Aspects o f sand
s t r e s s e s around t h e b o r e h o l e a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by RISNES, BRATLI & HORSRUD
( 1 9 8 2 ) . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on bottom-hole f l o w i n g p r e s s u r e
and choke s i z e as w e l l as s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n c r a c k i n g .

4.12.4.1.1. Bottom-hole flowing pressure and choke size

F r a c t u r e damage can a l s o o c c u r l o n g t i m e a f t e r t h e f l u i d s have been c l e a n e d
up. I n s t a l l a t i o n o f l a r g e chokes on w e l l s i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e o i l o r gas p r o -
d u c t i o n can a l s o cause r a p i d l y r i s i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s and shock l o a d i n g o f t h e
p r o p p a n t s . T h e r e f o r e i t i s v e r y c r i t i c a l t o a v o i d e x e r t i n g q u i c k and e x c e s s i v e
c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s on t h e proppants by m i n i m i z i n g drawdown d u r i n g b o t h f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d cleanup and l a t e r hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n . F l o w i n g t h e b o r e h o l e s t o o h a r d
 692

i n o r d e r t o a t t e m p t t o produce more o i l o r gas o f t e n o n l y l e a d s t o f r a c t u r e de-

t e r i o r a t i o n , because i n most r e s e r v o i r s , t h e a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e drawdown does
n o t r e s u l t i n a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n e x p l o i t a t i o n , as i l l u s t r a t e d by gas de-
l i v e r a b i l i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I f the bottom-hole flowing pressure o f the w e l l i s
equal t o 50 % o f t h e average r e s e r v o i r pressure, t h e b o r e h o l e w i l l produce a b t .
75 % o f t h e a b s o l u t e open f l o w . Reducing t h e bottom-hole f l o w i n g p r e s s u r e below
t h i s p o i n t w i l l n o t r e s u l t i n reasonable a m e l i o r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n , b u t may
cause f r a c t u r e damage (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD 1986).

O n l y g r a d u a l l o a d i n g o f t h e proppants occurs i f t h e w e l l i s produced on a

small choke, and t h e proppant w i l l never be exposed t o t h e h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s -
ses which m i g h t o c c u r i f a l a r g e choke i s used, Concerning a p p l i c a t i o n o f low-
t o i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h proppants, o n l y a minimal amount o f p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g
may o c c u r when p r o d u c i n g w i t h a small choke, whereas i r r e p a r a b l e damage c o u l d
t a k e p l a c e when u s i n g a l a r g e choke. Severe p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g due t o h i g h c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s e s i s a m a j o r problem when e x c e s s i v e p r e s s u r e drawdown o c c u r s e i t h e r
i n e a r l y o r l a t e stage o f p r o d u c t i o n , because p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g reduces f r a c -
t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y t o t h e p o i n t where w e l l performance i s s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d and
u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y i s d r a m a t i c a l l y reduced (ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & LEE 1 9 8 3 ) .

4.12.4.1.2. Stress-corrosion cracking

Another aspect i s s t r e s s c o r r o s i o n c r a c k i n g o f p r o p p a n t g r a i n s depending on
the fluid medium (CUTLER, ENNISS, JONES & CARROLL 1983; c f . s e c t i o n
1 . 4 . 1 0 . 3 . 2 . ) . The e a r l i e r decrease i n c o n d u c t i v i t y i n w a t e r as compared t o t h a t
i n n i t r o g e n i n proppant t e s t i n g i s ascribed t o stress corrosion cracking, i n d i -
c a t i n g t h a t f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n r a t e s depend on t h e environment a t t h e c r a c k
t i p and h i g h e r w a t e r vapor c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n c r e a s e f r a c t u r e growth r a t e . There-
f o r e proppant c o n d u c t i v i t y t e s t i n g should be c a r r i e d o u t i n aqueous e n v i r o n -
ments s i n c e t h i s r e p r e s e n t s t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e case s i t u a t i o n . Proppant p l a c e -
ment i n t h e f r a c t u r e i n t h e r e s e r v o i r s h o u l d t h u s be performed w i t h foamed
f l u i d s o f h i g h q u a l i t y t o guarantee t h a t f o l l o w i n g q u i c k cleanup o f t h e foam
w i t h h i g h c o n t e n t o f gaseous phase, t h e p r o p p a n t package i s i m m e d i a t e l y invaded
by f o r m a t i o n gas and t h e r e f o r e has o n l y l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f c o n t a c t i n g
aqueous phases.

4:12.4.2. Pressure drawdown and hydrocarbon production r a t e s

Aspects o f p r e s s u r e drawdown and hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s a r e discussed
along the l i n e s o f careful slow s t a r t i n g o f w e l l production a f t e r hydraulic
f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l packing, e f f e c t o f c r u s h i n g on c o n d u c t i v i t y o f sand and
bauxite, f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y degradation vs. residual preservation, and prop-
p a n t c r u s h i n g and c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y i n t e r v a l s .

4.12.4.2.1. Careful slow s t a r t i n g o f w e l l production

a f t e r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o r gravel packing
A s h u t - i n o r p r o d u c i n g w e l l s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e never be opened on a l a r g e
choke i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y . S t a r t i n g w i t h small chokes, i n c r e a s i n g choke s i z e i n g r a -
dual increments i n reasonably wide t i m e s t e p s should be performed up t o a c a r e -
f u l l y s e l e c t e d optimum and e q u i l i b r i u m l e v e l o f hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n and f r a c -
t u r e damage p r e v e n t i o n . I n terms of c r a c k w i d t h v s . proppant t y p e w i t h r e s p e c t
t o c r u s h i n g r a t i o , MONTGOMERY & STEANSON (1985) r e p o r t t h a t even though f r a c t u -
r e s propped w i t h n a t u r a l sand o f t e n a r e w i d e r owing t o t h e l o w e r s p e c i f i c g r a v i -
t y o f sand, t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f c r a c k s supported by b a u x i t e proppants i s up t o
a b t . 30 t i m e s h i g h e r because o f t h e h i g h e r s t r e n g t h and v e r y l i m i t e d c r u s h i n g
o f b a u x i t e proppants. Experience r e p o r t s o f proppant c r u s h i n g by shock l o a d i n g
and c a r e f u l slow p r o d u c t i o n t o m i n i m i z e f r a c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n a r e g i v e n by RO-
BINSON, HOLDITCH & LEE ( 1 9 8 3 ) . Well cleanup problems i n c l u d i n g r e p e a t e d blow-
 693

downs can o f t e n have t h e consequence t h a t e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s a c t i n g on t h e p r o p -

p a n t package approaches t o t a l c l o s u r e s t r e s s (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, LO-
RENZ, NORTHROP, MANN & FROHNE 1983). When combined w i t h c y c l i c f a t i g u e l o a d i n g ,
proppant c r u s h i n g can c o n s i d e r a b l y reduce f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y .

S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage p r e v e n t i o n ,
g r a v e l pack p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n can be i n h i b i t e d by c a r e f u l l y and s l o w l y
b e g i n n i n g w e l l p r o d u c t i o n a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t (HAL-
LIBURTON 1988). T o t a l f l u i d r a t e and f o r m a t i o n drawdown have t o be k e p t t o a m i -
nimum d u r i n g t h e f i r s t weeks o f p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h o f f t a k e s t a r t i n g o u t w i t h
small choke s i z e s and p o s s i b l y a l s o reduced volumes o f l i f t gas. Such a p r o c e -
dure s h o u l d m i n i m i z e i n i t i a l g r a v e l movement i n w e l l b o r e and p e r f o r a t i o n t u n -
n e l s and a l l o w t h e b o r e h o l e t o c l e a n up w i t h minimum drawdown across t h e newly
p l a c e d g r a v e l pack. Any r a p i d r e a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e f r e s h l y i n s t a l l e d pack i s li-
k e l y t o cause f o r m a t i o n f i n e s t o invade p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and pack m a n t l e and
i n t e r m i x w i t h g r a v e l which would l e a d t o p e r m e a b i l i t y l o s s . Care s h o u l d be t a -
ken d u r i n g swabbing n o t t o o v e r s t r e s s t h e g r a v e l pack.

C a u t i o n has p a r t i c u l a r l y t o be e x e r c i s e d i n deep gas w e l l s where t h e most se-

vere c l o s u r e s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s happen i n e a r l y p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y , because t h e
amount o f s t r e s s r e q u i r e d t o open t h e f r a c t u r e i s a t t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e . I f t h e
b o r e h o l e i s a l l o w e d t o produce a t maximum r a t e o r i s swabbed h a r d d u r i n g i n i -
t i a l completion, an e x t r e m e l y low p r e s s u r e w i l l be t e m p o r a r i l y c r e a t e d w i t h i n
t h e f r a c t u r e and w i l l cause an u n d u l y h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s w i t h t h e danger o f
severe c o n d u c t i v i t y damage by p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g (MONTGOMERY & STEANSON 1985).

4.12.4.2.2. Effect o f crushing on

conductivity of sand and bauxite
W h i l e i n some t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s even crushed proppants may p r o v i d e s u f f i -
c i e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y t o reasonably d r a i n t h e hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s (HOLOITCH & LEE
1979; HUEBINGER, WEBSTER, CHISHOLM, VENDITTO & HUNT 1988), proppant c r u s h i n g ge-
n e r a l l y causes s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r o p p a n t bed which i n t u r n w i l l behave
l i k e an inhomogeneous f o r m a t i o n and l i m i t f l u i d f l o w (DERBY & SMITH 1979). Prop-
p a n t c r u s h i n g i s evidenced by c o r r e l a t i o n s between c l o s u r e s t r e s s and l o s s i n
f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y , p r e s s u r e t r a n s i e n t t e s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and d i r e c t ob-
s e r v a t i o n o f c o l l a p s e d g r a i n s which have been produced t h r o u g h t u b i n g t o t h e
s u r f a c e equipment o r have been b a i l e d o u t o f t h e w e l l d u r i n g workover (TUCKER
1979). Proppant c r u s h i n g i s a l s o t h e reason f o r d i f f e r e n t p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r i e s
e x h i b i t e d by deep gas w e l l s t h a t have been f r a c t u r e d w i t h n a t u r a l sand and s i n -
t e r e d b a u x i t e (CLARK 1983).

Comparison o f performance r e v e a l s t h a t b o r e h o l e s which u t i l i z e d n a t u r a l sand

as p r o p p i n g medium possess a much more r a p i d d e c l i n e i n p r o d u c t i o n t h a n w e l l s
o f equal c l o s u r e s t r e s s t h a t have been t r e a t e d w i t h s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e . As sand-
f r a c t u r e d b o r e h o l e s which e x p e r i e n c e l e s s e r values o f c l o s u r e s t r e s s do n o t
show such an abnormal d e c l i n e o f f l o w r a t e , t h e comparative assessment c l e a r l y
r e v e a l s t h a t t h e more severe d e c l i n e o f some w e l l s i s t h e consequence o f sand
c r u s h i n g i n c o n t r a s t t o b a u x i t e s t a b i l i t y . S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r p r o p p a n t
c r u s h i n g , choke s i z e c h o i c e i s a v e r y c r i t i c a l aspect a l s o i n view o f p r o p p a n t
flowback. Under normal circumstances, i n c r e a s i n g choke s i z e l e a d s t o i n c r e a s i n g
p r o d u c t i o n r a t e and d e c r e a s i n g f l o w i n g p r e s s u r e due t o l a r g e r drawdown, b u t
t h i s occurs o n l y as l o n g as t h e a d d i t i o n a l c l o s u r e s t r e s s e x e r t e d on t h e p r o p -
pants does n o t reduce f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y by proppant flowback and/or c r u s h -
ing.
 694

4.12.4.2 - 3 . Fracture c o n d u c t i v i t y degradation

vs. r e s i d u a l preservation

F r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y d e g r a d a t i o n as a consequence o f p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g and
s u b s e q u e n t m i g r a t i o n o f f i n e s c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y o c c u r even t h o u g h f l o w i n g p r e s -
s u r e drawdowns were m i n i m i z e d and c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s m a i n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e e s t a -
b l i s h e d l i m i t s f o r t h e o r i g i n a l l y chosen p r o p p a n t t y p e (HUEBINGER, WEBSTER,
CHISHOLM, VENOITTO & HUNT 1 9 8 8 ) . Case s t u d i e s , however, r e v e a l o c c a s i o n a l l y
t h a t some w e l l s h a v i n g s u s p e c t e d f r a c t u r e d e g r a d a t i o n have l i m i t e d p o s t - r e f r a c -
t u r i n g h i s t o r i e s and o n l y l i t t l e improvement w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e o r i g i n a l f r a c -
t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 9 . ) , and o t h e r b o r e h o l e s have p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r i e s t h a t
show no s i g n s o f f r a c t u r e damage b y p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g and a p p e a r t o b e c a p a b l e
o f draining the reservoir e f f i c i e n t l y without requiring a refracturing treat-
ment.

N a t u r a l sand i n s t e a d o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p p a n t s c a n be se-
l e c t e d because t h e economics o f h i g h e r - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t s i n v i r g i n - p r e s s u r e d
w e l l s c a n n o t be s u p p o r t e d because o f t h e l a r g e volumes r e q u i r e d f o r an e f f e c -
t i v e f r a c t u r e , and c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s in p a r t i a l l y d e p l e t e d i n f i l l b o r e h o l e s a r e
l o w enough t h a t t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f c r u s h i n g i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . These r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s o u t l i n e t h a t c r u s h i n g o f n a t u r a l sand o r c r y s t a l l i n e a l u m i n a o x i d e and s i -
l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s w h i c h l e a d s t o f o r m a t i o n o f h a l v e s and q u a r t e r s l e a v e s i n some
cases s t i l l s u f f i c i e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r p r o f i t a b l e d r a i n i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r ,
a l t h o u g h c e r t a i n l y t h e optimum i s a v o i d i n g o f any p r o p p a n t damage.

4.12.4.2.4. Proppant crushing and

closure s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y i n t e r v a l s

TUNN ( 1 9 7 1 ) r e p o r t s f r a c t u r e damage b y sand c r u s h i n g f r o m deep s t i m u l a t e d

gas w e l l s p r i o r t o c o m m e r c i a l i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c h i g h - s t r e n g t h p r o p -
p a n t s . The m o s t i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n f o r c o m p a r a t i v e l y l o w p r o d u c t i v i t y i n c r e a s e i n -
dexes i s t h e i n s u f f i c i e n t p r e s s u r e r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e sand, w i t h r a p i d c r u s h i n g
o f t h e sand r e s u l t i n g i n q u i c k p a r t i a l o r a l m o s t c o m p l e t e c l o s u r e o f t h e
c r a c k s . The r e d u c t i o n o f t h e h y d r o c a r b o n f l o w r a t e a f t e r i n i t i a l improvement
back t o more o r l e s s t h e o r i g i n a l l e v e l t o o k p l a c e in a f e w days t o a c o u p l e o f
weeks t i m e . The e x p l a n a t i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h i s phenomenon c o m p r i s e l a c k i n g
p r e s s u r e r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e sand t o f o r m a t i o n c l o s u r e s t r e s s a f t e r d e c l i n e o f
the treatment i n j e c t i o n pressure, i n s u f f i c i e n t pressure r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e r e -
s e r v o i r rock which covers, s u r r o u n d s and i n c l u d e s t h e u n d e s t r o y e d p r o p p a n t
g r a i n s , and l a c k i n g sand g r a i n s in t h e p r o x i m a l p a r t o f t h e f r a c t u r e n e a r t h e
w e l l b o r e , w i t h t h e consequences o f a l l t h e s e mechanisms b e i n g f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e
and c o n d u c t i v i t y d e s t r u c t i o n .

As a c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e damage and p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f
i t s p r e v e n t i o n , ROBINSON, HOLDITCH & WHITEHEAD ( 1 9 8 6 ) recommend maximum c l o s u r e
s t r e s s e s o f 4,000 p s i f o r sand, 7,000 p s i f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h and 10,000
p s i f o r h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants. I n comparison t o most r e s u l t s o f proppant t e s t -
i n g , however, t h e s e v a l u e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be t o o p e s s i m i s t i c , b u t i n v i e w o f
c a r e f u l p l a n n i n g f o r l o n g p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y up t o 20 - 30 y e a r s , i t s h o u l d be
p r e f e r r e d t o go a b s o l u t e l y o n t h e s a f e s i d e and t o b e t t e r t a k e a more e x p e n s i v e
h i g h e r - p e r f o r m a n c e p r o p p a n t r a t h e r t h a n r i s k i n g f r a c t u r e damage b y e x c e s s i v e
p r e s s u r e drawdown in l a t e s t a g e s o f r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n .

4.12.4.3. Production c y c l i n g by repeated well s h u t - i n

C o n s i d e r a b l e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage b y b o t h p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g and em-
bedment ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 . ) c a n a l s o be caused b y p r o d u c t i o n c y c l i n g due t o
r e p e a t e d b o r e h o l e s h u t - i n and a g a i n s t a r t i n g o f f t a k e o f h y d r o c a r b o n s (KIM & WIL-
LINGHAM 1 9 8 7 ) . S h u t - i n o f gas w e l l s h a v i n g been s t i m u l a t e d b y h y d r a u l i c p r o p -
 695

p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s f r e q u e n t l y performed f o r s h o r t e r o r l o n g e r d u r a t i o n due t o
demand r e s t r i c t i o n s , c o m p l e t i o n workover o r o t h e r reasons. The s t a b i l i z e d gas
p r o d u c t i o n r a t e f o l l o w i n g each s h u t - i n p e r i o d , however, i s l o w e r than t h a t o f
t h e p r e v i o u s o f f t a k e c y c l e a t t h e same w e l l b o r e p r e s s u r e (REINICKE, BRINKMANN,
SCHWARZ & HUENI 1985; VENTURA 1985), because f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t i n u e s t o
decrease f o l l o w i n g t h e subsequent s h u t - i n s as r e f l e c t e d by p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p ana-
lysis.

Repeated p r o d u c t i o n and s h u t - i n o f t h e f r a c t u r e - s t i m u l a t e d b o r e h o l e causes

c y c l i c l o a d i n g o f t h e proppant package i n t h e f r a c t u r e , r e s u l t i n g i n p r o g r e s -
s i v e c l o s u r e o f t h e c r a c k as a consequence o f b o t h proppant c r u s h i n g and embed-
ment and t h u s g i v i n g r i s e t o s u c c e s s i v e l y decreasing w i d t h o f t h e propped f r a c -
t u r e w i t h c y c l e s (KIM & WILLINGHAM 1987). Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s
on i r r e c o v e r a b l e f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y d i m i n u t i o n as w e l l as c o m b i n a t i o n o f
proppant embedment and c r u s h i n g . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on impact o f s h u t - i n
time.

4.12.4.3.1. Irrecoverable fracture conductivity diminution

Experimental work has shown t h a t t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e propped f r a c t u r e r e -
mains a t t h e v a l u e a t t a i n e d when maximum c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s e x p e r i e n c e d even i f
t h e l o a d i s l a t e r reduced f r o m t h e maximum t o a l o w e r l e v e l . Thus t h e r e d u c t i o n
o f c r a c k c o n d u c t i v i t y i s an i r r e c o v e r a b l e process, and c o n d u c t i v i t y d i m i n u t i o n
due t o s u s t a i n e d l o a d i n g a t a c o n s t a n t c l o s u r e s t r e s s below t h e a n t i c i p a t e d ma-
ximum c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t f o r e s t i m a t i n g u l t i m a t e propped f r a c -
t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . C l o s u r e s t r e s s a c t i n g on t h e propped f r a c t u r e c o n t i n u e s t o
i n c r e a s e a t a slow r a t e w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n and i s approaching
maximum l o a d . Upon s h u t - i n , c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s s l o w l y r e l e a s e d w i t h o u t , however,
h a v i n g a r e c o v e r y e f f e c t on f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , and r e o p e n i n g o f t h e w e l l r e -
p e a t s t h e process o f c y c l i c l o a d i n g , t h e r e b y r e s u l t i n g i n f u r t h e r f r a c t u r e con-
d u c t i v i t y reduction.

4.12.4.3.2. Combination of proppant embedment and crushing

The o v e r a l l decrease i n f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y upon p r o d u c t i o n c y c l i n g w i t h
r e p e a t e d w e l l s h u t - i n i s t h e combined e f f e c t o f proppant embedment i n t o t h e f o r -
m a t i o n r o c k a t t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s and o f proppant c r u s h i n g which a r e b o t h perma-
n e n t damage e f f e c t s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 1 . ) . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r o p p a n t embed-
ment i s r e f l e c t e d by t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t t h e h a r d e r t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k , t h e
l e s s e r i s t h e c y c l i c d e t e r i o r a t i o n e f f e c t on f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y . L a r g e r prop-
pants o f 12/20 mesh s i z e p e r f o r m b e t t e r i n s o f t f o r m a t i o n r o c k than i n h a r d r e -
s e r v o i r s under c y c l i c l o a d i n g , whereas a t h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s above 6,000
p s i , s m a l l e r p r o p p a n t o f 20/40 mesh s i z e show l e s s c y c l i c l o a d i n g damage e f f e c t
i n h a r d pay i n t e r v a l s . H i g h proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n s l e a d i n g t o m u l t i l a y e r prop-
p i n g have an a d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t by m i n i m i z i n g c y c l i c l o a d i n g d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f
f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y , because proppant embedment which f r e q u e n t l y causes more
damage t o f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y than p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i m i n i -
shed i n m u l t i l a y e r p r o p p a n t packages.

As f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y cannot be r e g a i n e d by r e l e a s i n g c l o s u r e s t r e s s , de-
t e r i o r a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y s h o u l d be k e p t a t a minimum by a v o i d i n g
u n d u l y h i g h c l o s u r e s t r e s s d u r i n g i n i t i a l c o m p l e t i o n and e a r l y p r o d u c t i o n , and
l i m i t i n g w e l l s h u t - i n p e r i o d s i n advanced o f f t a k e stages t o a b s o l u t e l y necessa-
r y events, because e v e r y c y c l i n g o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n process i s i r r e v o c a b l y l i n -
ked w i t h a t l e a s t some f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y damage.
 696

4.12.4.3.3. Impact o f shut-in time

S u b s t a n t i a l w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y impairment can o c c u r i n case o f l o n g - t i m e
s h u t - i n a f t e r f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n (PA1 & G A R B I S 1983). A l t h o u g h a c e r t a i n
t i m e o f w e l l s h u t - i n i s necessary t o a l l o w f o r g e l breakage and f r a c t u r e h e a l -
i n g , e x c e s s i v e l y l o n g s h u t - i n times g i v e r i s e t o d i s s i p a t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n gas
i n energized treatments i n t o the formation leading t o substantial l o s s i n pres-
sure and energy t h a t i s r e q u i r e d i n l o a d r e c o v e r y . Drainage o f foam d u r i n g t o o
l o n g w e l l s h u t - i n b u i l d s up a h i g h h y d r o s t a t i c f l u i d column w h i c h a f t e r recove-
r y o f a gas cap causes t h e flowback t o cease (HOLCOMB 1983). Gas i n t h e foam l o -
c a t e d i n t h e f r a c t u r e a l s o d i s s i p a t e s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r as foam l i f e i s exhaus-
ted, which negates t h e advantage o f gas a s s i s t t o r e c o v e r t h e l i q u i d f r o m t h e
f a r t h e s t reaches o f t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e system. On t h e o t h e r hand, when w e l l s
a r e opened t o o much and t o o q u i c k l y a f t e r a foam f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t , c a s i n g
c o l l a p s e m i g h t occur due t o n e g a t i v e p r e s s u r e s caused by t h e r a p i d v e n t i n g o f
gas f r o m t h e w e l l h e a d o v e r r i d i n g t h e expansion p r e s s u r e f a c t o r due t o f r i c t i o n
h e a t i n g and b o t t o m - h o l e temperature.

V a r i o u s aspects o f f r a c t u r e damage a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by AHMED, ABOU-SAYED &

JONES (1979); CARROLL & BAKER (1979); BRANAGAN, CIPOLLA, LEE & YAN (1987) and
HAWKINS & K I N G ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

4.12.5. Fluid aspects

SOLIMAN & HUNT (1986) summarize t h e e f f e c t o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d and i t s
cleanup on w e l l performance and c r a c k p r o p e r t i e s . H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g u s u a l l y
i n v o l v e s i n j e c t i o n o f a l a r g e volume o f p r o p p a n t - l a d e n f l u i d i n t o t h e c r a c k i n -
duced w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r . W i t h c o n t i n u i n g i n j e c t i o n , t h e f r a c t u r e e n l a r g e s
and p a r t o f t h e f l u i d l e a k s o f f i n t o t h e m a t r i x . F l u i d l o s s w i l l c o n t i n u e a f t e r
t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e j o b w h i l e f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e d i s s i p a t e s . I m b i b i t i o n may
cause t r e a t m e n t f l u i d t o p e n e t r a t e even deeper i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n a f t e r t h e
f l u i d p r e s s u r e i n t h e f r a c t u r e has e q u a l i z e d w i t h t h e p o r e p r e s s u r e o f t h e r e -
s e r v o i r . Due t o i n f i l t r a t i o n , t h e invaded pay zone w i l l have a reduced r e l a t i v e
p e r m e a b i l i t y t o gas p r i o r t o p r o d u c t i o n o f b o t h gas and w a t e r d u r i n g cleanup.
The h i g h w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n w i t h i n f r a c t u r e and f o r m a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s a temporary
damage e f f e c t which i s u s u a l l y r e v e r s i b l e by c a r e f u l cleanup o f t h e w e l l ( c f .
a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 3 . ) . F r a c t u r e l e n g t h , f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y and c a p i l l a r y
p r e s s u r e a r e i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e s on t h e c l e a n u p p a t t e r n .

An i m p o r t a n t mechanism damaging m a i n l y f o r m a t i o n and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o f r a c -

t u r e i s w a t e r b l o c k i n g (HOLDITCH 1979, BROWER & MORROW 1983; PENNY, SOLIMAN,
CONWAY & B R I S C O E 1983; ABRAMS & VINEGAR 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s 3.11.2.4.2. and
4.8.8.3.1.5.). SOLIMAN & HUNT (1986) f i n d a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p between f r a c -
t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y and s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d cleanup, which means t h a t e f f e c t i v e
f r a c t u r e f l o w c a p a c i t y i n c r e a s e s w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e cleanup o f t h e c r a c k , and
t h u s p r o p e r cleanup removes temporary f r a c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n . The optimum c r a c k
c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r sound cleanup m i g h t be h i g h e r than t h a t necessary f o r economi-
c a l l y f e a s i b l e gas p r o d u c t i o n . I n v e r y t i g h t r e s e r v o i r s , t h e cleanup o f f r a c t u -
r i n g f l u i d s m i g h t be l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e e f f e c t . The
e x i s t e n c e o f a m o b i l e w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n i n t h e c r a c k r e p r e s e n t i n g an apparent
f r a c t u r e damage has a pronounced e f f e c t on t h e b u i l d u p p r e s s u r e response which
must be r e c o g n i z e d i n o r d e r t o a v o i d m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e b u i l d u p d a t a ( S O -
LIMAN & HUNT 1 9 8 6 ) .

4.13. Aggressive fracturing design

The s u c c e s s f u l improvement o f t h e European hydrocarbon s t i r n u l a t i o n p o t e n t i a l
by a p p l i c a t i o n o f many o f t h e concepts o u t l i n e d above and b e i n g a l r e a d y more o r
l e s s common i n t h e USA and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d a l s o s t r o n g l y depends on
t h e o p e r a t i n g m e n t a l i t y and t h e encouragement t o t a k e some r i s k i n t o c o n s i d e r a -
 697

t i o n , t o o . Many m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s w i l l never be a b l e t o become approached i n

an adequate manner u n l e s s a c h a l l e n g i n g procedure i s c a r r i e d o u t which a u t o m a t i -
c a l l y i n v o l v e s some r i s k . I t may p a r t i a l l y be a d i f f i c u l t d e c i s i o n e s p e c i a l l y
i n t h e poor economical s i t u a t i o n i n t h e y e a r s a f t e r t h e 1986 o i l p r i c e c r a s h
( c f . s e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.; i n Europe and o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l markets even accentua-
t e d by t h e US $ weakness; c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) , b u t s i m i l a r l y as many g r e a t
successes i n t h e p a s t have been performed by r i s k y p i l o t t r e a t m e n t s , i t i s a l s o
i n t h e f u t u r e e s s e n t i a l t o open new p o s s i b i l i t i e s by encouraged s o l u t i o n s and
an a g g r e s s i v e d e s i g n o f j o b s . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on p r o g r e s s
i n s t e a d o f r o u t i n e and r i s k y approaches o f m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s .

4.13.1. Progress instead o f routine

An o p e r a t i n g m e n t a l i t y o f a g g r e s s i v e f r a c t u r i n g d e s i g n i n c l u d e s t h e p h i l o s o -
phy t h a t n o t h i n g must become r o u t i n e , b u t t h e r e has always t o be p r o g r e s s . I n
t h i s connection, however, i t i s i n d i s p e n s i b l e t h a t successes a r e accompanied by
f a i l u r e s , and i t depends on s k i l l and sometimes a l s o a b i t on l u c k whether t h e
r a t i o i s a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e i n t o t a l o r n o t . On
t h e o t h e r hand, much p r o f i t can be missed by a c o n t i n u o u s l y t o o c o n s e r v a t i v e de-
s i g n . I t i s n i c e t o see e v e r y t h i n g r u n n i n g smoothly, b u t one always has t o ask
t h e q u e s t i o n i f t h e r e would n o t be a d e s i g n s t i l l i m p r o v i n g t h e performance. WA-
REMBOURG, KLINGENSMITH, HODGES & ERDLE (1985) emphasize t h a t a s u c c e s s f u l t r e a t -
ment i s n o t an o p e r a t i o n t h a t has been pumped w i t h o u t problems, b u t r a t h e r a
j o b t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e p r o d u c t i o n performance enhancement p r e d i c t e d by t h e de-
s i g n process o r even exceeding t h e f o r e c a s t .

HOLDITCH (1984) p r e s e n t s a s u i t a b l e example t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e above sugges-

t i o n s . While a b t . 30 - 50 % o f t h e t o t a l c o s t o f a f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t i n v o l -
ves equipment and manpower t h a t i s used d u r i n g t h e j o b and removed a f t e r t h e
operation i s finished, t h e overwhelming p a r t o f t h e expenses o f most o f t h e
j o b s i s f o r proppants and f l u i d s . As f l u i d l e a k s o f f and i s produced back, t h e
o n l y t h i n g t h a t remains w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e and determines t h e f a t e o f t h e
whole t r e a t m e n t b e i n g e i t h e r success o r f a i l u r e i s t h e p r o p p i n g agent w h i c h was
pumped downhole and t h a t i s s u p p o r t i n g t h e c r a c k t o s t a y open and t o a c t as a
d r a i n a g e pathway ( c f . a l s o PHILLIPS & ANDERSON 1985, HALL & LARKIN 1986). There-
f o r e a w i s e approach t o s t i m u l a t i o n i s t o g e t as much g r a i n s o f t h e designed
proppant q u a n t i t y i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e as p o s s i b l e . I f , however, e v e r y j o b goes
p e r f e c t l y w i t h no problems o f p u t t i n g t h e proppants away, t h e n t h e f r a c t u r e de-
s i g n i s t o o c o n s e r v a t i v e . E i t h e r money i s b e i n g wasted by u s i n g t o o l a r g e pads,
g e l , f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s o r o t h e r s , o r t h e proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n b e i n g pumped
i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o pack t h e f r a c t u r e . A t t e m p t i n g t o determine t h e optimum
p r o p p a n t s a t u r a t i o n f o r a zone, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f screenouts and p r e s s u r e - o u t s
i n c r e a s e s w i t h approaching t h e p h y s i c a l boundary o f uptake and/or placement ca-
p a b i l i t y (SHAH, SMITH & DONALDSON 1983). I t i s c e r t a i n l y n o t necessary t o p r o -
voke a screenout i n e v e r y t r e a t m e n t , b u t money s h o u l d n o t be wasted by overde-
signing the operation.

GREGORCZYK, PAULS, HOLTMYER, CHISHOLM & VENDITTO (1984) r e p o r t f i e l d expe-

r i e n c e where b e s t s t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s have been o b t a i n e d when an a g g r e s s i v e
pumping schedule was used. CONWAY & HARRIS (1982) a l s o emphasize t h a t optimum
r e s u l t s o f designed t r e a t m e n t s and m a j o r advantages o f i n n o v a t i v e and c o n v e n t i o -
n a l components can o n l y be determined f r o m f i e l d t r i a l s and experiments which
a u t o m a t i c a l l y have t o i n c l u d e some r i s k .

4.13.2. Risky approach o f marginal reservoirs

Thus a t t h e end o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f enhan-
c i n g t h e h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g p o t e n t i a l i n Europe and o t h e r p a r t s o f
t h e w o r l d , t h e g e n e r a l recommendation i s g i v e n t o p e r f o r m more a g g r e s s i v e f r a c -
t u r i n g designs and a l s o t o c a r r y o u t r i s k y approaches t o m a r g i n a l o i l - and gas-
 698

bearing formations. Aggressive s t r a t e g i c a l concepts a r e the o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y o f

a c h i e v i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y p r o g r e s s w i t h access t o h i t h e r t o u n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e s e r -
ves w h i c h a r e i n d i s p e n s i b l e f o r t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g p r i m a r y e n e r -
gy demand and f o r t h e s e c u r i t y o f some d o m e s t i c independence b y more o r l e s s
own h y d r o c a r b o n s u p p l y i n t h e coming decades. NEWENDORP (1975, 1 9 8 3 ) , MEGILL
(1984, 1 9 8 5 ) , BLESSING ( 1 9 8 8 ) and GARB ( 1 9 8 8 ) o u t l i n e s t r a t e g i e s f o r i m p l e m e n t -
i n g r i s k a n a l y s i s i n v a r i o u s h y d r o c a r b o n e x p l o r a t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s .

Some s p e c i a l i z e d t e c h n i q u e s f o r a p p l i c a t i o n i n m a r g i n a l o r u n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e -
s e r v o i r s even a i m p r i n c i p a l l y on s c r e e n o u t e v e n t s i n some s t a g e s o f t h e t r e a t -
ment o r phases o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n ( s u c h as t i p s c r e e n o u t f r a c t u r i n g ;
SMITH, MILLER & HAGA 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 4 . 1 . ) .

4.14. Conclusion
The o u t l i n e o f v a r i o u s t e c h n o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s o f enhancement o f t h e hy-
d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g p o t e n t i a l i n E u r o p e i n t h e p r e -
s e n t r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t , as w e l l as t h e a r e a l m a r k e t i n g and e c o n o m i c a l a s -
sessment c o m p r i s i n g r e v i e w , s t a t u s and f o r e c a s t o f t e c h n i c a l , e n g i n e e r i n g and
f i n a n c i a l a s p e c t s o f p r o p p a n t s t i m u l a t i o n i n W e s t e r n and E a s t e r n E u r o p e (MADER
1987; c f . c h a p t e r 2 ) and t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n as a consequence
o f r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s and p r o p p a n t p r o p e r t i e s ( c f . c h a p t e r 1) p e r m i t t h e c o n -
c l u s i o n t h a t numerous p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l
p a c k i n g e x i s t i n E u r o p e and o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t s i n t h e n e x t y e a r s . I n
c a s e o f t h e n e c e s s a r y back-up o f t h e a c t i v i t y b y an a g a i n more c o n s t a n t o i l
p r i c e a t a r e a s o n a b l e n i v e a u , p a r t i a l l y a l s o s u p p o r t e d by a s t r o n g e r US 8 , and
b y a d e q u a t e p r i c i n g o f p r o p p a n t s and s e r v i c e based o n h i g h t e c h n i c a l q u a l i t y
and m a r k e t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s , b o t h Western and E a s t e r n Europe a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o
be e x p a n d i n g s t i m u l a t i o n m a r k e t s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g demand o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t
f r a c t u r i n g i n c l u d i n g promotion o f treatments i n marginal formations i n t h e near
future.

I t i s , however, e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e t e c h n i c a l recommendations b y an i n t e g r a -
t e d m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y i n c o r p o r a t i n g a l s o g e o l o g i c a l and r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g
concepts a r e supported by a s u i t a b l e approach o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l m e n t a l i t i e s i n
t h e s u i t e o f d i f f e r e n t European c o u n t r i e s n o t o n l y s p e a k i n g d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a -
ges, b u t a l s o c o m p r i s i n g a v a r i e t y o f r e s e r v o i r r o c k s w i t h s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s ,
and a r e n o t a g a i n i n t e r r u p t e d b y a n o t h e r m a j o r d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e o i l - and gas-
p r o d u c i n g i n d u s t r y by a renewed d r a m a t i c a l change o f U S $ exchange r a t e and o i l
price.
 699

5 . G r a v e l P a c k i n g a n d S a n d C o n t r o l

5.0.Summary a n d a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s

Gravel p a c k i n g and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a r e t h e main a p p l i c a t i o n s o f n a t u r a l

sand and s y n t h e t i c proppants i n o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n and comple-
t i o n . Gravel p a c k i n g i s t h e most common sand c o n t r o l method c o m p r i s i n g mechani-
c a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and b o r e h o l e w a l l a g a i n s t i n v a s i o n o f
l o o s e f o r m a t i o n sand. Sand c o n t r o l methods comprise mechanical b r i d g i n g i n s t a l -
l a t i o n s such as g r a v e l packs, s l o t t e d l i n e r s , wire-wrapped screens o r p r e -
packs; chemical c o n s o l i d a t i o n by i n j e c t i o n o f s o l i d i f y i n g f l u i d s ( m a i n l y p l a s -
t i c r e s i n s ) i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n t o p r o v i d e an i n - s i t u g r a i n - t o - g r a i n cementa-
t i o n , and maintenance of a h i g h l e v e l o f g r a i n - t o - g r a i n s t r e s s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r
sand w i t h i n t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l and i t s near s u r r o u n d i n g s t h r o u g h sand a r c h i n g i n
t h e pay zone g r a i n f a b r i c , w i t h t r i g g e r i n g o f t h e g e o m e t r i c a l arrangement b e i n g
supported o r enhanced by u s i n g l o n g i n f l a t a b l e packers. Gravel p a c k i n g i s by
f a r t h e most d i s t r i b u t e d and p o p u l a r sand c o n t r o l method due t o i t s comparative-
l y s i m p l e t e c h n i c a l procedure, good economical f e a s i b i l i t y , h i g h success r a t e
and widespread a p p l i c a b i l i t y . A l t h o u g h many pay zones may produce up t o a c e r -
t a i n l i m i t r a t e w i t h o u t sand i n f l u x o r w i t h t e c h n i c a l l y t o l e r a b l e sand i n v e n -
t i o n l e v e l s , p r o f i t a b l e r e s e r v o i r e x p l o i t a t i o n can o n l y be performed i f t h e f o r -
m a t i o n sand i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b i l i z e d by e i t h e r n a t u r a l o r a r t i f i c i a l means.
Gravel p a c k i n g i n c l u d e s r u n n i n g o f a s l o t t e d l i n e r o r wire-wrapped screen i n t o
t h e open o r cased b o r e h o l e and s u r r o u n d i n g i t w i t h a g r a v e l m a n t l e t h a t c o v e r s
t h e w e l l b o r e w a l l and s u p p o r t s t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s which a r e a l s o f i l l e d
w i t h g r a v e l i n cased h o l e s o r p r e v e n t s t h e r e s e r v o i r f a c e s e c t i o n f r o m c o l l a p s e
i n open h o l e s . Gravel p a c k i n g d e s i g n p r i m a r i l y i n c l u d e s s e l e c t i o n o f g r a v e l
t y p e a c c o r d i n g t o r e s e r v o i r depth, temperature and b r i n e composition; c h o i c e o f
g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e i n o r d e r t o c o m p l e t e l y r e t a i n movement o f f o r m a t i o n sand, se-
l e c t i o n o f screen s i z e and/or l i n e r s l o t openings f o r t h e purpose o f p r e v e n t i n g
b o t h g r a v e l and r e s e r v o i r f i n e s t o e n t e r t h e gravel-pack hardware, g r a v e l pack
t h i c k n e s s aiming on achievement o f maximum f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y and minimum hy-
drocarbon f l o w r a t e impairment, and p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l l e n g t h f o r g u a r a n t e i n g
s t a b l e p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s and c r e a t i n g a s u f f i c i e n t c a p t u r e r a d i u s f o r t h e e f -
f l u e n t hydrocarbons, as w e l l as b o r e h o l e s i z e and g r a v e l placement t e c h n i q u e .
W h i l e most o f t h e i n s i d e g r a v e l packs w i t h i n t h e w e l l b o r e a r e n o t u n d e r g o i n g
h i g h e r p h y s i c a l s t r e s s e s and t h e r e f o r e w i t h e x c e p t o f steam-drive enhanced o i l
r e c o v e r y o p e r a t i o n s n a t u r a l sand i s s t i l l s u i t a b l e as g r a v e l m a t e r i a l , t h e
g r a i n s p l u g g i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s may be s u b j e c t e d t o c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e -
r e n t i a l s t r e s s e s and p r e v e n t i o n o f p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e c o l l a p s e r e q u i r e s i n some
cases s e l e c t i o n o f h i g h - q u a l i t y s y n t h e t i c proppants w i t h s u f f i c i e n t c l o s u r e
s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y . The main reasons f o r t h e predominant t o almost e x c l u s i v e ap-
p l i c a t i o n o f n a t u r a l sand as g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l a r e i t s ready n e a r l y u n l i -
m i t e d a v a i l a b i l i t y and i t s cheap p r i c e , w i t h payment o f a premium f o r a h i g h -
q u a l i t y s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t t y p e i n s t e a d o f n a t u r a l sand i n most o f t h e s h a l l o w
r e s e r v o i r depths where g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t n o t b e i n g t e c h n i c a l l y and
e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d . I n boundary cases when deeper pay zones r e q u i r e g r a v e l
p a c k i n g o r s h a l l o w e r u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sands a r e overpressured, t h e s e c t i o n s o f
t h e g r a v e l pack which a r e most s u s c e p t i b l e t o d e t e r i o r a t i o n by g r a i n c r u s h i n g
due t o s u p e r c r i t i c a l c l o s u r e s t r e s s a r e t h e plugged p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and t h e
g r a v e l nodes a t t h e d i s t a l ends o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n tubes where t h e more o r l e s s
f u l l l i t h o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s r e l e a s e d and t h e e f f e c t i v e c l o s u r e s t r e s s a l s o r i -
ses w i t h r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e d u r i n g p r o g r e s s i v e d e p l e t i o n . A s t h e p e r f o -
r a t i o n t u n n e l s a r e s i t u a t e d i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y o f t h e w e l l b o r e where c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s upon p r e s s u r e drawdown reaches i t s maximum, a t t e n t i o n has t o be
p a i d t o d e s i g n t h e m a t e r i a l i n f i l l i n g h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p a t h as w e l l as g r a -
vel-packed p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i n t h e n e a r e s t s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e w e l l b o r e i n
such a manner t h a t t h e p l u g g i n g i s adequate t o t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e c l o s u r e
s t r e s s t h r o u g h o u t b o r e h o l e l i f e . Gravel g r a i n s i z e c h o i c e i s t h e key i t e m i n
g r a v e l pack d e s i g n and has a much g r e a t e r importance than i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g m o d e l l i n g where proppant t y p e i s t h e most d e c i s i v e p o i n t t h a t i n t u r n i s
 700

o f c o m p a r a t i v e l y s u b o r d i n a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n g r a v e l p a c k i n g . In o r d e r t o comple-
t e l y b r i d g e f o r m a t i o n g r a i n s m i g r a t i n g t o t h e s a n d / g r a v e l i n t e r f a c e and f o r t h e
p u r p o s e o f t o t a l l y s t o p p i n g i n v a s i o n o f sand i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e , t h e mean s i z e
o f t h e g r a v e l s h o u l d be a b t . f i v e t o s i x t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e sand.
F o r m o s t o f t h e r e s e r v o i r s r e q u i r i n g sand c o n t r o l b y g r a v e l p a c k i n g , g r a v e l
g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n c a n be summarized t h a t a r a t i o o f g r a v e l median d i a m e t e r /
f o r m a t i o n sand median d i a m e t e r between 5 and 6 i s t h e i d e a l r a n g e p r o v i d i n g ab-
s o l u t e s t o p p a g e o f sand movement and u n r e s t r i c t e d i n i t i a l g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i t y .
R a t i o s b e l o w 5 g i v e r i s e t o l i m i t e d h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n , because p r o p e r b r i d -
g i n g a t t h e g r a v e l i n t e r f a c e i s n o t p o s s i b l e , b u t y e t no i n v a s i o n o f t h e g r a v e l
pack b y f o r m a t i o n sand o c c u r s . R a t i o s between 6 and 11 p r o v o k e i n t r u s i o n o f r e -
s e r v o i r sand i n t o t h e g r a v e l pack w h i c h d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e s g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i -
ty, b u t s t i l l p r o v i d e s e f f e c t i v e sand c o n t r o l once t h e g r a v e l pack i s c o m p l e t e -
l y p l u g g e d w i t h f i n e p a r t i c l e s and f u r t h e r m o t i o n o u t o f t h e p a y zone i s i n h i b i -
t e d . A t r a t i o s i n e x c e s s o f 11, t h e p o r e s i n t h e g r a v e l package become s o l a r g e
t h a t f o r m a t i o n sand i s p a r t i a l l y m i g r a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e g r a v e l i n t o t h e w e l l -
bore, thereby i n c r e a s i n g g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i t y again, but already progressively
d e t e r i o r a t i n g h y d r o c a r b o n e x p l o i t a t i o n b y h a v i n g o n l y one e f f e c t o f s l o w i n g
down o f sand p r o d u c t i o n . A t a r a t i o o f a b t . 15, o r i g i n a l g r a v e l pack p e r m e a b i l i -
t y i s r e a c h e d a g a i n w h i c h r e f l e c t s t h a t a t r a t i o s above 15, f o r m a t i o n sand c a n
i n v a d e t h e b o r e h o l e b y passage t h r o u g h t h e g r a v e l pack w i t h o u t any r e s t r i c t i o n ,
w i t h i n t h i s c a s e t h e g r a v e l pack b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y u s e l e s s . A l t h o u g h t h e g r a v e l
pack i t s e l f r e p r e s e n t s some t y p e o f f o r m a t i o n damage b y c a u s i n g p r e s s u r e l o s s e s
a c r o s s t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and f l u i d f l o w r e s t r i c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e c y l i n d r i c a l g r a -
v e l mantle, the p o s i t i v e e f f e c t i s s t i l l b e t t e r than i t s negative influence,
and p r e s s u r e d r o p and f l o w a r e a c a n be i m p r o v e d b y i n c r e a s i n g p e r f o r a t i o n d e n s i -
t y and d i a m e t e r o r even s w i t c h i n g t o o p e n - h o l e c o m p l e t i o n i f t e c h n i c a l l y p o s -
s i b l e . Gravel-pack completions w i t h plugging o f long deeply p e n e t r a t i n g p e r f o r a -
t i o n t u n n e l s o f w i d e d i a m e t e r and n a r r o w s p a c i n g a l o n g t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l a r e ap-
p r o a c h i n g m o r p h o l o g y and e f f e c t i v i t y o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t m i n i f r a c t u r i n g and
t h u s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e b o r e h o l e c r o s s - s e c t i o n . In some r e -
s e r v o i r s , s l o t t e d l i n e r o r w i r e - w r a p p e d s c r e e n c a n even b e r u n w i t h o u t i n s e r t -
i n g g r a v e l a r o u n d i t , because i f f o r m a t i o n sand g r a i n s i z e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y c o a r -
se t o p r o v i d e p e r m e a b i l i t y , i n f l u x o f p a y zone sand w o u l d c r e a t e s a n a t u r a l g r a -
v e l pack a r o u n d t h e sand c o n t r o l h a r d w a r e i n s t a l l e d i n t h e open b o r e h o l e . I n
terms o f c a r r i e r f l u i d s , l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s can o n l y t r a n s p o r t low g r a v e l con-
c e n t r a t i o n s and have t o be pumped a t h i g h v e l o c i t i e s w h i c h can p r o v o k e i n t e r m i x -
i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand, whereas h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s c a n suspend
h i g h g r a v e l s a t u r a t i o n s and c a n be i n j e c t e d a t l o w e r v e l o c i t i e s t h u s e l i m i n a -
t i n g g r a i n c o n t a m i n a t i o n . The m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g c a r r i e r
f l u i d s i s s u f f i c i e n t l e a k o f f i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n i n o r d e r t o achieve t h e necessa-
r y t i g h t p a c k i n g o f t h e g r a v e l , w h i c h i s t h e second m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e t o h y d r a u -
l i c f r a c t u r i n g where f l u i d l o s s has t o be m i n i m i z e d i n o r d e r t o a v o i d p r o p p a n t
b r i d g i n g and p r e m a t u r e s c r e e n o u t f a i l u r e . G r a v e l p a c k i n g r e s u l t s a r e i m p r o v i n g
w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f and t h e r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f sand c o n t r o l
t r a n s p o r t f l u i d s t h e r e f o r e have t o b e a d j u s t e d such t h a t s a t i s f a c t o r i l y h i g h r a -
t e s o f f l u i d l e a k o f f a r e achieved. F l u i d l o s s i n t o l i n e r o r screen and/or forma-
t i o n d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s n e c e s s a r y t o t a k e p l a c e i n h i g h r a t e s in o r d e r to
a l l o w d e p o s i t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l on t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l where i t f o r m s a m a n t l e
c o a t i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r / w e l l b o r e i n t e r f a c e , spearheads p l u g g i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l s , a b e l t b r i d g i n g t h e a n n u l u s between b o r e h o l e b o u n d a r y f a c e and s c r e e n
o r l i n e r , o r a p l u g i n f i l l i n g t h e whole diameter o f t h e w e l l b o r e . Steam-drive
enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y h o s t i l e e n v i r o n m e n t , because t h e h i g h -
pH s o l u t i o n s a t t a c k f o r m a t i o n sand and p a c k i n g g r a v e l and d i s s o l v e i t , t h e r e b y
d e t e r i o r a t i n g t h e sand c o n t r o l i n s t a l l a t i o n . S i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and n i c k e l - c o a t e d
sand have been p r o v e n t o r e p r e s e n t s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l s w h i c h a r e m e c h a n i c a l l y
and c h e m i c a l l y s t a b l e u n d e r t h e s e h a r s h c o n d i t i o n s , and w h i l e s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e
has a l r e a d y been a b u n d a n t l y a p p l i e d i n t h e f i e l d s i n c e many y e a r s , n i c k e l - c o a -
t e d sand i s s t i l l i n e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a g e . S p e c i a l g r a v e l pack a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u -
de c o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n and r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l p l a c e m e n t where t h e
i n d i v i d u a l g r a v e l g r a i n s a g g r e g a t e t o a s t a b l e m a t r i x due t o t h e c e m e n t i n g a c -
t i o n o f t h e r e s i n p e l l i c l e s , r e s u l t i n g i n o r i g i n of a s y n t h e t i c s a n d s t o n e . The
 701

main advantage of these systems i s t h a t o n l y an o u t s i d e g r a v e l pack i n f i l l i n g

t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s has t o be performed, because b a c k f l o w o f g r a v e l f r o m
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s i s n o t p o s s i b l e and t h e r e f o r e s u p p o r t o f t h e c a s i n g w a l l
by a g r a v e l m a n t l e i s n o t necessary, t h u s l e a v i n g t h e b o r e h o l e f r e e and unob-
s t r u c t e d by any sand c o n t r o l hardware. Gravel p a c k i n g i n d e v i a t e d w e l l s i s main-
l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e phenomenon o f g r a v e l duning which causes i n c o m p l e t e annu-
l u s p l u g g i n g and can even provoke premature annulus b r i d g i n g . Adequate g r a v e l
p a c k i n g i n h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d t o h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s can be achieved by f l e x i b l e
b a f f l e s c r e a t i n g f l o w r e s i s t a n c e , l a r g e - d i a m e t e r washpipe, s t r i n g r o t a t i o n and
p e r f o r a t i o n p r e p a c k i n g . L i n e r v i b r a t i o n d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g changes t h e pack
c o n f i g u r a t i o n f r o m c u b i c t o hexagonal and a l l o w s t o u t i l i z e c o n s i d e r a b l y c o a r -
s e r g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e s w i t h t h e same r e s u l t a n t p a c k i n g d e n s i t y than a p p l y i n g
f o r f i n e r g r a v e l w i t h o u t v i b r a t i o n , w i t h t h e advantage b e i n g much h i g h e r permea-
b i l i t y i n case o f shaking. I n terms o f e x e c u t i o n o f g r a v e l pack t r e a t m e n t s du-
r i n g course o f p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y o i l and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o
gas w e l l s , t h r e e cases have t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d : p r i m a r i l y i n s u f f i c i e n t l y cohe-
s i v e pay zones, as w e l l as s e c o n d a r i l y u n s t a b l e hydrocarbon-bearing s e c t i o n s
due t o r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e , and w a t e r c u t i n c r e a s e and c o r r e s p o n d i n g
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y decrease. The f i r s t group o f f o r m a t i o n s comprises c o m p l e t e l y un-
c o n s o l i d a t e d sands and c h a l k s which r e q u i r e s t a b i l i z a t i o n by g r a v e l p a c k i n g
f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f p r o d u c t i o n . The main pays i n t h i s group a r e s i l t y
and a r g i l l a c e o u s , m a i n l y medium- t o f i n e - g r a i n e d sands as w e l l as s o f t f l o w i n g
c h a l k s and diatomaceous e a r t h s which a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r f i n e g r a i n s i z e , i n s u f -
f i c i e n t b i n d i n g n a t u r e and l a c k i n g cementation have n o t enough i n t e r n a l cohe-
s i o n t o be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y s t a b l e w i t h o u t a r t i f i c i a l improvement. The second as-
semblage i n c o r p o r a t e s weakly-cemented sands o f v a r i o u s g r a i n s i z e i n c l u d i n g t h e
whole spectrum f r o m almost s i l t t o n e a r l y g r a v e l where t h e problems o f sand i n -
f l u x i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e s t a r t w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e d e p l e t i o n due t o d e c r e a s i n g r e s e r -
v o i r p r e s s u r e t h a t i s so f a r m a i n t a i n i n g a more o r l e s s s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g frame-
work o f g r a i n s , w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n f a i l i n g a t once a c r i t i c a l boundary p r e s s u r e
i s reached and underpassed. E a r l y p r e s s u r e maintenance methods such as w a t e r o r
gas i n j e c t i o n which a r e v e r y common i n o i l - f i e l d e x p l o i t a t i o n can h e l p t o p r e -
v e n t t h e sand f r o m becoming s o f t and f l o w i n g , o r can a t l e a s t d e c e l e r a t e t h e co-
h e s i v i t y transformation, b u t t h e changing phase c o m p o s i t i o n and v i s c o s i t y o f
t h e r e s e r v o i r f l u i d s a l s o has i t s impact. The t h i r d a s s o c i a t i o n i n c l u d e s s l i g h t -
l y - l i t h i f i e d sands o f d i f f e r e n t g r a i n s i z e c o m p r i s i n g a broad range t h r o u g h o u t
t h e g r a n u l o m e t r i c a l i n t e r v a l o f sand where g r a v e l p a c k i n g becomes necessary due
t o r e s e r v o i r breakdown and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r c u t i n t h e o i l
d u r i n g advanced p r o d u c t i o n w i t h r i s i n g o i l - w a t e r - c o n t a c t accompanying p r e s s u r e
d e p l e t i o n , as a consequence o f e x c e s s i v e w a t e r i n j e c t i o n due t o p r e s s u r e m a i n t e -
nance o p e r a t i o n s , o r as a r e s u l t o f w a t e r c o n i n g and breakthrough due t o u n f a -
v o u r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y and p r e f e r r e d w a t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y
a l o n g some h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y s t r e a k s o r through t h e j o i n t system. Changing
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y r e s u l t s i n d i f f e r e n t cohesion o f t h e g r a i n f a b r i c , and g e n e r a l -
l y induces l e s s s t a b i l i t y than b e f o r e and t h u s u l t i m a t e l y causes t h e sand t o
f l o w . The main members o f t h e second and t h i r d groups o f sand-problem r e s e r -
v o i r s a r e weakly-cemented f r i a b l e sands which m i g h t be o r i g i n a l l y s t i l l s u f f i -
c i e n t l y s t a b l e , b u t w i t h f a l l i n g r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e and/or changing f l u i d v i s c o -
s i t y , i n t e r n a l s u p p o r t i s taken away and t h e g r a i n f a b r i c s t a r t s t o c o l l a p s e
and t o r e l e a s e more and more l o o s e sand g r a i n s which move towards t h e l e a s t r e -
s t r i c t e d s p o t t h a t i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e b o r e h o l e . Other sand c o n t r o l methods
m a i n l y comprise r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r sand which i s performed by
i n j e c t i o n o f r e s i n i n t o t h e pay zone where i t hardens and forms an a r t i f i c i a l
cement o f t h e sand. R e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n and g r a v e l p a c k i n g r e p r e s e n t i n g chemi-
c a l and mechanical sand c o n t r o l treatments, r e s p e c t i v e l y , have each t h e i r p r e f e -
r e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , b u t can i n some cases a l s o be combined, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
case of c o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n w i t h accompanying a d d i t i o n a l f o r m a t i o n
stabilization. O t h e r chemical sand c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n s a r e hydroxy-aluminum con-
s o l i d a t i o n , e l e c t r o l e s s n i c k e l p l a t i n g , s i l i c a cementation and warm a i r c o k i n g .
The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s t a b l e sand arches around t h e p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s i s t h e ex-
p l a n a t i o n why w i t h i n c r e a s i n g pay depth, sand p r o d u c t i o n t r o u b l e s a r e more and
more d i m i n i s h i n g and f i n a l l y v a n i s h i n g . I n s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r s , s t a b l e sand a r -
 702

c h e s c a n be a r t i f i c i a l l y c r e a t e d b y a g i t a t i n g t h e g r a i n f a b r i c b y i n f l a t a b l e
p a c k e r s o r v i b r a t i n g s t r i n g s . Open-hole g r a v e l p a c k i n g p r o v i d e s t h e g r e a t e s t i n -
f l o w a r e a f o r t h e h y d r o c a r b o n s and t h e b e s t f i l t r a t i o n e f f e c t o f t h e sand p l u g ,
w i t h t h e e f f e c t i v e b o r e h o l e d i a m e t e r b e i n g i n c r e a s e d b y u n d e r r e a m i n g . The m o s t
c r i t i c a l p o i n t i n c a s e d - h o l e g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s adequate i n f i l l i n g o f a l l t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s w h i c h have t o b e a b s o l u t e l y c l e a n p r i o r t o g r a v e l i n s e r -
t i o n , w i t h p e r f o r a t i o n p r e p a r a t i o n b e i n g p o s s i b l e b y washing, s u r g i n g o r u n d e r -
balanced shooting.

5.1. I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710

5.1.1. R e s e r v o i r composition spectrum r p a c k i n g ..... 710
5.1.2. Sand s t a b i l i z a t i o n and p r o d u c t i v i t y m a i n t e n a n c e . .
5.1.3. O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t . . . . .

5.2. Gravel types and grain sizes ........................................ 711

5.2.1. Sand p r o d u c t i o n and i t s c o n t r o l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
5.2.1.1. G e n e r a l a s p e c t s ................................... 712
5.2.1.2. Reasons o f sand p r o d u c t i o n ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
5.2.1.3. W e l l d e t e r i o r a t i o n b y sand p r o d u c t i o n . . . 713
5.2.1.3.1. Damage s p e c t r u m caused b y sand i n f l u x . 713
5.2.1.3.1.1. E q u i p m e n t a b r a s i o n . . . . . . 713
5.2.1.3.1.2. S a c r i f i c a t i o n o f hydro-
c a r b o n e x p l o i t a t i o n t i m e 714
5.2.1.3.2. Economical and t e c h n i c a l l o s s o f w e l l s 714
5.2.1.3.3. O t h e r a s p e c t s ......................... 714
5.2.1.4. C r i t i c a l hydrocarbon o f f t a k e r a t e ... . . . . . . 715
5.2.1.4.1. Toleration level o f j o i n t h
and sand p r o d u c t i o n . . . . ........... 715
5.2.1.4.1.1. E x c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h sand
c o n t e n t s i n oil p r o d u c -
t i o n ...__.._............ 715
5.2.1.4.1.2. Sand p r o d u c t i o n v s . h y -
drocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n
r a t e .................... 715
5.2.1.4.2. I n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
5.2.1.4.2.1. G e n e r a l a s p e c t s . . . . . . . . . 716
5.2.1.4.2.2. Selective perforation o f
h a r d l a y e r s i n i n t e r b e d s 716
5.2.1.5. N e c e s s i t y and aims o f sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s . . . . . 717
5.2.1.5.1. Sand c o n t r o l method s p e c t r u m . . . . . . . . . . 717
5.2.1.5.2. Formation c vs. gravel
p a c k i n g ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
5.2.1.5.3. T i m i n g o f sand c o n t r o l i n s t a l l a t i o n ... 718 -. .
5.2.2. G r a v e l t y p e . . . . . . ........................................... 118
5.2.2.1. General a s p e c t s o f g r a v e l t y p e c h o i c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
5.2.2.2. N a t u r a l sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
5 . 2 . 2 . 2 1. R e s e r v o i r d e p t h and c l o s u r e s t r e s s i n
p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .719
5 . 2 . 2 . 2 2 . Provenance o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g sand . . . . . 720
5.2.2.3. Synthet c proppants ............................... 720
5 . 2 . 2 . 3 1. Sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n and c l o s u r e s t r e s s
t r a n s f e r .............................. 720
5 . 2 . 2 . 3 2. P e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l and b o r e h o l e w a l l
s t a b i l i t y ............................. 721
5 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 3. A n g l e o f r e p o s e and g r a v e l i n f i l l i n g . . 7 2 1
5.2.3. Gravel g r a i n s i z e ........................................... 721
5.2.3.1. G e n e r a l a s p e c t s o f g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n . . . . 722
5 . 2 . 3 . 1 . 1. Common q r a v e l q u a n t i t i e s and q r a i n s i z e 722
5.2.3.1.2. P r e v e n t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n sand j n t r u s i o n 722
5.2.3.1.3. G r a v e l q u a l i t y demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
5.2.3.2. Gravel g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n vs. f o r m a t i o n g r a i n
s i z e .............................................. 723
 703

5.2.3.3. Packing g r a v e l / f o r m a t i o n sand s i z e r a t i o s . . . . . . . . . 724

5.2.3.3.1. A b s o l u t e stoppage o f moving f o r m a t i o n
sand .................................. 724
5.2.3.3.2. Gravel p e r m e a b i l i t y and p a c k i n g d e n s i t y 724
5.2.3.3.2.1. P o s s i b l e range o f pack
gravel/paysand s i z e r a t i o 725
5.2.3.3.2.2. I d e a l l e v e l o f pack g r a -
v e l / p a y sand s i z e r a t i o . 725
5.2.3.3.3. F o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y and g r a n u l o m e t r y 725
5.2.3.3.4. Impact o f f o r m a t i o n and g r a v e l f i n e s .. 726
5.2.3.4. Width o f g r a v e l m a n t l e ............................ 726
5.2.3.5. Impact o f g r a v e l pack hardware .................... 727
5.2.3.5.1. S l o t t e d l i n e r s vs. wire-wrapped screens 727
5.2.3.5.1.1. General aspects ......... 727
5.2.3.5.1.2. S l o t and w i r e spacing se-
l e c t i o n ................. 727
5.2.3.5.1.3. Mechanical l i m i t a t i o n o f
s l o t and w i r e w i d t h . . . . . 728
5.2.3.5.2. Packing hardware i n f l u e n c e on g r a v e l
q u a l i t y ............................... 728
5.2.3.5.2.1. P o t e n t i a l g r a v e l breakup
p o i n t s and improvement .. 728
5.2.3.5.2.2. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and v e l o -
c i t y .................... 729
5.2.3.6. Use o f screen o r l i n e r w i t h o u t g r a v e l pack . . . . . . . . 729
5.2.3.6.1. G r a v e l - l e s s hardware i n s t a l l a t i o n ..... 729
5.2.3.6.1.1. S l o t / w i r e w i d t h and n a t u -
r a l g r a v e l pack b u i l d i n g 729
5.2.3.6.1.2. T r i p l e - w r a p p e d screen ... 730
5.2.3.6.2. L i n e r l e s s g r a v e l placement ............ 730
5.2.3.7. Formation g r a i n s i z e evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
5.2.3.7.1. G r a i n s i z e v a r i a t i o n s i n heterogeneous
r e s e r v o i r s ............................ 731
5.2.3.7.2. Adjustment o f g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e t o f i -
n e s t pay beds ......................... 731
5.2.3.8. G r a i n s i z e i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand 732
5.2.3.8.1. H i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n and h i g h
f l u i d v i s c o s i t y ....................... 732
5.2.3.8.2. Tackifying a c t i o n o f r e s i n i n the s l u r -
r y .................................... 732
5.2.3.9. Hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i v i t y vs. sand c o n t r o l ......... 732
5.2.3.9.1. Sand r e t e n t i o n vs. hydrocarbon f l o w ca-
p a c i t y ................................ 733
5.2.3.9.2. Other aspects ......................... 733
5.2.4. Gravel g r a i n s u r f a c e and shape .............................. 734
5.2.4.1. Angular vs. round g r a v e l i n mechanical sand c o n t r o l 734
5.2.4.2. D i f f e r e n c e s between f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g . 734

5.3. Gravel packing completion fluids and gravel saturation .............. 734
5.3.1. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n .................... 735
5.3.1.1. Achievement o f s u f f i c i e n t f l u i d l e a k o f f ........... 735
5.3.1.1.1. I n f l u e n c e o f c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y .. 736
5.3.1.1.1.1. Gravel placement and
f l u i d b r e a k i n g .......... 736
5.3.1.1.1.2. Gel c o n c e n t r a t i o n vs.
s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n ...... 737
5.3.1.1.1.3. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and f o r -
m a t i o n damage ........... 737
5.3.1.1.1.4. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and l e a k -
o f f r a t e s ............... 737
5.3.1.1.2. Improvement by s u r f a c t a n t - b e a r i n g wa-
t e r - b a s e d f l u i d s ...................... 738
 704

5.3.1.1.2.1. Gel s t r u c t u r e ........... 738

5.3.1.1.2.2. M i c r o g e l b r e a k i n g and r e -
moval .... 738
5.3.1.1.2.3. Gel f i rac-
t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g 739
5.3.1.1.3. Impact o f formation p e r m e a b i l i t y . . . . . . 739
5.3.1.1.3.1. Permeability classifica-
t i o n f o r gravel packing . 739
5.3.1.1.3.2. Reservoir permeability
and c o m p o s i t i o n . . . . . . . . . 739
5.3.1.2. Prevention o f excessive f l u i d l o s s ................ 740
5.3.1.2.1. Drawbacks o f p o s t - p a c k i n g a c i d i z i n g . . . 740
5.3.1.2.2. S o l i d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s and f o r m a -
t i o n p r e - p a c k i n g ...................... 740
5.3.2. T r a n s p o r t and p a c k i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e s l u r r i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
5.3.2.1. S u s p e n s i o n symmetry ............................... 741
5.3.2.2. Dual c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y ...................... 741
5.3.2.3. E v o l u t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g t e c h n i q u e s ............ 742
5.3.2.3.1. G e n e r a l a s p e c t s ....................... 742
5.3.2.3.2. Normal and r e v e r s e c i r c u l a t i o n p a c k i n g 742
5.3.2.3.3. Squeeze p a c k i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2.3.4. Combined c i r c u l a t i o n and squeeze p a c k -
i n g ................................... 743
5.3.2.3.5. Four-position longstroke packing ...... 744
5.3.2.3.6. Wash down and p r e s s u r e p a c k i n g .
5.3.2.3.7. O t h e r t e c h n i q u e s ...................... 744
5.3.2.4. G r a v e l volume and p l a c e m e n t ....................... 745
5.3.2.4.1. C i r c u l a t i o n packing ................... 745
5.3.2.4.2. Squeeze p a c k i n g ....................... 745
5.3.2.4.3. R e s e r v e b l a n k s e c t i o n above s c r e e n and
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
5.3.3. G r a v e l s e t t l i n g d i m i n u t i o n i n t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
5.3.3.1. Pressure drop m i n i m i z a t i o n . . .
5.3.3.2. Decreasing p a r t i c l e densi t y / c a r r i e r
r a t i o ..............................
5.3.3.3. High-density f l u i d s vs. low-density
5.3.3.4. A p p l i c a t i o n s p e c t r u m o f l o w - d e n s i t y p a r t i c l e s . . . . . 747
5.3.4. Gel s u r f a c e f i l t r a t i o n f r o m p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s . .
5.3.4.1. Screenout mimicking by face-layer induced pressure
.......................................... 748
e c t s .........................
5.3.5. C o m b i n a t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g and p r o p p a n t f r a c t u
o f combined g r a v e l p a c k i n g and f r a c t u -
......................................... 749
Adequate s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f l o o s e sands
and c h a l k s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
5.3.5.1.2. Proper i n f i l l i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels
and cement s h e a t h d e f e c t s . . . . . . . .
5.3.5.1.3. O p e r a t i o n a l sequence o f h y d r a u l i c
t u r i n g f o l l o w e d by gravel packing
oppant f r a c t u r
................... 7 5 1
5.4. Reservoir s t a b i l i t y and f l u i d dynamics .............................. 751
5.4.1. F o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e and f
5.4.1.1. Insufficient c
sure ......... .........
5.4.1.2. Changing f l u i d
5.4.1.3. Achievement o f t h e c r i t i c a l stage o f f o r m a t i o n c o l -
lapse ........ ......... 752
5.4.2. F l u i d dynamics .............................................. 753
5.4.2.1. Sand b r i d g e c o n s t r u c t i o n and breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
 705

5.4.2.2. I n f l u e n c e o f p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s ..................... 753

5.4.3. Rock mechanics .............................................. 754
5.4.3.1. Shear and t e n s i l e f a i l u r e ......................... 754
5.4.3.2. I n - s i t u s t r e s s s t a t e and r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n ...... 754
5.4.3.3. C a p i l l a r y bonding ................................. 755
5.4.3.4. Sand b r i d g i n g ..................................... 755
5.4.3.5. P e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s t a b i l i t y ...................... 755
5.4.3.6. Pressure drop and f l o w r e s i s t a n c e i n p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l s ........................................... 755
5.4.4. P e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l morphology ............................... 756
5.4.5. Water c u t i n t h e hydrocarbons ............................... 756
5.4.6. D i f f e r e n c e s between p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g . . 757

5.5. Areal d i s t r i b u t i o n o f potential reservoirs .......................... 757

5.5.1. General aspects ............................................. 757
5.5.2. Centres o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g ................................... 758
5.5.3. Gravel p a c k i n g p o t e n t i a l i n Europe .......................... 758
5.5.3.1. Sandstones ........................................ 758
5.5.3.2. Chalks ............................................ 760
5.5.4. Impact o f r e s i n - c o a t e d sand and proppants ................... 760
5.5.4.1. R e s i n bonding and a g g r e g a t i o n ..................... 760
5.5.4.2. A p p l i c a t i o n spectrum o f r e s i n - c o a t e d m a t e r i a l ..... 761
5.5.4.3. P o t e n t i a l f o r p r o m o t i o n o f m a r g i n a l sands and
c h a l k s ............................................ 761

5.6. P a r t i c l e transport through perforations ............................. 761

5.6.1. P e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g and p a r t i c l e b r i d g i n g ................... 762
5.6.1.1. I n s i d e and o u t s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g ................. 762
5.6.1.2. P e r f o r a t i o n diameter/particle diameter r a t i o ...... 763
5.6.1.3. Number and s i z e o f p e r f o r a t i o n s ................... 763
5.6.1.3.1. P r e s s u r e loss i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l 763
5.6.1.3.2. P e r f o r a t i o n and screen e r o s i o n by g r a -
v e l s u r g i n g ........................... 764
5.6.1.4. Tubing-conveyed underbalanced p e r f o r a t i n g ......... 764
5.6.1.4.1. Underbalanced vs . overbalanced p e r f o r a -
t i n g .................................. 764
5.6.1.4.2. Advantages o f tubing-conveyed o p e r a t i o n 765
5.6.2. Impact o f f l u i d v i s c o s i t y ................................... 765
5.6.2.1. V e r t i c a l vs . r a d i a l p a c k i n g o f t h e g r a v e l ......... 766
5.6.2.2. P l u g f l o w b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c e n t r a t e d s l u r r i e s ...... 766
5.6.3. Achievement o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g g i n g .................. 767
5.6.3.1. Two-stage s a n d - o i l squeeze i n l o n g zones .......... 767
5.6.3.2. Wikker D i k k e r t e c h n i q u e i n s h o r t zones ............ 767
5.6.3.3. Pressure p a c k i n g and c a v i t y f i l l i n g ............... 767
5.6.3.4. Sequence o f c i r c u l a t i o n and squeeze s t e p s ......... 767
5.6.3.5. Wash-down and t h r o u g h - t u b i n g p a c k i n g .............. 768
5.6.4. I n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e .......................... 768
5.6.4.1. F o r m a t i o n damage by p e r f o r a t i o n d e b r i s ............ 768
5.6.4.2. P e r f o r a t i o n c l e a n i n g .............................. 769
5.6.4.2.1. General aspects ....................... 769
5.6.4.2.2. P e r f o r a t i o n washing ................... 769
5.6.4.2.2.1. Pressure p a r t i n g o f r e -
s e r v o i r sand ............ 770
5.6.4.2.2.2. Comparative e f f e c t i v i t y
o f p e r f o r a t i o n washing .. 770
5.6.4.2.3. P e r f o r a t i o n s u r g i n g ................... 771
5.6.4.2.3.1. P e r f o r a t i o n opening and
sand removal ............ 771
5.6.4.2.3.2. Long and s h o r t r e s e r v o i r
i n t e r v a l s ............... 771
5.6.4.3. Proppant-induced p e r f o r a t i o n e r o s i o n .............. 772
5.6.5. I n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n geometry ........................... 772
 706

5.6.6. I n f l u e n c e o f r e s e r v o i r s e c t i o n and t r e a t m e n t v a r i a b l e s . . . . . . 772

5.6.6.1. F o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y v a r i a t i o n s and f l u i d v i s c o -
s i t y .............................................. 773
5.6.6.2. Multiple intervals ............
5.6.6.3. F l u i d v e l o c i t y and
5.6.7. Gravel prepacking o f p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels ....... ....... 774
5.6.7.1. High-permeability p e r f o r a t i o n tunnel f
5.6.7.2. No sand p r o d u c t i o n p r i o r t o g r a v e l p r e p a c k i n g . . . . . 775
5.6.7.3. Sand p r o d u c t i o n p r i o r t o g r a v e l p r e p a c k i n g . . . . . . . . 775
5.6.8. Other aspects . . . . . ....................................... 776

5.7. Steam-drive enhanced o i l recovery ................................... 776

5.7.1. S i n t e r e d b a u x i t e ........................... .............. 776
5.7.2. N i c k e l - c o a t e d sand ......................... .............. 777
5.7.3. A p p l i c a t i o n p o t e n t i a l i n Europe ............................. 778
5.7.4. G r a v e l d e n s i t y .............................................. 778
5.7.5. A l c a l i n i t y r e d u c t i o n o f t h e aqueous i n j e c t e d phase . . . . . . . . . . 779
5.7.5.1. F o r m a t i o n sand v s . g r a v e l pack sand d i s s o l u t i o n . . . 779
5.7.5.2. C y c l i c steam i n j e c t i o n and downhole pH v a l u e
5.7.5.3. M e c h a n i c a l g r a v e l pack s t a b i l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
5.7.5.4. O t h e r a s p e c t s .......... .........
5.8. Special gravel pack applications .................................... 781
5.8.1. C o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n .............................. 781
5.8.1.1. P e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g g i n g ....................... 781
5.8.1.1.1. A p p l i c a t i o n s p e c t r u m .....
5.8.1.1.2. Exclusive outside gravel p
5.8.1.2. D i f f e r e n c e s between c o n s o l i d a t e d and
packs . ........ .......
5.8.1.3. A r t i f i c i a l s t a b l e b o r e h o l e w a l l ................... 783
5.8.1.4. O t h e r a s p e c t s ..................................... 783
5.8.2. Resin-coated g r a v e l placement . . . . .
5.8.2.1. Gravel mantle s t a b i l i z a t i
5.8.2.1.1. E x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l c a t a l y z a t i o n . . . . 784
5.8.2.1.2. Thermal and c h e m i c a l c u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . 784
5.8.2.1.3. A p p l i c a t i o n i n sand c o n t r o l and f r a c -
ture stimulation ......... ........ 785
5.8.2.1.3.1. Compressive s t r e n g t h o f
resin-coated aggregates . 785
5.8.2.1.3.2. S i n g l e and m u l t i p l e g r a -
v e l pack c o m p l e t i o n s . . . . 785
5.8.2.1.4. Consolidati
t i o n sand .
5.8.2.2. S p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s ..

5.8.2.2.2. S t e a m - d r i v e p r o j e c t s ...
5.8.2.2.3. T r a n s i t i o n between g r a v e
fracturing ..............

5.8.2.2.3.2. M i n i f r a c t u r e s vs. p e r f o -
r a t i o n t u n n e l r o w s . . . . . . 788
5.8.2.2.4. C a r r i e r f l u i d and f o r m a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . 788
5.8.2.2.4.1. I n t e r f a c i a l f l u i d proper-
t y a d j u s t m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . 788

5.8.3. G r a v e l p a c k i n g of d e v i
5.8.3.0. General aspects .........
5.8.3.1. Gravel dunin
5.8.3.1.1. E x t e n d e d - r e a c h d r i l l i n g shape . . . . . . . . . 790
5.8.3.1.2. Dune g r o w t h and m i g r a t i o n ...
5.8.3.1.3. C a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and g r a v e l dune
 707

dynamics .............................. 791

5.8.3.1.4. Gravel placement and e q u i l i b r i u m bank
p o s i t i o n .............................. 791
5.8.3.1.5. E q u i l i b r i u m v e l o c i t y and g r a v e l bank
h e i g h t ................................ 791
5.8.3.1.6. F l u i d v e l o c i t y and dune movement . . . . . . 792
5.8.3.1.7. F l u i d v e l o c i t y and g r a v e l t r a n s p o r t ... 792
5.8.3.2. Gravel compaction ................................. 793
5.8.3.2.1. Flow r e s i s t a n c e c r e a t e d by f l e x i b l e
b a f f l e s ............................... 793
5.8.3.2.1.1. B a f f l e spacing and s t i f f -
ness .................... 793
5.8.3.2.1.2. Rubber d i s c s ............ 794
5.8.3.2.2. Large-diameter washpipes and o t h e r as-
p e c t s ................................. 794
5.8.3.2.2.1. F l u i d v e l o c i t y and v i s c o -
s i t y .................... 794
5.8.3.2.2.2. P r e v e n t i o n o f f l u i d chan-
n e l l i n g t h r o u g h screen .. 794
5.8.3.2.3. F l u i d v i s c o s i t y and c a s i n g - l i n e r r e l a -
t i o n s h i p .............................. 795
5.8.3.2.4. Gravel pack q u a l i t y improvement ....... 795
5.8.3.3. P e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g and s t r i n g r o t a t i o n ........... 795
5.8.3.3.1. P e r f o r a t i o n phasing ................... 796
5.8.3.3.1.1. S i n g l e - vs . d o u b l e - s i d e
perforating ............. 796
5.8.3.3.1.2. Packing e f f i c i e n c y i n
t o p - s i d e p e r f o r a t i o n s ... 796
5.8.3.3.2. P e r f o r a t i o n p r e p a c k i n g ................ 796
5.8.3.3.3. L i n e r v i b r a t i o n and d r i l l p i p e r o t a t i o n 796
5.8.3.4. Gravel s e t t l i n g ................................... 797
5.8.3.4.1. Low p a r t i c u l a t e densi t y l c a r r i e r f l u i d
d e n s i t y r a t i o ......................... 797
5.8.3.4.2. Impact o f l o w - d e n s i t y g r a v e l p a c k i n g
m a t e r i a l s ............................. 798
5.8.3.5. I n v e r t e d g r a v e l s l u r r y c i r c u l a t i o n ................ 798
5.8.3.5.1. Conventional v s . i n v e r t e d g r a v e l p a c k i n g 798
5.8.3.5.2. Void prevention w i t h i n v e r t e d s l u r r y
c i r c u l a t i o n ........................... 799
5.8.3.5.3. Comparison t o normal and r e v e r s e c i r c u -
l a t i o n p a c k i n g ........................ 799
5.8.3.6. Viscous g r a v e l p a c k i n g s l u r r i e s ................... 799
5.8.3.7. G r a v e l - l e s s s l o t t e d l i n e r s and pre-packed screens . 800
5.8.3.8. O t h e r aspects ..................................... 800
5.8.4. Gravel p a c k i n g w i t h l i n e r v i b r a t i o n ......................... 800
5.8.4.1. Compensation o f i n i t i a l undercompaction by b l a n k
l i n e r s e c t i o n ..................................... 801
5.8.4.2. P r e v e n t i o n o f a f t e r - p a c k s e t t l i n g ................. 801
5.8.4.3. Achievement o f optimum pack d e n s i t y by l i n e r v i b r a -
t i o n .............................................. 801
5.8.4.3.1. Gravel p a c k i n g ........................ 802
5.8.4.3.2. Pump p r o t e c t i n g pre-packed l i n e r s ..... 802
5.8.4.3.3. P r i m a r y cementing ..................... 802
5.8.4.4. Gravel and p e r f o r a t i o n washing .................... 803
5.8.5. Concentrated g r a v e l s l u r r y pumping .......................... 803
5.8.5.1. B e t t e r g r a v e l t r a n s p o r t and t i g h t e r g r a v e l p a c k i n g 803
5.8.5.2. T a c k i f y i n g a c t i o n o f i n t e r m i x e d r e s i n ............. 803
5.8.6. D e n s i t y s l u r r y and foam g r a v e l p a c k i n g ...................... 804
5.8.7. Viscous polymer g r a v e l p a c k i n g and d e p o s i t b u i l d u p .......... 804
5.8.7.1. General aspects ................................... 804
5.8.7.2. Nodular d e p o s i t b u i l d u p a t t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . . . . . . . 805
5.8.7.3. Annular d e p o s i t b u i l d u p on t h e screen . . . . . . . . . .
 708

5.8.7.4. Benefits o f high carrier f l u i d viscosity ...

5.8.8. P r e v e n t i o n o f p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k b y f r a c t u r e t a i l - i n ..
5.8.9. P u d d l e p a c k i n g .......................................

5.9. Other sand control methods ..................... .........

5.9.1. R e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n ..................................
5.9.1.1. General aspects ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
5.9.1.1.1. Mechani
f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
5.9.1.1.2. R e s i n m o b i l i z a t i o n and m i g r a t i o n . . . . . . 808
5.9.1.1.3. R e s i n c u r i n g and c a t a l y z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . 809
5.9.1.2. R e s i n v i s c o s i t y and a c t i v i t y ...................... 809
5.9.1.2.0. G e n e r a l a s p e c t s ....................... 809
5.9.1.2.1. I n t e r n a l l y a c t i v a t e d systems . . . . . . . . . . 810
5.9.1.2.2. E x t e r n a l l y a c t i v a t e d o r o v e r f l u s h sys-
tems .................................. 810
5.9.1.2.3. R e s i n y i e l d and f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y
r e t e n t i o n ............................. 811
5.9.1.2.3.1. R e s e r v o i r c o m p o s i t i o n and
r e s i n y i e l d . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
5.9.1.2.3.2. Consolidation strength
and d i r t y p a y s t a b i l i z a -
t i o n ...............
5.9.1.3. Sources o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n f a i l u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 1
5.9.1.3.1. Requirements f o r successful r e s i n con-
s o l i d a t i o n ............................ 812
5.9.1.3.2. U n s u i t a b l e d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n
p r a c t i c e s ............................. 812
5.9.1.3.2.1. C e m e n t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
5.9.1.3.2.2. P e r f o r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
5.9.1.3.3. I n t e r m i x i n g o f r a t h o l e f l u i d and sand
c o n t r o l f l u i d ......................... 813
5.9.1.3.3.1. R e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n ..... 813
5.9.1.3.3.2. G r a v e l p a c k i n g . . . . . . . . . . 813
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
5.9.1.4. Advantages and p r o b l e m s .... ..... 814
5.9.1.4.1. Multistage p uni erfo-
r a t i o n c o v e r a g e ....................... 814
5.9.1.4.2. S p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n i n g o f d i r t y sands . . . 815
5.9.1.5. P o s s i b i l i t y of i m p r o v e d r e s i n cons
mance ............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
5.9.1.5.1. Formation prepacking . 815
5.9.1.5.1.1. Pressure pa
v e l p l a c e m e n t i n f r a c t u r e 815
5.9.1.5.1.2. Influence o f perforation
w a s h i n g and s u r g i n g . . . . . 816
5.9.1.5.2. F o r m a t i o n p r e h e a t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
5.9.1.5.3. F o r m a t i o n p r e f l u s h i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
5.9.1.5.4. Two- and t h r e e - s t a g e sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n 817
5.9.1.5.4.1. Two-stage sand s
tion ...........
5.9.1.5.4.2. Formation f r a c t u
r i n g r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n 817
5.9.1.5.4.3. T h r e e - s t a g e sand s t a b i l i -

5.9.1.5.5. Other aspects

5.9.1.6. Formation c o n s o l i d a t i o n vs
5.9.1.7. P e r m e a b i l i t y d e s t r u c t i o n and p l u g g i n g o f t h i
5.9.2. H y d r o x y - a l u m i n u m and e l e c t r o l e s s n i c k e l c o n s o l i d a t i o n
5.9.2.1. Hydroxy-aluminum s t a b i l i z a
5.9.2.2. Electroless nickel plating . . . . . . . 819
5.9.3. S i l i c a c e m e n t a t i o n .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
 709

5.9.3.1. S i l i c a l o c k concept ................................ 820

5.9.3.2. Solder g l a s s method ............................... 820
5.9.4. Warm a i r coking c o n s o l i d a t i o n ............................... 820
5.9.5. S t a b l e sand arch formation .................................. 821
5.9.5.1. General aspects ................................... 821
5.9.5.1.1. C a v i t y face p e r m e a b i l i t y vs . d i l a t i o n . 821
5.9.5.1.2. Sand package d i s i n t e g r a t i o n vs . g r a i n
i n t e r l o c k i n g .......................... 822
5.9.5.1.3. Wellbore s t r e s s s t a t e c o n t r o l ......... 822
5.9.5.1.3.1. Pore pressure changes and
arch l o a d a l t e r a t i o n s ... 822
5.9.5.1.3.2. Radial e f f e c t i v e stress
and imposing techniques . 823
5.9.5.2. Sand a r c h i n g combined w i t h r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n .... 823
5.9.5.3. G r a i n surface roughness ........................... 824
5.9.5.4. F l u i d m i x i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s ........................ 824
5.9.6. Pre-pack l i n e r s and multiwire-wrapped screens ............... 824
5.9.6.1. Pre-pack l i n e r s ................................... 825
5.9.6.1.1. Gravel packing ........................ 825
5.9.6.1.2. Pump p r o t e c t i o n ....................... 825
5.9.6.2. Multiwire-wrapped screens ......................... 826

5.10. I n f l u e n c e o f completion type on g r a v e l packing ...................... 826

5.10.1. I n s i d e gravel packing ....................................... 827
5.10.1.1. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n tunnel packing ........ 827
5.10.1.2. Two-stage and o n e - t r i p systems .................... 827
5.10.1.2.1. M i n i m i z a t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n damage and
o p e r a t i n g time ........................ 828
5.10.1.2.2. I n t e r v a l l e n g t h vs . r e s e r v o i r permeabi-
l i t y .................................. 828
5.10.1.3. Other aspects ..................................... 829
5.10.2. Open h o l e g r a v e l packing .................................... 829
5.10.2.1. Advantages and drawback o f open-hole gravel packing 829
5.10.2.2. Borehole underreaming ............................. 830
5.10.2.3. P o r t c o l l a r implementation and pack washing ....... 830
5.10.3. Factors improving g r a v e l pack e f f i c i e n c y .................... 831
5.10.4. L i n e r placement ............................................. 831
5.10.5. Wellbore damage i n gravel packed holes ...................... 831
5.10.6. Water c o n t r o l i n g r a v e l packed completions .................. 832

5.11. Formation damage d u r i n g g r a v e l packing .............................. 832

5.11.1. P e r f o r a t i o n tunnel p l u g g i n g ................................. 832
5.11.1.1. R e s e r v o i r impairment by the gravel pack ........... 833
5.11.1.2. Covering o f damaged f o r m a t i o n by gravel packing ... 833
5.11.1.3. Necessity o f clean open p e r f o r a t i o n holes f o r t i g h t
g r a v e l i n f i l l i n g .................................. 833
5.11.1.4. Impact o f p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e diameter ............... 834
5.11.2. D r i l l i n g mud l o s s ........................................... 834
5.11.3. Completion f l u i d l o s s ....................................... 834
5.11.3.1. General aspects ................................... 835
5.11.3.1.1. Mechanical f l u i d - l e a k o f f c o n t r o l ...... 835
5.11.3.1.2. Types o f f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s ......... 835
5.11.3.2. A p p l i c a t i o n o f gravel and d i v e r t i n g agent ......... 835
5.11.3.3. I n s e r t i o n o f s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s ........... 836
5.11.3.4. Removal o f s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s ............. 836
5.11.3.4.1. A c i d i z i n g ............................. 836
5.11.3.4.2. Problems o f incomplete f l u i d - l o s s addi-
t i v e removal .......................... 837
5.11.4. Formation damage removal by a c i d i z i n g ....................... 837
5.11.4.1. A c i d i z i n g p r i o r t o gravel packing ................. 837
5.11.4.1.1. Gravel and o t h e r m a t e r i a l s as d i v e r t i n g
agents ................................ 837
 710

5.11.4 1 . 2 . D i v e r t i n g a g e n t i n j e c t i o n and d i s t r i b u -
t i o n .................................. 838
5 . 1 1 . 4 1 . 3 . F o r m a t i o n wetness and c l a y s t a b i l i z a -
t i o n ................................. 838
5 . 1 1 . 4 . 2 . A c i d i z ng a f t e r g r a v e p a c k i n g .................... 839
5.11.4.2.1. S e l e c t i v e a c i d p e n e t r a t i o n vs. p e r f o r a -
t i o n t u n n e l c o n t e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839
5.11.4.2.2. D i f f i c u l t y o f f l u i d - l o s s agent removal
t h r o u g h t h e g r a v e l pack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 4 0
5 . 1 1 . 4 . 3 . G r a v e l u n c o n s o l i d a t i o n and d i s s o l u t i o n b y a c i d i z i n g 8 4 0
5.11.4.3.1. G r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n p l u g g i n g b y m i g r a -
t i n g f i n e s ............................ 840
5 . 1 1 . 4 . 3 . 2 . G r a v e l d i s s o l u t i o n .................... 841
5.11.4.3.2.1. G r a v e l g r a i n s i z e and
a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n . . . . . . 841
5.11.4.3.2.2. M o b i l i t y o f loose packing
g r a v e l and p a y sand . . . . . 8 4 1
5 . 1 1 . 4 . 3 . 3 . G r a v e l u n c o n s o l i d a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
5.11.5. F l u i d and h a r d w a r e c l e a n l i n e s s .............................. 842

5.1. Introduction
G r a v e l p a c k i n g f o r sand c o n t r o l i s t h e second a p p l i c a t i o n o f b o t h n a t u r a l
sand and s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s i n o i l and gas w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n and c o m p l e t i o n (RO-
GERS 1971; SUMAN 1974, 1975 a; ANAND & JONES 1977; GURLEY, COPELAND & HENDRICK
1977; MCLEOD & CRAWFORD 1983; SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983; LEDLOW, SAUER & T I L L
1985; NEAL & CARROLL 1985, PENBERTHY 1985, SPARLIN & HAGEN 1985; COULTER, MARTI-
NEZ & FISCHER 1987; GURLEY 1988) and i s c a r r i e d o u t i n o i l - , gas- and w a t e r - p r o -
d u c t i o n w e l l s ; w a t e r - , steam- and c h e m i c a l - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s ; u n d e r g r o u n d g a s - s t o -
r a g e w e l l s and o c c a s i o n a l l y a l s o m i n e r a l - l e a c h i n g and g e o t h e r m a l h e a t - e x p l o i t a -
t i o n w e l l s (SOLUM 1 9 8 4 ) .

G r a v e l p a c k i n g was i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e h y d r o c a r b o n i n d u s t r y more t h a n 60 y e a r s
ago and has been a p p l i e d i n w a t e r w e l l s s i n c e more t h a n 100 y e a r s (SOLUM 1 9 8 6 ) .
S i n c e t h a t t i m e , i t has p r o g r e s s i v e l y e v o l v e d and i s a l r e a d y s i n c e many decades
t h e m o s t common sand c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e . The g r a v e l pack s y s t e m b a s i c a l l y con-
s i s t s o f a s c r e e n o r l i n e r t o p r e v e n t g r a v e l p r o d u c t i o n , and a g r a v e l m a n t l e t o
s t o p f o r m a t i o n sand i n v a s i o n . G r a v e l p a c k i n g aims on r e d u c t i o n o r c o n t r o l l i n g
o f sand p r o d u c t i o n , m i n i m i z a t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n damage, and i n c r e a s e o f h y d r o c a r -
bon p r o d u c t i o n . The i n t r o d u c t o r y r e m a r k s as f o l l o w s i n c l u d e comments on s i g n i f i -
cance and n e c e s s i t y o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g f o r sand s t a b i l i z a t i o n and p r o d u c t i v i t y
m a i n t e n a n c e as w e l l as o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e p r e s e n t r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t . An
o u t l i n e i s a l s o g i v e n on t h e r e s e r v o i r composition spectrum r e q u i r i n g support
by gravel packing.

5.1.1. Reservoir composition spectrum requiring gravel packing

G r a v e l p a c k i n g i s done in o r d e r t o a r t i f i c i a l l y s t a b i l i z e m a i n l y o r i g i n a l l y
i n s u f f i c i e n t l y consolidated, s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o s e c o n d a r i l y and t e r t i a r i l y de-
s t r e n g t h e n e d sands and o t h e r r e l a t e d g r a i n y s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s . I n s u f f i c i e n t l y
c o n s o l i d a t e d ( d u e t o p o o r c a r b o n a t e , s i l i c a o r o t h e r c e m e n t a t i o n ) and l i t h i f i e d
( d u e t o o n l y s l i g h t p r e s s u r e s o l u t i o n ) o r n o t enough c o h e s i v e ( a s a consequence
o f o n l y l i t t l e b i n d i n g b y o n l y s m a l l amounts o f d i s p e r s e d mud) t o even a l m o s t
l o o s e f r i a b l e sands o f v a r i o u s g r a i n s i z e a r e t h e m o s t common t r o u b l e - m a k i n g de-
p o s i t s i n t e r m s o f sand p r o d u c t i o n .

A p a r t f r o m u n c o n s o l i d a t e d c o a r s e , medium o r f i n e , c l e a n o r d i r t y sands, t o
m i n o r amounts a l s o s i l t y and muddy sands, sand-mud s a n d w i c h - t y p e i n t e r b e d d i n g s ,
c a r b o n a t e s h e l l l a y e r s and s o f t c h a l k r e q u i r e s t a b i l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s i n t h e
s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e w e l l b o r e i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t i n f l u x o f sand, mud o r c a r b o -
n a t e p a r t i c l e s i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e and t o s t o p p r o d u c t i o n o f s o l i d f o r m a t i o n f r a g -
 711

ments ( m a i n l y sand) t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e hydrocarbons. While g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n san-

dy r e s e r v o i r s i s q u i t e abundantly a p p l i e d and has been performed t h r o u g h o u t t h e
w o r l d s i n c e many decades, g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n c h a l k (ATTARD, MATHES & MOWER 1988;
c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.4.3.) and c o a l (JEU, LOGAN & McBANE 1988) has so f a r o n l y occa-
s i o n a l l y been u t i l i z e d .

5.1.2. Sand stabilization and productivity maintenance

The g r a v e l pack a c t s as a f i l t e r f o r f i n e s m i g r a t i n g o u t o f t h e f o r m a t i o n
and i n h i b i t s t h e f i n e s t o p l u g t h e s l o t s i n t h e l i n e r o r t h e i n t e r w i r e spaces
i n t h e screen, hut a l l o w s r e s e r v o i r f l u i d s t o f l o w e a s i l y i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e .
The permeable g r a v e l pack f i l t e r p e r m i t s maximum p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s w h i l e i t me-
c h a n i c a l l y props t h e f o r m a t i o n and p r o h i b i t s t h e passage o f sand i n t o t h e w e l l -
bore. B r i d g i n g o f t h e f o r m a t i o n sand a g a i n s t t h e g r a v e l pack i n o r d e r t o a l l o w
o n l y n a t u r a l f l u i d f l o w i s t h e key t o sand movement c o n t r o l (SCHWARTZ 1969).

L i m i t e d amounts o f sand i n f l u x i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e can a l s o be a t l e a s t tempo-

r a r i l y handled by c u t t i n g back o i l o r gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s (STEIN, ODEH & JONES
1974) which r e s u l t s i n r e d u c t i o n o f t h e tendency o f t h e sand t o move ( e s p e c i a l -
l y i n weak sands c o n t a i n i n g h i g h - v i s c o s i t y o i l ; c f . s e c t i o n 5.2.1.4.), but lar-
g e r q u a n t i t i e s o f sand i n t e r v e n t i o n can o n l y be stopped by g r a v e l p a c k i n g o r
o t h e r sand c o n t r o l methods. PEOEN & YASSIN (1986) i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t o f p e r -
f o r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s upon maximum sand-free p r o d u c t i o n r a t e i n f r i a b l e sandsto-
nes. A l t h o u g h g r a v e l p a c k i n g as t h e most common sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t i s q u i t e
expensive, i t i s n o t n e a r l y as c o s t l y as l o s i n g a p r o d u c t i o n w e l l due t o sand
problems ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) . The economical i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e damage
which f l o w i n g f o r m a t i o n sand can c r e a t e a r e c r i t i c a l enough t o r e q u i r e c o n t i -
nuous improvements i n sand c o n t r o l techniques and sand p r o d u c t i o n p r e d i c t i o n me-
thods (GHALAMBOR, KOLIBA, HAYATDAVOUDI & ALCOCER 1988).

5.1.3. Organization o f the review and status report

As t h i s r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t m a i n l y focusses on aspects o f p r o p p a n t ap-
p l i c a t i o n i n o i l - and g a s - w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n and completion, t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f
sand c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s c o n c e n t r a t e s on g r a v e l p a c k i n g where q u e s t i o n s o f t y p e
and g r a i n s i z e o f n a t u r a l sand o r s y n t h e t i c proppants a r e v e r y d e c i s i v e f o r ade-
quate performance o f t h e o p e r a t i o n . Gravel p a c k i n g i s s t i l l t h e most e f f e c t i v e ,
p r a c t i c a l , s u c c e s s f u l , r e l i a b l e , s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , and i n many cases a l s o chea-
p e s t sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t , as u n d e r l i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t 60 - 90 % o f a l l
s a n d - s t a b i l i z a t i o n j o b s i n t h e USA a r e c a r r i e d o u t by g r a v e l p a c k i n g (ALLEN &
ROBERTS 1982, SUMAN & SNYDER 1982; SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983). F o r t h e sake o f
completeness and comparison w i t h g r a v e l packing, t h e o t h e r sand c o n t r o l methods
a r e a l s o b r i e f l y discussed, w i t h s p e c i a l emphasis on t h e r o l e o f n a t u r a l sand
o r s y n t h e t i c proppants i n some o f these a p p l i c a t i o n s .

A f t e r some general comments, aspects o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r o p p a n t o r g r a v e l t y -

pes and g r a i n s i z e s , g r a v e l p a c k i n g c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s and g r a v e l s a t u r a t i o n , r e -
s e r v o i r s t a b i l i t y and f l u i d dynamics, a r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l r e s e r -
v o i r s , p a r t i c l e t r a n s p o r t t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t i o n s , steam-drive enhanced o i l recove-
r y and o t h e r techniques a r e d i s c u s s e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h g r a v e l pack q u e s t i o n s .
An account o f s p e c i a l g r a v e l pack a p p l i c a t i o n s forms a t r a n s i t i o n t o an o u t l i n e
o f o t h e r sand c o n t r o l methods, and f i n a l l y some comments a r e o f f e r e d on t h e i n -
f l u e n c e o f c o m p l e t i o n t y p e on g r a v e l p a c k i n g and f o r m a t i o n damage d u r i n g g r a v e l
packing.

5.2. Gravel types and grain sizes

S i m i l a r l y as p r o p p a n t t y p e and g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n i s t h e key element o f hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g design, g r a v e l t y p e and g r a i n s i z e c h o i c e i s a v e r y c r i t i c a l
 712

and c e n t r a l p a r t o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g d e s i g n . Gravel g r a i n s i z e has t o be c a r e f u l -

l y determined i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y t h e dual r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e pack t o be p e r -
meable t o f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s ( p r i m a r i l y hydrocarbons) and w e l l c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s ,
and t o a c t as a f i l t e r p r e v e n t i n g r e s e r v o i r sand f r o m moving i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e .
The term g r a v e l used i n sand c o n t r o l i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t i n sedimentary pe-
t r o g r a p h y i n n o t r e l a t i n g t o g r a n u l o m e t r i c a l assemblages c o a r s e r t h a n sand, b u t
c o m p r i s i n g t h e whole g r a i n s i z e spectrum o f sand and p r o b a b l y a l s o c o a r s e r f r a c -
t i o n s t h a t a r e used as p a c k i n g g r a v e l .

The s y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h p e l l e t s c o n s i s t i n g o f low- o r

h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e a n d / o r s i l i c a t e o r l o w - d e n s i t y z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e
( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.3. and 5.2.2.3.) are c a l l e d proppants i n hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g
t o express t h e i r f u n c t i o n o f p r o p p i n g t h e open c r a c k and p r o v i d i n g s u p p o r t
a g a i n s t i t s c l o s u r e , whereas t h e same p e l l e t s a r e named g r a v e l i n mechanical
sand c o n t r o l even i f t h e i r t a s k i s p a r t i a l l y approaching t h a t o f p r o p p a n t s i n
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g when p l u g g i n g p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i n a d d i t i o n t o composing
a c y l i n d r i c a l g r a v e l m a n t l e a l o n g ' t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l o r between c a s i n g and
screen o r l i n e r . A f t e r a b r i e f g e n e r a l o u t l i n e o f sand p r o d u c t i o n and i t s con-
t r o l , aspects o f g r a v e l type, g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e , and g r a v e l g r a i n s u r f a c e and
shape a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

5.2.1. Sand production and i t s c o n t r o l

Sand p r o d u c t i o n i s one o f t h e o l d e s t o i l - f i e l d problems (ALLEN & ROBERTS
1982) and i s a p a r t f r o m i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r c u t w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e r e s e r v o i r d e p l e -
t i o n t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r d e t e r i o r a t i n g n e t o i l e x p l o i t a t i o n r a t e s . I n
c o n t r a s t t o w a t e r i n v e n t i o n s h i f t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f o i l t o w a t e r i n t o an
uneconomical d i r e c t i o n , sand i n f l u x i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e i s n o t o n l y an o i l produc-
t i o n problem, b u t a l s o provokes c o n s i d e r a b l e damage o f t h e w e l l b o r e and s u r f a c e
i n s t a l l a t i o n s which i n t h e w o r s t case may l e a d t o complete l o s s o f t h e w e l l .
The b r i e f overview as f o l l o w s i n t r o d u c e s t h e s a n d - p r o d u c t i o n t r o u b l e as a base
o f t h e succeeding d i s c u s s i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g techniques and m a t e r i a l s . A f t e r
some general aspects, t h e o u t l i n e focusses on reasons o f sand p r o d u c t i o n , w e l l
d e t e r i o r a t i o n by sand p r o d u c t i o n , c r i t i c a l hydrocarbon o f f t a k e r a t e , and neces-
s i t y and aims o f sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s .

5.2.1.1. General aspects

Sand g r a i n s composing a r e n i t i c r e s e r v o i r r o c k s a r e s t a b i l i z e d by compressive
f o r c e s due t o t h e w e i g h t o f t h e overburden, by c a p i l l a r y cohesion and by p a r -
t i c l e cementation (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982, BJ-HUGHES 1986). Causes o f sand produc-
t i o n above a c r i t i c a l hydrocarbon o f f t a k e r a t e a r e r e l a t e d t o d i s l o d g i n g o f
g r a i n s by drag o r f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e s of f l o w i n g f l u i d which i n c r e a s e w i t h h i g h e r
c u r r e n t r a t e s and h i g h e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , d i m i n u t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n s t r e n g t h o f -
t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n due t o d i s s o l u t i o n o r d i s p e r s i o n o f cement-
i n g m a t e r i a l s between sand g r a i n s , r e d u c t i o n i n c a p i l l a r y f o r c e s w i t h i n c r e a -
s i n g w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n , d e c l i n e d r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o o i l due t o r i s i n g wa-
t e r s a t u r a t i o n which i n c r e a s e s r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e drawdown f o r a g i v e n o i l w i t h -
drawal r a t e , d i m i n i s h i n g cohesion due t o f i n e s m o b i l i z a t i o n and w e t t a b i l i t y a l -
t e r a t i o n s as a consequence o f changing f l u i d t y p e f r o m o i l t o water, and d e c l i -
n i n g f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e w i t h advancing r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n which i n c r e a s e s o v e r -
burden s t r e s s and thus compaction f o r c e s and may d i s t u r b c e m e n t a t i o n between
g r a i n s . Sand p r o d u c t i o n can be b a s i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h r e e mechanisms : redu-
c i n g d r a g f o r c e s by i m p r o v i n g w e l l c o m p l e t i o n p r a c t i c e s , mechanical b r i d g i n g o f
sand by g r a v e l packing, and i n c r e a s i n g f o r m a t i o n s t r e n g t h by chemical sand con-
solidation.

5.2.1.2. Reasons o f sand product i o n

Sand p r o d u c t i o n i n o i l and gas r e s e r v o i r s can be caused by t o t a l l y u n c o n s o l i -
d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s , h i g h hydrocarbon o f f t a k e r a t e s , o n s e t o f w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n ,
subsidence due t o r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n , and improper w e l l c o m p l e t i o n p r a c t i c e s
 713

(HALLIBURTON 1988). T o t a l l y u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s r e a c t t o any a t t e m p t t o

w i t h d r a w o i l o r gas w i t h l a r g e amounts o f sand i n f l o w i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e . O t h e r
r e s e r v o i r s produce s a n d - f r e e i f o f f t a k e r a t e s a r e r e s t r i c t e d , b u t i n c r e a s i n g
gross p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s c r e a t e e x c e s s i v e s t r e s s e s on i n s u f f i c i e n t l y l i t h i f i e d
pay zones and may exceed t h e a b i l i t y o f weak cements t o bond sand g r a i n s t o -
g e t h e r . C l a y m i n e r a l s and s i l t which a r e s l i g h t l y s t a b i l i z i n g o t h e r l o o s e sand-
stones may be s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d by w a t e r and when w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t s , t h e
bonding i s weakened o r d e s t r o y e d and f o r m a t i o n sand i s f l o w i n g i n t o t h e bore-
h o l e . R e d u c t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e may cause t h e overburden t o subside,
c r u s h a p o o r l y c o n s o l i d a t e d r e s e r v o i r and l e a d t o sand p r o d u c t i o n and s e r i o u s
c a s i n g damage.

Improper w e l l c o m p l e t i o n p r a c t i c e s i n c l u d e misuse o f a c i d f o r s t i m u l a t i o n
which may remove t h e small amount o f c a l c a r e o u s bonding m a t e r i a l i n c e r t a i n
w e a k l y - c o n s o l i d a t e d pay zones g i v i n g r i s e t o sand p r o d u c t i o n . Swabbing a w e l l
t o o h a r d o r b r i n g i n g t h e b o r e h o l e t o d e s i r e d o f f t a k e c a p a c i t y t o o q u i c k l y can
cause e x c e s s i v e s t r e s s on s l i g h t l y l i t h i f i e d r e s e r v o i r s and provoke sand f l o w .
I n s t a n t l y opening some w e l l s t o maximum p r o d u c t i o n r a t e can t r i g g e r w a t e r t o be
drawn i n t o b o r e h o l e and a d j a c e n t f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x , w i t h such w e l l c o m p l e t i o n
p r a c t i c e s b e i n g a b l e t o t r i g g e r premature sand i n f l u x i n b o r e h o l e s t h a t m i g h t
have o p e r a t e d s a n d - f r e e f o r l o n g e r p e r i o d s o f time.

5.2.1.3. Well deterioration by sand production

V a r i o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f w e l l d e t e r i o r a t i o n by sand p r o d u c t i o n e x i s t which
range from damage o f o n l y a few p a r t s o f downhole and s u r f a c e i n s t a l l a t i o n t o
complete d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e equipment w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y can have t h e consequence
t h a t f o r t e c h n i c a l and/or economical reasons t h e w e l l has t o be abandoned. The
o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a t e s on damage spectrum caused b y sand i n f l u x , and
economical and t e c h n i c a l l o s s o f w e l l s .

5.2.1.3.1. Damage spectrum caused by sand influx

Sand f l o w f r o m u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e c r e a t e s v a r i o u s
problems i n hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n such as premature f a i l u r e o f a r t i f i c i a l
l i f t equipment; sand f i l l - u p and b r i d g i n g i n p e r f o r a t i o n s , c a s i n g , t u b i n g and/
o r f l o w l i n e s t h e r e b y s h u t t i n g - o f f p r o d u c t i o n ; f a i l u r e and c o l l a p s e o f c a s i n g o r
l i n e r as a consequence o f removal and m i g r a t i o n o f s u r r o u n d i n g f o r m a t i o n s which
l e a d s t o s u p e r c r i t i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e and r e s e r v o i r compaction o r s u b s i -
dence, e r o s i o n and a b r a s i o n o f downhole and s u r f a c e t u b u l a r equipment; c u t t i n g
o f p i p e s , chokes, v a l v e s , and a r t i f i c i a l l i f t t o o l s ; f i l l i n g o f s e p a r a t o r t a n k s
and t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s , downhole c a s i n g and f o r m a t i o n damage t h a t sometimes
causes premature abandonment o f completions, and h a n d l i n g and d i s p o s a l o f produ-
ced r e s e r v o i r m a t e r i a l s (SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983). Some comments a r e o f f e r e d
on equipment f a i l u r e and s a c r i f i c a t i o n o f hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n t i m e as f o l -
lows.

5.2.1.3.1.1. Equipment abrasion

Sand p r o d u c t i o n f r o m u n c o n s o l i d a t e d r e s e r v o i r s as w e l l as p r o p p a n t evacua-
t i o n f r o m i n s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b i l i z e d f r a c t u r e i n f i l l i n g s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.3.)
l e a d t o b o r e h o l e o p e r a t i o n a l problems such as s t u c k pump p l u n g e r s , eroded pump
valves, sucker r o d f a i l u r e s , s t u c k t u b i n g and p r o p p a n t f i l l , and above a l l t o
d r a s t i c a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f r e s e r v o i r s t i m u l a t i o n and w e l l
c o m p l e t i o n f o r hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n . Damage o f s u r f a c e and downhole equipment
by sand e r o s i o n and impingement can a l s o be t h e reason o f f i r e o r b l o w o u t
(ANAND & JONES 1977, HALLIBURTON 1988). R e s e r v o i r compaction due t o sand i n f l u x
i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e l e a d s t o l o a d d e f o r m a t i o n o f c a s i n g and g r a v e l - p a c k screens
(WOOLEY & PRACHNER 1984). I n a d d i t i o n t o f o r m a t i o n sand i n f l u x , d e t e r i o r a t i n g
 714

e f f e c t s on wellbore hardware a r e a l s o caused by proppant flowback from f r a c t u r e

mouths in hydraulic r e s e r v o i r s t i mu l at i o n ( c f . se c tion 4.12.3.) and a l s o during
pumping of very abrasive proppant types downhole during f r a c t u r i n g treatments
( c f . se c t i o n 1 . 4 . 6 . ) .

5.2.1.3.1.2. Sacr i f icat ion o f hydrocarbon exploitation time

Hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n time must be s a c r i f i c e d t o empty s e p a r a t o r s o r t o
replace damaged completions components which causes high a dditiona l unnecessary
c o s t in terms of damaged equipment, expensive workovers a n d l o s t o i l a n d g a s
production, and i n many cas es , the c o s t t o r eturn a well t o hydrocarbon e xploi-
t a t i o n a f t e r extensive sand i n f l u x o r proppant flowback can be so excessive
t h a t the well has t o be prematurely abandoned (POPE, WILES & PIERCE 1987) o r
can only be saved by s i d et r ack i n g (MURER & STRAUCH 1980, MURER 1981). I n addi-
t i o n t o the expenses f o r the s a n d problems, unexpected pipe leaks o r equipment
f a i l u r e s r e p r e sen t s er i o u s s a f e t y and s p i l l h a z a r d s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n offshore
and inland water l o cat i o n s (GHALAMBOR, KOLIBA, HAYATDAVOUDI & ALCOCER 1988).
Much money has t o be invested every year t o combat sand production in petroleum
industry (DURRETT, GOLBIN, MURRAY & T I G H E 1977).

5.2.1.3.2. Economical and technical loss o f wells

A p a r t from economical l o s s of he well f o r the reason of unfe a sible remedy
expenses, the ul t i mat e danger of s er i o u s sand flow i n t o the borehole can be
technical l o s s of the well by cas ng f a i l u r e i n the producing inte rva l due t o
non-uniform l a t e r a l loading as the sediment i s flowing and pushing and/or high
a x i a l compressive load due t o slumping of the overlying formations in i n i t i a l l y
f a i r l y competent r es er v o i r rocks, o r due t o s e rious pay zone compaction subje c t-
ing the e n t i r e casing s t r i n g t o unusual load conditions in i n i t i a l l y unconsoli-
dated pays (DEAN 1939; JARDINS 1959). Large-scale s a n d influx can even r e s u l t
in tremendous r e s e r v o i r s e t t l i n g and consequently o i l - f i e l d subsidence ( A L L E N
1969, 1973; SULAK & DANIELSEN 1988, WAAL & SMITH 1988), w i t h pay zone shorten-
i n g a l s o being transmitted t o casing, tubing, l i n e r and screen which can be
p l a s t i c a l l y deformed a t loads exceeding the e l a s t i c a l l i m i t of s t e e l , leading
t o severe buckling when l a t e r a l r e s t r a i n t i s l o s t due t o sand production.

5.2.1.3.3. Other aspects

Deliberate disturbance of t h e r e s e r v o i r framework by sand production can
a l s o cause s i g n i f i c a n t decrease i n pay zone permeability although porosity may
only s l i g h t l y change (HALLIBURTON 1988), with t h i s type of formation damage ma-
king successful sand control more d i f f i c u l t . In a ddition, sand which i s produ-
ced during e a r l y well l i f e may be t h e supporting matrix f o r sha le s t r e a k s which
upon l o s s of support could f a l l across some of the pe rfora tions a n d prevent sa-
t i s f a c t o r y placement of remedial sand control m a te ria ls. Slumping and intermix-
ing of overlying s h al es with r e s e r v o i r s a n d can se ve re ly r e s t r i c t f l u i d flow be-
cause permeability l o s s es up t o 95 % may occur (RENSVOLD 1982).

The n e c e s s i t y of gravel packing hydrocarbon production w e lls in order t o

avoid t h e i r d e s t r u ct i o n by sand flow i s p a r t i c u l a r l y urgent in subsea i n s t a l l a -
t i o n s where many wells a r e t i e d t o the cen t r al template by subsea flow line s, be-
cause the r i s k of leaving wells unpacked i n a subsea completion i s considerably
higher than normal due t o t h e ex t r ao r d i n ar y expenses involved (SCRIMGEOUR &
SHEPHERD 1988).
 715

5.2.1.4. Critical hydrocarbon offtake rate

S l i g h t sand i n f l u x and f o r m a t i o n o f sand b r i d g e s i n c a s i n g o r t u b i n g can a t
l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y be handled by r e d u c i n g o i l o r gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s i n o r d e r
t o decrease t h e tendency f o r sand t o e n t e r t h e b o r e h o l e ( e f f e c t s o f f l o w r a t e
on s t a b i l i t y o f u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sands a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by TIPPIE & KOHLHAAS
1973), by i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c e d - f l u i d r i s i n g v e l o c i t i e s i n t u b u l a r s t o m i n i m i z e
sand s e t t l i n g by u t i l i z i n g small t u b i n g s t r i n g s o r by p r e m a t u r e l y a p p l y i n g gas
l i f t , o r by i n c r e a s i n g r i s i n g v e l o c i t i e s by r e c y c l i n g p a r t o f t h e f l o w back
i n t o t h e w e l l . Some aspects on t o l e r a t i o n l e v e l o f j o i n t hydrocarbon and sand
p r o d u c t i o n , and i n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.2.1.4.1. Toleration level o f joint

hydrocarbon and sand product ion
A l t h o u g h t h e t e c h n i c a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y optimum s o l u t i o n i s always z e r o
sand p r o d u c t i o n r a t e , r e l a t i v e l y weak f o r m a t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g h i g h - v i s c o s i t y o i l
may a l l o w hydrocarbon o f f t a k e i n s p i t e o f some sand i n f l u x w h i c h does n o t cause
problems i f t h e f l o w r a t e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y low (WEISSENBURGER, MORITA, MARTIN &
WHITFILL 1987). On t h e o t h e r hand, c o m p a r a t i v e l y s t r o n g r e s e r v o i r s may produce
sand once t h e e f f e c t i v e i n - s i t u s t r e s s i s i n c r e a s e d due t o d e c l i n i n g r e s e r v o i r
p r e s s u r e by p r o g r e s s i v e d e p l e t i o n . F o l l o w i n g t h e o u t l i n e o f some examples o f ex-
c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h sand c o n t e n t s i n o i l p r o d u c t i o n , comments a r e o f f e r e d on sand
p r o d u c t i o n vs. hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n r a t e .

5.2.1.4.1.1. Exceptionally high sand contents in oil production

CHEN, ZHOU & LIU (1986) r e p o r t some f l o w i n g w e l l s t h a t o c c a s i o n a l l y produce
o i l even w i t h a sand c o n t e n t up t o 40 % a t l e a s t f o r some t i m e o f e x p l o i t a t i o n
(MULLINS, BALDWIN & BERRY 1974; MORSE 1975 and FOSTER & LINVILLE 1979 p r e s e n t
methods of d e t e c t i o n and m o n i t o r i n g o f sand p r o d u c t i o n i n f l o w i n g w e l l s , and
CHAMBERLAIN & FORSYTH 1982 a l s o comment on sand removal f r o m gas streams), b u t
g e n e r a l l y t h e p r a c t i c a l l i m i t on sand i n f l u x i s a b t . 0 . 1 % o r even l e s s (ALLEN
& ROBERTS 1982). VONDE (1980) documents t h a t w i t h s p e c i a l l y designed pumping
and t r e a t i n g equipment, crude o i l c o n t a i n i n g up t o 70 v o l % o f e n t r a i n e d sand
can be withdrawn i n e x t r a o r d i n a r y cases, and t h a t even h i g h e r o f f t a k e r a t e s
t h a n w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l r o d pumps and sand c o n t r o l c o m p l e t i o n s can be achieved,
b u t on t h e o t h e r hand, e x c e s s i v e sand p r o d u c t i o n l e a d s t o r e s e r v o i r damage.

I n t h e e x c e p t i o n a l case s t u d y r e p o r t e d b y VONDE (1980), one l i m i t a t i o n t o

t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s p e c i a l pumps i s t h e assurance t h a t adequate v e l o c i t y
w i l l be m a i n t a i n e d i n t u b i n g and w e l l b o r e t o e l i m i n a t e sand s e t t l i n g . W h i l e
sand e x c l u s i o n c o m p l e t i o n s have r e s u l t e d i n severe w e l l b o r e p l u g g i n g and l i m i -
t e d o i l p r o d u c t i v i t y , s i g n i f i c a n t o f f t a k e i n c r e a s e s have been o b t a i n e d by a l l o w -
i n g u n r e s t r a i n e d sand e n t r y i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e . The o n l y l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t i v e and
g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t r e a t m e n t a g a i n s t sand f l o w , however, i s g r a v e l p a c k i n g o r
another sand c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n (SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983).

5.2.1.4.1.2. Sand product ion vs . hydrocarbon exploitation rate

Sand p r o d u c t i o n i s a r a t e - s e n s i t i v e process, w i t h a c r i t i c a l hydrocarbon o f f -
t a k e r a t e e x i s t i n g below which no o r o n l y n e g l i g i b l e amounts o f sand w i l l be
produced (BJ-HUGHES 1986). T h i s s a n d - f r e e r a t e , however, i s o f t e n uneconomical
and t h e r e f o r e t h e r e s e r v o i r sand has t o be c o n t r o l l e d i n o r d e r t o make o i l ex-
p l o i t a t i o n f e a s i b l e . The c r i t i c a l hydrocarbon o f f t a k e r a t e above which sand p r o -
d u c t i o n becomes e x c e s s i v e and u n t o l e r a b l e i n o i l - f i e l d maintenance can be d e t e r -
mined b y beaning-up f l u i d f l o w r a t e s (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). As f l u i d f l o w r a t e
i s i n c r e a s e d stepwise, sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n jumps a t each i n c r e m e n t and t h e n t a -
pers o f f t o the o r i g i n a l saturation.
 716

The surge e f f e c t a p p a r e n t l y breaks u n s t a b l e sand b r i d g e s w h i c h r e b u i l d a t

t h e h i g h e r r a t e i n s u b c r i t i c a l f l o w regimes. Under s u p e r c r i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s
when t h e t o l e r a n c e boundary has been exceeded, sand b r i d g e s do n o t r e f o r m due
t o o v e r p a s s i n g o f t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e s t r u c t u r e and sand i n f l o w c o n t i n u e s a t
h i g h e r r a t e s , w i t h hydrocarbon o f f t a k e r a t e t h e n h a v i n g t o be reduced s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y below t h e c r i t i c a l range t o a l l o w r e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f sand b r i d g e s . Bean-
i n g - u p o f o i l p r o d u c t i o n has t h e s i d e b e n e f i t t h a t t h e g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g r a -
t e s p r o v i d e i d e a l clean-up o f induced and i n h e r e n t f i n e s i n t h e p o r e channels
around t h e w e l l b o r e , t h e r e b y o f t e n r e s u l t i n g i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r p r o d u c t i v i -
t y indexes. PEDEN & Y A S S I N (1986 b) d i s c u s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f optimum c o m p l e t i o n
conditions f o r sand-free o i l production.

As a consequence o f e x t r e m e l y h i g h f l o w v e l o c i t i e s , i n gas w e l l s even a

small amount o f sand f o r a v e r y s h o r t d u r a t i o n can r e s u l t i n complete e r o s i o n
o f s t e e l p i p e a t c r i t i c a l areas (ANAND & JONES 1977), whereas i n o i l w e l l s due
t o l o w e r v e l o c i t y and h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y , h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f sand can be t o -
l e r a t e d o v e r l o n g e r p e r i o d s o f t i m e a t l e a s t i n some cases. I n a few v e r y un-
s t a b l e o i l sands, t h e c r i t i c a l r a t e a t which sand s t a r t s f l o w i n g i s l e s s t h a n 1
m3 o f o i l p e r day (MURER 1981).

5.2.1.4.2. Influence of perforations

F o r some r e s e r v o i r s s u f f e r i n g f r o m sand e m i g r a t i o n , maximum hydrocarbon o f f -
t a k e r a t e w i t h o u t e x c e s s i v e sand p r o d u c t i o n i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e l e n g t h o f
t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l , w i t h t h e r e b y some sand i n f l u x problems a l s o b e i n g a b l e
t o be s o l v e d by opening an i n c r e a s e d l e n g t h o f pay zone s e c t i o n , o r i m p r o v i n g
p e r f o r a t i o n d e n s i t y i n case i n t e r v a l l e n g t h has reached i t s t e c h n i c a l boundary
by b e i n g i d e n t i c a l t o n e t r e s e r v o i r t h i c k n e s s . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some ge-
n e r a l aspects, t h e advantage o f s e l e c t i v e p e r f o r a t i o n o f h a r d l a y e r s i n i n t e r -
beddings o f s o f t and h a r d sands i s i l l u s t r a t e d .

5.2.1.4.2.1. General aspects

O t h e r f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g maximum o f f t a k e r a t e a r e p r o d u c t i v i t y i n d e x and f o r -
m a t i o n s t r e n g t h o r drawdown f a c t o r . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n e r t i a l e f f e c t s ( c f .
s e c t i o n 4.3.3.3.) on sand p r o d u c t i o n can be shown by f l u c t u a t i n g c u r r e n t r a t e
experiments where e i t h e r a sharp i n c r e a s e o r a sudden decrease i n f l o w r a t e cau-
ses temporary i n c r e a s e o f sand i n f l u x (SAUCIER 1974). Given u n i f o r m c u r r e n t
r a t e a f t e r t h e change, sand p r o d u c t i o n decreased, t h e r e b y a p p a r e n t l y i n d i c a t i n g
r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f b r i d g i n g e f f e c t s . Rate changes may t h u s ( i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e
a b s o l u t e o f f t a k e l e v e l s ) be more d e t r i m e n t a l t o r e s e r v o i r s t a b i l i t y t h a n magni-
tude o f a c e r t a i n f l o w r a t e once i t i s k e p t more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t . PEDEN & YAS-
S I N (1986 a ) a n a l y z e t h e e f f e c t o f p e r f o r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s upon maximum sand-
f r e e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e i n f r i a b l e sandstones.

5.2.1.4.2.2. Selective perforation of hard layers in interbeds

I n a d d i t i o n t o o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y t o reduced hydrocarbon o f f t a k e r a t e s , s e l e c -
t i v e p e r f o r a t i o n can be a l r e a d y an e f f e c t i v e means o f sand c o n t r o l i n t h i c k r e -
s e r v o i r s u n l e s s p o o r l y - c o n s o l i d a t e d m a t e r i a l i s dominant (WEISSENBURGER, M O R I -
TA, M A R T I N & WHITFILL 1987). T h i s a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r i n t e r b e d d e d sequen-
ces o f s o f t and l i t h i f i e d h o r i z o n s . W h i l e t h e absence o f induced f o r m a t i o n da-
mage and a p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n t improvement o f p r o d u c t i v i t y i n d e x by a c c e p t a b l e
m i l d sand f l o w a r e advantages, s e l e c t i v e p e r f o r a t i o n r e q u i r e s s t r i c t adherence
t o o p e r a t i o n a l g u i d e l i n e s w i t h s o p h i s t i c a t e d p e r f o r a t i o n i n t e r v a l c h o i c e based
on a mechanical p r o p e r t i e s l o g t h a t has been c a l i b r a t e d by c o r e s , because any
e r r o r s c o u l d r e s u l t i n s e r i o u s sand problems. L e a v i n g o u t t h e weak u n s t a b l e ho-
r i z o n s from b e i n g p e r f o r a t e d i n i n t i m a t e i n t e r b e d d i n g s o f s o f t and h a r d sands
 717
p r o v i d e s hydrocarbon o f f t a k e t h r o u g h t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d l a y e r s , w i t h t h e forma-
t i o n sand loosened w i t h i n t h e u n s t a b l e i n t e r v a l s a l r e a d y b e i n g b r i d g e d a t t h e
i n t e r f a c e t o t h e h a r d i n t e r v e n t i o n s and t h u s even n o t r e a c h t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o f
the p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels.

5.2.1.5. Necessity and aims o f sand control treatments

R e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g p l a n n i n g o f f i e l d e x p l o i t a t i o n u s u a l l y does n o t have
any n e c e s s i t y and u n d e r s t a n d i n g f o r h a n d l i n g sand f l o w problems by d e c r e a s i n g
hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s , b u t i n many f i e l d s t h e economical framework r e q u i -
r e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y a c c e l e r a t e d o i l o r gas o f f t a k e q u a n t i t i e s ( c f . a l s o STRACKE
1987), and moreover secondary and t e r t i a r y o i 1- r e c o v e r y methods become sense-
l e s s once t h e necessary l a r g e t o tremendous f l u i d volumes w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e ex-
cess w a t e r cannot be managed i n c l u d i n g t h e i r r e i n j e c t i o n f o r t h e purpose o f
p r e s s u r e maintenance, r e s e r v o i r f l u i d pushing and e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s a f e and ha-
z a r d l e s s underground d i s p o s a l ( c f . a l s o SCHWARTZ 1969).

Therefore performance o f g r a v e l pack o r another sand c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n i s a

w i d e l y a p p l i e d means t o o p t i m i z e o f f t a k e q u a n t i t i e s by s t a b i l i z i n g t h e g r a i n
framework o f t h e sandy pay f o r m a t i o n and t o p r e v e n t i t s c o l l a p s e which would
d i s t u r b r e g u l a r and/or enhanced r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n . Comments a r e o f f e r e d as
f o l l o w s on sand c o n t r o l method spectrum; f o r m a t i o n consol d a t i o n vs. g r a v e l
packing, and t i m i n g o f sand c o n t r o l i n s t a l l a t i o n .

5.2.1.5.1. Sand control method spectrum

Sand c o n t r o l methods comprise mechanical b r i d g i n q i n s t a l l a t ons such as g r a -
v e l packs, s l o t t e d 1 i n e r s , . wire-wrapped screens-or-pre-packs; chemical c o n s o l i -
d a t i o n by i n j e c t i o n o f s o l i d i f y i n g f l u i d s ( m a i n l y p l a s t i c r e s i n s ) i n t o t h e f o r -
m a t i o n t o p r o v i d e an i n - s i t u g r a i n - t o - g r a i n cementation ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 9 . 1 . ) ,
and maintenance o f a h i g h l e v e l o f g r a i n - t o - g r a i n s t r e s s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r sand
w i t h i n t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l and i t s near s u r r o u n d i n g s t h r o u g h sand a r c h i n g i n t h e
pay zone g r a i n f a b r i c ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.9.5.), w i t h t r i g g e r i n g o f t h e g e o m e t r i c a l
arrangement b e i n g supported o r enhanced by u s i n g l o n g i n f l a t a b l e packers. Gra-
v e l p a c k i n g i s by f a r t h e most d i s t r i b u t e d and p o p u l a r sand c o n t r o l method due
t o i t s c o m p a r a t i v e l y s i m p l e t e c h n i c a l procedure, good economical f e a s i b i l i t y ,
h i g h success r a t e and widespread a p p l i c a b i l i t y . Gravel p a c k i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
s u i t a b l e f o r w e l l s which have a l r e a d y produced q u a n t i t i e s o f sand, t h e r e b y
h a v i n g caused e i t h e r v o i d s b e h i n d t h e c a s i n g and/or development o f a zone o f d i -
l a t e d pay zone around t h e b o r e h o l e (RENSVOLD 1982).

Sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s aim on r e t e n t i o n o f l o a d - b e a r i n g s o l i d s which upon

movement and e m i g r a t i o n would weaken t h e r o c k f a b r i c and u l t i m a t e l y g i v e r i s e
t o pay zone c o l l a p s e independent f r o m t h e i r d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t w i t h i n t h e w e l l -
b o r e i t s e l f and t h e t e c h n i c a l i n s t a l l a t i o n s t h e r e i n (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982).
F i n e s o l i d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h framework i n t e r s t i t i a l s o r f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s a r e n o t
p a r t o f t h e mechanical s t r u c t u r e and a r e always produced i n small amounts, w i t h
t h i s b e i n g i n f a c t b e n e f i c i a l as o t h e r w i s e t h e y would e v e n t u a l l y b l o c k t h e f l o w
channels.

5.2.1.5.2. Formation consolidat ion vs. gravel packing

W h i l e t h e chemicals f o r s y n t h e t i c sand framework cementation a r e r e l a t i v e l y
expensive and t h u s c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s n o r m a l l y more c o s t l y t h a n g r a v e l p a c k i n g
( c f . s e c t i o n 5.9.1.), t h e performance o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g r e q u i r e s i n any case
r i g o r h o i s t o p e r a t i o n which i s n o t i n e v i t a b l y necessary f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n by
chemical i n j e c t i o n t h a t can even be r u n t h r o u g h c o i l e d t u b i n g (LANMON & GILL
1966 even p r e s e n t a w i r e - l i n e compl.etion technique f o r sand c o n t r o l ) . As a r t i f i -
c i a l g l u e i n g and cementing of l o o s e f o r m a t i o n sands can c o m p l e t e l y r u i n t h e po-
 718

roperm p r o p e r t i e s i f t h e j o b f a i l s , however, g r a v e l p a c k i n g has t u r n e d o u t du-

r i n g t h e l a s t decades t o be t h e most e f f e c t i v e , p r a c t i c a l and s u c c e s s f u l sand
c o n t r o l method s i n c e i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o w a t e r - p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r y o v e r 100
y e a r s ago ( A P I 1961, CASHION & M A R K I E 1970, SOLUM 1986) and i t s f i r s t a p p l i c a -
t i o n s i n o i l and gas f i e l d s o v e r 60 y e a r s ago (SCOTT 1928, SAWDON 1937, COBERLY
& WAGNER 1938, ECKEL & REISTLE 1940, HILL 1941, WEST 1951).

5.2.1.5.3. Timing o f sand control installation

I n terms o f t i m i n g o f i n s t a l l a t i o n o f sand c o n t r o l measures, e a r l y w e l l l i f e
i s i n many cases a more s u i t a b l e p e r i o d f o r i n v e s t m e n t than l a t e p r o d u c t i o n h i -
s t o r y (HALLIBURTON 1 9 8 8 ) . Delay o f sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s bears t h e r i s k t h a t
once sand i n f l o w commences w i t h i t s a s s o c i a t e d disadvantages i f n o t i n h i b i t e d
i n i t i a l l y , c o s t o f remedial a c t i o n s may by f a r exceed t h a t o f p r i m a r y sand con-
t r o l , and r e p a i r o p e r a t i o n s may f a i l due t o r e s e r v o i r damage i n c o n t r a s t t o p r i -
mary c o n t r o l which i s much s u r e r and does n o t o n l y save c o s t f o r h a n d l i n g o f
sand i n v a s i o n problems, b u t a l s o a l l o w s f a s t e r hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n and
t h u s d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n a m o r t i z a t i o n . While i n i t i a l c o s t may be f a i r l y ac-
c u r a t e l y e s t i m a t e d , t h e expenses o f r e m e d i a l work a r e l e s s p r e d i c t a b l e .

5.2.2. Gravel type

Gravel p a c k i n g d e s i g n p r i m a r i l y i n c l u d e s s e l e c t i o n o f g r a v e l t y p e a c c o r d i n g
t o r e s e r v o i r depth, temperature and b r i n e composition; c h o i c e o f g r a v e l g r a i n
s i z e i n o r d e r t o c o m p l e t e l y r e t a i n movement o f f o r m a t i o n sand, s e l e c t i o n o f
screen s i z e and/or l i n e r s l o t openings f o r t h e purpose o f p r e v e n t i n g b o t h g r a -
v e l and f o r m a t i o n f i n e s t o e n t e r t h e g r a v e l - p a c k hardware, g r a v e l pack t h i c k -
ness aiming on achievement o f maximum f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y and minimum h y d r o c a r -
bon f l o w r a t e impairment, and p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l l e n g t h f o r g u a r a n t e i n g s t a b l e
p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s and c r e a t i n g a s u f f i c i e n t c a p t u r e r a d i u s f o r t h e e f f l u e n t hy-
drocarbons, as w e l l as b o r e h o l e s i z e and g r a v e l placement t e c h n i q u e . S e l e c t i o n
o f g r a v e l i n terms o f t y p e and g r a i n s i z e i s t h e key element o f sand c o n t r o l de-
s i g n t r e a t m e n t . Some comments on n a t u r a l sand and s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s a r e o f f e -
r e d as f o l l o w s .

5.2.2.1. General aspects o f gravel type choice

Both n a t u r a l sand and s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t s can be a p p l i e d f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g as w e l l as g r a v e l p a c k i n g . The most i m p o r t a n t c r i t e r i o n f o r p r o p p a n t o r
g r a v e l t y p e s e l e c t i o n i s c l o s u r e s t r e s s which i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a f f e c t s
t h e whole p r o p p a n t wedge i n f i l l i n g t h e crack, whereas i n g r a v e l packing, o n l y
t h e proppants p l u g g i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and composing g r a v e l nodes a t
t h e d i s t a l ends o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n tubes a r e s u b j e c t e d t o more o r l e s s f u l l c l o -
s u r e s t r e s s , b u t t h e g r a v e l m a n t l e e i t h e r along t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l o r between ca-
s i n g and screen o r l i n e r does n o t have t o r e s i s t t o t h e f u l l p r e s s u r e l o a d due
t o t h e absence o f t h e l i t h o s t a t i c component i n t h e open w e l l b o r e .

The d i s t a l g r a v e l nodes r e p r e s e n t a more o r l e s s b a l l - s h a p e d replacement i n -

f i l l i n g o f t h e r u b b l i z e d zone a t t h e end o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l where u s i n g
up o f t h e charge r e s u l t e d i n f u r t h e r f o r m a t i o n p e n e t r a t i o n , and must n o t be con-
f u s e d w i t h t h e g r a v e l nodes a t t h e p r o x i m a l ends o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s
which a r e d e p o s i t s o r i g i n a t i n g a f t e r f i l l i n g o f t h e s h o t h o l e s on t h e c a s i n g
w a l l where t h e y t e n d t o b r i d g e t h e annulus by meeting w i t h a n n u l a r sediments co-
v e r i n g t h e o u t e r f a c e o f screen o r l i n e r ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 7 . ) . A d d i t i o n a l more
i r r e g u l a r g r a v e l nodes o r i g i n a t e a t t h e c e m e n t / f o r m a t i o n i n t e r f a c e o r even a t
t h e casing/cement boundary as a consequence o f i n f i l l i n g o f v o i d s t h a t d e r i v e
f r o m i n c o m p l e t e cement d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h h o l e s and channels i n t h e cement
sheath. S i g n i f i c a n c e , s u i t a b i l i t y and n e c e s s i t y o f n a t u r a l sand and s y n t h e t i c
proppants as g r a v e l i n mechanical sand c o n t r o l a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .
 719

5.2.2.2. Natural sand

As deep t i g h t gas-bearing sandstones and moderately-deep o i l - b e a r i n g sand-
stones a r e u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t l y cemented and do n o t d i s i n t e g r a t e i n t o loose
g r a i n s d u r i n g t e s t i n g and p r o d u c t i o n even t h r o u g h o u t l o n g e x p l o i t a t i o n h i s t o r y ,
sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s a r e i n most cases r e s t r i c t e d t o c o m p a r a t i v e l y s h a l l o w
o r even v e r y s h a l l o w w e a k l y - l i t h i f i e d o r n e a r l y uncemented f o r m a t i o n s c o n t a i n -
i n g m a i n l y o i l and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o gas r e s e r v o i r s . I n o t h e r areas, however,
sand problems may be encountered up t o r e s e r v o i r depths o f 12,000 f t (4,000 m)
o r more (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982, BJ-HUGHES 1986).

P r o d u c t i o n d r i l l i n g on ground w a t e r a l s o has abundantly t o i n c l u d e g r a v e l

p a c k i n g o f t h e u n s t a b l e , o f t e n g e o l o g i c a l l y q u i t e young sandstones and conglome-
r a t e s i n f r e q u e n t l y v e r y s h a l l o w d e p t h p a r t i c u l a r l y i n case o f c o n v e n t i o n a l
d r i n k i n g water; m i n e r a l i z e d o r thermal w a t e r s commonly d e r i v e f r o m deeper s t o -
r e y s o f t h e l o c a l g e o l o g i c a l column which a r e b e t t e r l i t h i f i e d . Aspects o f g r a -
v e l t y p e s e l e c t i o n a r e summarized as f o l l o w s along t h e l i n e s o f r e s e r v o i r d e p t h
and c l o s u r e s t r e s s i n p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s . An o v e r v i e w o f t h e provenance of g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g sand i s a l s o p r o v i d e d .

5.2.2.2.1. Reservoir depth and closure

stress in perforation tunnels
As a consequence o f t h e low c l o s u r e s t r e s s e s i n t h e g e n e r a l l y s h a l l o w d e p t h
o f t h e o i l , w a t e r o r gas r e s e r v o i r s r e q u i r i n g sand c o n t r o l , n a t u r a l sand i s i n
most cases t h e adequate m a t e r i a l f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n view o f demanded mechani-
c a l r e s i s t i v i t y , w i t h t h e c l o s u r e s t r e s s regime i n most o f t h e pay f o r m a t i o n s
w i t h sand i n f l u x problems b e i n g s u b c r i t i c a l f o r sand. Sand c r u s h i n g may g e n e r a l -
l y o n l y o c c u r i n l i m i t e d amounts d u r i n g s u r f a c e h a n d l i n g and downhole pumping,
b u t n o t a t t h e bottom o f t h e w e l l as a consequence o f e x c e s s i v e c l o s u r e s t r e s s
i n most o f t h e r e s e r v o i r depth ranges where g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t ( c f .
s e c t i o n 1.2.2.).

The main reasons f o r t h e predominant t o almost e x c l u s i v e a p p l i c a t i o n o f n a t u -

r a l sand as g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l i n mechanical sand c o n t r o l a r e i t s ready
n e a r l y u n l i m i t e d a v a i l a b i l i t y and i t s cheap p r i c e , w i t h payment o f a premium
f o r a h i g h - q u a l i t y s y n t h e t i c p r o p p a n t t y p e i n s t e a d o f n a t u r a l sand i n most o f
t h e s h a l l o w r e s e r v o i r depths where g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t n o t b e i n g t e c h -
n i c a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d . I n boundary cases when deeper pay zones r e -
q u i r e g r a v e l p a c k i n g o r s h a l l o w e r u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sands a r e overpressured, t h e
s e c t i o n s o f t h e g r a v e l pack which a r e most s u s c e p t i b l e t o d e t e r i o r a t i o n by
g r a i n c r u s h i n g due t o s u p e r c r i t i c a l c l o s u r e s t r e s s a r e t h e plugged p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l s and t h e g r a v e l nodes a t t h e d i s t a l ends o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n tubes where
t h e more o r l e s s f u l l l i t h o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i s r e l e a s e d and t h e e f f e c t i v e c l o -
sure stress also r i s e s w i t h r e s e r v o i r pressure decline during progressive deple-
t i o n ( s i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r propped f r a c t u r e s i n h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n ; c f .
s e c t i o n 4.12.4.). The d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e l a s t i n g on t h e g r a v e l i n t h e p e r f o -
r a t i o n t u n n e l s i s i n any case c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n t h a t a c t i n g on t h e g r a -
vel mantle i n the wellbore.

As t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s a r e s i t u a t e d i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y o f t h e
w e l l b o r e where c l o s u r e s t r e s s upon p r e s s u r e drawdown reaches i t s maximum, a t t e n -
t i o n has t o be p a i d n o t o n l y i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , b u t a l s o i n g r a v e l pack-
i n g , t o go on t h e a b s o l u t e l y s a f e s i d e and d e s i g n t h e m a t e r i a l i n f i l l i n g hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r e p a t h as w e l l as g r a v e l - p a c k e d p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i n t h e n e a r e s t
s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e w e l l b o r e i n such a manner t h a t t h e p l u g g i n g i s adequate t o
the highest possible closure stress throughout the l i f e o f the borehole. Perfo-
r a t i o n c o l l a p s e (ANTHEUNIS, VRIEZEN, SCHIPPER & VLIS 1976) i n f r i a b l e s h a l l o w
sandstones and weakly-cemented r e s e r v o i r s i n g r e a t e r d e p t h has t o be a v o i d e d by
 720

e a r l y propping of the perforation tunnels w i t h g r a v e l o f s u i t a b l e t y p e and

g r a i n size.

5.2.2.2.2. Provenance of gravel packing sand

H i g h - q u a l i t y sand o f b o t h American and European provenance has been commonly
used f o r g r a v e l packing, w i t h t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f cheaper m a t e r i a l f r o m l o c a l
sources even h e l p i n g t o reduce t h e c o s t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s i n case q u a l i t y i s ac-
c e p t a b l e (examples where expensive i m p o r t o f sand f r o m remote sources c o u l d be
avoided due t o l o c a l presence o f sand i n s u i t a b l e q u a l i t y and s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i -
t i e s were i n t h e l a s t y e a r s p a r t i c u l a r l y Libya, I n d o n e s i a , and USSR, and t h e
same c e r t a i n l y a p p l i e s f o r o t h e r p a r t s o f A f r i c a and t h e F a r E a s t ) . I n terms o f
q u a l i t y demand, t h e expensive t o p - c l a s s Ottawa Sand i s f r e q u e n t l y n o t i n e v i t a b -
l y necessary as g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l and can be r e p l a c e d by cheaper sands
f r o m areas c l o s e r s u r r o u n d i n g t h e o i l - f i e l d o p e r a t i o n , t h e r e b y s a v i n g b o t h p r o -
d u c t and t r a n s p o r t c o s t ( t h e same a p p l i e s f o r s m a l l - t o m o d e r a t e - s c a l e sand
f r a c t u r i n g i n s h a l l o w t o i n t e r m e d i a t e r e s e r v o i r depth; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 1 . ) .

Sand p r o d u c t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s u s u a l l y i n c r e a s e w i t h s h a l l o w i n g f o r m a t i o n
depth where t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k s a r e i n l e s s mature stages o f b u r i a l d i a g e n e s i s
and t h u s l i t h i f i c a t i o n and t h e g r a i n f a b r i c i s a l s o p o o r e r s u p p o r t e d by l o w e r
l i t h o s t a t i c and h y d r o s t a t i c pressures, as w e l l as w i t h r i s i n g percentage o f f i -
nes (RIKE 1970). T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p c l e a r l y u n d e r l i n e s t h a t i n most o f t h e cases
o f sand c o n t r o l demand, r e s e r v o i r depth and t h u s bottomhole p r e s s u r e a r e so low
t h a t n a t u r a l sand i s s t i l l enough s t a b l e w i t h s u f f i c i e n t s e c u r i t y t o be used as
gravel packing m a t e r i a l .

5.2.2.3. Synthetic proppants

I n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y o r h i g h - d e n s i t y alumina o x i d e
and s i l i c a t e ( c e r a m i c ) o r l o w - d e n s i t y z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s ( c f . s e c t i o n
1 . 3 . ) have so f a r o n l y been a p p l i e d i n a few e x c e p t i o n s f o r g r a v e l packing,
w i t h t h e i r w i d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n h a v i n g been m a i n l y l i m i t e d by t h e c o n s i d e r a b l y
h i g h e r p r i c e s o f t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y expensive s y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l s ( c f . s e c t i o n
2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) . S i n t e r e d b a u x i t e has been p a r t i c u l a r l y u t i l i z e d i n s t e a m - f l o o d i n j e c -
t i o n - w e l l g r a v e l p a c k i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.7.1,), and n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand has been
r e c e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e same purpose because o f b e i n g even s u p e r i o r t o s i n -
t e r e d b a u x i t e i n t h e thermal h i g h - a l c a l i n i t y environment ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 7 . 2 . ) .

R e s i n - c o a t e d sand and proppants have a l s o r e p e a t e d l y been s e l e c t e d f o r a p p l i -

c a t i o n i n t h e g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a r k e t segment ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 2 . ) . L o w - d e n s i t y
i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h alumina s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s a r e t h e most s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l
f o r optimum pumping and placement, because t h e i r s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y i s almost
i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t o f sand which a l l o w s e x c e l l e n t suspension and t r a n s p o r t w i t h -
o u t s e t t l i n g i n most o f t h e g r a v e l p a c k i n g f l u i d s a t t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e much
h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y s y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l . R e c e n t l y an u l t r a -
l i g h t a r t i f i c i a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l has been i n t r o d u c e d f o r s p e c i a l a p p l i -
c a t i o n i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 5 . 3 . 3 . and 5 . 8 . 3 . ) . The f o l l o w i n g
o u t l i n e focusses on sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n and c l o s u r e s t r e s s t r a n s f e r , p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l and b o r e h o l e w a l l s t a b i l i t y , and a n g l e o f repose and g r a v e l i n f i l l i n g .

5.2.2.3.1. Sand consolidation and closure stress transfer

F o r t h e purpose o f s e c u r i n g u n l i m i t e d success o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s ,
recommendation i s made t o f a v o u r t h e more expensive h i g h - q u a l i t y s y n t h e t i c prop-
pants i n a l l cases where a t any stage d u r i n g l o n g - t e r m f i e l d o p e r a t i o n and hy-
drocarbon p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y , e f f e c t i v e c l o s u r e s t r e s s i n t h e immediate s u r r o u n -
d i n g s o f t h e w e l l b o r e m i g h t upon t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e draw-
down exceed t h e r e s i s t i v i t y boundary o f n a t u r a l sand, because c r u s h i n g o f t h e
 721

m a t e r i a l i n f i l l i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and f o r m i n g t h e g r a v e l nodes a t t h e
d i s t a l ends o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n tubes would be t h e w o r s t d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e e f -
f e c t i v i t y o f t h e g r a v e l pack j o b .

C l o s u r e s t r e s s becomes c r i t i c a l on t h e proppants i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n moderately-cemented sandstones i n g r e a t e r r e s e r v o i r depth. I n
s h a l l o w u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sands, c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s n o t f u l l y e x e r t e d on t h e prop-
p a n t s i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s because o f compensation o f t h e s t r e s s by com-
p a c t i o n of t h e s o f t r o c k and embedment o f t h e p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e s . The w e i g h t i s
t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e p o o r l y - l i t h i f i e d l a y e r s t o under- or o v e r l y i n g i n t e n s e l y -
cemented h o r i z o n s such as carbonates and c o n s o l i d a t e d sandstones. An i m p o r t a n t
a p p l i c a t i o n of i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants i s p r e v e n t i o n o f p e r f o -
r a t i o n t u n n e l c o l l a p s e i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y overpressured gas sandstones where
e l e v a t e d p r e s s u r e drawdown l e a d s t o c l o s u r e o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s
and impedes gas p r o d u c t i o n (CHENEVERT & THOMPSON 1985).

5.2.2.3.2. Perforation tunnel and borehole wall stability

P e r f o r a t i n g i n t o t h e s i d e o f a b o r e h o l e s e t s up a v e r y h i g h - s t r e s s e n v i r o n -
ment which i s v e r y c r i t i c a l f o r p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s t a b i l i t y , and c o l l a p s e o f
t h e h o r i z o n t a l h o l e s can b e s t be p r e v e n t e d by i n f i l l i n g them w i t h p r e s s u r e - r e -
s i s t a n t p r o p p a n t s which p l u g t h e v o i d s and guarantee t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f h i g h
p r e s s u r e drawdowns f o r r e s e r v o i r - a d e q u a t e o f f t a k e r a t e s i n s t e a d o f keeping draw-
down v e r y l i m i t e d i n o r d e r t o a v o i d c o l l a p s e o f unplugged p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s
and t o renounce f r o m economical gas p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s ( a s p e c t s o f p e r f o r a t i o n
s t a b i l i t y under h i g h s t r e s s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by PATTILLO & SMITH 1982). STEIN
(1976) uses c o n v e n t i o n a l w e l l l o g d a t a f o r s e l e c t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g mate-
r i a l s f o r sand c o n t r o l .

5.2.2.3.3. Angle of repose and gravel infilling

The a n g l e o f repose o f t h e g r a v e l - p a c k m a t e r i a l should be small i n o r d e r t o
a l l o w r e a d y i n f i l l i n g o f a l l c r e v i c e s and p o c k e t s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n i n b a r e f o o t -
completed w e l l s (COBERLY & WAGNER 1938). A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r v e r y l o w a n g l e o f
repose, h i g h - s t r e n g t h z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s s h o u l d a l s o i n terms o f t h e i r
low s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y be t h e i d e a l gravel-pack m a t e r i a l , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e y
a r e f a r t o o expensive f o r most o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.3. and
2.2.2.3.). Low d e n s i t y and cheap p r i c e o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h alumina s i l i -
c a t e proppants c h a r a c t e r i z e t h i s t y p e o f g r a v e l t o be t h e most s u i t a b l e mate-
r i a l t o r e p l a c e n a t u r a l sand i n a l l t h e u t i l i z a t i o n s where h i g h e r c l o s u r e
s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y and h i g h e r pack c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e g r a v e l i s r e q u i r e d .

The low s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f l o w - d e n s i t y alumina s i l i c a t e proppants r e s u l t s

i n a pumping b e h a v i o u r o f t h i s m a t e r i a l s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f n a t u r a l sand w h i l e
a l l t h e advantages o f t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y p r o p p a n t a r e o b t a i n e d . The h i g h s p e c i f i c
g r a v i t y o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e drawback f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
g r a v e l m a t e r i a l a p a r t f r o m i t s e l e v a t e d p r i c e , b u t as a consequence o f i t s p e r -
formance b e i n g s u p e r i o r t o a l l c o m p e t i t i v e m a t e r i a l s i n some s p e c i a l a p p l i c a -
t i o n s such as s t e a m - d r i v e enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.7.1.), t h e u t i l i -
z a t i o n o f t h e expensive and heavy s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e i s i n some cases i n e v i t a b l e
f o r a c h i e v i n g s u c c e s s f u l sand c o n t r o l .

5.2.3. Gravel grain size

The most e x t e n s i v e l y used s a n d - c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e c o n s i s t s of p l a c i n g a
screen i n t h e w e l l b o r e and p a c k i n g g r a v e l around i t (GRUESBECK, SALATHIEL &
ECHOLS 1979). The screen i s s i z e d t o h o l d back t h e g r a v e l which i n t u r n i s s i -
zed t o r e t a i n t h e f o r m a t i o n sand. G r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l i s t h e r e -
f o r e a f u n c t i o n of mean p a r t i c l e s i z e of t h e r e s e r v o i r sand, and screen open-
 722

i n g s have t o be a d j u s t e d t o chosen g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e . S e l e c t i o n o f g r a v e l g r a i n
s i z e i n sand c o n t r o l i s t h e r e f o r e o f much g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a n g r a v e l t y p e
choice, which i s i n c o n t r a s t t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g where emphasis i s on s e l e c -
t i o n of p r o p p a n t t y p e and a l t h o u g h b e i n g a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l y i m p o r t a n t f o r conduc-
t i v i t y o p t i m i z a t i o n , p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e c h o i c e i s i n most cases o n l y o f subor-
d i n a t e p r i o r i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1.3. and 1 . 4 . ) .

F o r m a t i o n p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n d a t a a r e t h e b a s i s f o r g r a v e l s i z e and
screen opening s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and have a l s o pronounced e f f e c t s on c o m p l e t i o n
c o n f i g u r a t i o n (ECONOMIDES 1986), because f i n e r r e s e r v o i r sands r e q u i r i n g smal-
l e r g r a v e l f o r p r o p e r c o n t r o l need more p e r f o r a t i o n s than normal o r even open-
h o l e c o m p l e t i o n i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e an adequate f l o w area. A f t e r t h e o u t l i n e o f
some g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s , t h e b r i e f account as f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a t e s on aspects o f
g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n vs. f o r m a t i o n g r a i n s i z e , p a c k i n g g r a v e l / f o r m a t i o n sand
s i z e r a t i o s , w i d t h o f g r a v e l mantle, impact o f g r a v e l pack hardware, f o r m a t i o n
g r a i n s i z e e v a l u a t i o n , g r a i n s i z e i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand, and
hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i v i t y vs. sand c o n t r o l . Some aspects o f u s i n g screen o r li-
n e r w i t h o u t g r a v e l pack a r e a l s o discussed.

5.2.3.1. General aspects of gravel grain size selection

C a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n o f sand o r p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e f o r sand c o n t r o l i s essen-
t i a l , as t o o f i n e m a t e r i a l l e a d s t o p l u g g i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , whereas t o o
coarse m a t e r i a l g i v e s r i s e t o g r i n d i n g o f t h e l i n e r by a l l o w i n g f o r m a t i o n p a r -
t i c l e s t o pass t h e i n e f f e c t i v e f i l t e r and t o be produced t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e hy-
drocarbons. Gravel s i z e r e d u c t i o n may d i m i n i s h t h e h e i g h t o f t h e g r a v e l - p a c k e d
i n t e r v a l and l e a v e some zones w i t h o u t sand c o n t r o l , c r e a t e v o i d s w i t h i n p e r f o r a -
t i o n s and cause t h e i r c o l l a p s e , change g r a v e l s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n and decrease
sand c o n t r o l e f f i c i e n c y , and generate f i n e s and p l u g t h e g r a v e l pack, whereas
f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , p r o p p a n t s i z e r e d u c t i o n may decrease f r a c t u r e conduc-
t i v i t y and generate f i n e s (CHEUNG 1985). Some aspects o f common g r a v e l q u a n t i -
t i e s and g r a i n s i z e s , p r e v e n t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n sand i n t r u s i o n , and g r a v e l q u a l i -
t y demand a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.2.3.1.1. Comnon gravel quantities and grain sizes

As t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f sand t h a t a r e needed f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e a b t . 1 - 20
t p e r w e l l and i n t h e s m a l l e r - s c a l e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t e n o n l y amounts between a
few hundreds o f kg and some t o n s a r e necessary, t h e t o t a l demand o f m a t e r i a l
f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s much l e s s t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d f o r h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n
and i s i n most areas c u m u l a t i v e l y f o r f i e l d s o r complexes o f patches o n l y a b t .
5 - 20 % and f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l j o b o n l y a b t . 1 - 10 % o f t h e q u a n t i t y used f o r
fracturing.

I n a d d i t i o n , common g r a i n s i z e s f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e o f t e n 30/50 and 40/60

mesh i n s t e a d o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y 20/40 and 16/20 i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , whereas
i n o t h e r r e s e r v o i r s , a l s o 12/20 and 20/40 a r e usual g r a i n s i z e s f o r g r a v e l pack-
i n g i n s t e a d o f o r i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e f i n e r m a t e r i a l . I n v e r y coarse pay zones
o r i n case o f reasonable g r a v e l compaction by l i n e r v i b r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.8.4.), a l s o 8/12 and 6/10 s i z e s have been o c c a s i o n a l l y a p p l i e d ( c f . FLANIGAN
1 9 7 9 ) , whereas e x t r e m e l y f i n e sands t o s i l t s , diatomaceous e a r t h s and c h a l k s
may r e q u i r e even f i n e r g r a v e l o f 40/70 o r 70/140 s i z e u n l e s s s p e c i a l d e s i g n has
t o be made such as i n case o f mass-flowing c h a l k s w i t h m o t i o n o f p e l l e t s compo-
sed o f numerous i n d i v i d u a l m i c r o p a r t i c l e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 3 . ) .

5.2.3.1.2. Prevention of formation sand intrusion

Choice o f g r a v e l s i z e has t o f o l l o w t h e g u i d e l i n e s t h a t an e f f e c t i v e g r a v e l
pack i s t o c o m p l e t e l y p r e v e n t t h e i n t r u s i o n of f o r m a t i o n sand b o t h i n t o t h e
 723

w e l l b o r e and t h e g r a v e l pack i t s e l f , t o p r o v i d e maximum p r o d u c t i v i t y by m i n i m i -

z i n g t h e pseudo-skin a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l f l o w r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e hy-
drocarbons generated by t h e g r a v e l pack, and t o m i n i m i z e p e r m e a b i l i t y i m p a i r -
ment w i t h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n (PEDEN, RUSSELL & OYENEYIN 1985). The o b j e c t i v e o f a
good g r a v e l pack i s t o connect t h e i n t e r s t i t i a l tubes o f t h e f o r m a t i o n t o those
o f t h e g r a v e l i n such a way t h a t t h e r e i s no movement o f s o l i d s a t a l l when t h e
produced hydrocarbons pass t h r o u g h t h e pack (SOLUM 1984).

Gravel s i z e s e l e c t i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e s i z e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n p a r t i c l e s i s one
of t h e most i m p o r t a n t aspects o f d e s i g n i n g g r a v e l pack f o r maximum p r o d u c t i v i t y
(GURLEY, COPELAND & HENDRICK 1977). Gravel should be p r i n c i p a l l y s i z e d t o p r e -
v e n t i n v a s i o n o f t h e f i n e s t f o r m a t i o n sand w i t h i n t h e p e r f o r a t e d hydrocarbon-
b e a r i n g i n t e r v a l o f t h e g e o l o g i c a l column i n case o f m u l t i p l e - h o r i z o n comple-
t i o n s i n o r d e r t o assure e f f e c t i v e sand c o n t r o l and l o n g e r - l i v e d g r a v e l packs,
w i t h t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t b e i n g s t a b i l i z e d g r a i n b r i d g i n g and t h e r e f o r e a b s o l u t e
stoppage of sand p r o d u c t i o n w i t h o u t undue l i m i t a t i o n s o f f l o w c a p a c i t y and t h u s
e x p l o i t a t i o n r a t e s (SAUCIER 1974). Coarser pay zone sands a r e r e l a t i v e l y easy
t o c o n t r o l , b u t c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s o c c u r i n f i n e r r e s e r v o i r sands w i t h
l a r g e r amounts o f s i l t and c l a y p a r t i c l e s . S m a l l e r g r a v e l may r e q u i r e a l a r g e r
p e r f o r a t i o n a r e a o r even open h o l e c o m p l e t i o n f o r i t s i n s t a l l a t i o n , and i s more
s u s c e p t i b l e t o p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n caused by m i x i n g w i t h f o r m a t i o n d e b r i s
and c o n t a m i n a t i o n w i t h r e s e r v o i r sand d u r i n g placement.

5.2.3.1.3. Gravel quality demand

I n terms o f q u a l i t y demand, a minimum o f 96 % o f t h e g r a v e l s h o u l d f a l l b e t -
ween t h e d e s i g n a t e d s i e v e mesh s i z e s , and n o t more t h a n 2 % should be s m a l l e r
t h a n t h e l a s t mesh s i z e o f t h e g r a n u l o m e t r i c a l i n t e r v a l . The g r a v e l s h o u l d con-
s i s t o f i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s and n o t of c l u s t e r s o f two o r more g r a i n s . Sand con-
t a i n i n g more t h a n 1 % o f a c i d - s o l u b l e contaminates i s n o t recommended f o r g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g because o f r e p r e s e n t i n g a source o f f i n e s and g r a i n f r a c t u r i n g
which reduces g r a v e l pack l i f e . Gravel c o n t a i n i n g more t h a n 0.5 % o f c l a y - s i z e d
f i n e p a r t i c l e s p a s s i n g 325 mesh screen s h o u l d a l s o be r e j e c t e d , as f i n e s q u i c k -
l y d e s t r o y pack p e r m e a b i l i t y .

5.2.3.2. Gravel grain size selection vs. formation grain size

I n terms of granulometry, e x p e r i e n c e d u r i n g t h e l a s t decades has shown t h a t
mean s i z e of t h e g r a v e l pack sand o r proppants s h o u l d be g e n e r a l l y f i v e t o s i x
t i m e s t h e mean s i z e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n sand expressed by t h e 50 % d i a m e t e r o f t h e
g r a i n s i z e c u r v e (SCHWARTZ 1969, SAUCIER 1974, SPARLIN 1974; GURLEY, COPELAND &
HENDRICK 1977; PENBERTHY & COPE 1979) w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e optimum f o r
complete p r e v e n t i o n o r stoppage o f movement o f f o r m a t i o n sand i n t o o r t h r o u g h
t h e g r a v e l w i t h l i t t l e o r no e f f e c t on i n i t i a l g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i t y . The e a r l i e r
g u i d e l i n e s o f s e l e c t i n g a mean s i z e o f t h e g r a v e l pack m a t e r i a l o f e i g h t t o t e n
t i m e s t h e 10 % coarse p e r c e n t i l e o f t h e c u m u l a t i v e s i e v e a n a l y s i s c u r v e o f t h e
f o r m a t i o n sand (COBERLY & WAGNER 1938, HILL 1941) o r f o u r t o t h i r t e e n t i m e s
t h a t g r a i n s i z e percentage o f t h e g r a n u l o m e t r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n (SCHWARTZ 1969;
WILLIAMS, ELLIOTT & WEAVER 1972) o r o t h e r r u l e s o f thumb (WINTERBURN 1947,
TAUSCH & CORLEY 1958) have t u r n e d o u t t o r e s u l t i n t o o many f a i l u r e s (SAUCIER
1974). Gravel pack m a t e r i a l / f o r m a t i o n sand r a t i o s o f f i v e t o s i x have p a r t i c u -
l a r l y been proven t o be s u c c e s s f u l i n w e l l s w i t h severe f l o w d i s t u r b a n c e where
b r i d g i n g i s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y under t h e same c o n d i t i o n s where s t i l l good r e s u l t s
a r e achieved f o r u n i f o r m u n d i s t u r b e d f l o w .

O v e r s i z e d g r a v e l can be invaded and plugged by f o r m a t i o n f i n e s d u r i n g produc-

t i o n due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t b r i d g i n g p r o p e r t i e s (SPARLIN & COPELAND 1972, SAUCIER
1974). P r o p e r l y s i z e d g r a v e l s h o u l d be p l a c e d i n such a manner t h a t p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l s a r e g r a v e l - f i l l e d and even a g r a v e l node i s c r e a t e d a t t h e d i s t a l ends
o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n tubes (BELL 1982), because o t h e r w i s e pay zone sand may f i l l
 724

t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and cause severe p r o d u c t i v i t y r e s t r i c t i o n (SUMAN, ELLIS & SNY-

DER 1 9 8 3 ) . Aspects o f g r a v e l s i z e s e l e c t i o n and g r a v e l - s a n d s i z e r a t i o s a r e
a l s o d i s c u s s e d by COBERLY & WAGNER (1938), TAUSCH & CORLEY (1959) and STEIN
(1983), and COBERLY (1937) o u t l i n e s q u e s t i o n s o f screen w i r e and l i n e r s l o t
openings. OYENEYIN (1987 b ) p r e s e n t s f o r m a t i o n sand s i z e p r e d i c t i o n f r o m w e l l
1og c o r r e l a t i o n s .

5.2.3.3. Packing gravel/formation sand size ratios

As r e s e r v o i r f l o w c o n d i t i o n s may change d u r i n g hydrocarbon w i t h d r a w a l t i m e
and a l t e r e d f l u i d f o r c e s cause pay i n s t a b i l i t i e s t o occur, g r a v e l b r i d g e s t e n d
t o breakdown and more sand i s produced u n t i l new b r i d g e s f o r m under new c o n d i -
t i o n s o f s t a b i l i t y (SAUCIER 1974). T h i s i s t h e reason why i n c o n t r a s t t o e a r -
l i e r g r a v e l pack d e s i g n aiming on b r i d g i n g and r e a s o n a b l y s l o w i n g down o f forma-
t i o n sand m i g r a t i o n w i t h l a r g e r g r a v e l - s a n d mean diameter r a t i o s i n t h e range
o f 6 - 14, tendency has been d u r i n g t h e l a s t decade more and more towards smal-
l e r g r a v e l - s a n d d i a m e t e r r a t i o s o f a b t . 5 - 6 i n o r d e r t o a b s o l u t e l y s t o p forma-
t i o n sand moving and f l o w i n g i n t o o r through t h e g r a v e l (SPARLIN 1969; FLANIGAN
1979; SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983). O t h e r p o i n t s which have t o be c o n s i d e r e d a r e
g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i t y and p a c k i n g d e n s i t y , f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y and granulome-
t r y , and impact o f f o r m a t i o n and g r a v e l f i n e s .

5.2.3.3.1. Absolute stoppage o f moving formation sand

A l t h o u g h a b s o l u t e stoppage o f sand i n t r u s i o n may be d e s i r a b l e f r o m t h e sand
c o n t r o l p o i n t o f view (SAUCIER 1974), an overdesign o f sand p a r t i c l e r e s t r a i n t
b e a r s t h e danger o f p o t e n t i a l r e d u c t i o n in w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y (PEOEN, RUSSELL &
OYENEYIN 1985), w i t h t h u s a sound compromise b e i n g necessary between maximum r e -
s t r i c t i o n o f sand movement and h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e hydrocarbon o f f t a k e r a t e . I n
c o n t r a s t t o g r a v e l - p a c k sand s i z i n g , wrapped-screen w i r e s p a c i n g o r l i n e r s l o t
w i d t h has o n l y a minimal, g e n e r a l l y almost n e g l i g i b l e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on
w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y and t h u s screen and l i n e r opening s i z i n g e x c l u s i v e l y aims on
a b s o l u t e containment o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 3 . 5 . ) .

A l t h o u g h t h e i n i t i a l p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e g r a v e l pack i s i n case o f a mate-

r i a l / f o r m a t i o n sand s i z e r a t i o o f f i v e t o s i x c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n f o r a r a -
t i o o f a b t . ten, t h i s e f f e c t i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y compensated by much l e s s subse-
q u e n t g r a v e l pack impairment by p o r e b r i d g i n g and p l u g g i n g i n case o f s m a l l e r
r a t i o s w i t h r e s p e c t t o l a r g e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s (SAUCIER 1974). I f g r a v e l pack
g r a i n s i z e i s t o o l a r g e , f o r m a t i o n sand p a r t i c l e b r i d g i n g f a i l s and e n t e r i n g r e -
s e r v o i r sand g r a i n s may even reduce e f f e c t i v e pack p e r m e a b i l i t y t o a v a l u e l e s s
than t h e i n i t i a l one o f a f i n e r g r a v e l pack t h a t undergoes l e s s impairment. The
l o w e s t g r a v e l pack d e t e r i o r a t i o n i s achieved when g r a v e l s i z e and f o r m a t i o n
sand s i z e a r e e q u i v a l e n t , b u t f o r t h i s c o n s t e l l a t i o n , a l s o w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y i s
n e g l i g i b l e and approaches i t s minimum. F o r any g r a v e l s i z e , t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f
t h e r e s e r v o i r sand/gravel pack i n t e r f a c e i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same as t h a t o f
t h e f o r m a t i o n i t s e l f o r l a r g e r (COBERLY & WAGNER 1938).

5.2.3.3.2. Gravel permeability and packing density

S m a l l e r g r a v e l - s a n d mean d i a m e t e r r a t i o s below 5 u s u a l l y c r e a t e problems due
t o t h e low a b s o l u t e q r a v e l D e r m e a b i l i t v and may on y be d e s i r a b l e under s e r i o u s -
l y d i s t u r b e d r e s e r i o i r f i o w c o n d i t i o n s (SAUtIER 1974) and under h i g h - v e l o c i t y
c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n s (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982), because t h e y u s u a l l y p r o v i d e sand
c o n t r o l o n l y a t t h e expense o f hydrocarbon produc i v i t y (HIMES & R U I Z 1988) es-
p e c i a l l y i n cased-hole c o m p l e t i o n s where s m a l l e r , l e s s permeable p e r f o r a t i o n
packages cause an i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e d r o p across them. Some comments a r e o f f e -
r e d as f o l l o w s on p o s s i b l e range and i d e a l l e v e l o f packing gravel/formation
sand s i z e r a t i o .
 725

5.2.3.3.2.1. Possible range o f pack gravel/pay sand size ratio

F o r v e r y h i g h o i l o f f t a k e r a t e s o r i n case o f expected w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n ,
even a g r a v e l - s a n d r a t i o o f 2 may be h e l p f u l (STEIN 1983). S u b s t a n t i a l l y l a r g e r
g r a v e l d i a m e t e r f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e same s i z e o f f o r m a t i o n sand can be chosen
i f hexagonal i n s t e a d o f c u b i c g r a v e l g r a i n p a c k i n g can be achieved by l i n e r v i -
b r a t i o n (SOLUM 1984; c f . s e c t i o n 5.8.4.). W i t h 8/12 mesh g r a v e l i n t h e hexago-
n a l pack, v i b r a t i n g w i l l g i v e t h e same i n t e r s t i t i a l tube s i z e as 20/30 mesh g r a -
v e l i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c u b i c arrangement t h r o u g h f l o w - t y p e placement, and a l s o
t h e w i d t h o f l i n e r s l o t s and wrapped-screen w i r e s can be a c c o r d i n g l y i n c r e a s e d .
On t h e o t h e r hand, GULATI & MALY (1974) p r e s e n t evidence a r g u i n g f o r s e l e c t i o n
o f s m a l l e r g r a i n s i z e s i n grave7 p a c k i n g . S m a l l e r g r a v e l - s a n d s i z e r a t i o s a r e
a l s o r e q u i r e d when u s i n g l o o s e i n s t e a d o f t i g h t p a c k i n g f a b r i c s (ALLEN & RO-
BERTS 1982).

I n some f o r m a t i o n s o f p r e f e r a b l y c o a r s e r g r a i n s i z e , g r a v e l - s a n d s i z e r a t i o s
o f 6 - 14 a l l o w sand i n v a s i o n i n t o t h e pack and r a t i o s o v e r 14 even p e r m i t unre-
s t r a i n e d sand p r o d u c t i o n through t h e pack (FLANIGAN 1979, PENBERTHY & COPE
1979). I n such r e s e r v o i r s , complete stoppage o f sand movement can be reached
w i t h g r a v e l - s a n d s i z e r a t i o s o f 3 - 6. The more u n i f o r m t h e g r a v e l m a t e r i a l ,
t h e h i g h e r t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e g r a v e l pack, and a v o i d i n g excess f i n e s makes
twice screening o f the gravel f e a s i b l e .

5.2.3.3.2.2. Ideal level o f pack gravel/pay sand size ratio

F o r most o f t h e r e s e r v o i r s r e q u i r i n g sand c o n t r o l by g r a v e l packing, g r a v e l
grain s i z e s e l e c t i o n can be summarized t h a t a r a t i o o f g r a v e l median
d i a m e t e r / f o r m a t i o n sand median d i a m e t e r between 5 and 6 i s t h e i d e a l range
p r o v i d i n g a b s o l u t e stoppage o f sand movement and u n r e s t r i c t e d i n i t i a l g r a v e l
p e r m e a b i l i t y (ECONOMIDES 1986). R a t i o s below 5 g i v e r i s e t o l i m i t e d hydrocarbon
p r o d u c t i o n , because p r o p e r b r i d g i n g a t t h e g r a v e l i n t e r f a c e i s n o t p o s s i b l e ,
b u t y e t no i n v a s i o n of t h e g r a v e l pack by r e s e r v o i r sand occurs. R a t i o s between
6 and 11 provoke i n t r u s i o n o f f o r m a t i o n sand i n t o t h e g r a v e l pack which
d r a s t i c a l l y reduces g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i t y , b u t s t i l l p r o v i d e e f f e c t i v e sand
c o n t r o l once t h e g r a v e l pack i s c o m p l e t e l y plugged w i t h f i n e p a r t i c l e s and f u r -
t h e r m o t i o n o u t o f t h e pay zone i s i n h i b i t e d .

A t r a t i o s i n excess o f 11, t h e pores i n t h e g r a v e l package become so l a r g e

t h a t r e s e r v o i r sand i s p a r t i a l l y m i g r a t i n g through t h e g r a v e l i n t o t h e w e l l -
bore, t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i t y again, b u t a l r e a d y p r o g r e s s i v e l y
d e t e r i o r a t i n g hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n by h a v i n g o n l y one e f f e c t o f s l o w i n g
down o f sand p r o d u c t i o n . A t a r a t i o o f a b t . 15, o r i g i n a l g r a v e l pack p e r m e a b i l i -
t y i s reached a g a i n which r e f l e c t s t h a t a t r a t i o s above 15, f o r m a t i o n sand can
invade t h e b o r e h o l e by passage t h r o u g h t h e g r a v e l pack w i t h o u t any r e s t r i c t i o n ,
w i t h i n t h i s case t h e g r a v e l pack b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y u s e l e s s .

5.2.3.3.3. Formation permeability and granulometry

Gravel g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n depends on b o t h f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y and granu-
lometry. While coarser gravel g r a i n sizes are required f o r high-permeability r e -
s e r v o i r s b e i n g c l e a n medium- t o c o a r s e - g r a i n e d sands, s m a l l e r g r a v e l g r a i n s i -
zes a r e needed f o r t o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay zones b e i n g f i n e - g r a i n e d sands c o n t a i n -
i n g d i s p e r s e d c l a y p a r t i c l e s . As f i n e s m i g r a t i o n i s t h e w o r s t impairment i n
l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sands, s m a l l e r g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e s have t o be s e l e c t e d f o r b r i d -
g i n g and h o l d i n g back o f c l a y m i n e r a l s , w i t h b e t t e r r e s u l t s even b e i n g achieved
i f a c c e p t i n g l o w e r g r a v e l pack p e r m e a b i l i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h a t o b t a i n e d f r o m
l a r g e r g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e s . I n many cases, 40/60 o r 50/70 mesh g r a v e l pack mate-
r i a l i s a p p l i e d f o r c o n t r o l l i n g f i n e - g r a i n e d l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sands. A l t h o u g h
 726

such d i r t y r e s e r v o i r s can be e x p l o i t e d w i t h o u t s t a b i l i z a t i o n by r e d u c i n g produc-

t i o n r a t e s , enough i n l e t area i s necessary t o achieve r e a s o n a b l e o f f t a k e r a t e s .
C r e a t i o n o f s u f f i c i e n t i n f l o w a r e a and d i m i n u t i o n o f f l o w v e l o c i t y i n h i g h - p r e s -
sure o i l w e l l s may r e q u i r e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f l a r g e r amounts o f p e r f o r a t i o n s o r
open-hole c o m p l e t i o n , and impairment can be c o u n t e r a c t e d by i n c r e a s i n g i n l e t
area and r e d u c i n g v e l o c i t y .

As most o f t h e w e l l s w i t h g r a v e l p a c k i n g p o t e n t i a l a r e nowadays completed in

low- t o m o d e r a t e - p e r m e a b i l i t y gas r e s e r v o i r s , a b t . 80 % o f t h e j o b s a r e c a r r i e d
o u t u s i n g 40/60 mesh o r even s m a l l e r g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e
s i t u a t i o n a b t . 10 y e a r s ago when p r e f e r e n t i a l l y 20/40 mesh g r a v e l has been ap-
p l i e d f o r h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r sand c o n t r o l . 40/60 mesh g r a v e l has
t u r n e d o u t t o p e r f o r m much b e t t e r i n p r e v e n t i n g f o r m a t i o n f i n e s i n v a s i o n t h a n
20/40 mesh g r a v e l . L o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sands r e q u i r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e p a r t i c u -
l a r l y widespread i n t h e G u l f o f Mexico.

5.2.3.3.4. Impact of formation and gravel fines

Gravel pack performance i s even more s u s c e p t i b l e t o f o r m a t i o n and g r a v e l f i -
nes than h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g b e h a v i o u r . Contents o f c l a y m i n e r a l s and o t h e r
f i n e m a t e r i a l s above 1 % in t h e sand t o be c o n t r o l l e d c r e a t e problems u n l e s s
c l a y i n h i b i t o r s o r s t a b i l i z e r s a r e i n c l u d e d , and 2 - 4 % o f c l a y m i n e r a l s i n a
sand can screw up a g r a v e l pack j o b i f f r e s h w a t e r systems a r e i n t r o d u c e d . T h i s
s e n s i b i l i t y o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g a g a i n s t even s l i g h t i m p u r i f i c a t i o n s o f f i n e s a l s o
i m p l i e s t h a t g r a v e l pack sand o r proppants have t o be much n a r r o w e r screened
than t h e m a t e r i a l used i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g . A l t h o u g h t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f spe-
c i a l l y s i e v e d g r a v e l pack sand i s more c o s t l y than t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g
sand, much more money can be wasted once t h e i n f e r i o r p r o d u c t i m p a i r s g r a v e l
pack p e r m e a b i l i t y and hence o i l p r o d u c t i o n . T h e r e f o r e even m u l t i p l e s c r e e n i n g
o f g r a v e l t o e x t r a c t f i n e s below a t o l e r a b l e minimum r e s i d u e pays o f f v e r y
we1 1 .

The aforementioned g u i d e l i n e s f o r g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n as a f u n c t i o n
o f r e s e r v o i r g r a n u l o m e t r y a l l r e f e r e x c l u s i v e l y t o sandy pay zones. I n c h a l k
formations, these r u l e s a r e n o t a p p l i c a b l e , and a n o t h e r approach has t o be un-
d e r t a k e n . D e v i a t i o n f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l pack d e s i g n c r i t e r i a i n t h e c h a l k
i s caused by t h e e x t r e m e l y f i n e g r a i n s i z e o f t h i s r e s e r v o i r r o c k t y p e and i t s
unique f l o w b e h a v i o u r i n case o f l a c k i n g c o n s o l i d a t i o n and occurrence o f i n t e r -
n a l o v e r p r e s s u r e (ATTARD, MATHES & MOWER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 3 . ) . Instead
o f a p r o h i b i t i v e l y s m a l l g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e which would have been r e q u i r e d t o
ensure i n d i v i d u a l f o r m a t i o n p a r t i c l e stoppage a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t a n d a r d g u i d e -
l i n e s , 20/40 g r a i n s i z e has t u r n e d o u t t o r e t a i n s u b s t a n t i a l f l o w c a p a c i t y o f
t h e o i l and t o h o l d back t h e c h a l k m a t r i x which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by mass f l o w
b e h a v i o u r once becoming u n s t a b l e and m o b i l e .

5.2.3.4. Width o f gravel mantle

A g r a v e l pack w i d t h o f 5 g r a i n d i a m e t e r s w i l l a l r e a d y c r e a t e an e f f e c t i v e
b r i d g e (SAGE & LACEY 1942), b u t t h e accepted minimum g r a v e l pack t h i c k n e s s f o r
o i l - f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n s i s 3 i n . (SCHWARTZ 1969) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e problem o f p l a -
c i n g g r a v e l and f l u c t u a t i n g f l o w c o n d i t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e open h o l e s have g e n e r a l -
l y t o be underreamed t o p r o v i d e 3 i n . o r even more between screen and f o r m a t i o n
a t t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1 9 8 2 ) . W a t e r - w e l l c o m p l e t i o n has shown
t h a t a pack t h i c k e r than 8 in. cannot be p r o p e r l y developed.

The i d e a l g r a v e l pack t h i c k n e s s f o r p r o t e c t i n g a h i g h - r a t e secondary-recove-

ry o i l - p r o d u c t i o n w e l l i s 6 i n . , b u t t o o l c a p a b i l i t i e s and c a s i n g o r screen
schemes o f t e n l i m i t g r a v e l b e l t t h i c k n e s s t o 5 in. T h i c k e r g r a v e l packs common-
l y p e r m i t h i g h e r p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s p e r u n i t l e n g t h o f r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l . I n ca-
sed holes, screen d i a m e t e r should be as l c i r g e as p o s s i b l e , b u t adequate room
 727

f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g s h o u l d be l e f t i n t h e annulus ( a s p e c t s o f g r a v e l m a n t l e
i g i d t h i n open and cases h o l e s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n s 5.10.1.2. and
5.10.2.1.). MURER (1981) recommends a g r a v e l pack w i d t h o f a t l e a s t 100 - 150
mm t o c r e a t e a s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b l e sand annulus. LEWIS (1985) argues t h a t a t
l e a s t i n some cases, g r a v e l pack t h i c k n e s s p l a y s key f u n c t i o n i n sand c o n t r o l .

5.2.3.5. Impact o f gravel pack hardware

I n a d d i t i o n t o g r a v e l s i z e s e l e c t i o n , c o n s i d e r a b l e improvement o f t h e g r a v e l
pack performance can be made by v a r i o u s o t h e r t e c h n i c a l f e a t u r e s (GURLEY, COPE-
LAND & HENDRICK 1977). The g r e a t e s t p r e s s u r e drop i n a g r a v e l - p a c k e d w e l l oc-
c u r s i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l (WILLIAMS, ELLIOTT & WEAVER 1972, SAUCIER 1974),
w i t h minimum p r e s s u r e drawdown b e i n g achieved by i n c r e a s i n g t h e i n l e t area by
i n c r e a s i n g d e n s i t y o r d i a m e t e r o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , o r even by e l i m i n a t i n g t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n s w i t h open-hole c o m p l e t i o n (SUMAN 1972). Some aspects o f s l o t t e d li-
n e r s v s . wire-wrapped screens and p a c k i n g hardware i n f l u e n c e on g r a v e l q u a l i t y
a r e summarized as f o l l o w s .

5.2.3.5.1. Slotted liners vs. wire-wrapped screens

While c o a r s e r g r a v e l can be s u f f i c i e n t l y o p e r a t e d w i t h a s l o t t e d l i n e r ,
wire-wrapped screens a r e much more s u i t a b l e f o r f i n e r g r a v e l , because t h e w i r e
spacing can be m e c h a n i c a l l y much b e t t e r a d j u s t e d t o be s m a l l e r t h a n t h e diame-
t e r o f t h e s m a l l e s t g r a v e l than c o u l d be made adequate s l o t spacing i n a s l o t -
t e d l i n e r , and i n a d d i t i o n t o t h a t wire-wrapped screens have h i g h e r f l o w c a p a c i -
t i e s than s l o t t e d l i n e r s w i t h t h e same s l o t w i d t h as t h e spacing o f t h e w i r e .
O t h e r b e n e f i t s o f wire-wrapped screens w i t h r e s p e c t t o s l o t t e d l i n e r s a r e c l o g
r e s i s t a n c e and d u r a b i l i t y a g a i n s t c o r r o s i o n , whereas t h e o n l y c o m p e t i t i v e advan-
tage o f s l o t t e d l i n e r s o v e r wire-wrapped screens i s c o s t and t h e r e f o r e s l o t t e d
l i n e r s may be f e a s i b l e i n b o r e h o l e s where v e r y l o n g i n t e r v a l s have t o be g r a v e l
packed (HALLIBURTON 1988). F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some g e n e r a l aspects, com-
ments a r e o f f e r e d on s l o t and w i r e spacing s e l e c t i o n as w e l l as on mechanical
l i m i t a t i o n o f s l o t and l i n e r w i d t h .

5.2.3.5.1.1. General aspects

I n e a r l i e r years, many sand p r o d u c t i o n problems were s i m p l y handled b y i n d i -
c i o u s s e l e c t i o n o f opening w i d t h i n p e r f o r a t e d l i n e r s (COBERIY 1937, COBERLY &
WAGNER 1938). I n many f i e l d s , however, t h i s method o f r e d u c t i o n o r e l i m i n a t i o n
o f sand t r o u b l e does n o t l e a d t o s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s because o f t o o f i n e g r a i n
s i z e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n sand, poor compaction o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , low bottom-hole
p r e s s u r e and o t h e r adverse c o n d i t i o n s , and g r a v e l pack i n s t a l l a t i o n i n combina-
t i o n w i t h s l o t t e d l i n e r s o r wire-wrapped screens has t u r n e d o u t t o be t h e o p t i -
mum s o l u t i o n .

S l o t t e d l i n e r s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u c c e s s f u l i n r e s e r v o i r s where g r a i n s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n and framework cohesion i s such t h a t f o r m a t i o n sand f i l t e r s o u t and
due t o b r i d g i n g tendency generates i t s own pack. Wire-wrapped screens i n c l u d e
wire-wrapped f l u s h w i t h t h e p i p e f a c e w i t h no spacers between w i r e and p i p e ,
and wire-wrapped o v e r - r i b s h o l d i n g t h e w i r e wrapping away f r o m t h e p i p e . The
l a t t e r s t a n c l i f f t y p e o f wire-wrapped screens has a g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d area a v a i -
l a b l e f o r f l o w i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e which reduces f l o w v e l o c i t y i n t h e b o r e h o l e v i -
cinity.

5.2.3.5.1.2. Slot and wire spacing selection

L i n e r s l o t s and w i r e spacings must have a w i d t h equal t o o r l e s s t h a n t h e
d i a m e t e r o f t h e s m a l l e s t g r a i n s o f t h e g r a v e l pack (COBERLY & WAGNER 1938) o r
 728

f o r m a t i o n sand depending on whether t h e screen i s r u n i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h g r a -

v e l o r n o t (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). While a s l o t w i t h a w i d t h t w i c e t h e g r a i n
s i z e a t t h e t e n p e r c e n t i l e o f t h e g r a v e l pack would h o l d t h e g r a v e l i n t h e ac-
c e p t e d sense, t h e small q u a n t i t y o f g r a v e l which i s produced d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d
when t h e s l o t b r i d g e i s b e i n g b u i l t up m i g h t be enough t o cause t h e g r a v e l pack
t o s e t t l e , t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g p r o d u c t i o n o f s u f f i c i e n t f o r m a t i o n sand t o b r a n d
the i n s t a l l a t i o n a f a i l u r e .

S l o t w i d t h s h o u l d be as narrow as p o s s i b l e t o r e t a i n sand g r a i n s , b u t on t h e
o t h e r hand as l a r g e as p o s s i b l e f o r n o t r e s t r i c t i n g f l o w o f f l u i d s and i n t e r s t i -
t i a l f i n e s (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). I n o r d e r t o go on t h e a b s o l u t e l y s a f e s i d e ,
w i r e spacing o r s l o t w i d t h o f h a l f o r two t h i r d s t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e s m a l l e s t
g r a v e l pack g r a i n i s d e s i r a b l e (HALLIBURTON 1988). A b s o l u t e stoppage o f forma-
t i o n sand and optimum g r a v e l r e t e n t i o n r e q u i r e a maximum number o f l i n e r s l o t s
w i t h a w i d t h l e s s t h a n t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e s m a l l e s t g r a v e l used ( N I N I & OWEN
1983). U n d e r s i z i n g has proven t o reduce t h e tendency o f n e a r - s i z e g r a v e l t o
p l u g s l o t s d u r i n g g r a v e l placement (SHRYOCK & MILLHONE 1979). LEDLOW & SPARLIN
(1980) and SOLUM & RAMEZAMI (1987) r e p o r t downhole p r o t e c t i o n o f sand c o n t r o l
screens. Good g r a v e l pack i n s e r t i o n t o o l s a r e t h e base f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y g r a v e l
pack i n s t a l l a t i o n and a penny saved f o r b e t t e r hardware c o u l d r e s u l t i n l o s s o f
thousands o f d o l l a r s once g r a v e l pack performance i s n o t a p p r o p r i a t e due t o
poor placement.

5.2.3.5.1.3. Mechanical limitation of slot and wire width

As c u t t i n g o f l i n e r s l o t and wrapping o f w i r e - s c r e e n w i d t h i s m e c h a n i c a l l y
limited, i t may be i n some v e r y f i n e f o r m a t i o n sands d i f f i c u l t t o keep t h e r u l e
t h a t t h e maximum opening s h o u l d n o t be l a r g e r than t h e s m a l l e s t g r a v e l used
(FLANIGAN 1979). A l t h o u g h on average, screen opening s h o u l d be a b t . h a l f o r two
t h i r d s t h e g r a v e l s i z e , s m a l l s l o t w i d t h s a r e p a r t i c u l a r problems i f screen o r
l i n e r has t o be c o a t e d w i t h polymers i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t c o r r o s i o n . Screen o r
l i n e r l e n g t h s h o u l d be a b t . 10 f t . l o n g e r than t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l and
s h o u l d e x t e n d above and below t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s where i t passes i n t o b l a n k l i n e r
(HALLIBURTON 1988). Screen o r l i n e r d i a m e t e r s h o u l d be such t h a t a c l e a r a n c e o f
a t l e a s t 3 / 4 i n . c o m p l e t e l y around t h e g r a v e l pack hardware i s p r o v i d e d when po-
s i t i o n e d i n t h e c a s i n g i n o r d e r t o a l l o w room f o r g r a v e l t o f l o w f r e e l y , and
p r o v i d e e x t r a g r a v e l r e s e r v e f o r a f t e r - p a c k s e t t l i n g and adequate space f o r
f i s h i n g t o o l s ( N I N I & OWEN 1983). I n c r e a s i n g screen o r l i n e r d i a m e t e r i s more
i m p o r t a n t i n h i g h e r - r a t e w e l l s e s p e c i a l l y i n case o f gas because o f t u r b u l e n c e ,
and l e s s i m p o r t a n t i n l o w - r a t e w e l l s (LEOLOW, SAUER & T I L L 1985).

5.2.3.5.2. Packing hardware influence on gravel quality

Due t o t h e h i g h c o s t o f a c c u r a t e l y screened g r a v e l and t h e importance o f n o t
b r e a k i n g o r c r u s h i n g i t , t r e a t m e n t and placement o f g r a v e l w i t h s u r f a c e e q u i p -
ment i s a p r i m a r y f a c t o r i n p r o p e r sand c o n t r o l (SOLUM 1 9 8 6 ) . S a t i s f a c t o r y r e -
s u l t s o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s s t r o n g l y depend on h i g h g r a v e l q u a l i t y , accu-
r a t e c o n t r o l o f t h e f l u i d - g r a v e l r a t i o , reduced g r a v e l break-up and w e l l - f i l t e -
r e d c a r r i e r f l u i d s . SOLUM (1986) p r e s e n t s a h i s t o r i c a l o v e r v i e w o f i n t r o d u c t i o n
and m o d i f i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s s u r f a c e and downhole equipment and methods d u r i n g
course o f t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g . Gravel breakup causes
l i n e r p l u g g i n g and reduces pack p e r m e a b i l i t y . Some aspects o f p o t e n t i a l g r a v e l
breakup p o i n t s and improvement as w e l l as f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and v e l o c i t y a r e o u t -
l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.2.3.5.2.1. Potential gravel breakup points and improvement

The most p o t e n t i a l g r a v e l breakup p o i n t s a r e h i g h - a n g l e bends i n t h e m a n i f o l -
d i n g as w e l l as c e n t r i f u g a l pump, r e s t r i c t e d f l o w p o i n t s , c r o s s o v e r t o o l and ca-
 729

s i n g w a l l . C o n s i d e r a b l e m i n i m i z a t i o n o f g r a v e l breakup has been achieved d u r i n g

t h e l a s t y e a r s by i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a s p h e r i c a l b a l l v a l v e i n t h e f l u i d pump. A l -
though g r a v e l breakup can never be e l i m i n a t e d c o m p l e t e l y d u r i n g s u r f a c e and
downhole h a n d l i n g , t h e e f f e c t s o f most o f t h e mentioned t r o u b l e p o i n t s can be
s u f f i c i e n t l y m i n i m i z e d by q u a l i t y improvement o f equipment and t e c h n o l o g y .

Gravel c r u s h i n g and e r o s i o n o f c a s i n g and f o r m a t i o n f a c e can o c c u r i n case

o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f s l i m - s i z e c r o s s o v e r p a r t s (FLANIGAN 1979). E n l a r g e d c r o s s o v e r
p a r t s f o r u t i l i z a t i o n of v i s c o u s s l u r r i e s d i m i n u i s h s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e tendency
o f g r a v e l c r u s h i n g . Pumping o f g r a v e l - l a d e n w a t e r m i x t u r e s t h r o u g h a narrow
c r o s s o v e r p a r t causes f r a c t u r i n g o f some of t h e g r a i n s , w i t h t h e b l a s t i n g e f -
f e c t o f sand h i t t i n g t h e c a s i n g w a l l s b e i n g a b l e t o produce enough f i n e s t o com-
p l e t e l y p l u g l i n e r s l o t s (HALLIBURTON 1988). I n c o n t r a s t t o water-based c a r r i e r
f l u i d s , g e l l e d polymers r e q u i r e l e s s v e l o c i t y t o move t h e g r a v e l e f f i c i e n t l y
through t h e c r o s s o v e r t o o l , t h e c u s h i o n i n g e f f e c t o f t h e g e l reduces g r a i n - t o -
g r a i n a b r a s i o n which can a l s o generate f i n e s , and v i r t u a l l y no p l u g g i n g o f
s l o t s occurs.

5.2.3.5.2.2. Fluid viscosity and velocity

T h i n l o w - v i s c o s i t y p a c k i n g f l u i d s have t o be pumped a t h i g h r a t e and v e l o c i -
ty i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o c a r r y g r a v e l (HALLIBURTON 1988). L o w - v i s c o s i t y g r a v e l
s l u r r i e s , however, have a v e r y severe s c o u r i n g e f f e c t on work s t r i n g s and cause
t h e pack t o c o l l e c t d e b r i s . H i g h f l u i d v e l o c i t y provokes g r a i n c r u s h i n g d u r i n g
g r a v e l placement, and l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s c a r r y i n g g r a v e l a t h i g h pump r a t e s
can cause i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand due t o j e t t i n g e f f e c t s . When
u s i n g t h i n p a c k i n g f l u i d s , g r a i n c r u s h i n g i n pumps can be a v o i d e d b y downstream
sand i n j e c t o r s .

5.2.3.6. Use o f screen or liner without gravel pack

I n a d d i t i o n t o g r a v e l p a c k i n g where t h e screen h o l d s t h e g r a v e l i n p l a c e
t h a t i n t u r n r e t a i n s t h e r e s e r v o i r sand, f o r m a t i o n sand c o n t r o l i s a l s o pos-
s i b l e by s t a b i l i z i n g t h e pay zone w i t h t h e screen a l o n e w i t h o u t g r a v e l o r v i c e
v e r s a (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). Comments a r e g i v e n as f o l l o w s on g r a v e l - l e s s hard-
ware i n s t a l l a t i o n and l i n e r l e s s g r a v e l placement.

5.2.3.6.1. Gravel-less hardware installat ion

The economical b e n e f i t o f g r a v e l - l e s s hardware i n s t a l l a t i o n i s t h a t a r t i f i -
c i a l l y - i n t r o d u c e d g r a v e l i s a m a j o r c o s t f a c t o r i n sand c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n s
which can be saved p a r t i c u l a r l y i n coarse c l e a n r e s e r v o i r sands where f l o w i n g
f o r m a t i o n sands c o n s t r u c t a n a t u r a l g r a v e l pack around t h e wire-wrapped screen
o r s l o t t e d l i n e r . Ribbed wire-wrapped screens c o s t two o r t h r e e t i m e s more t h a n
s l o t t e d p i p e s , b u t f o r t h e same s l o t w i d t h , t h e f o r m e r have perhaps e i g h t t o
t e n times t h e open area. A l l - w e l d screens have t w i c e t h e open area as r i b b e d
screens, b u t c o s t n e a r l y t w i c e as much. Wire-wrapped screens a l s o have t h e ad-
vantage o f more e r o s i o n - and c o r r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l s . V e r t i c a l l y s l o t t e d
p i p e has more a x i a l s t r e n g t h and bending s t r e n g t h than h o r i z o n t a l l y s l o t t e d
p i p e . The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e i l l u m i n a t e s some aspects o f s l o t / w i r e w i d t h and na-
t u r a l g r a v e l pack b u i l d i n g as w e l l as t r i p l e - w r a p p e d screens.

5.2.3.6.1.1. Slot/wire width and natural gravel pack building

The use o f p r o p e r l y s i z e d wire-wrapped screens o r s l o t t e d l i n e r s w i t h o u t g r a -
v e l pack can be a l o w - c o s t means o f c o n t r o l l i n g sand f o r low p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s
p e r u n i t l e n g t h o f r e s e r v o i r s e c t i o n . S l o t s i z e s h o u l d be more o r l e s s t w i c e
t h e 10 p e r c e n t i l e sand s i z e f o r n o n - u n i f o r m sands, whereas s l o t w i d t h p r o b a b l y
 730

s h o u l d n o t be g r e a t e r than t h e 10 p e r c e n t i l e s i z e f o r u n i f o r m sands (COBERLY

1937, ALLEN & ROBERTS 1 9 8 2 ) . S e l e c t i o n o f wire-wrapped screen o r s l o t t e d l i n e r
once t h e s l o t s i z e has been determined depends on w e l l c o n d i t i o n s . Sawcut s l o t s
a r e cheaper, whereas wire-wrapped screens p e r m i t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f h a r d e r ,
more e r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t m e t a l . Screens s e t i n s i d e c a s i n g u s u a l l y reduce p r o d u c t i -
v i t y s i n c e f i n e - g r a i n e d f o r m a t i o n sand moving t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s f i l l s
t h e annulus between screen and casing, w i t h t h u s o p t i m i z a t i o n b e i n g reached by
u s i n g t h e l a r g e s t p o s s i b l e screen d i a m e t e r .

T h i s a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r open h o l e s i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t c a v i n g o f s h a l e
l a m i n a t i o n s , w i t h under these c o n d i t i o n s underreaming o f t h e w e l l b o r e b e i n g n e i -
t h e r necessary n o r d e s i r a b l e . Such p r e p a c k i n g o f l i n e r s w i t h b o r e h o l e c o l l a p s e
o n t o t h e l i n e r and g e n e r a t i o n o f n a t u r a l g r a v e l p r e p a c k i n g i s a l s o a p p l i c a b l e
i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d t o h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s as a c o m p l e t i o n t e c h n i q u e i n u n c o n s o l i d a -
t e d sands which c r e a t e c o n s i d e r a b l e b o r e h o l e i n s t a b i l i t y (AUSTIN, ROSE & SCHUH
1988). I n s t a l l a t i o n o f screen o r l i n e r a l o n e w h i c h r e s u l t s i n b u i l d i n g o f a na-
t u r a l g r a v e l pack c o n s i s t i n g o f f o r m a t i o n sand around t h e hardware, however,
may promote r e s e r v o i r d i s t u r b a n c e s and p e r m e a b i l i t y damage (HALLIBURTON 1988;
c f . section 5.9.6.2.).

5.2.3.6.1.2. Triple-wrapped screens

Improved hardware f o r g r a v e l - l e s s i n s t a l l a t i o n a r e t r i p l e - w r a p p e d screens
(LIKWARTZ 1976). T r i p l e - w r a p p e d screens f o r s e l f - p a c k i n g o f f o r m a t i o n sand
around them a r e designed such t h a t t h e m u l t i p l e wraps b r i d g e t h e l a r g e s t r e s e r -
v o i r sand g r a i n s a t t h e o u t e r screen and t h e s m a l l e s t p a r t i c l e s a t t h e i n n e r -
most screen. T r i p l e - w r a p screens a r e e s p e c i a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r w e l l s where bottom-
h o l e o r e s s u r e i s t o o low t o a l l o w s r a v e l Dackinq ( c f . a l s o SPURLOCK & DEMSKI
1972).

5.2.3.6.2. Linerless gravel placement

The i n v e r s e s o l u t i o n t o screen o r l i n e r i n s t a l l a t i o n w i t h o u t g r a v e l i s 1 in e r -
l e s s q r a v e l p a c k i n q (HALLIBURTON 1988) where a b t . 20 - 25 % o f coarse q r a v e l
has to-be u n i f o r m l y mixed i n t o t h e main g r a v e l i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a b r i d g i n g
e f f e c t on t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , w i t h round p a r t i c l e s b r i d g i n g a h o l e t h r e e t i m e s as
g r e a t as t h e d i a m e t e r o f one o f t h e p a r t i c l e s . The main advantage o f l i n e r l e s s
g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s complete absence o f any hardware o b s t r u c t i o n i n t h e h o l e . L i -
n e r l e s s g r a v e l packing, however, s h o u l d never be a t t e m p t e d i n cased h o l e s un-
l e s s e v e r y e f f o r t has been undertaken t o open up e v e r y p e r f o r a t i o n , because one
u n t r e a t e d o r i n s u f f i c i e n t l y packed p e r f o r a t i o n may serve as e n t r a n c e f o r forma-
t i o n f i n e s which then p l u g t h e g r a v e l c y l i n d e r and u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t i n sand
c o n t r o l f a i l u r e . I n o r d e r t o keep t h i s drawback p o s s i b i l i t y r e l a t i v e l y low, t o -
t a l p e r f o r a t i o n number s h o u l d n o t exceed t h a t necessary t o p r o v i d e adequate p r o -
d u c t i o n . S p h e r i c a l g r a i n s f o r m s t a b l e b r i d g e s on openings l a r g e r t h a n g r a i n d i a -
meter, and g r a i n a n g u l a r i t y and shape do n o t m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t t h e opening s i z e
f o r a s t a b l e b r i d g e , b u t do i n c r e a s e b r i d g i n g range (COBERLY 1937).

I n open holes, l i n e r l e s s g r a v e l placement can p r o f i t f r o m t h e absence o f

hardware i n t h e w e l l b o r e by e n a b l i n g t o i n s e r t t h e g r a v e l w i t h h i g h e r o p e r a t i n g
p r e s s u r e which p e r m i t s b e t t e r i n f i l l i n g and p l u g g i n g o f a l l t h e c a v i t i e s and i r -
r e g u l a r i t i e s c r e a t e d a t t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l o f t h e u n s t a b l e sand by underreaming.
L i n e r l e s s g r a v e l packs r e p r e s e n t i n f a c t complete i n f i l l i n g o f t h e t o t a l i n n e r
b o r e h o l e d i a m e t e r w i t h a dense c y l i n d r i c a l g r a v e l pack which a t t h e same t i m e
i s an e x c e l l e n t f i l t e r f o r t h e o i l t h a t f l o w s o u t a t t h e g r a v e l t o p i n c o n t r a s t
t o a tube-shaped g r a v e l m a n t l e between screen o r l i n e r and c a s i n g o r b o r e h o l e
w a l l generated by c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g w i t h hardware u t i l i z a t i o n .
 731

5.2.3.7. Formation grain size evaluation

F o r m a t i o n g r a i n s i z e e v a l u a t i o n has t o be c a r r i e d o u t w i t h maximum accuracy,
because i t s p r o p e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s i n e v i t a b l y necessary f o r s e l e c t i o n o f t h e
s u i t a b l e g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e f o r t h e sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t . F o r m a t i o n g r a i n s i z e
assessment i s a l s o t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b i l i t y o f erroneous g r a v e l pack d e s i g n and
t h u s a v e r y p o t e n t i a l source o f f a i l u r e o f t h e sand c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n i f n o t
l e a d i n g t o a r e s u l t t h a t i s more than c l o s e l y approaching t h e r e a l i t y downhole.
Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on g r a i n s i z e v a r i a t i o n s i n heterogeneous
r e s e r v o i r s and a d j u s t m e n t o f g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e t o f i n e s t pay beds.

5.2.3.7.1. Grain size variations in heterogeneous reservoirs

While g r a i n s i z e d e t e r m i n a t i o n may be r a t h e r s i m p l e i n homogeneous r e s e r -
v o i r s , many pay zones e x h i b i t c o n s i d e r a b l y heterogeneous c o m p o s i t i o n ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4.2.4.1.) w i t h g r a i n s i z e s changing h o r i z o n t a l l y and/or v e r t i c a l l y a t ran-
dom o r i n an o r d e r e d manner on v a r i o u s s c a l e s , and a d d i t i o n a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s a r e
g i v e n by t h e d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t i v i t y o f v a r i o u s b o r e h o l e sampling t e c h n i q u e s . The
d e c i s i v e drawback i s t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t g r a i n s i z e changes can t a k e p l a c e on
sample s c a l e i n v e r y a n i s o t r o p i c and heterogeneous pay zones such as c r o s s - s t r a -
t i f i e d small a e o l i a n dune sands ( c f . p l a t e I I / 2 and 6 i n s e c t i o n 3.13.), h o r i -
z o n t a l - l a m i n a t e d a e o l i a n i n t e r d u n e and p l a y a sediments ( c f . p l a t e VIII/1-5) and
f l u v i a l b r a i d e d - r i v e r channel b a r d e p o s i t s ( c f . p l a t e s III/1-2, V/1-8, VII/5-6
and IX/l-8).

T y p i c a l successions o f p r o g r e s s i v e l y changing g r a i n s i z e s i n a more o r l e s s

o r d e r e d manner a r e c o a r s e n i n g - and f i n i n g - u p w a r d s sequences w h i c h a r e c h a r a c t e -
r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f d e l t a i c and f l u v i a l sedimentary complexes, r e s p e c t i v e l y ( c f .
a l s o s e c t i o n 4.2.2.6.). M i c r o c y c l i c r e p e t i t i o n s o f s e v e r a l members o f these
g r a i n - s i z e t r e n d cyclothems r e p r e s e n t h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s on a l o w e r h i e r a r c h i c a l
o r d e r , and i n t e r c a l a t i o n s o f mud drapes i n t o sand bodies ( c f . p l a t e s III/1-2,
VII/5-6 and IX/l-8) a r e s m a l l e r - s c a l e a n i s o t r o p i e s o f g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n
and depending on e x t e n s i o n and t h i c k n e s s o f hydrocarbon-bearing i n t e r v a l s can
q u i t e s e r i o u s l y d i s t u r b c o r r e c t g r a i n s i z e d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r mechanical sand
c o n t r o l design.

5.2.3.7.2. Adjustment of gravel grain size to finest pay beds

T h e r e f o r e i n many heterogeneous and a n i s o t r o p i c r e s e r v o i r s , f o r m a t i o n g r a i n
s i z e may v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y o v e r t h e i n t e r v a l t o be g r a v e l packed (SAUCIER
1974). I n o r d e r t o achieve maximum e f f e c t i v i t y , g r a v e l pack d e s i g n and g r a i n
s i z e s e l e c t i o n s h o u l d be based on t h e f i n e s t sand-size segment o f t h e produc-
t i v e f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s p e r f o r a t e d . T h i s procedure a s c e r t a i n s t h a t even i n t h e
w o r s t case, complete stoppage o f a l l g r a i n s i z e s o f moving f o r m a t i o n sand i s
achieved. A l t h o u g h t h i s may r e s u l t i n c h o i c e o f a s m a l l e r g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e
than would be s u i t a b l e f o r many i n t e r v a l s o f t h e p r o s p e c t i v e s e c t i o n and t h u s
hydrocarbon o f f t a k e c a p a c i t y i s s a c r i f i c e d due t o a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e drop
through a l e s s permeable g r a v e l pack t u n n e l p l u g and mantle, i t i s b e t t e r t o
p r e v e n t d r a s t i c a l g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i t y d e s t r u c t i o n by i n v a d i n g f o r m a t i o n sand.

Pay zone g r a i n s i z e d e t e r m i n a t i o n has t o be c a r r i e d o u t w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e ac-

c u r a c y and c a u t i o n i n c l u d i n g compensation and c o r r e c t i o n o f d i s t u r b a n c e s and
c o n t a m i n a t i o n in o r d e r n o t t o l e a d t o improper g r a v e l pack l a y o u t (MALY & KRUE-
GER 1971). C a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d t o r e s t r i c t sand p r o d u c t i o n i n o r d e r n o t
t o t r i g g e r d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r (SPARLIN
& COPELAND 1972). I f t h e o r i g i n a l bedding f a b r i c c o l l a p s e s due t o e x c e s s i v e
sand i n f l u x i n t o t h e borehole, nearby s h a l e lenses and l a y e r s w i l l mix w i t h t h e
u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sand when s h i f t i n g towards t h e w e l l b o r e . Such m i x t u r e s can be-
come severe p e r m e a b i l i t y b a r r i e r s i f stopped and h e l d i n p l a c e by t h e g r a v e l
pack. E s p e c i a l l y when f o r m a t i o n g r a i n s i z e v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e i n v e s t i g a -
 732

t e d i n t e r v a l i n h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n , a t t e n t i o n h a s t o be p a i d i n
g r a v e l - s a n d s i z e r a t i o d e s i g n t o t h e s m a l l e r r e s e r v o i r sand g r a i n s and t h e f i -
n e r p a y zone i n t e r b e d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c a s e o f h i g h e r f l o w v e l o c i t y , more non-
u n i f o r m sand, f l u c t u a t i n g f l o w r a t e and h i g h g a s - o i l r a t i o (ALLEN & ROBERTS
1982).

5.2.3.8. Grain size intermixing o f gravel and formation sand

C o n c e r n i n g g r a i n s i z e m i x i n g , s i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r c o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o -
r a t i o n i n h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 1.4.11.2.), intermixing o f
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l amounts o f f o r m a t i o n sand ( a b t . 10 - 25 % ) b e i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y
f i n e r t h a n t h e s a n d - c o n t r o l medium l o w e r s g r a v e l m i x t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o n e a r l y
t h a t o f t h e c o n t a m i n a t i n g p a y zone sand a l o n e o r e v e n l e s s (MORROW, HUPPLER &
SIMMONS 1969; S P A R L I N 1 9 7 4 ) . T h e r e f o r e i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand
has t o be m i n i m i z e d d u r i n g p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e t r e a t m e n t , w h i c h c a n be a c h i e v e d
b y t a c k i f y i n g a g e n t s i n t h e f l u i d t h a t cause t h e g r a v e l t o f l o w as a p l u g o r a
c o n s i s t e n t s l u r r y , o r b y h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n and h i g h f l u i d v i s c o s i t y .

5.2.3.8.1. High gravel concentration and high fluid viscosity

S i g n i f i c a n t means o f r e d u c i n g i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l pack m a t e r i a l and r e s e r -
v o i r sand a r e s u s p e n s i o n o f g r a v e l a t h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( a b t . 15 l b s o f g r a -
v e l added t o 1 g a l o f c a r r i e r f l u i d o r even more) i n h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s and
pumping t h e s l u r r y t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t i o n s a t v e r y s l o w r a t e s ( S P A R L I N & COPELAND
1972; SUMAN, E L L I S & SNYDER 1 9 8 3 ) , w h i c h a l s o r e q u i r e s l e s s c a r r i e r f l u i d and
thus c u t s r i g time, minimizes f o r m a t i o n plugging, reduces screen e r o s i o n d u r i n g
placement, and d e c r e a s e s g r a v e l c r u s h i n g a t t h e c r o s s o v e r p a r t and p l u g g i n g o f
s l o t t e d l i n e r o r w i r e - w r a p p e d s c r e e n (UNDERDOWN, DAS & NGUYEN 1 9 8 4 ) . The d a n g e r
o f m i x i n g o f r e s e r v o i r sand and g r a v e l pack m a t e r i a l i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h i f
t h e g r a v e l i s squeezed o u t s i d e t h e c a s i n g and i n j e c t e d w i t h h i g h v e l o c i t i e s
( S P A R L I N 1969, S P A R L I N & BOND 1969, S P A R L I N & COPELAND 1 9 7 2 ) .

5.2.3.8.2. Tackifying action o f resin i n the slurry

The amount o f m i x i n g o f g r a v e l w i t h f o r m a t i o n sand can be s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u -
c e d b y s u s p e n d i n g h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n a v i s c o u s o i l as c a r r i e r f l u i d
and add r e s i n as a t a c k i f y i n g a g e n t t o t h e s l u r r y in o r d e r t o make t h e g r a v e l
g r a i n s s l i g h t l y s t i c k y . The s l u r r y i s t h e n squeezed i n t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and a
s c r e e n i s washed i n p l a c e a f t e r t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d g r a v e l s l u r r y has been i n j e c -
t e d . M i n i m i z a t i o n o f g r a v e l and p a y zone sand m i x i n g i s m a i n l y a c h i e v e d due t o
p u s h i n g o f t h e l o o s e r e s e r v o i r sand away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e b y t h e h i g h - v i s c o s i -
t y f l u i d , t h e p r o m o t i o n o f p l u g f l o w o f t h e g r a v e l b y t h e h i g h s a t u r a t i o n and
t h e c o h e s i v e f o r c e o f t h e t a c k i f y i n g a g e n t t h e r e b y b r i n g i n g l a r g e amounts o f
g r a v e l t o t h e f o r m a t i o n a t t h e same t i m e , and t h e s l o w pumping r a t e p r e v e n t i n g
any b l a s t i n g , f i n g e r i n g o r f r a c t u r i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r .

5.2.3.9. Hydrocarbon productivity vs. sand control

The m a i n q u e s t i o n when t r e a t i n g sand p r o b l e m s i n o i l w e l l s i s how t o p e r f o r m
optimum sand c o n t r o l w i t h o u t r e s t r i c t i n g h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n ( S P A R L I N & COPE-
LAND 1 9 7 2 ) . A s m o s t o p e r a t o r s a r e now more c r i t i c a l l y t h a n e v e r b e f o r e r e v i e w -
i n g the w e l l s i n l i g h t o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s t o increase o f f t a k e r a t e s a t the lowest
p o s s i b l e i n v e s t m e n t and m a i n t e n a n c e expenses and t o d r a s t i c a l l y l o w e r w i t h d r a -
w a l c o s t w i t h o u t l o o s i n g t o o much o u t p u t w h i c h h a s t o b e r e m a i n e d a t a n optimum
feasibility level, improvement o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g t e c h n i q u e s as one p o t e n t i a l l y
p r o f i t a b l e way t o a m e l i o r a t e w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h g i v i n g b e t -
t e r sand c o n t r o l i s o f p r o g r e s s i v e l y g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e . Sand r e t e n t i o n v s .
h y d r o c a r b o n f l o w c a p a c i t y and o t h e r a s p e c t s a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .
 733

5.2.3.9.1. Sand r e t e n t i o n vs. hydrocarbon flow capacity

A l t h o u g h d e s i g n o f t h e s a n d - r e t e n t i o n g r a v e l i s based on t h e f i n e s t forma-
t i o n material present i n the productive i n t e r v a l , gravel selected according t o
sand s t a b i l i z a t i o n c r i t e r i a c o u l d a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t w e l l f l o w c a p a c i t y . High suc-
cess r a t i o s o f t h e g r a v e l pack o p e r a t i o n , however, a r e f r e q u e n t l y o b t a i n e d when
c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d adjustments a r e made i n design c o n d i t i o n s . Gravel p l u g g i n g
w i t h f o r m a t i o n sand may be i n t e n t i o n a l l y p e r m i t t e d o p p o s i t e some f i n e r low-per-
m e a b i l i t y p o r t i o n s of m u l t i - p a y i n t e r v a l s t o a l l o w h i g h e s t p r o d u c t i v i t y f r o m
t h e c o a r s e r good r e s e r v o i r s e c t i o n s t o which g r a v e l s i z e i s o p t i m a l l y a d j u s t e d .
A l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s i n case o f l o w a b s o l u t e g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i t y w i t h h i g h
p r e s s u r e d r o p across t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s a r e i n c r e a s e d p e r f o r a t i o n d e n s i t y
and/or diameter, and open-hole g r a v e l pack i f t e c h n i c a l l y a l l o w e d by t h e d i s t r i -
b u t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r t y p e s and f l u i d compositions i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l column pene-
t r a t e d by t h e b o r e h o l e s i n c e t h e l a s t c a s i n g was r u n . I n any case, however, g r a -
v e l - s a n d d i a m e t e r r a t i o s t h a t a l l o w c o n t i n u e d sand p r o d u c t i o n and l e a d t o pos-
s i b l e l i n e r e r o s i o n have t o be a v o i d e d (SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983).

The most p r e v a l e n t t h e o r y a t t r i b u t e s sand p r o d u c t i o n t o f r i c t i o n and r e s u l -

t a n t p r e s s u r e drop as r e s e r v o i r f l u i d s pass through t h e p o r e s o f t h e f o r m a t i o n
sand body (RIKE 1970). When t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p i s h i g h and cementing m a t e r i a l s
between sand g r a i n s a r e weak o r absent, t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s o f t h e sand
body a r e d i s l o d g e d and c a r r i e d i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e . Another e x p l a n a t i o n suggests
t h a t environmental w a t e r which was p r e s e n t d u r i n g o r i g i n a l d e p o s i t i o n o f t h e
sand g r a i n s i s c h e m i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e w a t e r c o n t a i n e d i n t h e a q u i f e r s u r -
r o u n d i n g t h e o i l f i e l d . Water p r o d u c t i o n can a c t u a l l y c h e m i c a l l y d i s s o l v e a p o r -
t i o n o f t h e cement between t h e sand g r a i n s , t h e r e b y l o o s e n i n g t h e g r a i n f a b r i c .
Another concept assumes t h a t t h e r e s e r v o i r compacts as f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e d e c l i -
nes w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e d e p l e t i o n , and t h e changing l o a d tends t o s h i f t sand
g r a i n s and m e c h a n i c a l l y shear e x i s t i n g cementing m a t e r i a l s .

5.2.3.9.2. Other aspects

An i m p o r t a n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g i s p r e v e n t i o n o f p r o p p a n t and f o r m a t i o n sand flowback i n t o t h e bore-
hole a f t e r termination o f hydraulic s t i m u l a t i o n treatments p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s o f t
sands and c h a l k s . Double i n s u r a n c e a g a i n s t g r a i n flowback can be made by t a i l -
i n g - i n r e s i n - c o a t e d proppants i n t h e t e r m i n a l stage o f t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e
j o b ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.3.3.2.) and p e r f o r m i n g a combined o u t s i d e and i n s i d e g r a -
v e l pack o p e r a t i o n w i t h r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 2 . ) . I n case o f
p r o p e r g r a i n s i z e design, t h e c o a r s e r t a i l - i n o f t h e p r o p p a n t wedge f i l l i n g t h e
h y d r a u l i c a l l y - g e n e r a t e d c r a c k a c t s i t s e l f as a g r a v e l pack by b r i d g i n g t h e f i -
n e r proppants o f t h e main f r a c t u r e - p l u g g i n g l o t a t t h e i n t e r f a c e o f b o t h g r a i n -
s i z e c l a s s e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 8 . ) . Drawbacks o f any t y p e o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e
m a i n l y l i n k e d w i t h s o f t h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y t h i c k r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l s which a r e
s u b j e c t t o mechanical f o r m a t i o n damage when b e i n g c o a t e d w i t h t h e g r a v e l
mantle, and h o r i z o n s where m o b i l e f i n e s o r h i g h - v i s c o s i t y waxy crude o i l may
c r e a t e d e p o s i t s near t h e w e l l b o r e o r w i t h i n t h e g r a v e l pack t h a t c o u l d lower
p r o d u c t i v i t y (WEISSENBURGER, MORITA, MARTIN & WHITFILL 1987).

Experience o f p r o d u c t i v i t y d i f f e r e n c e s as a consequence o f g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e
v a r i a t i o n s shows t h a t h i g h e r o f f t a k e r a t e s a r e o b t a i n e d w i t h c o a r s e r g r a v e l due
t o b e t t e r p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e pack which a l l o w s e a s i e r hydrocarbon f l o w through
t h e s a n d - c o n t r o l f i l t e r (STRACKE (1987). GURLEY, COPELAND & HENDRICK (1977) o u t -
l i n e d e s i g n i n g and p l a n n i n g o f g r a v e l - p a c k o p e r a t i o n s f o r maximum p r o d u c t i v i t y .
R e l a t i o n s h i p s between g r a v e ? pack d e s i g n and w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y a r e a l s o exami-
ned by SCHWARTZ (1969) and LYBARGER, SCHEUERMAN & WILLARD ( 1 9 7 4 ) .
 734

5.2.4. Gravel grain surface and shape

I n terms of surface morphology, a p p l i c a t i o n of g l a s s beads o r z i r c o n i a - s i l i -
c a t e proppants which have b o t h p e r f e c t l y r o u n d grain shapes a n d smooth g r a i n
s u r f a c e s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 3 . 2 . and 1 . 4 . 1 . ) r e q u i r e s reduction of the gravel-sand
diameter r a t i o i n o r d e r t o promote bridging on the even s u r f a c e of the g l o b u l a r
o r s p h e r i c a l g r a i n s (SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983) o r intermixing of some subsphe-
r i c a l o r angular g r a i n s w i t h rough surface of s i m i l a r s i z e i n o r d e r t o provide
the necessary f r i c t i o n . Following discussion of some aspects of r o u n d vs. angu-
l a r sands f o r mechanical sand c o n t r o l , d i f f e r e n c e s i n g r a i n shape requirement
between hydraulic p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g a n d gravel packing a r e i l l u s t r a t e d .

5.2.4.1. Angular vs. round gravel in mechanical sand control

Rough-surface natural sand a n d s y n t h e t i c alumina s i l i c a t e a n d oxide p r o p -
pants have b e t t e r bridging p r o p e r t i e s t h a n smooth-surface a r t i f i c i a l g l a s s
beads a n d z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 3 . 2 . and 1 . 4 . 1 . ) . Angular
gravel-pack sand i s even l e s s l i k e l y t o be invaded because s a n d bridges more
r e a d i l y on the i r r e g u l a r shapes and uneven s u r f a c e s , b u t more c o n s i s t e n t pack-
i n g i s obtained w i t h rounded gravel w i t h i r r e g u l a r rough s u r f a c e ( G U L A T I & MALY
1974). Rounded gravel pack g r a i n s r e s u l t on average i n lower pressure drops a n d
apparently show l e s s packing variance than more a n g u l a r m a t e r i a l s as a conse-
quence of i n e r t i a l e f f e c t s of flow ( S A U C I E R 1974; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 . 3 . ) . Angu-
l a r sand has a higher tendency t o form premature bridges t h a n round sands ( H A L -
LIBURTON 1988). Angular sand, however, i s a l s o more s u b j e c t t o chipping and
fragmenting during placement which reduces pack permeability a n d can clog s l o t s
and screens.

5.2.4.2. Differences between fracturing and gravel packing

The important d i f f e r e n c e of s u r f a c e morphology s i g n i f i c a n c e between hydrau-
l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g a n d gravel packing i s t h a t i n hydraulic s t i m u l a t i o n ,
bridging of proppants i n the crack i s undesirable because i t leads t o premature
screenout f a i l u r e , a n d t h e r e f o r e round smooth p a r t i c l e s a r e p r i n c i p a l l y b e t t e r
s u i t e d f o r hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g . I n gravel packing, however, bridging i s neces-
sary f o r the success of the operation, w i t h thus i r r e g u l a r gravel s u r f a c e s t h a t
provide f r i c t i o n being more favourable t h a n smooth s u r f a c e s where intermixing
of o t h e r g r a i n s i s necessary t o t r i g g e r bridging. S t a b i l i t y improvement of a l l
gravel types a n d grain s i z e s can be best achieved by l i n e r v i b r a t i o n (SOLUM
1984; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 4 . ) which gives r i s e t o o r i g i n of a hexagonal p a r t i c l e
framework instead of the standard cubic f a b r i c t h a t i s c r e a t e d by conventional
flow-type gravel placement. Consistency of the hexagonal g r a i n arrangement i s
a l s o increasing with more pronounced s u r f a c e roughness o r shape a n g u l a r i t y of
the g r a i n s a n d subordinately a l s o w i t h l a r g e r s i z e of the g r a v e l .

5.3. Gravel packing completion fluids and gravel saturation

Gravel packing t r a n s p o r t f l u i d s a r e in many cases more viscous than the hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g c a r r i e r f l u i d s , while o t h e r mechanical sand control a p p l i c a -
t i o n s a r e a l s o performed w i t h low-viscosity t r a n s p o r t f l u i d s . Viscosity a n d
thus suspension capacity of f l u i d s f o r gravel packing, however, i s in compari-
son t o hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g a much smaller concern i n terms of proppant o r gra-
vel d i s p e r s i o n , because a s a consequence of the mainly low c l o s u r e s t r e s s i n
the p r e v a i l i n g amount of r e s e r v o i r s , predominantly natural q u a r t z sand and
l i g h t , low-density s y n t h e t i c proppants ( e i t h e r a l u m i n a - s i l i c a t e or z i r c o n i a - s i -
l i c a t e proppants according t o the p r e s e n t l y commercially a v a i l a b l e spectrum;
c f . chapter 1 . 3 . ) a r e s e l e c t e d f o r sand-control treatments. High-density prop-
pants a r e only used i n special a p p l i c a t i o n s such as steam-drive p r o j e c t s ( c f .
s e c t i o n 5 . 7 . 1 . ) , because the operation causes d i f f i c u l t i e s of proper placement
 735

by p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g s e t t l i n g e f f e c t s o f heavy alumina o x i d e and s i l i c a t e

p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i n t h e f l u i d s ( a s p e c t s o f gravel-pack c a r r i e r f l u i d s a r e d i s c u s -
sed by GURLEY, COPELAND & HENDRICK 1977; CONSTIEN & MAYER 1978, COSTEIN & WAL-
LACE 1980, TORREST 1982, SCHEUERMAN 1984, SKAGGS 1984; UNDERDOWN, OAS & NGUYEN
1984; LEDLOW & SAUER 1985; MURPHEY, ROLL & WONG 1985; PENBERTHY 1985).

Gravel p a c k i n g s h o u l d aim on s e t t i n g t h e g r a v e l w i t h o u t c o n t a m i n a t i o n a t t h e
p r o p e r l o c a t i o n as t i g h t l y as p o s s i b l e and then h o l d i n g i t i n p l a c e f o r t h e
l i f e t i m e o f t h e w e l l (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). The most i m p o r t a n t aspect o f g r a -
vel packing c a r r i e r f l u i d s i s s u f f i c i e n t l e a k o f f i n t o the formation i n order t o
achieve t h e necessary t i g h t p a c k i n g o f t h e g r a v e l , which i s t h e second m a j o r
d i f f e r e n c e t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g where f l u i d l o s s has t o be m i n i m i z e d i n o r -
d e r t o a v o i d p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g and premature screenout f a i l u r e . Gravel p a c k i n g
r e s u l t s a r e i m p r o v i n g w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f and t h e r h e o l o g i c a l p r o p e r -
t i e s o f sand c o n t r o l t r a n s p o r t f l u i d s t h e r e f o r e have t o be a d j u s t e d such t h a t
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y h i g h r a t e s o f f l u i d l e a k o f f a r e achieved. The most i m p o r t a n t as-
p e c t s a r e f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t r a n s p o r t and p a c k i n g capa-
c i t y o f the s l u r r i e s , gravel s e t t l i n g diminution i n the c a r r i e r f l u i d , gel sur-
f a c e f i l t r a t i o n f r o m polymer s o l u t i o n s and s c r e e n o u t m i m i c k i n g , and c o m b i n a t i o n
o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g and h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g .

5.3.1. Fluid viscosity and gravel concentration

D i s t i n c t i o n can g e n e r a l l y be made between c o n v e n t i o n a l c i r c u l a t i o n g r a v e l
p a c k i n g where l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s a r e used t o c a r r y low g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
(up t o a b t . 1.5 l b s / g a l which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a b t . 180 kg/m3) i n t o t h e w e l l a t
h i g h c i r c u l a t i o n r a t e s and l a r g e t o t a l t r e a t m e n t q u a n t i t i e s ( h i g h v o l u m e / r a p i d
displacement method), and h i g h - d e n s i t y g r a v e l p a c k i n g where h i g h - v i s c o s i t y , po-
l y m e r - g e l l e d f l u i d systems a r e a p p l i e d t h a t t r a n s p o r t h i g h g r a v e l s a t u r a t i o n s
(up t o a b t . 15 l b s / g a l which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a b t . 1,800 kg/m3) t o achieve pack-
i n g w i t h low t o t a l volume handled (SPARLIN & COPELAND 1972; SUMAN, ELLIS & SNY-
DER 1983) by t h e s l u r r y pack method (PEDEN, RUSSELL & OYENEYIN 1985) o r h i g h -
d e n s i t y squeeze p a c k i n g t e c h n i q u e where t h e sequence o f prepad, g r a v e l s l u r r y
and postpad i s s u c c e s s i v e l y pumped (ELSON, OARLINGTON & MANTOOTH 1984). High-
v i s c o s i t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s and h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n l e s s tendency
o f i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand (GAJDOSIK & WILLINGHAM 1976).

L o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s w i t h low g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e m a i n l y used i n c i r c u -
l a t i o n p a c k i n g i n open h o l e s o r d e v i a t e d cased h o l e s where t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s
have been prepacked by v i s c o u s s l u r r i e s t r a n s p o r t i n g h i g h g r a v e l s a t u r a t i o n s ,
whereas h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s w i t h h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e p r e f e r e n t i a l -
l y u t i l i z e d i n squeeze p a c k i n g i n cased v e r t i c a l h o l e s . H i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s i n h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s do n o t p l u g t h e screen so s e v e r e l y as do low g r a -
v e l s a t u r a t i o n s i n l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s and a r e a l s o much b e t t e r p r o m o t i n g ade-
quate p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g . A r e c e n t o u t s t a n d i n g i n n o v a t i o n a r e s u r f a c t a n t - b e a r -
i n g water-based h i g h - v i s c o s i t y g r a v e l p a c k i n g f l u i d s which combine t h e f a v o u -
r a b l e aspects o f h i g h f l u i d l o s s r a t e s o f c o n v e n t i o n a l l o w - v i s c o s i t y water-ba-
sed f l u i d s and h i g h g r a v e l t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y o f t r a d i t i o n a l h i g h - v i s c o s i t y po-
lymer-based fluids (DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1988, NEHMER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n
5 . 3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) . Some comments on achievement o f s u f f i c i e n t f l u i d l e a k o f f and p r e -
v e n t i o n o f e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l o s s a r e g i v e n as f o l l o w s .

5.3.1.1. Achievement of sufficient fluid leakoff

H i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s a r e t h u s a b l e t o c a r r y a b t . t e n t i m e s t h e g r a v e l quan-
t i t y p e r f l u i d u n i t which can be t r a n s p o r t e d by l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s . The v i s c o -
s i t y o f t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e designed g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s f o r t h e s l u r r y (PEDEN, RUSSELL & O Y E N E Y I N 1985). H i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h g r a v e l t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y and thus r e s u l t i n s h o r t e r g r a -
v e l placement times, and a r e t h e r e f o r e an e f f e c t i v e means f o r e l i m i n a t i n g b l a n k
 736

s e c t i o n s i n the w e l l b o r e provided pack d e h y d r a t i o n can be a c h i e v e d by f l u i d

l e a k o f f through l i n e r o r s c r e e n (ELSON, DARLINGTON & MANTOOTH 1 9 8 4 ) . Low-vis-
c o s i t y f l u i d s may p r o v i d e t i g h t e r g r a v e l placement i n the annulus ( A L L E N & RO-
BERTS 1 9 8 2 ) , b u t do n o t promote a d e q u a t e p e r f o r a t i o n packing.

While the most s i g n i f i c a n t advantages of high g r a v e l s a t u r a t i o n s i n h i g h - v i s -

c o s i t y f l u i d s a r e e x c e l l e n t p e r f o r a t i o n packing, l e s s impairment of s c r e e n flow
c a p a c i t y , and quick performance t h e r e b y s a v i n g r i g t i m e , s e v e r a l drawbacks a l s o
e x i s t . After-pack g r a v e l slumping may c r e a t e v o i d s i n t h e packs which i s a p a r -
t i c u l a r l y s e v e r e problem i n d e v i a t e d w e l l s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 3 . ) . The high-den-
s i t y g r a v e l - l a d e n s l u r r y may f a l l through t h e l i g h t e r p r e v i o u s l y pumped pad
f l u i d , w i t h the r a t e of f a l l t h r o u g h becoming g r e a t e r when l a r g e - d i a m e t e r work
s t r i n g s a r e used. I f c i r c u l a t i o n i s taken above the packer and n o t through a
s c r e e n , the roping e f f e c t ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5 . 9 . 1 . 3 . 3 . ) has t o be c o n s i d e r e d t o
p r e v e n t g e t t i n g g r a v e l on t o p of the p a c k e r .

I n c o n t r a s t t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g where e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y high f l u i d l o s s t o
th;. formation can r e s u l t i n premature s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n of the t r e a t m e n t by
f l u i d d e h y d r a t i o n , proppant b r i d g i n g and s l u r r y s t i c k i n g ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s
4 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 ) , and e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f r a t e s a r e t h e r e f o r e unde-
s i r e d , grave7 pack o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e h i g h r a t e s of f l u i d l o s s i n t o the forma-
t i o n i n o r d e r t o t r a n s p o r t and d e p o s i t l a r g e amounts of g r a v e l and thus t o
e n a b l e high plugging e f f i c i e n c y of the p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s (NEHMER 1 9 8 8 ) . I n -
f l u e n c e s of c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a s well a s improvement by s u r f a c t a n t - b e a r -
ing w a t e r - b a s e d f l u i d s a r e b r i e f l y i l l u s t r a t e d a s f o l l o w s . Some comments a r e
a l s o given on t h e impact of f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y .

5.3.1.1.1. Influence of carrier fluid viscosity

Gravel packing can be performed with t h i n l o w - v i s c o s i t y o r t h i c k h i g h - v i s c o -
s i t y f l u i d s (HALLIBURTON 1 9 8 8 ) . Thin l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s a r e a b l e t o c a r r y
sand in lower c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o n l y a t h i g h e r pump r a t e s which may Cause i n t e r m i -
xing of g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand w i t h a s s o c i a t e d p e r m e a b i l i t y damage, and some
g r a i n breakage and f i n e s g e n e r a t i o n may o c c u r due t o pumping of sand s l u r r i e s
a t high r a t e s through t h e t o o l s a s a consequence of impact. In e x t r e m e l y long
p r o d u c t i v e i n t e r v a l s , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s may be d i c t a t e d
by economical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . H i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s allow g r a v e l packing a t low
i n j e c t i o n r a t e s which reduces i n t e r m i x i n g of g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand when the
s l u r r y i s pumped through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . Aspects of g r a v e l placement and
f l u i d b r e a k i n g , gel c o n c e n t r a t i o n vs. s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n , f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and
f o r m a t i o n damage, and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and l e a k o f f r a t e s a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as
follows.

5.3.1.1.1.1. Gravel placement and fluid breaking

High f l u i d - l o s s r a t e s of l o w - v i s c o s i t y g r a v e l pack c a r r i e r media can be
achieved by b u i l d i n g a p a r t i c l e b r i d g e on the formation f a c e a g a i n s t which hy-
d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e can be a p p l i e d (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1 9 8 2 ) . H i g h - v i s c o s i t y t r a n s -
p o r t media p l a c e t h e g r a v e l more q u i c k l y and w i t h l e s s f l u i d l e a k o f f t o the f o r -
mation which b e a r s a l s o l e s s p o s s i b i l i t i e s of r e s e r v o i r damage. I n c r e a s i n g c a r -
r i e r - f l u i d v i s c o s i t y minimizes g r a v i t y s e g r e g a t i o n of t h e g r a v e l d u r i n g p l a c e -
ment and t h e r e b y minimizes plugging of t h e l i n e r s l o t s w i t h g r a v e l f i n e s which
develop i n t h e s e t t i n g p r o c e s s . Concerning a p p l i c a t i o n of h i g h - v i s c o s i t y w a t e r -
based f l u i d s , t y p e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n of v i s c o s i t y b r e a k e r must be determined de-
pending on f o r m a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e , and the sump volume below the s c r e e n has t o
be minimized i n o r d e r t o reduce f u r t h e r s e t t l i n g of the g r a v e l a f t e r t h e v i s c o -
s i t y has broken, t h e r e b y l o o s e n i n g t h e pack f a b r i c .

E f f e c t i v i t y and time of breakage of t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d gel have a d i r e c t b e a r -

ing upon g r a v e l t r a n s p o r t e f f i c i e n c y , compaction and s e t t l i n g of t h e g r a v e l
 737

pack, and p o s s i b l e impairment o f g r a v e l pack p e r m e a b i l i t y by f l u i d r e s i d u e s (AL-

MOND & BLAND 1984, SCHEUERMAN 1984; UNDERDOWN, DAS & NGUYEN 1984). Minimum c a r -
r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y r e q u i r e d depends on r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e which i s a f u n c t i o n
o f s t r u c t u r a l d e p t h (PEDEN, RUSSELL & OYENEYIN 1985).

5.3-1.1.1.2. Gel concentrat ion vs. slurry dehydration

I n t e r m e d i a t e g e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s have h i g h e r l e a k o f f a t t h e same p r e s s u r e
than h i g h g e l s a t u r a t i o n s which a i d s i n s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n b o t h i n t o t h e forma-
t i o n and t h r o u g h t h e screen (LEDLOW, SAUER & T I L L 1985) i f t h e r e i s no s k i n and
no p r e s s u r e l o s s t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . The pad volume i n a s t r a i g h t squeeze
pack should be decreased t o a minimal amount such t h a t less f l u i d has t o l e a k
o f f i n o r d e r t o achieve a t i g h t pack, whereas i n a c i r c u l a t i n g pack, t h e pad vo-
lume should be i n c r e a s e d i n o r d e r t o a l l o w some pad l e a k o f f i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n
and f a v o u r c i r c u l a t i o n up t h e wash p i p e . I n c r e a s i n g pump r a t e i n c r e a s e s p a c k i n g
e f f i c i e n c y and p r e v e n t s premature screenout o r r o p i n g .

5.3.1.1.1.3. Fluid viscosity and formation damage

A special type o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s w i t h h i g h gravel saturations
a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d g r a v e l s l u r r i e s (SPARLIN & BOND 1969, SPARLIN & COPELAND 1972)
where a r e s i n a d d i t i v e i s i n t e r m i x e d as a t a c k i f y i n g agent i n o r d e r t o make t h e
i n d i v i d u a l g r a v e l g r a i n s s t i c k y and t o promote p l u g f l o w o f t h e s l u r r y ( c f . sec-
t i o n 5 . 8 . 5 . ) . I n t h e l a s t years, t h e t r e n d o f a p p l i c a t i o n i s more and more t o -
wards h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s and h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s f o r t h e purpose o f
a c h i e v i n g s a f e g r a v e l placement i n a h i g h e r p a c k i n g d e n s i t y , because e x p e r i e n c e
has shown t h a t l o w - v i s c o s i t y systems w i t h low g r a v e l s a t u r a t i o n s e f f e c t i v e l y
c o n t r o l f o r m a t i o n sand, b u t a l s o r e s t r i c t hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n .

L o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s c a r r y i n g g r a v e l a t h i g h pumping r a t e s can cause i n t e r -

m i x i n g o f t h e c o a r s e r p a c k i n g g r a v e l and t h e f i n e r f o r m a t i o n sand due t o t h e
j e t t i n g e f f e c t (HALLIBURTON 1988) w h i c h can provoke severe p e r m e a b i l i t y damage.
The h i g h e s t amount o f damage occurs a t a r a t i o o f a b t . 70 v o l % p a c k i n g g r a v e l
and 30 v o l % f o r m a t i o n sand, w i t h t h e g r e a t e r t h e r a t i o between g r a v e l and r e s e r -
v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y , t h e g r e a t e r t h e damage p o t e n t i a l . High pumping r a t e s a l s o r e -
s u l t i n generated f i n e s due t o g r a v e l s h a t t e r i n g d u r i n g placement which may
p l u g t h e s l o t s o f t h e screen ( N I N I & OWEN 1983).

5.3.1.1.1.4. Fluid viscosity and leakoff rates

F l u i d l e a k o f f r a t e t o t h e r e s e r v o i r i s n o t t h e most d e c i s i v e aspect f o r es-
t a b l i s h i n g g r a v e l packs through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s (RENSVOLO & DECKER 1978). I t
i s , however, e s s e n t i a l t h a t a v o i d a l r e a d y e x i s t s b e h i n d t h e c a s i n g o r t h a t t h e
s l u r r y d i s p l a c e s f o r m a t i o n sand t o c r e a t e room f o r t h e pack. T h i c k h i g h - v i s c o s i -
t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s w h i c h have a c o n s i d e r a b l y lower f l u i d - l o s s r a t e t o t h e pay
than t h i n l o w - v i s c o s i t y t r a n s p o r t media can more e f f e c t i v e l y d i s p l a c e r e s e r v o i r
sand o u t s i d e t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s t o generate space f o r t h e g r a v e l pack than t h i n
l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s which a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h l e a k o f f r a t e s , b u t which
have i n s u f f i c i e n t a b i l i t y t o compress l o o s e r e s e r v o i r sand i n t h e immediate v i -
c i n i t y o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and t h e r e f o r e can o n l y manage t o i n s t a l l a
l e s s compact g r a v e l p l u g than h i g h - v i s c o s i t y c a r r i e r s .

I n c o n t r a s t t o polymer f l u i d s which s u f f e r f r o m l i m i t e d l e a k o f f and cause

f o r m a t i o n damage by m i c r o g e l s and f i s h e y e s , h i g h - v i s c o s i t y water-based g e l sys-
tems ( w h i c h a r e o u t l i n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n ) do n o t c o n t a i n any polymer
and t h e r e f o r e have e x c e l l e n t l e a k o f f and g r a v e l suspension c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (DO-
WELL SCHLUMBERGER 1988 a ) .
 738

5.3.1.1.2. Improvement by surfactant-bearing water-based fluids

Improvement of f l u i d leakoff i n t o the r e s e r v o i r in order t o achieve s a t i s f a c -
tory p e r f o r a t i o n tunnel packing a n d enhancement of gravel suspension p r o p e r t i e s
which a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y d e c i s i v e in highly-deviated boreholes can be reached
with a v i s c o e l a s t i c s u r f a c t a n t - b a s e gravel-pack c a r r i e r f l u i d which has d i s -
t i n c t advantages over conventional polymer g e l l e d f l u i d systems ( N E H M E R 1988)
a n d r e p r e s e n t s a major recent innovation. Comments on gel s t r u c t u r e , microgel
breaking a n d removal, a n d gel f i l t e r cakes i n f r a c t u r i n g a n d gravel packing a r e
o f f e r e d as follows.

5.3.1.1.2.1. Gel structure

S u r f a c t a n t s develop viscous g e l s by formation of rod-shaped m i c e l l e s which
i n t e r a c t with each o t h e r a t h i g h concentrations, thereby hindering movement of
the micelles a n d t r i g g e r i n g an increase of f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , with thus t h e rod-
shaped m i c e l l e s a c t i n g s i m i l a r t o polymer molecules. A s a l t - i n d u c e d t r a n s i t i o n
from spherical t o rod-shaped m i c e l l e s i s a major mechanism f o r increasing visco-
e l a s t i c i t y of the f l u i d . The v i s c o e l a s t i c s u r f a c t a n t - b a s e c a r r i e r f l u i d does
n o t cause formation damage in c o n t r a s t t o many polymer-gelled f l u i d s where f i s h
eyes a n d / o r microgels which a r e even not removed by breakers p l u g pore t h r o a t s
and thus lead t o impaired f l u i d l e a k o f f . Intense manipulation of polymer-gelled
f l u i d s u s i n g shear a n d f i l t e r devices helps removing the f i s h e y e and/or micro-
gel p a r t i c l e s , b u t makes the treatment more expensive i n terms of equipment a n d
manpower, and excessive shear degrades the polymer, g i v i n g r i s e t o poor gravel
suspension.

The v i s c o e l a s t i c s u r f a c t a n t g e l l e d f l u i d system t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t s a supe-

r i o r s o l u t i o n because of absence of formation damage a s well a s presence of f a -
vourable f l u i d l e a k o f f , gravel suspension, gravel t r a n s p o r t a n d gravel place-
ment options (DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1988 a ) . The s u r f a c t a n t - b e a r i n g water-based
system combines the favourable a t t r i b u t e s of high f l u i d - l o s s r a t e s of t r a d i t i o -
n a l low-viscosity water-based f l u i d s and high gravel t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y of con-
ventional h i g h - v i s c o s i t y polymer-based f l u i d s . Another promising a l t e r n a t i v e i s
the low p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y l c a r r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y system introduced by H U D S O N &
MARTIN (1988; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 3 . 2 . ) .

5.3.1.1.2.2. Microgel breaking and removal

The main s i g n i f i c a n c e of v i s c o e l a s t i c s u r f a c t a n t g e l l e d f l u i d systems i s
f a s t leakoff of carrying f l u i d s which a s s i s t s the gravel t o p e n e t r a t e a l l the
way t o the ends of the p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels, because i n order t o achieve minimum
pressure drawdown during production, screen/casing annulus a n d p e r f o r a t i o n s
must be completely packed with gravel t o keep o u t formation sand (DOWELL SCHLUM-
BERGER 1988 a ) . Rapid f l u i d l o s s i s e s p e c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e i n squeeze packs ( c f .
s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 , because the e n t i r e prepad must be leaked i n t o the forma-
t i o n before the s l u r r y can even reach the p e r f o r a t i o n s .

Aspects of f l u i d q u a l i t y enhancement by microgel breaking and removal in po-

lymer-gelled gravel packing f l u i d operations predominantly conducted under con-
s t a n t flow r a t e a r e discussed by HASHEMI, CAOTHIEN & R O V I G ( 1 9 8 8 ) . Both mecha-
n i c a l and hydraulic shearing break a n d remove the p a r t i a l l y hydrated microgels,
w i t h the r e s u l t i n g g e l s having higher f l u i d leakoff f o r a t i g h t e r gravel pack.
Polymer shear degradation occurs i n a d d i t i o n t o chemical, b i o l o g i c a l and t h e r -
mal decomposition and has t o be taken i n t o account. Gel s h e a r i n g as a s t e p t o
break u p f i s h - e y e s or m i c e l l e s a n d augment t h e i r hydration can u l t i m a t e l y cause
g e l s t o lose the v i t a l property of gravel suspension, a n d t h e r e f o r e must be mo-
n i t o r e d c l o s e l y p r i o r t o mixing a gravel pack s l u r r y ( C O L E , SHAW, C A V E N Y & BEL-
LENGER 1988).
 739

5.3.1.1.2.3. Gel filter cakes in fracturing and gravel packing

S i m i l a r l y as g e l f i l t e r cakes o r i g i n a t i n g on t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e a t f r a c t u r e
w a l l s d e t e r i o r a t e crack c o n d u c t i v i t y due t o proppant embedment, g e l s u r f a c e f i l -
t r a t i o n f r o m polymer s o l u t i o n s d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g covers t h e r e s e r v o i r f a c e
w i t h a l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y drape and d e t e r i o r a t e s f u r t h e r l e a k o f f o f g r a v e l c a r -
r i e r f l u i d s i n t o t h e pay m a t r i x , t h e r e b y having d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s on g r a v e l
placement and t h u s q u a l i t y and performance o f mechanical sand c o n t r o l (TORREST
& MARCANO 1986; c f . s e c t i o n s 1.4.10.3.5.3. and 4.3.4.1.4.). F i l t r a t i o n o f micro-
g e l s d u r i n g polymer i n s e r t i o n q u i c k l y b u i l d s up a r e l a t i v e l y impermeable s u r -
f a c e l a y e r , and t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p f o r w a t e r f l o w through t h i s p e l l i c l e i s li-
near i n r a t e . Once formed, t h e g e l l a y e r s can undergo changes i n c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s w i t h w a t e r f l o w a t s u f f i c i e n t r a t e s . The l a y e r b u i l d u p tends t o g i v e f a l s e
s i g n a l s o f j o b c o m p l e t i o n s as pumping p r e s s u r e s r i s e r a p i d l y by m i m i c k i n g
screenout t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i o n , and reduced g r a v e l pack q u a l i t y and p e r -
formance c o u l d r e s u l t f r o m f a i l u r e t o account f o r t h e e f f e c t o f s u r f a c e g e l f i l -
t r a t i on.

5.3.1.1.3. Impact of formation permeability

F l u i d l o s s d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s s t r o n g l y dependent f r o m r e s e r v o i r forma-
t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y . H i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sands a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by good f l u i d l e a k -
o f f and t h u s a l l o w h i g h - q u a l i t y g r a v e l packing, whereas l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sands
p e r m i t o n l y poor f l u i d l o s s and a r e t h e r e f o r e d i f f i c u l t t o g r a v e l pack w i t h r e a -
sonable e f f e c t i v i t y . F o l l o w i n g a b r i e f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i -
t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n comparison t o h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g , some aspects o f r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y and c o m p o s i t i o n a r e o u t l i n e d .

5.3.1.1.3.1. Permeabi 1i ty classification for gravel packing

I n view o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s , l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sands a r e r e s e r -
v o i r s w i t h p e r m e a b i l i t i e s i n t h e range o f a b t . 20 - 75 md ( w h i c h would have t o
be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y pays i n l i g h t o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c -
t u r i n g ; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 6 . ) , and h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sands a r e f o r m a t i o n s w i t h p e r -
m e a b i l i t i e s i n t h e range o f a b t . 75 md - 4 d. W h i l e polymer f l u i d s have h i g h
v i s c o s i t y and b r i d g e o f f i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y sands t h e r e b y r e s u l t i n g i n o n l y
l i m i t e d e f f e c t i v i t y o f g r a v e l packing, s u r f a c t a n t - b a s e d non-polymer f l u i d s have
lower v i s c o s i t y and t h u s e x h i b i t good l e a k o f f r a t e s a l s o i n l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y
sands, t h e r e f o r e e n a b l i n g s a t i s f a c t o r y g r a v e l placement (DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER
1988 a) and a v o i d i n g problems caused by o t h e r c a r r i e r f l u i d s such as permeabi-
l i t y loss f r o m f o r m a t i o n damage, low pack e f f i c i e n c y due t o slow f l u i d l e a k o f f ,
and r a p i d s e t t l i n g - o u t o f g r a v e l f r o m t h e s l u r r y .

5.3.1.1.3.2. Reservoir permeability and composition

While high-permeability r e s e r v o i r s w i t h gravel packing p o t e n t i a l are clean
medium- t o c o a r s e - g r a i n e d u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sands, l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y pay zones r e -
q u i r i n g s t a b i l i z a t i o n a r e f i n e - g r a i n e d sands c o n t a i n i n g d i s p e r s e d c l a y m i n e r a l
p a r t i c l e s . E s p e c i a l l y c o m p l i c a t e d s i t u a t i o n s f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n view o f s u f -
f i c i e n t f l u i d l e a k o f f r a t e s a r e i n t e r b e d d e d sequences o f h i g h - and low-permeabi-
l i t y sands, w i t h again p r o p e r f l u i d loss o n l y b e i n g a b l e t o be achieved by s u r -
f a c t a n t - b a s e d non-polymer f l u i d s w i t h low v i s c o s i t y ( a l t e r n a t i n g low- and h i g h -
p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s t o r e y s a l s o have a n e g a t i v e impact on f l u i d l e a k o f f i n
hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g which i s d i f f i c u l t t o l i m i t i n c o n t r a s t t o the necessity
o f i t s p r o m o t i o n i n g r a v e l packing; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . ) .
 740

5.3.1.2. Prevention o f excessive fluid loss

H i g h f l u i d - l o s s r a t e s d u r i n g g r a v e l p l a c e m e n t a r e n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e good
pack q u a l i t i e s , b u t h i g h t o e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f p r i o r t o g r a v e l p a c k i n g c a n
cause s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s i f s o l u b l e f l u i d - l o s s a g e n t s had t o be added, because i n -
v a s i o n o f f o r m a t i o n pores, b r i d g i n g a t t h e entrance o f t h e r e s e r v o i r t o b u i l d
up a f i l t e r cake, and f i l l i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s may p r e v e n t c o m p l e t e g r a -
v e l p l a c e m e n t a n d r e d u c e w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t i e s (SPARLIN & HAGEN 1986). E x c e s s
f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s i n h i b i t c o m p l e t e c o v e r a g e o f an i n t e r v a l w i t h g r a v e l due
t o e i t h e r inadequate l e a k o f f t o t h e formation o r p a r t i a l plugging o f the
screen.

F i n e g r i n d s o f c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e o r s i l i c a f l o u r a r e t h e m o s t common s o l i d
l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s t o g e l l e d f l u i d s and f o r m l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y f i l t e r c a k e s and
p a c k s as t h e y c o v e r r e s e r v o i r f a c e and p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , b u t
t h e s e f i n e p a r t i c l e s c a n cause s e r i o u s f o r m a t i o n damage, as t h e y a r e d i f f i c u l t
t o remove ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 1 1 . 4 . ) . Due t o t h e f a c t t h a t any p e r f o r a t i o n s f i l l e d
w i t h f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s w i l l n o t a c c e p t g r a v e l and where f l u i d f l o w i s r e -
stricted, g r a v e l w i l l n o t be packed s u f f i c i e n t l y t i g h t l y , a l l t h e f l u i d - l e a k o f f
a g e n t s u s e d b e f o r e s e t t i n g t h e g r a v e l pack m u s t be removed f r o m w e l l b o r e , p e r f o -
r a t i o n s and n e a r - b o r e h o l e f o r m a t i o n t o e n s u r e a c o m p l e t e p a c k . Some drawbacks
o f p o s t - p a c k i n g a c i d i z i n g as w e l l as a few p o i n t s o f s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s
and p a r t i a l f o r m a t i o n p r e - p a c k i n g a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

5.3.1.2.1. Drawbacks o f post-packing acidizing

A c i d i z i n g a f t e r a g r a v e l pack i s i n p l a c e s h o u l d be a v o i d e d i f p o s s i b l e , be-
cause f l u i d i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e g r a v e l m a n t l e may d i s t u r b t h e pack and p u s h t h e
g r a v e l away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e , and where m a t e r i a l i s d i s s o l v e d , t h e g r a v e l w i l l
move i n t o t h e v o i d e d space, r e s u l t i n g i n h o l e s i n t h e pack a n d / o r g r a v e l and
sand m i x i n g t o g e t h e r . As a c i d c a n b e i n j e c t e d t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t i o n s f i l l e d w i t h
g r a v e l much more e a s i l y t h a n t h r o u g h t h o s e p l u g g e d w i t h c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e
f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e as a consequence o f p e r m e a b i l i t y and p r e s s u r e d r o p con-
t r a s t , t h e a c i d w i l l bypass t h e c a l c i u m - c a r b o n a t e f i l l e d p e r f o r a t i o n s and t h e r e -
f o r e not. c o m p l e t e l y remove t h e f i n e p l u g g i n g m a t e r i a l . I t is t h u s f a r b e t t e r t o
c i r c u m v e n t t h e need f o r an a c i d j o b a f t e r g r a v e l pack i n s t a l l a t i o n b y r e m o v i n g
a l l p r e v i o u s l y i n s e r t e d f l u i d - l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s by a pre-gravel-pack a c i d t r e a t -
ment w h i c h p r o v i d e s h i g h e r w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y and more p o s i t i v e sand c o n t r o l ( o t -
h e r a s p e c t s o f a c i d i z i n g p r i o r t o and a f t e r g r a v e l pack i n s t a l l a t i o n a r e d i s c u s -
sed i n s e c t i o n 5 . 1 1 . 4 . ) .

5.3.1.2.2. Solid fluid-loss additives and formation pre-packing

The m o s t p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n i s t o use a c o m b i n a t i o n o f g r a v e l and v i s c o u s
f l u i d s as a d i v e r t i n g s y s t e m f o r t h e a c i d w h i c h h e l p s t o p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e
f l u i d loss ahead o f t h e g r a v e l s l u r r y and p a r t i a l l y p r e p a c k s t h e f o r m a t i o n w i t h
g r a v e l . A c i d has t o be d i v e r t e d t o a l l p e r f o r a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o a l l o w f o r com-
p l e t e f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e r e m o v a l and t o p r e v e n t a c i d bypass t h a t l e a v e s some
damaged p a t c h e s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n . The g r a v e l d i v e r t e r s t a g e s s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d
such t h a t n o t more t h a n 10 % o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e f i l l e d w i t h g r a v e l i n e a c h
s t a g e , as t h e e f f e c t o f t h e g r a v e l - f i l l e d p e r f o r a t i o n s on a c i d i n j e c t i o n p r e s -
s u r e depends on amount o f p e r f o r a t i o n s packed b y g r a v e l , number o f p e r f o r a t i o n s
c l e a n e d b y a c i d , s e v e r i t y o f p l u g g i n g o f o t h e r p e r f o r a t i o n s , undamaged i n j e c t i -
v i t y o f t h e c o m p l e t e d i n t e r v a l , downhole dynamic v i s c o s i t y o f t h e g e l l e d b r i n e ,
g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i t y and i n j e c t i o n r a t e .

I n j e c t i o n o f caiciurn carbonate l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s i n t o a g r a v e l pack i s o f t e n

necessary t o c o n t r o l excessive f l u i d l o s s w h i l e preparing the w e l l f o r produc-
t i o n a f t e r a g r a v e l p a c k o r w h i l e i n s t a l l i n g a g r a v e l pack i n an u p p e r zone,
b u t c a n l e a d t o s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s . As t h e s e f l u i d - l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s a r e o f t e n de-
 741

signed such t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e s f l o w through t h e g r a v e l and b u i l d a f i l t e r cake

on t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e a t t h e boundary between r e s e r v o i r sand and p a c k i n g g r a -
v e l , t h e p o r e s o f t h e g r a v e l i n some o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s become p l u g g e d
and t h e m a t e r i a l i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o remove due t o s e l e c t i v e d i s s o l u t i o n by
t h e a c i d f o l l o w e d by a c i d bypassing o f p e r f o r a t i o n s f i l l e d w i t h f i n e - g r a i n e d so-
l i d s due t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r e s s u r e drops. T h e r e f o r e t h e median p a r t i c l e s i z e
o f t h e f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s h o u l d a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal t h e median p o r e s i z e o f
t h e g r a v e l which m i n i m i z e s i n v a s i o n o f c a l c i u m carbonate i n t o p e r f o r a t i o n t u n -
n e l s and f o r m a t i o n and s t i l l a d e q u a t e l y c o n t r o l s f l u i d l o s s r a t e .

5.3.2. Transport and packing capacity o f the slurries

T r a n s p o r t e f f i c i e n c y o f h i g h - d e n s i t y g r a v e l pack s l u r r i e s g e n e r a l l y improves
w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f l u i d v e l o c i t y , g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n and a n n u l a r speed (SKAGGS
1984). W i t h i n c r e a s i n g g r a v e l s a t u r a t i o n , l e s s f l u i d v i s c o s i t y i s r e q u i r e d t o
m a i n t a i n a g i v e n l e v e l o f t r a n s p o r t e f f i c i e n c y which improves placement by b e t -
t e r l e a k o f f r a t e s and reduced p r e s s u r e d r o p through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s w h i l e be-
i n g packed. T r a n s p o r t e f f i c i e n c y i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y c o n t r o l l e d by s l u r r y c o n s i s -
tency, w i t h s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s b e i n g a b l e t o be achieved w i t h l o w - v i s c o s i t y
f l u i d s and h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o r h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s and low g r a v e l
s a t u r a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e range o f g r a v e l suspension c a p a c i t y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t
f l u i d types, t h e r e b y g i v i n g ample p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f design. The overview as f o l -
lows i n c l u d e s comments on suspension symmetry, dual c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y ,
e v o l u t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g techniques, and g r a v e l volume and placement.

5.3.2.1. Suspension symnetry

D i s t i n c t i o n can g e n e r a l l y be made between symmetrical and asymmetrical sus-
pensions f o r s l u r r y d e f i n i t i o n (WAHLMEIER & ANDREWS 1988). Symmetrical suspen-
s i o n s i n which t h e s o l i d s a r e u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e l i q u i d a p p l y
f o r s l u r r i e s having extremely high s o l i d concentrations, h i g h v e l o c i t y , f i n e
p a r t i c l e s i z e , e l e v a t e d f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , and/or small d e n s i t y d i f f e r e n c e s b e t -
ween s o l i d s and l i q u i d . Asymmetrical suspensions e x h i b i t a pronounced c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n g r a d i e n t normal t o f l o w d i r e c t i o n and a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by s l u r r i e s u s u a l l y
h a v i n g l o w e r s a t u r a t i o n s and/or c o n t a i n i n g l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s i z e s than those o f
symmetrical suspensions. Asymmetrical suspensions r e p r e s e n t i n g heterogeneous
f l o w can be s u b d i v i d e d i n t o t h e stages o f f l o w w i t h i n a d i s t o r t e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p r o f i l e and no p a r t i c u l a t e d e p o s i t , s e d i m e n t a t i o n w i t h i n a moving bed o f p a r t i -
c u l a t e s , d e p o s i t e d s t a t i o n a r y bed w i t h s a l t a t i o n , and complete s e t t l i n g o f t h e
p a r t i c l e s f r o m t h e l i q u i d . The c r i t i c a l o r e q u i l i b r i u m v e l o c i t y o f t h e s l u r r y
i s t h e v e l o c i t y f o r g i v e n l i q u i d and/or f l o w c o n d i t i o n s where a bed o f s o l i d s
begins t o form.

5.3.2.2. Dual carrier fluid viscosity

I n c r e a s i n g g r a v e l pack c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y f a c i l i t a t e s m i x i n g , pumping
and t r a n s p o r t o f s l u r r i e s w i t h h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , improves g r a v e l move-
ment through p e r f o r a t i o n s , s t a b i l i z e s p e r f o r a t i o n c a v i t i e s and t u n n e l s i n t h e
f o r m a t i o n , decreases e r o s i o n and screen p l u g g i n g by f i n e s , and i n h i b i t s g r a v i t y
s e g r e g a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s i z e s and s e t t l i n g o f g r a v e l i n t h e s l u r r y (GRUESBECK &
COLLINS 1978; SHRYOCK, DUNLOP & MILLHONE 1979; SHRYOCK & MILLHONE 1979). On t h e
o t h e r hand, however, i n c r e a s i n g v i s c o s i t y can cause i n c o m p l e t e p a c k i n g due t o
d e c r e a s i n g f l u i d l e a k o f f r a t e s and i n c r e a s i n g tendency f o r g r a v e l l a y e r i n g on
t h e screen and node b u i l d i n g a t t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s (SHRYOCK 1980, SCHEUERMAN
1984; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 7 . ) .

As t h e f l u i d v i s c o s i t y needed f o r m i x i n g and pumping o f g r a v e l s l u r r i e s a t

t h e s u r f a c e i s h i g h e r t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d f o r optimum performance downhole, the
necessary dual v i s c o s i t y i s a t t a i n e d by a d d i t i o n o f b r e a k e r s t o degrade t h e v i s -
 742

c o s i f y i n g p o l y m e r (SCHEUERMAN 1 9 8 4 ) . T h i s d u a l v i s c o s i t y m o d e l l i n g o f g r a v e l
p a c k i n g f l u i d s i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h e r e q u i r e d downhole v i s c o s i t y n o t b e f o r e
c o n t a c t i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r c a n be t o some e x t e n t compared w i t h d e l a y e d c r o s s l i n k -
i n g o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s which a l s o provides a u s e f u l combination, although i n
r e v e r s e o r i e n t a t i o n , b y h a v i n g l o w e r v i s c o s i t y upon e n t r a n c e t o t h e f l o w l i n e s
t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t u b u l a r f r i c t i o n , and r e a c h i n g h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y downhole t h u s
b e i n g a b l e t o suspend and t r a n s p o r t h i g h p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t o t h e f r a c -
t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.3.4.3.).

5.3.2.3. Evolution o f gravel packing techniques

I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g s i n c e t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0 ' s when t h i s method
became a v i a b l e means o f c o n t r o l l i n g sand p r o d u c t i o n i n o i l and gas w e l l s , g r a -
v e l was p l a c e d downhole i n t h e i n i t i a l submature phase b y s i m p l e d r y dumping,
and t h e n w i t h b e g i n n i n g a m e l i o r a t i o n o f t e c h n i q u e s and a c c u m u l a t i o n o f know-
l e d g e and e x p e r i e n c e m a i n l y b y t h e normal c i r c u l a t i o n method w h i c h c o m p r i s e s
pumping o f t h e g r a v e l down t h e t u b i n g s t r i n g and t h r o u g h a f l o a t c o l l a r a t t h e
b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e r and back u p t h e a n n u l a r space (SOLUM 1 9 8 6 ) . L a t e r r e v e r s e
c i r c u l a t i o n , squeeze p a c k i n g and f o u r - p o s i t i o n l o n g s t r o k e o p e r a t i o n w e r e suc-
c e s s f u l l y i m p r o v i n g g r a v e l p l a c e m e n t e f f e c t i v i t y . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some
g e n e r a l a s p e c t s , some comments a r e g i v e n on normal and r e v e r s e c i r c u l a t i o n p a c k -
i n g , squeeze p a c k i n g , combined c i r c u l a t i o n and squeeze p a c k i n g , f o u r - p o s i t i o n
l o n g s t r o k e p a c k i n g , wash down and p r e s s u r e p a c k i n g , and o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s .

5.3.2.3.1. General aspects

A f t e r t h e e a r l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d b e g i n n i n g s , sand c o n t r o l t e c h n o l o g y has l a -
t e r p r o g r e s s i v e l y e v o l v e d w i t h b o t h l o c a l a d a p t a t i o n and i n c r e a s i n g s o p h i s t i c a -
t i o n (MURPHEY, BILA & TOTTY 1 9 7 4 ) . C l o g g i n g of t h e f l o a t c o l l a r and t h e i n a b i l i -
t y t o pack t h e l i n e r t o p were m a j o r drawbacks o f t h e normal c i r c u l a t i o n m e t h o d .
D u r i n g t h e l a s t decades, t h e r e v e r s e c i r c u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e was d e v e l o p e d w h i c h
c o n s i s t s o f pumping o f t h e g r a v e l down t h e a n n u l a r space and a r o u n d t h e o u t s i d e
o f t h e l i n e r . As t h e g r a v e l r e a c h e s i t s s e t t i n g p o i n t , t h e c a r r y i n g f l u i d s
w o u l d c o n t i n u e downhole and r e t u r n t o t h e s u r f a c e t h r o u g h a p e r f o r a t e d n i p p l e
a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e r . E a r l i e r drawbacks such as b r i d g i n g o f f due t o p o o r
downhole t o o l s and s u r f a c e p r o c e d u r e s have been overcome d u r i n g c o u r s e o f t h e
t e c h n o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n , w i t h r e v e r s e c i r c u l a t i o n i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h squeeze
p a c k i n g b e i n g t h e c u r r e n t l y m o s t f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d g r a v e l p l a c e m e n t method ( S O -
LUM 1 9 8 6 ) . The o r i g i n a l n o r m a l c i r c u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e has r e c e n t l y been r e v i v e d
and u t i l i z e d i n an i m p r o v e d v e r s i o n f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s
(STILES 1985; STILES, COLOMB & FARLEY 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 3 . 5 . ) .

5.3.2.3.2. Normal and reverse circulation packing

The s i m p l e s t sand c o n t r o l measure i s i n s t a l l a t i o n o f s c r e e n o r l i n e r a l o n e
w i t h o u t g r a v e l , w i t h i n f l u x o f f o r m a t i o n sand i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e t h e n r e s u l t i n g
i n b u i l d i n g o f a n a t u r a l g r a v e l pack (HALLIBURTON 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 3 . 6 . ) .
No i n f l u e n c e c a n b e e x e r t e d on g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n s u c h n a t u r a l
p a c k s a r i s i n g f r o m p a y c o l l a p s e a l o n g t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l w h i c h i s g i v e n by r e s e r -
v o i r granulometry, and sand e n t e r i n g t h e w e l l b o r e may cause f o r m a t i o n d i s t u r -
bance and p e r m e a b i l i t y damage. G r a v i t y p a c k i n g i s t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e means of
g r a v e l i n s e r t i o n where a s c r e e n i s r u n i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e and g r a v e l i s s l o w l y
p o u r e d down t h e a n n u l u s . C a r e m u s t be t a k e n t o a v o i d g r a v e l b r i d g i n g a r o u n d t h e
t u b i n g c o l l a r s and i t i s v e r y u n l i k e l y t h a t any g r a v e l i s f o r c e d t h r o u g h t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n s , w i t h consequently hydrocarbon f l o w i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e being r e -
s t r i c t e d by f o r m a t i o n f i n e s i n v a d i n g t h e p a c k .

C i r c u l a t i n g p a c k s a r e g e n e r a l l y p l a c e d i n a w e l l b y pumping f l u i d s down t h e
w o r k s t r i n g t h r o u g h a c r o s s o v e r t o o l and r e t u r n i n g t o t h e s u r f a c e (LEDLOW, SAUER
 743

& TILL 1985). A c i r c u l a t i n g pack i s b e s t f o r g r a v e l placement i n t h e screen-ca-

s i n g annulus b u t has poor performance i n p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g g i n g ( c f . sec-
t i o n 5 . 6 . 3 . ) . I t i s t h e r e f o r e c h i e f l y a p p l i e d i n open-hole c o m p l e t i o n s i n v e r t i -
c a l w e l l s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.10.2.) where g r a v e l squeezing i n t o p e r f o r a t i o n s i s n o t
r e q u i r e d and i n w e l l s where p e r f o r a t i o n p r e p a c k i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.6.7.) has
been performed. F o r c i r c u l a t i o n packing, l o w e r t e l l - t a l e screen and s e a l sub
a r e e l i m i n a t e d , and an upper t e l l - t a l e screen i s p l a c e d between shear s a f e t y
sub and b l a n k p i p e ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 3 . 5 . ) . C i r c u l a t i o n passes t h r o u g h t h e p r i m a r y
screen u n t i l i t i s covered w i t h g r a v e l and i s t h e n d i v e r t e d t h r o u g h t h e upper
t e l l - t a l e screen, w i t h g r a v e l f a l l i n g by g r a v i t y t o f i l l t h e b l a n k l i n e r annu-
l u s u n t i l t h e upper t e l l - t a l e screen i s covered and an a b r u p t p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e
occurs.

C i r c u l a t i o n gravel packing i s u s u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s
w i t h low g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . R e v e r s e - c i r c u l a t i o n p a c k i n g enables t o p l a c e
some g r a v e l through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s by s h u t t i n g o f f t h e r e t u r n s a t t h e s u r f a c e
and pumping c o n t i n u o u s l y u n t i l a p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e i n d i c a t e s t h a t g r a v e l has co-
vered t h e t e l l - t a l e screen. I f no p o s i t i v e p r e s s u r e i s e x e r t e d , o n l y g r a v e l
p a c k i n g i n s i d e t h e w e l l b o r e i s l i k e l y t o be achieved. Two o r t h r e e j o i n t s o f un-
s l o t t e d t u b i n g a r e g e n e r a l l y r u n above t h e screen t o p r o v i d e space f o r g r a v e l
t o f i l l t h e annulus above t h e screen which n o r m a l l y p r e v e n t s f l u i d and g r a v e l
movement up t h e annulus and p r o v i d e s a r e s e r v e pack i f t h e g r a v e l s e t t l e s ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 5.3.2.4.3. and 5 . 8 . 4 . 1 . ) .

5.3.2.3.3. Squeeze packing

Squeeze p a c k i n g i s s u i t a b l e f o r v e r t i c a l w e l l s w i t h s h o r t p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r -
v a l s (HALLIBURTON 1988). No t e l l - t a l e screen i s implemented a t a l l , and t h e
t o o l i s f i r s t placed i n reversing position, b u t instead o f reversing, the
f l u i d s a r e c i r c u l a t e d t a k i n g r e t u r n s above t h e packer. Once t h e f i r s t f l u i d s t o
be squeezed i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n r e a c h a p o i n t j u s t above t h e packer, t h e t o o l i s .
c y c l e d t o t h e squeeze p o s i t i o n and g r a v e l i s squeezed i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n u n t i l
a p r e d e t e r m i n e d p r e s s u r e i s a t t a i n e d and t h e t o o l i s c y c l e d t o r e v e r s e p o s i t i o n
t o remove excess g r a v e l . Squeeze g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s u s u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h
h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s w i t h h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . A squeeze pack i s p l a c e d
i n t o a w e l l by u l t i m a t e l y pumping a l l f l u i d s i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n w i t h no r e t u r n s
t o t h e s u r f a c e (LEDLOW, SAUER & T I L L 1985). Squeeze p a c k i n g i s most e f f i c i e n t
i n p l a c i n g g r a v e l i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and l e a s t e f f e c t i v e i n p l a c i n g g r a -
v e l i n t h e screen-casing annulus. Unless c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y i s decreased
o r t h e p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l i s increased, a s t r a i g h t squeeze pack o f t e n r e -
s u l t s i n poor g r a v e l placement.

5.3.2.3.4. Combined c i r c u l a t i o n and squeeze packing

As a consequence o f t h e i r i n v e r s e e f f e c t i v i t y , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f c i r c u l a t i o n
and squeeze g r a v e l pack i s o f t e n t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n f o r reasonable p a c k i n g o f
b o t h p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and screen-casing annulus (HALLIBURTON 1988). Gravel
i s p l a c e d i n t h e w e l l by c i r c u l a t i n g s l u r r y down u n t i l a s c r e e n o u t i s o b t a i n e d
on t h e lower t e l l - t a l e screen, and when t h e s l u r r y crosses t h e screen, r e t u r n s
a r e s h u t o f f and f l u i d i s pumped i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n . Gravel i s c i r c u l a t e d t o
t h e lower t e l l - t a l e screen u n t i l an a b r u p t p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e
lower t e l l - t a l e screen i s covered t h e r e b y r e s t r i c t i n g c i r c u l a t i o n . A t t h i s
p o i n t , t h e t o o l i s c y c l e d i n t o squeeze p o s i t i o n and pumping i s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l
a p r e d e t e r m i n e d p r e s s u r e i s reached, w i t h pumping proceeding a t t h e h i g h e s t
p r a c t i c a l r a t e which a s s i s t s i n p e r f o r a t i o n packing.

The c o m b i n a t i o n o f c i r c u l a t i o n and squeeze g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

s u i t a b l e f o r w e l l s w i t h l e s s than 45 f t o f c o m p l e t i o n i n t e r v a l o r l e s s than 45
degrees o f h o l e d e v i a t i o n . The combined method a l s o a l l o w s f o r p r e s s u r e d e p l e -
t i o n by temporary c i r c u l a t i o n when g e l - o u t o r screenout d u r i n g squeeze p a c k i n g
 744

i s c r e a t i n g pressure-up c y c l e s and m i m i c k i n g h i g h p r e s s u r e l o s s e s downhole

which c o u l d cause premature t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e j o b .

5.3.2.3.5. Four-posi t ion longstroke packing

F o u r - p o s i t i o n l o n g s t r o k e p a c k i n g i s performed w i t h adding an upper c i r c u l a -
t i o n p o s i t i o n t o t h e combined c i r c u l a t i o n and squeeze t o o l . The f o u r - p o s i t i o n
i n s t r u m e n t i s o p e r a t e d by v e r t i c a l w o r k s t r i n g movements i n t o squeeze (no r e -
turns), l o w e r c i r c u l a t i o n ( r e t u r n s o n l y through l o w e r t e l l - t a l e s c r e e n ) , upper
c i r c u l a t i o n ( r e t u r n s t h r o u g h main screen) and r e v e r s e c i r c u l a t i o n (DOWELL
SCHLUMBERGER 1988 b ) . S l u r r y i s f i r s t c i r c u l a t e d down t o s c r e e n o u t on t h e l o w e r
t e l l - t a l e screen, and t h e n second t h e t o o l i s lowered i n t o squeeze p o s i t i o n
which c l o s e s t h e c i r c u l a t i n g p a r t t h e r e b y p r e v e n t i n g r e t u r n s f r o m g o i n g t o t h e
s u r f a c e and i n s t e a d o f t h a t i n j e c t i n g i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r .

A f t e r s c r e e n o u t on t h e f o r m a t i o n , t h e i n s t r u m e n t i s r a i s e d t o t h e upper c i r -
c u l a t i n g p o s i t i o n i n t h e t h i r d stage and t h e r e m a i n i n g s l u r r y i s dehydrated i n
t h e s c r e e n - c a s i n g annulus, and a f t e r a l l t h e p o s i t i o n s have been t e s t e d t o v e r i -
f y a s c r e e n o u t i n each p o s i t i o n , t h e excess s l u r r y l e f t i n t h e t u b i n g i s r e v e r -
sed o u t . The f o u r - p o s i t i o n l o n g s t r o k e c r o s s o v e r i n s t r u m e n t w i t h r e v e r s i n g b a l l
i n p l a c e o f f e r s t h e f l e x i b i l i t y t o s u c c e s s f u l l y g r a v e l pack most w e l l s i n c l u -
d i n g those w i t h l o n g e r zones and h i g h e r degrees o f h o l e d e v i a t i o n .

5.3.2.3.6. Wash down and pressure packing

Wash down p a c k i n g c o n s i s t s o f d e p o s i t i n g g r a v e l t o a p r e d e t e r m i n e d h e i g h t
above p e r f o r a t i o n s f o l l o w e d by r u n n i n g screen and l i n e r assembly w i t h a wash
p i p e and a c i r c u l a t i n g - t y p e shoe (HALLIBURTON 1988). The screen i s washed down
through the gravel, and when t h e shoe i s on bottom, g r a v e ? i s a l l o w e d to f a l l
back around screen and l i n e r . T h i s approach has minimum p r o v i s i o n f o r compact-
i n g t h e g r a v e l i n t h e s c r e e n - c a s i n g annulus and no p r o v i s i o n f o r squeezing g r a -
v e l through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . The w e l l , however, may be pressure-packed p r i o r
t o washing down t h e screen, and t h e r e may be some s e g r e g a t i o n o f g r a v e l s i z e s
d u r i n g t h e wash down.

Pressure g r a v e l p a c k i n g enables t o f i l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s w i t h g r a v e l
i n o r d e r t o keep them unclogged by f o r m a t i o n sand and f i n e s , t o f i l l v o i d spa-
ces b e h i n d t h e c a s i n g , and t o r e s t r e s s t h e r e s e r v o i r . C i r c u l a t i n g p r e s s u r e pack
p e r m i t s s l u r r y i n j e c t i o n down t h e t u b i n g which may p r e v e n t s c o u r i n g o f mud,
r u s t , p i p e dope and s c a l e f r o m t h e t u b i n g - c a s i n g annulus t h a t c o u l d damage pack
permeability. I n order t o place gravel through the perforations, surface r e -
t u r n s may be stopped and s l u r r y squeezed a g a i n s t t h e pay zone b e f o r e t h e p e r f o -
r a t i o n s a r e covered w i t h s l u r r y .

5.3.2.3.7. Other techniques

B u l l h e a d o r bradenhead p r e s s u r e p a c k i n g o p e r a t e s w i t h o u t t e l l - t a l e screen o r
wash p i p e because no r e t u r n s a r e taken (HALLIBURTON 1988). Pumping p r e s s u r e s i n -
crease as more p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e covered w i t h g r a v e l , and a f t e r f i n a l sandout,
t h e packer i s r e l e a s e d f r o m screen and b l a n k p i p e a t t h e c r o s s o v e r t o o l . Combi-
n a t i o n o f s e v e r a l methods can enhance t h e p r o s p e c t o f a c h i e v i n g a t i g h t u n i f o r m
pack w i t h g r a v e l occupying each p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l and r e s t r e s s i n g a l l areas o f
t h e sand-producing f o r m a t i o n . B u l l h e a d p r e s s u r e p a c k i n g f o l l o w e d by c i r c u l a t i o n
p r e s s u r e p a c k i n g can be b e n e f i c i a l l y combined t o f o r m an o u t s t a n d i n g composite
design. Reasons f o r u n s a t i s f a c t o r y sand c o n t r o l performance a r e m a i n l y annulus
b r i d g i n g , i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand, and m i x i n g o f b o r e h o l e
f l u i d s w i t h t h e g r a v e l p a c k i n g s l u r r y (RENSVOLD & DECKER 1 9 7 8 ) .
 745

5.3.2.4. Gravel volume and placement

The volume r e q u i r e d f o r a n n u l a r and p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g depends on placement
techniques as w e l l as on t h e f a c t whether p r e v i o u s sand p r o d u c t i o n has o c c u r r e d
o r n o t i n o l d o r new boreholes, r e s p e c t i v e l y (ECONOMIDES 1986). D i f f e r e n t g r a -
v e l volumes a r e r e q u i r e d i n c i r c u l a t i o n and squeeze packing, and a r e s e r v e
b l a n k s e c t i o n above screen and p e r f o r a t i o n s has t o be i n c l u d e d i n o r d e r t o com-
pensate g r a v e l s e t t l i n g .

5.3.2.4.1. Circulation packing

I n case o f s i m p l e c i r c u l a t i o n pack w i t h no i n t e n t i o n o f squeezing g r a v e l
i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n , two times t h e a n n u l a r volume o f screen and b l a n k l i n e r
above t h e zone a r e u s u a l l y an adequate g r a v e l volume (ECONOMIDES 1986). I n case
o f squeezing, g r a v e l q u a n t i t y can be v e r y d i f f e r e n t depending on f o r m a t i o n cha-
r a c t e r i s t i c s , because s c r e e n o u t o r p r e s s u r e - o u t p r e v e n t i n g f u r t h e r i n j e c t i o n i s
h i g h l y dependent on r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y . I n s e c t i o n s w i t h c l e a n h i g h l y p e r -
meable pay sand, g r a v e l s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n occurs e a r l y i n t h e squeeze, thereby
r e d u c i n g t h e g r a v e l requirement, whereas i n d i r t y l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r i n -
t e r v a l s , f r a c t u r i n g may t a k e p l a c e as a consequence o f r e t a r d e d l e a k o f f and
p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p ( c f . s e c t i o n s 5.6.4. and 5.6.6.3.), and a s c r e e n o u t may have
t o be f o r c e d by r e d u c i n g i n j e c t i o n r a t e s t o a bare minimum. Long zones t a k e
l e s s g r a v e l p e r f t t h a n s h o r t i n t e r v a l s , because t h e r e i s more area a v a i l a b l e
f o r s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n . Long s e c t i o n s w i t h highly-permeable p o r t i o n s a t t h e t o p
o f t h e i n t e r v a l may s c r e e n o u t e a r l y due t o d e h y d r a t i o n i n t o t h a t zone, t h e r e b y
c a u s i n g b r i d g i n g which p r e v e n t s i n j e c t i o n i n t o t h e l o w e r p a r t .

5.3.2.4.2. Squeeze packing

Squeeze placements i n g e n e r a l r e q u i r e more o r l e s s one t i m e t h e a n n u l a r vo-
lume o f screen and b l a n k l i n e r above t h e zone p l u s 0 . 5 - 1.5 f t 3 o f p e r f o r a -
t i o n s (ECONOMIDES 1986). The d i f f e r e n c e s between c i r c u l a t i o n and squeeze pack-
i n g i n terms o f necessary amount o f g r a v e l o f a b t . one t i m e o f a n n u l a r volume
o f screen and b l a n k l i n e r can be m a i n l y e x p l a i n e d w i t h more e f f i c i e n t compac-
t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l by squeezing under h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s where p r e d o m i n a n t l y t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e p r o p e r l y f i l l e d and then t h e annulus i s a l s o plugged, whereas
c i r c u l a t i n g always i s p r o b l e m a t i c a l c o n c e r n i n g p e r f o r a t i o n f i l l i n g and p a c k i n g
d e n s i t y i s l o w e r i n t h e annulus t h a n achieved by squeezing.

5.3.2.4.3. Reserve blank section above screen and perforations

A p a r t f r o m p a c k i n g t h e whole l e n g t h o f p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l and s l o t t e d l i n e r
o r wire-wrapped screen, a r e s e r v e a n n u l a r s e c t i o n o f g r a v e l above t h e zone has
t o be p l a c e d a g a i n s t a b l a n k l i n e r (ECONOMIDES 1986). The r e s e r v e a l l o w s excess
g r a v e l t o compensate f o r s e t t l i n g a f t e r screenout o c c u r s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
5.8.4.1.), and i t a l s o p r e v e n t s g r a v e l f l u i d i z a t i o n d u r i n g hydrocarbon produc-
t i o n . I n i n j e c t i o n w e l l s , t h e r e s e r v e i s a v a i l a b l e t o r e p l a c e g r a v e l which i s
pumped away w h i l e i n j e c t i n g . When g r a v e l i s p l a c e d i n near v e r t i c a l w e l l s by
c i r c u l a t i n g , g r a v e l i s c a r r i e d i n a l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d and r e s e r v e g r a v e l i s
s t o r e d i n t h e b l a n k p i p e annulus below t h e upper t e l l - t a l e screen and above t h e
main screen. I n v e r t i c a l w e l l s , c i r c u l a t i o n p r o v i d e s complete f i l l i n g o f t h e
b l a n k p i p e annulus.

A f t e r t h e p r i m a r y screen i s covered, c i r c u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e s t h r o u g h t h e upper

t e l l - t a l e screen and g r a v e l s e t t l e s o u t u n t i l i t i s covered as w e l l , w i t h r e -
s e r v e g r a v e l b e i n g s i m p l y a f u n c t i o n o f b l a n k l i n e r l e n g t h and i t s a n n u l a r vo-
lume. H i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s have r e s t r i c t e d f l o w t h r o u g h t h e upper t e l l - t a l e
screen and b r i d g i n g occurs b e f o r e g r a v e l placement i s complete. U s i n g h i g h - v i s -
c o s i t y f l u i d s , r e s e r v e g r a v e l can o n l y be d e r i v e d by s e t t l i n g o f g r a v e l o u t o f
 746

the s l u r r y column, w i t h the higher the gravel s a t u r a t i o n , the more gravel being
a v a i l a b l e t o form the reserve volume. The length of b l a n k l i n e r required i s a f -
f e c t e d n o t only by gravel co n cen t r at i o n , b u t a l s o by screen le ngth. I n open-
hole completions, the open-hole s ect i o n may be considerably l a r g e r a s a conse-
quence of underreaming t h a n the cased hole diameter where the reserve i s loca-
te d . Due t o d i f f i c u l t i e s of placing reserve gravel below the upper t e l l - t a l e
screen i n highly-deviated wel l s , continuous screen should extend above the per-
f o r a t i o n s t o allow i n s e r t i o n of reserve g r av e l.

5.3.3. Gravel settling diminution in the carrier fluid

The success of a gravel-pack completion depends on placement of gravel in
the p e r f o r a t i o n tunnel area a n d the screen-casing annulus (HUDSON & MARTIN
1988). As wellbore deviation i n cr eas es , g r a v i t a t i o n a l forc e s a n d c a r r i e r f l u i d
l i m i t a t i o n s may r e s u l t in gravel s e t t l i n g or duning ( c f . se c tion 5 . 8 . 3 . ) and i n -
complete packing of much of the p er f o r at i on tunnel area as well as premature
screenout of the l i n er - cas i n g annulus. Factors influencing gravel placement e f -
f e c t i v i t y include f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , f l u i d de nsity, pumping r a t e , gravel s i z e ,
gravel c o n c e n t r a t i o n , gravel d en s i t y , wellbore deviation a n d downhole assembly.
The discussion as follows focusses on pressure drop minimization, decreasing
p a r t i c u l a t e d e n s i t y l t r a n s p o r t f l u i d d en s i t y r a t i o , high-density f l u i d s vs. low-
d e n si t y p a r t i c l e s , a n d ap p l i cat i o n spectrum of low-density p a r t i c l e s .

5.3.3.1. Pressure drop minimization

I n order t o maximize p r o d u ct i v i t y , the pressure drop across the gravel pack
f i l t e r must be minimized which r eq u i r es choice of the l a r g e s t gravel p a r t i c l e
t h a t prevents movement of the formation material (HUDSON & MARTIN 1988; c f . sec-
tio n 5 . 2 . 3 . 3 . ) . Poor gravel placement with voids i n pe rfora tion tunnels a n d
screen-casing annulus decreases well e x p l o i t a b i l i t y . Low produc tivity a s a con-
sequence of i n s u f f i c i e n t gravel i n s e r t i o n i s a common problem e s p e c i a l l y asso-
c i a t e d with highly-deviated w e l l s , because s e t t l i n g of gravel in the s l u r r y
( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 3 . 1 . ) as i t flows down the annulus causes a gravel concentra-
t i o n g r a d i e n t i n the f l u i d from the high t o the low s i d e of the flow a re a . When
the c a r r i e r f l u i d leaking off t h r o u g h the p erfora tions has only low gravel sa tu-
r a t i o n or even does not contain gravel as a consequence of s e t t l i n g , i t i s d i f -
f i c u l t t o completely pack the p er f o r at i o n s , i f possible a t a l l . Therefore s e t t -
l i n g of gravel in the c a r r i e r f l u i d must be reduced as much a s possible in or-
der t o improve gravel pack e f f i c i e n c y ( c f . a l s o se c tion 5 . 8 . 3 . 4 . ) .

The pressure drop across a gravel pack i s r a t h e r i n s e n s i t i v e t o the annular

clearance between casing and screen ( Y I L D I Z & LANGLINAIS 1988) a n d i s a l s o inde-
pendent of the p er f o r at i o n phasing angle, i n dic a ting t h a t flow from nearby per-
f o r a t i o n s does not i n t e r f e r e . Shot d en s i ty and pe rfora tion diameter have the
g r e a t e s t influence on pressure d r o p , while media anisotropy has only subordi-
nate c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t o t a l pressure d r o p .

5.3.3.2. Decreasing particle density/carrier fluid density ratio

Gravel placement i s g en er al l y improved by decreasing the r a t i o of pa rtic u-
l a t e d e n s i t y t o c a r r i e r f l u i d d en s i t y (HUDSON & MARTIN 1988). Low p a r t i c u l a t e
d e n s i t y l c a r r i e r f l u i d d en s i t y r a t i o s a r e obtained using e i t h e r gravel of va-
r io u s type i n high-density b r i n es o r low-density gravel-pack m a te ria ls in com-
monly used c a r r i e r f l u i d s . Regardless of c a r r i e r f l u i d de nsity, the s e t t l i n g
r a t e of the gravel g r a i n s decreases as the p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y l c a r r i e r f l u i d densi-
t y r a t i o decreases. Addition of a v i s c o s i f i e r a l s o reduces the s e t t l i n g r a t e s
of gravel g r a i n s a t each p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y l c a r r i e r f l u i d de nsity r a t i o , and
th e r e f o r e p a r t i c l e t r an s p o r t improvement can be achieved with e i t h e r lower par-
t i c l e d e n s i t y l c a r r i e r f l u i d d en s i t y r a t i o s or higher f l u i d v i s c o s i t i e s . Par-
 747

t i c l e s e t t l i n g i s f u r t h e r i n f l u e n c e d by g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e c a r r i e r
f l u i d , w i t h s e t t l i n g r a t e decreasing w i t h increasing p a r t i c l e saturation.

Gravel s e t t l i n g i s t h u s reduced w i t h use o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s

and systems w i t h low p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y l c a r r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y r a t i o s . H i g h - v i s c o -
s i t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s , however, do n o t p r o v i d e t h e suspension p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d
i n s u r f a c e m i x i n g , pumping equipment o r under downhole c o n d i t i o n s . Polymer con-
c e n t r a t i o n s r e q u i r e d t o y i e l d h i g h v i s c o s i t y l e a d t o i m p a i r e d f l u i d l e a k o f f and
f a l s e screenouts as w e l l as r e d u c t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y . The low p a r -
t i c l e d e n s i t y l c a r r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y system u t i l i z e s buoyancy f o r c e s t o c o u n t e r
t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e s on t h e g r a v e l p a r t i c u l a t e r a t h e r t h a n h i g h v i s c o s i t y
t o reduce p a r t i c l e s e t t l i n g (HUDSON & MARTIN 1988). Because t h e polymer s a t u r a -
t i o n can be reduced, i t does n o t have t h e disadvantages of t h e h i g h polymer con-
c e n t r a t i o n / h i g h v i s c o s i t y system. Another a l t e r n a t i v e a r e s u r f a c t a n t - b e a r i n g wa-
t e r - b a s e d h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d systems which a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h f l u i d
l e a k o f f r a t e s and h i g h g r a v e l suspension and t r a n s p o r t c a p a c i t y (DOWELL SCHLUM-
BERGER 1988 a, NEHMER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) .

5.3.3.3. H igh-densi ty fluids vs . low-dens i ty particles

Low p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y l c a r r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y r a t i o s can be o b t a i n e d u s i n g e i -
t h e r standard gravel material i n high-density b r i n e f l u i d s o r low-density par-
t i c l e s i n commonly a p p l i e d c a r r i e r f l u i d s . The use o f h i g h - d e n s i t y f l u i d s i n t r o -
duces a d d i t i o n a l drawbacks, because t h e overbalance c r e a t e d by these f l u i d s can
l e a d t o severe f l u i d l o s s and w e l l c o n t r o l problems. A g r a v e l pack system de-
sign u t i l i z i n g conventional f l u i d s c a r r y i n g low-density p a r t i c u l a t e material
t h e r e f o r e improves p a r t i c l e t r a n s p o r t w i t h o u t t h e problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i g h
polymer l o a d i n g o r h i g h - d e n s i t y f l u i d s , whereas w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l , t h e
r e q u i r e d f l u i d d e n s i t y r e s u l t s i n h i g h s l u r r y d e n s i t y and h i g h h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s -
sures.

Concerning h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l b o r e s , HUDSON & MARTIN (1988) t h e r e f o r e recom-

mend t h e use o f l i g h t p a r t i c l e s o f p r e f e r a b l y 1.5 - 1.8 g/cm3 s p e c i f i c d e n s i t y
as a replacement f o r s i z e d g r a v e l t o y i e l d t h e r e q u i r e d p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y / c a r -
r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y r a t i o when combined w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l c a r r i e r f l u i d s . E x p e r i -
mental work has shown t h a t under these c o n d i t i o n s , complete p a c k i n g o f t h e p e r -
f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s a l s o a t t h e upper s i d e o f t h e h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d b o r e h o l e s can be
achieved ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 3 . 4 . ) . The low s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f t h e u l t r a -
l i g h t g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l i s achieved by c o a t i n g an i n n e r c o r e w i t h p l a s -
t i c , w i t h t h i s c o m p o s i t i o n h a v i n g v e r y low a c i d s o l u b i l i t y and p r o v i d i n g good
p e r m e a b i l i t y a t 4,000 p s i c l o s u r e s t r e s s .

5.3.3.4. App 1 icat ion spectrum o f low-dens i ty part ic les

The h i g h c o s t o f t h e u l t r a l i g h t g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l (HUDSON & MARTIN
1988) r e s t r i c t s i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o h o r i z o n t a l and h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d b o r e h o l e s
where t h e achieved maintenance o f a n n u l a r f l o w by low f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e d r o p
and improved p a c k i n g d e n s i t y pays o f f , whereas t h e m a t e r i a l i s t o o expensive
and does n o t have s u f f i c i e n t c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y f o r u t i l i z a t i o n i n v e r -
t i c a l - h o l e g r a v e l p a c k i n g and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g where ( i n c o n t r a s t t o o n l y
l i t t l e amounts r e q u i r e d f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g ) l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s o f m a t e r i a l a r e
needed. I n a d d i t i o n , p r o p e r d e p o s i t i o n o f t h e u l t r a l i g h t m a t e r i a l i n s a t i s f a c t o -
r y c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and p a c k i n g d e n s i t y can o n l y be achieved by v e r y h i g h f l u i d -
l o s s r a t e s which a r e d e s i r a b l e i n g r a v e l packing, b u t unacceptable i n h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g where e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f a u t o m a t i c a l l y l e a d s t o premature
screenout f a i l u r e o f t h e t r e a t m e n t due t o proppant b r i d g i n g and s l u r r y s t i c k i n g
as a consequence o f f l u i d d e h y d r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.2.3. and 6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) .
I n c r e a s i n g s l u r r y d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e s f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e which l e a d s t o b r i d g i n g
a t t h e end o f t h e screen. Buoyant l o w - d e n s i t y g r a v e l pack m a t e r i a l , however,
does n o t a l l o w g r a v i t y s e t t l i n g o f t h e s o l i d p a r t i c l e s , w i t h t h e r e f o r e p a c k i n g
o n l y b e i n g a b l e t o be a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h f l u i d l e a k o f f o r s t a g e d t r e a t m e n t s w i t h
s e c t ion-1.r ise p 1acemen t .

5.3.4. Gel surface filtration from polymer solutions

G r a v e l p a c k i n g w i t h v i s c o u s aqueous p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s a l l o w s r a p i d p l a c e m e n t
w i t h s u s p e n s i o n s o f h i g h s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (TORREST & MARCANO 1 9 8 6 ) . H i g h -
v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s g e n e r a l l y f a c i l i t a t e i n f i l l i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n s and p l a c e m e n t
o f g r a v e l d e p o s i t s beyond t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s w h i l e m i n i m i z i n g m i x i n g w i t h f o r m a -
t i o n sand. V i s c o u s aqueous p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s , however, c r e a t e a r e l a t i v e l y i m -
p e r m e a b l e s u r f a c e l a y e r w h i l e f l o w i n g t h r o u g h p o r o u s m e d i a s u c h as g r a v e l pack
and f o r m a t i o n sand, g i v i n g r i s e t o anomalous p r e s s u r e d r o p s and i n l e t b u i l d - u p
which i s n o t removable w i t h subsequent w a t e r f l u s h i n g . Surface l a y e r g e n e r a t i o n
i s m a i n l y due t o m i c r o g e l p l u g g i n g o f l a r g e p o r e d i a m e t e r s a t l o w c u r r e n t r a -
t e s , w i t h a b t . 4 % o f t h e t o t a l p o l y m e r volume c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e b u i l d - u p o f
t h e g e l l a y e r . The p r e s s u r e d r o p f o r w a t e r f l o w t h r o u g h t h i s l a y e r i s l i n e a r i n
c u r r e n t r a t e a t l e a s t d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s , and t h e g e l l a y e r s once f o r m e d
c a n u n d e r g o changes i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h w a t e r f l o w a t s u f f i c i e n t r a t e s .
S c r e e n o u t m i m i c k i n g b y s u r f a c e l a y e r - i n d u c e d p r e s s u r e r i s e and o t h e r a s p e c t s
a r e b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

5.3.4.1. Screenout mimicking by face layer-induced pressure rise

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s u r f a c e i m p a i r m e n t and r e t e n t i o n i s t h a t u n e x p e c t e d b u t
s u b s t a n t i a l f i l t r a t i o n a t t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e w i t h v i s c o u s p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s du-
r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s m a n i f e s t e d l a r g e l y as h i g h p r e s s u r e s w h i c h i s c l o u d i n g
t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p l a c e m e n t b e h a v i o u r and a f f e c t e d g r a v e l pack q u a l i t y (TOR-
REST & MARCANO 1 9 8 6 ) . As p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p r e m a t u r e
s c r e e n o u t d u r i n g p a c k i n g c o u l d t h u s a l s o be caused b y t h e r a p i d b u i l d - u p o f a
g e l s u r f a c e l a y e r a t t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e , m i s t a k i n g such f a l s e s i g n a l s as i n d i c a -
t o r f o r s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n and based on t h i s d e c i s i o n b e i n g made t o s t o p
pumping l e a v e s t h e f l o w l i n e s f u l l o f g r a v e l and t h e r e f o r e t h e pack i s b u i l d i n g
i n a way v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d .

R a p i d m i c r o g e l l a y e r b u i l d - u p w i t h p l a c e m e n t o f v e r y s m a l l s o l u t i o n volumes
c o u l d t h e r e f o r e a c t as a p r o f i l e c o n t r o l d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g w i t h c o n c e n t r a -
t e d p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s i n t h e w e l l b o r e f l o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and i n t o
t h e f o r m a t i o n . I f t h e r i s i n g i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s a r e e r r o n e o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d as
i n d i c a t i n g s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n l o n g b e f o r e t h e g r a v e l p a c k has a c t u a l l y f o r -
med, s t o p p i n g o f t h e j o b based o n r a p i d p r e s s u r e b u i l d - u p d u r i n g g r a v e l p l a c e -
ment l e a d s t o i n c o m p l e t e g r a v e l pack g e n e r a t i o n and r e d u c e d g r a v e l p a c k q u a l i t y
as a consequence o f f a i l u r e t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e e f f e c t o f s u r f a c e g e l f i l t r a -
t i o n . I t i s t h e r e f o r e e s s e n t i a l t o be a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e such s c r e e n o u t m i m i c k -
i n g caused b y s u r f a c e g e l l a y e r d e p o s i t i o n and t o c o n t i n u e pumping o f g r a v e l - s a -
t u r a t e d s l u r r y u n t i l t h e r e a l end o f t h e j o b .

5.3.4.2. Other aspects

On t h e o t h e r hand, m a i n t e n a n c e o f h i g h pumping p r e s s u r e s c o u l d g i v e r i s e t o
f r a c t u r i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r and s t r o n g l y u n i f o r m g r a v e l p l a c e m e n t p r e d o m i n a n t l y
w i t h i n t h e p r e s s u r e - p a r t e d c r a c k ( c f . s e c t i o n s 5 . 3 . 5 . and 5 . 6 . 4 . 2 . ) . A l t h o u g h
v i s c o s i t y b r e a k e r s c a n i n p r i n c i p l e be chosen t o a l l o w pumping away o f m a t e r i a l
t o the formation, t h e f i n e t u n i n g needed t o r e t a i n h i g h v i s c o s i t i e s f o r
c o n c e n t r a t e d s u s p e n s i o n s and l o w v i s c o s i t i e s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r i s n o t a l w a y s
p o s s i b l e . I n view o f t h e apparent successes o f g r a v e l packing w i t h viscous
aqueous p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s , t h e k i n d s o f b e h a v i o u r caused b y g e l s u r f a c e
f i l t r a t i o n and l a y e r g e n e r a t i o n s u g g e s t t h a t o t h e r f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g more
c a r e f u l c o m p l e t i o n s and c h o i c e s f o r a p p l i c a t i o n as w e l l as g e n e r a l improvement
i n f l u i d p r e p a r a t i o n and c l e a n l i n e s s may be i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s .
 749

I n c o n t r a s t t o g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e g e l l a y e r , a d s o r p t i o n f r o m polymer
molecules i n s o l u t i o n o r m o l e c u l a r entanglement i n c o n c e n t r a t e d s o l u t i o n s a r e
n o t s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s i n gravel packing applications i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e i r par-
t i a l l y c o n s i d e r a b l e importance i n h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.3.4.). D i s c u s s i o n o f aspects o f polymer a d s o r p t i o n a r e a l s o c a r r i e d o u t by
CHAUVETEAU (1981), GRAMAIN & MYARD (1981) and COHEN & METZNER (1982). CHAUVE-
TEAU (1981) comments on hydrodynamic r e t e n t i o n , and BURCIK (1969), KOHLER &
CHAUVETEAU (1981) and CHAUVETEAU & KOHLER (1984) i l l u s t r a t e m i c r o g e l p l u g g i n g .

5.3.5. Combination of gravel packing and proppant fracturing

Viscous g r a v e l pack c a r r i e r f l u i d s have an i n c r e a s e d d r a g e f f e c t on b o t h g r a -
v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand, a l l o w i n g b e t t e r r e s t r e s s i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , o r i g i n o f
a more t i g h t l y packed g r a v e l mantle, and t o h e l p pushing f o r m a t i o n sand o u t o f
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s . Knowledge o f t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e f o r m a t i o n hydrocarbon-
b e a r i n g sand enables p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e pay zone a c c e p t a b i l i t y f o r g r a v e l (GUR-
LEY, COPELAND & HENDRICK 1977). D i r t y r e s e r v o i r s c o n t a i n i n g l a r g e r amoul;ts o f
s i l t and c l a y almost always t a k e up more g r a v e l b e f o r e s c r e e n o u t than p r e v i o u s -
l y expected and planned, as t h e p e r m e a b i l i t i e s o f these l o w - m a t u r i t y sands a r e
poor and t h e f l u i d c a r r y i n g t h e g r a v e l w i l l n o t l e a k o f f a t a h i g h r a t e , w i t h
t h e f o r m a t i o n t h u s becoming f r a c t u r e d and t h e g r a v e l b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d away
f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e i n t o t h e p r e s s u r e - p a r t e d c r a c k i n o r d e r t o p r o p i t i n an un-
wanted h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n u n l e s s an a r t i f i c i a l s c r e e n o u t i s t r i g g e -
r e d by d e c r e a s i n g pumping r a t e s . I n v e r s e l y , c l e a n and h i g h l y - p e r m e a b l e r e s e r -
v o i r s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r a p i d f l u i d l e a k o f f and q u i c k s c r e e n o u t a f t e r i n j e c -
t i o n o f o n l y small amounts o f g r a v e l , and consequently a low p r o b a b i l i t y o f
t r i g g e r i n g t h e opening o f a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e d u r i n g t h e g r a v e l pack opera-
tion.

Pressure p a r t i n g w i t h opening o f a h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e can a l s o

o c c u r i n v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s o f g r a v e l p r e p a c k i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n s independent
f r o m whether t h e f o r m a t i o n has produced sand p r i o r t o g r a v e l p r e p a c k i n g o r n o t ,
and whether p e r f o r a t i o n washing o r s u r g i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t , w i t h t h e o n l y con-
t r o l l i n g parameter b e i n g o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e (PENBERTHY 1985; c f . s e c t i o n s
5.6.4.2. and 5 . 6 . 6 . ) . Advantages o f combined g r a v e l p a c k i n g and f r a c t u r i n g as
w e l l as f o r m a t i o n s t r e n g t h s u p p o r t by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a l o n e a r e b r i e f l y
discussed as f o l l o w s .

5.3.5.1. Advantages o f combined gravel packing and fracturing

I n some cases, i t may be d e s i r a b l e f r o m r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g p o i n t o f view
t o c a r r y o u t a combined h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g t r e a t m e n t i n
one t r i p by p r o v o k i n g excess o f t h e f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t , opening o f t h e forma-
t i o n , p l u g g i n g o f t h e c r a c k by proppants o r g r a v e l , and t h e n t r i g g e r i n g a t i p
screenout by l o w e r i n g pumping r a t e s i n o r d e r t o s t o p f u r t h e r p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e
f r a c t u r e , p r o p i t c o m p l e t e l y f r o m t h e w i n g t i p s up t o t h e w e l l b o r e , f i l l t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s w i t h g r a v e l i n cased holes, and subsequently l i n e t h e bore-
h o l e w a l l a l o n g t h e r e s e r v o i r i n open h o l e s o r t h e p e r f o r a t e d c a s i n g f a c e w i t h
t h e g r a v e l pack m a n t l e . The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s focusses on adequate s t a b i l i -
z a t i o n o f l o o s e sands and c h a l k s , p r o p e r i n f i l l i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and
cement sheath d e f e c t s , and o p e r a t i o n a l sequence o f h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u -
r i n g f o l l o w e d by g r a v e l p a c k i n g .

5.3.5.1.1. Adequate stabilization o f loose sands and chalks

Combined s m a l l - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g t r e a t m e n t s o f
c o n t r o l l e d and n o t random o r a c c i d e n t a l t e c h n i c a l performance a r e v e r y impor-
t a n t i n v a r i o u s l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y u n s t a b l e f o r m a t i o n s (such as s h e l l d e b r i s ,
 750

c h a l k and s i l t y s a n d s ) and w i l l become i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e n e a r f u -

t u r e w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e a p p r o a c h o f more and more m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s ( c f . a l s o
s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 4 . 3 . ) . S t a b i l i z a t i o n o f l o o s e sands and c h a l k s c a n e v e n be enhanced
by t a i l i n g - i n o f resin-coated gravel i n the terminal stage o f t h e h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.3.3.2.) and a l s o p e r f o r m i n g t h e g r a v e l
pack w i t h r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a i n s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 4 . 3 . and 5 . 8 . 2 . ) .

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f t h e p a y zone t o be g r a v e l packed has r e p e a t e d l y o c -

c u r r e d d u r i n g sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s , as i n d i c a t e d by t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f un-
u s u a l l y h i g h volumes o f g r a v e l i n some w e l l s and a l s o b y c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d
p o s t - o p e r a t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s (SPARLIN & COPELAND 1 9 7 2 ) . The e x p e r i e n c e has
shown t h a t i f f r a c t u r i n g h a s t a k e n p l a c e d u r i n g g r a v e l pack j o b s , i t has appa-
r e n t l y n o t r e d u c e d t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e sand c o n t r o l measure, t h u s c o n t r a d i c t -
i n g t h e e a r l i e r f e a r t h a t i n case o f f r a c t u r i n g , t h e g r a v e l w o u l d a l l go i n t o
one p l a c e b y p l u g g i n g t h e c r a c k and w o u l d n o t a l l o w a p r o p e r s o l u t i o n o f t h e
sand p r o b l e m . A s p e c t s o f combined h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e
a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y POOLLEN & MALONE ( 1 9 5 9 ) and SOLUM ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

5.3.5.1.2. Proper infilling of perforation tunnels

and cement sheath defects
LEDLOW, SAUER & T I L L ( 1 9 8 5 ) p r e s e n t a p o s i t i v e assessment o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g during gravel packing operations. I n p a r t i a l l y depleted reservoirs, o f -
t e n t h e h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e g e n e r a t e d b y a column o f g r a v e l p a c k s l u r r y i s a l -
r e a d y s u f f i c i e n t t o exceed f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e (CIRIGLIANO & LEIBACH
1967, PENBERTHY & COPE 1979, TRAHAN & SPIES 1 9 8 1 ) . A c h i e v e m e n t o f p a y zone f r a c -
t u r i n g , i n f i l l i n g o f t h e c r a c k w i t h g r a v e l and s u b s e q u e n t l y p a c k i n g p e r f o r a -
t i o n s and a n n u l u s w i t h g r a v e l i s i n many cases t h e o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y t o o b t a i n a
good g r a v e l p a c k w h i c h p r o p e r l y i n f i l l s a l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and v o i d s and s e t s
a d e c e n t i n s i d e m a n t l e . The b e n e f i t o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and - f o l l o w i n g f o r -
m a t i o n breakdown - c o m p l e t e f i l l i n g o f t h e w e l l b o r e w i t h g r a v e l i s t h a t i f pump-
i n g i s s t o p p e d t o o e a r l y , t h e f r a c t u r e c l o s e s and t h e b o r e h o l e i s n o t f u l l o f
sand because e q u i l i b r i u m b e d h e i g h t has n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y r i s e n , t h e i n c o m p l e t e -
l y f i l l e d w e l l b o r e e x h i b i t s l i t t l e o r no s t i m u l a t i o n and i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o s a n d
production.

Even f r a c t u r i n g i n t o an u n d e r l y i n g w a t e r - b e a r i n g zone i s more p o s i t i v e t h a n

n e g a t i v e , because t h e cement s h e a t h i n many w e l l s i s d e f e c t i v e and o f i n s u f f i -
c i e n t q u a l i t y , and i f a p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l b r e a k s down t h e cement and c r e a -
t e s a c h a n n e l , t h e o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y t o p l u g a l l t h e v o i d s i n b o t h f o r m a t i o n and
cement m a n t l e i s t o i n f i l l them w i t h g r a v e l u n t i l t e r m i n a l s c r e e n o u t i n d i c a t e s
t h a t maximum p a c k i n g has been a c h i e v e d . E x c e e d i n g f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e does n o t
prevent gravel screenout, b u t i n f a c t leads t o higher screenout pressures which
t o g e t h e r w i t h mu1 t i p l e p r e s s u r e c y c l e s d e h y d r a t e g r a v e l pack s l u r r i e s b e t t e r .

5.3.5.1.3. Operational sequence of hydraulic

proppant fracturing followed by gravel packing
C o n c e r n i n g o p e r a t i o n a l sequence, e i t h e r t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t
o r t h e g r a v e l p a c k i n g j o b c a n be c a r r i e d o u t f i r s t . S t a r t i n g w i t h h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g i n new w e l l s has t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t a c o n t i n u o u s g r a v e l m a n t l e c a n
be i n s t a l l e d l a t e r w h i c h t h e n i s no l o n g e r i n t e r s e c t e d b y p e r f o r a t i o n s h o o t i n g
and f r a c t u r e e x t e n s i o n . I n o l d w e l l s w h i c h have a l r e a d y been e q u i p p e d w i t h a
g r a v e l pack, h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n i n a more advanced s t a g e o f d e p l e -
t i o n r e q u i r e s c r o s s i n g o f t h e g r a v e l pack b y b o t h p e r f o r a t i o n s and p r o p a g a t i n g
hydraulic fracture.

As new p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s have t o be s h o t f o r a l l o w i n g t h e f r a c t u r e t o i n i t i a -
te, optimum c o m p l e t i o n i n c l u d e s p e r f o r m a n c e o f renewed g r a v e l p a c k i n g f o r t h e
 751

purpose o f p l u g g i n g o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s which were newly s h o t f o r p r e p a r a -

t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e j o b ( a s p e c t s o f r e p e r f o r a t i o n and r e - g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e
mentioned by BONOMO & YOUNG 1983). T h e r e f o r e t h e i d e a l sequence i s s t a r t i n g
w i t h h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g and, upon t e r m i n a t i o n o f i n f i l l i n g o f t h e
crack w i t h a t i g h t p r o p p a n t package, c o n t i n u i n g w i t h p l u g g i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l s and s e t t i n g o f t h e i n s i d e g r a v e l pack m a n t l e . F i e l d examples o f hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n o l d e r w e l l s equipped w i t h an e a r l i e r g r a v e l pack a r e r e p o r t e d
by DARR, BROWN & MURPHY (1985) and DARR & CARLTON (1988). Aspects o f combina-
t i o n s o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d by SOLUM
(1986).

5.3.5.2. Formation strength support by proppant fracturing alone

C r e a t i o n o f a c o n d u c t i v e p a t h some d i s t a n c e i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n by
means of a propped h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e i s a l s o w i t h o u t c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h g r a v e l
p a c k i n g a s u i t a b l e means o f s u p p o r t i n g f o r m a t i o n s t r e n g t h maintenance o r even
a m e l i o r a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r s t a b i l i t y as a consequence o f r e d u c t i o n o f d r a g o r
f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e s on t h e pay zone by i n c r e a s i n g f l o w area (ALLEN & ROBERTS
1982). S m a l l - s c a l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h i m p r o v i n g p e r f o r a t i o n geo-
m e t r y and d i s t r i b u t i o n can a l r e a d y e f f e c t i v e l y reduce an o t h e r w i s e s e r i o u s sand
c o n t r o l problem and t h u s i n some cases h e l p t o a v o i d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f g r a v e l
packing, t h e r e b y l e a v i n g a f u l l open w e l l b o r e and n o t g i v i n g r e s i s t a n c e t o
f l u i d f l o w t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g s and borehole-seaming g r a v e l m a n t l e .
Such f r a c t u r e p a c k i n g can be e f f e c t i v e f o r stacked t h i n r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l s , i n -
c l i n e d h o l e s and u n s t a b l e w e l l s t h a t would be d i f f i c u l t t o g r a v e l pack (WEISSEN-
BURGER, MORITA, MARTIN & WHITFILL 1987). F r a c t u r e packing, however, r e q u i r e s so-
l i d f o r m a t i o n a d j a c e n t t o t h e p o o r l y - c o n s o l i d a t e d zones o f i n t e r e s t , and t h i n
s o f t l a y e r s a r e b e t t e r s u i t e d because o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h f l o w r e s t r i c t i o n
i n the f r a c t u r e .

5.4. Reservoir stability and fluid dynamics

R e s e r v o i r s t a b i l i t y and f l u i d dynamics a r e m u t u a l l y depending f a c t o r s . The
f o l l o w i n g overview demonstrates how changing f l u i d dynamics and c o m p o s i t i o n can
a f f e c t r e s e r v o i r c o n s i s t e n c y and how decreasing f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e and s h i f t i n g
h y d r o c a r b o n l w a t e r r a t i o s can c r e a t e sand c o n t r o l problems i n p r e v i o u s l y s t a b l e
pay zones. Comments a r e a l s o g i v e n on r o c k mechanics, p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l morpho-
l o g y , and w a t e r c u t i n t h e hydrocarbons. Some d i f f e r e n c e s between h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e a l s o o u t l i n e d .

5.4.1. Formation pressure and fluid c m o s i t i o n

I n terms o f e x e c u t i o n o f g r a v e l pack t r e a t m e n t s d u r i n g course o f t h e produc-
t i o n h i s t o r y o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y o i l and s u b o r d i n a t e l y a l s o gas w e l l s , t h r e e cases
have t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . The s u i t e o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s comprises p r i m a r i l y n o t
enough c o h e s i v e pay zones as w e l l as s e c o n d a r i l y u n s t a b l e hydrocarbon-bearing
s e c t i o n s due t o r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e d e c l i n e , and w a t e r c u t i n c r e a s e and c o r r e s -
ponding f l u i d v i s c o s i t y decrease. The spectrum o f cases i s summarized i n a d i s -
c u s s i o n o f i n s u f f i c i e n t c o n s o l i d a t i o n and d e c l i n i n g r e s e r v o i r pressure, and
changing f l u i d c o m p o s i t i o n and v i s c o s i t y as f o l l o w s . Some comments a r e a l s o o f -
f e r e d on achievement o f t h e c r i t i c a l stage o f f o r m a t i o n c o l l a p s e .

5.4.1.1, Insufficient consolidation and declining pay pressure

The f i r s t group o f r e s e r v o i r s comprises c o m p l e t e l y u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sands and
c h a l k s which r e q u i r e s t a b i l i z a t i o n by g r a v e l p a c k i n g from t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f
p r o d u c t i o n . The main pay f o r m a t i o n s i n t h i s group a r e s i l t y and a r g i l l a c e o u s ,
m a i n l y medium- t o f i n e - g r a i n e d sands as w e l l as s o f t f l o w i n g c h a l k s and diatoma-
 752

ceous e a r t h s w h i c h a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r f i n e g r a i n s i z e , i n s u f f i c i e n t b i n d i n g na-
t u r e and l a c k i n g cementation have n o t enough i n t e r n a l cohesion t o be s a t i s f a c t o -
r i l y s t a b l e w i t h o u t a r t i f i c i a l improvement. Some l o o s e s c h i l l carbonates a l s o
belong t o t h i s d i v i s i o n o f r e s e r v o i r t y p e s .

The second assemblage i n c o r p o r a t e s weakly-cemented sands o f v a r i o u s g r a i n

s i z e i n c l u d i n g t h e whole spectrum f r o m almost s i l t t o n e a r l y g r a v e l where t h e
problems o f sand i n f l u x i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e s t a r t w i t h p r o g r e s s i v e d e p l e t i o n due
t o d e c r e a s i n g r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e t h a t i s so f a r m a i n t a i n i n g a more o r l e s s
s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g framework o f g r a i n s , w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n f a i l i n g once a c r i t i c a l
boundary p r e s s u r e i s reached and underpassed. E a r l y p r e s s u r e maintenance me-
thods such as w a t e r o r gas i n j e c t i o n which a r e v e r y common i n o i l - f i e l d e x p l o i -
t a t i o n can h e l p t o p r e v e n t t h e sand f r o m becoming s o f t and f l o w i n g , o r can a t
l e a s t d e c e l e r a t e t h e c o h e s i v i t y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , b u t t h e changing phase composi-
t i o n and v i s c o s i t y o f t h e r e s e r v o i r f l u i d s a l s o has i t s impact. V A Z I R (1986)
r e c o g n i z e s changes o f p e r m e a b i l i t y and r o c k p r o p e r t i e s around t h e we l b o r e t o
be t h e main reasons t r i g g e r i n g sand p r o d u c t i o n .

5.4.1.2. Changing fluid comosition and viscosity

The t h i r d a s s o c i a t i o n i n c l u d e s s l i g h t l y - l i t h i f i e d sands o f d i f f e r e n t g r a i n
s i z e c o m p r i s i n g a broad range t h r o u g h o u t t h e g r a n u l o m e t r i c a l i n t e r v a l o f sand
where g r a v e l p a c k i n g becomes necessary due t o r e s e r v o i r breakdown and d i s i n t e -
g r a t i o n w i t h i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r c u t i n t h e o i l d u r i n g advanced p r o d u c t i o n w i t h a
r i s i n g o i l - w a t e r - c o n t a c t accompanying p r e s s u r e d e p l e t i o n , as a consequence o f
e x c e s s i v e w a t e r i n j e c t i o n due t o p r e s s u r e maintenance o p e r a t i o n s , o r as a r e -
s u l t o f w a t e r c o n i n g and b r e a k t h r o u g h due t o u n f a v o u r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e l a -
t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y and p r e f e r r e d w a t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y along some h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y
s t r e a k s o r t h r o u g h t h e j o i n t system.

The changing f l u i d v i s c o s i t y l e a d s t o d i f f e r e n t cohesion o f t h e g r a i n f a -

b r i c , g e n e r a l l y induces l e s s s t a b i l i t y than b e f o r e and thus u l t i m a t e l y causes
t h e sand t o f l o w . The main members o f t h e second and t h i r d groups o f sand-pro-
blem r e s e r v o i r s a r e weakly-cemented f r i a b l e sands which m i g h t be o r i g i n a l l y
s t i l l s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b l e ( a l t h o u g h sand p r o d u c t i o n may o c c u r f r o m t h e v e r y be-
g i n n i n g o f b e i n g p u t on stream), b u t w i t h f a l l i n g r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e and/or
changing f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , i n t e r n a l s u p p o r t i s taken away and t h e g r a i n f a b r i c
s t a r t s t o c o l l a p s e and t o r e l e a s e more and more l o o s e sand g r a i n s which move t o -
wards t h e l e a s t r e s t r i c t e d s p o t t h a t i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e b o r e h o l e .

5.4.1.3. Achievement o f the critical stage of formation collapse

I n a l l t h e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t cases as o u t l i n e d above, s o l i d c o n t r o l problems
commonly s t a r t w i t h more o r l e s s unprevented m i g r a t i o n o f sand, mud and c h a l k
t h a t i s n o t s e r i o u s l y d i s t u r b i n g hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n , b u t l a t e r t h e stage i s
reached when p l u g g i n g o f r e s e r v o i r pores and l i n e r s l o t s as w e l l as i n f i l l i n g
o f t h e t u b i n g and e x c e s s i v e p r o d u c t i o n o f s o l i d s s t o p s o i l o r gas f l o w and
r u i n s t h e equipment. I n some cases, sand p r o d u c t i o n problems a r e o r i g i n a l l y ab-
s e n t and a r e o n l y s e c o n d a r i l y c r e a t e d by i n s u f f i c i e n t o r non-adequate comple-
t i o n p r a c t i c e s (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982).

I n some v e r y u n s t a b l e o i l sands, t h e c r i t i c a l o f f t a k e r a t e a t which sand

s t a r t s t o f l o w i s l e s s than 1 m3 o f o i l p e r day (MURER 1981). D i s t i n c t i o n has
t o be made between more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e produced o i l
as a consequence o f slow and g r a d u a l sand i n f l u x , and p u l s a t o r y c o l l a p s e o f
channels and caverns as w e l l as i n t e r m i t t e n t a r r i v a l o f l a r g e amounts o f l o o s e
sand i n t h e b o r e h o l e a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h p e r i o d s o f apparent sand s t a b i l i t y .
 753

5.4.2. Fluid dynamics

Gas e v o l u t i o n f r o m t h e f l o w i n g f l u i d a l s o has s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on sand
p r o d u c t i o n (SAUCIER 1974), and t h e same a p p l i e s t o f l o w d i s t u r b a n c e s caused by
r a t e changes and s u r g i n g (such as t a k i n g p l a c e d u r i n g a r t i f i c i a l l i f t ) . Reduc-
t i o n o f f l u i d r a t e l e a d s t o v e r y l a r g e g a s / l i q u i d r a t i o s and r e s u l t s i n d e c l i -
n i n g sand p r o d u c t i o n which i s n o t t h e consequence o f pack f l u i d i z a t i o n , as e v i -
denced by t h e occurrence o f t h e same f e a t u r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t e d packs i n f u l l -
s c a l e model v e r i f i c a t i o n t e s t s . Rate changes a f f e c t g r a v e l pack b e h a v i o u r more
s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h a n does t h e magnitude o f t h e f l o w r a t e . Sand b r i d g e c o n s t r u c -
t i o n and breakdown as w e l l as i n f l u e n c e o f p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l -
lows.

5.4.2.1. Sand bridge construction and breakdown

F o r a g i v e n s e t o f r e s e r v o i r f l o w c o n d i t i o n s , p r i m a r y and secondary sand
b r i d g e s f o r m which a r e s t a b l e f o r t h e e x i s t i n g geometries and hydrodynamic f o r -
ces. I f f l u i d f o r c e s a r e a l t e r e d , i n s t a b i l i t i e s occur, b r i d g e s break down, and
more sand i s produced u n t i l new b r i d g e s o r i g i n a t e under new c o n d i t i o n s o f s t a b i -
l i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 9 . 5 . ) . H i g h f l o w r a t e s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f hydrocarbon ex-
p l o i t a t i o n cause h i g h e r i n i t i a l q u a n t i t i e s o f sand p r o d u c t i o n and f l o w i m p a i r -
ment, thus n e c e s s i t a t i n g t o s t a r t e x p l o i t a t i o n o f o i l r e s e r v o i r s w i t h sand con-
t r o l problems w i t h low t o moderate o f f t a k e r a t e s . Hydrodynamic f a c t o r s a f f e c t -
i n g g r a v e l pack d e s i g n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by SAGE & LACEY ( 1 9 4 2 ) .

Concerning s p e c i a l treatments, steam-soak o r h u f f and p u f f w e l l s o f t e n s u f -

f e r f r o m sand i n f l u x , because t h e c y c l i c a l r e p e t i t i o n o f steam i n j e c t i o n and hy-
drocarbon, wa,ter and steam-condensate p r o d u c t i o n r e s u l t s i n c o n t i n u o u s l y chan-
g i n g s w e l l i n g and s h r i n k i n g o f t h e f o r m a t i o n due t o a l t e r n a t i n g h e a t i n g and
c o o l i n g , which a d d i t i o n a l l y t o t h e a l r e a d y o r i g i n a l l y f r i a b l e n a t u r e f u r t h e r
loosens t h e g r a i n f a b r i c (TOMA, LIVESEY & H E I D R I C K 1986). I n o r d e r t o maximize
r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o o i l , t h e g r a v e l has t o be water-wet b e f o r e i t i s added
t o t h e placement f l u i d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n case o f o i l - b a s e d c a r r i e r media (ALLEN &
ROBERTS 1982).

5.4.2.2. Influence of production rates

S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.11.1, damage
o f t h e g r a v e l pack a f t e r i t s i n s t a l l a t i o n has t o be avoided by c a r e f u l l y p u t -
t i n g t h e w e l l on stream. The f o r m a t i o n pores around t h e w e l l b o r e a r e loaded
w i t h f i n e s c a r r i e d i n by f l u i d s f i l t e r i n g i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r o r by i n h e r e n t f i -
nes made movable by f l u i d f i l t r a t e e f f e c t s . T h i s assembly o f f i n e s s h o u l d be
s t a r t e d t o be t r a n s p o r t e d back towards t h e w e l l b o r e as soon as p o s s i b l e a f t e r
c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l p a c k i n g j o b , b u t a t a low r a t e i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e
p l u g g i n g due t o h i g h v e l o c i t y . P r o d u c t i o n r a t e s should be g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d
i n o r d e r t o promote b r i d g i n g o f f o r m a t i o n sand on t h e g r a v e l . M i g r a t i o n o f f i -
nes i n t o t h e g r a v e l pack can be m i n i m i z e d by t h e use o f c l a y - s t a b i l i z i n g orga-
n i c polymers i n t h e placement f l u i d which a r e s t r o n g l y absorbed by c l a y s , f e l d -
spars and o t h e r n e g a t i v e l y charged s i l i c a t e s , t h e r e b y e x t e n d i n g g r a v e l pack
life.

Water-wet f o r m a t i o n s produce hydrocarbons w i t h o u t i n f l u x o f sand i f t h e r e i s

no t u r b u l e n t f l o w i n t h e r e s e r v o i r and i f w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n i s l e s s than t h e c r i -
t i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n (COLLE 1988). S u r f a c e t e n s i o n o f t h e w a t e r h o l d s sand
g r a i n s , s h a l e p a r t i c l e s and o t h e r f i n e s i n p l a c e d u r i n g n o n - t u r b u l e n t f l o w ,
whereas t u r b u l e n t f l o w overcomes s u r f a c e t e n s i o n and causes t h e w a t e r t o move
w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g t r a n s p o r t o f f i n e s and sand.

Sand i n f l u x may n o t be a s e r i o u s problem d u r i n g p r i m a r y gas p r o d u c t i o n , b u t

may o n l y show up a f t e r c o n v e r s i o n o f w e l l s and r e s e r v o i r f o r secondary gas s t o -
 754
r a g e (ANAND & JONES 1977), e s p e c i a l l y i f p l a n n e d gas o f f t a k e r a t e s f r o m t h e un-
d e r g r o u n d s t o r e a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r t h a n p r i m a r y gas w i t h d r a w a l r a t e s .

5.4.3. Rock mechanics

I n t e r m s o f r o c k m e c h a n i c a l a p p r o a c h o f r e s e r v o i r and p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r f o r a -
t i o n t u n n e l s t a b i l i t y v s . c o l l a p s e , two t y p e s o f f a i l u r e have t o be d i s t i n g u i -
shed (MORITA, WHITFILL, FEDDE & L Q V I K 1 9 8 7 ) . Shear f a i l u r e o c c u r s i f w e l l p r e s -
s u r e i s t o o low, whereas t e n s i l e f a i l u r e t a k e s p l a c e i f t h e n o r m a l i z e d p r e s s u r e
g r a d i e n t i s t o o h i g h . B o t h s h e a r and t e n s i l e f a i l u r e e n v e l o p e s a r e a f f e c t e d b y
c y c l i c l o a d i n g due t o r e p e a t e d s h u t - i n and r e s t a r t i n g f l o w o f t h e w e l l . Sand
p r o d u c t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d by two independent f a c t o r s b e i n g w e l l pressure o r t o -
t a l drawdown, and l o c a l p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t a r o u n d t h e p e r f o r a t i o n c a v i t y o r com-
p l e t i o n p r e s s u r e l o s s . The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s f o c u s s e s on s h e a r and t e n s i l e f a i -
l u r e , i n - s i t u s t r e s s s t a t e and r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n , c a p i l l a r y b o n d i n g , sand
b r i d g i n g , p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s t a b i l i t y , and p r e s s u r e d r o p and f l o w r e s i s t a n c e
i n perforation tunnels.

5.4.3.1. Shear and tensile failure

Shear f a i l u r e s u f f e r s f r o m t h e w e a k e n i n g e f f e c t due t o p l a s t i c f a t i g u e , whe-
r e a s t h e s h i f t o f t h e t e n s i l e f a i l u r e e n v e l o p e depends o n t h e d e g r e e o f s h e a r -
ing. Once p l a s t i c i z e d , t h e p e r f o r a t i o n c a v i t y s u r f a c e c a n n o t r e c o v e r t h e d e f o r -
mation, and t h e s t r e s s i s r e l e a s e d a t t h e c a v i t y s u r f a c e w h i c h i s s u s c e p t i b l e
t o t e n s i l e f a i l u r e , as t h e r e i s n o t enough s t r e s s t o b i n d t h e sand g r a i n s .
T h e r e f o r e t h e d e g r e e o f s h e a r i n g and t h u s t h e p r e s s u r e drawdown s h o u l d be l i m i -
t e d d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n c y c l e p r e c e d i n g w e l l s h u t - i n . In a d d i t i o n , s h e a r f a i -
l u r e u s u a l l y o c c u r s more a b r u p t l y t h a n t e n s i l e f a i l u r e . The u n l o a d i n g e f f e c t o f
t h e p l a s t i c zone a r o u n d t h e p e r f o r a t i o n c a v i t i e s i s s e r i o u s when p r o d u c t i o n r e -
s t a r t s a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s h u t - i n p e r i o d o f t h e w e l l , and t e n s i l e f a i l u r e
o c c u r s w i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l f l o w r a t e i f t h e drawdown d u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s
o f f t a k e cycle i s too large.

5.4.3.2. In-situ stress state and reservoir depletion

The sand p r o b l e m s a r e s e n s i t i v e t o t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s s t a t e , w i t h i n c a s e o f
h i g h i n - s i t u s t r e s s s h e a r f a i l u r e t e n d i n g t o o c c u r , whereas t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
t e n s i l e f a i l u r e i s diminished. Reservoir pressure depletion increases the e f f e c -
t i v e i n - s i t u s t r e s s , and t h e r e f o r e a t e n s i l e - d o m i n a n t sand p r o b l e m may be r e d u -
ced, b u t a s h e a r - d o m i n a n t one becomes s e r i o u s i n weak f o r m a t i o n s w i t h d e c l i n i n g
r e s e r v o i r pressure. Since shear f a i l u r e i s u s u a l l y o f c a t a s t r o p h i c a l nature, r e -
s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d o r drawdown s h o u l d be l i m i t e d i n c a s e o f
p e r f o r a t i n g and p r o d u c i n g a weak p a y zone.

P e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s t a b i l i t y i s a l s o s e n s i t i v e t o d e f o r m a t i o n and s t r e n g t h
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r o c k . Two t y p e s o f f a i l u r e e n v e l o p e s u s u a l l y a p p l y com-
p r i s i n g octahedral shear s t r e s s vs. e f f e c t i v e h y d r o s t a t i c s t r e s s f o r b r i t t l e
r o c k s and p l a s t i c s t r a i n v s . e f f e c t i v e h y d r o s t a t i c s t r e s s f o r m a l l e a b l e r o c k s .
The s h e a r s t a b i l i t y e n v e l o p e v a r i e s w i t h c r i t i c a l p l a s t i c s t r a i n , although the
t e n s i l e f a i l u r e e n v e l o p e r e m a i n s unchanged. I n h i g h l y d e f o r m a b l e r e s e r v o i r s ,
p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s a r e d i s t o r t e d due t o f l u i d f o r c e s and t h u s t h e c a v i t i e s a r e
d e s t a b i l i z e d . T e n s i l e s t r e n g t h i m p r o v e s c a v i t y s t a b i l i t y when t h e drawdown p r e s -
s u r e i s s m a l l ; however, a r o c k n o r m a l l y l o o s e s i t s t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h once i t i s
sheared. I f t h e cementation m a t e r i a l i s n o t b r i t t l e , a c e r t a i n degree o f ten-
s i l e s t r e n g t h s t i l l r e m a i n s between t h e sand g r a i n s .
 755

5.4.3.3. Capillary bonding

When t h e w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n i n t h e r e s e r v o i r sand around t h e p e r f o r a t i o n ca-
v i t i e s approaches t h e i r r e d u c i b l e connate c o n c e n t r a t i o n d u r i n g e f f l u x o f hydro-
carbons i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e , t h e c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e s (MORITA,
WHITFILL, FEDDE & L0VIK 1987). C a p i l l a r y bonding i s n o t weakened d u r i n g t h e
s h e a r i n g process and i s t h e r e f o r e n o t a f f e c t e d by c y c l i c a l f l o w . Thus even i f a
p r e v i o u s drawdown i s c l o s e t o t h e c r i t i c a l shear f a i l u r e drawdown, no sand p r o -
blems occur w i t h a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h f l o w r a t e a f t e r s h u t - i n o f t h e w e l l , be-
cause t h e f l o w r a t e t o break c a p i l l a r y bonding i s v e r y h i g h s i n c e t h e p l a s t i c
zone i s v e r y t h i n w i t h r e s p e c t t o c a v i t y s i z e .

5.4.3.4. Sand bridging

Sand b r i d g i n g i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t i f g r a i n s i z e i s l a r g e compared w i t h t h e p e r -
f o r a t i o n t u n n e l r a d i u s and has a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t i f c a p i l l a r y bonding a l s o
e x i s t s (MORITA, WHITFILL, FEDDE & L0VIK 1987). I f s t r e s s around a c a v i t y i s
r e l e a s e d , m i c r o c r a c k s appear around i t . Unless c a p i l l a r y bonding e x i s t s , d i s p l a -
cement a t t h e c a v i t y s u r f a c e i s n o t u n i f o r m and c r a c k growth occurs a t one s i d e
when s t r e s s i s r e l e a s e d . I f displacement exceeds a c r i t i c a l f r a c t i o n o f g r a i n
s i z e , t h e sand g r a i n i s d i s l o d g e d which i s f o l l o w e d by sand f l o w u n t i l a n o t h e r
s t a b l e sand a r c h i s formed ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 9 . 5 . ) . C a p i l l a r y bonding tends t o
g i v e more u n i f o r m d e f o r m a t i o n and t o p r e v e n t d i s l o d g i n g o f r e s e r v o i r sand p a r -
t i c l e s . Cohesive s t r e n g t h o f t h e sand g r a i n package i n c r e a s e s w i t h w e t t i n g
phase s a t u r a t i o n t o a maximum a t a b t . 80 % c o n c e n t r a t i o n , b u t beyond t h i s
p o i n t , any i n c r e a s e i n w e t t i n g phase s a t u r a t i o n causes a r a p i d decrease i n cohe-
s i v e s t r e n g t h (DURRETT, GUBIN, MURRAY & TIGHE 1977).

5.4.3.5. Perforat ion tunnel stability

P e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i n f r i a b l e sandstones t h a t a r e c o n s o l i d a t e d t o a c e r t a i n
e x t e n t a r e s t a b l e when t h e f o r m a t i o n i s i n i t i a l l y p e r f o r a t e d (YASSIN 8, PEDEN
1988). F a i l u r e o f t h e t u n n e l s can occur i n an advanced stage i f t h e g r a i n l o a d
i s i n c r e a s e d enough t o break t h e cementation bonds, which i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
f o r c e s generated by f l u i d d e p l e t i o n through t h e permeable r o c k and i s a m p l i f i e d
w i t h r e s t r i c t i o n t o f l o w caused by f o r m a t i o n damage due t o d r i l l i n g and p e r f o -
r_
. i a t n g o p e r a t i o n s . I f t h e p l a s t i c zones expand t o reach t h e m i d p o i n t d i s t a n c e
between a d j a c e n t p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s , i n s t a b i l i t y o r f a i l u r e occurs by l a r g e
d e f o r m a t i o n o r s t r a i n r e s u l t i n g i n sand p r o d u c t i o n . Thus t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
t h e p l a s t i c zone t o a s p e c i f i e d d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c e n t r e o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n -
n e l r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t a b i l i t y r a t i o o f t h e g r a i n f a b r i c . O t h e r aspects o f p e r f o -
r a t i o n t u n n e l s t a b i l i t y a r e d i s c u s s e d by VRIEZEN, SPIJKER & VLIS (1975); ANTHEU-
N I S , VRIEZEN, SCHIPPER & VLIS (1976); NORDGREN (1977) and CHENEVERT & THOMPSON
(1985).

5.4.3.6. Pressure drop and flow resistance in perforation tunnel

Gravel-packed p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s u s u a l l y o f f e r l i t t l e f l o w r e s i s t a n c e when
p e r f o r a t i n g d e n s i t y i s adequate (McLEOD 1984). When g r a v e l i s n o t packed t i g h t -
l y enough d u r i n g placement, g r a v e l s h i f t i n g i n p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s o c c u r s (TOR-
REST 1982, STEIN 1983). Damage t o f o r m a t i o n sand b e f o r e g r a v e l i n s t a l l a t i o n cau-
ses premature p r e s s u r e o u t s r e s u l t i n g f r o m v i s c o u s f l u i d s e n t e r i n g damaged o r
reduced p e r m e a b i l i t y near t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s (McLEOD 1984). As a consequence o f
h i g h pressures, pumping may be h a l t e d b e f o r e t h e g r a v e l has c o n c e n t r a t e d adequa-
t e l y i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s and i f t h u s t h e t u n n e l s a r e o n l y p a r t i a l l y f i l l e d
w i t h g r a v e l , r e s e r v o i r sand e n t e r s t h e h o l e s upon w e l l p r o d u c t i o n , t h e r e b y b r i d -
g i n g on t h e g r a v e l i n s i d e t h e t u n n e l and p a c k i n g t h e p a r t i a l l y v o i d h o l e w i t h
f o r m a t i o n sand which i s much l o w e r i n p e r m e a b i l i t y than g r a v e l . I f r e s e r v o i r
sand f i l l s t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s , p r e s s u r e drop through t h e c o m p l e t i o n i n c r e a -
 756

ses and f l o w r a t e d e c l i n e s
f g r a v e l i s p l a c e d c o r r e c t l y i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l and l i t t l e o r no g r a -
ve 1 i s i n s e r t e d o u t s i d e t h e h o l e pay zone sand abuts t h e t u n n e l e n t r a n c e a t
t h e c e m e n t - r e s e r v o i r and g r a v e l - o r m a t i o n i n t e r f a c e s . I f t h i s p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r -
Val sand i s c l e a n and Dermeable. t h e p r e s s u r e drop caused by s p h e r i c a l f l o w
t h r o u g h t h e pay sand t o t h e t u n n e l w i l l be s m a l l , b u t i f any damage e x i s t s f r o m
polymer r e s i d u e , p i p e dope o r f o r m a t i o n f i n e s , t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p can be substan-
t i a l and f l o w g r e a t l y reduced. Successful remedy by a c i d i z i n g depends on damage
s e v e r i t y and s o l v e n t c h o i c e . I f damage i s moderate ( l e s s than 90 % p e r m e a b i l i t y
loss), a c i d can u s u a l l y d i s s o l v e t h e damage, whereas i n case o f severe damage
(more than 99 % l o s s i n p e r m e a b i l i t y ) , a c i d may n o t e n t e r t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s f a s t
enough t o d i s s o l v e t h e damage.

5.4.4. Perf orat ion tunnel morphology

P e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s a r e u s u a l l y l o n g and o f c y l i n d r i c a l n a t u r e i m m e d i a t e l y
a f t e r c r e a t i o n ( M O R I T A , WHITFILL, FEDDE & LQVIK 1987). S p h e r i c a l c a v i t i e s a r e
g e n e r a l l y more s t a b l e t h a n c y l i n d r i c a l t u n n e l s f o r shear f a i l u r e , whereas
almost no d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t f o r e x t e n s i o n f a i l u r e . The n o r m a l i z e d p r e s s u r e g r a -
d i e n t has more e f f e c t upon t h e f a i l u r e envelope shape o f a c y l i n d r i c a l h o l e
than t h a t o f a c y l i n d r i c a l c a v i t y .

T h e r e f o r e a h i g h s a n d - f r e e hydrocarbon f l o w r a t e can be achieved by e n l a r -

ging long c y l i n d r i c a l p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels i n t o spherical c a v i t i e s . Although a
l o n g p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e i s l e s s s t a b l e than a s h o r t one, i t has l e s s c o m p l e t i o n
p r e s s u r e drop, and t h u s t h e use o f e x c e s s i v e l y s h o r t o r l o n g p e r f o r a t i o n s
s h o u l d be avoided i n weak f o r m a t i o n s . As a consequence o f c a v i t y enlargement du-
r i n g p r o d u c t i o n , t h e c o m p l e t i o n p r e s s u r e drop i s r e l a t i v e l y small i n a weak r e -
s e r v o i r . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e use o f e x c e s s i v e l y l o n g p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s f o r reduc-
t i o n o f c o m p l e t i o n p r e s s u r e l o s s s h o u l d n o t be overemphasized, even though l o n g
p e r f o r a t i o n holes are p r e f e r r e d f o r strong formations.

Three t y p e s o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l i n s t a b i l i t y have t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d .
Shear f a i l u r e occurs i n weak f o r m a t i o n s i f e f f e c t i v e i n - s i t u s t r e s s i s h i g h o r
w e l l p r e s s u r e i s low. T e n s i l e f a i l u r e d u r i n g l o a d i n g takes p l a c e f o r an abnor-
m a l l y h i g h p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t around a c a v i t y due t o h i g h l y damaged p e r m e a b i l i t y
o r a sudden i n c r e a s e i n f l o w r a t e such as f o l l o w i n g w e l l s h u t - i n . T e n s i l e f a i -
l u r e f o r an unloaded zone o c c u r s w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y low f l o w r a t e i f a p r e v i o u s
drawdown b e f o r e a w e l l s h u t - i n exceeds t h e c r i t i c a l drawdown.

5.4.5. Water cut i n the hydrocarbons

Sand problems by shear o r t e n s i l e f a i l u r e o f t h e g r a i n f a b r i c a r e enhanced
by appearing and r i s i n g w a t e r c u t i n t h e hydrocarbons, because c a p i l l a r y p r e s -
sure h o l d i n g sand g r a i n s t o g e t h e r i s l o s t when w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s reaso-
n a b l y above t h e i r r e d u c i b l e connate c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and f l o w f r i c t i o n s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y i n c r e a s e s due t o l o w e r i n g o f r e l a t i v e hydrocarbon p e r m e a b i l i t y by r i s i n g
w a t e r s a t u r a t i o n and lowered r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e when w a t e r c u t appears i n t h e
o i l and/or gas (MORITA, WHITFILL, FEDDE & LQVIK 1987; GHALAMBOR, KOLIBA, HAYAT-
DAVOUOI & ALCOCER 1988).

I n addition, i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n an e c o n o m i c a l l y a c c e p t a b l e hydrocarbon
f l o w r a t e , t h e w e l l i s i n c l i n e d t o be produced w i t h a h i g h e r t o t a l f l o w r a t e
which causes low p r e s s u r e i n t h e w e l l and h i g h p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t a t t h e c a v i t y
s u r f a c e . O t h e r p o i n t s t r i g g e r i n g i n c r e a s i n g sand problems w i t h a p p e a r i n g and r i -
s i n g w a t e r c u t a r e i n c r e a s i n g p l u g g i n g r a t e when w a t e r s p i l l s f i n e p a r t i c l e s
away which p r e v i o u s l y adhered t o sand g r a i n s , enlargement o f c a v i t y shape r e s u l -
t i n g i n c a v i t y i n t e r a c t i o n , and cement d i s s o l u t i o n between sand g r a i n s b y t h e
f l u s h i n g w a t e r . As shear f a i l u r e and c y c l i c a l t e n s i l e f a i l u r e sand problems a r e
 757
s e r i o u s f o r weak f o r m a t i o n s , low w e l l p r e s s u r e should be avoided by u s i n g secon-
d a r y maintenance, and t o t a l f l o w r a t e o f t h e w e l l should be decreased a f t e r ap-
pearance o f w a t e r c u t i n t h e hydrocarbons.

5.4.6. Difference between proppant fracturing and gravel packing

I n c o n t r a s t t o h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g which c o n c e r n i n g r e s e r v o i r r o c k
can be s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d o u t i n a l l stages o f p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y , b u t i s
o f t e n performed i n e a r l y w e l l e v o l u t i o n f o r economical reasons based on abso-
l u t e hydrocarbon r e s e r v e s and r e l a t i v e o i l o r gas s a t u r a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o
t h a t o f w a t e r i n t h e gas zone, sand c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n s have i n most cases t o be
done b e f o r e p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t s o r s h o r t l y a f t e r b e g i n n i n g o f e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e
hydrocarbon-bearing i n t e r v a l f o r t e c h n i c a l reasons. Gravel p a c k i n g i s o n l y o p t i -
m a l l y e f f e c t i v e when i n s t a l l e d b e f o r e t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k i s s e r i o u s l y d i s t u r b e d
by sand removal, w i t h f u r t h e r sand f l o w b e i n g v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l as t h e
volume o f produced sand i n c r e a s e s . Experience i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n i t i a l sand con-
t r o l i n s t a l l a t i o n s a r e f a r more s u c c e s s f u l than remedial t r e a t m e n t s which may
even c o n s i d e r a b l y t o s e r i o u s l y i m p a i r p r o d u c t i v i t y (SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER
1983).
I n c o n t r a s t t o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g where f l u i d l e a k o f f has t o be l i m i t e d t o
a minimum i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e proppant c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e f r a c t u r e
t h a t u l t i m a t e l y l e a d s t o a screenout ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 6 . ) , f l u i d l o s s i n t o
l i n e r o r screen and/or f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s d e s i r e d and necessary
t o t a k e p l a c e i n h i g h r a t e s i n o r d e r t o a l l o w d e p o s i t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l on t h e
b o r e h o l e w a l l where i t forms a m a n t l e c o a t i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r / w e l l b o r e i n t e r f a c e ,
spearheads p l u g g i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s , a b e l t b r i d g i n g t h e annulus b e t -
ween b o r e h o l e boundary f a c e and screen o r l i n e r , o r a p l u g i n f i l l i n g t h e whole
diameter o f t h e w e l l b o r e (depending on t y p e o f w e l l c o m p l e t i o n and g r a v e l pack
i n s t a l l a t i o n ; c f . s e c t i o n 5.10.).

5.5. Areal distribution o f potential reservoirs

The most i m p o r t a n t areas o f p a s t performance and f u t u r e p o t e n t i a l o f g r a v e l
p a c k i n g a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f general aspects, c e n t r e s o f g r a -
v e l packing, p o t e n t i a l i n Europe and impact o f r e s i n - c o a t e d sand and proppants
as f o l l o w s .

5.5.1. General aspects

U n s t a b l e r e s e r v o i r s r e q u i r i n g sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y wide-
spread i n younger g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s which a r e s t i l l i n an e a r l y stage o f
t h e d i a g e n e t i c a l e v o l u t i o n and a l s o p a r t i a l l y have n o t y e t achieved t h e stage
o f f u l l mechanical compaction. Sandy sediments can, however, a l s o p r e s e r v e a
s o f t n a t u r e t h r o u g h o u t c o n s i d e r a b l e s e c t i o n s o f t h e g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y i f reaso-
n a b l e cementation has been p r e v e n t e d by p r e f e r a b l y e a r l y o i l and s u b o r d i n a t e l y
a l s o e a r l y gas i m m i g r a t i o n o r by p e r s i s t e n t s h a l l o w b u r i a l under low compres-
s i v e s t r e s s , o r i f undercompaction i s conserved by i n t e r n a l f l u i d overpressu-
r i n g . S e c o n d a r i l y , i n s t a b i l i t y can be generated i f e x i s t i n g i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s
a r e a l t e r e d by d r i l l i n g and/or c o m p l e t i o n o p e r a t i o n s such t h a t t h e r o c k m a t r i x
i s weakened by movement o f t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l . A f o r m e r l y h a r d sandstone m a t r i x
can a l s o become f r i a b l e again i n case o f t e c t o n i c a l s h e a r i n g and f a u l t i n g o f
t h e sedimentary column ( t h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i e s f o r narrower o r b r o a d e r p e r -
t u r b a t i o n o r even m y l o n i t e zones along graben boundary f a u l t s o r main nappe
o v e r t h r u s t s ) . T e r t i a r i l y , weakening o f t h e g r a i n f a b r i c by l o o s i n g s u p p o r t can
o r i g i n a t e d u r i n g hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n , w i t h t h e most i m p o r t a n t r e s e r v o i r en-
g i n e e r i n g f a c t o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r o n s e t t i n g sand p r o d u c t i o n problems b e i n g de-
c l i n i n g f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e as a consequence o f p r o g r e s s i v e d e p l e t i o n and chan-
g i n g f l u i d c o m p o s i t i o n and t h u s v i s c o s i t y due t o i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r c u t i n t h e
 758

oil ( c f . section 5.4.1.).

5.5.2. Centres o f gravel packing

Reviewing world-wide d i s t r i b u t i o n of g r a v e l packing c e n t r e s , sand p r o d u c t i o n
problems o c c u r most commonly i n T e r t i a r y and C r e t a c e o u s d e p o s i t s such a s i n
Gulf Coast (Texas and L o u i s i a n a ) and C a l i f o r n i a i n USA, Gulf of Mexico, Niger
D e l t a and I v o r y C o a s t , T a r Sand B e l t i n Canada, and i n I n d o n e s i a , T r i n i d a d and
Venezuela (SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983; OYENEYIN 1 9 8 8 ) . The c u r r e n t h i g h l i g h t s
of g r a v e l packing o p e r a t i o n s a r e Gulf of Mexico and Western A f r i c a . O f f s h o r e
g r a v e l packing can be performed from both p l a t f o r m s w i t h mounted r i g s and f l o a t -
ing v e s s e l s such a s semi-submersibles and d r i l l s h i p s (ZALESKI & DONOVAN 1 9 8 6 ) .
The main o f f s h o r e g r a v e l packing a r e a s i n the l a s t y e a r s comprise North Sea,
Gulf of Mexico, o f f s h o r e C a l i f o r n i a , I n d o n e s i a and I v o r y C o a s t . Most of t h e r e -
s e r v o i r s i n Europe r e q u i r i n g g r a v e l packing a l s o a r e of T e r t i a r y and s u b o r d i n a -
t e l y of C r e t a c e o u s and J u r a s s i c age. The h o r i z o n s needing s a n d - c o n t r o l t r e a t -
ments a r e mainly o i l - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s , b u t g a s - b e a r i n g pay zones a r e a l s o a f -
f e c t e d ( A N A N D & JONES 1 9 7 7 ) , w i t h t h e problem i n gas w e l l s o f t e n becoming even
more pronounced a s a consequence of high p r e s s u r e and high flow v e l o c i t y which
a r e both s e r i o u s f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o e a s y sand p r o d u c t i o n from i n s u f f i c i e n t -
ly consolidated reservoirs (OYENEYIN 1988).

5.5.3. Gravel packing p o t e n t i a l i n Europe

The main t a r g e t r e s e r v o i r rock t y p e s f o r g r a v e l packing i n Europe a r e sand-
s t o n e s and c h a l k s , with in many c a s e s combinations of h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u -
r i n g and g r a v e l packing having t o be c a r r i e d o u t w i t h both c o n v e n t i o n a l and r e -
s i n - c o a t e d g r a i n s i n t h e c h a l k , whereas most of t h e s a n d s t o n e s r e q u i r e o n l y
s t a n d a r d g r a v e l packing ( c f . t a b s . 5 and 11). Coal and s h a l e g r a v e l packing a s
o c c a s i o n a l l y a l r e a d y having been c a r r i e d o u t a t l e a s t i n e x p e r i m e n t a l s t a g e i n
t h e USA has i n Europe so f a r n o t been c o n s i d e r e d .

5.5.3.1. Sandstones
Gravel packing i n Europe has so f a r been predominantly done ( a n d w i l l a l s o
be n e c e s s a r y i n the f u t u r e ) i n T e r t i a r y o i l - and p a r t i a l l y a l s o g a s - b e a r i n g
sands i n A u s t r i a ( f i e l d s Matzen and H o c h l e i t e n ; SAMHABER 1977, MURER 1 9 8 1 ) , Cze-
c h o s l o v a k i a , I t a l y and Yugoslavia ( o f f s h o r e A d r i a t i c Sea; c f . a l s o B E U D E L L
1985 a ) , and Yugoslavia and Hungary o n s h o r e . I n the Norwegian Northern North
S e a , some J u r a s s i c o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s and C r e t a c e o u s o i l - b e a r i n g c h a l k s need g r a -
vel packing (MASSIE, NYGAARD & MORITA 1 9 8 7 ) , whereas sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s i n
t h e B r i t i s h Northern North Sea a r e so f a r o n l y n e c e s s a r y i n a few e x c e p t i o n s .
While the J u r a s s i c o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s i n the l a t t e r a r e a a r e i n most c a s e s
s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b l e , t h e T e r t i a r y Eocene o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s c o u l d r e q u i r e
sand c o n t r o l once they a r e going t o be developed ( B E U D E L L 1987 b ) .

Gravel packing ( p a r t i a l l y a s an a l t e r n a t i v e o r replacement of s m a l l - s c a l e

s a n d - o i l - f r a c t u r i n g ) i s a l s o done i n some Lower C r e t a c e o u s o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o -
nes i n Germany FRG ( f i e l d s Georgsdorf and Ruhlermoor; GESEMANN & BADURA 1976,
LILLIE & WIETHOFF 1985) and N e t h e r l a n d s ( f i e l d Schoonebeek; HARMSEN 1979, CHUOY
1 9 8 1 ) , and o c c a s i o n a l l y a l s o i n Lower C r e t a c e o u s and Middle J u r a s s i c s a n d s t o n e s
in v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e Northwest German o i l - f i e l d b e l t ( f o r maps c f . BOIGK
1 9 8 0 ) . The s h a l l o w Lower C r e t a c e o u s o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s i n Germany FRG and
N e t h e r l a n d s have been f r e q u e n t l y t h e t a r g e t of open-hole g r a v e l packing by sand-
ing-up t h e b o r e h o l e f o l l o w i n g underreaming ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 4 . 1 1 . 2 . and
5 . 1 0 . 2 . ) . G e n e r a l l y a l m o s t no sand c o n t r o l problems o c c u r i n t h e g a s - b e a r i n g
R o t l i e g e n d s e c t i o n in t h e B r i t i s h and Dutch Southern North Sea a s well a s i n Ne-
t h e r l a n d s and Germany FRG onshore ( i n t h e l a t t e r a r e a s w i t h l o c a l e x c e p t i o n s
such a s the Groningen f i e l d i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s ; D A V I E S , ZWOLLE & MEIJS 1983;
 759

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FUTURE

ACT lV l T Y OF

GRAVEL

PACKING
I
IN EUROPE

Albania
Austria I a l z e n , S t o c k e r a u . Tratnoch, Zlstersdorf
-
Belgium
Bulgaria
Czechoslovakia
Denmark lan,Garrn
FinI and
France
Germany FRG rnlichheim. Georgsdorf. R u h l e A d o r f
Germany GDR
Greece
>reece
t i ungo r y ojdusrbosrlo
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands choonebeek
Norway k o f i s k , G u l l f a k s , S t a t f l o r d . V o l h a l l . Troll
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Spain

, I#
Sweden
Switzerland 1
Turkey
United Kingdom
USSR
Yugoslavia
-

Tab. 11
 760

STROBL & PLACKETT 1984; and some w e l l s i n Germany FRG; JOHN 1983), and a l s o t h e
B u n t s a n d s t e i n i n t h e mentioned area i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b l e . O t h e r aspects o f
sand c o n t r o l i n o i l f i e l d s i n Germany FRG and A u s t r i a a r e d i s c u s s e d by SAMHABER
(1977).

5.5.3.2. Chalks
Gravel p a c k i n g i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g i s t h e o n l y
p o s s i b i l i t y t o achieve economical p r o d u c t i o n i n some s o f t f l o w i n g Upper Cretace-
ous c h a l k s i n t h e Norwegian N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea (MANCILLAS, MATSON & Z I A R A 1976;
VLIS, DUNS & FERNANDEZ-LUQUE 1979; HARTLEY & EOSMA 1985; m a i n l y i n t h e V a l h a l l
f i e l d ; TANSOE, K I N G & HOLMAN 1986, M O S C H O V I D I S 1987; ATTARD, MATHES & MOWER
1988) t h a t a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by undercompaction and o v e r p r e s s u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 5 . 4 . 3 . ) . M i n i m i z a t i o n o f s o l i d s p r o d u c t i o n can be b e s t achieved by i n i t i a t i n g
a f r a c t u r e a t t h e i n t e r f a c e o f t h e h i g h l y u n c o n s o l i d a t e d upper c h a l k l a y e r and
t h e more competent u n d e r l y i n g c h a l k zone and communication o f b o t h h o r i z o n s
through t h e f r a c t u r e (MOSCHOVIDIS 1987). In t h i s e x t r e m e l y u n s t a b l e h i g h - p o r o s i -
t y b u t l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d and c o n v e n t i o -
n a l i n t e r m e d i a t e - s t r e n g t h l o w - d e n s i t y alumina s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s has t u r n e d o u t
t o be t h e most s u i t a b l e s o l u t i o n f o r f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n and g r a v e l p a c k i n g
stabi 1ization.

Resin-coated l i g h t ceramic proppants and r e s i n - c o a t e d sand (SINCLAIR & GRA-

HAM 1977, 1978; CONSTIEN & MAYER 1978, SAUNDERS & M C K E N Z I E 1979, KANAT 1980; UN-
DERDOWN, DAY & SPARLIN 1980) a r e a l s o c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e adequate m a t e r i a l
f o r gravel packing ( p a r t i a l l y together w i t h hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g ) i n order t o
achieve economical p r o d u c t i o n f r o m u n c o n s o l i d a t e d T e r t i a r y sand-mud-interbed-
d i n g s i n A u s t r i a ( c f . KREUTZER 1985, 1986; BRXUER 1987) and s u r r o u n d i n g coun-
t r i e s , and carbonate s h e l l l a y e r s i n Lower Cretaceous mudstones and m a r g i n a l Up-
p e r Cretaceous c h a l k s i n Germany FRG and i n p l a c e s a l s o i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s ( p r o -
b a b l y s i m i l a r l y as i n t h e Norwegian N o r t h Sea c h a l k p a r t i a l l y i n c o m b i n a t i o n
w i t h conventional m a t e r i a l ) .

5.5.4. Impact o f resin-coated sand and proppants

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d sand and proppants ( c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 6 . ) i s a
common procedure i n g r a v e l p a c k i n g and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g when a r t i f i c i a l s t a -
b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l m a n t l e o r proppant wedge has t o be achieved by l i m i t e d
cementing o f t h e g r a i n s w i t h o u t d e s t r o y i n g t o o much p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e sand o r
p r o p p a n t package. Aspects o f r e s i n bonding and a g g r e g a t i o n , a p p l i c a t i o n spec-
trum o f r e s i n - c o a t e d m a t e r i a l , and p o t e n t i a l f o r p r o m o t i o n o f m a r g i n a l sands
and c h a l k s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

5.5.4.1. Resin bonding and aggregation

Resin-coating includes covering o f the grains w i t h t h i n f i l m s o f organic re-
s i n t h a t i s p a r t i a l l y p o l y m e r i z e d (SANTROL 1975, KANAT 1980; GRAHAM, SINCLAIR &
BRANDT 1982; POPE, WILES & P I E R C E 1987). A t room temperature, t h e m a n t l e d
g r a i n s do n o t adhere t o each o t h e r , b u t w i t h i n a c e r t a i n range o f h i g h e r tempe-
r a t u r e s such as encountered i n t h e r e s e r v o i r s , t h e r e s i n w i l l f i r s t s o f t e n and
m e l t t o form a v i s c o u s l i q u i d and then under p r o p e r c o n d i t i o n s w i l l s e t t o gene-
r a t e a s o l i d . C u r i n g o f t h e r e s i n can be i n i t i a t e d and/or speeded up by an a c t i -
v a t o r and/or a c c e l e r a t o r i f f o r m a t i o n temperature i s t o o low i n s h a l l o w r e s e r -
v o i r s , w i t h d i s t i n c t i o n t h u s h a v i n g t o be made between thermal and chemical r e -
s i n c u r i n g and s e t t i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 2 . 6 . 2 . and 5 . 8 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) . I f t h e sand o r
p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e s a r e i n c o n t a c t when t h e r e s i n l i q u i f i e s and moves, surface
t e n s i o n causes t h e r e s i n t o m i g r a t e and t o f o r m p e n d u l a r r i n g s a t c o n t a c t
p o i n t s . Hardening o f t h e r e s i n then cements t h e g r a i n package and p r o v i d e s a
bonding and c u s h i o n i n g e f f e c t t h a t d i s t r i b u t e s a p p l i e d f o r c e s more e v e n l y o v e r
 761

t h e sand g r a i n s , t h u s r e t a r d i n g c r u s h i n g o f g r a i n s a t p o i n t c o n t a c t s under ap-

p l i e d p r e s s u r e (HICKEY, BROWN & CRIITENDEN 1981). Aspects o f r e s i n - c o a t e d sand
f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by MURPHEY, ROLL & WONG ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

5.5.4.2. Appl icat ion spectrum o f res in-coated material

R e s i n - c o a t e d sand i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r o u t s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g w i t h i n
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s which c r e a t e s aggregated s t a b l e spearhead packages t h a t
do n o t need s u p p o r t by an i n s i d e g r a v e l m a n t l e and a r e t h u s t h e most economical
g r a v e l pack c o m p l e t i o n o f t e c h n i c a l l y advanced m a t u r i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 2 . ) .
I f f o r t h e reason o f i n s u f f i c i e n t success o f p e r f o r a t i o n c l e a n i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n
5 . 6 . 4 . 2 . ) t h e p l u g g i n g of p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s w i t h r e s i n - c o a t e d sand i s n o t pos-
s i b l e i n a c c e p t a b l e q u a l i t y , r e s i n - c o a t e d sand i s a l s o an adequate m a t e r i a l f o r
i n s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n t h e annulus between c a s i n g and screen o r l i n e r i n o r -
der t o e f f e c t i v e l y p r e v e n t b a c k f l o w o f o u t s i d e pack g r a v e l i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l s as w e l l as proppants i n a s s o c i a t e d h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.12.3.3.2.) i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e . Resin-bonded i n s i d e g r a v e l packs do n o t move,
s e t t l e o r m i x a t h i g h f l o w r a t e s o r by opening and s h u t t i n g o f t h e w e l l , where-
as l o o s e c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l may be s u b j e c t e d t o some d i s p l a c e m e n t . I n terms o f
o p e r a t i o n s and b o r e h o l e c o n d i t i o n s , p r e f e r e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f r e s i n - c o a t e d
g r a v e l a r e w e l l s w i t h bad c a s i n g a t o r near t h e pay zone, w e l l s w i t h v e r y l o n g
p r o d u c t i v e i n t e r v a l s and v a r i a b l e n o n - u n i f o r m r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y , s l i m - h o l e
c o m p l e t i o n s and mu1 t i p l e zones separated by packers.

5.5.4.3. Potential f o r promotion o f marginal sands and chalks

The a r t i f i c i a l a g g r e g a t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l pack g r a i n s by g l u e i n g t o g e t h e r o f
t h e r e s i n f i l m s a t t h e g r a i n boundaries i s assessed t o be one o f t h e main t o o l s
f o r promotion o f gravel packing i n marginal formations comprising predominantly
l o o s e and s o f t sands and c h a l k s i n v a r i o u s r e g i o n s o f Western and E a s t e r n Eu-
r o p e i n t h e coming y e a r s . I n c o n t r a s t t o pumping o f r e s i n - c o a t e d sand o r p r o p -
pants where a g g r e g a t i o n o f t h e r e s i n p e l l i c l e s o n l y a t g r a i n c o n t a c t s p r e s e r v e s
t h e i n t e r g r a i n p e r m e a b i l i t y v e r y w e l l , c o n s o l i d a t i o n by secondary i n j e c t i o n o f
r e s i n ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5.9.1.) i n t o a c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l pack o r d i r e c t l y i n -
t o t h e pay zone sand has i n s e v e r a l Western European f o r m a t i o n s so f a r i n most
cases been a f a i l u r e due t o p a r t i a l o r even complete p l u g g i n g o f t h e pores i n
o c c a s i o n a l l y such an e x t e n t t h a t a l m o s t no more hydrocarbon f l u x was p o s s i b l e .

A r e a l case s t u d i e s o f r e s e r v o i r s r e q u i r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g f o r economical p r o -
d u c t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e r e p o r t s o f s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n s a r e p r o v i d e d f o r China
by CHEN, ZHOU & LIU ( 1 9 8 6 ) . S p e c i a l aspects o f o f f s h o r e g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e o u t -
l i n e d f o r t h e G u l f o f Mexico by STRACKE ( 1 9 8 7 ) . Summary r e v i e w s o f sand c o n t r o l
f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e a r e g i v e n by JARDINS ( 1 9 5 9 ) .

5.6. Particle transport through perforations

S a n d - c o n t r o l l e d w e l l s may be cased and p e r f o r a t e d o r completed open-hole
( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5.10.). F o r p e r f o r a t e d w e l l s , t h e p r e f e r a b l e s a n d - c o n t r o l me-
thods a r e o u t s i d e and i n s i d e g r a v e l pack o p e r a t i o n o r c h e m i c a l - i n j e c t i o n conso-
l i d a t i o n t r e a t m e n t , whereas i n open holes, t h e p r o p e r methods a r e r e s t r a i n i n g
l i n e r s o r open-hole g r a v e l pack. Cased and p e r f o r a t e d w e l l s a r e n o r m a l l y l e s s
p r o d u c t i v e than open-hole c o m p l e t i o n s when comparable l e v e l s o f t e c h n o l o g y a r e
a p p l i e d ( c f . a l s o H A R R I S 1966, McLEOD 1978, LOCKE 1980). The use o f cemented
and p e r f o r a t e d casings, however, i s f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e d due t o m u l t i p l e and/or
t h i n p r o d u c t i v e s e c t i o n s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r column, t h e n e c e s s i t y t o e x c l u d e i n -
terbedded w a t e r o r gas h o r i z o n s o r u n d e s i r a b l e m o b i l e s h a l e l a y e r s o r s t r e a k s ,
and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s e t t i n g a deeper c o m p l e t i o n i n t h e w e l l a t a f u t u r e d a t e
(SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983).
 762

In c a s e d h o l e s , t h e success o f a g r a v e l pack w i t h r e s p e c t t o f o r m a t i o n sand

r e s t r a i n t i m p l i e s t h a t e f f e c t i v e p a c k i n g o f b o t h s c r e e n - c a s i n g a n n u l u s and p e r -
f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i s a c h i e v e d (PEDEN, RUSSELL & OYENEYIN 1985) w h i c h r e q u i r e s
w i d e and c l e a n p e r f o r a t i o n s (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1 9 8 2 ) . A s p e c t s o f p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k -
i n g and p a r t i c l e b r i d g i n g , i m p a c t o f f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , a c h i e v e m e n t o f p e r f o r a -
t i o n tunnel plugging; i n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n technique, p e r f o r a t i o n geometry,
r e s e r v o i r s e c t i o n and t r e a t m e n t v a r i a b l e s , g r a v e l p r e p a c k ng o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n -
n e l s and o t h e r p o i n t s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s

5 . 6 . 1 . Perforation packing and particle bridg ng

I d e a l q r a v e l D a c k i n q t h u s i n c l u d e s comDlete f i l l i n q o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n -
n e l s ( i n - o r d e r ' t o p r e v e n t t h e i r p l u g g i n g w i t h r e s e r v o i r sand), c r e a t i o n o f a
g r a v e l node a t t h e d i s t a l ends o f t h e s h o t h o l e s b y c o m p r e s s i o n o f t h e r u b b l i -
zed zone s u r r o u n d i n g t h e spearhead, and g e n e r a t i o n o f g r a v e l e n r i c h m e n t s a t t h e
proximal end o f the p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s a t t h e formation-cement interface, in
o r d e r t o o p t i m a l l y p r e v e n t r e s e r v o i r sand f r o m e n t e r i n g p e r f o r a t i o n s and b o r e h o -
l e (BELL 1982; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 7 . ) . When p a r t i c l e s a r e t r a n s p o r t e d f r o m
c a s i n g t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t i o n s d u r i n g g r a v e l p r e - p a c k i n g and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g ,
i n e r t i a l and g r a v i t y f o r c e s cause p a r t i c l e s l u r r i e s t o i n c r e a s e i n c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n downstream o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , g i v i n g r i s e t o i n c o m p l e t e p a c k i n g o f v o i d s
o u t s i d e t h e c a s i n g because o f p a r t i c l e b r i d g i n g i n t h e e n t r a n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n
tunnels o r l a c k o f t r a n s p o r t o f t h e s l u r r y through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s w i t h form-
i n g a bed i n t h e c a s i n g u n t i l an e q u i l i b r i u m v e l o c i t y i s r e a c h e d . The e f f e c t o f
v o i d and f i l l e d p e r f o r a t i o n s on w e l l b o r e p r o d u c t i v i t y i s d i s c u s s e d b y DIETRICH
& BONDOR ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

T i g h t packing o f p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels i n o r d e r t o minimize impairment by r e -

s e r v o i r sand i n f l u x c a n be b e s t a c h i e v e d b y squeeze p a c k i n g t e c h n i q u e s (SAUCIER
1 9 7 4 ) . Tube e f f e c t s may p r e d o m i n a t e i n c a s e s where t h e cement s h e a t h does n o t
f r a c t u r e and t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s t h r o u g h t h e cement m a n t l e do n o t b e l l o u t
o r e n l a r g e ( c f . CRAMER 1 9 8 7 ) . A s p e c t s o f i n s i d e and o u t s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g , p e r -
f o r a t i o n d i a m e t e r / p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r r a t i o , number and s i z e o f p e r f o r a t i o n s , and
t u b i n g - c o n v e y e d u n d e r b a l a n c e d p e r f o r a t i n g a r e b r i e f l y summarized as f o l l o w s .

5.6.1.1. Inside and outside gravel packing

D i s t i n c t i o n c a n be made between o u t s i d e and i n s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g . O u t s i d e
g r a v e l p a c k i n g o r p r e s s u r e p a c k i n g i n c l u d e s pumping o f g r a v e l t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o -
r a t i o n h o l e s i n t h e c a s i n g o u t s i d e of t h e b o r e h o l e i n t o p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s
c r o s s i n g cement s h e a t h and e x t e n d i n g more o r l e s s d e e p l y i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n ,
and i n t o c a v i t i e s b e h i n d c a s i n g d e r i v i n g f r o m i n s u f f i c i e n t c e m e n t a t i o n and e a r -
l i e r production. I n s i d e gravel packing includes i n f i l l i n g o f t h e annulus b e t -
ween w i r e - w r a p p e d s c r e e n o r s l o t t e d l i n e r and c a s i n g w i t h a g r a v e l m a n t l e t h a t
r e s t r a i n s t h e o u t s i d e pack f r o m m o v i n g back i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e o r s t a b i l i z e s
w e l l b o r e w a l l s i n open h o l e s a g a i n s t c o l l a p s e . G r a v e l g r a i n s i z e s f o r o u t s i d e
and i n s i d e p a c k i n g a r e u s u a l l y i d e n t i c a l . D e n s i t y and d i a m e t e r o f p e r f o r s t i o n s
a r e i m p o r t a n t i n a l l t y p e s o f sand c o n t r o l . H i g h p e r f o r a t i o n d e n s i t y ' - > r ' 2 to
l o w e r f l u i d v e l o c i t y w h i c h h e l p s t o c o n t r o l s c r e e n e r o s i o n and keeps t h e pack
g r a v e l f r o m s h i f t i n g , and a l s o a l l o w s t o i n j e c t g r a v e l e a s i e r i n a t i g h t c l o s e
pack w i t h o u t e x c e e d i n g f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e s . H i g h p e r f o r a t i o n d e n s i t y t o g e t h e r
w i t h l a r g e p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e d i a m e t e r and deep p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p e n e t r a t i o n
a l s o p r o v i d e a t r a n s i t i o n between a s u i t e o f d i s c r e t e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s sepa-
r a t e d b y b a r r i e r i n t e r v a l s and a c o n t i n u o u s wedge-shaped c r a c k f o r m e d b y
hydraulic fracturing ( c f . section 4.5.4.3.).
 763

5.6.1.2. P e r f o r a t ion diameter/part i c l e diameter r a t i o

I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t p a r t i c l e b r i d g i n g w i t h i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and
t h u s b l o c k i n g o f t h e t u b u l a r pathways c o n n e c t i n g pay zone and b o r e h o l e i n b o t h
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l packing, t h e r a t i o p e r f o r a t i o n diameter/average
g r a v e l o r p r o p p a n t p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r should be 6 / 1 o r l a r g e r (SAUCIER 1974). A t
2 / 1 o r 3 / 1 s i z e d i f f e r e n c e , b r i d g i n g occurs a l r e a d y a t v e r y low g r a v e l o r prop-
p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , whereas a t 6 / 1 s i z e d i f f e r e n c e , even v e r y h i g h g r a v e l o r
proppant s a t u r a t i o n s do n o t l e a d t o b r i d g i n g , b u t g i v e r i s e t o complete f i l l i n g
o f t h e whole p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and even o r i g i n o f a g r a v e l node a t t h e d i s t a l
end o f t h e cement mantle. I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t f o r m a t i o n o f a p a r t i c l e bank i n
t h e c a s i n g o p p o s i t e t o open p e r f o r a t i o n s , h i g h p a r t i c l e t r a n s p o r t e f f i c i e n c y
s h o u l d be designed by f a v o u r a b l y v a r y i n g pumping r a t e and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y
(GRUESBECK & COLLINS 1978). High p r e s s u r e drops across g r a v e l - f i l l e d p e r f o r a -
t i o n t u n n e l s can become s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h t h e c u r r e n t i n d u s t r y t r e n d towards use
o f s m a l l e r g r a v e l s i z e s i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t i n v a s i o n o f f o r m a t i o n sand i n t o t h e
g r a v e l (WILLIAMS, ELLIOTT & WEAVER 1972; SAUCIER 1974).

5.6.1.3. Number and s i z e o f p e r f o r a t i o n s

I n terms o f p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g , t h e s e l e c t i o n o f p e r f o r a t i o n s o f s m a l l e r s i z e
u s u a l l y excludes t h e use o f proppants c o a r s e r than 20/40 mesh s i z e p r i o r t o s i g -
n i f i c a n t p e r f o r a t i o n e r o s i o n (CRAMER 1987). On t h e o t h e r hand, r e d u c i n g number
and/or s i z e o f p e r f o r a t i o n s a l l o w s t o m a i n t a i n a g i v e n l e v e l o f i n i t i a l p r e s -
sure drop a t a l o w e r i n j e c t i o n r a t e and o f f e r s t h e p o t e n t i a l t o keep pace w i t h
p e r f o r a t i o n e r o s i o n by i n c r e a s i n g i n j e c t i o n r a t e f r o m a s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r ba-
se r a t e . Comments on b r i d g i n g p a r t i c l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e a l s o o f f e r e d by MA-
HAJAN & BARRON ( 1 9 8 0 ) . Some aspects o f p r e s s u r e l o s s e s i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n -
n e l s as w e l l as p e r f o r a t i o n and screen e r o s i o n by g r a v e l s u r g i n g a r e o u t l i n e d
as f o l l o w s .

5.6.1.3.1. Pressure losses i n the p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels

W h i l e open-hole c o m p l e t i o n s p r o v i d e minimum p r e s s u r e l o s s and f r o m t h a t
p o i n t o f view s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d whenever p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e hydro-
carbon p r o d u c t i o n , t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i n cased h o l e s a r e t h e p r i m a r y
source o f p r e s s u r e l o s s which depends on diameter and d e n s i t y o f t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s (ECONOMIDES 1986), w h i l e p e r f o r a t i o n p e n e t r a t i o n depth i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r
f o r m a t i o n has o n l y s u b o r d i n a t e i n f l u e n c e . Acceptable p r e s s u r e l o s s e s f o r ade-
quate hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n can be o b t a i n e d through h i g h - d e n s i t y large-diame-
t e r p e r f o r a t i o n s which w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d e n s i t y and diameter p r o g r e s s i v e l y ap-
proach c o n d i t i o n s b e i n g r e a l i z e d i n open h o l e s o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s emanating
from p e r f o r a t i o n rows i n cased h o l e s . Pressure d e c l i n e s i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n -
n e l s have t o be r e l a t e d t o hydrocarbon type, because p r e s s u r e l o s s e s b e i n g s u i -
t a b l e f o r h i g h - v i s c o s i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r s may be unacceptable f o r h i g h - r a t e gas-
b e a r i n g pay zones o r v i c e v e r s a . Pressure decrease through t h e g r a v e l pack i s
d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e i n l e t area through t h e g r a v e l pack, g r a v e l permea-
b i l i t y , and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y f o r t h e case o f l a m i n a r f l o w . Once p r o d u c t i o n r a t e
reaches t u r b u l e n t f l o w c o n d i t i o n s , p r e s s u r e l o s s i n c r e a s e s s h a r p l y .

Pressure l o s s a l s o v a r i e s f o r s i n g l e - vs. m u l t i p l e - p h a s e f l o w . I n h i g h - r a t e
o i l w e l l s , open-hole c o m p l e t i o n s may be r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a d e s i r a b l e
p r o d u c t i v i t y i n d e x and f a v o u r a b l e p r e s s u r e l o s s , w i t h small g r a v e l w i t h r e l a t i -
v e l y low p e r m e a b i l i t y b e i n g needed t o c o n t r o l t h e r e s e r v o i r sand. Pressure drop
i s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by g r a i n s i z e and r e s u l t i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e g r a v e l i n f i l -
l i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s , w i t h t h e r e f o r e g r a v e l pack p e r m e a b i l i t y damage ha-
v i n g a severe impact on p e r f o r a t e d c o m p l e t i o n s due t o causing i n c r e a s i n g pressu-
r e l o s s up t o e x c e s s i v e and u n t o l e r a b l e v a l u e s . Aspects o f p r e s s u r e drop across
p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e a l s o discussed by T A R I Q (1987) and PEREZ & KALKAR (1988).
 764

5.6.1.3.2. P e r f o r a t i o n and screen erosion by gravel surging

G r a v e l p l a c e m e n t c o m p r i s e s p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g g i n g and a n n u l a r p a c k i n g
a r o u n d s c r e e n and b l a n k p i p e s e c t i o n above i t (ECONOMIDES 1 9 8 6 ) . P e r f o r a t i o n i n -
f i l l i n g i s t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l p a r t o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s , because i f t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e n o t packed b y g r a v e l , t h e y a r e p l u g g e d w i t h i n v a d i n g f o r m a t i o n
sand w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r a b l y i m p a i r i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y . P r e s s u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e p e r -
f o r a t i o n s may r e a c h t h e p o i n t where m o s t o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n i s c o n c e n t r a t e d t o a
f e w p e r f o r a t i o n s , t h e r e b y r e s u l t i n g i n h i g h c u r r e n t r a p i d i t y and s u r g i n g o f t h e
g r a v e l , and t h e s u b s e q u e n t h i g h f l o w v e l o c i t y o f t h e f o r m a t i o n p a r t i c l e s may
cause s c r e e n e r o s i o n . T h e r e f o r e p u r g i n g c l e a n p e r f o r a t i o n s b e f o r e g r a v e l p l a c e -
ment i s a k e y c o n d i t i o n t o success.

Concerning s t a b i l i t y o f p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels, i n f i l l i n g by gravel packing

s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e p e r f o r a t i o n j o b and p r o p p a n t s o f s u i -
t a b l e c l o s u r e s t r e s s r e s i s t i v i t y and a d e q u a t e s i z e have t o be u s e d i n o r d e r t o
p r e v e n t c o l l a p s e o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s e s p e c i a l l y i n h a r d e r and s o f t e r r e s e r -
v o i r t y p e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 2 . ) , with the
p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l c o l l a p s e mechanisms i n m o d e r a t e l y - d e e p p a y zones b e i n g s i m i -
l a r t o p r o p p a n t c r u s h i n g and embedment i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s ( c f . s e c t i o n s
4.3. and 4 . 1 2 . ) . PEDEN & Y A S S I N ( 1 9 8 6 ) i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t o f p e r f o r a t i o n
c o n d i t i o n s upon maximum s a n d - f r e e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e i n f r i a b l e s a n d s t o n e s w i t h o u t
g r a v e l pack c o m p l e t i o n , and SOLUM, RAMEZANI & M I M S ( 1 9 8 8 ) p r e s e n t new t e c h n o l o -
gy f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t i o n t u b e s .

5.6.1.4. Tub i ng-conveyed underba lanced p e r f ora t i ng

P e r f o r a t i o n t y p e and c o m p l e t i o n method a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r m i n i m i z a t i o n
o f p r e s s u r e l o s s e s e x e r t e d b y t h e g r a v e l pack i t s e l f w h i c h r e p r e s e n t some t y p e
o f f o r m a t i o n damage p r o v o k e d by t h e sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t (LEDLOW, SAUER &
T I L L 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 1 1 . ) . U n d e r b a l a n c e d p e r f o r a t i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t w i t h a
h y d r o s t a t i c head l e s s t h a n t h e r e s e r v o i r and w i t h t h e s u r f a c e v a l v e s open t o a l -
l o w c o n t r o l l e d f l o w (ECONOMIDES 1 9 8 6 ) . P e r f o r a t i n g w h i l e f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s
g r e a t e r than t h e pressure i n s i d e t h e casing generates a b e n e f i c i a l backsurge
t h a t b r i n g s c o m p l e t i o n d e b r i s , d r i l l i n g mud, cement p r o d u c t s , c r u s h e d r o c k and
o t h e r c o n t a m i n a n t s o u t o f f l o w c h a n n e l s (COLLE 1 9 8 8 ) .

In terms o f p e r f o r a t i n g technique, tubing-conveyed underbalanced p e r f o r a t i o n

i s one o f t h e b i g g e s t d e v e l o p m e n t s s u p p o r t i n g and i m p r o v i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n
t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s , because t h i s method g e t s a l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s open and
c l e a n and g i v e s z e r o o r n e g a t i v e s k i n damage. T u b i n g - c o n v e y e d p e r f o r a t i n g com-
p r i s i n g p l a c e m e n t o f t h e guns i n s i d e t h e c a s i n g v i a a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e b o t t o m o f
t h e p r o d u c t i o n t u b i n g has been i n v e n t e d i n t h e 1 9 4 0 ' s , b u t has o n l y been r e f i -
n e d and d e v e l o p e d t o a c t u a l s t a n d a r d f r o m t h e 1970's t o t h e p r e s e n t . O v e r b a l a n -
ced p e r f o r a t i o n by w i r e l i n e r e q u i r e s subsequent a c i d i z i n g f o r t h e achievement
o f z e r o s k i n damage and i s a l s o o p e r a t i o n a l l y more c o m p l i c a t e d . Some a s p e c t s o f
u n d e r b a l a n c e d v s . o v e r b a l a n c e d p e r f o r a t i n g and a d v a n t a g e s o f t u b i n g - c o n v e y e d
o p e r a t i o n a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

5.6.1.4.1. Underbalanced vs. overbalanced p e r f o r a t i n g

Overbalanced p e r f o r a t i o n f o l l o w e d by washing f r e q u e n t l y c r e a t e s h i g h p o s i t i -
ve s k i n s , w i t h s u b s e q u e n t l y t h e r e s e r v o i r s e c t i o n o f t e n h a v i n g t o be a c i d i z e d
p r i o r t o o r a f t e r g r a v e l p a c k i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 1 1 . 4 . ) . On t h e o t h e r hand, o v e r -
b a l a n c e d p e r f o r a t i n g f o l l o w e d b y w a s h i n g c a n sometimes l e a d t o t h e same a v e r a g e
p e r c e n t a g e o f s k i n r e d u c t i o n as u n d e r b a l a n c e d p e r f o r a t i n g (BRANNON, NETTERS &
GRIMMER 1 9 8 7 ) .

SEANARD (1986) i n t r o d u c e s underbalanced p e r f o r a t i n g i n a c l o s e d system which

 765

a l l o w s t h e use o f h i g h p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l s t o surge t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s w h i l e
a t t h e same t i m e l i m i t i n g sand i n f l u x i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e and a l l o w i n g t o b l e e d
t r a p p e d pressure, t o f l o w t h e w e l l i n a c o n t r o l l e d environment and t o remove da-
mage. Underbalanced p e r f o r a t i n g can a l s o be c a r r i e d o u t a f t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n o f
t h e g r a v e l pack f o r t h e purpose o f i n c r e a s i n g s h o t d e n s i t y and/or opening o f ad-
d i t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n zones ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 5 . 1 . 3 . ) . Gravel packed c o m p l e t i o n s
r e q u i r e t h a t t h e w e l l i s k i l l e d a f t e r p e r f o r a t i n g and t h e guns a r e p u l l e d o u t
o f t h e h o l e . F o r e x e c u t i o n i n g r a v e l packed w e l l s , t h e guns a r e r u n below a r e -
t r i e v a b l e packer t h a t a l l o w s c i r c u l a t i o n a f t e r i t i s s e t , and t h e c o m p l e t i o n
f l u i d i n t h e w o r k s t r i n g i s t h e n d i s p l a c e d u s i n g n i t r o g e n t o achieve t h e d e s i r e d
underbalanced c o n d i t i o n p l u s s a f e t y f a c t o r .

Tubing-conveyed underbalanced p e r f o r a t i o n has t u r n e d o u t t o p r o v i d e t h e b e s t

r e s u l t s f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g . When p e r f o r a t i n g w i t h a tubing-conveyed deep pene-
t r a t i n g c a s i n g gun, f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s i n s t a n t l y r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e
a t maximum d i f f e r e n t i a l which pushes f l u i d s i n t o t h e t u b i n g , c a r r y i n g w i t h i t
mud f i l t r a t e , cement, c o n t a m i n a t i o n , and p e r f o r a t i n g d e b r i s , w i t h t h i s c l e a n i n g
a c t i o n a l l o w i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n t o produce a t i t s n a t u r a l c a p a c i t y (PA1 & G A R B I S
1983 b ) . An underbalance o f 500 - 750 p s i f o r o i l w e l l s and 1,000 - 1,500 p s i
f o r gas w e l l s has t u r n e d o u t t o be s u i t a b l e f o r g i v i n g r i s e t o s u c c e s s f u l p e r f o -
r a t i n g w i t h t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t , and a f t e r p e r f o r a t i n g , t h e w e l l i s f l o w e d i n
o r d e r t o remove t h e p e r f o r a t i n g d e b r i s (LEDLOW, SAUER & T I L L 1985; REGALBUTO &
R I G G S 1985, 1986). The d e b r i s can be p r e v e n t e d from f a l l i n g back by u s i n g an an-
n u l u s p r e s s u r e v a l v e and a r e c l o s e a b l e u n l o a d e r sub. Very h i g h p r e s s u r e d i f f e -
r e n t i a l s , however, can cause e x c e s s i v e sand i n f l u x i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e (SEANARD
1986).

5.6.1.4.2. Advantages of tubing-conveyed operation

The main b e n e f i t s o f underbalanced p e r f o r a t i n g a r e overcoming o f f o r m a t i o n
damage w i t h o u t a c i d i z i n g o r f r a c t u r i n g i n many cases, y i e l d i n g h i g h e r i n j e c t i o n
and w i t h d r a w a l r a t e s , accomplishment w i t h o u t sanding-up o f t h e w e l l b o r e , p e r f o -
r a t i n g o f l o n g i n t e r v a l s and c l e a n i n g w i t h o u t washing, and y i e l d i n g o f f l o w e f -
f i c i e n c y near 100 % e s p e c i a l l y i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h h i g h s h o t d e n s i t y (COLLE
1988). Tubing-conveyed o p e r a t i o n p r o v i d e s d e e p l y p e n e t r a t i n g p e r f o r a t i o n s , and
t h e d i s c method even combines t h e advantages o f p e r f o r a t i n g w i t h a c a s i n g gun
and t h e enhanced clean-up achieved w i t h a tubing-conveyed gun. I n t h e d i s c me-
thod, f i r s t t h e w e l l i s p e r f o r a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e i n t o t h e forma-
t i o n u s i n g a d e e p l y p e n e t r a t i n g c a s i n g gun, and t u b i n g i s t h e n r u n d r y i n t o t h e
w e l l b o r e w i t h a sub and s h e a r - t e s t e d d i s c assembly i n s t a l l e d i n t h e t u b i n g near
t h e packer. W i t h t u b i n g and packer s e t , a s u r f a c e w e i g h t i s dropped t o r u p t u r e
t h e d i s c , t h u s c r e a t i n g an i n s t a n t a n e o u s surge i n t o t h e borehole, and f i l t r a t e
and d e b r i s i s f o r c e d i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e as f o r m a t i o n p r e s s u r e i s exposed t o n e a r
atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s , w i t h t h i s system a l l o w i n g f o r maximum s i z e and p e n e t r a -
t i o n o f shots, and once t h e d i s c i s r u p t u r e d , t h e t u b i n g remains open f u l l -
gauge f o r s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s .

Aspects o f tubing-conveyed underbalanced p e r f o r a t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by

WORLD OIL (1975 b ) , PERRY & SMITH (1980), BONOMO & YOUNG (1983), BELL (1984),
YOUNG & ZALESKI (1985); KING, ANDERSON & BINGHAM (1985); REGALBUTO & R I G G S
(1985, 1986), SEANARD (1986), HALLECK & DEO (1987); WEIRICH, ZALESKI & MULCAHY
(1987), BOWLER (1988) and ZALESKI & W E I R I C H ( 1 9 8 8 ) . The advantages o f underba-
l a n c e d p e r f o r a t i n g f o r g r a v e l pack i n s t a l l a t i o n a r e a l s o emphasized by McLEOD &
CRAWFORD (1982), BONOMO & YOUNG (1983) and PENBERTHY (1985).

5.6.2. Impact of fluid viscosity

The main impacts o f f l u i d v i s c o s i t y on g r a v e l pack performance a r e d i r e c t i o n
o f g r a v e l b u i l d u p i n t h e annulus and f l o w p a t t e r n o f t h e c a r r i e r medium. Some
aspects o f v e r t i c a l vs. r a d i a l p a c k i n g o f t h e g r a v e l as w e l l as p l u g f l o w beha-
 766

v i o u r o f c o n c e n t r a t e d s l u r r i e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s

5.6.2.1. Vertical vs. radial packing o f the gravel

H i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s s h o u l d n o t be used f o r p l a c i n g g r a v e l between screen
and c a s i n g when a c i r c u l a t i n g t e c h n i q u e i s a p p l i e d . I n l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s ,
the s e t t l i n g v e l o c i t y o f the gravel i s s u f f i c i e n t l y high t h a t the p a r t i c l e s
f a l l t o t h e f l o o r o f t h e b o r e h o l e when t h e f l u i d e n t e r s t h e screen (NOVOTNY
1977). The g r a v e l pack t h u s forms f r o m b o t t o m t o t o p o f t h e w e l l b o r e by p o s i -
t i v e g r a v e l d e h y d r a t i o n i n upwards d i r e c t i o n which has a h i g h d e n s i t y ( a b t . 90
% o f maximum achieved a f t e r mechanical p a c k i n g ) and o f f e r s t h e most e f f e c t i v e
sand c o n t r o l f o r i n s i d e g r a v e l packs ( p r o v i d e d t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s have a l -
ready been i n f i l l e d by p r e p a c k i n g , because c i r c u l a t i o n o f l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s
i n c l u d e s o n l y l i t t l e chance o f t r a n s p o r t i n g g r a v e l a l s o i n t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n ho-
l e s ; SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 6 . 6 . 1 . ) .

When h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s a r e used t o c a r r y t h e g r a v e l o r i f t h e t a i l p i p e
i s n o t lowered a l l t h e way down t o t h e bottom o f t h e w e l l b o r e , t h e p a r t i c l e s
f o l l o w t h e f l u i d t r a j e c t o r i e s , and as t h e f l u i d e n t e r s t h e screen, t h e pack
forms f r o m t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e screen r a d i a l l y outward t o t h e c a s i n g . T h i s t y p e
o f i n s i d e - o u t r a d i a l p a c k i n g i s l e s s f a v o u r a b l e than t h e b o t t o m - t o - t o p v e r t i c a l
packing, because l a r g e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s a r e generated a c r o s s pack and screen
and f l u i d c i r c u l a t i o n i s stopped, and a l s o t h e danger o f i r r e g u l a r pack b u i l d -
i n g w i t h i n c l u s i o n o f v o i d s i s much h i g h e r ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . ) . Low-visco-
s i t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s f o r optimum g r a v e l p a c k i n g a l s o r e q u i r e l o w - d e n s i t y p r o p -
p a n t s and/or sand because o f t h e b e t t e r performance o f t h e g r a v e l pack i f t h e
j o b i s t e c h n i c a l l y p r o p e r l y done ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 3 . ) . High-viscosity fluids
a r e p r e f e r e n t i a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r squeeze p a c k i n g o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l s , w i t h t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y spectrum encompassing e x c l u s i v e squeezing, com-
b i n e d c i r c u l a t i o n and squeezing, and f o u r - p o s i t i o n l o n g s t r o k e p a c k i n g ( c f . sec-
t i o n 5.3.2.3.).

5.6.2.2. Plug flow behaviour of concentrated slurries

Improvement o f g r a v e l placement t e c h n i q u e w i t h c o n c e n t r a t e d s l u r r i e s c a r r i e d
i n v i s c o u s o i l - o r water-based f l u i d s r e s u l t s a l s o i n good sand c o n t r o l and p r o -
d u c t i v i t y (SPARLIN & COPELAND 1972; LYBARGER, SCHEUERMAN & WILLARD 1974;
SCHURTZ, BREINER & COMEAUX 1975), w i t h c o n c e n t r a t e d s l u r r i e s a l l o w i n g t h e a p p l i -
c a t i o n o f f i n e r g r a v e l and t h u s a m e l i o r a t i n g performance. S m a l l e r g r a v e l s i z e
p e r m i t s b e t t e r f o r m a t i o n c o n t r o l due t o m i n i m i z a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r sand and pack-
i n g g r a v e l m i x i n g by t h e p l u g f l o w b e h a v i o u r o f t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d g r a v e l s l u r r y
( c f . section 5.8.5.), t h e r e b y e n a b l i n g t h e g r a v e l t o r e t a i n most o f i t s i d e a l
p e r m e a b i l i t y a f t e r b e i n g i n p l a c e . As a consequence o f improved g r a v e l t r a n s -
p o r t , t h e v i s c o u s f l u i d s p r o v i d e good r a d i a l and v e r t i c a l g r a v e l d i s t r i b u t i o n .
Gravel p a c k i n g can sometimes a l s o be enhanced by i n c r e a s i n g p e r f o r a t i o n r a d i u s
a t t h e expense o f f o r m a t i o n p e n e t r a t i o n (STRACKE 1987). L i n e r v i b r a t i o n f l u i d i -
zes t h e g r a v e l and i s t h e r e f o r e an e x c e l l e n t t o o l f o r p a c k i n g g r a v e l t h r o u g h
p e r f o r a t i o n s by e l i m i n a t i o n o f f l u i d l o s s t o t h e r e s e r v o i r and squeeze p a c k i n g
(SOLUM 1984; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 4 . ) . I n c r e a s i n g s i z e and d e n s i t y o f p e r f o r a t i o n s
g e n e r a l l y l e a d t o i n c r e a s i n g w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y (WILLIAMS, ELLIOTT & WEAVER
1972; SAUCIER 1974).

SOLUM (1986) comments on e f f e c t s o f g r a v e l b l e n d i n g and pumping t e c h n i q u e s

on a c c u r a t e c o n t r o l and p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n . McLEOD
(1986) g i v e s an o u t l i n e o f p r o d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e i n g r a v e l packed w e l l s a f t e r
a c i d i z i n g . Gravel p a c k i n g sand q u a l i t y i s s t u d i e d by ZWOLLE & D A V I E S ( 1 9 8 3 ) .
BURGER (1987) r e p o r t s on development o f a chemical process f o r sand c o n t r o l . BO-
NOMO & YOUNG (1983) d i s c u s s aspects o f p e r f o r a t i o n cleanup.
 767

5.6.3. Achievement of perforation tunnel plugging

Techniques f o r i n f i l l i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s w i t h g r a v e l v a r y i n e f f e c t i -
veness (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). Comments a r e g i v e n as f o l l o w s on two-stage sand-
o i l squeeze i n l o n g zones, Wikker D i k k e r t e c h n i q u e i n s h o r t zones, p r e s s u r e
p a c k i n g and c a v i t y f i l l i n g , sequence o f c i r c u l a t i o n and squeeze steps, and
wash-down and t h r o u g h - t u b i n g p a c k i n g .

5.6.3.1. Two-stage sand-oi 1 squeeze in long zones

The two-stage s a n d - o i l squeeze p r o b a b l y p r o v i d e s b e s t r e s u l t s i n l o n g zones
(ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). The f i r s t stage c o n s i s t s o f a s m a l l h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u -
r i n g j o b w i t h g r a v e l s i z e d t o c o n t r o l t h e f o r m a t i o n sand. B a l l s e a l e r s dropped
randomly o r degradable d i v e r t i n g agents may be used t o i n s u r e t h a t a h i g h p e r -
centage o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s accepts g r a v e l . D u r i n g t h e second stage, a w i r e -
wrapped screen o r s l o t t e d l i n e r assembly ( w i t h a cup t y p e o f c r o s s o v e r d e v i c e
a t t h e t o p and a double check v a l v e washdown shoe a t t h e bottom) i s r u n and
washed down through g r a v e l r e m a i n i n g i n s i d e t h e c a s i n g . A d d i t i o n a l g r a v e l i s
p l a c e d around t h e l i n e r through t h e c r o s s o v e r u n t i l a s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e
i n d i c a t e s t h a t g r a v e l has covered t h e t e l l t a l e s l o t s .

5.6.3.2. Wikker Dikker technique in short zones

F o r s h o r t e r zones, t h e Wikker D i k k e r technique t e m p o r a r i l y p l u g s t h e t o p o f
t h e l i n e r and p e r m i t s g r a v e l t o be p l a c e d a t h i g h r a t e s and a t p r e s s u r e s above
t h e f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t around t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e l i n e r and t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n t u n n e l s (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). The Wikker D i k k e r method has t h e advanta-
ges t h a t a f t e r g r a v e l placement, i t i s n o t necessary t o r u n down t h r o u g h t h e
p e r f o r a t e d zone again t o d i s t u r b o r p l u g t h e g r a v e l , and t h a t mechanical p r o c e -
dures a r e s i m p l i f i e d .

5.6.3.3. Pressure packing and cavity filling

The p r e s s u r e pack method a t t e m p t s t o c a r r y g r a v e l through open p e r f o r a t i o n s
t o f i l l a p o s s i b l e c a v i t y b e h i n d t h e p i p e and t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l u s i n g
c r o s s o v e r equipment (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). D u r i n g placement, f l u i d c a r r i e s g r a -
v e l down t h e annulus between t h e i n s i d e o f t h e c a s i n g and o u t s i d e t h e screen o r
s l o t t e d l i n e r , w i t h g r a v e l b e i n g d e p o s i t e d and f l u i d moving through t h e s l o t s
t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e r assembly and back up through t h e wash p i p e . R e t u r n
f l o w i n t o t h e wash p i p e i s p e r i o d i c a l l y r e s t r i c t e d , t h u s f o r c i n g f l u i d through
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n below f r a c t u r e pressure, t h e r e b y c a r r y -
i n g g r a v e l i n t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s . The p r e s s u r e pack technique, however,
i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o approach t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e two-stage s a n d - o i l
squeeze o r Wikker D i k k e r methods.

5.6.3.4. Sequence of circulation and squeeze steps

The sequence o f s t e p s i s e x t r e m e l y c r i t i c a l f o r achievement o f a good r e s u l t
o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g g i n g w i t h g r a v e l . The normal sequence o f l o w e r c i r c u -
l a t i o n , squeeze p o s i t i o n and upper c i r c u l a t i o n g i v e s h i g h - q u a l i t y p e r f o r a t i o n
packing, whereas t h e i n v e r s e s e q u e n t i a l o r d e r c o m p r i s i n g l o w e r c i r c u l a t i o n , up-
p e r c i r c u l a t i o n and squeeze p o s i t i o n does n o t p r o v i d e a good chance f o r p r o p e r
i n f i l l i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s and t u n n e l s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . Squeezing a t
t h e end o f t h e j o b l e a v e s f r e q u e n t l y no room f o r f i l l i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n -
n e l s , because t h e s o l i d dehydrated sand i n t h e annulus cannot move any more and
may have a l s o a l r e a d y p r e m a t u r e l y b r i d g e d t h e annulus t h e r e b y even p r e v e n t i n g
g e n e r a t i o n o f a c o n t i n u o u s g r a v e l mantle. P l u g g i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s r e s u l t s
i n o r i g i n o f a g r a v e l node b e f o r e t h e o u t l e t o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s i n t h e annulus
 768

which i s building towards the wash p i p e, i s bridging the annular space and can
th e r e f o r e block i t o f f , a n d layered d ep o s i t s on the screen propagate i n t o the
opposite d i r e c t i o n and meet with the gravel nodes ( c f . se c tion 5 . 8 . 7 . ) . The com-
bined c i r c u l a t e - sq u eeze process has no need f o r b l a n k pipe t o exceed thre e
j o i n t s above the productive zone.

5.6.3.5. Wash-down and through-tubing packing

The wash-down technique i s applied i n s h o r t low-productivity zones (ALLEN &
ROBERTS 1982). Gravel i s placed t h r o u g h open-ended tubing and then a screen i s
washed down through the g r av el . C i r cu l at i on i s stopped i n order t o allow the
gravel t o s e t t l e back around the l i n e r . Equipment i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e f o r gravel
packing two zones in a d u a l completion with maintenance of pressure se pa ra tion
between zones.

Through-tubing gravel packing i s performed with small-diameter wire-wrapped

screens which can even be run t h r o u g h 2 3/8 o r 2 7/8 i n . tubing. Therefore a l s o
tu b i n g l e ss completions can be gravel packed in order t o control s a n d , and small
screens can be gravel packed i n s i d e casing below 2 3/8 i n . o r l a r g e r tubing
using c o n c e n t r i c through-tubing methods. Gravel placement i s done by forc ing
a l l f l u i d a n d gravel i n t o the p er f o r at i o n s sim ila r t o the Wikker Dikker tech-
nique.

5.6.4. Influence o f perforation technique

Casing a n d cement sheath p er f o r at i o n in o i l - a n d gas-well completion i s
usually done by shaped charges, hydrojets o r b u l l e t s ( D A N E S H Y 1973 b ) . Conven-
tio n a l b u l l e t or j e t p er f o r at i o n c r e a t e s a dimpling o r i r r e g u l a r hole, r e s p e c t i -
vely, t h r o u g h casing a n d cement sheath i n t o the formation without removing any
material ( c f . se ct i o n 5 . 6 . 5 . ) . Purging of gun, mud cake, formation and cement
d e b r i s by underbalanced p er f o r at i n g and flowing, backsurging, a n d pe rfora tion
washing and breakdown provides more space f o r the gravel and reduces the danger
of bridging (McCAULEY 1969, SUMAN 1972, CROWE & CRYAR 1975, PENBERTHY 1983,
STRACKE 1987). Comments a r e o f f er ed a s follows on formation damage by pe rfora -
tio n d e b r i s , p e r f o r at i o n cleaning and proppant-induced pe rfora tion e rosion.

5.6.4.1. Formation damage by perforation debris

Any d e b r i s cr eat ed by the p er f o r at i n g process a s well a s sand o r mud i n f i l -
lin g the p e r f o r a t i o n channels which a r e n o t removed p r i o r t o gravel placement
can s e v e r e l y choke hydrocarbon production (SPARLIN & COPELAND 1972). Other unde-
s i r a b l e s o l i d s a l s o must not be flushed i n t o the formation by the c a r r i e r
f l u i d s , because contaminating s o l i d s coming from u n f i l t e r e d f l u i d s , stora ge
tanks, blending equipment and t u b u l a r goods w i l l damage the most permeable
zones f i r s t a n d thus a f t e r the gravel pack i s s e t a n d well e x p l o i t a t i o n s t a r t s ,
the most productive sands ar e s u f f e r i n g worst from pore plugging by invaded so-
l i d s , a n d once they have penetrated i n t o the formation p r i o r t o gravel packing,
s o l i d p a r t i c l e s a r e trapped within the pay zone by the gravel pack which pre-
vents t h e i r renewed emigration from the r e se rvoir d u r i n g course of subsequent
hydrocarbon production ( c f . s ect i o n 5 . 1 1 . 4 . ) .
The cup type of p er f o r at i o n wash tool can provide e x c e l l e n t cleaning o f the
p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels, perhaps including breaking away some of the primary cement
i n order t o reduce the length of the hole a n d c re a ting a c a v i t y behind the
casing t o permit a g r e a t e r thickness of the gravel with formation of a node ( A L -
LEN & ROBERTS 1982).

Clean t u b i n g i s i n d i s p en s i b l e f o r preparing a well f o r gravel packing a n d i s

assuring clean open p er f o r at i o n s i n s t ead of blocked ones. A s t r i n g of good plas-
 769

t i c - c o a t e d t u b i n g i s most d e s i r a b l e t o p r e v e n t i n j e c t i o n o f r u s t , dope, s c a l e
and m i l l v a r n i s h i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n . I f p l a s t i c - c o a t e d t u b i n g i s n o t a v a i l a b l e ,
a c l e a n s t r i n g o f new o r used t u b i n g can be a p p l i e d , p r o v i d e d any r u s t , dope,
s c a l e and m i l l v a r n i s h i s removed by pumping a s o l v e n t and a r u b b e r p l u g down
t h e t u b i n g p r i o r t o packer s e t t i n g . P i p e dope can be k e p t f r o m t h e i n s i d e o f
t h e p i p e by a p p l y i n g i t s p a r i n g l y t o t h e p i n i n s t e a d o f t h e c o l l a r , because i n
t h i s way, t h e p i p e dope would be squeezed t o t h e o u t s i d e when t h e j o i n t s a r e
made up ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.11.5.).

5.6.4.2. P e r f o r a t i o n cleaning
Cased-hole g r a v e l packs have g e n e r a l l y l o w e r p r o d u c t i v i t y i n d i c e s t h a n open-
h o l e g r a v e l packs which i s m a i n l y due t o f l u i d e n t r y t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t i o n s t h a t
expose a small f r a c t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r sand t o t h e w e l l , i n c o n t r a s t t o open-hole
g r a v e l packs where t h e whole b o r e h o l e w a l l i s covered by t h e g r a v e l p l u g (PEN-
BERTHY 1985; c f . s e c t i o n 5.10.). I f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e p a r t i a l l y o r complete-
l y f i l l e d w i t h r e s e r v o i r sand, l o w e r p r o d u c t i v i t y can r e s u l t u n l e s s p r o p e r com-
p l e t i o n procedures a r e implemented, because p e r f o r a t i o n s plugged w i t h f o r m a t i o n
sand l e a d t o h i g h c o m p l e t i o n p r e s s u r e drawdown and s h o r t c o m p l e t i o n l i f e . Ca-
sed-hole g r a v e l pack p r o d u c t i v i t y can be c o n s i d e r a b l y improved by large-diame-
t e r h i g h - d e n s i t y p e r f o r a t i o n and subsequent c l e a n i n g . When no p e r f o r a t i o n c l e a n -
i n g i s c a r r i e d out, p r e p a c k i n g o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i s t h e optimum pos-
s i b l e procedure w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o h i g h pumping r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s . F o l l o w -
i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some general aspects, p e r f o r a t i o n washing and s u r g i n g a r e
b r i e f l y outlined.

5.6.4.2.1, General aspects

P e r f o r a t i o n s plugged by d e b r i s can n e i t h e r be f i l l e d w i t h g r a v e l n o r a l l o w
p e n e t r a t i o n o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n f l u i d s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x and t h u s s e v e r e l y
d e t e r i o r a t e sand c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v i t y (PENBERTHY 1985). P e r f o r a t i o n c l e a n i n g by
d e b r i s removal does n o t o n l y enhance g r a v e l p a c k i n g and r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n ,
b u t a l s o r e c o v e r s mud cakes and mud pockets f r o m t h e cement-formation i n t e r f a c e
which c r e a t e i n j e c t i v i t y problems. P e r f o r a t i o n c l e a n i n g p r i o r t o g r a v e l p a c k i n g
o r r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n a l s o a v o i d s t h e danger t h a t as a consequence o f a l t e r e d
p e r m e a b i l i t y and f l o w geometry a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t , t h e p l u g g i n g m a t e r i a l i n
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e may be e j e c t e d and sand p r o d u c t i o n may resume. P e r f o r a t i o n
c l e a n i n g methods i n c l u d e backflow, backsurge, p e r f o r a t i o n washing and chemical
washing by c h i e f l y a c i d i z i n g .

P e r f o r a t i n g i s sometimes conducted i n mud, w i t h an overbalance f o l l o w e d by

b a c k f l o w t o e s t a b l i s h i n j e c t i v i t y . B a c k f l o w w i t h o u t underbalance p e r f o r a t i n g ,
however, may n o t c l e a n up a l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s as t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l r e q u i r e d t o
purge d e b r i s and mud f r o m some p e r f o r a t i o n s may n o t be reached. P e r f o r a t i o n
washing i s a p o s i t i v e method o f removing p e r f o r a t i o n d e b r i s , mud and f o r m a t i o n
sand f r o m t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l and f r o m b e h i n d t h e c a s i n g as w e l l as p e r f o r m -
i n g squeeze packs. The wash t o o l s a r e f i t t e d w i t h t a i l p i p e and mule shoe on
t h e bottom. A c i d s o r o t h e r c l e a n f l u i d s can be i n j e c t e d t h r o u g h t h e i s o l a t e d
p e r f o r a t i o n s t o e s t a b l i s h communication through a l l p e r f o r a t i o n s . Backsurging
exposes p e r f o r a t i o n s i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y t o g r e a t l y lowered p r e s s u r e t o draw o u t a
l i m i t e d volume o f p e r f o r a t i n g d e b r i s , mud, f o r m a t i o n sand and r e s e r v o i r f l u i d .
P e r f o r a t i o n washing and s u r g i n g have d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t s i n r e l a t i o n t o p e r f o r a -
t i o n prepacking w i t h gravel.

5.6.4.2.2. P e r f o r a t i o n washing
P e r f o r a t i o n washing i s achieved by s t r a d d l i n g a small i n c r e m e n t o f t h e p e r f o -
r a t e d i n t e r v a l w i t h a s p e c i a l t o o l and i n j e c t i n g f l u i d s i n t o some p e r f o r a t i o n s
w h i l e t a k i n g r e t u r n s f r o m o t h e r p e r f o r a t i o n s (DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1988 c ) . The
 770

f l u i d c i r c u l a t e s o u t s i d e t h e c a s i n g and back t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s n e a r e s t
t o t h e t o o l s e a l s , t h e r e b y r e m o v i n g d e b r i s and f o r m a t i o n sand f r o m t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s and f r o m b e h i n d t h e c a s i n g . The t o o l i s moved in i n c r e m e n t s e q u a l t o s e a l
s p a c i n g u n t i l t h e e n t i r e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l i s washed. F l u i d i s pumped t h r o u g h
one s e t o f p e r f o r a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e c a s i n g - f o r m a t i o n a n n u l u s and o u t a n o t h e r
g r o u p o f h o l e s ( N I N I & OWEN 1 9 8 3 ) . The success o f p e r f o r a t i o n w a s h i n g and t h e
amount o f f o r m a t i o n sand washed o u t depends on f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and pumping r a t e
(PENBERTHY 1 9 8 5 ) . L o w - v i s c o s i t y b r i n e s pumped a t h i g h r a t e s remove l a r g e r
amounts o f r e s e r v o i r sand t h a n v i s c o s i f i e d f l u i d s do, because l o w - v i s c o s i t y a l -
l o w s t o a c h i e v e t u r b u l e n t f l o w much more e a s i l y , whereas t h e p o l y m e r i n h i g h -
v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s produces a f i l t e r cake t h a t a p p a r e n t l y reduces t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
t o remove sand.

Pumping r a t e p e r p e r f o r a t i o n has i m p o r t a n t i m p a c t , because t u r b u l e n c e and

p r e s s u r e d r o p t h r o u g h t h e c i r c u l a t i o n p a t h causes more d e b r i s t o be removed. I n
h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s w i t h more t h a n 70 d e g r e e s i n c l i n a t i o n and l o n g i n t e r v a l s
t o b e g r a v e l packed, h i g h c i r c u l a t i o n r a t e s have t o b e u t i l i z e d r e q u i r i n g h i g h
pumping p r e s s u r e s , because o t h e r w i s e f o r m a t i o n sand w o u l d s e t t l e i n t h e c a s i n g -
d r i l l p i p e a n n u l u s and s t i c k t h e w a s h t o o l (BRUIST, JEFFERIS & BOTTS 1 9 8 3 ) . I n ge-
n e r a l , however, e x p e r i e n c e r e v e a l s t h a t m o s t o f t h e p a y sand s e t t l e s o u t i n t h e
r a t h o l e ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.9.1.3.3.) and t h a t r e g a r d l e s s o f h o l e a n g l e , no s t i c k i n g
p r o b l e m s o c c u r w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d w a s h t o o l a r r a n g e m e n t . Some a s p e c t s o f p r e s s u r e
p a r t i n g o f r e s e r v o i r sand and c o m p a r a t i v e e f f e c t i v i t y o f p e r f o r a t i o n w a s h i n g
a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

5.6.4.2.2.1. Pressure parting of reservoir sand

The s u b s e q u e n t l y r e s u l t i n g g r a v e l p r e p a c k g e o m e t r y i s o f t e n a p r e s s u r e p a r t ,
w i t h appearance and o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e b e i n g s i m i l a r t o c a s e s w i t h o u t
p r e v i o u s sand p r o d u c t i o n o r w i t h o u t p e r f o r a t i o n w a s h i n g (PENBERTHY 1985; c f .
section 5.6.6.3.). F o r m a t i o n sand p e r m e a b i l i t y a l s o i n f l u e n c e s t h e amount o f
sand removed b y p e r f o r a t i o n w a s h i n g . Pay sands w i t h l o w e r p e r m e a b i l i t y c o n t a i n
a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f f i n e s and c l a y m i n e r a l s w h i c h c r e a t e a n a t u r a l f i l t e r
cake, and t h e r e f o r e t h e c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e i n t h e s e sands i s g r e a t e r t h a n i n
h i g h e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y r e s e r v o i r s , w i t h t h e l a t t e r t h u s b e i n g more e a s i l y washed
out.

A t h i g h p e r f o r a t i o n d e n s i t y , t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r f o r a t i o n s communicate w i t h
e a c h o t h e r a l o n g t h e c a s i n g d u r i n g w a s h i n g . E x p e r i m e n t a l work has shown t h a t
t h e amount o f sand r e m o v a l i s g r e a t e r w i t h l o w p e r f o r a t i o n d e n s i t i e s b e c a u s e o f
h i g h e r wash r a t e s p e r p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e t h a n w i t h h i g h p e r f o r a t i o n d e n s i t i e s
when t h e p a t h o f l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e i s between t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s a l o n g t h e c a s i n g
w a l l , w i t h f l u i d t r a v e l l i n g i n t h i s manner n o t b e i n g a b l e t o remove f o r m a t i o n
sand. Breakdown o f p e r f o r a t i o n s d u r i n g w a s h i n g may p a r t i a l l y t a k e p l a c e i n a
p a i r - w i s e manner. The l o w e r t h e pumping r a t e , t h e l e s s p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s f o r
b r e a k i n g down a l l p e r f o r a t i o n s d u r i n g w a s h i n g . T h e r e f o r e p e r f o r a t i o n w a s h i n g
s h o u l d be c o n d u c t e d a t t h e h i g h e s t p r a c t i c a l r a t e t o i n c r e a s e t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p
i n o r d e r t o m a x i m i z e t h e number o f open p e r f o r a t i o n s , b u t b e l o w f r a c t u r i n g p r e s -
s u r e i n o r d e r t o a v o i d o p e n i n g o f c r a c k s in t h e r e s e r v o i r . The e l e m e n t s p a c i n g
on wash t o o l s s h o u l d be as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e f o r s u p p o r t i n g a c h i e v e m e n t o f h i g h
p e r f o r a t i o n wash r a t e s . The v o i d s w h i c h a r e washed i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n between
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s c a n be s u b s e q u e n t l y p r e p a c k e d w i t h g r a v e l ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.3.1.2.2.).

5.6.4.2.2.2. Comparative effectivity of perforat ion washing

P e r f o r a t i o n w a s h i n g may n o t be as e f f e c t i v e as u n d e r b a l a n c e d p e r f o r a t i n g o r
b a c k s u r g i n g , because a l l o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e n o t c o n n e c t e d (ECONOMIDES
1 9 8 6 ) . F l o w t a k e s t h e p a t h o f l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e , and once a f l o w avenue i s e s t a -
b l i s h e d , a l l f l o w proceeds through t h a t channel l e a v i n g o t h e r p e r f o r a t i o n s p l u g -
 771

ged .

5.6.4.2.3. Perforat ion surging

P e r f o r a t i o n s u r g i n g i s an a l t e r n a t i v e t o p e r f o r a t i o n washing and i s capable
o f removing about t h e same q u a n t i t y o f f o r m a t i o n sand p e r r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l
u n i t as p e r f o r a t i o n washing. Some aspects o f p e r f o r a t i o n opening and sand remo-
v a l as w e l l as l o n g and s h o r t r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.6.4.2.3.1. Perforation opening and sand removal

P e r f o r a t i o n s u r g i n g can be performed w i t h surge t o o l s and by underbalanced
p e r f o r a t i n g . Backsurging i n v o l v e s exposing o f an a l r e a d y p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l t o
a sudden p r e s s u r e underbalance. Loose m a t e r i a l and gun d e b r i s f r o m p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l s a r e d i s l o d g e d by sudden exposure o f t h e p e r f o r a t e d zone t o an open cham-
b e r a t atmospheric pressure, w i t h t h e c r e a t e d d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e c a u s i n g f o r -
m a t i o n f l u i d s t o surge through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s i n t o t h e casing, t h e r e b y f l u s h -
i n g the p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels.

P e r f o r a t i o n s u r g i n g may n o t open a l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , w i t h t h e amount o f

f o r m a t i o n m a t e r i a l removed p e r pay zone u n i t p r o b a b l y d i f f e r i n g i n an u n p r e d i c -
t a b l e manner, t h e surge geometry b e i n g e r r a t i c , and t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f surged
sand b e i n g p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e . High-surge d i f f e r e n t i a l
p r e s s u r e s a r e more e f f e c t i v e i n removing m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s than
low p r e s s u r e s . While i n t e r m i x i n g o f prepack g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand does n o t
occur a f t e r p e r f o r a t i o n washing, g r a v e l p r e p a c k i n g subsequently t o s u r g i n g
tends t o cause i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.2.3.8.
and 5 . 6 . 7 . ) . S u r g i n g a l s o appears t o remove sand more unevenly f r o m t h e r e s e r -
v o i r t h a n washing does. Underbalanced p e r f o r a t i n g f o l l o w e d b y p e r f o r a t i o n wash-
i n g seem t o p r o v i d e t h e b e s t chance t o assure c l e a n p e r f o r a t i o n s p r i o r t o g r a -
vel packing.

5.6.4.2.3.2. Long and short reservoir intervals

Underbalanced p e r f o r a t i n g and s u r g i n g have a common disadvantage i n l o n g i n -
t e r v a l s , because energy c r e a t e d by t h e underbalance i s c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e t o p
o f t h e i n t e r v a l and i s a t a minimum a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e s e c t i o n (RASHID 1984).
Simultaneous s u r g i n g o f an upper and a l o w e r zone can have t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e
l o w e r p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e n o t purged and i t may be i m p o s s i b l e t o squeeze g r a v e l i n -
t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s when t h e pack i s i n s t a l l e d . Prime c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r s e l e c -
t i o n o f p e r f o r a t i o n c l e a n i n g method a r e i n t e r v a l l e n g t h , r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e and
competency (ECONOMIDES 1986).

P e r f o r a t i o n washing r e q u i r e s adequate r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e t o a l l o w c i r c u l a -
t i o n , whereas s t a b i l i t y o f t h e f o r m a t i o n a g a i n s t c o l l a p s e i s d e c i s i v e f o r under-
balanced p e r f o r a t i n g and b a c k s u r g i n g which a r e b e s t s u i t e d t o r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t
i n t e r v a l s where adequate energy i s a v a i l a b l e t o purge t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . Longer
i n t e r v a l s a r e b e t t e r s u i t e d t o p e r f o r a t i o n washing u s i n g h i g h pumping r a t e s .
Backsurging o r underbalanced p e r f o r a t i n g may be t h e o n l y f e a s i b l e o p t i o n s i n un-
d e r p r e s s u r e d r e s e r v o i r s where c i r c u l a t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , where-
as i n v e r y u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s , p e r f o r a t i o n washing s h o u l d be p r e f e r r e d
(NINI & OWEN 1983). P e r f o r a t i o n washing i s a l s o a s u p e r i o r t e c h n i q u e i n l o n g i n -
t e r v a l s t o be gravel-packed and i n case o f presence o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y o i l
(BRUIST, JEFFERIS & BOTTS 1983).
 772

5.6.4.3. Proppant - induced perf orat ion erosion

Concerning p r o p p a n t - i n d u c e d p e r f o r a t i o n e r o s i o n (CRUMP & CONWAY (1986), p e r -
f o r a t i o n f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e i s reduced by b o t h i n l e t r o u n d i n g and p r o g r e s s i v e
p e r f o r a t i o n d i a m e t e r i n c r e a s e . The r a t e o f p e r f o r a t i o n e r o s i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h
h i g h e r sand c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , h i g h e r d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e and s m a l l e r p e r f o r a -
t i o n s , and i s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by c a s i n g grade and w e i g h t , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
p e r f o r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e cement sheath, and p r o p p a n t t y p e . The mechanical c o n f i -
g u r a t i o n o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s a p p a r e n t l y c o n t i n u a l l y changes d u r i n g a p r o p p a n t -
laden h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g j o b , r e s u l t i n g i n s t e a d i l y i n c r e a -
s i n g p e r f o r a t i o n f l o w c a p a c i t y a t a g i v e n p r e s s u r e drop. I f t h e r e f o r e t r e a t i n g
r a t e i s n o t p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g d u r i n g an o p e r a t i o n t o keep up w i t h i n c r e a -
s i n g f l o w c a p a c i t y , p r e s s u r e drop across t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s w i l l decrease and
t h i s c o u l d cause i n t e r z o n a l r a t e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n . Proppant e r o s i o n , however,
does n o t t r a n s f o r m p e r f o r a t i o n s i n t o p e r f e c t f l o w n o z z l e s .

O t h e r f a c t o r s e x e r t i n g c o n t r o l o v e r p e r f o r a t i o n f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e and i n t e r -
v a l r a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e p e r f o r a t i o n d e n s i t y , i n j e c t i o n r a t e and f l u i d d e n s i t y
(CRAMER 1987). P e r f o r a t i o n e r o s i o n can be g e n e r a l l y a p r e d i c t a b l e j u n c t i o n o f
p r o p p a n t volume, b u t t h e e r o s i o n process w i l l b l u n t i t s own g r o w t h a f t e r a c e r -
t a i n volume o f proppant i s d i s p l a c e d . Above a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l sand c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n , a p a r t i c u l a r c o m p l e t i o n system p e r f o r a t e d w i t h h o l e s o f u n i f o r m c h a r a c t e -
r i s t i c s w i l l e x h i b i t an e r o s i o n r a t e t h a t i s l i n e a r w i t h r e s p e c t t o p r o p p a n t
f l o w t h r o u g h r a t e . Aspects o f e r o s i o n of p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i n gas w e l l s a r e
d i s c u s s e d by V R I E Z E N , SPIJKER & VLIS ( 1 9 7 5 ) .

5.6.5. Influence of perforation geometry

I n c r e a s i n g w i d t h , l e n g t h and d e n s i t y o f p e r f o r a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e e x i s t i n g
pay zone h e l p t o i n c r e a s e t h e f l o w area which i s an e f f e c t i v e means o f r e d u c i n g
drag o r f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e s and t h u s d i m i n i s h i n g e f f e c t s damaging t h e g r a i n f a b -
r i c , t h e r e b y s u p p o r t i n g s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r framework a g a i n s t exces-
s i v e sand p r o d u c t i o n (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). Good c o m p l e t i o n p r a c t i c e s , use o f
c l e a n f l u i d s and c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n o f p e r f o r a t i n g charges and c o n d i t i o n s can o f -
t e n e f f e c t i v e l y reduce an o t h e r w i s e s e r i o u s sand c o n t r o l problem. I n c r e a s i n g
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e area o r t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l i n f i l l i n g t h e p e r -
f o r a t i o n t u n n e l i s a p r i m a r y approach f o r r e d u c i n g p r e s s u r e d r o p f o r a g i v e n
flow r a t e through a s i n g l e p e r f o r a t i o n .

B u l l e t p e r f o r a t o r s e x h i b i t d i s t i n c t advantages over j e t p e r f o r a t o r s i n terms

o f h o l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . B u l l e t s produce c o n s t a n t - d i a m e t e r round h o l e s i r r e s p e c -
t i v e o f gun c l e a r a n c e o r c a s i n g grade and t h i c k n e s s , a l t h o u g h p e r f o r a t i o n pene-
t r a t i o n performance i s poor i n h a r d r o c k s . J e t p e r f o r a t o r s a r e a f f e c t e d by gun
c l e a r a n c e , c a s i n g grade, and shaped charge c o n d i t i o n s , and a l s o e x h i b i t conside-
r a b l e randomness (SMALL 1985; KING, BINGHAM & KIDDER 1986; CRAMER 1987). J e t
p e r f o r a t i o n s may be r e q u i r e d i f t h e d r i l l e d h o l e i s i n a washed-out c o n d i t i o n
i n t h e c o m p l e t i o n i n t e r v a l s and cement sheath t h i c k n e s s exceeds a b t . 4 i n . (CRA-
MER 1987). I n f o r m a t i o n s w i t h low compressive s t r e n g t h , b u l l e t guns a r e p r e f e r a -
b l e t o s m a l l - h o l e j e t s (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1 9 8 2 ) .

Optimum p e r f o r a t i o n p e n e t r a t i o n i s equal t o f l u s h e d zone r a d i u s , b u t a m i n i -

mum o f 8 i n . has been e x p e r i m e n t a l l y found t o be t h e c r i t i c a l t u n n e l l e n g t h r e -
q u i r e d f o r maximum p r o d u c t i v i t y (OYENEYIN 1987, 1988). The s k i n e f f e c t s imposed
by g r a v e l pack, screen, p e r f o r a t i o n s and o t h e r items a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s
i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f w e l l performance (HIMMATRAMKA 1981).

5.6.6. Influence o f reservoir section and treatment variables

The success o f p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g w i t h g r a v e l i s p r i m a r i l y a f u n c t i o n o f
p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e c l e a n l i n e s s and i s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h a t i n f l u e n c e d by i n t e r v a l
 773
l e n g t h , s i n g l e - vs. m u l t i p l e - z o n e completions, p e r m e a b i l i t y v a r i a t i o n s ; screen,
l i n e r and washpipe c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; squeezing and/or c i r c u l a t i n g technique, and
v i s c o s i t y and l e a k o f f r a t e o f c a r r i e r f l u i d (ECONOMIDES 1986). The d i s c u s s i o n
as f o l l o w s focusses on f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y v a r i a t i o n s and f l u i d v i s c o s i t y ,
m u l t i p l e i n t e r v a l s , and f l u i d v e l o c i t y and p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g .

5.6.6.1. Formation permeability variations and fluid viscosity

I n t e r v a l l e n g t h a f f e c t s t h e amount o f g r a v e l which can be packed i n t h e p e r -
f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s because o f f l u i d l e a k o f f across t h e area o f exposed r e s e r v o i r ,
w i t h s h o r t p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l s s u f f e r i n g t o a l e s s e r degree f r o m f l u i d l o s s
and t h u s b e i n g more e f f i c i e n t l y packed p e r s e c t i o n u n i t than l o n g e r ones (ECONO-
M I D E S 1986). As t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d dehydrates i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n , g r a v e l may
b r i d g e o f f i n t h e screen-casing annulus t h e r e b y i s o l a t i n g some o f t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s . V a r i a t i o n s i n pay zone p e r m e a b i l i t y may be even more s u s c e p t i b l e t o g r a -
v e l b r i d g i n g i f t h e h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y zone i s a t t h e t o p o f t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n -
t e r v a l , w i t h permeability v a r i a t i o n s therefore being p a r t i c u l a r l y detrimental
t o u n i f o r m p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g . Nodular g r a v e l b u i l d u p s a t t h e i n l e t t o t h e p e r -
f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s a r e caused by v i s c o u s drag o f t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d d e h y d r a t i n g
through t h e packed p e r f o r a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 7 . ) . The node remains i n t a c t
u n t i l f l o w v e l o c i t y i s g r e a t enough t o s h i f t t h e nodes. I f p e r m e a b i l i t y v a r i a -
t i o n s r e s u l t i n reduced f l o w below t h e g r a v e l node, i t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o b u i l d u p
u n t i l b r i d g i n g occurs.

L o w - v i s c o s i t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s do n o t cause b u i l d u p o f g r a v e l nodes, b u t a r e
on t h e o t h e r hand l e s s capable o f t r a n s p o r t i n g g r a v e l (TORREST 1982). H i g h - v i s -
c o s i t y f l u i d s a r e more a p p l i c a b l e i n p r e p a c k i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n s p r i o r t o r u n -
n i n g o f screen (GRUESBECK & COLLINS 1978), b u t s h o u l d n o t be used i n c i r c u l a -
t i n g packs. I n h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s , t h e g r a v e l p a r t i c l e s f o l l o w f l u i d t r a j e c -
t o r i e s as t h e f l u i d e n t e r s t h e screen, and t h e pack forms f r o m o u t s i d e t h e
screen r a d i a l l y toward t h e c a s i n g t h e r e b y l e a d i n g t o b r i d g i n g and i n c o m p l e t e
packing ( c f . section 5.6.2.1.). Considerable permeability v a r i a t i o n s accelerate
t h i s process as g r a v e l nodes a r e b u i l d i n g i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n f r o m t h e p e r f o -
r a t e d c a s i n g towards t h e screen, t h e r e b y e n a b l i n g m e e t i n g o f a n n u l a r d e p o s i t s
on screen s u r f a c e and g r a v e l nodes i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e annulus which means e a r -
l i e r b r i d g i n g ( c f . section 5.8.7.).

5.6.6.2. Multiple intervals

M u l t i p l e i n t e r v a l s commingled i n a s i n g l e g r a v e l pack c r e a t e s p e c i a l p e r f o r a -
t i o n p a c k i n g problems p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e y a r e separated by c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n -
ce. I f an upper sand i s much more permeable t h a n a l o w e r sand, s i n g l e - s t a g e g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g r e s u l t s i n g r a v e l b r i d g i n g i n t h e upper zone whereas t h e l o w e r zone
i s n o t packed a t a l l . D i f f e r e n t screen d i a m e t e r can i n c r e a s e t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f
p r o p e r l y g r a v e l p a c k i n g t h e whole m u l t i p l e - z o n e i n t e r v a l . I n terms o f screen
and l i n e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , u s i n g a s m a l l d i a m e t e r b l a n k l i n e r above t h e screen
promotes b r i d g i n g (RASHID 1984), whereas a b l a n k l i n e r o f i d e n t i c a l o u t s i d e d i a -
meter as t h e screen p r e v e n t s b r i d g i n g and enables s e t t l i n g o f r e s e r v e g r a v e l .

Blank l i n e r s between o r below screens as w e l l as bow s p r i n g c e n t r a l i z e r s p r o -

mote v o i d s i n t h e g r a v e l pack, and t h e use o f an upper t e l l - t a l e screen ( c f .
s e c t i o n 6.3.5.) i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h v i s c o u s f l u i d s a l s o promotes b r i d g i n g a t
t h a t p o i n t . Wash p i p e o u t e r diameter t o screen i n n e r diameter r a t i o has an e f -
f e c t on p e r f o r a t i o n packing, because t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e s t r i c t i o n t o f l o w i n s i d e
t h e screen, t h e h i g h e r t h e screen a n n u l a r v e l o c i t y , w i t h h i g h v e l o c i t y i n t h i s
area t e n d i n g t o erode g r a v e l nodes on t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s t h u s r e t a r d i n g t h e b r i d -
ging effects.
 114

5.6.6.3. Fluid velocity and pressure parting

C a r r i e r f l u i d v e l o c i t y s h o u l d be h i g h enough t o t r a n s p o r t t h e g r a v e l i n t o
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , b u t l o w enough t o d e h y d r a t e once i t has e n t e r e d t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e optimum c a r r i e r v i s c o s i t y f o r p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g
may n o t be t h e b e s t f o r a n n u l a r p a c k i n g . Too h i g h f l u i d i n j e c t i o n r a t e s i n t o
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n pressure p a r t i n g i f t h e f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t i s excee-
ded ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 6 . 4 . 2 . 2 . 1 . ) . Orientation o f the single pressure-parting pla-
nes i s a l w a y s n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f l e a s t s t r e s s when t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e
n o t p u r g e d . I n c a s e o f p e r f o r a t i o n p u r g i n g , p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g does n o t a l w a y s oc-
c u r i n a s i n g l e plane, b u t m u l t i p l e p a r t i n g s progress i r r e g u l a r l y through t h e
f o r m a t i o n w h i c h a p p e a r t o be c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e s t r e s s s t a t e and i n some c a s e s
a r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o e a c h o t h e r , t h u s p r o b a b l y i n d i c a t i n g s t r e s s s t a t e changes
as t h e s l u r r y i s i n j e c t e d . When f l u i d l e a k o f f i s l o w due t o l o w r e s e r v o i r p e r -
m e a b i l i t y , f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g r e s u l t s i n pumping o f l a r g e amounts o f g r a v e l
i n t o t h e p a y zone c r a c k w i t h o u t a d e q u a t e d e h y d r a t i o n t o pack t h e t u n n e l s . On
t h e o t h e r hand, f r a c t u r i n g may a i d i n p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g b y p r o v i d i n g more
area f o r s l u r r y dehydration ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.3.5.).

The optimum p r o c e d u r e f o r p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p a c k i n g i s squeeze p a c k i n g w i t h

t h e s c r e e n i n p l a c e when t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l i s r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t ( c f . sec-
t i o n 5 . 3 . 2 . 3 . 3 . ) , whereas i n c a s e o f l o n g i n t e r v a l s , t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s s h o u l d be
p u r g e d i n s h o r t e r i n t e r v a l s and p r e p a c k e d i n s t a g e s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 6 . 7 . ) . There
m u s t be a d e q u a t e l e a k o f f t o c a r r y t h e g r a v e l o u t o f t h e c a s i n g i n t o t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s . I n c r e a s e d c a r r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y and v i s c o s i t y s u p p o r t g r a v e l t r a n s p o r t ,
b u t i n c r e a s e d v i s c o s i t y a l s o r e d u c e s t h e d e h y d r a t i o n p r o c e s s and may p r o m o t e
b r i d g i n g due t o node b u i l d u p .

5.6.7. Gravel prepacking of perforation tunnels

G r a v e l p r e p a c k i n g i s a common p r o c e d u r e f o r enhancement o f sand c o n t r o l e f f i -
c i e n c y and f o r s u p p o r t o f p e r f o r a t i o n c l e a n i n g o p e r a t i o n s (PENBERTHY 1 9 8 5 ) . P r e -
p a c k i n g i s a s p e c i a l s t a g e pumped i n advance o f t h e m a i n g r a v e l - p a c k t r e a t m e n t
f o r t h e s o l e p u r p o s e o f p l a c i n g g r a v e l i n t o p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s b e f o r e t h e annu-
l a r g r a v e l m a n t l e i s i n s t a l l e d (HALL, MATHERNE, KERLIN & PACE 1988). The m a i n
advantage o f g r a v e l prepacking i s h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y p e r f o r a t i o n tunnel f i l l i n g .

5 . 6 . 7 . 1 . High-permeability perforat ion tunnel filling

P r e p a c k i n g e n s u r e s t h a t t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s a r e more c o m p l e t e l y f i l l e d ,
thereby m a i n t a i n i n g h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y from screen through p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e t o
f o r m a t i o n f a c e . L e a k o f f and g r a v e l s u s p e n d i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d ,
however, a r e e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t f o r p r e p a c k i n g and f o r m a i n p a c k i n g . In c a s e o f
t o o s l o w f l u i d l o s s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r , o n l y i n s u f f i c i e n t amounts o f g r a v e l en-
t e r the p e r f o r a t i o n tunnel through the r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t duration o f prepacking
pumping, and t h u s o n l y a c o m m e n s u r a t e l y s m a l l g r a v e l volume i s c a r r i e d i n t o t h e
h o l e t o be d e p o s i t e d t h e r e . If t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l i s t h u s o n l y s p a r s e l y
packed, s u b s e q u e n t p r o d u c t i o n p r a c t i c e s c a n r e s u l t i n h o l e c o l l a p s e and permea-
b i l i t y r e d u c t i o n . The combined p e r m e a b i l i t y o f a c o l l a p s e d p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l
p a r t i a l l y , f i l l e d w i t h g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand c a n be 10 t o 100 t i m e s l e s s
t h a n t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f a n n u l a r g r a v e l , and t o overcome t h i s i n c r e a s e d r e s i s -
t a n c e w o u l d r e q u i r e a drawdown 10 t o 100 f o l d g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t needed f o r a
p r o p e r l y gravel-packed w e l l .

S u f f i c i e n t f l u i d l e a k o f f gives r i s e t o complete plugging o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n

t u n n e l s w i t h g r a v e l t h e r e b y g u a r a n t e i n g optimum s t a b i l i t y and maximum p e r m e a b i -
l i t y . Good r e s u l t s c a n be a c h i e v e d by d i s p l a c i n g a l t e r n a t i n g s t a g e s o f an a c i d
t r e a t m e n t and g r a v e l s l u r r y , because r u n n i n g a c i d ahead o f t h e g r a v e l p r e p a c k
s t i m u l a t e s t h e f o r m a t i o n and i n c r e a s e s f l u i d l e a k o f f w h i c h a i d s i n p a c k i n g p e r -
f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s w i t h h i g h l y p e r m e a b l e g r a v e l . The i m p r o v e d p e r m e a b i l i t y r e d u -
 775

ces p r e s s u r e drops across t h e pack which improves c o m p l e t i o n l i f e and lessens

t h e danger o f screen f a i l u r e s . Prepacking w i t h t h e g r a v e l - p a c k screen i n p l a c e
m i n i m i z e s s u r g i n g o f prepack g r a v e l o u t o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and a l s o saves one
h a l f o f r i g t i m e needed f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t . D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made concern-
i n g mechanical f o r m a t i o n s t a b i l i t y whether sand p r o d u c t i o n has a l r e a d y taken
p l a c e f r o m t h e r e s e r v o i r i n t o t h e w e l l o r n o t , and i n terms o f p e r f o r a t i o n
c l e a n i n g between g r a v e l p r e p a c k i n g subsequent t o p e r f o r a t i o n washing o r s u r -
ging.

5.6.7.2. No sand production prior to gravel prepacking

I n case o f no p r i o r sand p r o d u c t i o n , p l a n a r p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g occurs i n t h e
u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n sand when c r i t i c a l i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e l e v e l i s excee-
ded, w i t h g r a v e l l a y e r t h i c k n e s s b e i n g p r o p o r t i o n a l t o amount o f g r a v e l pumped
(PENBERTHY 1 9 8 5 ) . O r i e n t a t i o n o f p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g i s normal t o t h e l e a s t p r i n c i -
p a l s t r e s s as i s t y p i c a l f o r h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s , w i t h g r a v e l p r e -
p a c k i n g o f r e s e r v o i r s t h a t so f a r have n o t produced sand l e a d i n g t o a combina-
t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and sand c o n t r o l ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 5 . ) . I n t e r m i x i n g
o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand does n o t t a k e p l a c e e x c e p t o f t h e immediate p e r f o -
r a t i o n v i c i n i t y , and t h e i n t e r f a c e between g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n w a l l i s sharp.

The b e h a v i o u r o f p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g a p p l i e s f o r b o t h u n c o n s o l i d a t e d and conso-

l i d a t e d r e s e r v o i r s , because f r a c t u r i n g o n l y r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e minimum p a r t i n g
p r e s s u r e i s exceeded, whereas on t h e o t h e r hand i f p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g does n o t oc-
c u r , g r a v e l b u i l d s up a g a i n s t t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s u n t i l a screenout takes p l a c e .
The p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g develops i n s t e a d o f an expected s p h e r i c a l gravel-mass geo-
m e t r y o u t s i d e t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.8.7.), because t h e f o r m a t i o n sand
i s n o t e q u a l l y f r e e t o move i n any d i r e c t i o n , b u t t h e r e i s always a l e a s t p r i n -
c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n p r o m i n e n t l y developed even when t h e r e has been no p r i o r
sand p r o d u c t i o n .

5.6.7.3. Sand production prior to gravel prepacking

I f t h e f o r m a t i o n has a l r e a d y produced sand p r i o r t o g r a v e l p r e p a c k i n g and a
s t a b l e c a v i t y has o r i g i n a t e d o u t s i d e o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n , g r a v e l placement l e a d s
t o i n f i l l i n g o f t h e v o i d s (PENBERTHY 1985). I f s t a b l e c a v i t i e s do n o t f o r m as a
r e s u l t o f sand p r o d u c t i o n , g r a v e l prepack placement p r e c i p i t a t e s p r e s s u r e p a r t -
i n g i n t h e f o r m a t i o n sand ( c f . s e c t i o n s 5.6.4.2.2.1. and 5.6.6.3.), w i t h the
o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e p l a n e s depending on t h e s t r e s s s t a t e o f t h e r e s e r -
v o i r a t any p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n v i c i n i t y . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e
case o f no p r i o r sand p r o d u c t i o n , p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g i n pay zones t h a t have a l r e a -
dy produced sand does n o t always t a k e p l a c e i n a s i n g l e plane, and t h e r e i s
a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand i n t h e immediate p e r -
f o r a t i o n v i c i n i t y where consequently l a c k i n g prepacked g r a v e l c o n t i n u i t y oc-
c u r s . While i n some cases m u l t i p l e p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g s connected a t t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s appear, i n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s p l a n a r c r a c k s o r i g i n a t e which a r e d i s t i n c t l y
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o each o t h e r . T h i s r e f l e c t s t h a t under low i n i t i a l s t r e s s - s t a t e
conditions, t h e s t r e s s changes as prepack g r a v e l i s f o r c e d t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a -
tions.

When no p e r f o r a t i o n c l e a n i n g has been conducted, p r e p a c k i n g o f t h e p e r f o r a -

t i o n t u n n e l s i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e optimum procedure p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g
t o h i g h pump r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s . On t h e o t h e r hand, g r a v e l p a c k i n g a w e l l t h a t
was e a r l i e r completed o n l y by p e r f o r a t i n g i s i n d i s p e n s i b l y l i n k e d w i t h moving
t h e prepack g r a v e l through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s f r o m which sand p r o d u c t i o n has a l -
ready occurred, w i t h t h e r e f o r e prepack geometry depending on s i z e and shape o f
any v o i d around t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s as w e l l as s t r e s s s t a t e o f f o r m a t i o n sand.
 776

5.6.8. Other aspects

P e r f o r a t i o n c o l l a p s e i n v e r y f r i a b l e s h a l l o w sandstones (ANTHEUNIS, V R I E Z E N ,
SCHIPPER & VLIS 1976) and i n weakly-cemented r e s e r v o i r s i n g r e a t e r d e p t h where
c l o s u r e s t r e s s i s h i g h e r has t o be avoided i n c r i t i c a l pay zones by c a r r y i n g
o u t o f t h e g r a v e l - p a c k o p e r a t i o n s s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e p e r f o r a t i o n j o b and by ade-
q u a t e l y p r o p p i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s t o keep them open.

Aspects o f p a r t i c l e t r a n s p o r t t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by HAY-
NES & GRAY ( 1 9 7 2 ) , TORREST & SAVAGE ( 1 9 7 5 ) , SKAGGS (1984) and CRAMER (1987),
and some p o i n t s o f p r o p p a n t t r a n s p o r t a r e t r e a t e d by CLARK & QUADIR (1981); S I E -
VERT, WAHL, CLARK & H A R K I N (1981); AHMED (1984) and MORALES & ABOU-SAYED
( 1 9 8 5 ) . TORREST (1982 a) e v a l u a t e s d e p o s i t b u i l d u p d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g . DA-
V I E S , HAGELAARS & ROBERTS (1984) comment on some aspects o f n e a r - w e l l b o r e p l a -
cement o f sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s . GRUESBECK & COLLINS (1982) d i s c u s s en-
t r a i n m e n t and d e p o s i t i o n o f f i n e p a r t i c l e s i n porous media, and ACHARYA (1986)
i n v e s t i g a t e s p a r t i c l e t r a n s p o r t i n v i s c o u s and v i s c o e l a s t i c f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s .
P o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r i m p r o v i n g g r a v e l pack placement a r e o u t l i n e d by MALY, R O B I N -
SON & LAURIE (1974), and new d e s i g n concepts f o r o p t i m i z a t i o n o f sand c o n t r o l
a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by ELLIS, SNYDER & SUMAN (1981). SHAH & LEE (1986) c o n t r i b u t e
t o f r i c t i o n p r e s s u r e s o f p r o p p a n t - l a d e n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s . SUMAN
(1972) s t r e s s e s t h e importance o f c l e a n i n g p e r f o r a t i o n s f r o m d e b r i s and removal
o f mud p o c k e t s a t t h e c e m e n t - f o r m a t i o n i n t e r f a c e f o r f a c i l i t a t i n g p r o p e r and
u n i f o r m sand c o n t r o l placement.

H A R R I S (1966), SUMAN (1972), McLEOO (1978), BELL (1982) and BONOMO & YOUNG
(1983) summarize t h e e f f e c t s o f v a r i o u s p e r f o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s on w e l l p e r f o r -
mance and p r o d u c t i v i t y r a t i o s . KLOTZ, KRUEGER & PYE (1974) emphasize t h e neces-
s i t y o f deep c l e a n p e r f o r a t i o n s f o r p r o d u c t i v i t y m a x i m i z a t i o n i n damaged forma-
t i o n s . DANESHY (1973 b) r e v i e w s p a r t i c l e t r a n s p o r t through p e r f o r a t i o n s i n con-
n e c t i o n w i t h h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g . V a r i o u s aspects o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f p e r f o r a -
t i o n t u n n e l s and screen-casing annulus a r e summarized by HAYNES & GRAY (1972),
GRUESBECK & COLLINS (1978); GRUESBECK, SALATHIEL & ECHOLS (1979); SHRYOCK, OUN-
LAP & MILLHONE (1979); SHRYOCK (1980), HODGE (1982), SKAGGS (1984); PEDEN, RUS-
SELL & OYENEYIN (1985) and PENBERTHY ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

5.7. Steam-drive enhanced oil recovery

Many f o r m a t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g heavy o i l o r t a r a r e composed o f u n c o n s o l i d a t e d
sands which a r e u n s t a b l e once t h e h i g h - v i s c o s i t y hydrocarbons a r e m o b i l i z e d b y
steam, w i t h r e s e r v o i r sand then e n t e r i n g t h e b o r e h o l e (RENSVOLD 1982) and t h e r e -
f o r e g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f such pay zones b e i n g o f t e n i n d i s p e n s i b l e . Two f a i l u r e me-
chanisms a f f e c t t h e use o f n a t u r a l sand as g r a v e l pack m a t e r i a l under c e r t a i n
w e l l and r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s , c o m p r i s i n g chemical d i s s o l u t i o n o f s i l i c a by h o t
high-pH f l u i d s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s t e a m - f l o o d areas, b u t a l s o i n - s i t u combustion
p r o j e c t s ) and mechanical g r a i n c r u s h i n g which produces p a c k - p l u g g i n g f i n e s . Two
m a t e r i a l s a r e commonly regarded as t h e b e s t a l t e r n a t i v e s o f sand i n thermal g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g . W h i l e s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e has a l r e a d y been f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d s i n c e
many years, n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand has o n l y r e c e n t l y been i n t r o d u c e d . The d i s c u s -
s i o n as f o l l o w s i n c l u d e s a l s o a p p l i c a t i o n p o t e n t i a l o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n steam-
d r i v e p r o j e c t s i n Europe, g r a v e l d e n s i t y , and a l c a l i n i t y r e d u c t i o n o f t h e aque-
ous i n j e c t e d phase.

5.7.1. Sintered bauxite

S i n t e r e d b a u x i t e seems t o be t h e adequate m a t e r i a l f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g as
w e l l as f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n steam-soak ( o r h u f f and p u f f ) and s t e a m - d r i -
ve ( o r s t e a m - f l o o d ) areas as w e l l as i n - s i t u combustion ( o r f i r e f l o o d ) enhanced
r e c o v e r y p r o j e c t s i n h e a v y - o i l f i e l d s . N a t u r a l q u a r t z sand i s c h e m i c a l l y un-
s t a b l e i n t h e h o t a l c a l i n e environment and d i s s o l v e s more o r l e s s r a p i d l y , and
 777

a l s o r e s i n - c o a t e d sand i s s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d a t h i g h f l u i d a l c a l i n i t y , whereas
s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e has been shown t o be a p e r f e c t l y r e s i s t i n g m a t e r i a l i n many
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s (REED 1980; McCORRISTON, DEMBY & PEASE 1981; WATKINS & WATANABE
1984, UNDERDOWN & DAS 1985; WATKINS, KALFAYAN, WATANABE & HOLM 1985; STANDARD
OIL PROPPANTS 1986; GROSSMANN, HUFLING & MARX 1988; aspects o f s t e a m - f l o o d s i -
l i c a d i s s o l u t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by BIRD & BOON 1987 and THOMAS, YOST & C A -
THEY 1987). Fused z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants a r e a l s o s u b j e c t e d t o s i l i c a exso-
l u t i o n and t h u s d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e f a b r i c .

BECQ, ROQUE & SARDA (1984), however, come t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t none o f t h e

p r e s e n t l y c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e proppants ( i n c l u d i n g s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e ) r e s i s t s
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y t o v e r y a l c a l i n e pH and h i g h temperature such as can be expected
t o o c c u r i n w e l l s s u b j e c t e d t o steam f l o o d i n g , and thus f o r t h i s s p e c i a l a p p l i -
c a t i o n t h e search f o r t h e i d e a l m a t e r i a l has t o t a k e a l o o k a t new s t r u c t u r e s
o f alumina o r z i r c o n i u m o x i d e . High-temperature p r o p p a n t t e s t i n g f o r t h e p a r t i -
c u l a r purposes o f geothermal f r a c t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t by SINCLAIR
(1980) and RENSVOLD ( 1 9 8 2 ) .

5.7.2. Nickel -coated sand

SACUTA, NGUYEN & KISSEL (1986) i n t r o d u c e n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand as s u i t a b l e g r a -
v e l - p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l f o r thermal w e l l s as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e .
I n c o n t r a s t t o UNDERDOWN & DAS (1985) who r e p o r t w e i g h t l o s s e s by d i s s o l u t i o n
o f a b t . 46 % f o r Ottawa Sand and a b t . 4 % f o r s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e a t 300 OC and
pH = 11 ( t h e range o f these d i s s o l u t i o n r a t e s i s i n d e p e n d e n t l y c o n f i r m e d by t h e
t e s t r e s u l t s o f BECQ, ROQUE & SARDA 1984 who, however, i n c o n t r a s t t o UNDERDOWN
& DAS 1985, c o n s i d e r t h e documented d e s t r u c t i o n share o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e n o t
t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y low f o r u n d i s t u r b e d a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e heavy proppants as
steam-drive g r a v e l pack m a t e r i a l ) , SACUTA, NGUYEN & KISSEL (1986) document un-
d e r t h e same e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s w e i g h t l o s s e s by d i s s o l u t i o n o f a b t . 73 %
f o r Ottawa Sand and a b t . 39 % f o r s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e . SACUTA, NGUYEN & KISSEL
(1986) conclude f r o m these e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s t h a t s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e i s n o t a
g e n e r a l l y s u i t a b l e g r a v e l pack m a t e r i a l f o r e l e v a t e d a l c a l i n i t i e s , and t h e same
a p p l i e s f o r z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants w h i c h e x h i b i t a w e i g h t l o s s by d i s s o l u -
t i o n o f a b t . 29 %.Reasonable s t a b i l i t y a t 300 OC and pH = 11 i s o n l y e x h i b i t e d
by cement c l i n k e r and n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand w i t h w e i g h t l o s s e s b y d i s s o l u t i o n o f
a b t . 6 % and l e s s than 1 %, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Very low d i s s o l u t i o n r a t e s of l e s s
t h a n 1 X a r e a l s o r e p o r t e d by BECQ, ROQUE & SARDA (1984) f o r some e x p e r i m e n t a l
a l u m i n a - z i r c o n i u m o x i d e s and z i r c o n i u m o x i d e s . S i l i c o n c a r b i d e has a l s o been
c o n s i d e r e d (CHEN, ZHOU & LIU 1986).

From t h e c o m m e r c i a l l y a c c e s s i b l e m a t e r i a l s , n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand i s t h u s t h e
g r a v e l t y p e which i s b e s t r e s i s t a n t t o d e g r a d a t i o n under severe thermal and hy-
d r o l y t i c s t r e s s e s and i s by f a r s u p e r i o r t o a l l t h e o t h e r g r a v e l pack m a t e r i a l s
t e s t e d ( i n c l u d i n g s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e ) , and i s a t l e a s t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e s u l t s
o f SACUTA, NGUYEN & KISSEL (1986) recommended f o r h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g
and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n s t e a m - d r i v e areas and r e l a t e d h e a t - a p p l i c a t i o n enhanced
o i l r e c o v e r y p r o j e c t s such as f o r example i n - s i t u combustion. Aspects o f c o a t -
i n g sand g r a i n s w i t h n i c k e l p e l l i c l e s by an e l e c t r o l e s s n i c k e l p l a t i n g process
o r o t h e r h y d r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l methods a r e discussed by STRICKLAND, RICHARDSON,
HAMBY & TORREST (1975) and TORREST (1975), and a more c o m p l i c a t e d t e c h n i q u e i s
p r e s e n t e d by HANSBERGER ( 1 9 7 8 ) .

I n terms o f h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e performance, n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand as w e l l as s i n -

t e r e d b a u x i t e s h o u l d a l s o be s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l s f o r p r o p p i n g o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r e s i n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s where temperatures up t o 500 OC can be reached
( c f . s e c t i o n 4.7.4.1.). I n c o n t r a s t t o steam-drive enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y where
g r a v e l pack o r f r a c t u r e i n f i l l i n g can be s e t p r i o r t o steam i n j e c t i o n i n a
s t i l l c o l d pay zone i n t e r v a l i n t h e y e t u n t r e a t e d b o r e h o l e and l a t e r h e a t i n g o f
t h e w e l l by steam f l o o d i n g o n l y a f f e c t s t h e g r a v e l b e i n g a l r e a d y i n p l a c e , t h e
main problem o f geothermal r e s e r v o i r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s
 778
the s e l e c t i o n o f s u i t a b l e c a r r i e r f l u i d s which a r e s t a b l e i n the h o t environ-
ment, because f o r m a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e i s a t an e l e v a t e d l e v e l a l l t h e t i m e and
c a n n o t be r e a s o n a b l y l o w e r e d f o r t h e performance o f t h e o p e r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n
4 . 7 . 4 . ) . Sand c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t i n g e o t h e r m a l r e s e r v o i r s i s m e n t i o n e d b y BA-
RON & UNGEMACH ( 1 9 8 1 ) .

5.7.3. Application potential in Europe

S t e a m - d r i v e enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y has i n Europe so f a r m a i n l y been a p p l i e d
i n C r e t a c e o u s s a n d s t o n e s i n Germany FRG and N e t h e r l a n d s s i n c e 1975 (HARMSEN
1979, PROYER 1980, L I L L I E 1981, L I L L I E & SPRINGER 1981; GRAUTE, KURTH, SCHLEMM
& THIES 1982; ROSSKAMP 1982; PROYER, CHAZITEODOROU, MUSS & ROSSKAMP 1983; L I L -
L I E & WIETHOFF 1985, R E I N I C K E & WIETHOFF 1987) i n l a r g e r e x t e n t , has been r u n
a l s o i n F r a n c e (SAHUQUET & FERRIER 1980; COUDERC, MONFRIN, QUETTIER & SAHUQUET
1987; COUDERC, VERPEAUX, MONFRIN & QUETTIER 1987; COURBOT 1987, SAHUQUET & S I T -
EON 1 9 8 7 ) , H u n g a r y (FARKAS & VOLL 1 9 8 7 ) , T u r k e y (GUMRAH & OKANDAN 1987) and So-
v i e t U n i o n , and has been p e r f o r m e d i n s m a l l e r p i l o t r u n s i n Y u g o s l a v i a and Aus-
t r i a . As a consequence o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n steam c o n d i t i o n i n g and e f f e c t i v e r e s e r -
v o i r t e m p e r a t u r e s between USA and Europe, and because o f a p p l i c a t i o n s r e s u l t -
i n g i n a more o r l e s s n e u t r a l r a t h e r t h a n an a l c a l i n e m i l i e u , t h e u s e o f s i n t e -
r e d b a u x i t e a n d / o r n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand as a l t e r n a t i v e g r a v e l pack m a t e r i a l s i n
s t e a m - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s has i n Europe s o f a r n o t been n e c e s s a r y i n c o n t r a s t t o
t h e w i d e s p r e a d u s e o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e i n t h e USA where numerous e a r l i e r sand
g r a v e l packs l a t e r f a i l e d by q u a r t z d i s s o l u t i o n , b u t f r e q u e n t l y e x c e l l e n t r e -
s u l t s were o b t a i n e d w i t h s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e g r a v e l p a c k i n g (UNDERDOWN & DAS
1985).

F u t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e may c o m p r i s e f o r example t h e e x p l o i -
t a t i o n o f h e a v y o i l sand d e p o s i t s b y s t e a m - d r i v e w e l l s e q u i p p e d w i t h g r a v e l
p a c k s and p r o b a b l y a l s o enhanced b y h y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t m i n i f r a c t u r i n g i n t h e
O r i n o c o b e l t i n Venezuela and i n t h e Athabasca- and P e a c e - R i v e r a r e a n o r t h o f
Edmonton i n A l b e r t a / C a n a d a (ERDOL UND KOHLE - ERDGAS 1983, ERDOEL-ERDGAS AK-
TUELL 1985 a ) as w e l l as i n - s i t u c o m b u s t i o n methods.

S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , m u l t i p l e t h i n - s a n d r e s e r -
v o i r s a r e e x p e c t e d t o become more and more w i d e s p r e a d t a r g e t s o f enhanced o i l
r e c o v e r y w h i c h i n many c a s e s a l s o i n c l u d e s t h e need o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g ( s t e a m -
f l o o d e v a l u a t i o n s o f such t y p e s o f p a y f o r m a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d o u t b y POWERS,
DODSON, GHASSEMI & MOORE 1 9 8 5 ) . F i e l d c a s e s t u d i e s o f s t e a m - f l o o d p r o j e c t s a r e
a l s o e v a l u a t e d b y CHU ( 1 9 8 5 ) . E f f e c t s o f a c i d s o n g r a v e l packs a r e d i s c u s s e d b y
CHEUNG ( 1 9 8 5 ) . Some p r o b l e m s o f sand p r o d u c t i o n i n heavy o i l r e s e r v o i r s a r e r e -
p o r t e d b y SMITH ( 1 9 8 6 ) . TOMA, LIVESEY & HEIDRICK ( 1 9 8 6 ) o u t l i n e g r a v e l p a c k i n g
i n h o r i z o n t a l s t e a m - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s . A s p e c t s o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f sand c o n t r o l
t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e r m a l r e c o v e r y systems a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y RENSVOLD ( 1 9 8 2 ) .
FRIEDMAN, SURLES & K I E K E ( 1 9 8 6 ) p r e s e n t a method o f h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e sand conso-
l i d a t i o n which i s a l s o r e s i s t i n g t o the h o t steam-drive environment.

5.7.4. Gravel density

The g r a v e l p a c k g e n e r a l l y becomes more s t a b l e when a h e a v i e r m a t e r i a l i s ap-
p l i e d ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e w e l l s ) . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e f r e q u e n t -
l y more v i s c o u s g r a v e l pack f l u i d s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s a r e
much b e t t e r t r a n s p o r t i n g and p u t t i n g i n p l a c e l i g h t e r sand o r p r o p p a n t s ( c f .
s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 1 . ) . I n a d d i t i o n , c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s ( i n terms o f
w e i g h t ) o f h i g h - d e n s i t y a l u m i n a o x i d e p r o p p a n t s a r e r e q u i r e d t o c o v e r t h e same
g r a v e l pack i n t e r v a l b y t h e same volume o f m a t e r i a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o l o w - d e n s i t y
c e r a m i c p r o p p a n t s o r n a t u r a l sand, w i t h s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e u t i l i z a t i o n f o r g r a v e l
p a c k i n g t h u s b e i n g more e x p e n s i v e b o t h due t o t h e h i g h e r u n i t p r i c e o f t h e mate-
r i a l and t h e need o f l a r g e r t o n n a g e s due t o h i g h e r w e i g h t p e r u n i t volume ( t h e
same a p p l i e s f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g ; c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 4 . 7 . and 1 . 4 . 1 2 . 5 . ) .
 779

A l l these drawbacks, however, a r e more than compensated by t h e d e s t r u c t i o n

o f every presently commercially a v a i l a b l e propping material except o f s i n t e r e d
b a u x i t e and n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand i n t h e a g g r e s s i v e a l c a l i n e environment o f steam-
d r i v e enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y , w i t h t h u s l e a v i n g almost no a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e hea-
vy b a u x i t e proppants i n t h i s s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g and hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 4 . ) . The lower s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y c o u l d t u r n o u t
t o be t h e g r e a t e s t advantage o f n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand and c o u l d f a c i l i t a t e i t s p r o -
g r e s s i v e expansion and d i s t r i b u t i o n by s u c c e s s i v e l y r e p l a c i n g s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y as t h e s t u d y o f SACUTA, NGUYEN & KISSEL (1986) has shown t h a t t h e
s t a b i l i t y o f n i c k e l - c o a t e d sand under steam-drive c o n d i t i o n s can even be supe-
r i o r t o t h a t o f sintered bauxite.

Gravel d i s s o l u t i o n i n t h e presence o f high-pH h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e steam a f f e c t s

b o t h u n c o n s o l i d a t e d and r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l packs (RENSVOLD 1982). As t h e r e s i n
f i l m s do n o t c o m p l e t e l y c o v e r e v e r y g r a v e l g r a i n i n t h e pack, t h e exposed s u r -
f a c e s a r e t h e r e f o r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o d i s s o l u t i o n by steam t h u s l e a d i n g t o f a i l u r e
o f t h e r e s i n bond.

5.7.5. Alcalinity reduction of the aqueous injected phase

R e t a r d a t i o n o r even p r e v e n t i o n o f q u a r t z sand d i s s o l u t i o n i n g r a v e l pack ma-
t e r i a l and r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n sand can a l s o be achieved by t h e use o f ammonium
c h l o r i d e and n i t r a t e as a d d i t i v e s which n e u t r a l i z e t h e a l c a l i n i t y y i e l d e d by b i -
carbonate decomposition and t h u s reduce t h e pH o f g e n e r a t o r e f f l u e n t s i n steam-
d r i v e o p e r a t i o n s (WATKINS & WATANABE 1984; WATKINS, KALFAYAN, WATANABE & HOLM
1985). Most g e n e r a t o r s produce a steam q u a l i t y o f a b t . 80 %, w i t h t h e r e m a i n i n g
aqueous a g g r e s s i v e phase b e i n g i n j e c t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e steam i n t o t h e pay ho-
r i z o n (UNDERDOWN & DAS 1985). F o r m a t i o n sand vs. g r a v e l pack sand d i s s o l u t i o n ,
c y c l i c steam i n j e c t i o n and downhole pH value, mechanical g r a v e l pack s t a b i l i t y
and o t h e r aspects a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.7.5.1. Formation sand vs. gravel pack sand dissolution

N e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f the hot a l c a l i n e water i s the only p o s s i b i l i t y t o prevent
t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n sand f r o m chemical d i s s o l u t i o n i n thermal s t e a m - f l o o d
p r o j e c t s , because i n c o n t r a s t t o g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l , t h e pay zone sand can-
n o t be exchanged a g a i n s t s u b s t i t u t i n g r e s i s t i n g p r o d u c t s , b u t has t o remain i n
p l a c e i n i t s o r i g i n a l c o m p o s i t i o n and t h u s i s c o n t i n u o u s l y exposed t o t h e hos-
t i l e h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e environment. As t h e r e f o r e t h e r e s e r v o i r m a t e r i a l cannot
be a d j u s t e d t o t h e f l u i d s i n t h e w e l l b o r e as can be done w i t h g r a v e l pack mate-
r i a l and a l s o h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g proppants, t h e r e v e r s e a d j u s t m e n t has t o be
made by s e l e c t i o n o f a p r o p e r c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n j e c t e d f l u i d s i n o r d e r n o t
t o damage t h e pay zone t o o s e r i o u s l y (FLANIGAN 1979 a l s o p o i n t s o u t t h a t n e i -
t h e r t h e g e o l o g i c a l environment o f t h e r e s e r v o i r complex can be changed, n o r i s
i t p o s s i b l e i n o f f s h o r e o p e r a t i o n s t o renounce f r o m h i g h - a n g l e d i r e c t i o n a l d r i l -
l i n g ) . As s i l i c a d i s s o l u t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h b i c a r b o n a t e c o n t e n t i n t h e feedwa-
t e r , t h e amount o f ammonium s a l t s r e q u i r e d f o r compensation o f a l c a l i n i t y and
t h u s r e d u c t i o n o r stoppage o f s i l i c a d i s s o l u t i o n downhole i s r o u g h l y p r o p o r t i o -
nal t o the bicarbonate content.

UNDEROOWN & DAS (1985) document t h a t pH i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r a f f e c t -

i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y o f a l l g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l s . As q u a r t z d i s s o l u t i o n c o n t i -
nues even when pumping n e u t r a l w a t e r a f t e r a l c a l i n e b r i n e s and because a p e r s i s -
t e n t l y e l e v a t e d pH d u r i n g steam-drive o p e r a t i o n s l e a d s a l s o t o some d i s s o l u t i o n
and g r a i n s u r f a c e e r o s i o n o f s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e , recommendation i s made t h a t i n
o r d e r t o p r o l o n g t h e l i f e o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l i n h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e steam-
i n j e c t i o n w e l l s , pH s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d a t 9.0 o r l e s s by t r e a t i n g t h e w a t e r
b e f o r e i t e n t e r s t h e steam g e n e r a t o r i n o r d e r t o remove a l l t h e b i c a r b o n a t e
i o n s o r by adding an a c i d t o t h e feedwater f o r l o w e r i n g o f t h e pH (UNDEROOWN &
 780

DAS 1 9 8 5 ) . T h i s n e u t r a l i z a t i o n a l s o h e l p s r e s t r i c t i n g r e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f s i l i c a
a n d / o r a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e m i n e r a l s i n g r a v e l pack, s c r e e n a n d / o r r e s e r v o i r f o r m a -
t i o n as a consequence o f s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n o f t h e b r i n e s f o l l o w i n g e x t e n s i v e s i l i -
c a d i s s o l u t i o n (TOMA, LIVESEY & HEIDRICK 1 9 8 6 ) . WALDORF ( 1 9 6 5 ) ; McCORRISTON,
DEMBY & PEASE ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; AMAEFULE, PADILLA, McCAFFERY & TEAL ( 1 9 8 4 ) and SOMERTON,
CHEN, SCHUH & YUEN ( 1 9 8 4 ) a l s o comment on f o r m a t i o n damage b y steam c o n d e n s a t e
and c h e m i c a l t r e a t m e n t s f o r i n j e c t i v i t y improvement. An o v e r v i e w o f steam i n j e c -
t i o n t h e o r i e s i n an u n i f i e d a p p r o a c h i s g i v e n b y A L I ( 1 9 8 2 ) , and FAROUQ & MEL-
DAU ( 1 9 7 9 ) p r e s e n t a summary o f s t e a m f l o o d t e c h n o l o g y .

5.7.5.2. Cyclic steam injection and downhole PH value

CHEN, ZHOU & L I U ( 1 9 8 6 ) p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e d e c i s i v e q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r t h e
i n j e c t e d phase a r r i v e s w i t h h i g h pH a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t h e r m a l w e l l . The
h i g h e r p r e s s u r e downhole w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s u r f a c e f a c i l i t i e s i s t h o u g h t t o
l e a d t o d e c r e a s i n g pH as a consequence o f r e v e r s a l o f b i c a r b o n a t e decomposi-
t i o n , as s u g g e s t e d b y much l e s s q u a r t z g r a v e l d i s s o l u t i o n t h a n p r e d i c t e d a c c o r d -
i n g t o the a g g r e s s i v i t y o f the f l u i d under surface c o n d i t i o n s i n v a r i o u s f i e l d
c a s e s t u d i e s i n C h i n a . T h e r e f o r e CHEN, ZHOU & L I U ( 1 9 8 6 ) c o n c l u d e t h a t g i v e n
s u f f i c i e n t r e s e r v o i r d e p t h and t h u s b o t t o m h o l e p r e s s u r e , high-quality quartz
sand m i g h t s t i l l b e an e f f e c t i v e g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l i n s t e a m - i n j e c t i o n
w e l l s , w h i c h w o u l d be a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t due t o t h e much l o w e r p r i c e o f
q u a r t z sand w i t h r e s p e c t t o s y n t h e t i c g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l s . The p u r e r t h e
sand i n t e r m s o f q u a r t z c o n t e n t and t h e b e t t e r t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e p r e f e r e n -
t i a l l y mono- t o o l i g o c r y s t a l l i n e q u a r t z g r a i n s , t h e l o n g e r i t w i l l r e s i s t t o
t h e h a r s h steam e n v i r o n m e n t (UNDERDOWN & DAS 1 9 8 5 ) .

The g r a v e l p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l a l s o has t o w i t h s t a n d c y c l i c a l s t e a m - d r i v e o p e r a -
t i o n i n w h i c h p e r i o d s o f h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e and l o w p r o d u c t i o n r a t e a l t e r n a t e
w i t h p e r i o d s o f l o w i n j e c t i o n r a t e and h i g h p r o d u c t i o n r a t e ( c f . s e c t i o n
4.9.4.1.). The r e s u l t i n g c y c l e s o f r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p and blowdown i n
t h e f o r m a t i o n a r e i m p r o v i n g t h e r m a l r e c o v e r y (DOSCHER, LABELLE, SAWATSKY &
ZWICKY 1963; HEISLER 1986), b u t a r e a l s o i n c r e a s i n g t h e t h e r m a l s t r e s s a c t i n g
on t h e g r a v e l pack m a t e r i a l b y a l t e r n a t i n g e x p a n s i o n and c o n t r a c t i o n b y h e a t i n g
and c o o l i n g w i t h c h a n g i n g o p e r a t i o n mode.

5.7.5.3. Mechanical gravel pack stability

Maximum e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e g r a v e l p a c k depends on i t s m e c h a n i c a l s t a b i l i t y
(RENSVOLD 1 9 8 2 ) . Once p l a c e d , t h e g r a v e l pack s h o u l d n o t s h i f t o r move, because
t h i s w o u l d a l l o w i n t e r m i x i n g o f f o r m a t i o n sand w i t h p a c k i n g g r a v e l d u r i n g p r o -
duction, thus leading t o p e r m e a b i l i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n . Gravel d i s s o l u t i o n by
steam i s t h e m o s t s e r i o u s p r o c e s s g i v i n g r i s e t o p a c k i n s t a b i l i t y and movement
because o f p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l removal o f m a t e r i a l . I n a d d i t i o n t o d i s s o l u -
t i o n , o t h e r f a c t o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r pack movement a f t e r p l a c e m e n t a r e e x p a n s i o n
and c o n t r a c t i o n o f c a s i n g and s c r e e n assembly d u r i n g c y c l i c steam i n j e c t i o n ,
f l o w r e v e r s a l d u r i n g s t e a m i n g and p r o d u c t i o n , and f o r m a t i o n c o m p a c t i o n .

5.7.5.4. Other aspects

SHRYOCK, AHMED, MELOY & KENT ( 1 9 8 8 ) o u t l i n e r e d u c e d d e n s i t y s l u r r y p a c k i n g ,
i n t e r m e d i a t e v i s c o s i t y s l u r r y p a c k i n g , and foam g r a v e l p a c k i n g f o r sand c o n t r o l
i n s t e a m - d r i v e a r e a s i n s h a l l o w u n d e r p r e s s u r e d sands. Foam has t u r n e d o u t t o be
a v i a b l e f l u i d f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g where l o s t c i r c u l a t i o n p r e v e n t s t h e u s e o f
h i g h e r d e n s i t y s a n d s . M i n i m i z a t i o n o f p a c k i n g g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand d i s s o l u -
t i o n c a n a l s o be a c h i e v e d b y steam s e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s i n o r d e r t o remove t h e
h i g h - p H b o i l e r w a t e r , w i t h t h e i o n i c s t r e n g t h o f t h e condensed steam t h e n b e i n g
i n c r e a s e d b y c o n t i n u o u s a d d i t i o n o f KC1 (RENSVOLD 1 9 8 2 ) .
 781

Comments on h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n a r e a l s o o f f e r e d by FRIED-

MAN, SURLES & K I E K E ( 1 9 8 6 ) . Sand c o n t r o l f i l t e r s f o r thermal r e c o v e r y w e l l s a r e
p r e s e n t e d by TOMA, LIVESEY & H E I D R I C K (1986). The s t a b i l i t y o f r e s i n - c o a t e d
proppants i n h o t b r i n e s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d by RENSVOLD ( 1 9 8 3 ) .

5.8. Special gravel pack applications

F o l l o w i n g t h e d i s c u s s i o n of common p r a c t i c e s o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n ,
t h i s s e c t i o n assembles v a r i o u s s p e c i a l techniques o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g which a r e
necessary t o c a r r y o u t a c c o r d i n g t o w e l l c o n d i t i o n s o r which may r e p r e s e n t an
e c o n o m i c a l l y more f e a s i b l e and/or t e c h n i c a l l y l e s s c o m p l i c a t e d a l t e r n a t i v e o f
s t a n d a r d g r a v e l p a c k i n g . The account i n c l u d e s aspects o f c o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n -
stallation, r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l placement, g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f d e v i a t e d w e l l s ,
g r a v e l p a c k i n g w i t h l i n e r v i b r a t i o n , c o n c e n t r a t e d g r a v e l s l u r r y pumping, d e n s i -
t y s l u r r y and foam g r a v e l packing, v i s c o u s polymer g r a v e l p a c k i n g and d e p o s i t
b u i l d u p , p r e v e n t i o n o f p r o p p a n t flowback by f r a c t u r e t a i l - i n , and puddle pack-
ing.

5.8.1. Consolidated pack installation

C o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n i s an i n t e r m e d i a t e t e c h n i q u e between conven-
t i o n a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 5.2. - 5.7.) and chemical f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i -
d a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 5.9.1. - 5.9.4.; TAUSCH & CORLEY 1959; SPARLIN 1967, 1971;
HAMBY & RICHARDSON 1968; YOUNG, COOK & DONALDSON 1969; CDPELAND & McAULEY 1974;
MURPHEY, BILA & TOTTY 1974; KNAPP, PLANTY & VOILAND 1977; COPELAND & CONSTIEN
1978) and t o some e x t e n t i n c l u d e s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h t r a d i t i o n a l methods
(HALLIBURTON 1988). C o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n i n v o l v e s b l e n d i n g o f t h e
s l u r r y a t t h e s u r f a c e and pumping o f t h e m i x t u r e o f g r a v e l and g l u e i n g agent
through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s where t h e added p l a s t i c c u r e s and forms a s t a b l e g r a -
v e l pack which behaves l i k e an a r t i f i c i a l l y cemented g r a v e l m a n t l e between
screen and c a s i n g o r b o r e h o l e w a l l as w e l l as w i t h i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s .
I n j e c t i o n o f t h e s l u r r y i s stopped i n o r d e r t o screen o u t t h e g r a v e l on t h e f o r -
m a t i o n and t o pack t h e m a t e r i a l i n t h e w e l l b o r e i n c l u d i n g c o v e r i n g t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s and f i l l i n g them w i t h c o n s o l i d a t i n g g r a v e l .

S t a b i l i z e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r w e l l s where n o t -
ches b e h i n d t h e c a s i n g have a l r e a d y o r i g i n a t e d by sand p r o d u c t i o n o r where c a v i -
t i e s a c c e p t i n g g r a v e l nodes can be a r t i f i c i a l l y c r e a t e d by washing through p e r -
f o r a t i o n s (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982; c f . s e c t i o n 5.8.7.) o r where t h e c a s i n g sheath
i s d e f e c t i v e and c o n t a i n s h o l e s and channels. The b r i e f o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s con-
c e n t r a t e s on aspects of p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g g i n g , d i f f e r e n c e s between conso-
l i d a t e d and l o o s e g r a v e l packs, and a r t i f i c i a l s t a b l e b o r e h o l e w a l l .

5.8.1.1. Perforat ion tunnel plugging

The advantage o f c o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n i s t h a t g i v e n p r o p e r p l a c e -
ment i n cased holes, o n l y t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s have t o be k e p t f i l l e d w i t h
g r a v e l , whereas remnants o f t h e pack i n t h e w e l l b o r e can be washed o r d r i l l e d
o u t a f t e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l pack and t h u s do n o t l e a v e any r e s t r i c -
t i o n s o r o b s t r u c t i o n s t o f u r t h e r b o r e h o l e m a n i p u l a t i o n s , w i t h t h e absence o f
screen o r l i n e r e n a b l i n g b e t t e r i n v e s t m e n t i n p r o d u c t i o n equipment such as l a r -
g e r pump and w i d e r l i n e r (KNAPP, PLANTY & VOILAND 1977). T h i s i s i n c o n t r a s t t o
c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g which r e s u l t s i n o r i g i n o f a l o o s e g r a v e l m a n t l e
between b o r e h o l e w a l l o r c a s i n g and screen, and t h e annulus i s l o s t f o r produc-
t i o n m a n i p u l a t i o n purposes. Some comments on a p p l i c a t i o n spectrum and e x c l u s i v e
o u t s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s .
 782

5.8.1.1.1. Application spectrum

The absence o f a g r a v e l pack m a n t l e seaming t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l a l s o e l i m i n a -
t e s f u r t h e r f l o w v e l o c i t y r e d u c t i o n o f hydrocarbons t h a t e x i t t h e gravel-packed
p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s , t h e r e f o r e r e s u l t i n g i n h i g h e r w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y and e a s i e r
i n f l u x o f o i l i n t o t h e borehole ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.10.2.). Consolidated pack i n s t a l -
l a t i o n c a n p r o v i d e a sand c o n t r o l c o m p l e t i o n w i t h good p r o d u c t i v i t y w i t h o u t a
s l o t t e d l i n e r o r w i r e - w r a p p e d s c r e e n (CONSTIEN & MAYER 1978, SINCLAIR & GRAHAM
1978 b ) , and because o f i t s l o w c o s t due t o r e d u c e d g r a v e l and h a r d w a r e demand,
t h e s y s t e m c a n b e a l s o c o n s i d e r e d f o r l o n g i n t e r v a l sand s t a b i l i z a t i o n p u r p o s e s
o f b o t h s i n g l e - and m u l t i p l e - t y p e where b o t h c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g and
s t a n d a r d f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n m i g h t o n l y be m a r g i n a l l y f e a s i b l e . C o n s o l i d a -
t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n e n a b l e s e f f e c t i v e sand c o n t r o l i n m u l t i p l e p a y zone com-
plexes, w i t h t h e upper h o r i z o n s b e i n g a b l e t o produce sand-free w i t h o u t equip-
m e n t i n t h e c a s i n g t h a t w o u l d i n t e r f e r e w i t h o f f t a k e f r o m l o w e r l e v e l s (RENS-
VOLD 1 9 8 2 ) .

5.8.1.1.2. Exclusive outside gravel packing

C o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n t h e r e f o r e c o m p r i s e s i n i d e a l c a s e o n l y s e t -
t i n g o f an o u t s i d e g r a v e l pack beyond t h e c a s i n g w i t h i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s ,
w i t h a n i n s i d e g r a v e l pack n o t b e i n g n e c e s s a r y , because t h e s t a b i l i z e d g r a v e l
a g g r e g a t e s a r e n o t a b l e t o f l o w back i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e . As t h e t r e a t m e n t i s
o n l y s u c c e s s f u l i f e v e r y p e r f o r a t i o n t a k e s u p g r a v e l , c a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i -
s e d t h a t a l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e open and c l e a n . Pumping o f t h e s l u r r y has t o
be p e r f o r m e d b e l o w 80 % o f t h e f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e a l l t h e t i m e . P r e v e n t i o n o f
g r a v e l swabbing i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e w h i l e t r i p p i n g o u t when t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d mass
may n o t y e t be f u l l y s t a b i l i z e d c a n be a c h i e v e d by f i l l i n g t h e b o r e h o l e w i t h
g r a v e l w h i c h i n v o l v e s w a s h i n g sand a f t e r t h e h a r d e n i n g p e r i o d , p l a c i n g a v i s -
c o u s o v e r f l u s h h i g h in t h e t u b i n g and i m m e d i a t e l y b e g i n n i n g t h e t r i p o u t w i t h
t u b i n g and a n n u l u s open w h i c h does n o t r e q u i r e a t r i p t o wash o u t g r a v e l a f t e r
t h e h a r d e n i n g p e r i o d , and w a s h i n g i n an open-ended s c r e e n w i t h n o p a c k e r on t o p
so t h a t a l l p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e p r o t e c t e d and e v e r y p a r t i c l e i s l o c k e d i n t o p l a c e
a f t e r thermal o r chemical hardening.

5.8.1.2. Differences between consolidated and loose gravel packs

R e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l s i z e d t o c o n t r o l t h e f o r m a t i o n sand i s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n s a t below f r a c t u r e pressure u n t i l a screenout stops t h e o p e r a t i o n
(ALLEN & ROBERTS 1 9 8 2 ) . W i t h an e x t e r n a l c a t a l y s t system, t h e sand r e m a i n i n g i n -
s i d e t h e c a s i n g i s washed back w i t h o i l , and t h e r e s i n - c o a t e d sand p l a c e d i n
p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and c a v i t i e s i s c o n s o l i d a t e d b y i n j e c t i n g t h e c a t a l y s t .
W i t h an i n t e r n a l c a t a l y s t system, t h e r e s i n - c o a t e d sand i s a l l o w e d t i m e t o con-
s o l i d a t e and i s t h e n d r i l l e d o u t o f t h e c a s i n g , w i t h o n l y t h e i n f i l l i n g s o f t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and nodes b e i n g l e f t .

I n r e m e d i a l o p e r a t i o n s , a c o n s o l i d a t e d pack may be p r e f e r a b l e w i t h r e s p e c t
t o a c o n v e n t i o n a l l o o s e g r a v e l pack, because t h e bonded g r a v e l i s n o t l i k e l y t o
be l o s t t o t h e u n s t r e s s e d f o r m a t i o n . C o n s o l i d a t e d p a c k s a r e l e s s e x p e n s i v e t h a n
s t a n d a r d g r a v e l p a c k s f o l l o w e d b y a c h e m i c a l c o n s o l i d a t i o n t r e a t m e n t once t h e
l o o s e g r a v e l pack l a t e r t u r n s o u t t o be n o t s u f f i c i e n t and has t o be enhanced
by a s u b s e q u e n t i n j e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n . S i g n i f i c a n t s t r e n g t h d e g r a d a t i o n o f a l l
c o n s o l i d a t e d p a c k systems, however, o c c u r s w i t h e x p o s u r e t o h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d ,
w i t h t h u s t h i s t y p e o f a c i d i z i n g n o t b e i n g a b l e t o be a p p l i e d any more a f t e r i n -
s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d p a c k , whereas h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d a c t s as a c a t a -
l y s t t h a t c a n speed c u r i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 5 . 4 . and 5 . 1 1 . 4 . ) .
 783

5.8.1.3. Artificial stable borehole wall

C o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n has i n t h e l a s t decades f r e q u e n t l y been p e r -
formed i n China t o c r e a t e an a r t i f i c i a l s t a b l e b o r e h o l e w a l l (CHEN, ZHOU & LIU
1986). The c u r e d mass forms a hardened pack which c o n t a i n s t o r t u o u s c a p i l l a r i e s
t h a t a l l o w t h e f o r m a t i o n f l u i d t o f l o w i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e and t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
b r i d g e t h e r e s e r v o i r sand i n p l a c e . Both cement and r e s i n have been s u c c e s s f u l -
l y used as bonding m a t e r i a l s . The s t r e n g t h o f t h e a r t i f i c i a l b o r e h o l e w a l l i s
p r i m a r i l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e r a t i o o f t h e d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s , w i t h h i g h e r
s t r e n g t h , b u t a l s o l o w e r p e r m e a b i l i t y , g i v e n b y a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f bonding
agent.

Other i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r s are gravel size, w i t h l a r g e r p a r t i c l e diameter g i -

v i n g h i g h e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n s t r e n g t h . Experience has shown t h a t t h e b e s t r e s u l t s
a r e o b t a i n e d when pumping a g r a v e l q u a n t i t y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h r e e t i m e s t h e
amount o f sand which has been produced so f a r . P e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d
pack can be enhanced by m i x i n g d i e s e l o i l w i t h a d d i t i v e - c o n t a i n i n g cement-gra-
v e l - s l u r r y t o f o r m an o i l - i n - w a t e r emulsion. A f t e r h a v i n g been squeezed i n t o
the formation, t h e s l u r r y i s hardened by h y d r a t i o n under r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s ,
w i t h t h e d i s p e r s e d d i e s e l and r e m a i n i n g w a t e r forming many intercommunicated
channels i n t h e bonded sand c o n t r o l b a r r i e r . S a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s have a l s o
been achieved i n o i l w e l l s p r o d u c i n g w i t h h i g h w a t e r c u t s and i n w a t e r - i n j e c -
t i o n borehol e s .

5.8.1.4. Other aspects

Proper b l e n d i n g o f s l u r r y components i s e s s e n t i a l , because compressive
s t r e n g t h i s s e n s i t i v e t o r e l a t i v e l y m i n o r v a r i a t i o n s i n r e s i n c o n t e n t . Reduced
r e s i n c o n t e n t may l e a d t o inadequate s t r e n g t h , w h i l e excess r e s i n i n i n t e r n a l l y
c a t a l y z e d systems may cause f o r m a t i o n p l u g g i n g due t o i n v a s i o n o f p l a s t i c drop-
l e t s . C o n s o l i d a t e d g r a v e l packs u s u a l l y do n o t r e q u i r e screen o r l i n e r t o be
h e l d i n p l a c e , b u t can a l s o be c a r r i e d o u t as t e r m i n a l t a i l o f c o n v e n t i o n a l
l o o s e packs i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t sand o r p r o p p a n t flowback f r o m t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s
i n a comparable way as r e s i n - c o a t e d proppants can s u p p o r t t h e p r o x i m a l f r a c t u r e
t i p near t h e w e l l b o r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.3.3.2.). S h i f t i n g o f g r a v e l cannot oc-
c u r because t h e g r a i n s a r e bonded t o g e t h e r i n a c o h e r e n t permeable mass (RENS-
VOLD 1982) which i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e advantage when l a r g e and r e v e r s i b l e p r e s s u r e
d i f f e r e n t i a l s occur during w e l l production.

5.8.2. Resin-coated gravel placement

S t i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s a r e improved by u s i n g r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a i n s n o t o n l y as
proppants i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f h a r d rocks, b u t a l s o as p a c k i n g g r a v e l i n
sand c o n t r o l o f s o f t r o c k s (CONSTIEN & MAYER 1978, SINCLAIR & GRAHAM 1978 b;
SINCLAIR, GRAHAM & SINCLAIR 1983; c f . s e c t i o n 1 . 2 . 6 . ) . The r e s i n - c o a t e d mate-
r i a l s p r o v i d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g proppants and p a c k i n g g r a v e l and p r e -
v e n t movement o r flowback o f t h e i n s e r t e d g r a i n p o p u l a t i o n s . Resin-coated g r a -
v e l placement i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f mechanical and chemical sand c o n t r o l (HALLI-
BURTON 1988), because g r a v e l and r e s i n a r e p l a c e d i n one o p e r a t i o n , and g r a v e l
becomes c o a t e d w i t h r e s i n b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n , w i t h t h i s t r e a t m e n t
t h u s b e i n g s i m i l a r t o c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g e x c e p t o f t h e pack becoming
r e s i n - c o a t e d . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e s i n - c o a t e d p a c k i n g g r a v e l , e x t r a r e s i n can
be i n j e c t e d t o s t a b i l i z e a p o r t i o n o f t h e f o r m a t i o n sand a d j a c e n t t o t h e g r a -
v e l , w i t h t h i s e x t r a r e s i n b e i n g p l a c e d a f t e r washing o u t o r d r i l l i n g o u t o f
t h e excess p a c k i n g g r a v e l and b e f o r e pumping o f t h e a c i d c a t a l y s t (MURPHEY, B I -
LA & TOTTY 1974), thus i n f u l l sequence p e r f o r m i n g a mechanical g r a v e l pack f o l -
lowed by chemical g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n .

Under normal c o n d i t i o n s , almost e x c l u s i v e l y 40/60 mesh g r a i n s i z e i s used

f o r r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l packing, because t h i s g r a i n s i z e l e a d s t o a c o n s o l i d a -
 784

ted pack with h i g h mechanical s t r en g t h and high permeability t h a t w ill n o t mate-

r i a l l y hinder well p r o d u ct i v i t y (RENSVOLD 1982). The pumping of natural sand or
s y n t h e t i c proppants t h a t a r e coated with uncured re sin film s which harden and
bond when the m a t er i al s a r e heated e i t h e r n a t u r a l l y by the r e s e r v o i r tempera-
t u r e in intermediate t o deep wells o r a r t i f i c i a l l y by h o t water o r steam flush
in shallow pay zones i s an advanced u t i l i z a t i o n of gravel packing. Resin-coated
gravel can be used f o r r eg u l ar o r i n s i d e gravel pack, outside gravel pack, p r i -
mary gravel pack in new wel l s , r e p a i r gravel pack in old w e lls, m inifra c turing,
patching of e x i s t i n g gravel-packed screens and l i n e r s , a n d prebonded resin-coa-
ted gravel inner l i n e r s (SANTROL 1986 b ) in o i l - a n d gas-producing wells and wa-
t e r - , steam- a n d chemical-injection wel l s . Gravel mantle s t a b i l i z a t i o n by r e s i n
cementation a n d ot h er aspects ar e b r i e f l y o u tline d a s follows.

5.8.2.1. Gravel mantle stabilization by resin cementation

Gravel mantle s t a b i l i z a t i o n by r e s i n cementation i s based on the concept
t h a t the resin-coated gravel absorbs heat a f t e r placement, a n d the uncured re-
s i n p e l l i c l e s s o f t e n , melt and d i f f u s e t o form necks between adjacent sand
g r a i n s which a c t l i k e a s y n t h e t i c gravel cement ( c f . se c tion 1 . 2 . 6 . ) . I n a d d i -
t i o n , the individual resin-coated g r ai n s ar e s l i g h t l y tacky and tend t o s t i c k
t o neighbouring g r ai n s as they f i r s t co n t act them, although the e quiva le nt of a
tr u e tap d e n s i t y i s probably only i n f r eq u en t l y achieved (MURPHEY, R O L L & WONG
1985). After a period of time, the r es i n thermosets, forming a permeable conso-
l i d a t e d pack by chemical bonding ( c f . a l s o s e c tion 5 . 8 . 1 . ) . I f formation tempe-
r a t u r e i s too low in shallow w e l l s , curing can a l s o be i n i t i a l i z e d o r a c c e le ra -
ted by addition of an a c t i v a t o r which i s an a lc ohol-surfa c ta nt blend ( P O P E , WI-
LES & P I E R C E 1987). The o u t l i n e as follows focusses on aspects of e xte rna l a n d
in t e r n a l c a t a l y z a t i o n , thermal a n d chemical c uring, a pplic a tion i n sand control
and f r a c t u r e s t i mu l at i o n , a n d consolidation of both gravel a n d formation sand.

5.8.2.1.1. External and internal catalyzation

The function of the r es i n system i s t o c onsolida te the gravel i n t o a strong
permeable f i l t e r (ECONOMIDES 1986). In o r d er t o achieve t h i s goal, the resin
system m u s t f i r s t co at the gravel and chemically bond t o the gravel surfa c e .
Then a f t e r the resin-coated gravel i s pressure packed a ga inst the formation,
the r e s i n must cure t o form a h a r d impervious film covering each gravel p a r -
t i c l e a n d connecting them a t the co n t act p o i n t s . A minimum amount of r e s i n i s
used t o achieve a balance between s t r en g t h a n d permeability. Once the r e s i n sys-
tem has coated the g r av el , the coupling agent determines the ultim a te stre ngth
which the aggregated pack o b t ai n s . Without coupling agent, compressive
s t r e n g t h s i n the order t o 50 - 300 psi r e s u l t , whereas with the coupling agent
p r e s e n t , compressive s t r en g t h s u p t o 2,500 - 3,500 psi can be achieved ( i n com-
parison, r e s i n consolidation of formation s a n d may r e s u l t i n compressive
s t r e n g t h s u p t o 3,000 - 4,000 p s i ; c f . s ect i o n 5 . 9 . 1 . 2 . 3 ) .

The reason f o r t h i s tremendous influence of the coupling agent on compres-

s i v e s t r e n g t h i s r e l a t e d t o the p o i n t of f a i l u r e in the resin-gravel matrix
when placed under excessive compressive l o ads. Compressive f a i l u r e a t excessive
pressures occurs a t the resin-gravel i n t e r f a c e r a t h e r than through the r e s i n
glue l i n e between p a r t i c l e s o r through the p a r t i c l e s themselves. This i s a n ad-
hesion f a i l u r e mechanism and i s co n t r o l l ed by the coupling agent r a t h e r t h a n by
the epoxy r e s i n which forms the coating around the p a r t i c l e s a n d the connecting
r e s i n matrix with o t h er p a r t i c l e s .

5.8.2.1.2. Thermal and chemical curing

S i m i l a r l y as applying f o r r e s i n consolidation of formation s a n d , placement
of resin-coated gravel can be performed by curing agent employment i n two d i f -
 785

f e r e n t ways c o m p r i s i n g thermal and chemical c u r i n g (RENSVOLD 1982). The r e s i n

system c o n s i s t s o f r e s i n , c u r i n g agent, c o u p l i n g agent and c u r e a c c e l e r a t o r
( t h e l a t t e r i s o n l y r e q u i r e d i f bottomhole temperature i s l e s s t h a n 54 O F ) . Ex-
t e r n a l c a t a l y z a t i o n uses a spacer f o l l o w i n g t h e r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l s l u r r y
which i n t u r n i s f o l l o w e d by a c u r i n g s o l u t i o n , w i t h t h e r e s i n f i l m s on t h e g r a -
v e l g r a i n s r e a c t i n g w i t h t h e c u r i n g s o l u t i o n as i t i s pumped t h r o u g h t h e p e r -
meable mass. The r e s i n hardens r a p i d l y , and f l u i d f l o w i n t h e p o r e space d u r i n g
t h i s process h e l p s t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e g r a v e l pack r e t a i n s a v e r y h i g h permeabi-
l i t y . Another advantage i s t h a t t h e r e s i n does n o t harden p r e m a t u r e l y , t h e r e b y
preventing the gravel from being p r o p e r l y placed. I n t e r n a l c a t a l y z a t i o n i n v o l -
ves adding o f c u r i n g a g e n t t o t h e r e s i n b e f o r e t h e r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l i s pum-
ped i n t o t h e w e l l which r e s u l t s i n u n i f o r m c u r i n g o f t h e r e s i n on t h e g r a v e l
grains .
5.8.2.1.3. Application in sand control and fracture stimulation
S i m i l a r l y as s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f g r a v e l packs w i t h a v o i d i n g p r o p p a n t flowback
f r o m t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and t h e b o r e h o l e g r a v e l m a n t l e and t h u s sand con-
t r o l f a i l u r e can be achieved by a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l , a g g r e g a t i o n
o f a t a i l - i n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s w i t h proppants p r e c o a t e d w i t h a
t h e r m o s e t t i n g p h e n o l i c r e s i n which s o f t e n s and c u r e s under r e s e r v o i r c o n d i t i o n s
t o f o r m a s t a b l e g r a i n package i s a v e r y e f f e c t i v e means t o p r e v e n t c r a c k eva-
c u a t i o n b y p r o p p a n t flowback f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e mouth and t h u s p a r t i a l c l o s u r e
o f t h e c r a c k and d i s c o n n e c t i o n o f s e v e r a l s e c t i o n s o f t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d
d r a i n a g e p a t h (POPE, WILES & P I E R C E 1987; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 3 . 3 . ) . I n some s o f t
f o r m a t i o n s , h i g h p r e s s u r e drawdowns cause t h e n e a r - w e l l b o r e f o r m a t i o n t o shear
and t o breakdown which r e s u l t s i n s p a l l i n g and e v e n t u a l l y p r o d u c t i o n l o s s due
t o w e l l p l u g g i n g , w i t h r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l h e l p i n g t o spread t h e h i g h drawdown
s t r e s s and t o r e s i s t t o embedment (SINCLAIR, GRAHAM & SINCLAIR 1983). Concern-
i n g o p e r a t i o n , t h e hardening agent may be added t o t h e r e s i n d u r i n g m i x i n g a t
t h e s u r f a c e o r i t may be a p p l i e d as an a f t e r f l u s h once t h e g r a v e l has been i n -
j e c t e d (HALLIBURTON 1988). Some comments on compressive s t r e n g t h o f r e s i n - c o a -
t e d aggregates as w e l l as s i n g l e and m u l t i p l e g r a v e l pack c o m p l e t i o n s a r e o f f e -
r e d as f o l l o w s .

5.8.2.1.3.1. Compressive strength of resin-coated aggregates

A f t e r i n j e c t i o n o f t h e r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l i n t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and
subsequent c u r i n g o f t h e r e s i n t o produce a c o n s o l i d a t e d g r a v e l mass, t h e aggre-
g a t e d g r a v e l i n s i d e o f t h e c a s i n g i s d r i l l e d o u t and t h e w e l l i s r e t u r n e d t o
p r o d u c t i o n . The r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l aggregates i n f i l l i n g t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n -
n e l s a t t a i n a compressive s t r e n g t h o f 1,500 and 2,500 p s i f o r 20/40 and 40/60
mesh g r a v e l , r e s p e c t i v e l y , and i n some f a v o u r a b l e cases can even reach compres-
s i v e s t r e n g t h s up t o 3,500 p s i ( w h i c h i s on average s t i l l s l i g h t l y l o w e r t h a n
those b e i n g a b l e t o be a c q u i r e d i n chemical f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n by r e s i n ce-
m e n t a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r sand r a n g i n g between 3,000 and 4,000 p s i ; c f . sec-
t i o n 5.9.1.2.3.). A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s h i g h compressive s t r e n g t h , t h e p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l p l u g s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b i l i z e d t o be unable t o f l o w back, t h u s n o t r e -
q u i r i n g a g r a v e l m a n t l e along t h e p e r f o r a t e d c a s i n g t o s u p p o r t them (ECONOMIDES
1986).

5.8.2.1.3.2. Single and multiple gravel pack completions

The h i g h compressive s t r e n g t h i s r e t a i n e d o v e r extended p e r i o d s o f time, and
t h e r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l packs have e x c e l l e n t r e s i s t a n c e t o p r o d u c t i o n f l u i d s
and most t r e a t i n g chemicals. R e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s a p p l i c a b l e f o r
s i n g l e and m u l t i p l e c o m p l e t i o n s . The h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d i n a
v i s c o u s g e l t h a t improves g r a v e l placement i n l o n g p e r f o r a t e d s e c t i o n s t h e r e b y
enhancing j o b success ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 1 . 1 . ) . Well cleanup t i m e i s shortened
 786

and f o r m a t i o n damage i s l e s s e n e d because a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l volume o f f l u i d i s

u s e d t o p l a c e a l a r g e volume o f g r a v e l n e t w o r k . W h i l e i n m o s t c a s e s p l a c e m e n t
o f r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l g i v e s way t o much b e t t e r sand c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v i t y w i t h
r e s p e c t t o s e t t i n g o f c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l , SCRIMGEOUR & SHEPHERD ( 1 9 8 8 ) p r e s e n t
an i n v e r s e example where r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l i n s e r t i o n f o r i n t e r n a l g r a v e l p a c k -
i n g r e s u l t e d i n t o o h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y r e s t r i c t i o n and t h e r e f o r e was i n l a t e r
s t a g e s o f t h e c o m p l e t i o n campaign r e p l a c e d b y c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l .

5.8.2.1.4. Consolidation o f both gravel and formation sand

Resin-coated g r a v e l placement a l l o w s simultaneous c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f g r a v e l
pack and f o r m a t i o n sand (HALLIBURTON 1988) i f s u f f i c i e n t e x c e s s r e s i n i s i n c l u -
ded, w h i l e e l i m i n a t i o n o f e x c e s s r e s i n r e s u l t s i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f o n l y t h e g r a -
v e l pack. When d i s p e r s i n g r e s i n and l o w g r a v e l s a t u r a t i o n s i n a t h i n c a r r i e r
f l u i d i n a m i x i n g t a n k , some o f t h e r e s i n a u t o m a t i c a l l y c o a t s t h e g r a v e l d u r i n g
m i x i n g , w i t h t h e e x c e s s r e s i n r e m a i n i n g i n t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d . As t h e m i x t u r e i s
pumped, t h e r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l s c r e e n s o f f a g a i n s t t h e f o r m a t i o n , and as t h e
c a r r i e r f l u i d moves i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r , t i g h t g r a i n - t o - g r a i n c o n t a c t i s a t t a i -
ned i n t h e g r a v e l pack, and t h e e x c e s s r e s i n i n t h e f l u i d c o a t s t h e p a y sand.

Using high gravel concentrations i n t h i c k c a r r i e r f l u i d s , a l l o f the r e s i n

c o a t s t h e g r a v e l c o m p l e t e l y a l r e a d y d u r i n g m i x i n g , w i t h no e x c e s s r e s i n r e m a i n -
i n g d i s p e r s e d i n t h e t r a n s p o r t f l u i d . The m i x t u r e i s t h e n pumped i n t o t h e w e l l ,
b u t l i t t l e o r no c a r r i e r f l u i d i s l o s t t o t h e f o r m a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a f o -
r e m e n t i o n e d s p a t i a l l y c o i n c i d i n g c o m b i n a t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g and r e s e r v o i r
c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n t h e same p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l , m u l t i p l e - z o n e sand c o n t r o l c a n
be p e r f o r m e d as s p a t i a l l y s e p a r a t e a s s o c i a t i o n o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n l o w e r sec-
t i o n s and r e s i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n i n u p p e r p o r t i o n s o f t h e h y d r o c a r b o n - b e a r i n g se-
quence (THOMAS & JOHNSON 1 9 7 6 ) .

R e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l p a c k i n g was e a r l i e r e x e c u t e d w i t h an o i l - b a s e d c a r r y i n g
medium because o f t h e ease w i t h w h i c h t h e r e s i n c o a t s t h e g r a v e l i n an o i l me-
dium, b u t w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t o f modern s u r f a c t a n t s , i t became p o s s i b l e t o u s e
aqueous t r a n s p o r t f l u i d s and s t i l l a l l o w t h e r e s i n t o bond t h e g r a v e l (ECDNOMI-
DES 1 9 8 6 ) .

5.8.2.2. Special applications

R e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l p l a c e m e n t i s more s o p h i s t i c a t e d and a l s o f r e q u e n t l y more
s u c c e s s f u l t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l m e c h a n i c a l sand c o n t r o l where t h e g r a v e l g r a i n s
a r e n o t m a n t l e d and a g g r e g a t e d b y r e s i n p e l l i c l e s . W h i l e r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l
p a c k i n g c o u l d be t h e o r e t i c a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r a l l w e l l s s u f f e r i n g f r o m sand p r o -
blems, e c o n o m i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y o f t e n r e s t r i c t s i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o such r e s e r -
v o i r s where c o n v e n t i o n a l l o o s e g r a v e l pack w o u l d n o t p r o p e r l y s o l v e t h e w e l l
t r o u b l e s . As t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p between t e c h n o l o g y and economics a f f e c t a l l t y -
pes o f b o r e h o l e s , f e a s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n of r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l p l a c e m e n t has t o
be c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f p a y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The f o l l o w i n g o v e r -
v i e w d i s c u s s e s m a i n l y a s p e c t s o f o l d p r o d u c t i o n b o r e h o l e s and s t e a m - d r i v e p r o -
j e c t s as w e l l as t r a n s i t i o n a l a p p l i c a t i o n s between g r a v e l p a c k i n g and h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on c a r r i e r f l u i d and f o r m a t i o n .

5.8.2.2.1. Old production wells

R e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l p a c k s a r e e s p e c i a l l y b e n e f i c i a l t o o l d e r w e l l s t h a t have
a l r e a d y more o r l e s s e x t e n s i v e l y p r o d u c e d sand, because t h e v i s c o u s r e s i n - c o a -
t e d g r a v e l t e n d s t o r e s t r e s s t h e f o r m a t i o n b y o c c u p y i n g v o i d s c r e a t e d b y sand
p r o d u c t i o n . Other advantages o f r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l a r e requirement o f o n l y
s m a l l volume and s h o r t j o b t i m e , p o s s i b i l i t y t o t r e a t m u l t i p l e zones, and unne-
c e s s i t y o f screen o r l i n e r t o h o l d t h e pack i n p l a c e . Resin-coated g r a v e l pack-
 787

i n g i s g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e f o r l o n g and s h o r t i n t e r v a l s , cased- and open-hole

completions, s i n g l e and m u l t i p l e completions, c l e a n and d i r t y sands as w e l l as
almost s h a l e - l i k e r e s e r v o i r s and c h a l k s , and low- and h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e pay zo-
nes ( u p t o 400 O F ) .

Packing of p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s w i t h r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l aggregates and l e a -

v i n g t h e i n n e r p a r t o f t h e b o r e h o l e empty due t o absence o f b o t h g r a v e l m a n t l e
and screen o r l i n e r i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r l o n g m u l t i p l e c o m p l e t i o n s
where t h e spacing between t h e separated i n t e r v a l s e c o n o m i c a l l y and t e c h n i c a l l y
discourages t h e use o f screens (DOWELL SCHLUMBERGER 1988 c ) . S p e c i a l a p p l i c a -
t i o n s o f resin-coated gravel packing i s t a i l i n g - i n a f t e r hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g
t r e a t m e n t s t o r e t a i n proppants i n t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2.4.1.2.3. and
4.12.3.3.), and g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sands u s i n g f r a c t u r i n g pressu-
r e s t o achieve s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h a s a n d - c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n , w i t h t h e p r o p p a n t
package b e i n g s t a b i l i z e d i n p l a c e i n a s i m i l a r way as t h e f o r m a t i o n sand. Re-
s i n - c o a t e d sand s l u r r i e s can a l s o be used t o r e p a i r damaged s l o t t e d l i n e r o r
wire-wrapped screen i n c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l packs w i t h o u t removing l i n e r o r
screen f r o m t h e w e l l by u t i l i z i n g e i t h e r c o n c e n t r i c o r c o i l e d t u b i n g w i t h a
small workover h o i s t (MURPHEY, ROLL & WONG 1985).

5.8.2.2.2. Steam-dr ive projects

The use o f r e s i n - c o a t e d sand f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n thermal w e l l s has been
growing i n p o p u l a r i t y d u r i n g t h e l a s t years, because improvements i n r e s i n che-
m i s t r y and m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes have h e l p e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e thermal s t a b i l i -
t y o f t h i s m a t e r i a l and t o p r o l o n g i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n t h e h a r s h environment
o f s t e a m - f l o o d enhanced-recovery b o r e h o l e s (UNDERDOWN & DAS 1985). A g g r e g a t i o n
o f t h e r e s i n f i l m s c r e a t e s a c o n s o l i d a t e d permeable pack t h a t cannot be d i s p l a -
ced by t h e h i g h - v e l o c i t y steam which i s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r . Resin-coa-
t e d sand i n steam-drive o i l f i e l d s , however, o n l y performs reasonable up t o mo-
d e r a t e a l c a l i n i t i e s . A t h i g h a l c a l i n i t i e s , s i n t e r e d b a u x i t e and n i c k e l - c o a t e d
sand a r e s u p e r i o r m a t e r i a l s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 7 . ) . Thermal r e s i s t a n c e o f r e s i n - c o a -
t e d g r a v e l i s a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d by COPELAND & BASS (1976).

5.8.2.2.3. Transition between gravel packing and fracturing

A l t h o u g h t h e main a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l i s o u t s i d e p a c k i n g o f
p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s w i t h o u t accompanying i n s i d e g r a v e l m a n t l e t h e r e b y l e a v i n g
t h e b o r e h o l e c o m p l e t e l y u n o b s t r u c t e d by i n s t a l l i n g n e i t h e r screen o r l i n e r n o r
g r a v e l sheath, o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f u t i l i z a t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l i n -
c l u d e i n s i d e r e g u l a r g r a v e l pack, m i n i f r a c t u r i n g , p a t c h i n g o f damaged e x i s t i n g
gravel-packed screens o r l i n e r s through c o i l e d o r c o n c e n t r i c t u b i n g , and prebon-
ded r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l i n n e r l i n e r (SANTROL 1986 b ) . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f
some general aspects, t h e main t r a n s i t i o n a l stages between g r a v e l p a c k i n g and
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a r e i l l u s t r a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f a comparison o f m i n i -
f r a c t u r e s and rows o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s .

5.8.2.2.3.1. General aspects

I n a r e g u l a r i n s i d e g r a v e l pack m a n t l e i n t h e annulus between c a s i n g and
screen o r T i n e r , r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l forms a permanent downhole f i l t e r p r e v e n t -
i n g movement o r m i x i n g w i t h r e s e r v o i r p a r t i c l e s when opening o r s h u t t i n g - i n t h e
w e l l . S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r o u t s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s ,
p r o p p i n g o f s h o r t m i n i f r a c t u r e s i n u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s r e q u i r e s preven-
t i v e maintenance by r e s i n bonding i n o r d e r t o i n h i b i t embedment, p a r t i c l e mix-
i n g o r c o n t a m i n a t i o n , p r o p p a n t o r f o r m a t i o n flowback, and s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o ex-
treme p r e s s u r e drawdown around t h e w e l l b o r e .
 788

5.8.2.2.3.2. Mini fractures vs. perforation tunnel rows

M i n i f r a c t u r e s c a n be compared i n e f f e c t w i t h a s e r i e s o f deep p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l s ( c f . a l s o p l a t e X I / 8 ) w h i c h a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d w i t h i n one p l a n e and where
t h e d i s t a n c e s between t h e d i s c r e t e t u n n e l s a r e r e d u c e d t o z e r o , w i t h b o t h t y p e s
r e p r e s e n t i n g e n l a r g e m e n t o f e f f e c t i v e w e l l b o r e d i a m e t e r . The t w o - w i n g m i n i f r a c -
t u r e i s morphologically almost e q u i v a l e n t t o a double s e r i e s o f p e r f o r a t i o n tun-
n e l rows i n 180 d e g r e e s p h a s i n g . G r a v e l p l u g g i n g o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l r o w s
and p r o p p a n t i n f i l l i n g o f t h e m i n i f r a c t u r e has t h e same d r a i n a g e and s t a b i l i z a -
t i o n e f f e c t on t h e r e s e r v o i r sand ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 5 . 2 . ) . Patching o f e x i s t i n g
g r a v e l - p a c k e d s c r e e n s and l i n e r s i s a s i m p l e r e p a i r method where r e s i n - c o a t e d
gravel i s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e holes o f a screen o r l i n e r . A f t e r t h e p a r t i c l e s
bond t o g e t h e r and t h o s e t h a t a r e l e f t i n s i d e t h e s c r e e n a r e removed, f l o w i n g o f
f o r m a t i o n p a r t i c l e s t h r o u g h s c r e e n o r l i n e r i s p r e v e n t e d and h o l e s c o n t a i n i n g
damaged g r a v e l p a c k s a r e e f f e c t i v e l y r e p a i r e d . Prebonded r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l i n -
n e r l i n e r s between s c r e e n s r e p r e s e n t good downhole f i l t e r s f o r f o r m a t i o n mate-
r i a l b y p r o v i d i n g good p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t p a r t i c l e a b r a s i o n a n d / o r e r o s i o n .

A s p e c t s o f p l a c e m e n t o f r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y SCHROEDER
& TUCKER ( 1 9 7 4 ) , SANTROL ( 1 9 7 5 ) , SINCLAIR d GRAHAM (1977, 1 9 7 8 ) , CONSTIEN &
MAYER ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; GRIFFIN, CONSTIEN & COLAVECCHIO ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; SAUNDERS & McKENZIE
( 1 9 7 9 ) , KANAT ( 1 9 8 0 ) ; UNDERDOWN, DAY & SPARLIN ( 1 9 8 0 ) ; HICKEY, BROWN & CRITTEN-
DEN ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; GRAHAM, SINCLAIR & BRANDT ( 1 9 8 2 ) ; RENSVOLD ( 1 9 8 2 ) ; WILSON, NELSON &
STADLEMAN ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; MURPHEY, ROLL & WONG ( 1 9 8 5 ) ; POPE, WILES & PIERCE ( 1 9 8 7 ) and
FAN ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

5.8.2.2.4. Carrier fluid and formation

Successful placement o f r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s can
o n l y be a c h i e v e d i f t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d i s a d e q u a t e l y a d j u s t e d t o f o r m a t i o n f l u i d
and m a t r i x i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t unwanted s i d e d i r e c t i o n s t h a t c o u l d d i s t u r b o r
d e t e r i o r a t e c o a t i n g , m i g r a t i o n and s e t t i n g o f t h e r e s i n downhole (ECONOMIDES
1 9 8 6 ) . I n o r d e r t o c r e a t e an e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h t h e r e s i n s y s t e m w i l l c o a t
t h e g r a v e l , a c h e l a t i n g a g e n t and a s u r f a c t a n t have t o be added t o t h e w a t e r - b a -
sed c a r r i e r f l u i d . Some a s p e c t s o f i n t e r f a c i a l f l u i d p r o p e r t y a d j u s t m e n t and
f o r m a t i o n w a t e r c a t i o n c h e l a t i o n a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.8.2.2.4.1. Interfacial f h i d property adjustment

The s u r f a c t a n t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a d j u s t s u r f a c e and i n t e r f a c i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f
t h e aqueous f l u i d t o t h e h y d r o c a r b o n e n v i r o n m e n t as w e l l as t o c o a t t h e s u r f a c e
o f t h e g r a v e l g r a i n s p r i o r t o a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e r e s i n system, because t h e epo-
x y r e s i n s y s t e m w o u l d n o t o t h e r w i s e w e t t h e sand i n t h e aqueous m i l i e u (ECONOMI-
DES) .

5.8.2.2.4.2. Formation water cation chelation

M o s t f r e s h - w a t e r s u p p l i e s c o n t a i n s m a l l amounts o f d i - and t r i v a l e n t c a t i o n s
w h i c h m u s t be c h e l a t e d i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t them f r o m c o m p e t i n g w i t h t h e c a t i o -
n i c s u r f a c t a n t f o r s i t e s on t h e n e g a t i v e l y c h a r g e d g r a v e l g r a i n s and f r o m i n h i -
b i t i n g e f f e c t i v e r e s i n c o a t i n g o f t h e gravel g r a i n s which would l e a d t o reduced
s t r e n g t h o f t h e a g g r e g a t e d pack and r e s i n s u s p e n s i o n i n t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d (ECO-
NOMIDES 1 9 8 6 ) . The c h e l a t i n g a g e n t has t o b e u s e d a t t h e minimum l e v e l necessa-
ry, s i n c e i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r c h e l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s t o u n d e r g o c a t i o n exchange
w i t h f o r m a t i o n c l a y s and t h u s r e n d e r them s u s c e p t i b l e t o m i g r a t i o n . C h e l a t i n g
a g e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n has t o be p r o p e r l y t e s t e d o n f i e l d e x p e r i m e n t s i n o r d e r t o
ascertain t h a t a l l m u l t i v a l e n t cations i n the c a r r i e r f l u i d are chelated, b u t
e x c e s s i v e amounts o f c h e l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s t h a t c o u l d l e a d t o f i n e s movement i n
the r e s e r v o i r a r e avoided.
 789

Conventional a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s i n bonding i n e x t e r n a l and/or i n t e r n a l g r a v e l

packs aims on g r a v e l s t a b i l i z a t i o n and a g g r e g a t i o n p a r t i a l l y t o g e t h e r w i t h a d d i -
t i o n a l f o r m a t i o n sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n , w i t h t h e main goal b e i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y r e -
t e n t i o n f o r hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i v i t y m a x i m i z a t i o n . I n some s p e c i a l cases, how-
e v e r , a r e v e r s e approach may be r e q u i r e d i n c l u d i n g l o c a l p a t c h y p e r m e a b i l i t y de-
s t r u c t i o n by i n v a s i o n o f p l a s t i c i n t o t h e g r a v e l pack f o r t h e reason o f s h u t -
t i n g - o f f i n t e r v a l s p r o d u c i n g w a t e r i n s t e a d o f gas o r o i l ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 1 0 . 6 . ) .

5 . 8 . 3 . Gravel packing o f deviated wells

While t r a d i t i o n a l l y g r a v e l p a c k i n g has been performed i n v e r t i c a l w e l l s un-
d e r i d e a l g r a v i t y c o n d i t i o n s , p r o g r e s s i v e o f f s h o r e o i l and gas f i e l d develop-
ment w i t h a s u i t e o f p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s emanating f r o m a c e n t r a l p l a t f o r m i n a
s p i d e r - o r s t a r - l i k e p a t t e r n and i n c l u d i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e d e v i a t i o n angles and
d i s t a n c e s w i t h t e c h n i c a l l y p a r t i a l l y d i f f i c u l t and expensive d i r e c t i o n a l d r i l -
l i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3.8. and 4.8.6.1.) c o n f r o n t s t h e o p e r a t o r s i n c r e a s i n g l y w i t h
t h e need o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d t o sometimes even near-
7y h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s e c t i o n s (WALLING & STABLER 1978; PEDEN, RUSSELL & OYENEYIN
1985; STRACKE 1987; SPREUX, GEORGES & LESS1 1988). As p a r t i c u l a r l y i n o f f s h o r e
operations, b u t also i n environmentally protected o r otherwise inaccessible
areas (such as w i l d l i f e r e s e r v a t e s and l a r g e towns), h i g h - a n g l e d i r e c t i o n a l
d r i l l i n g i s t h e o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y o f e c o n o m i c a l l y d e v e l o p i n g a f i e l d by a s t a r -
o r s p i d e r - l i k e r a d i a l b o r e h o l e assemblage i n s e r t i n g a t a c e n t r a l p l a t f o r m , g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g c o m p l e t i o n s have t o be a d j u s t e d t o t h i s unrenouncable t e c h n i c a l f e a -
t u r e o f much l a r g e r f i n a n c i a l s c a l e .

5.8.3.0. General aspects

The main problem i n d e v i a t e d w e l l s e c t i o n s i s u n s t a b l e o r i n c o m p l e t e p l a c e -
ment o f g r a v e l around t h e screen (GRUESBECK, SALATHIEL & ECHOLS 1979). The h i g h
o p e r a t i o n a l c o s t s o f f s h o r e and i n remote l a n d l o c a t i o n s g i v e c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c e n -
t i v e t o develop g r a v e l p a c k i n g techniques f o r c o m p l i c a t e d i n c l i n e d b o r e h o l e s
t h a t have b o t h h i g h i n i t i a l success r a t i o s and t h e a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e s a n d - f r e e
p r o d u c t i o n f o r s u s t a i n e d p e r i o d s of time, i n o r d e r t o save expensive remedy
j o b s o f premature f a i l u r e s . The most common t r o u b l e s c a u s i n g c o m p l e t i o n f a i l u r e
i n d e v i a t e d w e l l s a r e premature s c r e e n o u t and a f t e r - p a c k s e t t l i n g o f g r a v e l (EL-
SON, DARLINGTON & MANTOOTH 1984).

Variables a f f e c t i n g gravel packing e f f i c i e n c y i n highly-deviated holes are

g r a i n s i z e , d e n s i t y and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f g r a v e l , c a r r y i n g f l u i d v i s c o s i t y , s l u r -
r y v e l o c i t y , and d i r e c t i o n a l c o n t r o l of s l u r r y f l o w (RENSVOLD 1982). C i r c u l a -
t i o n - t y p e g r a v e l p a c k i n g models have shown t h a t p a c k i n g e f f i c i e n c y i n c r e a s e s
w i t h reduced h o l e angle, l o w e r g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , d e c r e a s i n g s p e c i f i c g r a v i -
t y o f g r a v e l p a r t i c l e s , d e c r e a s i n g g r a v e l p a r t i c l e diameter, h i g h e r f l u i d d e n s i -
ty, h i g h f l o w r a t e and i n c r e a s i n g r e s i s t a n c e t o f l u i d f l o w i n t h e s c r e e n - t a i l -
p i p e annulus (SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983). Aspects o f g r a v e l duning, g r a v e l com-
p a c t i o n , p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g and s t r i n g r o t a t i o n , g r a v e l s e t t l i n g , i n v e r t e d g r a -
v e l s l u r r y c i r c u l a t i o n , v i s c o u s g r a v e l p a c k i n g s l u r r i e s , and g r a v e l - l e s s s l o t -
t e d l i n e r s and pre-packed screens a r e sketched as f o l l o w s .

5.8.3.1. Gravel duning

Up t o h o l e angles o f a b t . 45 - 50 degrees, c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s
s t i l l e f f i c i e n t due t o g r a v i t y e f f e c t s on t h e m a t e r i a l , b u t t h e performance i s
a l r e a d y s l i g h t l y d i s t u r b e d due t o no l o n g e r p e r f e c t v e r t i c a l g r a v i t y s l i p p a g e
und s l i d i n g o f t h e g r a v e l (MALY, ROBINSON & LAURIE 1974; SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER
1983). I n c o n t r a s t t o w e l l s w i t h b o r e h o l e angles up t o 45 degrees f r o m v e r t i c a l
where g r a v e l p a c k i n g p r o g r e s s i s f r o m b o t t o m t o t o p under p r e d o m i n a n t l y g r a v i t y
 790

influence thereby giving r i s e t o a more o r l e s s continuous pack without voids

because annular bridging i s i n h i b i t e d by g r a v i t a t i o n , gravel packing proceeds
from t o p t o bottom a t hole i n c l i n a t i o n s g r e a t e r than 45 degrees (HALLIBURTON
1988) which bears increasing r i s k of void generation a n d premature annulus brid-
ging due t o p a r t i a l l y i n s u f f i c i e n t g r a v i t a t i o n a l e f f e c t s in the inc line d bore-
hole. Annular gravel packing e f f i c i e n c y s t a r t s decreasing a t a b t . 45 degrees
hole deviation a n d becomes a s er i o u s problem beyond 60 degrees wellbore i n c l i n a -
t i o n . Some aspects of extended-reach d r i l l i n g shape, dune g r o w t h and migration,
c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y a n d gravel dune dynamics, gravel placement a n d e q u i l i -
brium bank p o s i t i o n , equilibrium v el o ci t y and gravel bank height, f l u i d ve loc i-
ty and dune movement, a n d f l u i d v el o ci t y and gravel tra nsport a re outline d as
f o l 1 ows .

5.8.3.1.1. Extended-reach d r i 11i n g shape

During gravel placement i n highly-deviated wellbores with more t h a n 45 de-
grees i n c l i n a t i o n , a gravel dune forms near l i n e r top o r crossover t o the
screen-casing annulus near the i n l e t of the wellbore by s e t t l i n g of s o l i d s in
the annulus a n d as a consequence of bridging with e i t h e r high- o r low-viscosity
c a r r i e r f l u i d s (GRUESBECK & C O L L I N S 1978; GRUESBECK, SALATHIEL & ECHOLS 1979).
As the degree of deviation i n cr eas es , the percent pack i n the annulus decrea-
s e s , because g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r ces tend t o cause the gravel t o prematurely
s e t t l e o u t near the upper p a r t of the zone t o be gravel packed, with the r e s u l t
being dune formation a t the upper end of the zone ( S T I E S 1985).

Therefore extended-reach d r i l l i n g should in case of ne c e ssity of subsequent

gravel packing and a l s o hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g n o t be c a r r i e d o u t i n
J-shaped manner, b u t i f t ech n i cal l y p o s s i ble , preference should be given t o a
S-shape by decreasing i n c l i n a t i o n p r i o r t o p e ne tra tion of the r e s e r v o i r such
t h a t the borehole t r a j e c t o r y through the pay complex does not exceed 45 degrees
deviation from v e r t i c a l (BRUIST, JEFFERIS & BOTTS 1983; c f . se c tions 4 . 8 . 6 . 1 .
and 4 . 1 1 . 4 . ) .

5.8.3.1.2. Dune growth and m i g r a t i o n

The gravel dune r e s t r i c t s the area open t o flow and inc re a se s the v e l o c i t y
of the s l u r r y i n the open channel above the bank. Dune height inc re a se s u n t i l
f l u i d v e l o c i t y i n the open channel above the bank i s high enough t o t r a n s p o r t
gravel over the dune, t o d ep o s i t i t f a r t h e r towards the bottom of the wellbore
and t o stop f u r t h e r n et sedimentation of s o l i d s i n the bank. The gravel dune en-
la r g e s u n t i l r e s t r i c t i o n causes f l u i d v e l o c i t y t o increase s o t h a t gravel i s
transported over the dune and towards i t s bottom. Fluid escaping from the g r a -
vel through the screen ev en t u al l y lowers the ve loc ity enough so t h a t the chan-
nel bridges off completely, w i t h gravel then being only a ble t o be deposited
above the bridge r e s u l t i n g in p a r t i a l f i l l i n g .
As height o f the dune i n cr eas es a n d t h e dune continues t o descend down the
wellbore, pressure drop along the open channel above the gravel bank may become
high enough t o f o r ce c a r r i e r f l u i d s t h r o u g h the gravel i n t o the s c r e e n - t a i l p i p e
annulus. When t r a n s p o r t f l u i d i s l o s t through the screen, f l u i d ve loc ity i n the
open channel above the bank decreases, a n d gravel i s deposited in the open chan-
n e l , thereby bridging i t off t o t a l l y . Gravel can then be only sedimented u p -
stream of the bridge, leaving the lower s ect i on exposed. The lower portion of
the screen-casing annulus may thus n o t be packed, r e s u l t i n g in formation of a n
incomplete gravel pack with l ar g e v o i d spaces in the lower i n t e r v a l .
 791

5.8.3.1.3. Carrier fluid viscosity and gravel dune dynamics

S i g n i f i c a n t g r a v e l duning and c a r r i e r f l u i d d i v e r s i o n i n t o t h e s c r e e n - t a i l -
p i p e annulus can be r e a s o n a b l y r e s t r i c t e d , i f n o t almost c o m p l e t e l y prevented,
by u s i n g h i g h t r a n s p o r t f l u i d v i s c o s i t i e s and h i g h g r a v e l s a t u r a t i o n s w h i c h
c o u l d y i e l d p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s t h a t l i m i t t h e s l u r r y f l o w r a t e (PEDEN, RUSSELL
& OYENEYIN 1985). H i g h - v i s c o s i t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s w i t h h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
p r o v i d e good g r a v e l t r a n s p o r t and do n o t g i v e r i s e t o dune f o r m a t i o n t h a t o r i g i -
n a t e o n l y i n l o w - v i s c o s i t y t r a n s p o r t media w i t h low t o moderate g r a v e l s a t u r a -
tions, b u t a r e p r a c t i c a l l y u n s u i t a b l e f o r use i n c o m p l e t i o n i n t e r v a l s i n w e l l s
w i t h angles o v e r 80 degrees f r o m v e r t i c a l (ELSON, OARLINGTON & MANTOOTH 1 9 8 4 ) .
High-viscosity s l u r r i e s w i t h high gravel concentration also s u f f e r from a f t e r -
pack slumping which c r e a t e s v o i d s on t h e t o p s i d e o f g r a v e l packs i n d e v i a t e d
b o r e h o l e s . S a t i s f a c t o r y t r a n s p o r t and improved p a c k i n g a r e achieved w i t h l o w e r
c a r r i e r v i s c o s i t y and s a t u r a t i o n i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h s p e c i a l l i n e r / t a i l p i p e
(washpipe) g e o m e t r i c a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n s .

5.8.3.1.4. Gravel placement and equilibrium bank position

The f i n a l amount o f g r a v e l t h a t can be p l a c e d i n a d e v i a t e d w e l l b o r e depends
on t h e h e i g h t o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m bank o r dune formed under t h e chosen d e s i g n
c o n d i t i o n s (GRUESBECK, SALATHIEL & ECHOLS 1979). I f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m bank h e i g h t
i s l e s s t h a n t h e i n s i d e d i a m e t e r o f t h e casing, g r a v e l can be t r a n s p o r t e d o v e r
t h e dune t h r o u g h t h e upper f l o w channel and d e p o s i t e d f a r t h e r toward t h e b o t t o m
o f t h e b o r e h o l e u n t i l m i g r a t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l stops a t t h e l o w e r end o f t h e
w e l l . When t h e e q u i l i b r i u m bank extends a l l t h e way t o t h e bottom o f t h e w e l l -
bore, t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d e n t e r s t h e s c r e e n / t a i l p i p e annulus and g r a v e l d e p o s i t s
i n t h e open channel upwards u n t i l t h e e n t i r e annulus i s f i l l e d . Complete g r a v e l
f i l l i n g o f d e v i a t e d w e l l b o r e s , however, can o n l y be accomplished i f t h e f l u i d -
l o s s r a t e i s s m a l l , t h e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t i n t h e t a i l p i p e annulus i s s u f f i c i e n t
t o f o r c e enough f l u i d t o f l o w i n t h e c a s i n g - s c r e e n annulus t o b u i l d an e q u i l i -
b r i u m bank, and t h e g r a v e l dune has an open channel a t t h e t o p t h r o u g h which
g r a v e l can be t r a n s p o r t e d a l l t h e way down t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e w e l l b o r e .

I f the f l u i d - l e a k o f f r a t e i s excessive o r i f the pressure gradient i n the

t a i l p i p e annulus i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t , t h e e q u i l i b r i u m g r a v e l bank w i l l be equal
t o c a s i n g diameter, and f o r m a t i o n o f a g r a v e l b r i d g e causes i n c o m p l e t e g r a v e l
packing. E q u i l i b r i u m v e l o c i t y i s the v e l o c i t y required t o c a r r y p a r t i c l e s over
t h e t o p o f t h e dune bank (ECONOMIDES 1986, GRUESBECK & COLLINS 1 9 7 8 ) . The v e l o -
c i t y i s h i g h enough t o p r e v e n t l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n changes, b u t i s n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y h i g h enough t o i n h i b i t changes i n s a t u r a t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e
direction o f flow.

Above a s t a b i l i z e d bank, d i s t i n c t i o n can be made between a lower zone w i t h

h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s t h a t jump and s l i d e a l o n g t h e t o p o f t h e dune,
and an upper i n t e r v a l w i t h low s a t u r a t i o n o f g r a i n s t h a t decreases t o z e r o a t
t h e t o p o f t h e stream. As l o n g as t h e system i s i n e q u i l i b r i u m and bank h e i g h t
i s l e s s t h a n , i n s i d e c a s i n g diameter, t h e g r a v e l p a r t i c l e s a r e c a r r i e d o v e r t h e
dune and d e p o s i t e d f u r t h e r downhole u n t i l t h e bank extends a l l t h e way t o b o t -
tom where t h e f l u i d e n t e r s t h e screen and g r a v e l i s d e p o s i t e d i n t h e open chan-
n e l f r o m t h e b o t t o m upward u n t i l t h e e n t i r e w e l l b o r e annulus i s f i l l e d .

5.8.3.1.5. Equilibrium velocity and gravel bank height

I f e q u i l i b r i u m v e l o c i t y i s d i s t u r b e d , bank h e i g h t i s changing, w i t h i n c r e a -
s i n g v e l o c i t y r e s u l t i n g i n decreased bank h e i g h t u n t i l a new e q u i l i b r i u m p o i n t
i s reached. I f t h e f l o w r a t e i s i n c r e a s e d s u f f i c i e n t l y , complete d i s p e r s i o n o f
t h e p a r t i c l e s may t a k e p l a c e w i t h u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e c u r r e n t
area. As t h e dune grows towards t h e bottom o f t h e w e l l , f l u i d i s b e i n g l o s t con-
t i n u a l l y t o screen-washpipe annulus and f o r m a t i o n , and dune h e i g h t i n c r e a s e s
 792

w i t h d i s t a n c e i n t o t h e s c r e e n - c a s i n g a n n u l u s . I f dune h e i g h t i n c r e a s e s t o t h e
same h e i g h t as t h e c a s i n g , t h e pack b r i d g e s and f i l l i n g t h e n s t a r t s back u p t h e
screen-casing annulus l e a v i n g a v o i d below t h a t p o i n t .

E q u i l i b r i u m v e l o c i t y depends on p a r t i c l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n as w e l l as o n v i s -
cous, inertial, gravitational, f r i c t i o n a l and b u o y a n t f o r c e s t h a t a c t on t h e
g r a i n s d u r i n g t h e i r t r a n s p o r t o v e r t h e e q u i l i b r i u m b a n k . The c r i t i c a l v e l o c i t y
d e c r e a s e s w i t h d i m i n i s h i n g h o l e d e v i a t i o n u n t i l an a n g l e i s r e a c h e d a t w h i c h
t h e p a r t i c l e s r o l l down t h e i n c l i n e d bank and t h e c r i t i c a l v e l o c i t y i s z e r o ,
w i t h t h i s a n g l e d e p e n d i n g on a n g u l a r i t y and e f f e c t i v e w e i g h t o f t h e p a r t i c l e s
in t h e f l u i d and b e i n g i n many c a s e s a b t . 45 - 55 d e g r e e s f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l . S i -
m i l a r e f f e c t s o f p r o p p a n t s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and s e t t l i n g as o b s e r v e d d u r i n g g r a v e l
packing o f i n c l i n e d boreholes occur during hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g o f highly-devia-
ted w e l l s ( c f . section 4.11.2.).

5.8.3.1.6. Fluid velocity and dune movement

W h i l e s i m p l e g e l systems a r e s u i t a b l e g r a v e l c a r r i e r f l u i d s i n 90 % o f t h e
w e l l s r e q u i r i n g m e c h a n i c a l sand c o n t r o l , h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d b o r e h o l e s w i t h i n c l i n a -
t i o n s o f 60 d e g r e e s o r more f r o m v e r t i c a l a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e drawback
t h a t s i m p l e g e l systems do n o t g i v e r i s e t o c o m p l e t e s u p p o r t o f g r a v e l ( H A L L I -
BURTON 1 9 8 8 ) . T h i s i s m o s t s e v e r e a t s l o w pumping r a t e s and w i t h l a r g e p i p e d i a -
m e t e r s , w i t h f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s b e i n g l o w and g r a v e l s e t t l i n g o u t o n t h e b o t t o m
s i d e o f t h e t u b u l a r goods f o r m i n g dunes w h i c h c a n r o l l down t h e i n s i d e of t h e
p l a c e m e n t s t r i n g u n t i l t h e y f o r m a b r i d g e and sand o f f t h e s t r i n g . I n o t h e r c a -
ses, t h e dunes move up t o t h e c r o s s o v e r t o o l where t h e h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n p l u g s t h e c r o s s o v e r p o r t s and a g a i n sands o f f t h e p l a c e m e n t s t r i n g .

C r o s s l i n k e d g e l systems c a n c o n s i d e r a b l y i m p r o v e g r a v e l p l a c e m e n t i n h i g h l y -
d e v i a t e d w e l l s , because t h e y a r e much more v i s c o u s t h a n s i m p l e g e l s ( c f . sec-
t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 . 3 . ) and c a n f u l l y s u p p o r t h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s e v e n i n a s t a -
t i c state, and as n o g r a v e l s e t t l i n g o c c u r s , t h e chance o f p r e m a t u r e s c r e e n o u t
i s g r e a t l y r e d u c e d . A n o t h e r a d v a n t a g e o f c r o s s l i n k e d g e l s i s t h a t t h e y add s t a -
b i l i t y t o a c o m p l e t i o n e s p e c i a l l y i n open h o l e s i n h i g h l y - u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sands.
On t h e o t h e r hand, c r o s s l i n k e d f l u i d s p r o v i d e o n l y l i t t l e f l u i d l o s s t o t h e f o r -
m a t i o n and t h e r e f o r e d o n o t g e n e r a t e such t i g h t g r a v e l p a c k s a s d o s i m p l e g e l
systems.

5.8.3.1.7. Fluid velocity and gravel transport

R e s t r i c t i n g t h e c l e a r a n c e between l i n e r and wash p i p e i n c r e a s e s t h e amount
o f g r a v e l t h a t c a n be p l a c e d i n t h e c a s i n g - l i n e r a n n u l u s i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d bo-
reholes with low-viscosity c a r r i e r fluids, but high f l u i d velocities are requi-
r e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e g r a v e l i n s u s p e n s i o n (RENSVOLD & DECKER 1 9 7 8 ) . The e r a t e s
may n o t be a t t a i n a b l e i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d o p e n - h o l e c o m p l e t i o n s when f l u d l o s -
ses t o t h e f u l l y e x p o s e d f o r m a t i o n a l o n g t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l a r e t a k e n n t o ac-
c o u n t . H i g h f l u i d v e l o c i t y a l s o g i v e s r i s e t o i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a -
tion sand which considerably reduces pack p e r m e a b i l i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.3.1.1.1.), p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d o p e n - h o l e c o m p l e t i o n s when a g r a -
v e l dune b u i l d s up and d e v e l o p s a h i g h - v e l o c i t y f l o w c h a n n e l above t h e dune i n
the b o r e h o l e - l i n e r annulus.

The s c o u r i n g e f f e c t o f t h i s h i g h s l u r r y v e l o c i t y on t h e e x p o s e d f o r m a t i o n
c o u l d e a s i l y e n t r a i n s u f f i c i e n t r e s e r v o i r sand i n t h e pack t o s e r i o u s l y r e d u c e
i t s p e r m e a b i l i t y . On t h e o t h e r hand, l o w pumping r a t e s w h i c h a r e e n a b l e d b y
t h i c k h i g h - v i s c o s i t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s c o n t a i n i n g h i g h gravel concentrations would
n o t o n l y diminuish the scouring a c t i o n o f t h e s l u r r y , b u t would a l s o reduce
f l u i d l o s s f r o m s l u r r y t o f o r m a t i o n and h e l p t o m a i n t a i n a more u n i f o r m s l u r r y
v e l o c i t y throughout t h e annulus i n t e r v a l b e i n g packed.
 793

5.8.3.2. Gravel compact ion

I n a d d i t i o n t o g r a v e l duning, t h e i n a b i l i t y t o a d e q u a t e l y compact g r a v e l cau-
ses problems i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s . I n o b l i q u e boreholes, t h e b l a n k segment
above t h e s l o t t e d l i n e r o r wire-wrapped screen and t h e p e r f o r a t e d pay zone o r
open-hole f o r m a t i o n w a l l , r e s p e c t i v e l y , does n o t p r o v i d e r e s e r v e g r a v e l s t o r a g e
f o r l a t e r s e t t l i n g , because g r a v i t y w i l l n o t move g r a v e l a l o n g a h i g h l y - i n c l i -
ned t o even a l m o s t h o r i z o n t a l w e l l b o r e , and s e t t l i n g g r a v e l t h u s l i e s on t h e l o -
wer b o r e h o l e w a l l and b y moving n o t towards t h e w e l l f l o o r , b u t s e g r e g a t i n g and
compacting towards t h e c a s i n g m a n t l e g i v e s r i s e t o o r i g i n o f open channels
a l o n g t h e t o p s i d e o f t h e screen-casing annulus, i n c o n t r a s t t o v e r t i c a l h o l e s
where g r a v e l s e t t l i n g l e a d s t o compensation o f t h e 15 % a d d i t i o n a l b l a n k l i n e r
s e c t i o n above t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l by downhole movement o f t h e compacting
g r a v e l m a n t l e which t h u s exposes t h e upper r e s e r v e segment and enables i t t o
s t a r t slumping.

Annular and p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g e f f i c i e n c i e s have l i t t l e d i r e c t i n t e r a c t i o n ,

because p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g depends p r i m a r i l y on f l u i d - l e a k o f f r a t e , phase l o c a -
t i o n ( t o p o r b o t t o m o f t h e c a s i n g i n d e v i a t e d h o l e s ) and g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,
whereas a n n u l a r p a c k i n g depends p r e d o m i n a n t l y on f l u i d t r a n s p o r t e f f i c i e n c y
( v i s c o s i t y and d e n s i t y ) , g r a v e l s i z e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n , mechanical c o n f i g u r a -
t i o n , and s l u r r y f l o w r a t e (ECONOMIDES 1986). Annular p a c k i n g e f f i c i e n c y i n c r e a -
ses w i t h s m a l l e r g r a v e l s i z e s , h i g h e r c a r r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y , l a r g e r wash-pipe,
and i n c r e a s e d screen-casing a n n u l a r f l o w v e l o c i t y . Comments on f l o w r e s i s t a n c e
c r e a t e d by f l e x i b l e b a f f l e s , l a r g e - d i a m e t e r washpipes and o t h e r aspects, fluid
v i s c o s i t y and c a s i n g - l i n e r r e l a t i o n s h i p , and g r a v e l pack q u a l i t y improvement
a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s .

5.8.3.2.1. Flow resistance created by flexible baffles

S u f f i c i e n t compaction o f g r a v e l can be o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t a h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d
i n t e r v a l when f l e x i b l e r u b b e r b a f f l e s a r e spaced a l o n g t h e washpipe i n s i d e t h e
screen which c r e a t e a f l o w r e s i s t a n c e on f l u i d moving i n t h e l i n e r - w a s h p i p e an-
n u l u s by r e s t r i c t i n g t h e c l e a r a n c e , t h e r e b y f o r c i n g sand-laden f l u i d i n t h e
open h o l e t o f l o w t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e screen. P l a c i n g a t i g h t b l a d d e r s e a l i n -
s i d e t h e screen o r deformable b a f f l e s spaced a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s a l o n g t h e
t a i l p i p e can d i v e r t f l u i d f l o w i n s i d e t h e annulus. Some aspects o f b a f f l e spa-
c i n g and s t i f f n e s s as w e l l as r u b b e r d i s c s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.8.3.2.1.1. Baffle spacing and stiffness

The b a f f l e s m a i n t a i n v e l o c i t y i n t h e screen-open h o l e annulus and d i s t r i b u t e
f l u i d f l o w between t h e t a i l p i p e - s c r e e n annulus and o v e r t h e g r a v e l dune which
a l l o w s a s t a b i l i z e d bank t o propagate a l l t h e way t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e w e l l -
bore, thus p r e v e n t i n g f o r m a t i o n o f b r i d g e s t h a t s t o p downward p r o g r e s s i o n o f
g r a v e l (MALY, ROBINSON & LAURIE 1974; GRUESBECK, SALATHIEL & ECHOLS 1979; SU-
MAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983). The f l o w i n t h e channel o v e r t h e dune i s m a i n t a i n e d
and t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e screen-washpipe annulus i s r e s t r i c t e d (MALY, ROBINSON &
LAURIE 1974; SCHROEOER 1987). B a f f l e spacing and s t i f f n e s s a r e c r i t i c a l f o r suc-
c e s s f u l g r a v e l p a c k i n g . I f t h e b a f f l e s a r e spaced t o o f a r a p a r t , a g r a v e l
b r i d g e can f o r m which l e a d s t o i n c o m p l e t e g r a v e l packing, and i f t h e b a f f l e s
a r e spaced t o o c l o s e t o g e t h e r o r a r e t o o s t i f f , e x c e s s i v e p r e s s u r e s can develop
which may r e s u l t i n l o s s o f c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e c a r r y i n g f l u i d and b r i d g i n g o f
t h e g r a v e l i n t h e w e l l b o r e . Crossover t o o l s a l s o h e l p t o reduce sand placement
problems i n h i g h - a n g l e b o r e h o l e s e s p e c i a l l y i n terms o f g r a v e l s e g r e g a t i o n (SAU-
C I E R 1974).
 794

5.8.3.2.1.2. Rubber discs

RENSVOLD & DECKER ( 1 9 7 8 ) i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f c a r r y i n g f l u i d and b o r e -
h o l e d e v i a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o l i n e r - w a s h p i p e annulus clearance o r placement o f
r u b b e r d i s c s i n t h e l i n e r - w a s h p i p e a n n u l u s . Rubber d i s c s p a c i n g i n b o r e h o l e i n -
c l i n a t i o n s up t o 60 d e g r e e s c a n b e c o n s i d e r a b l y v a r i e d in t h e r a n g e o f a c o u p l e
o f f e e t w i t h o u t having major d i f f e r e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e s . Gravel packing e f f i c i e n c y
i s a l s o i m p r o v e d when t h e s l u r r y i s d i r e c t e d t o t h e l o w e r end o f t h e i n t e r v a l
b y c o n f i n i n g f l u i d r e t u r n s t h r o u g h a b o t t o m t e l l - t a l e s c r e e n and t a i l p i p e
(RENSVOLD 1982; c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 3 . 5 . ) .

5.8.3.2.2. Large-diameter washpipes and other aspects

A n o t h e r m e c h a n i c a l means f o r a c h i e v i n g s a t i s f a c t o r y g r a v e l pack r e s u l t s i n
h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s i s t h e use o f an o v e r s i z e d l a r g e - d i a m e t e r w a s h p i p e (GRUES-
BECK, SALATHIEL & ECHOLS 1979; SHRYOCK 1980; ELSON, OARLINGTON & MANTOOTH 1984)
w h i c h a l s o a i m s on i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f f l u i d f l o w i n t h e a n n u l u s , t h e -
r e b y m a i n t a i n i n g more e f f i c i e n t g r a v e l t r a n s p o r t . The d i a m e t e r o f t h e t a i l p i p e
needed t o g r a v e l pack d e v i a t e d b o r e h o l e s depends upon w e l l b o r e g e o m e t r y , f l u i d
and s o l i d p r o p e r t i e s and f l o w r a t e . The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s f o c u s s e s on a s -
p e c t s o f f l u i d v e l o c i t y and v i s c o s i t y as w e l l as p r e v e n t i o n o f f l u i d c h a n n e l -
l i n g through t h e screen.

5.8.3.2.2.1.Fluid velocity and viscosity

R e s t r i c t i n g c l e a r a n c e between s l o t t e d l i n e r and wash p i p e m a t e r i a l l y i n c r e a -
ses t h e amount o f g r a v e l t h a t c a n be p l a c e d i n t h e c a s i n g - l i n e r a n n u l u s i n h i g h -
l y - d e v i a t e d b o r e h o l e s when a t h i n c a r r y i n g f l u i d i s u s e d (HALLIBURTON 1 9 8 8 ) .
High f l u i d velocities, however, a r e r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n g r a v e l i n s u s p e n s i o n
i n t h i n f l u i d s w h i c h may n o t be a t t a i n a b l e in d e v i a t e d o p e n - h o l e c o m p l e t i o n s i f
considerable f l u i d losses t o the formation occur.

H i g h f l u i d v i s c o s i t y has a l s o a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on i n t e r m i x i n g o f f o r m a -
t i o n sand and g r a v e l i n o p e n - h o l e c o m p l e t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . ) , because
as t h e g r a v e l dune b u i l d s u p in a h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d h o l e , a h i g h - v e l o c i t y f l o w
c h a n n e l d e v e l o p s above t h e dune i n t h e b o r e h o l e - l i n e r a n n u l u s . The s c o u r i n g e f -
f e c t o f t h i s h i g h s l u r r y v e l o c i t y on t h e e x p o s e d f o r m a t i o n c o u l d e a s i l y e n t r a i n
s u f f i c i e n t r e s e r v o i r sand i n t h e pack t o s e r i o u s l y r e d u c e i t s p e r m e a b i l i t y . On
t h e o t h e r hand, l o w pumping r a t e s w h i c h a r e made p o s s i b l e b y u s i n g a t h i c k e n e d
c a r r i e r f l u i d c o n t a i n i n g h i g h gravel concentrations would n o t o n l y reduce t h e
s c o u r i n g a c t i o n o f t h e s l u r r y , b u t would a l s o reduce f l u i d l o s s from s l u r r y t o
f o r m a t i o n and h e l p t o m a i n t a i n a more u n i f o r m s l u r r y v e l o c i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e an-
n u l u s i n t e r v a l b e i n g packed.

5.8.3.2.2.2. Prevention o f fluid channelling through the screen

A large outer-diameter t a i l p i p e is desirable t o prevent f l u i d chanii?Iling
t h r o u g h t h e s c r e e n s (ZALESKI & SPATZ 1 9 8 8 ) . The same a p p l i e s f o r a l a r g e i n n e r -
d i a m e t e r w a s h p i p e i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e p r e s s u r e on t h e f o r m a t i o n w h i l e c i r c u l a -
t i n g . I n s u f f i c i e n t r a d i a l c l e a r a n c e between t h e s c r e e n o u t e r d i a m e t e r and open
h o l e o r c a s i n g i n n e r d i a m e t e r i s a p r i m a r y cause o f p r e m a t u r e b r i d g i n g . T h e r e -
f o r e a s c r e e n and w a s h p i p e assembly i s r e q u i r e d t h a t p r o v i d e s s u f f i c i e n t c l e a -
r a n c e t o p r e v e n t b r i d g i n g and y e t does n o t impose t o o much b a c k p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h
t h e w a s h p i p e t h a t w i l l i n c r e a s e l e a k o f f i n o r d i n a t e l y . S c r e e n and w a s h p i p e
s h o u l d be s e l e c t e d b e f o r e t h e w e l l i s d r i f t e d t o e n s u r e d i m e n s i o n a l and h y d r a u -
l i c c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h t h e h o l e and r e s e r v o i r b e i n g d r i l l e d .
 795

5.8.3.2.3. Fluid viscosity and casing-liner relationship

I n o r d e r t o p e r f o r m an adequate g r a v e l p a c k i n g j o b i n h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d w e l l s ,
special l i n e r - t a i l p i p e geometrical c o n s t e l l a t i o n s are required i n conjunction
w i t h t h e o p t i m a l s l u r r y p r o p e r t i e s . Small dimensions o f l i n e r - c a s i n g annulus
can magnify t h e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o f g r a v e l s e t t l i n g , because v e r y l i t t l e compac-
t i o n i s needed t o expose t h e l i n e r . E x t e n s i v e s e t t l i n g can a l s o o c c u r by i n e f -
f e c t i v e s l u r r y d e h y d r a t i o n a t s c r e e n o u t o r s a n d o f f f o l l o w e d by c a r r i e r - f l u i d
v i s c o s i t y breakback. B a f f l e d o r o v e r s i z e d washpipes as mechanical means f o r g r a -
v e l pack enhancement, however, have i n most cases been used w i t h o n l y l i m i t e d
success.

B e t t e r e l i m i n a t i o n o f g r a v e l duning and premature s c r e e n o u t i s accomplished

by c r o s s l i n k e d polymer g r a v e l p a c k i n g f l u i d s w i t h almost z e r o g r a v e l f a l l r a t e s
(UNDERDOWN, DAS & NGUYEN 1984). Given s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h v i s c o s i t y , c r o s s l i n k e d
polymer f l u i d s t r a n s p o r t h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f g r a v e l t h r o u g h t h e t u b i n g a t
any a n g l e w i t h o n l y l i t t l e o r no s e t t l i n g o f g r a v e l even i n deep and/or h i g h l y -
d e v i a t e d w e l l s . Adequate f l u i d loss i n s u r e s compact p a c k i n g o f g r a v e l a g a i n s t
t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e . Zero g r a v e l f a l l r a t e o f t h e g e l l e d f l u i d i s a s c e r t a i n e d by
i t s t h i x o t r o p i c nature.

5.8.3.2.4. Gravel pack quality improvement

Gravel pack q u a l i t y i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s improves w i t h d e c r e a s i n g g r a v e l
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , decreasing p a r t i c l e diameter, decreasing p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y , in-
creasing f l u i d density, i n c r e a s i n g f l o w r a t e and d e c r e a s i n g c u r r e n t c a p a c i t y
between s l o t t e d l i n e r and washpipe, w i t h t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o f l o w i n t h e washpipe
annulus b e i n g t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r (GRUESBECK, SALATHIEL & ECHOLS 1979).
The impact o f wash p i p e d i a m e t e r on g r a v e l placement as a f u n c t i o n o f b o r e h o l e
i n c l i n a t i o n i s a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d b y RENSVOLD & DECKER (1978). Viscous s l u r r y
p a c k i n g i s a s u i t a b l e t e c h n i q u e f o r h i g h - a n g l e w e l l s and l o n g p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r -
v a l s , a l t h o u g h h i g h - r a t e p r e s s u r e p a c k i n g can c r e a t e c o s t l y pack c o n t a m i n a t i o n
o r r e s u l t i n premature b r i d g i n g (WALLING & STABLER 1978).

I n c r e a s i n g g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s f l o w i n g p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t above
t h e g r a v e l dune and causes more c u r r e n t i n t h e washpipe-screen annulus t h e r e b y
i n c r e a s i n g t h e tendency f o r p r e v e n t i v e b r i d g i n g (ECONOMIDES 1986). I n c r e a s e d
screen l e n g t h r e s u l t s i n g r e a t e r f l o w i n s i d e t h e screen and g r e a t e r l e a k o f f
i n t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s which cause i n c r e a s i n g dune h e i g h t and may t r i g g e r b r i d -
ging.

5.8.3.3. Perforation packing and string rotation

P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n i n d e v i a t e d w e l l s has t o be p a i d t o p a c k i n g o f p e r f o r a -
t i o n tunnels. While the p e r f o r a t i o n holes a t the lower side o f the i n c l i n e d
w e l l b o r e a r e s t i l l r e a s o n a b l y f i l l e d , c o n s i d e r a b l e problems o c c u r a t t h e upper
s i d e . Improvements o f t u n n e l p l u g g i n g w i t h g r a v e l can be made by a d j u s t i n g d i a -
meter and l e n g t h o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.6.1.) as w e l l as s p e c i f i c a l -
l y s e l e c t i n g a s u i t a b l e f i r i n g technique ( c f . sectinon 5.6.4.). Carrier f l u i d
v i s c o s i t y a l s o has an i m p o r t a n t impact, w i t h p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g a p p e a r i n g t o
be c o n t r o l l e d by s u p p l y o f g r a v e l and magnitude o f g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e s on t h e
g r a v e l p a r t i c l e s a t a l l b u t t h e h i g h e s t l e a k o f f r a t e s . Annular and p e r f o r a t i o n
p a c k i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n t e r a c t t h r o u g h screen s i z e which i s d i c t a t i n g g r a v e l p a r -
t i c l e t r a j e c t o r y and speed a t t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s , b u t p r i n -
c i p a l l y p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g i s p r i m a r i l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e p e r f o r a t i o n c h a r a c t e -
r i s t i c s and n o t by t h e d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e a n n u l a r pack (PEDEN, RUSSELL &
O Y E N E Y I N 1985). Comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on p e r f o r a t i o n phasing, p e r f o r a -
t i o n prepacking, and l i n e r v i b r a t i o n and d r i l l p i p e r o t a t i o n .
 796

5.8.3.3.1. Perforation phasing

P e r f o r a t i o n phasing i s also a c r i t i c a l issue i n highly-deviated t o horizon-
t a l b o r e h o l e s t o be g r a v e l p a c k e d (ZALESKI & SPATZ 1 9 8 8 ) . The two b a s i c a p p r o a -
ches a r e p e r f o r a t i n g o f e i t h e r t h e e n t i r e o r t h e lower h a l f circumference o f
the casing. F u l l phasing creates a b e t t e r l e a k o f f path w h i l e p l a c i n g a gravel
pack thus r e s u l t i n g i n b e t t e r completion, b u t a major disadvantage o f s h o o t i n g
the e n t i r e circumference i s formation s e t t l i n g from the high-side p e r f o r a t i o n s
w h i c h c o u l d s t i c k t h e guns, p r e v e n t a g r a v e l pack assembly f r o m g e t t i n g t o b o t -
tom, and f i l l t h e l o w - s i d e p e r f o r a t i o n s t h e r e b y n e g a t i n g t h e i r e x i s t e n c e ( N I N I
& OWEN 1 9 8 3 ) . Some a s p e c t s o f s i n g l e - v s . d o u b l e - s i d e p e r f o r a t i n g as w e l l as
p a c k i n g e f f i c i e n c y i n t o p - s i d e p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .

5.8.3.3.1.1. Single- vs. double-side perforating

As a consequence of t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d drawbacks, t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e a p p r o a c h
o f p e r f o r a t i n g t h e low s i d e o n l y i s o f t e n p r e f e r r e d , w i t h i n most cases shoot-
i n g o f two r o w s o f h o l e s a t 60 d e g r e e s t o t h e l e f t o f t h e l o w - s i d e c e n t e r l i n e
b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t . W h i l e s h o t d e n s i t y and g r a v e l f i l l u p may b e reduced, t h e p e r -
f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s w i l l n o t b e s u b j e c t e d t o f i l l f r o m t o p - s i d e h o l e s and w i l l n o t
be p l u g g e d w i t h s u r g e d d e b r i s e i t h e r , because t h e l a t t e r m a t e r i a l w i l l c o l l e c t
a t t h e v e r y b o t t o m o f t h e c a s i n g . O t h e r r e a s o n s f o r r e s t r i c t i n g p e r f o r a t i o n ho-
l e s t o t h e l o w s i d e o f t h e c a s i n g a r e a v o i d i n g o f m i x i n g o f f o r m a t i o n sand and
p a c k i n g g r a v e l w h i c h w o u l d d e s t r o y p e r m e a b i l i t y , t o p - s i d e c h a n n e l s t h a t may de-
v e l o p w i l l n o t e n d a n g e r t h e g r a v e l pack success, and e l i m i n a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r
sand f a l l i n g i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e due t o g r a v i t y and b r i d g i n g ( N I N I & OWEN 1 9 8 3 ) .

5.8.3.3.1.2. Packing efficiency in top-side perforations

A c i d i z i n g o f t e n g i v e s r i s e t o p r o d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e i n g r a v e l packed w e l l s
due t o d i s p e r s i o n and p l u g g i n g w i t h f o r m a t i o n f i n e s and as a consequence o f
v o i d s caused b y i n c o m p l e t e p e r f o r a t i o n p a c k i n g o r a c i d i z i n g (McLEOD 1986; c f .
s e c t i o n 5 . 1 1 . 4 . ) . E x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k on p e r f o r a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n a n g l e and p e r f o -
r a t i o n pack e f f i c i e n c y has shown t h a t v e r y f e w o f t h e t o p - s i d e p e r f o r a t i o n s i n
d e v i a t e d w e l l s r e m a i n packed, because f o l l o w i n g an o r i g i n a l p l u g g i n g t o some de-
gree, t h e g r a v e l i s f a l l i n g o u t o f these p e r f o r a t i o n s i n t o v o i d s i n t h e annulus
a f t e r s c r e e n o u t t e r m i n a t i o n o f g r a v e l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n (SCHROEDER 1 9 8 7 ) . P e r f o r a -
t i o n p a c k i n g w i t h i n i n c l i n e d b o r e h o l e s i s p r i m a r i l y a f f e c t e d b y an a n g u l a r r e l a -
t i o n s h i p o t h e r t h a n p e r p e n d i c u l a r o r p a r a l l e l between p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s o r c a -
v i t i e s o t h e r t h a n s p h e r i c a l and t h e p r i n c i p a l i n - s i t u s t r e s s axes (WEISSENBUR-
GER, MORITA, MARTIN & WHITFILL 1 9 8 7 ) .

5.8.3.3.2. Perforation prepacking

P e r f o r a t i o n p r e p a c k i n g w i t h g r a v e l and g e l i s a n o t h e r method f o r r e d u c i n g e x -
c e s s i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f (ZALESKI & SPATZ 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 6 . 7 . ) . The g e l i n v a -
des t h e f o r m a t i o n , s l o w s down, i n c r e a s e s i n v i s c o s i t y , and t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e
f i l l e d w i t h gravel. P e r f o r a t i o n prepacking i s p a r t i c u l a r l y b e n e f i c i a l i n high-
p e r m e a b i l i t y zones o f d e p l e t e d r e s e r v o i r s where o v e r b a l a n c e and s u b s e q u e n t l y
f l u i d loss are very high. A less desirable alternative o f reducing leakoff i s
t o introduce s o l i d s i n t o the p e r f o r a t i o n s a t the formation face, b u t w h i l e
f l u i d l o s s i s e a s i l y c o n t r o l l e d , t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s become d i f f i c u l t t o f i l l , and
t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e s o l i d s from t h e e n t i r e i n t e r v a l i s d i f f i c u l t and e x p e n s i v e .

5.8.3.3.3. Liner vibration and drill pipe rotation

Gravel packing w i t h l i n e r v i b r a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.8.4.) a l s o i s a s u i t a b l e
means o f g r a v e l pack improvement i n d e v i a t e d w e l l s (SOLUM 1 9 8 4 ) . R o t a t i n g t h e
 797

d r i l l pipe throughout the packing operation i n high-angle holes prevents gravel

f r o m l a y i n g on t h e bottom s i d e o f t h e d r i l l s t r i n g and b u i l d i n g up, c a u s i n g
b r i d g e s and e a r l y p a c k - o f f o f t h e c r o s s o v e r t o o l s as w e l l as between l i n e r and
c a s i n g . L i n e r v i b r a t i o n r e q u i r e s r o t a t i o n o f t h e d r i l l p i p e d u r i n g t h e whole
placement o p e r a t i o n , and a l l t h e g r a v e l i n s e r t e d i n t h e f l u i d stream a t t h e t o p
o f t h e w e l l s t a y s i n t h e f l u i d f l o w t o r e a c h t h e p r o d u c i n g zone.

5.8.3.4. Gravel settling

F a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g g r a v e l placement and s e t t l i n g i n c l u d e f l u i d v i s c o s i t y ,
f l u i d d e n s i t y , pumping r a t e , g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e , g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , g r a v e l
d e n s i t y , w e l l b o r e d e v i a t i o n , and downhole assembly ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 1 2 . 2 . ) .
I n a d d i t i o n t o s t r i n g r o t a t i o n , p e r f o r a t i o n tunnel packing i n h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d
w e l l b o r e s can be enhanced by d i m i n i s h i n g g r a v e l s e t t l i n g r a t e s i n t h e t r a n s p o r t
f l u i d s . Gravel s e t t l i n g i n t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d can be a s e r i o u s problem i n g r a v e l
p a c k i n g o f h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d boreholes, because a p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a -
d i e n t f r o m t h e h i g h t o t h e low s i d e o f t h e screen-casing annulus l e a d s t o i n s u f -
f i c i e n t p l u g g i n g o f t h e upper p e r f o r a t i o n s (HUDSON & MARTIN 1988). Gravel s e t t -
l i n g and g r a v e l placement can be reduced and increased, r e s p e c t i v e l y , by decrea-
sing the p a r t i c u l a t e d e n s i t y / t r a n s p o r t f l u i d density r a t i o ( c f . section
5.3.3.). Low p a r t i c u l a t e d e n s i t y / c a r r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y r a t i o s a r e o b t a i n e d by
u s i n g e i t h e r g r a v e l i n h i g h - d e n s i t y b r i n e s o r l o w - d e n s i t y g r a v e l p a c k i n g mate-
r i a l s i n commonly a p p l i e d t r a n s p o r t f l u i d s .

Gravel s e t t l i n g i n t h e s l u r r y as i t f l o w s down t h e screen-casing annulus cau-

ses a s a t u r a t i o n g r a d i e n t f r o m t h e h i g h t o t h e low s i d e o f t h e f l o w area. When
f l u i d l e a k i n g o f f t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s has o n l y low g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o r
almost no g r a v e l a t a l l such as o c c a s i o n a l l y o c c u r r i n g on t h e t o p s i d e o f t h e
annulus i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s , i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o c o m p l e t e l y pack these
p e r f o r a t i o n s . Since p a c k i n g e f f i c i e n c y i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s area i s grea-
t e r i f gravel s a t u r a t i o n i n the s l u r r y flowing i n t o the p e r f o r a t i o n s i s higher,
i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o reduce g r a v e l s e t t l i n g and t o m a i n t a i n a h i g h l e a k o f f r a t e
as t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e f o r m a t i o n . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as
f o l l o w s on low p a r t i c u l a t e d e n s i t y / c a r r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y r a t i o and impact o f
low-density gravel packing materials.

5.8.3.4.1. Low particulate density/carrier fluid density ratio

Regardless o f c a r r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y , t h e s e t t l i n g r a t e o f t h e g r a i n s decrea-
ses as t h e p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y l t r a n s p o r t f l u i d d e n s i t y r a t i o decreases, v i s c o s i t y
o f t h e s l u r r y i n c r e a s e s , and g r a i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s ( c f . s e c t i o n
5 . 3 . 3 . ) . Gravel s e t t l i n g i s t h u s reduced w i t h h i g h - v i s c o s i t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s and
systems w i t h low p a r t i c u l a t e d e n s i t y / f l u i d d e n s i t y r a t i o s . H i g h - v i s c o s i t y t r a n s -
p o r t f l u i d s do n o t g i v e t h e suspension p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d i n mixing/pumping
equipment o r under downhole c o n d i t i o n s , and polymer s a t u r a t i o n s r e q u i r e d t o
y i e l d h i g h v i s c o s i t y l e a d t o i m p a i r e d f l u i d l e a k o f f and f a l s e screenouts as
w e l l as a r e d u c t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y .

Low p a r t i c u l a t e d e n s i t y / f l u i d d e n s i t y r a t i o s can be o b t a i n e d by u s i n g h i g h -
d e n s i t y f l u i d s o r l o w - d e n s i t y p a r t i c l e s . H i g h - d e n s i t y f l u i d s c r e a t e overbalance
which l e a d s t o severe f l u i d l o s s and w e l l c o n t r o l problems. The low p a r t i c l e
d e n s i t y l c a r r i e r f l u i d d e n s i t y system u t i l i z e s buoyancy f o r c e s t o c o u n t e r g r a v i -
t a t i o n a l f o r c e s on g r a v e l p a r t i c u l a t e r a t h e r than h i g h f l u i d v i s c o s i t y t o r e -
duce g r a i n s e t t l i n g (HUDSON & MARTIN 1988). Experimental work shows t h a t com-
p l e t e p a c k i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s t h r o u g h o u t t h e screen-casing annulus i n
h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d b o r e h o l e s can be achieved by u s i n g l i g h t p a r t i c l e s w i t h a p r e f e -
r e n t i a l s p e c i f i c d e n s i t y o f 1 . 5 - 1 . 8 g/cm3 i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l
gravel-pack c a r r i e r f l u i d s ( c f . section 5.3.3.).
 798

5.8.3.4.2. Impact o f low-density gravel packing materials

The low-density p a r t i c l e s considerably e f f e c t f r i c t i o n pressure in turbule nt
c u r r e n t , while t h e i r e f f e c t i n laminar flow i s only subordinate. Improved sus-
pension given by low-density g r ai n s enables t o use lower f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and lo-
wer pumping r a t e s during placement which decreases the f r i c t i o n loss generated
by the s l u r r y flow and diminuish the pressure gra die nt between the screen-ca-
sing annulus and the screen-washpipe annulus. A lower pressure d r o p a c ross the
screen reduces s l u r r y dehydration through the screen a n d s i m i l a r l y t o using a
l a r g e r washpipe, the l i q u i d flow r a t e t h r o u g h the screen during placement i s re-
duced.

As s l u r r y dehydration through the screen increases gravel concentration in

the screen-casing annulus u n t i l screenout occurs, slowing of t h i s dehydration
process r e s u l t s in a more uniform s l u r r y s a t u r a t i o n in the annulus during place-
ment thereby e f f e c t i v e l y reducing premature screenout. The gravel pack system
u t i l i z i n g conventional f l u i d s with low-density gra ins improves p a r t i c l e t r a n s -
p o r t without the problems as s o ci at ed with high polymer loading or high-density
f l u i d s and i s t h e r ef o r e the p r ef er r ed method f o r improving gravel packing e f f i -
ciency in highly-deviated and horizontal boreholes.

5.8.3.5. Inverted gravel s l u r r y circulation

Gravel placement, s e t t l i n g a n d compaction in deviated w e lls can be conside-
r a b l y improved by inverted gravel s l u r r y c i r c u l a t i o n from bottom t o top s i m i l a r -
l y t o the procedure of casing cementing (STILES 1985; STILES, COLOMB & FARLEY
1986). I n case of normal gravel s l u r r y c i r c u l a t i o n from top t o bottom, the per-
c e n t pack i n the annulus decreases as the degree of deviation inc re a se s, be-
cause g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r ces t e n d t o cause t h e gravel t o prematurely s e t t l e out
near the upper p a r t of the zone t o be gravel packed, t h u s r e s u l t i n g i n dune f o r -
mation a t the upper e n d of the i n t e r v a l .

As the dune e nl ar g es a n d descends down the annulus, more a n d more of the c a r -

r i e r f l u i d i s d i v er t ed through the screen by f l u i d flowing over the dune which
causes s l u r r y v e l o ci t y t o d ecl i n e t h a t leads t o additional gravel s e t t l i n g ,
w i t h t h i s process continuing u n t i l the dune completely blocks flow t o the lower
portion of the a n n u l u s . When t h i s shut-off occurs, the s l u r r y f l u i d i s dive rte d
t h r o u g h the top s ect i o n of the screen and no more s l u r r y can be placed in the
annulus which w i l l adequately pack the upper se c tion b u t leave a void i n the
lower p o r t i o n . The discussion as follows i l l u s t r a t e s some a spe c ts of conventio-
nal vs, inverted gravel packing, void prevention w i t h inverted Slurry c i r c u l a -
t i o n , and comparison t o normal and reverse c i r c u l a t i o n packing.

5.8.3.5.1. Conventional vs. inverted gravel packing

I n c o n t r a s t t o conventional or normal gravel packs where gravel i s pumped
from the t o p of the i n t er v al t o the bottom, inverted gravel packing re ve rse s
the flow and gravel i s c i r c u l a t e d from the b o t t o m of the inte rva l t o the top
(STILES 1985; STILES, COLOMB & FARLEY 1986). Thus the g r a v i t y component r e l a -
t i v e t o the f l u i d component i s reversed. I n conventional gravel packs, the ver-
t i c a l component of the f l u i d i s a negative vector pointing downwards, a n d gra vi-
ty e f f e c t on p a r t i c l e s i s a l s o a negative o r downward ve c tor. As the s l u r r y i s
pumped i n t o the screen-casing annulus, the negative vector from the f l u i d flow
i s added t o the negative g r a v i t y e f f e c t , with t h i s combination of f o r c e s accele-
r a t i n g gravel s e t t l i n g r a t e and i n d i r e c t l y causing occurrence of the duning phe-
nomenon. When the s l u r r y p a t h i s reversed, the v e r t i c a l f l u i d component i s now
a n upwards-oriented o r p o s i t i v e vector which tends to cancel out the downwards-
d ir e c t e d negative vector cr eat ed by g r a v i t y and the re fore slows s e t t l i n g r a t e .

The degree of this slowing process depends on hole angle, f l u i d v i s c o s i t y

 799

and d e n s i t y , g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e . R e d u c t i o n o f t h e s e t t -
l i n g r a t e d i m i n i s h e s o r c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e s g r a v e l dune f o r m a t i o n . As t h e g r a -
v e l i s b e i n g c o n s t a n t l y bumped up t h e h o l e by f l u i d f o r c e , i t i s n o t a l l o w e d t o
s e t t l e o u t , b u t i s k e p t i n t h e f l u i d . I n s t e a d o f s e t t l i n g o u t and b e i n g deposi-
t e d on t h e low s i d e of t h e casing, t h e g r a v e l moves c o m p l e t e l y t o t h e t o p o f
t h e screen i n p l u g f l o w and does n o t accumulate a t t h e bottom o f t h e zone.

5.8.3.5.2. Void prevention with inverted slurry circulation

I n v e r t e d s l u r r y c i r c u l a t i o n a t t a c k s t h e problem o f v o i d f o r m a t i o n i n t h e g r a -
v e l pack a l s o i n l o w - d e v i a t i o n b o r e h o l e s . Movement through t h e i n t e r v a l i n p l u g
f l o w enables t h e g r a v e l t o r e a c h a l l p a r t s o f t h e s e c t i o n b e f o r e a premature
s c r e e n o u t f r o m a more permeable zone c o u l d o c c u r (STILES 1985; STILES, COLOMB &
FARLEY 1986). I n a d d i t i o n , more g r a v e l can be p l a c e d i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s
independent f r o m b o r e h o l e i n c l i n a t i o n . I n c o n v e n t i o n a l packs w i t h normal c i r c u -
l a t i o n , t h e g r a v e l i s c o n s t a n t l y f a l l i n g ahead o f t h e s l u r r y and i s d e p o s i t e d
a t t h e bottom o f t h e i n t e r v a l . A s t h i s g r a v e l b u i l d s up, t h e p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d
through t h e g r a v e l and o u t i n t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s i s reduced.

I n v e r t e d c i r c u l a t i o n does n o t i n c l u d e g r a v e l f a l l i n g ahead o f t h e s l u r r y and

accumulating a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e i n t e r v a l which keeps t h e s l u r r y m o b i l e f o r a
l o n g e r t i m e and a l l o w s i t t o be squeezed i n t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . As t h e g r a v e l
i s moving f r o m t h e bottom o f t h e zone t o t h e top, more complete d e h y d r a t i o n
e x i s t s across t h e e n t i r e screen l e n g t h , t h u s e l i m i n a t i n g t h e need f o r s e v e r a l
j o i n t s o f b l a n k t u b i n g above t h e p r o d u c t i o n screen. T h i s t e c h n i q u e i s a l s o use-
f u l i n l i f t i n g any f o r m a t i o n m a t e r i a l t h a t m i g h t have sloughed i n around t h e
screen w h i l e r u n n i n g i n t h e h o l e . The f o r m a t i o n m a t e r i a l would be c i r c u l a t e d up
t h e s c r e e n - c a s i n g annulus u n t i l i t was above t h e p r o d u c t i v e i n t e r v a l , and t h e
h i g h e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y g r a v e l pack t h e n would be c i r c u l a t e d around t h e p r o d u c t i o n
screen.

5.8.3.5.3. Conparison to normal and reverse circulation packing

I n v e r t e d g r a v e l s l u r r y c i r c u l a t i o n (STILES 1985; STILES, COLOMB & FARLEY
1988) i s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e normal c i r c u l a t i o n method which was t h e f i r s t
t e c h n i q u e o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g when mechanical sand c o n t r o l was i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e
hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y more than 60 y e a r s ago (SOLUM 1986; cf. section
5.3.2.3.2.). Normal c i r c u l a t i o n was performed by pumping g r a v e l down t h e t u b i n g
s t r i n g , t h r o u g h a f l o a t c o l l a r a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e r , and back up t h e annu-
l a r space. C l o g g i n g o f t h e f l o a t c o l l a r and t h e i n a b i l i t y t o pack t h e l i n e r t o p
were m a j o r drawbacks o f normal c i r c u l a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e w i t h t i m e r e v e r s e c i r -
c u l a t i o n was i n i t i a t e d which c o n s i s t s o f pumping t h e g r a v e l down t h e a n n u l a r
space and around t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e l i n e r .

As t h e g r a v e l reaches i t s s e t t i n g p o i n t , t h e c a r r i e r f l u i d s would c o n t i n u e
downhole and r e t u r n t o t h e s u r f a c e through a p e r f o r a t e d n i p p l e a t t h e l i n e r b o t -
tom. A f t e r c o r r e c t i o n o f e a r l y d i s c r e p a n c i e s such as b r i d g i n g o f f due t o defec-
t i v e downhole t o o l s and s u r f a c e techniques, r e v e r s e c i r c u l a t i o n became t h e mo-
d e l o f c u r r e n t g r a v e l placement procedures. The i n v e r t e d g r a v e l s l u r r y c i r c u l a -
t i o n f o r t h e s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f d e v i a t e d - w e l l g r a v e l p a c k i n g (STILES 1985;
STILES, COLOMB & FARLEY 1986) t h u s a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e r e p r e s e n t s r e v i v a l
o f t h e o r i g i n a l normal c i r c u l a t i o n method and i t s u t i l i z a t i o n i n an improved
version ( c f . section 5.3.2.3.2.).

5.8.3.6. Viscous gravel packing slurries

Good g r a v e l suspension i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s can be achieved by a p p l i c a -
t i o n o f v i s c o u s g r a v e l p a c k i n g s l u r r i e s which a r e composed o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y wa-
t e r - b a s e d polymer g e l s c o n t a i n i n g h i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s (FLANIGAN 1979).
 800

Pad s p a c e r s b o t h p r e c e d e and f o l l o w t h e s l u r r y i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t c o n t a m i n a -
t i o n o f t h e s l u r r y w i t h w e l l b o r e o r f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s . The s l u r r y o f t e n e x h i b i t s
a r o p i n g e f f e c t ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.9.1.3.3.) b y t a k i n g t h e shape o f t h e s m a l l e s t r e -
s t r i c t i o n i t p a s s e s t h r o u g h as i t p r o c e e d s down t h e d r i l l p i p e and i n t o t h e
opened h o l e . I n h i g h - a n g l e w e l l s , c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g t e n d s t o p r o d u c e
l o o s e r packs y i e l d i n g lower c a l c u l a t e d f i l l - u p s , whereas t h e v i s c o u s s l u r r y
p a c k s p r o v i d e t h e t e n d e n c y o f t h e g r a v e l t o r e s t r e s s t h e f o r m a t i o n and t h e
p a c k s become t i g h t e r t h a n b e f o r e . The u s e o f a v i s c o u s s l u r r y a l s o r e d u c e s
f l u i d t u r b u l e n c e and i n c r e a s e s g r a v e l c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y w h i c h d e c r e a s e e r o s i o n
and e s s e n t i a l l y pack f r o m t h e b o t t o m u p ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n s 5 . 8 . 5 and 5 . 8 . 7 . ) .
G r a v e l s e t t l i n g t o b o t t o m o f d r i l l p i p e and g e l p a s s i n g o v e r t h e g r a v e l make a
screenout almost impossible.

5.8.3.7. Gravel-less slotted liners and pre-packed screens

S l o t t e d l i n e r s w i t h o u t g r a v e l pack ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 3 . 6 . 1 . ) and p r e - p a c k e d
screens ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 9 . 6 . 1 . ) a r e f r e q u e n t l y p r e f e r r e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o g r a v e l
p a c k i n g i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d t o h o r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s ( Z A L E S K I & SPATZ 1 9 8 8 ) . W e l l -
b o r e c o l l a p s e , however, is generally considerably reducing productivity a l -
t h o u g h f o r m a t i o n sand i n f l u x w i l l s t i l l b e e f f e c t i v e l y s t o p p e d . The u s e o f s i o t -
t e d l i n e r s w i t h o u t g r a v e l p a c k and p r e - p a c k e d s c r e e n s t o c o n t r o l sand a n d t o
m a i n t a i n good p r o d u c t i o n m u s t be c a r e f u l l y a p p l i e d because t h e consequences o f
f i n e s m i g r a t i o n and p l u g g i n g w i l l be d i f f i c u l t i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e t o r e v e r s e . On
t h e o t h e r hand, t h e u s e o f p r e - p a c k e d s c r e e n a s s e m b l i e s e l i m i n a t e s f a i l u r e due
t o m i n o r v o i d s i n t h e pack, whereas c o n v e n t i o n a l w i r e - w r a p p e d s c r e e n s o p t i m i z e
d i m e n s i o n a l c r i t e r i a b u t a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o t o t a l f a i l u r e i f e v e n a s m a l l sec-
t i o n i s l e f t uncovered.

5.8.3.8. Other aspects

A s p e c t s o f g r a v e l pack o p e r a t i o n s i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d w e l l s a r e a l s o d i s c u s -
s e d b y MALY & ROBINSON ( 1 9 7 2 ) ; LYBARGER, SCHEUERMAN & WILLARD ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; MALY, RO-
BINSON & L A U R I E ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; HOLMAN ( 1 9 7 5 ) , NOVOTNY & MATSON ( 1 9 7 5 ) , FARMIGIANO
( 1 9 7 6 ) , ANDERSON & HUTCHINSON ( 1 9 7 8 ) , RENSVOLD & DECKER ( 1 9 7 8 ) , WALLING & STAB-
LER ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; GRUESBECK, S A L A T H I E L & ECHOLS ( 1 9 7 9 ) ; SHRYOCK ( 1 9 8 0 ) , HODGE ( 1 9 8 2 ) ;
PEDEN, RUSSELL & OYENEYIN ( 1 9 8 2 , 1984, 1 9 8 5 ) ; TORREST ( 1 9 8 2 b ) ; BALLEGOOYEN,
G I A P & SENG ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; N I N I & OWEN ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; ELSON, DARLINGTON & MANTOOTH ( 1 9 8 4 ) ;
H A I L E Y ( 1 9 8 4 ) , NADERI (1984); UNDEROOWN, OAS & NGUYEN ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; OYENEYIN & PEDEN
( 1 9 8 5 ) and SCHROEDER ( 1 9 8 7 ) . TOMA, L I V E S E Y & H E I D R I C K ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; D I C K I N S O N & ANDER-
SON ( 1 9 8 7 ) and GROSSMANN, HOFLING & MARX ( 1 9 8 8 ) comment on g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n ho-
r i z o n t a l b o r e h o l e s , and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n h i g h l y - i n c l i n e d w e l l s i s a n a l y -
zed b y YEW & L I ( 1 9 8 7 ; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 1 1 . ) . S T I L E S , COLOMB & FARLEY ( 1 9 8 6 )
d e s c r i b e a g r a v i t y - a s s i s t e d g r a v e l p a c k i n g system. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e c o n v e n t i o -
n a l method o f f i r s t p e r f o r a t i o n and second g r a v e l pack, H A I L E Y , DONOVAN &
S I C K L E ( 1 9 8 5 ) i n t r o d u c e an i n t e g r a t e d s y s t e m r e q u i r i n g o n l y one t r i p i n t o t h e
b o r e h o l e f o r p e r f o r m a n c e o f b o t h o p e r a t i o n s . SCRIMGEOUR & SHEPHERD ( 1 9 8 8 ) r e -
p o r t successful g r a v e l packing from a semisubmersible even i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d
w e l l s i n t h e N o r t h Sea.

5.8.4. Gravel packing with liner vibration

SOLUM ( 1 9 8 4 ) p r e s e n t s sand c o n t r o l o p t i m i z a t i o n b y p e r f o r m a n c e o f g r a v e l
packing w i t h l i n e r v i b r a t i o n which provides a substantial d i f f e r e n c e i n gravel
compaction. Standard gravel packing r e s u l t s i n cubic aggregation o f t h e p a r t i c -
l e s , whereas t h e l i n e r v i b r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e l e a d s t o h e x a g o n a l p a c k i n g o f t h e
g r a v e l w h i c h g i v e s a d e n s e r and more s t a b l e p a c k w i t h a b t . 15 - 25 % more g r a -
v e l i n t h e same volume. The o u t l i n e a s f o l l o w s f o c u s s e s on c o m p e n s a t i o n o f i n i -
t i a l u n d e r c o m p a c t i o n by b l a n k l i n e r s e c t i o n , p r e v e n t i o n o f a f t e r - p a c k g r a v e l
s e t t l i n g , a c h i e v e m e n t o f optimum p a c k i n g d e n s i t y b y l i n e r v i b r a t i o n , and g r a v e l
 801

and p e r f o r a t i o n washing.

5.8.4.1. Cornpensat ion o f i n i t i a l under compact ion

by blank 1i n e r sect ion
Conventional f l o w - t y p e g r a v e l p a c k i n g w h i c h i s w i d e l y a p p l i e d i n hydrocarbon
e x p l o i t a t i o n s i n c e o v e r 50 y e a r s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an a f t e r - p a c k s e t t l i n g o f
t h e g r a v e l due t o i t s i n i t i a l undercompaction which i s commonly compensated by
i n f i l l i n g t h e annulus a l l a l o n g t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l o r open-hole segment
p l u s a r e s e r v e b l a n k s e c t i o n above i t o f a b t . 10 - 1 5 % o f t h e l i n e r l e n g t h o r
b a r e f o o t i n t e r v a l ( g r a v e l s e t t l i n g can be i n extreme cases up t o 25 % ) , i n o r -
d e r t o guarantee complete coverage o f t h e p e r f o r a t e d s e c t i o n by g r a v e l a l s o a f -
t e r d i m i n u t i o n o f o r i g i n a l g r a v e l h e i g h t as a consequence o f subsequent s e t t -
l i n g by compaction ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5.3.2.4.3.). E x t r a g r a v e l above t h e w i r e -
wrapped screen o r s l o t t e d l i n e r i s a l s o necessary t o compensate f o r a p o s s i b l e
l o s s o f g r a v e l f r o m t h e annulus through t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n
(RENSVOLD 1982).

A c i r c u l a t i n g pack r e q u i r e s 90 - 120 f t o f minimum b l a n k s e c t i o n i n o r d e r t o

y i e l d a 60 f t r e s e r v e i n t e r v a l o f g r a v e l above t h e screen which i s c o n s i d e r e d
as t h e minimum d e s i r a b l e e x t r a i n t e r v a l (LEDLOW, SAUER & T I L L 1985). The r e q u i -
r e d r e s e r v e h e i g h t i n c r e a s e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y i f a l a r g e - d i a m e t e r open h o l e i s un-
derreamed ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.10.2.). A s t r a i g h t squeeze pack a l s o needs more b l a n k
section t o allow f o r incomplete s l u r r y dehydration o r gel-out. A combination o f
squeezing and c i r c u l a t i n g p e r m i t s b e t t e r placement and m i n i m i z e s t h e l e n g t h o f
t h e r e q u i r e d b l a n k s e c t i o n . The number of t i m e s t h e screen l e n g t h necessary f o r
the blank i n t e r v a l i s a f u n c t i o n o f gravel concentration i n the s l u r r y ( c f .
a l s o s e c t i o n 5.3.2.4.3.).

5.8.4.2. Prevention o f after-pack gravel s e t t l i n g

After-pack g r a v e l s e t t l i n g p r o v i d e s d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e i n s i d e g r a v e l pack by
r o t a t i o n and movement o f g r a i n s , s l i p p i n g o f t h e package a l o n g b o r e h o l e w a l l o r
p e r f o r a t e d casing, and s l i d i n g a l o n g s l o t s and i n t e r w i r e spacings i n screen and
l i n e r (LEDLOW, SAUER & T I L L 1985). Excessive a f t e r - p a c k g r a v e l s e t t l i n g can p r o -
voke p a r t i a l e f f l u x o f g r a v e l f r o m t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i f t h e i r mouths a r e
n o t c o n t i n u o u s l y t i g h t l y covered by t h e i n s i d e g r a v e l mantle, b u t a r e s u b j e c t e d
t o s l i g h t underbalance as a consequence o f g r a v e l slumping which may l a s t o n l y
f o r s h o r t time, b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s may be a l r e a d y s u f f i c i e n t t o e n a b l e t h e hydro-
carbon stream t o s p i l l o u t some m a t e r i a l , w i t h g r a v e l e v a c u a t i o n o f t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n t u n n e l s t h u s b e i n g t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e g r a v e l pack damage ( c f . s e c t i o n s
5.6.1. and 5 . 6 . 4 . ) .

The w e l l b o r e w a l l i n open h o l e s may be loosened s u r f i c i a l l y by s l i d i n g g r a -

v e l , and f o r m a t i o n sand may become i n t e r m i x e d w i t h t h e moving and r o t a t i n g g r a -
v e l g r a i n p o p u l a t i o n t h e r e b y d e t e r i o r a t i n g i t s p e r m e a b i l i t y . S l o t s and i n t e r -
w i r e spacings i n screen o r l i n e r may be m e c h a n i c a l l y damaged due t o g r i n d i n g by
t h e slumping g r a v e l . As a l l these e f f e c t s a r e u n d e s i r a b l e , g r a v e l s e t t l i n g a f -
t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e pack and a f t e r s t a r t - u p o f hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n has
t o be reduced t o a minimum. The e f f e c t o f a f t e r - p a c k s e t t l i n g , however, can
o n l y be p r e v e n t e d by c o n v e r t i n g t h e g r a i n f a b r i c f r o m c u b i c t o hexagonal which
i s achieved by l i n e r v i b r a t i o n w i t h s u f f i c i e n t a m p l i t u d e d u r i n g t h e placement
p e r i o d t h a t e l i m i n a t e s subsequent compaction (SOLUM 1984).

5.8.4.3. Achievement o f optimum pack density by l i n e r v i b r a t i o n

L i n e r v i b r a t i o n d u r i n g g r a v e l pack i n s t a l l a t i o n and s e t t l i n g reduces p o r e
s i z e o r i n t e r s t i t i a l tube s i z e o f t h e g r a v e l which c r e a t e s s t a b i l i t y and g i v e s
s u b s t a n t i a l l y more c o n t r o l w i t h t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n sand t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l
 802
cubic pack (SOLUM 1984). When t r u e hexagonal packing i s achieved by enhanced
compaction due t o l i n e r v i b r a t i o n , t h er e i s a bsolute ly no movement of the g r a -
vel a f t e r the flow pack i s completed because f u r t h e r compaction i s not pos-
s i b l e , w i t h t h u s the primary gravel pack not s e t t l i n g a t a l a t e r da te i n the
production h i st o ry of the wel l . Compaction depends on the e f f e c t i v e v e r t i c a l
length of l i n e r v i b r at i o n and on the r o t a t i n g type t o transmit the vibra tion
energy t h r o u g h the f l u i d t o the g r a v e l . Some aspects of l i n e r vibra tion i n g r a -
vel packing as well as f o r pump p r o t ect i n g pre-packed l i n e r s and in primary ce-
menting a r e o u t l i n ed as follows.

5.8.4.3.1. Gravel packing

SOLUM, RAMEZANI & MIMS (1988) i n v e s t i g a t e e f f e c t s of vibra tion on degree of
compaction a n d r a t e of f l u i d l o s s t o the formation during the gravel placement
process. Vibration s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduces the degree of f l u i d l o s s required t o
f i l l the p e r f o r at i o n tubes with the packing agent, a n d an a dditiona l 10 %
amount o f gravel can be placed i n the p er f o r ation tunnel with the help of vibra-
t i o n . A t the minimum f l u i d l o s s r a t e required to f i l l the pe rfora tion hole with
v i b r a t i o n , no gravel could be placed i n i t without v i b r a t i o n .

While o r i g i n a l l i n e r v i b r at i o n aims on improvement of packing de nsity of the

primary gravel pack d u r i n g course of i t s i n s t a l l a t i o n p r i o r t o onset of hydro-
carbon production, wi r el i n e t o o l s capable of vibra tion a re s u i t a b l e i n s t r u -
ments f o r secondary ap p l i cat i o n f o r r e p a i r purposes a t any l a t e r sta ge of well
l i f e between post-completion q u a l i t y monitoring by logging a n d workover opera-
tio n s in case of subsequent problems. The wi re line vibra tion t o o l s transmit a gi-
t a t i o n t o the f l u i d by r eci p r o cat i o n which passes vibra tion pulses t o the a n n u -
l u s , and e x c i t a t i o n of the gravel t o g et h er w i t h g r a v i t a t i o n a l forc e s enables
s e t t l i n g and compaction of the gravel ( D R E S S E R ATLAS 1987). Some instruments
a r e even a b l e t o perform co n t r o l l ed explosions t o emit stronge r pulses in order
t o shake down the pack (SCHLUMBERGER 1988 a; c f . se c tion 6 . 3 . 1 . 2 . ) .

5.8.4.3.2. Pump protecting pre-packed liners

Another a p p l i cat i o n of l i n e r v i b r at i o n i n sand control i s achievement of he-
xagonal gravel packing in pump p r o t ect o r s representing a spe c ia l type of pre-
packed l i n e r s f o r t r a p p i n g and r et en t i o n of f l o u r - l i k e formation f i n e s (SOLUM &
RAMEZANI 1987; c f . s ect i o n 5 . 9 . 6 . 1 . ) . The pump prote c tors c o n s i s t of a s l o t t e d
o u t e r sleeve a n d a s l o t t e d base pipe which are gravel packed a s a f i l t e r me-
d i u m , w i t h i n t e r s t i t i a l tube s i z e being s e le c te d such t h a t i t i s smaller t h a n
the powder-size m a t e r i a l . Generation of hexagonal packing by vibra tion p r i o r t o
pump p r o t e c t o r i n s t a l l a t i o n in the well reduces i n t e r s t i t i a l gravel tube s i z e
and thus permits choice of l a r g e r gravel g r ain diameters.

5.8.4.3.3. Primary cementing

Si m i l a r l y a s gravel s e t t l i n g and compaction can be enhanced by l i n e r vibra -
t i o n , primary cementing can be improved by casing vibra tion d u r i n g cement cu-
r i n g time ( C O O K E , GONZALEZ & BROUSSARD 1985). The e f f e c t of v i b r a t i o n i s t o de-
crease o r e l i mi n at e gel s t r en g t h of the curing cement s l u r r y which then flows
downward t o compensate f o r shrinkage a n d r e e s t a b l i s h e s the hydrosta tic head of
the cement. Casing v i b r at i o n can prevent pore f l u i d e ntry i n t o the annulus be-
f o r e the cement cures and increase the r ad i al s t r e s s a t the i n t e r f a c e between
formation a n d cured cement.
 803

5.8.4.4. Gravel and perforation washing

Conventional methods o f i n c r e a s i n g g r a v e l compaction by s e t t l i n g i n c l u d e p e r -
f o r a t i o n washing and subsequent g r a v e l repacking, b u t t h i s t r e a t m e n t always r e -
s u l t s i n p r o d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n by r e d u c t i o n o f f l o w r a t e s , because t h e
washing o f t h e pack commingles t h e g r a v e l w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n sand and decreases
t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e pack ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5 . 2 . 3 . 8 . ) . L i n e r and g r a v e l pack
washing f o r i m p r o v i n g g r a v e l s e t t l i n g can mix t h e g r a v e l w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n
sand and any v o i d areas which may have o c c u r r e d due t o s e t t l i n g may be f i l l e d
w i t h f o r m a t i o n sand and f i n e s (FLANIGAN 1979). Both w a t e r and j e t p e r f o r a t i o n
washing c a n n o t c o n v e r t t h e c u b i c g r a i n f a b r i c i n t o a hexagonal framework and
t h u s remain v e r y i n e f f e c t i v e i n terms o f g r a v e l s e t t l i n g , l e t a l o n e t h e d e t r i -
mental consequence on hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n . As washing a l s o r e s u l t s i n f l u f -
f i n g o f t h e g r a v e l which may even l e a d t o decreasing compaction, p e r f o r a t i o n
washing s h o u l d be avoided a f t e r v i b r a t i o n g r a v e l placement.

Gravel pack washing can even r e s u l t i n r e v e r s i n g o f t h e g r a v e l o u t o f t h e

packed i n t e r v a l through t h e c r o s s o v e r (ELSON, OARLINGTON & MANTOOTH 1984). Com-
ments on p e r f o r a t i o n cleanup a r e a l s o o f f e r e d b y BONOMO & YOUNG (1983). Proper
g r a v e l s e t t l i n g i s a l s o v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r w e l l s where w a t e r o r steam i n j e c t i o n
p r e s s u r e i s exceeding overburden pressure, because u n l e s s t h e g r a v e l i s comple-
t e l y c o n s o l i d a t e d , i t would break down. A l l these aspects argue f o r widespread
a p p l i c a t i o n of l i n e r v i b r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e downhole performance o f t h e
g r a v e l pack (SOLUM 1984).

5.8.5. Concentrated gravel slurry pumping

SPARLIN & BOND (1969) and SPARLIN & COPELAND (1972) i n t r o d u c e t h e concept o f
adding r e s i n as t a c k i f y i n g agent t o h i g h - v i s c o s i t y s l u r r i e s w i t h h i g h g r a v e l sa-
t u r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o promote p l u g f l o w o f t h e s l u r r y by making t h e i n d i v i d u a l
g r a v e l g r a i n s s t i c k y . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on b e t t e r g r a v e l
t r a n s p o r t and t i g h t e r g r a v e l p a c k i n g as w e l l as t a c k i f y i n g a c t i o n o f i n t e r m i x e d
resin.

5.8.5.1. Better gravel transport and tighter gravel packing

I n a d d i t i o n t o m i n i m i z a t i o n o f m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand ( c f . sec-
t i o n 5.2.2.2.), o t h e r advantages o f u s i n g h i g h - v i s c o s i t y t r a n s p o r t media a r e
t h e t i g h t e r p a c k i n g o f t h e g r a v e l as i t i s squeezed t h r o u g h t h e pack and t h e
b e t t e r c a r r y i n g p r o p e r t i e s which p r o v i d e good r a d i a l and v e r t i c a l g r a v e l d i s t r i -
b u t i o n (SPARLIN & BOND 1969, SPARLIN & COPELAND 1972). The g r e a t e r f l u i d d r a g
on t h e g r a v e l p a r t i c l e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s i s much more e f f e c -
t i v e l y pushing t h e l o o s e r e s e r v o i r sand back from t h e w e l l b o r e , and t h u s t i g h -
t e r p a c k i n g t h e g r a v e l i n place, much b e t t e r suspending t h e g r a v e l , and t h e r e b y
r e d u c i n g t h e amount o f f l u i d l o s s t o t h e f o r m a t i o n . F l u i d v i s c o s i t y has t o be
h i g h enough t o suspend t h e g r a v e l b u t a l s o s u f f i c i e n t l y low t o a l l o w f o r pump-
i n g o f t h e s l u r r y . I f t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e s l u r r y i s t o o low, a screenout i n -
s i d e t h e c a s i n g c o u l d be t h e r e s u l t , and i f t h e v i s c o s i t y i s t o o high, t o o much
f r i c t i o n pressure might occur.

5.8.5.2. Tackifying action o f intermixed resin

I n c o n t r a s t t o c o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n o r a r t i f i c i a l b o r e h o l e w a l l
placement ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 1 . ) as w e l l as pumping o f r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l ( c f .
section 5.8.2.), t h e amount o f r e s i n i n t e r m i x e d i n t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d g r a v e l
s l u r r y i s so low t h a t t h e r e s i n does n o t s o l i d i f y and i s washed o u t s l o w l y w i t h
production f l u i d s , b u t e x e r t s i t s s t a b i l i z i n g r o l e d u r i n g downhole pumping o f
t h e s l u r r y where s u f f i c i e n t cohesion i s g i v e n t o secure p l u g f l o w (SPARLIN &
BONO 1969, SPARLIN & COPELANO 1972). The t a c k i f y i n g r e s i n i s n o t e a s i l y washed
 804

o f f o f t h e g r a v e l d u r i n g b l e n d i n g and placement, b u t h o l d s t h e g r a v e l i n p o s i -
t i o n w h i l e t h e screen i s b e i n g washed i n and h e l p s t o r e s t r i c t w a t e r b u t n o t
o i l production a f t e r completion o f the job.

The r e s i n i s added i n b u l k t o t h e s l u r r y c o n s i s t i n g o f c a r r i e r f l u i d and sus-

pended c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a v e l t h a t i s n o t surrounded by r e s i n p e l l i c l e s , i n con-
t r a s t t o c u r a b l e r e s i n - c o a t e d sand o r proppants where t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r a v e l
g r a i n s a r e enveloped by r e s i n f i l m s t h a t s t a r t t o become a c t i v e by thermoreac-
t i o n once p l a c e d i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , which i n t u r n i s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e concen-
t r a t e d g r a v e l s l u r r y where t h e i n t e r m i x e d r e s i n component b e g i n s i t s t a c k i f y i n g
a c t i o n a l r e a d y d u r i n g i n j e c t i o n o f t h e m i x t u r e i n t o t h e w e l l . Gravel c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s up t o 20 l b s / g a l o f f l u i d have been s u c c e s s f u l l y handled by c o n c e n t r a t e d
s l u r r y o p e r a t i o n ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 1 . 1 . ) . The s l u r r y i s pumped w i t h slow
r a t e s u n t i l screenout o c c u r s . Aspects o f s l u r r y p a c k i n g o f deep h i g h - p r e s s u r e
w e l l s a r e o u t l i n e d by CLAWSON & SPARLIN ( 1 9 7 5 ) .

5 . 8 . 6 . Density slurry and foam gravel packing

SHRYOCK, AHMAD, MELOY & KENT (1988) p r e s e n t reduced d e n s i t y s l u r r y and foam
g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n steam-drive o p e r a t i o n s i n s h a l l o w underpressured u n c o n s o l i d a -
t e d sands. Foam i s a v i a b l e f l u i d f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g where l o s t c i r c u l a t i o n p r e -
vents t h e use o f h i g h e r - d e n s i t y f l u i d s . Foam g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s a l s o o u t l i n e d by
ELSON & ANDERSON (1982).

5 . 8 . 7 . Viscous polymer gravel packing and deposit buildup

Gravel p a c k i n g w i t h v i s c o u s polymer s o l u t i o n s i s i n many ways d i f f e r e n t f r o m
p a c k i n g w i t h suspensions i n w a t e r (TORREST 1982 a ) . Polymer suspensions a r e
much more c o n c e n t r a t e d so t h a t g r a v e l can be p l a c e d w i t h l e s s f l u i d and pumping
time. Dense c o n c e n t r a t e d s l u r r i e s e x h i b i t complex d i s p e r s a l and s e t t l i n g p a t -
t e r n s w i t h i n t h e b o r e h o l e . D u r i n g placement, i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n
a r e d i f f e r e n t and d e p o s i t s o r i g i n a t e w i t h i n t h e w e l l b o r e a t t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s
and on t h e wire-wrapped screen. The s l u r r y i s pumped away t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r , and a f t e r t h e g r a v e l b r i d g e s a g a i n s t t h e f o r m a t i o n ma-
t e r i a l and f i l l s t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , d e p o s i t s a r e generated w i t h i n t h e b o r e h o l e .
Viscous s l u r r y p a c k i n g has p a r t i c u l a r l y good r e s u l t s i n h i g h - a n g l e w e l l s and
l o n g p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l s (WALLING & STABLER 1978), b u t on t h e o t h e r hand,
h i g h - r a t e p r e s s u r e p a c k i n g can c r e a t e c o s t l y pack c o n t a m i n a t i o n o r g i v e r i s e t o
premature b r i d g i n g .

The b e s t i n s i d e g r a v e l pack i s one t h a t can be p l a c e d w i t h reasonable proce-

dures and w i l l m a i n t a i n i t s i n t e g r i t y d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h such a g r a v e l
pack n o t h a v i n g i n t e r n a l v o i d s o r e x c e s s i v e p o r o s i t y and p r e v e n t i n g i n v a s i o n o f
f o r m a t i o n sand o r development o f open f l o w channels f r o m r e s e r v o i r t o screen.

5 . 8 . 7 . 1 . General aspects
Deposit buildup i n s i d e the wellbore i s a prominent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c during p l a -
cement when v i s c o u s polymer s o l u t i o n s a r e used f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g , w i t h t h e se-
diments growing from t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s back t o t h e wire-wrapped screen o r s l o t -
t e d l i n e r as w e l l as i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , w i t h t h e r e b y i n t h e w o r s t case depo-
s i t s growing f r o m e i t h e r s i d e meeting i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e annulus (WALLING &
STABLER 1978, TORREST 1982 a ) . As t h e sediments e n l a r g e i n t h e annulus, r e s i s -
tance t o f l u i d f l o w i n c r e a s e s and some o f t h e f l u i d w i l l be d i v e r t e d through
t h e wire-wrapped screen. Because t h i s f l u i d c a r r i e s g r a v e l i n suspension, an an-
n u l a r d e p o s i t forms on t h e screen. W i t h i n c r e a s i n g f l u i d v e l o c i t y i n t h e annu-
l u s due t o sediment b u i l d u p , t h e r e i s a tendency f o r d e p o s i t growth t o be s e l f -
l e v e l l i n g and even f o r p a r t s o f t h e sediments t o be washed away. W i t h steady i n -
j e c t i o n o f a v i s c o u s suspension, a more o r l e s s c o m p l i c a t e d d e p o s i t i o n a l p a t -
 805

t e r n e v o l v e s i n t h e w e l l b o r e annulus t h a t i s t r a n s i e n t i n t i m e and p l a c e .

The n a t u r e o f t h e sediment b u i l d u p s and i n t e r a c t i o n may l e a d t o v a r i a t i o n s

i n a n n u l a r pack p o r o s i t y w i t h subsequent adverse consequences f o r sand c o n t r o l
and/or w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y . I n some cases, b r i d g i n g o f t h e d e p o s i t s p r i o r t o com-
p l e t e f i l l i n g may l e a d t o erroneous screenout i n d i c a t i o n s and inadequate g r a v e l
placement. The a p p a r e n t l y s i m p l e process o f v i s c o u s g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s i n r e a l i -
t y a complex sequence o f sediment b u i l d u p and r e a d j u s t m e n t t h a t i s t r a n s i e n t i n
b o t h t i m e and space. Gravel nodes a r e formed i n s i d e t h e w e l l b o r e a t t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s and a n n u l a r d e p o s i t s appear on t h e wire-wrapped screen.

I n c o n t r a s t t o v i s c o u s polymer f l u i d s , g r a v e l packs f i l l f r o m b o r e h o l e annu-

l u s b o t t o m upwards when u s i n g w a t e r o r o t h e r l o w - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s . The o u t l i n e
as f o l l o w s focusses on n o d u l a r and a n n u l a r d e p o s i t b u i l d u p a t t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s
and on t h e screen, r e s p e c t i v e l y , as w e l l as on b e n e f i t s o f h i g h c a r r i e r f l u i d
v i scosi ty .

5.8.7.2. Nodular deposit buildup at the perforations

With w a t e r a t t y p i c a l p e r f o r a t i o n f l o w r a t e s , d e p o s i t b u i l d u p a t t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n s i n s i d e t h e w e l l b o r e i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t and has l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on downward
g r a v e l suspension f l o w on t h e annulus (WALLING & STABLER 1978, TORREST 1982 a ) .
W i t h polymer s o l u t i o n s , t h e n o d u l a r sediments a r e much l e s s symmetrical t h a n
w i t h w a t e r and f a r more t o p heavy. Gravel nodes l a i d down by v i s c o u s polymer
f l u i d s have h i g h p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y as evidenced by t h e r e l a t i v e l y low
p r e s s u r e drops i n c o n t r a s t t o nodes p l a c e d by w a t e r f l o w which d i s p l a y low p o r o -
s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y as r e f l e c t e d by h i g h p r e s s u r e drops. When t h e d e p o s i t r e a -
ches t h e wire-wrapped screen, t h e s o l u t i o n f l o w w i l l t e n d t o f o l l o w t h i s shor-
t e s t p a t h r e g a r d l e s s o f how much l a r g e r t h e node sediment would grow up and
down t h e w e l l b o r e annulus.

Thus even though f l u i d i s pumped away i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n w i t h no i n t e n d e d

c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e wire-wrap, b r i d g i n g o f nodes across t h e annulus w i l l assure
some f l o w i n t o t h e wire-wrap d u r i n g packing. Even w i t h u n i f o r m p e r f o r a t i o n c u r -
r e n t , t h e e x t e n t o f node b u i l d u p v a r i e s a l o n g t h e i n t e r v a l because o f v a r y i n g
downflow r a t e s . Node b u i l d u p s a t a d j a c e n t p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e soon merging and may
l e a d t o b r i d g i n g a t some depth o f t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l where t h e downflow
r a t e has been s u f f i c i e n t l y reduced.

5.8.7.3. Annular deposit buildup on the screen

S i m i l a r l y as polymer s l u r r y b u i l d s nodes a t t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , a n n u l a r depo-
s i t s f o r m on t h e screen w i t h f l o w through t h e wire-wrap. A t e l e v a t e d c u r r e n t r a -
t e s through t h e screen, t h e t h i c k a n n u l a r l a y e r i s r a p i d l y p e e l i n g away i n t o
t h e channel w i t h o n l y a v e r y t h i n l a y e r o f beads r e m a i n i n g on t h e screen (WAL-
LING & STABLER 1978, TORREST 1982 a ) . F o r s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t i n i t i a l annulus de-
p o s i t t h i c k n e s s e s , t h e b u l k f a l l - a w a y always occurs a t more o r l e s s t h e same
f l u i d r a t e l e v e l , and presumably w i t h a h i g h enough downflow r a t e , a h i g h e r
screen f l o w r a t e i s r e q u i r e d t o r e t a i n t h e a n n u l a r d e p o s i t .

W i t h node b u i l d u p and i n t e r a c t i o n a t some d i s t a n c e i n t o t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r -

v a l , t h e a n n u l a r f l o w i s p a r t i a l l y d i v e r t e d i n t o t h e screen t h e r e b y b u i l d i n g a
d e p o s i t on i t which i n t e r a c t s w i t h nodes h i g h e r i n t h e pack t h a t had n o t y e t
reached t h e screen. T h i s process c o u l d l e a d t o a s u b s t a n t i a l b r i d g e i n t h e up-
p e r p o r t i o n o f t h e pack, w i t h t h e annulus b e i n g o n l y p a r t i a l l y f i l l e d below, o r
t h e p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p w i t h f l o w t h r o u g h t h e a n n u l a r sediment i n t h e upper sec-
t i o n could lead t o channelling through the previously bridged deposit a t the
p e r f o r a t i o n s . W i t h a17 t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s t a k i n g some f l o w , sediments w i l l b u i l d
back from p e r f o r a t i o n t h r o a t s t o t h e screen and t h e n e n l a r g e . The suspension
f l o w must now f o l l o w a w i n d i n g p a t h w i t h some p a r t i a l bypass t h r o u g h t h e
screen, t h e r e b y b u i l d i n g a d e p o s i t t h e r e . P e r f o r a t i o n s e d i m e n t s soon merge, and
w i t h the gravel-coated screen reducing t h e f l o w cross-sectional area i n what i s
l e f t o f t h e annulus, a narrow s p i r a l channel develops along t h e w e l l b o r e w i t h a
h i g h v e l o c i t y e r o s i v e f l o w t e n d i n g t o keep i t open u n d e r s t e a d y c o n d i t i o n s .

I n t e r m s o f g e o m e t r y o f node b u i l d u p and i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e d e p o s i t nas a non-

u n i f o r m p o r o s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n d u r i n g p l a c e m e n t i n t h e b o r e h o l e , as s e d i m e n t s
b u i l d f r o m p e r f o r a t i o n t o s c r e e n and e n l a r g e l a t e r a l l y and f r o m above. F i l l i n g
i n o f t h e open zone j u s t b e l o w t h e p e r f o r a t i o n node o c c u r s a t r e l a t i v e l y l o w ve-
l o c i t y and s u g g e s t s h i g h e r p o r o s i t y .

5.8.7.4. Benefits of high carrier fluid viscosity

V i s c o u s c a r r i e r f l u i d s i n g r a v e l p a c k i n g have o f t e n t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t t h e
h i g h v i s c o s i t y m i n i m i z e s t u r b u l e n c e beyond t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l and t h e r e f o r e
r e d u c e s m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand (WALLING & STABLER 1978, TORREST
1982 a ) . On t h e o t h e r hand, however, h i g h f l u i d v i s c o s i t y l i m i t s f l u i d l e a k o f f
t o t h e f o r m a t i o n ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 1 . 1 . ) . W i t h o u t g r a v e l p l a c e m e n t o u t be-
y o n d t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l t o p r o v i d e a r e s e r v e d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n , any e x t r a
p o r o s i t y i n t h e a n n u l a r pack w i l l a l l o w p r o d u c t i o n f l o w s t o p u s h g r a v e l back
i n t o t h e a n n u l u s w h i c h in t u r n c a n l e a v e t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l o n l y p a r t l y
f u l l o f g r a v e l , thus t r i g g e r i n g o r p r o v o k i n g subsequent f i l l i n g w i t h f o r m a t i o n
sand, p e r m e a b i l i t y i m p a i r m e n t and l o s s o f p r o d u c t i v i t y . I n more s e v e r e cases,
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l may be l e f t open and a c h a n n e l f o r m e d f r o m p e r f o r a t i o n
t o s c r e e n w i t h sand p r o d u c t i o n and s c r e e n e r o s i o n .

W i t h v i s c o u s p o l y m e r s o l u t i o n s , n o d u l a r g r a v e l d e p o s i t s grow f r o m t h e p e r f o -
r a t i o n t u n n e l i n l e t back i n t o t h e a n n u l u s a t l o w l e a k o f f r a t e s . These s e d i m e n t s
a r e r e t a i n e d w i t h l o w p r e s s u r e d r o p and t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r g r o w t h depends o n
t h e i n t e r p l a y between p e r f o r a t i o n and a n n u l a r f l o w r a t e as w e l l as s o l u t i o n v i s -
c o s i t y . M o s t o f t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e d e p o s i t o c c u r s in t h e he-
m i s p h e r e j u s t beyond t h e i n l e t t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l . G r a v e l nodes r e a d i l y
grow back t o t h e s c r e e n , and t h e n i n c r e a s e d r e s i s t a n c e t o a n n u l a r d o w n f l o w c a u -
ses some f l u i d t o be d i v e r t e d t h r o u g h t h e s c r e e n t h e r e b y b u i l d i n g an a n n u l a r
g r a v e l s e d i m e n t . The o v e r a l l p r o c e s s of g r a v e l pack b u i l d u p w i t h v i s c o u s s o l u -
t i o n s i s one o f c o n t i n u a l d e p o s i t g r o w t h , i n t e r a c t i o n , r e a r r a n g e m e n t and e r o -
s i o n w h i c h i s t r a n s i e n t i n b o t h t i m e and p o s i t i o n . The l o c a l i z e d and n o n - u n i -
f o r m s e d i m e n t b u i l d u p l e a d s t o v a r i a t i o n s i n a n n u l a r pack p o r o s i t y . G r a v e l p a c k
r e s p o n s e t o f l u i d p r o d u c t i o n w i l l be s e n s i t i v e t o t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s and t h e i r
consequences.

5.8.8. Prevention of proppant flowback by fracture tail-in

H y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g performance f r e q u e n t l y s u f f e r s f r o m subsequent crack
c o n d u c t i v i t y d e t e r i o r a t i o n due t o p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k o u t o f t h e f r a c t u r e mouth
i n t o the wellbore ( c f . section 4.12.3.). T a i l i n g - i n o f coarser proppants i n the
p r o x i m a l s e c t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e f o l l o w i n g pumping o f f i n e r p r o p p a n t s i n t o t h e
m a i n p o r t i o n o f t h e c r a c k c o m p r i s i n g t h e m e d i a l and d i s t a l p a r t s o f t h e w i n g i s
a s u i t a b l e t e c h n i q u e t o h o l d back t h e p r o p p a n t s and p r e v e n t t h e i r m i g r a t i o n i n
a c o m p a r a b l e manner t o g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n h i b i t i n g advance o f r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n
sand ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . ) . I n c a s e of p r o p e r g r a i n s i z e s e l e c t i o n o f p r o p -
p a n t s f o r m a i n f r a c t u r e l o a d and t a i l - i n t e r m i n a t i o n , t h e c o a r s e r t a i l - i n p r o p -
p a n t s a c t as a g r a v e l pack and r e s u l t i n b r i d g i n g o f t h e f i n e r p r o p p a n t s a t t h e
i n t e r f a c e between b o t h g r a i n s i z e c l a s s e s , thereby s t a b i l i z i n g the proppant
q u a n t i t y i n p l a c e and r e s e r v i n g f r a c t u r e c o n d u c t i v i t y (CROW 1 9 7 7 ) . The e f f e c t
o f t h e coarse t a i l - i n on t h e f i n e proppants i s s i m i l a r t o t h e impact o f g r a v e l
i n p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s o r as a m a n t l e seaming t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l on r e s e r v o i r
f o r m a t i o n sand.
 807

5.8.9. Puddle packing

Puddle p a c k i n g i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f puddle cementing and g r a v e l p a c k i n g and
i s used f o r i n f i l l i n g o f l a r g e open-hole v o i d s l e f t by n ' i t r o g l y c e r i n e w e l l shoo-
t i n g many decades ago and r e c e n t l y t h r e a t e n i n g secondary and t e r t i a r y o i l r e c o -
v e r y p o t e n t i a l (SLATON 1988). I n f i l l i n g o f t h e s h o t c a v i t i e s by r e s i n - c o a t e d
sand which i s l a t e r d r i l l e d o u t f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e c e n t r e c o n v e r t s t h e m u l t i p l e -
s h o t open-hole c o m p l e t i o n s i n t o cased-hole completions once a l i n e r i s s e t a f -
t e r d r i l l - o u t . Puddle p a c k i n g has proven t o be an e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e and a t -
t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e t o p l u g g i n g o f s h o t h o l e w e l l s and d r i l l i n g o f new i n j e c -
tors.

Puddle p a c k i n g p r o v i d e s i n j e c t o r s w i t h zonal i s o l a t i o n between s h o t s e c t i o n s

and c o n t r o l s l o s s o f i n j e c t i o n f l u i d t o non-pay h o r i z o n s . I n p r o d u c t i o n bore-
holes, puddle p a c k i n g p e r m i t s s e l e c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n by i s o l a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l zo-
nes, a l l o w s more e f f e c t i v e beam l i f t i n g , e l i m i n a t e s t h e need o f c l e a n o u t o f
w e l l b o r e f i l l , and enables t o r u n i n t e r p r e t a b l e i n j e c t i o n p r o f i l e l o g s . Casing
and cementing t h e open h o l e w i t h o u t puddle p a c k i n g s u f f e r e d f r o m f a i l u r e o f p e r -
f o r a t i n g t h e t h i c k cement sheaths i n t h e s h o t h o l e s e c t i o n s and f r o m zonal i s o l a -
t i o n problems. The optimum o p e r a t i o n a l sequence i s adding 70/170 mesh sand t o a
g e l l e d c a r r i e r f l u i d , adding r e s i n t o c o a t t h e sand g r a i n s , and adding graded
s i l i c a f l o u r t h a t a t t a c h e s i t s e l f t o t h e r e s i n - c o a t e d sand as w e l l as becoming
i t s e l f resin-coated.

5.9. Other sand control methods

A p a r t f r o m c o n v e n t i o n a l and s p e c i a l g r a v e l packing, o t h e r sand c o n t r o l me-
thods a r e common p r a c t i c e i n t h e oil and gas i n d u s t r y . T h e i r m a r k e t share, how-
ever, i s s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y s u b o r d i n a t e , as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t a b t . 85
% o f a l l s a n d - c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e USA a r e done by g r a v e l p a c k i n g (SUIIAN &
SNYDER 1982). From t h e v a r i o u s techniques t r i e d s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f sand
flow treatment, r e s i n consolidation, hydroxy-aluminum and e l e c t r o l e s s n i c k e l
s t a b i l i z a t i o n , s i l i c a cementation, warm a i r c o k i n g c o n s o l i d a t i o n , s t a b l e sand
a r c h f o r m a t i o n , and pre-pack l i n e r s and m u l t i w i r e - w r a p p e d screens have been
most f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d . These methods o f n o n - g r a v e l - p a c k i n g sand c o n t r o l a r e
o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.9.1. Resin consolidation

I n - s i t u chemical p l a s t i c f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s ( p l a s t i c i z a t i o n )
as an a l t e r n a t i v e f o r mechanical g r a v e l p a c k i n g have a l r e a d y been developed and
i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e hydrocarbon i n d u s t r y o v e r 40 y e a r s ago (WRIGHTSMAN 1949; MUR-
PHEY, BILA & TOTTY 1974; SINCLAIR & GRAHAM 1978 b) and a r e designed t o b i n d t h e
l o o s e r e s e r v o i r sand g r a i n s and/or an a r t i f i c i a l f i l l e r m a t e r i a l by i n t e r s t i -
t i a l r e s i n deposition i n t o a strong m a t r i x i n order t o s t a b i l i z e the borehole
w a l l and t o m a i n t a i n t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r o i l and gas o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g w e l l -
bore area (RIKE 1970). The b a s i c o b j e c t i v e o f chemical r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s
t o i n c r e a s e t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e r e s e r v o i r sand around t h e w e l l b o r e such t h a t
sand g r a i n s a r e n o t d i s l o d g e d by t h e drag f o r c e s o f t h e f l o w i n g f l u i d s and p r e s -
s u r e drawdown a t t h e d e s i r e d p r o d u c t i o n r a t e (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). A f t e r an
o u t l i n e o f some g e n e r a l aspects, t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n as a
means o f chemical f o r m a t i o n s t a b i l i z a t i o n as f o l l o w s emphasizes r e s i n v i s c o s i t y
and a c t i v i t y , sources o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n f a i l u r e , advantages and problems, p o s s i -
b i l i t y o f imposed r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n performance, f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n vs.
g r a v e l packing, and p e r m e a b i l i t y d e s t r u c t i o n and p l u g g i n g o f t h i e f zones.
 808

5.9.1.1. General aspects

The r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n t y p e o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e f o r m a t i o n i n t h e v i c i n i -
t y o f t h e b o r e h o l e e l i m i n a t e s sand p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h s u c c e s s f u l r e s i n o p e r a t i o n s
b e i n g o f t e n s i g n i f i c a n t improvements o v e r t h e customary use o f screen and g r a -
v e l pack f o r sand c o n t r o l . Since t h e f i r s t f o r m a t i o n s t a b i l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s
i n 1946, a m e l i o r a t e d f i e l d performance has been achieved d u r i n g course o f t h e
t e c h n o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n by development o f new r e s i n sys-
tems o f p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g e f f e c t i v i t y . The most common r e s i n t y p e s a r e
p h e n o l i c , phenol-formaldehyde epoxy, f u r a n , and p h e n o l - f u r f u r y l r e s i n s , and du-
r i n g t h e years, a l s o o t h e r s t a b i l i z i n g m a t e r i a l s such as crude o i l c o k i n g and
n i c k e l p l a t i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n s 5.9.2. and 5 . 9 . 4 . ) have been t r i e d (HALLIBURTON
1988).

R e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n has t h e advantage t h a t no mechanical o b s t r u c t i o n s a r e

l e f t i n t h e w e l l and t h e t r e a t m e n t s can be accomplished i n t u b i n g l e s s w e l l s and
w i t h o u t p u l l i n g t h e c o m p l e t i o n s t r i n g (POSTON, TURNER, TOBOLA & BARGER 1986).
R e s i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f sandstone pays can be c a r r i e d o u t i n v e r t i c a l , i n c l i n e d
and h o r i z o n t a l w e l l s (SPREUX, GEORGES & LESS1 1988) and i s i n most cases p e r f o r -
med i n s h o r t i n t e r v a l s w i t h l i m i t e d sand-producing tendency and h i g h r e s e r v o i r
p r e s s u r e . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d on mechanical g r a v e l p a c k i n g vs. chemical
f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n , r e s i n m o b i l i z a t i o n and m i g r a t i o n , and r e s i n c u r i n g and
catalyzation.

5.9.1.1.1. Mechanical gravel packing

vs. chemical formation consolidation
While mechanical g r a v e l p a c k i n g w i t h r e s i n - c o a t e d n a t u r a l sand o r s y n t h e t i c
proppants has i n t h e l a s t y e a r s been proven t o be t h e most s u i t a b l e method o f
s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f many l o o s e f o r m a t i o n s and w i l l c e r t a i n l y be o f r i s i n g s i g n i f i -
cance f o r sand c o n t r o l i n v a r i o u s m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e ( c f .
s e c t i o n s 5.5.2. and 5 . 5 . 4 . ) , chemical c o n s o l i d a t i o n by i n j e c t i o n o f l i q u i d p o l y -
m e r i z a b l e r e s i n s i n t o t h e pay zone has been performed as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g f o r many years, a l t h o u g h t h e success r a t i o s have n o t always been as
expected. A l t h o u g h b e i n g p r i n c i p a l l y a s i m p l e s o l u t i o n by i n t r o d u c i n g an a r t i f i -
c i a l cement between t h e sand g r a i n s o f t h e f r i a b l e r e s e r v o i r , t h e method i n c l u -
des h i g h r i s k o f c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r o y i n g t h e poroperm p r o p e r t i e s i f t h e r e s i n i s
t o o much o b s t r u c t i n g t h e p o r e space. Even s u c c e s s f u l r e s i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n a t t h e
g r a i n c o n t a c t s r e s u l t s i n r e d u c t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y t o o i l , be-
cause i n any case t h e r e s i n as an a r t i f i c i a l cement occupies a p o r t i o n o f t h e
o r i g i n a l p o r e space and t h e r e s i n s u r f a c e i s o i l - w e t (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982).

A l t h o u g h t h e process o f r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n may be q u i t e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d ,
problems a r i s e f r o m t h e mechanics o f placement which may n o t work p r o p e r l y . The-
r e f o r e nowadays i n most cases g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s p r e f e r r e d i n s p i t e o f b e i n g
t e c h n i c a l l y more complicated, because i t i s a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e l i n e more suc-
c e s s f u l t h a n r e s i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n . D u r i n g many years, b o t h mechanical g r a v e l
p a c k i n g and chemical sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n d i d have p r e f e r r e d a p p l i c a t i o n s and as
such t h e methods were complimentary t o one another (PEDEN, RUSSELL & OYENEYIN
1985). R e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l placement w i t h excess r e s i n i n t h e s o l u t i o n i s even
a c o m b i n a t i o n o f mechanical g r a v e l p a c k i n g and chemical r e s e r v o i r c o n s o l i d a t i o n
( c f . section 5.8.2.1.3.).

5.9.1.1.2. Resin mobilization and migration

Sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y depends on placement and s t r e n g t h o f t h e bond-
i n g agent (FRIEDMAN, SURLES & K I E K E 1986). Concerning placement, t h e b i n d i n g
f i l m must surround t h e g r a i n s i n such a way t o guarantee t h e d e s i r e d s t a b i l i z a -
t i o n as w e l l as t o c r e a t e t h e minimum impediment t o f l o w o f f l u i d . I n terms o f
s t r e n g t h , t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d pack must be a b l e t o endure b o t h n a t u r a l and a r t i f i -
 809

c i a 1 r e s e r v o i r temperature d u r i n g h e a t - a p p l i c a t i o n enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y ( c f .
s e c t i o n 5.7.) and t o r e s i s t t o t h e m e c h a n i c a l l y e r o s i v e and c h e m i c a l l y aggres-
s i v e e f f e c t s o f t h e i n j e c t e d and produced f l u i d s .

Formation sand s t a b i l i z a t i o n u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s i n j e c t i o n o f p r o p e r p r e f l u s h e s
( i n o r d e r t o push away o i l and r e s e r v o i r w a t e r and t o c l e a n t h e pay sand b e l t
around t h e w e l l b o r e ) , r e s i n s o l u t i o n s as p l a s t i c c o n s o l i d a t i o n m a t e r i a l , and
o v e r f l u s h e s i n t o an u n s t a b l e f o r m a t i o n so t h a t t h e r e s e r v o i r p a r t i c l e s a r e p r o -
p e r l y c l e a n e d and then c h e m i c a l l y cemented t o p r e v e n t sand f l o w (SUMAN, ELLIS &
SNYDER 1983). O v e r f l u s h i n g w i t h s p e c i a l f l u i d s sometimes c o n t a i n i n g a c t i v a t o r s
and/or a c c e l e r a t o r s aims on e s t a b l i s h i n g d e s i r e d p e r m e a b i l i t y and/or speeding-
up c u r i n g time, i m p r o v i n g sweep e f f i c i e n c y , c o n t r o l l i n g t h i c k n e s s o f t h e p l a s -
t i c f i l m and t h e r e b y compressive s t r e n g t h and p e r m e a b i l i t y , and d i s p l a c i n g a l l
b u t a r e s i d u a l r e s i n s a t u r a t i o n a t t h e g r a i n - t o - g r a i n c o n t a c t p o i n t s . The sand
t o be s t a b i l i z e d can be n a t u r a l r e s e r v o i r sand o r c l e a n graded sand which has
been i n s e r t e d as a p r e p a c k i n g s t e p and i n f a c t a l r e a d y r e p r e s e n t s an o u t s i d e
g r a v e l pack, w i t h r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n t h u s b e i n g a p p l i c a b l e i n b o t h new and o l d
w e l l s w i t h o u t o r w i t h sand p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

5.9.1.1.3. Resin curing and catalyzation

The r e s i n c u r e s r a d i a l l y f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e i n outwards d i r e c t i o n as t h e t i m e
o f exposure t o f o r m a t i o n temperature i n c r e a s e s and/or as t h e i n j e c t e d a c t i v a t o r
o r a c c e l e r a t o r works i t s way f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e t o t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e forma-
t i o n . I n many a p p l i c a t i o n s , c a t a l y s t s f o r i n i t i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e p o l y m e r i z a t i o n
( p o l y c o n d e n s a t i o n ) a r e a l s o r e q u i r e d (FRIEDMAN, SURLES & K I E K E 1986). The r e s i n
c u r e s and bonds t h e g r a i n s t o g e t h e r t o generate a s y n t h e t i c sandstone w i t h a r t i -
f i c i a l cement. Sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n r e s i n s p e n e t r a t e t h e f o r m a t i o n and i m m o b i l i z e
p a r t i c l e s f u r t h e r away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e which s t o p s g r a i n movement t o a p o i n t
beyond where r e s e r v o i r f l u i d v e l o c i t y can cause p a r t i c l e m i g r a t i o n . Sand conso-
l i d a t i o n r e s i n s a l s o b u i l d much more s t r e n g t h i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n than i s needed
t o w i t h s t a n d t h e s t r e s s e s o f overburden and f l u i d v e l o c i t y f o r c e s , and t h e pay
i s therefore durable w h i l e maintaining a h i g h r a t e o f production. D i s t i n c t i o n
can be made between e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l c a t a l y z a t i o n where t h e c u r i n g agent
i s added t o t h e r e s i n m i x t u r e p r i o r t o pumping and i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n
a f t e r r e s i n placement i n t h e d e s i r e d s a t u r a t i o n i n t h e r e s e r v o i r by o v e r f l u s h -
i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y (BROOKS, MUECKE, R I C K E Y & KERVER 1974; SHAUGHNESSY, SALATHIEL
& PENBERTHY 1977).

5.9.1.2. Resin viscosity and activity

L o w - v i s c o s i t y r e s i n s a r e t o be p r e f e r r e d , because h i g h - v i s c o s i t y r e s i n s
cause r i s i n g pumping p r e s s u r e s and i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k o f g e n e r a t i n g a channel
through an u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sand (SHAUGHNESSY, SALATHIEL & PENBERTHY 1977) by
opening o f a f r a c t u r e upon f o r m a t i o n p a r t i n g due t o exceeding o f breakdown
bounding p r e s s u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.9.1.5.4.2.; t h e same a p p l i e s f o r g r a v e l p r e -
p a c k i n g o f u n s t a b l e pays a t t o o e l e v a t e d i n j e c t i o n pressures; c f . s e c t i o n
5.9.1.5.1.1.). The o p t i m a l r e s i d u a l c u r e d r e s i n s a t u r a t i o n i s 35 % o f t h e o r i g i -
n a l p o r e volume. H i g h e r r e s i d u a l r e s i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s l o w e r r e s e r v o i r permeabi-
l i t y a f t e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n w i t h o u t s u b s t a n t i a l l y i m p r o v i n g compressive s t r e n g t h ,
whereas l o w e r s a t u r a t i o n s c o n t a i n t o o l i t t l e r e s i n t o e f f e c t i v e l y c o a t and bond
t o g e t h e r a l l t h e sand g r a i n s .

5.9.1.2.0. General aspects

Sand c o n t r o l by chemical c o n s o l i d a t i o n comprises i n j e c t i o n o f chemicals i n t o
the n a t u r a l l y s t a b i l i z e d formation t o provide grain-to-grain cementation a t the
c o n t a c t p o i n t s and t o c r e a t e a m a t r i x , w i t h excess p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l b e i n g d i s -
p l a c e d f r o m p o r e spaces by o v e r f l u s h f l u i d (HALLIBURTON 1988). Two t y p e s o f r e -
 810

s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n systems c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982) b e i n g i n -

t e r n a l l y and e x t e r n a l l y a c t i v a t e d systems ( t h e l a t t e r a r e a l s o c a l l e d o v e r f l u s h
systems).

I n b o t h t y p e s o f r e s i n systems, c a r e f u l p r e f l u s h i n g has t o b e done i n o r d e r

t o c l e a n and c o n d i t i o n t h e r e s e r v o i r sand f o r r e s i n p e n e t r a t i o n (ECONOMIDES
1 9 8 6 ) . Crude o i l s a t u r a t i o n m u s t be removed o r r e d u c e d t o r e s i d u a l l e v e l s , and
p a r a f f i n i c d e p o s i t s have t o be d i s s o l v e d . Sand g r a i n s m u s t be w a t e r - w e t t o
e n a b l e p r o p e r c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r e s i n c o u p l i n g a g e n t , and s k i n damage c a u s e d b y
d r i l l i n g f i n e s has t o be e l i m i n a t e d as w e l l . C l a y m i n e r a l s s h o u l d be removed i n
order t o prevent the c a t a l y s t from being prematurely depleted from the o i l car-
r i e r f l u i d s and c a l c a r e o u s m a t e r i a l s m u s t a l s o d i s a p p e a r t o e x c l u d e r e a c t i o n s
w i t h t h e a c i d i c c a t a l y s t . Comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s o n i n t e r n a l l y and e x -
t e r n a l l y a c t i v a t e d r e s i n systems as w e l l as on r e s i n y i e l d and f o r m a t i o n permea-
b i l i t y retention.

5.9.1.2.1. Internally activated systems

I n t e r n a l l y a c t i v a t e d systems a r e composed o f r e s i n , d i l u e n t , c o u p l i n g agent
and e i t h e r c u r i n g a g e n t o r c a t a l y s t and a c c e l e r a t o r (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1 9 8 2 ) .
They c o n t a i n a l o w p e r c e n t a g e o f a c t i v e r e s i n w h i c h h a r d e n s i f p r o p e r l y a t t r a c -
t e d t o t h e g r a i n c o n t a c t p o i n t s and t h u s p r o v i d e s t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n e f f e c t . The
remaining i n e r t material o f the subjected mixture f i l l s the center p o r t i o n o f
t h e p o r e space i n o r d e r t o e n s u r e t h a t s u f f i c i e n t p e r m e a b i l i t y i s r e t a i n e d . Cu-
r i n g a g e n t s o r c a t a l y s t s a r e added a t t h e s u r f a c e p r i o r t o pumping i n an amount
according t o formation temperature. Very accurate c o n t r o l o f displacement i s r e -
quired t o i n s e r t the r e s i n through the p e r f o r a t i o n s s u f f i c i e n t l y e f f e c t i v e , but
w i t h o u t o v e r - d i s p l a c e m e n t . Some p r o c e s s e s employ phase s e p a r a t i o n w h i c h i n c l u -
des u s i n g a r e l a t i v e l y d i l u t e s o l u t i o n o f r e s i n i n h y d r o c a r b o n s o l v e n t . Combi-
ned w i t h an a c t i v a t o r ( c u r i n g a g e n t o r c a t a l y s t ) , t h e l i q u i d r e s i n phase s e p a r a -
t e s f r o m t h e s o l v e n t a f t e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e and s o l i d i f i e s , w i t h t h e s t i l l li-
q u i d r e s i n a f t e r s e p a r a t i o n b e i n g drawn b y s u r f a c e t e n s i o n t o t h e g r a i n c o n t a c t
p o i n t s and h a r d e n i n g t h e r e .

5.9.1.2.2. Externally activated or overflush systems

E x t e r n a l l y a c t i v a t e d o r o v e r f l u s h systems c o n t a i n a h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f a c -
t i v e r e s i n w h i c h o c c u p i e s m o s t o f t h e p o r e space i n t h e i n i t i a l s t e p (ALLEN &
ROBERTS 1 9 8 2 ) . P e r m e a b i l i t y m u s t be s u b s e q u e n t l y r e - e s t a b l i s h e d b y d i s p l a c i n g
f u r t h e r i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n a l l b u t a r e s i d u a l r e s i n s a t u r a t i o n which i n case o f
p r o p e r sand w e t t a b i l i t y r e m a i n s a t t h e sand g r a i n c o n t a c t s . C u r i n g a g e n t i s
u s u a l l y c o n t a i n e d i n t h e o v e r f l u s h f l u i d , b u t c a n a l s o be added t o t h e i n i t i a l
r e s i n s o l u t i o n . A c c u r a t e c o n t r o l o f d i s p l a c e m e n t i s n o t as c r i t i c a l , b u t a l l
s e c t i o n s n o t o v e r f l u s h e d w i l l be p l u g g e d . O v e r f l u s h i n g i s d e s i g n e d t o g o v e r n
p l a s t i c f i l m t h i c k n e s s w h i c h i n t u r n i s d e c i s i v e f o r c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h and
p e r m e a b i l i t y . I n some cases, a t w o - s t e p o v e r f l u s h i s used, w i t h t h e f i r s t phase
r e s t o r i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y and t h e second s t a g e i n t r o d u c i n g a c u r e a c t i v a t o r o r an
accelerator.

E x t e r n a l c a t a l y z a t i o n a l l o w s u n l i m i t e d pumping t i m e , because t h e r e s i n does

n o t h a r d e n u n t i l c o n t a c t e d w i t h t h e o v e r f l u s h c a t a l y s t s o l u t i o n . U n l i m i t e d pump-
i n g t i m e a l s o p e r m i t s r e d u c e d pumping r a t e i f n e c e s s a r y f o r l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y
f o r m a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o s t a y b e l o w f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e . When t h e a c t i v a t o r i s a l -
r e a d y i n t h e r e s i n s o l u t i o n , o v e r f l u s h may s t i l l be needed i n o r d e r t o e s t a -
b l i s h o r insure permeability, but i s not required t o ascertain t h a t the p l a s t i c
w i l l e v e n t u a l l y c u r e . An a c c e l e r a t o r in t h e o v e r f l u s h may speed-up c u r i n g and
minimize w a i t i n g time. External c a t a l y z a t i o n provides s i g n i f i c a n t o p e r a t i o n a l
advantages, because i n t e r n a l l y c a t a l y z e d r e s i n s a r e l i m i t e d i n pumping t i m e t o
t h e s e t t l i n g p e r i o d and t h e c h e m i c a l m u s t be m i x e d a t t h e w e l l s i t e (SHAUGHNES-
SY, SALATHIEL & PENBERTHY 1 9 7 8 ) . A s p e c t s o f e x t e r n a l l y c a t a l y z e d r e s i n systems
 81 1

a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by BROOKS, MUECKE, RICKLEY & KERVER 1974).

5.9.1.2.3. Resin yield and formation permeability retention

P e r f o r a t i o n d e n s i t y i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o improve r e s i n d i s t r i b u t i o n and t o r e -
duce p r e s s u r e drawdown. I n j e c t i o n o f t h e r e s i n s o l u t i o n has t o be done a t low
r a t e s i n o r d e r t o promote u n i f o r m r e s i n coverage and has t o be c a r r i e d o u t ex-
c l u s i v e l y below f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e i n o r d e r t o a v o i d p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g o f t h e r e -
s e r v o i r and opening o f a h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y c r a c k which would absorb t h e over-
whelming amount o f i n j e c t e d r e s i n s o l u t i o n t h e r e b y d r a s t i c a l l y d e t e r i o r a t i n g
t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f m a t r i x cementation. Some aspects of r e s e r v o i r c o m p o s i t i o n
and r e s i n y i e l d as w e l l as c o n s o l i d a t i o n s t r e n g t h and d i r t y pay s t a b i l i z a t i o n
a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

5.9.1.2.3.1. Reservoir composition and resin yield

Resin y i e l d depends v e r y much on r e s e r v o i r composition, w i t h t h e main d i s -
t i n c t i o n h a v i n g t o be made between c l e a n and d i r t y sands. I n d i r t y sands, h i g h -
y i e l d r e s i n s o l u t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d t o accommodate t h e l a r g e s u r f a c e area o f t h e
s i l t and c l a y p a r t i c l e s . Some r e s i n systems have inadequate y i e l d and can o n l y
be used i n c l e a n sands (HALLIBURTON 1988). H i g h e r shares o f c l a y m i n e r a l s neces-
s i t a t e l a r g e amounts o f r e s i n o r may e x t r a c t t h e c u r i n g agent f r o m t h e r e s i n ,
and t h e r e f o r e a c i d p r e f l u s h i n g i n o r d e r t o s h r i n k c l a y s i s recommended. As t h e
r e s i n l e a v e s o n l y an e x t r e m e l y t h i n c o a t i n g on t h e sand, up t o 90 % p e r m e a b i l i -
t y r e t e n t i o n i s p o s s i b l e i n c l e a n sands a f t e r r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n case o f
s u i t a b l e performance o f t h e chemical sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t . Compressive
s t r e n g t h o f t h e r e s i n - s t a b i l i z e d f o r m a t i o n sand may i n i d e a l case approach
3,000 - 4,000 p s i , t h u s b e i n g p a r t i a l l y even h i g h e r than t h a t which can be
achieved by c o n s o l i d a t e d pack i n s t a l l a t i o n and r e s i n - c o a t e d g r a v e l placement
( c f . section 5.8.2.1.1.).

5.9.1.2.3.2. Consol idat ion strength and dirty pay stabi 1 i zat ion
Maximum c o n s o l i d a t i o n s t r e n g t h occurs i n t h e immediate p e r f o r a t i o n v i c i n i t y
where i t i s needed most w h i l e f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e surroundings, se-
c o n d a r y - a r t i f i c i a l c o h e s i v i t y o f t h e pay sand i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y d i m i n i s h i n g and
f i n a l l y c o m p l e t e l y f a d i n g o u t . V a r i o u s chemicals can be pumped through t h e con-
s o l i d a t e d r e s e r v o i r w i t h no damage a t a l l , w i t h t h e r e s i n b e i n g v e r y r e s i s t a n t
t o w a s h - o f f by f l u s h i n g s o l u t i o n s even when h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e s a r e used. Some
r e s i n s have t h e a b i l i t y t o permanently s h r i n k s e v e r a l c l a y t y p e s which may r e -
s u l t i n i n c r e a s e d p e r m e a b i l i t y i n some c l a y - b e a r i n g d i r t y f o r m a t i o n s , t h u s h e l p -
i n g i n s t a b i l i z i n g c l a y - c o n t a i n i n g r e s e r v o i r s which a r e u s u a l l y n o t s u s c e p t i b l e
t o c o n s o l i d a t i o n by o t h e r sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s and even i m p r o v i n g t h e p e t r o -
p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s beyond t h e n a t u r a l s t a t e , t h e r e b y g i v i n g r i s e t o t h e double
success o f s t o p p i n g sand p r o d u c t i o n and enhancing hydrocarbon o f f t a k e c a p a b i l i -
t y by opening o f w i d e r f l o w c a p i l l a r i e s than e x i s t e d b e f o r e .

5.9.1.3. Sources o f consolidation failure

An i m p o r t a n t p o i n t f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y performance o f r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n a r e
s o l i d s - f r e e c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s , because d i s p e r s e d s o l i d p a r t i c l e s would i n e v i -
t a b l y b r i d g e and p l u g p e r f o r a t i o n s and pores, r e s p e c t i v e l y (RIKE 1970). F u r t h e r
improvement o f performance can be made by p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e manner o f p e r -
f o r a t i n g and t h e c o n t i n u o u s use of c l e a n f l u i d s f r o m t h e t i m e o f p e r f o r a t i o n to
t h e moment o f o v e r f l u s h i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n a f t e r placement o f t h e p l a s t i c ( f l u i d
and m a t e r i a l c l e a n l i n e s s a r e a l s o e s s e n t i a l f o r success o f g r a v e l packing; c f .
s e c t i o n 5 . 1 1 . 5 . ) . F o l l o w i n g an o u t l i n e o f requirements f o r s u c c e s s f u l r e s i n con-
s o l i d a t i o n , comments a r e g i v e n on u n s u i t a b l e d r i l l i n g and c o m p l e t i o n p r a c t i c e s
 812

as w e l l as i n t e r m i x i n g o f r a t h o l e f l u i d and sand c o n t r o l f l u i d .

5.9.1.3.1. Requirements f o r successful resin consolidation

C o n s o l i d a t i o n of r e s e r v o i r s by chemical i n j e c t i o n r e q u i r e s more o r l e s s
s h o r t i n t e r v a l s , l a c k o f p r e v i o u s sand p r o d u c t i o n (because u n i f o r m chemical d i s -
t r i b u t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t when c a v i t i e s , washholes o r o t h e r u n s t r e s s e d f o r m a t i o n
p a r t s e x i s t ) , 1 i m i t e d sand-producing tendency, h i g h r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e , and
h i g h - q u a l i t y pay sand w i t h s u f f i c i e n t v e r t i c a l p e r m e a b i l i t y . STROHM, MANTOOTH &
PRIESTER (1970) d i s c u s s an improved placement system w i t h c o n t r o l l e d r e s i n i n -
j e c t i o n f o r e x t e n s i o n o f p l a s t i c c o n s o l i d a t i o n t o sands w i t h h o r i z o n t a l l y and
v e r t i c a l l y v a r i a b l e p e r m e a b i l i t y and d i r t y s i l t y or a r g i l l a c e o u s sands, as w e l l
as t o l o n g and/or d i s c o n t i n u o u s c o m p l e t i o n i n t e r v a l s .

The o n e - t r i p coverage o f s e v e r a l separate pay zones w i t h a m u l t i - i n j e c t i o n

packer s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduces c o m p l e t i o n c o s t as compared t o a s e r i e s o f i n d i v i -
dual s e t t i n g s o f c o n v e n t i o n a l packers when t r e a t i n g each s t o r e y o f t h e prospec-
t i v e p i l e i n d i v i d u a l l y . F a i l u r e s a r e most o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d t o contaminated che-
m i c a l s and improper placement i n u n s t a b l e f o r m a t i o n s . P r i n c i p a l l y , t h e r e s i n i s
drawn by c a p i l l a r y f o r c e s t o t h e g r a i n - t o - g r a i n c o n t a c t p o i n t s (BEZEMER & M E I J S
1966), b u t f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t unwanted p o r e t h r o a t b l o c k i n g a l s o
f r e q u e n t l y occurs. R I K E (1970) o u t l i n e s f r o m f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e t h a t many unsuc-
c e s s f u l j o b s can be c o r r e c t e d by r e p e t i t i o n r u n s d u r i n g subsequent t r e a t m e n t s .

THOMAS & JOHNSON (1976) i n v e s t i g a t e r e p e r f o r a t i n g o f r e s i n - c o n s o l i d a t e d z o -

nes f o r c a p a c i t y improvement. I n most w e l l s , sand c o n t r o l by r e s i n s t a b i l i z a -
t i o n i s n o t l o s t a f t e r r e p e r f o r a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g b o r e h o l e s w i t h two-stage sand
c o n t r o l c o m p l e t i o n s c o m p r i s i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n lower zones and r e s i n s t a b i l i -
z a t i o n i n upper s e c t i o n s .

5.9.1.3.2. Unsuitable drilling and completion practices

The most f r e q u e n t cause o f f a i l u r e o f any sand c o n t r o l process i s improper
p l a n n i n g and w e l l p r e p a r a t i o n p r i o r t o t h e f o r m a t i o n s t a b i l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t
(HALLIBURTON 1988). R e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y damage by i n v a s i o n o f d r i l l i n g mud
and c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s d i s t u r b s p e n e t r a t i o n o f sand c o n t r o l f l u i d s and g i v e s
r i s e t o n o n - u n i f o r m placement o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n chemicals o r g r a v e l . C a u t i o n has
t o be e x e r c i s e d t h a t d r i l l i n g f l u i d s do n o t d i s p e r s e o r s w e l l w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e
c l a y s c o n t a i n e d i n f o r m a t i o n s a d j a c e n t t o t h e w e l l b o r e i n o r d e r n o t t o reduce
e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y . Washouts t h r o u g h t h e p r o d u c t i v e i n t e r v a l due t o poor
d r i l l i n g p r a c t i c e s may r e s u l t i n p e r f o r a t i o n s which f a i l t o p e n e t r a t e adequate-
l y t o t h e p r o s p e c t i v e f o r m a t i o n , s i n c e an e x c e s s i v e l y t h i c k cement sheath may
be p r e s e n t i n t h e e n l a r g e d h o l e s e c t i o n . Some aspects o f c e m e n t a t i o n and p e r f o -
r a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

5.9.1.3.2.1. Cementation
L a r g e r b o r e h o l e d i a m e t e r s and c a s i n g s i z e s reduce shear f o r c e s o f f l u i d move-
ment i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e , t h e r e b y l e s s e n i n g t h e burden on weak f o r m a t i o n s t h a t
produce sand (HALLIBURTON 1988). Proper cementing i s i m p e r a t i v e t o achieve b e s t
r e s u l t s f r o m any t y p e o f sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t . Uncemented channels and o f f -
c e n t e r e d c a s i n g s t r i n g s g i v e r i s e t o poor r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n and g r a v e l pack-
i n g performance. As t h e o f f - c e n t e r c a s i n g problem i n c r e a s e s c o n s i d e r a b l y w i t h
b o r e h o l e d e v i a t i o n , m i n i m i z a t i o n o f uncemented channels and o f f - c e n t e r p i p e has
t o be achieved by t h e b o r e h o l e b e i n g as near t o gage as p o s s i b l e , the casing
s t r i n g b e i n g adequately c e n t r a l i z e d , t h e cement s l u r r y b e i n g pumped i n t u r b u -
l e n t f l o w , and s u f f i c i e n t spacer b e i n g used between mud and cement.
 813

5.9.1.3.2.2. Perforation
Maximum u n s t i m u l a t e d w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y i s o b t a i n e d f r o m open-hole c o m p l e t i o n
w i t h maximum w e l l b o r e diameter and no f o r m a t i o n damage, b u t i n many i n s t a n c e s ,
c a s i n g has t o be r u n and cemented f o r o r d e r l y r e s e r v o i r c o n t r o l which subse-
q u e n t l y r e q u i r e s p e r f o r a t i n g i n o r d e r t o g e t access t o t h e p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v a l
and t o e x p l o i t t h e hydrocarbons (HALLIBURTON 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 1 0 . 1 . ) . In
terms o f d i f f e r e n t p e r f o r a t i o n techniques, a l l e v i a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r damage can
be achieved by p l a c i n g a f i l t e r e d f l u i d across t h e i n t e r v a l , p e r f o r a t i n g w i t h
underbalance o r d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e toward t h e w e l l b o r e , a l l o w i n g f o r m a t i o n
t o produce a f t e r p e r f o r a t i n g w i t h underbalance, c l e a n i n g o f p e r f o r a t i o n s and r e -
s e r v o i r f a c e by b a c k s u r g i n g o r p e r f o r a t i o n washing, chemical washing by a c i d s ,
and h y d r a u l i c p e r f o r a t i n g w i t h low-volume h i g h - v e l o c i t y j e t s t r e a m o f sand f l u i d
slurry.

5.9.1.3.3. Intermixing of rathole fluid and sand control fluid

An i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n p e r f o r m i n g r e s i n sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s p r e v e n t -
i n g t h e l i g h t e r r a t h o l e f l u i d f r o m b e i n g d i s p l a c e d by t h e h e a v i e r r e s i n and en-
t e r i n g t h e p o r e space o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , because t h i s can be a source o f f a i l u r e
o f t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t (SHAUGHNESSY, SALATHIEL & PENBERTHY 1977). I n t e r -
m i x i n g w i t h t h e r a t h o l e f l u i d cannot o n l y screw up r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n proces-
ses, b u t can a l s o d e t e r i o r a t e t h e e f f e c t o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g and a c i d i z i n g opera-
t i o n s . The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r a t h o l e c o n t e n t s e p a r a t i o n and i s o l a t i o n i n these
d i f f e r e n t w e l l t r e a t m e n t s i s o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.9.1.3.3.1. Resin consolidation

The o b j e c t i v e o f p r e f l u s h i n g i s t o remove r e s e r v o i r f l u i d s w h i c h m i g h t con-
t a m i n a t e t h e r e s i n , and t o o i l - w e t sand g r a i n s u r f a c e s i n o r d e r t o a l l o w genera-
t i o n o f c o n t i n u o u s r e s i n c o a t i n g s (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). Water e n t e r i n g t h e
f o r m a t i o n a l o n g w i t h t h e r e s i n has a v e r y d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t on compressive
s t r e n g t h (PENBERTHY, SHAUGHNESSY, SALATHIEL & GRUESBECK 1978), because t h e p r e -
f l u s h ahead o f t h e r e s i n removes w a t e r from t h e p o r e space, b u t any w a t e r e n t e r -
i n g t h e sand a l o n g w i t h t h e r e s i n w i l l n o t be removed p r i o r t o c a t a l y s i s and cu-
r i n g and t h u s t h e development o f c o n t i n u o u s r e s i n p e l l i c l e s around t h e g r a i n s
i s d i s t u r b e d o r even s e r i o u s l y prevented. C i r c u l a t i o n of t h e r a t h o l e w i t h a
dense s a l t w a t e r i s cumbersome and cannot be a p p l i e d t o b u l l h e a d t r e a t m e n t s
which a r e c a r r i e d o u t t h r o u g h p r o d u c t i o n t u b i n g w i t h o u t a r i g . A b e t t e r s o l u -
t i o n f o r o p e r a t i o n by e i t h e r b u l l h e a d o r w o r k s t r i n g t e c h n i q u e i s t o d r o p i n an
o r g a n i c l i q u i d h a v i n g a g r e a t e r d e n s i t y t h a n t h a t o f t h e r e s i n and b e i n g immis-
c i b l e w i t h t h e r a t h o l e b r i n e , w i t h t h e o r g a n i c l i q u i d f a l l i n g f r o m t h e bottom
o f t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l t o t h e r a t h o l e f l o o r and t h u s a l s o e l i m i n a t i n g t h e
need o f c i r c u l a t i o n (SHAUGHNESSY; SALATHIEL & PENBERTHY 1977).

5.9.1.3.3.2. Grave 1 packing

S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n g f o r r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n , i n t e r m i x i n g o f r a t h o l e f l u i d
w i t h sand c o n t r o l f l u i d i s a l s o one o f t h e most s e r i o u s reasons f o r u n s a t i s f a c -
t o r y performance o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g (RENSVOLD & DECKER 1978). H i g h - v i s c o s i t y
s l u r r i e s c a r r y i n g g r a v e l a r e r a p i d l y f a l l i n g through t h e l e s s dense pad o r
b r i n e b e i n g p r e s e n t i n annulus and r a t h o l e by t h e r o p i n g e f f e c t . B u l l h e a d g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g d i s p l a c e s r a t h o l e f l u i d upward i n t h e annulus, t h e r e b y m i x i n g i t
w i t h the s l u r r y passing through the perforations. This could r e s u l t i n f i n e s
f r o m t h e r a t h o l e d e b r i s and r e s i d u e becoming e n t r a i n e d i n t h e g r a v e l pack s l u r -
ry, c a u s i n g g r a v e l c o n t a m i n a t i o n which l e a d s t o lowered pack p e r m e a b i l i t y .

I n a d d i t i o n , f l u i d l o s s e s f r o m t h e s l u r r y t h r o u g h t h e t e l l - t a l e screen ( c f .
s e c t i o n 6.3.5.) above t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s provoke r a p i d f o r m a t i o n o f an a n n u l a r
 814

g r a v e l b r i d g e . A t h i g h pumping r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s , f l o w channels a r e generated

through t h e g r a v e l b r i d g e a l l o w i n g s l u r r y t o reach t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , b u t low
pumping r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s may g i v e r i s e t o e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a g r a v e l b r i d g e
i n t h e annulus s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g t o enable m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g
p r e s s u r e as t e s t i f y i n g t o screenout. On t h e o t h e r hand, p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e
t e l l - t a l e a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e r a t h o l e o f f e r s s e v e r a l advantages i n c l u d i n g p r o -
d u c t i o n o f t h e r a t h o l e f l u i d t h r o u g h t h e washpipe, t h e r e b y p r e v e n t i n g contami-
n a t i o n o f s l u r r y g o i n g t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , and p r o m o t i o n of more complete
a n n u l a r f i l l - u p by t h e g r a v e l b r i d g e o p p o s i t e t o t h e t e l l - t a l e i n t h e annulus.
A p a r t f r o m t h i s , w i t h i n c r e a s i n g g r a v e l column h e i g h t i n t h e annulus, t h e r e s u l -
t a n t r i s e i n d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s s u r e i n t h e annulus below t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s d i -
r e c t s more s l u r r y t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . Placement o f t h e t e l l - t a l e screen
below t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s a l l o w s a b t . 25 % more g r a v e l t o be packed t h a n p o s i t i o n -
i n g i t above.

5.9.1.3.3.3. Acidizing
Concentric tubing s t r i n g s allow t o c i r c u l a t e b r i n e i n order t o clean o u t the
r a t h o l e below t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l b e f o r e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d i n s e r t i o n
(McLEOD 1984). F l u i d s and s o l i d s i n t h e r a t h o l e below t h e l o w e s t p e r f o r a t i o n a f -
f e c t b o t h g r a v e l p a c k i n g and a c i d i z i n g . A r a t h o l e f l u i d t h a t i s denser t h a n t h e
a c i d and a f l u i d above t h e t o p p e r f o r a t i o n which i s l i g h t e r than t h e a c i d
should be used, as o t h e r w i s e t h e a c i d c o u l d end up i n t h e r a t h o l e r a t h e r t h a n
i n t h e f o r m a t i o n . Aspects o f such d e n s i t y s e g r e g a t i o n and s e p a r a t i o n a r e d i s c u s -
sed by HONG & MILHONE ( 1 9 7 7 ) . The use o f c o i l e d t u b i n g has t h e advantages t h a t
t h e r a t h o l e can be c i r c u l a t e d c l e a n i f necessary (BRANNON, NETTERS & GRIMMER
1987).

5.9.1.4. Advantages and problems

I f p r o p e r l y a p p l i e d under t h e r i g h t c o n d i t i o n s , chemical r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n
has i n h e r e n t t e c h n i c a l advantages w i t h r e s p e c t t o o t h e r mechanical and mechano-
chemical sand c o n t r o l methods i n c l u d i n g s u i t a b i l i t y f o r t h r o u g h - t u b i n g and
s m a l l - d i a m e t e r c a s i n g o p e r a t i o n , maintenance o f f u l l open w e l l b o r e w i t h o u t ob-
s t r u c t i n g screen, s u i t a b i l i t y f o r m u l t i p l e r e s e r v o i r completions, ready a p p l i c a -
b i l i t y in a b n o r m a l l y p r e s s u r e d w e l l s , good performance in f i n e - g r a i n e d sands
which a r e d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l w i t h mechanical g r a v e l packing, and achievement
o f h i g h compressive s t r e n g t h o f t h e a r t i f i c i a l l y cemented r e s e r v o i r sand (ALLEN
& ROBERTS 1 9 8 2 ) . The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e i l l u s t r a t e s some aspects o f m u l t i s t a g e
processes v s . u n i f o r m p e r f o r a t i o n coverage as w e l l a s s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n i n g o f
d i r t y sands.

5.9.1.4.1. Multistage processes vs. uniform perforation coverage

On t h e o t h e r hand, however, t h e problems o f chemical r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n a r e
m u l t i p l e . The b a s i c problem i s t o i n c r e a s e p h y s i c a l f o r m a t i o n s t r e n g t h u n i f o r m -
l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o m p l e t i o n zone w i t h o u t e x c e s s i v e r e d u c t i o n i n p e r m e a b i l i t y
o r t o o p a t c h y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f cemented p o r t i o n s which can r e n d e r o v e r a l l r e s e r -
v o i r performance even worse than o r i g i n a l l y . Many p r a c t i c a l problems e v o l v e
f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t a l l sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n techniques u t i l i z e m u l t i s t a g e p r o c e s -
ses i n which s e v e r a l f l u i d s t h a t a r e c a r e f u l l y f o r m u l a t e d f o r t h e s p e c i f i c w e l l
c o n d i t i o n s must be u n i f o r m l y i n j e c t e d s e q u e n t i a l l y i n t o a p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l .
U n i f o r m coverage o f each p e r f o r a t i o n i s a c r i t i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t . F i n g e r i n g o f
one f l u i d t h r o u g h another must be c o n t r o l l e d by low i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and by de-
s i g n i n g each f l u i d so t h a t i t s v i s c o s i t y i s s i m i l a r o r s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r t h a n
t h a t o f t h e f l u i d which i t d i s p l a c e s . Low f l u i d v i s c o s i t i e s a r e d e s i r a b l e i n o r -
d e r t o o b t a i n reasonable i n j e c t i o n r a t e s a t low i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s , w i t h t i m e
allowed f o r i n j e c t i o n u s u a l l y being l i m i t e d .
 815

5.9.1.4.2. Special conditioning o f dirty sands

Sands c o n t a i n i n g more than a b t . 10 X d i s p e r s e d mud p r e s e n t a problem t o
phase s e p a r a t i o n systems, s i n c e these systems have o n l y a s m a l l percentage o f
a c t i v e m a t e r i a l i n t h e r e s i n s o l u t i o n . The much h i g h e r i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e a r e a o f
d i r t y sands r o b s t h e l i m i t e d amount o f r e s i n f r o m t h e sand g r a i n c o n t a c t s and
reduces t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n . In d i r t y sands, a p r e f l u s h s t i m u l a -
t i o n t r e a t m e n t designed t o i n c r e a s e p e r m e a b i l i t y may be r e q u i r e d t o improve u n i -
f o r m i t y o f r e s i n placement and t o p r o v i d e needed p r o d u c t i v i t y f o l l o w i n g s t a b i l i -
z a t i o n . I f sand e f f l u x has c r e a t e d c a v i t i e s behind t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , these ho-
l e s and notches have t o be i n f i l l e d and plugged w i t h 20/40 o r 40/60 mesh p r e -
p a c k i n g g r a v e l b e f o r e e i t h e r phase s e p a r a t i o n o r o v e r f l u s h r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n
systems can be used.

5.9.1.5. Possibility of improved resin consolidation performance

Several p o s s i b i l i t i e s e x i s t f o r improvement of r e s i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n p e r f o r -
mance i n case o f p r e s t r e s s e d o r n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y permeable f o r m a t i o n s . O t h e r
techniques a r e p u r e l y a p p l i e d t o a s c e r t a i n b e t t e r r e s i n d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e r e -
s e r v o i r . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on prepacking, p r e h e a t i n g and p r e -
f l u s h i n g o f t h e f o r m a t i o n , and on two- and t h r e e - s t a g e sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n .

5.9.1.5.1. Formation prepacking

I f m u l t i p l e i n t e r v a l s a r e t o be t r e a t e d w i t h s t a b i l i z i n g f l u i d s , t h e y s h o u l d
be i s o l a t e d w i t h packers and/or b r i d g e p l u g s i f spacing p e r m i t s (HALLIBURTON
1988). I f more than one i n t e r v a l i s t r e a t e d w i t h o u t i s o l a t i o n , small d i f -
f e r e n c e s i n i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s may i n t e r f e r e w i t h u n i f o r m f l u i d placement. I n
case o f c o n s o l i d a t i n g a r e s e r v o i r i n an o l d e r w e l l t h a t has produced an appre-
c i a b l e q u a n t i t y o f sand, t h e w e l l should be packed w i t h c l e a n g r a v e l p r i o r t o
s t a b i l i z a t i o n . The b e n e f i t o f such a p r e p a c k i n g i s t h a t i t m i g h t be d i f f i c u l t
t o achieve u n i f o r m r e s i n d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n when pumping through a
c a v i t y o r l o o s e zone. Another advantage o f p r e p a c k i n g i s r e s t r e s s i n g o f t h e r e -
s e r v o i r . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d on p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g and g r a v e l placement i n
f r a c t u r e as w e l l as on i n f l u e n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n washing and s u r g i n g .

5.9.1.5.1.1. Pressure parting and gravel placement in fracture

Gravel p r e p a c k i n g i n u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s g i v e s r i s e t o p r e s s u r e p a r t -
i n g and g r a v e l placement i n t h e f r a c t u r e as l o n g as t h e c r i t i c a l minimum p r e s -
s u r e i s exceeded (PENBERTHY 1985, HALLIBURTON 1988; t h e same a p p l i e s f o r r e s i n
s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r sand a t i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s exceeding t h e break-
down boundary o f t h e pay; c f . s e c t i o n 5.9.1.2.), and t h e i n t e r f a c e between g r a -
v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand i s sharp, w i t h i n t e r m i x i n g o n l y o c c u r r i n g i n t h e imme-
d i a t e p e r f o r a t i o n v i c i n i t y . I f t h e r e s e r v o i r has produced sand b e f o r e g r a v e l
p r e p a c k i n g and a f i r m c a v i t y has o r i g i n a t e d o u t s i d e o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , g r a v e l
p r e p a c k i n g i n f i l l s t h e v o i d s and t h u s s u p p o r t s t h e f o r m a t i o n w a l l ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.6.7.). I f s t a b l e c a v i t i e s a r e n o t developed, prepack placement p r e c i p i t a t e s
p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g i n t h e f o r m a t i o n sand, w i t h f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n depending on
t h e s t r e s s s t a t e i n t h e r e s e r v o i r a t any p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n . Washing o f p e r f o r a t i o n s can c r e a t e v o i d s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n
which can be subsequently prepacked w i t h g r a v e l . The amount o f pay zone sand r e -
moved by p e r f o r a t i o n washing i n c r e a s e s w i t h pumping r a t e , and l o w - v i s c o s i t y
f l u i d s a r e more e f f e c t i v e i n washing p e r f o r a t i o n s t h a n h i g h - v i s c o s i t y f l u i d s .
 816

5.9.1,5.1.2.Influence of perforation washing and surging

P e r f o r a t i o n wash volume geometry i s dependent on r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y ,
w i t h h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y sands b e i n g removed w i t h l e s s d i f f i c u l t y t h a n low-permea-
b i l i t y sands (HALLIBURTON 1988). P e r f o r a t i o n washing can a l s o l e a d t o p r e s s u r e
p a r t i n g o f t h e f o r m a t i o n i f t h e f r a c t u r e g r a d i e n t i s exceeded. On a g r o s s s u r -
g e d - i n t e r v a l b a s i s , p e r f o r a t i o n s u r g i n g i s capable o f removing about t h e same
q u a n t i t y o f f o r m a t i o n sand p e r r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l as p e r f o r a t i o n washing. P e r f o -
r a t i o n s u r g i n g may n o t open a l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , w i t h t h e amount o f pay zone
m a t e r i a l b e i n g removed p r o b a b l y d i f f e r i n g u n p r e d i c t a b l y . High s u r g e - d i f f e r e n -
t i a l p r e s s u r e s a r e more e f f e c t i v e than low p r e s s u r e s i n removing sand f r o m t h e
p e r f o r a t i o n s . Gravel p r e p a c k i n g subsequent t o s u r g i n g causes i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a -
v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand ( f u r t h e r aspects o f g r a v e l p r e p a c k i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d i n
section 5.6.6.).

5.9.1.5.2. Formation preheating

A p a r t f r o m prepacking, a b e t t e r e f f e c t o f r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n can be a c h i e -
ved by p r e - h e a t i n g o f t h e f o r m a t i o n sand by i n - s i t u combustion and subsequent
c o o l i n g down t o a b t . 400 OF (205 oC) b e f o r e r e s i n pumping i n t o t h e pay zone
(RENSVOLD 1982). F o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y i s m a i n t a i n e d by i n j e c t i n g i n e r t gas
a f t e r r e s i n i n s e r t i o n o r by e n t r a i n i n g t h e r e s i n i n t h e gas. An a l t e r n a t i v e me-
t h o d i s p r e h e a t i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n t o 300 - 700 OF (150 - 370 oC) by steam i n j e c -
t i o n . The r e s i n i s i n t r o d u c e d f o l l o w e d by a d d i t i o n a l steam which c u r e s t h e r e -
s i n and i n c r e a s e s i t s r a d i a l p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n . H e a t - r e s i s t a n t f u r -
f u r y 1 a l c o h o l r e s i n s c o u l d i n f a c t be one o f t h e most f e a s i b l e approaches t o
sand c o n t r o l i n steam-drive o p e r a t i o n s , and steam i n j e c t i o n f o r r e s e r v o i r p r e -
h e a t i n g i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a more economical method and a t e c h n i q u e b e i n g b e t -
t e r a b l e t o be s u p e r v i s e d than i n - s i t u combustion.

FRIEDMAN, SURLES & K I E K E (1986) p r e s e n t a method o f h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e sand

c o n s o l i d a t i o n which i s even a p p l i c a b l e i n steam i n j e c t i o n and f i r e f l o o d ( i n - s i -
t u combustion) w e l l s , w i t h t h e r e s i n r e s i s t i n g up t o 500 OF temperature (WEAVER
& MORGAN 1988). As a consequence o f i t s temperature s t a b i l i t y , r e s i n i s a l s o w i -
d e l y used as c o r e b i n d e r i n s t e e l f o u n d r i e s (MURPHEY, BILA & TOTTY 1974). CAR-
NES & M I X O N (1971) comment on c o n s o l i d a t i o n and g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n one s t e p .
O n e - t r i p g r a v e l p a c k i n g systems a r e a l s o p r e s e n t e d by BERCEGEAY & RICHARD
(1974; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5 . 1 0 . 1 . 2 . ) .

5.9.1.5.3. Formation preflushing

CHEN, ZHOU & LIU (1986) document f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e o f r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n
China and conclude t h a t s t a b i l i z a t i o n w i t h i n a r a d i u s o f 0 . 5 m f r o m t h e w e l l -
bore has t o be achieved f o r s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n s . P r e f l u s h i n g s h o u l d be made
w i t h f l u i d q u a n t i t i e s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h r e e t i m e s t h e pore volume i n o r d e r t o a l -
low f o r p r o p e r f o r m a t i o n c l e a n i n g . H y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d has t u r n e d o u t t o be a ca-
t a l y s t t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e c u r i n g and s o l i d i f y i n g r e a c t i o n under r e s e r v o i r tempe-
rature.

F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t s u i t a b l e r e s i n - c o n s o l i d a t e d b o r e h o l e v i c i n i -
t y zones range up t o 6 f t d i a m e t e r o f t h e s t a b i l i z e d c y l i n d e r , w i t h t h e c y l i n -
d r i c a l m a t r i x p r o v i d i n g c a s i n g s u p p o r t and r e s e r v o i r s t r e n g t h as w e l l as m i n i m i -
z i n g p a r t i c l e m i g r a t i o n . The g r e a t e r t h e diameter o f t h e c y l i n d e r , t h e l o w e r
t h e f l o w v e l o c i t y a t i t s e x t r e m i t i e s , w i t h p a r t i c l e t r a n s p o r t tendency b e i n g
l e s s a t l o w e r v e l o c i t i e s . I d e a l c y l i n d r i c a l c o n s o l i d a t i o n , however, c a n n o t a l -
ways be achieved due t o f o r m a t i o n i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s t h a t i n t e r f e r e w i t h u n i f o r m
r e s i n penetration.
 817

5.9.1.5.4. Two- and three-stage sand consol idat ion

I n case of h i g h l y v a r i a b l e i n - s i t u p e r m e a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e r e s e r -
v o i r sand, c o n s o l i d a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s o f t e n a r e d i f f i c u l t t o be c a r r i e d o u t i n an
u n i f o r m manner, because t h e v a r i a b l e p e r m e a b i l i t y provokes f l u i d c h a n n e l l i n g
through t h e h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y s t r e a k s (POSTON, TURNER, TOBOLA & BARGER 1986).
The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s p r e s e n t s aspects o f two-stage sand s t a b i l i z a t i o n , forma-
t i o n f r a c t u r i n g d u r i n g r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n , and t h r e e - s t a g e sand s t a b i l i z a t i o n .

5.9.1.5.4.1. Two-stage sand stabilization

A more u n i f o r m l y c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t e r v a l i s p r o v i d e d by a two-stage o p e r a t i o n
where i n i t i a l h i g h i n j e c t i o n r a t e f o r c e s most o f t h e f l u i d s t o t h e zone o f h i g h -
e s t p e r m e a b i l i t y , w i t h t h i s f i r s t stage r e d u c i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e i n - s i t u permeabi-
l i t y o f t h e h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y s t r e a k s t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h a t o f t h e low-permeabi-
l i t y h o r i z o n s (POSTON, TURNER, TOBOLA & BARGER 1986). The second stage compri-
ses a s i m i l a r s t a b i l i z a t i o n j o b which i s conducted a t a d i m i n i s h e d i n j e c t i o n
r a t e i n o r d e r t o u n i f o r m l y t r e a t t h e e n t i r e i n t e r v a l . C a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i -
sed t h a t i n j e c t i o n r a t e o f t h e second stage i s n o t t o o high, because o t h e r w i s e
h i g h p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l s a r e c r e a t e d a t t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e which induce hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g o f t h e second-stage j o b through t h e f i r s t - s t a g e t r e a t m e n t .

5.9.1.5.4.2. Format ion f ractur ins during resin consol idat ion
I f p r e s s u r e p a r t i n g o f t h e r e s e r v o i r occurs, t h e r e s i n i s f o r c e d i n t o t h e
pay zone o n l y a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e s and n o t t h r o u g h t h e m a t r i x which g i v e s r i s e
t o an uneven r e s i n d i s t r i b u t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 9 . 1 . 2 . ) . F r a c t u r e s a r e p a r t i c u -
l a r l y e a s i l y d e v e l o p i n g a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between h i g h - and l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y
l a y e r s i f t h e f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t i s exceeded. The r i s k o f f r a c t u r i n g
t h e f o r m a t i o n i s a l s o i n c r e a s e d by h i g h - v i s c o s i t y epoxy r e s i n s which l e a d t o i n -
c r e a s i n g pumping p r e s s u r e (SHAUGHNESSY, SALATHIEL & PENBERTHY 1977). Aspects o f
f o r m a t i o n f r a c t u r i n g d u r i n g r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by HOWER &
BROWN (1961). Low i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s d u r i n g t h e second stage p r e v e n t r e s i n
c h a n n e l l i n g and a l l o w i t s u n i f o r m f l o w i n t o t h e sand m a t r i x . I n c r e a s e d r e s e r -
v o i r temperature reduces v i s c o s i t y o f t r e a t i n g f l u i d s which r e s u l t s i n t h i n n e r
r e s i n c o a t i n g s on t h e sand g r a i n s , more u n i f o r m f l u i d displacement, and h i g h e r
compressive s t r e n g t h o f t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n .

5.9.1.5.4.3. Three-stage sand stabilization

TREADWAY, BRANDT & PARKER (1966) even i n t r o d u c e a t h r e e - s t e p process c o n s i s t -
i n g o f f i r s t i n j e c t i o n o f h i g h - v i s c o s i t y epoxy r e s i n f o l l o w e d by second d i e s e l
o i l t o r e - e s t a b l i s h p e r m e a b i l i t y , and f i n i s h e d by t h i r d i n j e c t i o n o f an a c t i v a -
t o r t o harden t h e r e s i n . T h i s process i s a p p l i c a b l e o v e r a wide temperature
range, p r o v i d e s adequate s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and a f f o r d s s i g n i f i c a n t p e r -
m e a b i l i t y r e t e n t i o n . S i m i l a r l y as a p p l y i n q f o r r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n , two-stage
and o n e - t r i p o p e r a t i o n s a r e a l s o p o s i i b l e f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.10.1.2. ) .

5.9.1.5.5. Other aspects

Aspects o f sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n by r e s i n i n j e c t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by CARD-
WELL (1947), SMITH & POLK (1947), BEZEMER & M E I J S (1966); TREADWAY, BRANDT &
PARKER (1966); YOUNG (1967), JENNINGS & MUIRHEAO (1968), SMITH (1968), RICHARD-
SON & HAMBY (1970), RIKE (1970); STROHM, MANTOOTH & PRIESTER (1970); BROOKS
(1971), MUECKE (1974), M A B I E (1975), COPELAND & CONSTIEN (1978); PENBERTHY,
SHAUGHNESSY, GRUESBECK & SALATHIEL (1978) ; MURPHEY (1980), RENSVOLD (1983) and
WEAVER & MORGAN (1988). New c o n s o l i d a t i o n approaches w i t h a p p l i c a t i o n o f o t h e r
 818

m a t e r i a l s a r e p r e s e n t e d by TERWILLIGER, SMITH & GOODWIN (1964); FITZGERALD,

STEPHENS & TERWILLIGER (1966) ; HAMBY & RICHARDSON (1968); HARRISBERGER, COULTER
& GURLEY (1971); MURPHEY, BILA & TOTTY ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; STRICKLAND, RICHARDSON, HAMBY &
TORREST ( 1 9 7 5 ) ; R I K E (1975), TORREST (1975); SHAUGHNESSY, SALATHIEL & PENBERTHY
(1977); D A V I E S , ZWOLLE & M E I J S (1980) and BURGER, GADELLE & MARRAST ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

5.9.1.6. Formation consolidation vs. gravel packing

S e l e c t i o n o f mechanical g r a v e l p a c k i n g o r chemical f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n
o r even a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h methods f o r sand c o n t r o l depends on t e c h n i c a l and
economical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s (HALLIBURTON 1988). The most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n -
c l u d e i n i t i a l sand c o n t r o l c o s t , expected r e l i a b i l i t y , e f f e c t on p r o d u c t i v i t y ,
c o m p l e t i o n r e p a i r c o s t , f o r m a t i o n sand q u a l i t y , presence o f m u l t i p l e t h i n p r o -
d u c t i v e s e c t i o n s , e x c l u s i o n o f i n t e r b e d d e d w a t e r o r gas, l e v e l o f p r e s s u r e de-
p l e t i o n , presence o f u n d e s i r a b l e s h a l e s t r e a k s , and h i s t o r y o f sand p r o d u c t i o n .
As c o n s o l i d a t i o n chemicals a r e r e l a t i v e l y expensive, f o r m a t i o n s t a b i l i z a t i o n by
r e s i n c e m e n t a t i o n i s n o r m a l l y more c o s t l y p e r f o o t than g r a v e l packing, w i t h
t h e t o t a l c o n s o l i d a t i o n expenses t h e r e f o r e b e i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e d by
i n t e r v a l t h i c k n e s s . On t h e o t h e r hand, most g r a v e l pack i n s t a l l a t i o n s r e q u i r e a
r i g o r a h o i s t , whereas f o r m a t i o n s t a b i l i z a t i o n may sometimes a l s o be performed
t h r o u g h c o i l e d t u b i n g , w i t h t h e l a t t e r t e c h n i q u e p e r m i t t i n g more economical
w e l l t r e a t m e n t s and r e d u c i n g p r o d u c t i o n l o s s e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m u n a v a i l a b i l i t y of
workover r i g s .

F o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s advantageous i n case o f s h o r t p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r -
v a l s , l a c k o f p r e v i o u s sand p r o d u c t i o n i n new w e l l s , s i n g l e - h o r i z o n pay zones
o r upper p o r t i o n s o f m u l t i p l e - l a y e r c o m p l e t i o n s where no o b s t r u c t i o n i s l e f t i n
t h e w e l l b o r e , and c l e a n sand w i t h s u f f i c i e n t p e r m e a b i l i t y . I f these c o n d i t i o n s
a r e n o t g i v e n , g r a v e l p a c k i n g o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f mechanical and chemical sand
c o n t r o l s h o u l d be p r e f e r r e d . The main advantages o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e h i g h p r o -
d u c t i v i t y i n many cases and r a t h e r s i m p l e i n s t a l l a t i o n . The s p e c i a l b e n e f i t s o f
chemical f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n a r e r e s t o r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n a t minimum c o s t
i n some s i t u a t i o n s , a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t i n t e r v a l s , s u c c e s s f u l s t a -
b i l i z a t i o n o f f i n e sands w i t h p r o p e r design, and l e a v i n g t h e w e l l b o r e unencumbe-
r e d f o r f u t u r e workover o p e r a t i o n s . Combinations o f mechanical g r a v e l p a c k i n g
and chemical c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t e n r e s u l t i n h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y a f t e r t h e t r e a t -
ment, can be r e l a t i v e l y cheap i n some s i m p l e s i t u a t i o n s , and a r e s u i t a b l e f o r
r e s e r v o i r zones o f o l d e r w e l l s which may have produced some sand and would need
pre-packing before effective s t a b i l i z a t i o n c o u l d be done ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.9.1.5.1.).

5.9.1.7. Permeability destruction and plugging of thief zones

W h i l e g e n e r a l l y r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f hydrocarbon-bearing f o r m a t i o n s aims
on maximum p e r m e a b i l i t y p r e s e r v a t i o n and optimum m a t r i x s t a b i l i z a t i o n i n o r d e r
t o e n a b l e p r o f i t a b l e o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n , some s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s f o l l o w
t h e i n v e r s e g o a l . S i m i l a r l y as o c c a s i o n a l l y proppant g r a i n s i z e m i x i n g has t h e
t a s k o f p r o v o k i n g p e r m e a b i l i t y d e s t r u c t i o n f o r p l u g g i n g o f f r a c t u r e t i p s propa-
g a t i n g downwards o r upwards and t h u s f o r l i m i t a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t e x t e n -
s i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 1 . 4 . 1 1 . 2 . 1 . 4 . and 4 . 2 . 2 . 4 . ) , a c r y l i c epoxy g e l systems have
been developed f o r p l u g g i n g o f r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h i e f zones (KNAPP &
WELBOURN 1978).

The a p p l i c a t i o n spectrum of these delayed g e l a t i o n f l u i d s i n c l u d e s p r o f i l e

c o n t r o l f o r w a t e r i n j e c t i o n w e l l s , s h u t o f f of w a t e r i n f l u x zones i n p r o d u c t i o n
boreholes, and p l u g g i n g o f s e c t i o n s s t e a l i n g f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d . The g e l i s gene-
r a t e d by c r o s s l i n k i n g o f a c r y l i c r e s i n and l i q u i d epoxy r e s i n c o n t a i n e d i n a wa-
t e r - b a s e d continuous-phase emulsion. The r e s i n d r o p l e t s a r e small enough t o
f l o w i n t o t y p i c a l f o r m a t i o n p o r e s so t h a t i n - d e p t h p l u g g i n g o f t h i e f zones can
be o b t a i n e d . V a r i o u s t e c h n i q u e s o f polymer i n j e c t i o n f o r e i t h e r s t i m u l a t i o n o r
 819

p l u g g i n g o f h o r i z o n s i n gas, o i l o r w a t e r w e l l s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by LAKATOS,
KRETZSCHMAR, CZOLBE, BITTKOW & WASSERMANN (1988) and ZAITOUN, KOHLER & G U E R R I N I
(1989).

5.9.2. Hydroxy-a1 umi num and elect roless nickel conso 1 idat ion
Apart from r e s i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n ( c f . section 5.9.1.), f u r t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s
o f chemical sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o mechanical g r a v e l p a c k i n g
and o t h e r mechanochemical sand c o n t r o l methods comprise among o t h e r s hydroxy-
aluminum s t a b i l i z a t i o n and e l e c t r o l e s s n i c k e l p l a t i n g which a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
as f o l l o w s .

5.9.2.1. Hydroxy-aluminum stabi 1 i zat ion

Sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n w i t h hydroxy-aluminum s o l u t i o n s has been i n t r o d u c e d o v e r
15 y e a r s ago (VELEY 1969; REED 1972, 1977; REED & COPPEL 1972; BELVIN, COTTON &
DUGAS 1973; COPPEL, JENNINGS & REED 1973; HASKIN, REED & COPPEL 1975; HASKIN
1976, BANIK & SHARMA 1984). Hydroxy-aluminum t r e a t m e n t s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i -
f i c a n t f o r s t a b i l i z a t i o n of w a t e r - s e n s i t i v e f o r m a t i o n s . The p o l y m e r i c i n o r g a n i c
c a t i o n s a r e p o s i t i v e l y charged and a r e t h u s t i g h t l y absorbed on t h e n e g a t i v e l y
charged c l a y m i n e r a l s u r f a c e s . Due t o an almost i d e n t i c a l o c t a h e d r a l s t r u c t u r e
o f some c l a y m i n e r a l s and hydroxy-aluminum polymers, once t i g h t l y h e l d on t h e
c l a y s u r f a c e t h e polymers a r e non-exchangeable and t h e c l a y s become q u i t e r e s i s -
t a n t t o s t r u c t u r a l expansion and d i s p e r s i o n . Hydroxy-aluminum c o n s o l i d a t i o n ,
however, does n o t work i n c l e a n sands w i t h o n l y t r a c e s o f c l a y m i n e r a l s o r no
f i n e s a t a l l (ANAND & JONES 1977).

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e hydroxy-aluminum polymer i n c r e a s e s i n case o f mode-

r a t e ageing i n f r e s h w a t e r a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t , because t h e polymers grow t o
f o r m l a r g e r and more p e r f e c t l y c r y s t a l l i n e sheets on t h e c l a y m i n e r a l s u r f a c e s ,
whereas e x c e s s i v e ageing l e a d s t o r e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n i n t o c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r mo-
l e c u l e s which t h e n d r a s t i c a l l y reduce t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y . Once t h e i n t e r l a y e r spa-
ces o f t h e c l a y sheets a r e f i l l e d up w i t h t i g h t l y absorbed hydroxy-aluminum
ions, t h e c l a y s can no l o n g e r a t t r a c t w a t e r and hence p e r m e a b i l i t y damage by wa-
t e r s e n s i t i v i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n s 3.5.2. and 3.11.1.) i s no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e (VELEY
1969, BANIK & SHARMA 1984). Comments on d e c r e a s i n g f o r m a t i o n sand e n t r y by i n -
p l a c e c l a y s t a b i l i z a t i o n a r e a l s o g i v e n by VELEY & CASEY ( 1 9 7 3 ) . Another t e c h n i -
que i s c a l c i u m h y d r o x i d e t r e a t i n g o f l o o s e d i r t y sands which s t a b i l i z e s t h e
c l a y m i n e r a l s and c r e a t e s some t y p e o f a r t i f i c i a l muddy cement between t h e f r a -
mework g r a i n s (CHARLES 1976).

5.9.2.2. Electroless nickel plating

F o r m a t i o n sand can a l s o be c o n s o l i d a t e d by e l e c t r o l e s s n i c k e l p l a t i n g f r o m
f l u i d s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e sand (STRICKLAND, RICHARDSON, HAMBY & TORREST 1975;
TORREST 1975). The mechanical s t r e n g t h o f t h i s c o n s o l i d a t i o n t y p e i s g r e a t e s t
near t h e b o r e h o l e . Compressive s t r e n g t h up t o 40,000 p s i and temperature s t a b i -
l i t y above 500 OF (260 oC) can make e l e c t r o l e s s n i c k e l p l a t i n g s u p e r i o r t o r e -
s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n i f p r o p e r l y executed downhole. On t h e o t h e r hand, w h i l e
n i c k e l p l a t e on t h e f o r m a t i o n sand g r a i n s would have t h e necessary h e a t r e s i s -
tance, d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r sand by high-pH steam i n s e r t i n g a t g r a i n
c o n t a c t p o i n t s where coverage by n i c k e l i s incomplete c o u l d l e a d t o f a i l u r e ,
w i t h e l e c t r o l e s s n i c k e l p l a t i n g i n terms of thermal enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y b e i n g
more s u i t a b l e f o r steam-drive t h a n f o r c y c l i c steam-soak s t i m u l a t i o n (RENSVOLO
1982).
 820

5.9.3. Silica cementation

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e methods by r e s i n and hydroxy-aluminum i n j e c t i o n as d i s c u s -
sed i n t h e above s e c t i o n s , o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f chemical r e s e r v o i r s t a b i l i z a -
t i o n e x i s t . Chemical sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s by s i l i c a c e m e n t a t i o n a r e i n -
t r o d u c e d by ASLESEN, SHORT & TERWILLIGER (1981) and DAVIES, ZWOLLE & M E I J S
(1983) and comprise S o l d e r g l a s s method and S i l i c a l o c k concept, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
which a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.9.3.1. Si 1 icalock concept

The S i l i c a l o c k concept (DAVIES, ZWOLLE & MEIJS 1983) i s a s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t
f o r gas w e l l s . L i q u i d s i l i c a t e t r a c h l o r i d e i s v a p o r i z e d i n t o a stream o f h i g h -
p r e s s u r e n i t r o g e n and i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h r e g u l a r o r c o i l e d t u -
b i n g . Immobile connate w a t e r p r e s e n t i n t h e t r e a t e d zone r e a c t s w i t h t h e v a p o r i -
zed chemical, and s i l i c a cement i s p r e c i p i t a t e d which connects t h e g r a i n s and
t h u s s t a b i l i z e s t h e framework package of l o o s e g r a i n s . S i l i c a l o c k o p e r a t i o n s
have been s u c c e s s f u l l y performed f o r sand c o n t r o l c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n t h e g i a n t
R o t l i e g e n d gas f i e l d Groningen/The N e t h e r l a n d s .

5.9.3.2. Solder glass method

The S o l d e r g l a s s method (ASLESEN, SHORT & TERWILLIGER 1981) i s s i m i l a r t o
t h e S i l i c a l o c k concept, b u t amorphous g l a s s i s p r e c i p i t a t e d a t t h e g r a i n con-
t a c t s i n s t e a d o f m i c r o c r y s t a l l i n e q u a r t z . The S o l d e r g l a s s method o f f e r s an a l -
t e r n a t i v e t o h e a t l i m i t a t i o n s o f o t h e r bonding chemicals such as most o f t h e r e -
sins i n steam-stimulated w e l l s . A special glass c o n s i s t i n g o f lead oxide, zinc
oxide, b o r i c o x i d e and s i l i c a i s powered and s o l u b i l i z e d i n a w a t e r i s o d i u m hy-
droxidefsodium s i l i c a t e s o l u t i o n and squeezed i n t o a f o r m a t i o n sand t h a t has
been c l e a n e d and d r i e d b y i n j e c t i o n o f a i r and downhole f o r w a r d i n - s i t u combus-
t i o n . I n j e c t e d w i t h a i r i m m e d i a t e l y upon c e s s a t i o n of b u r n i n g , t h e s o l u t i o n con-
t a c t s and wets t h e sand g r a i n s . A d d i t i o n a l h o t a i r subsequently d r i v e s o f f t h e
w a t e r and t h u s t r i g g e r s t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n of g l a s s a t t h e c o n t a c t p o i n t s b e t -
ween t h e g r a i n s due t o u n d e r s a t u r a t i o n of t h e s o l u t i o n by d r y i n g and r e s t r i c -
t i o n . Clays a r e a l s o dehydrated i n t h i s process f o r an a d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t . The
S o l d e r g l a s s method has been s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d i n t h e F r u i t v a l e f i e l d i n Ca-
l i f o r n i a / U S A where p r e v i o u s l y severe and u n c o n t r o l l a b l e sanding problems e x i s -
ted.

The S o l d e r g l a s s s o l u t i o n i s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n sand t h r o u g h a
s i n g l e p e r f o r a t i o n , and simultaneous i n j e c t i o n o f unheated a i r d i s p e r s e s t h e so-
l u t i o n t h r o u g h t h e zone t h a t has been p r e v i o u s l y c l e a n e d by i n - s i t u combustion.
A i r i n j e c t i o n i s then c o n t i n u e d , w i t h a i r temperature b e i n g i n c r e a s e d i n c a r e -
f u l l y staged l e v e l s , t h e r e b y e v a p o r a t i n g t h e w a t e r f r o m t h e S o l d e r g l a s s s o l u -
t i o n . F i n a l l y a i r temperature i s r a i s e d t o 800 - 1,200 OF (430 - 650 oC) and
m a i n t a i n e d a t t h i s l e v e l f o r e i g h t hours which t r i g g e r s d e v i t r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
S o l d e r g l a s s t h a t has been d e p o s i t e d on t h e sand g r a i n s , t h e r e b y f o r m i n g a
s t r o n g bond between t h e g r a i n s . The major reason f o r some u n s u c c e s s f u l t r e a t -
ments i s c a s i n g f a i l u r e due t o thermal shock (RENSVOLD 1982), whereas t h e m a j o r
advantage o f S o l d e r g l a s s c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s t h e h i g h temperature s t a b i l i t y . On
t h e o t h e r hand, t h e S o l d e r g l a s s bond i s d i s s o l v e d by h i g h l y a l c a l i n e s o l u t i o n s
and h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d . T h e r e f o r e S o l d e r g l a s s bonds have t o be p r o t e c t e d f r o m
steam d i s s o l u t i o n i n thermal enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y p r o j e c t s i n a s i m i l a r ways
as g r a v e l packs ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 7 . ) .

5.9.4. Warm air coking consolidation

Warm a i r c o k i n g i s a n o t h e r process o f f o r m a t i o n sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n which i s
most s u i t a b l e f o r l o w - g r a v i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r s (TERWILLIGER, SMITH E GOODWIN
 821

1964; FITZGERALD, STEPHENS & TERWILLIGER 1966). A downhole h e a t e r s u p p l i e s h o t

a i r t o t h e f o r m a t i o n c a u s i n g c o n t r o l l e d o x i d a t i o n o f t h e crude o i l around t h e
borehole, w i t h t h e r e s u l t i n g coke b e i n g an i n f u s i b l e h a r d m a t e r i a l w h i c h b i n d s
t h e sand g r a i n s t o g e t h e r . Combustion o f t h e o i l i s p r e v e n t e d by c a r e f u l s u p e r v i -
s i o n o f a i r temperature and i n j e c t i o n r a t e s . Warm a i r c o k i n g c o n s o l i d a t i o n has
t u r n e d o u t t o be a p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e r e s e r v o i r s t a b i l i z a t i o n process i n
steam-drive o p e r a t i o n s up t o 460 OF (240 oC; RENSVOLD 1982). A v o i d i n g i g n i t i o n
d u r i n g t h e c o k i n g process may be d i f f i c u l t . V a r i a t i o n s i n f o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i -
t y c o u l d r e s u l t i n uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n o f heated a i r i n t h e r e s e r v o i r which g i -
ves r i s e t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o k i n g degree and subsequent r e s i s t a n c e t o sand p r o -
d u c t i on.

5.9.5. Stable sand arch formation

P a r t i c l e b r i d g i n g i n o r d e r t o s t a b i l i z e l o o s e sandy r e s e r v o i r s and t o p r e -
v e n t g r a i n s f r o m moving can be achieved by s y n t h e t i c g r a v e l p a c k i n g e n v e l o p i n g
t h e pay zone as w e l l as combinations o f mechanical sand c o n t r o l and chemical
f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n , b u t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o be reached by s e m i - n a t u r a l
sand g r a i n a r c h i n g w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k m a t r i x i t s e l f (HALL & HARRISBERGER
1970, SUMAN 1975; CLEARY, MELVAN & KOHLHAAS 1979; RISNES, BRATLI & HORSRUD 1982
b ) . A f t e r an o u t l i n e o f some g e n e r a l aspects, comments a r e g i v e n on sand arch-
i n g combined w i t h r e s i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n , as w e l l as on g r a i n s u r f a c e roughness
and f l u i d m i x i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s which a r e t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g
sand a r c h s t a b i 1 it y .

5.9.5.1. General aspects

An u n c o n s o l i d a t e d pay sand b e h i n d p e r f o r a t e d c a s i n g can have a n a t u r a l r e s i s -
tance t o f l o w i f t h e g r a i n s f o r m a s t a b l e dome-shaped a r c h o v e r t h e e n t r y h o l e
a t t h e d i s t a l end o f t h e cement m a n t l e and/or t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l o r around
t h e w e l l b o r e . The s t a b i l i t y o f t h e sand a r c h i s a f u n c t i o n o f how t i g h t l y
packed t h e g r a i n s a r e w i t h i n t h e n a t u r a l m a t r i x o f t h e r e s e r v o i r sand, and o f
s y n t h e t i c enhancement o f t h e o r i g i n a l f a b r i c . Although sand a r c h i n g b e i n g forma-
t i o n o f a s t a b l e g r a i n f a b r i c spanning an opening can be a c o m p l e t e l y n a t u r a l
f e a t u r e which i s f a v o u r e d by a s u i t a b l e g r a n u l o m e t r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and g r a i n
shape o f t h e r e s e r v o i r sand and may n o t r e q u i r e any s y n t h e t i c m a n i p u l a t i n g i n -
f l u e n c e s ( b u t i s a t l e a s t t o some degree a l s o a f u n c t i o n o f pay d e p t h ) , t h e
t e c h n i q u e o f sand c o n t r o l by a r c h i n g i n c l u d e s abundantly a r t i f i c i a l s t r e s s l o a d -
i n g o f t h e sand by o p e r a t i o n o f a l o n g i n f l a t a b l e packer i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e
t h e necessary g r a i n p a c k i n g (SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983). Improvement o f sand
a r c h s t a b i l i t y can a l s o be achieved by i n j e c t i o n o f a l o w - s t r e n g t h p l a s t i c i n a
c o m b i n a t i o n o f mechanical and chemical f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n (HALL & H A R R I S -
BERGER 1970). Some aspects o f c a v i t y f a c e p e r m e a b i l i t y vs. d i l a t i o n , sand pack-
age d i s i n t e g r a t i o n vs. g r a i n i n t e r l o c k i n g , and w e l l b o r e s t r e s s s t a t e c o n t r o l
a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.9.5.1.1. Cavity face permeability vs. dilation

I n m e c h a n i c a l l y weak o r u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f o r m a t i o n s , h i g h e a r t h s t r e s s e s cause
shear f a i l u r e around s p h e r i c a l and/or c y l i n d r i c a l c a v i t i e s l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e
s o l i d s i n c e boundary s t r e s s e s a r e z e r o a t i t s f a c e (PERKINS & WEINGARTEN 1988).
I f f l u i d f l o w s towards t h e c a v i t y , a d d i t i o n a l s t r e s s e s a r e induced which gene-
r a l l y cause t h e o u t e r boundary of t h e shear f a i l u r e r e g i o n t o expand as c u r r e n t
r a t e i n c r e a s e s . As f l u i d f l o w s towards t h e c a v i t y , t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s t e n d t o be
induced near i t s f a c e which p u l l t h e sand pack a p a r t t h e r e b y c a u s i n g i t t o d i -
late.

I n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e mechanical s t a b i l i t y , t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e sand a t
t h e c a v i t y f a c e must p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s e by d i l a t i o n as f l o w r a t e r i s e s .
 822

When c a v i t y f a c e p o r o s i t y has i n c r e a s e d s u f f i c i e n t l y , m e c h a n i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n o f
g r a i n s i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o keep t h e pack f r o m becoming f l u i d i z e d and p r o d u c i n g
p a r t i c l e s i n t o t h e c a v i t y . The d i s a g g r e g a t e d r e g i o n w i t h h i g h p o r o s i t y and p e r -
m e a b i l i t y a d j a c e n t t o t h e c a v i t y i s s u r r o u n d e d b y a cemented zone a t t h e l i m i t
o f s h e a r s t a b i l i t y w h i c h i s in t u r n e n c l o s e d b y a r e g i o n w h i c h behaves e l a s t i -
c a l l y . The o u t e r r a d i u s o f b o t h t h e d i s a g g r e g a t e d a r e a and t h e i n t e r v a l a t t h e
l i m i t o f shear s t a b i l i t y increase w i t h r i s i n g f l o w r a t e .

5.9.5.1.2. Sand package disintegration vs . grain inter locking

D i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e sand package i s p r o b a b l y c o n t r o l l e d b y s h e a r s t r a i n
w h i c h i n c r e a s e s as sand f l o w s p l a s t i c a l l y t o w a r d s t h e c a v i t y i f a r o u g h l y c o n -
s t a n t d i l a t i o n o c c u r s as a r e s u l t o f s h e a r i n g , w i t h w e a k l y - c e m e n t e d m a t e r i a l s
becoming d i s a g g r e g a t e d when a c r i t i c a l amount o f s h e a r s t r a i n i s e x c e e d e d . A t
the c a v i t y face, small cohesive strengths a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n s t a b i l i t y
because o f l o w s t r e s s e s . When f l u i d i s f l o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e d i s a g g r e g a t e d mate-
r i a l t o w a r d t h e c a v i t y , t h e d i s i n t e g r a t e d s o l i d s expand i n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e me-
c h a n i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y w h i c h a l l o w s a s m a l l amount o f sand t o be p r o d u c e d w h i l e
preserving overall s t a b i l i t y .

In d i s a g g r e g a t e d m a t e r i a l s , a p p a r e n t u n i t c o h e s i v e s t r e n g t h s a r e m a n i f e s t e d
because o f p a r t i c l e i n t e r l o c k i n g w h i c h p e r m i t s m e c h a n i c a l s t a b i l i t y t o e x i s t a t
a c a v i t y b o u n d a r y when f l u i d i s f l o w i n g . I f f r a c t i o n p o r o s i t y , however, i n c r e a -
ses t o a c r i t i c a l v a l u e , m e c h a n i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e s o l i d s i s i n s u f f i c i e n t
t o keep t h e p a r t i c l e s f r o m f l u i d i z i n g and b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e
f l u i d . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f s t a b i l i t y and f a i l u r e o f s p h e r i c a l a n d / o r c y l i n d r i c a l
c a v i t i e s i n u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sand and w e a k l y - l i t h i f i e d s a n d s t o n e a r e d i s c u s s e d b y
T I P P I E & KOHLHAAS (1973, 1 9 7 4 ) , FAHRENTHOLD ( 1 9 8 4 ) , PERKINS & GDNZALEZ ( 1 9 8 4 )
and FAHRENTHOLD & CHEATHAM ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

5.9.5.1.3. Wellbore stress state control

W e l l b o r e s t r e s s s t a t e c a n be c o n t r o l l e d b y e i t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n o f e l e v a t e d
d r i l l i n g f l u i d w e i g h t in o r d e r t o p r e v e n t d i l a t i o n a n d / o r s h e a r c r u s h i n g o f
sand g r a i n s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e b o r e h o l e , o r by e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e proper s t r e s s
s t a t e f o r s t a b l e sand a r c h e s b y u t i l i z a t i o n o f one o r more i n f l a t a b l e e x t e r n a l
c a s i n g p a c k e r s o p p o s i t e t h e i n t e r v a l s t o be p e r f o r a t e d (SUMAN 1975 b ) . F o u r r a n -
g e s o f sand a r c h s t a b i l i t y c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d . R a d i a l e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s o r
a r c h l o a d g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s e s w i t h d e p t h . F o r m a t i o n sands s u r r o u n d i n g b o r e h o l e s
i n an e x t r e m e l y s h a l l o w d e p t h do e i t h e r n o t a r c h o v e r p e r f o r a t i o n s o r w o u l d ge-
n e r a t e tenuous a r c h e s , and sand c o u l d r e a d i l y f l o w b y r o l l i n g and s l i d i n g
t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . A t i n t e r m e d i a t e d e p t h , r a t e - s e n s i t i v e sand a r c h e s o r i -
g i n a t e , w i t h sand p r o d u c t i o n d e p e n d i n g upon f l o w r a t e and r e s t r a i n t b e i n g p r o v i -
ded b y i n t e r f a c i a l t e n s i o n and sand a n g u l a r i t y . I n g r e a t e r d e p t h , a r c h l o a d may
be s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o v i d e f o r h i g h r a t e s o f f l o w w i t h o u t f a i l u r e , and f o r a g i -
ven sand q u a l i t y , t h e r a d i a l e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s may r e a c h t h e l e v e l where f i n a l l y
a r c h f a i l u r e o c c u r s t h r o u g h g r a i n c r u s h i n g . I n t h i s case, however, a r c h l o a d i n g
may be s e l f - a d j u s t i n g b y s h i f t i n g t o a l o w e r b u t s t a b l e a r c h l o a d . Some com-
ments on p o r e p r e s s u r e changes and a r c h l o a d a l t e r a t i o n s as w e l l as r a d i a l e f -
f e c t i v e s t r e s s and i m p o s i n g t e c h n i q u e s a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s .

5.9.5.1.3.1. Pore pressure changes and arch load alterations

I n c r e a s i n g p o r e p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e s a r c h l o a d and t h e r e b y s h i f t s l o a d c o n d i -
t i o n s f r o m h i g h e r t o l o w e r r a n g e s , whereas d e c r e a s i n g p o r e p r e s s u r e has t h e i n -
v e r s e e f f e c t (SUMAN 1975 b ) . I n c r e a s i n g p o r e p r e s s u r e can b e g e n e r a t e d b y s h u t -
i n o f producing wells, i n j e c t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n o r consolidation treatments, o r
i n j e c t i o n o f s e c o n d a r y - o r t e r t i a r y - r e c o v e r y f l u i d s . R e d u c t i o n i n a r c h l o a d cau-
ses c o n d i t i o n s a r o u n d t h e w e l l t o s h i f t f r o m no a r c h f o r m a t i o n ( c r u s h i n g r e -
 823

g i o n ) toward s t a b l e a r c h ( c r u s h i n g r a g i o n ) , r a t e - s e n s i t i v e a r c h ( d i l a t a n t r e -
g i o n ) and no a r c h g e n e r a t i o n ( d i l a t a n t r e g i o n ) , whereas r i s i n g a r c h l o a d t r i g -
gers changes o f s t a b i l i t y l e v e l s i n r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n .

I n terms o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f these concepts, i n c r e a s e s i n pore p r e s s u r e d u r i n g

secondary and t e r t i a r y r e c o v e r y o p e r a t i o n s c o u l d l e a d t o f a i l u r e s i n p r o d u c t i o n
and i n j e c t i o n w e l l s where s o f a r no sand c o n t r o l problems o c c u r r e d . A t t i c p r e s -
s u r i n g procedures a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u s c e p t i b l e t o a s h i f t o f s u f f i c i e n t magni-
tude t o cause d i f f i c u l t i e s . An i n c r e a s e d l i k e l i h o o d o f sand-up i s a l s o provoked
by p o r e p r e s s u r e e l e v a t i o n around w e l l s t h a t a r e s h u t - i n f o r extended p e r i o d s
o f t i m e . Decreasing p o r e p r e s s u r e i s a l s o t h e consequence o f d e p l e t i o n and/or
drawdown. Depending upon t h e o r i g i n a l c o n d i t i o n , sand p r o d u c t i o n l i k e l i h o o d may
a c t u a l l y decrease w i t h i n c r e a s e d drawdown p r e s s u r e i f t h e s t r e s s r i s e causes
a r c h l o a d i n g t o s h i f t t o a more s t a b i l i z e d c o n d i t i o n . The c o n d i t i o n s f o l l o w i n g
i n c r e a s e o f p o r e p r e s s u r e depend upon t h e o r i g i n a l a r c h l o a d and t h e magnitude
o f p o r e p r e s s u r e changes.

5.9.5.1.3.2. Radial effective stress and imposing techniques

R a d i a l e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s i s equal t o mud o r cement w e i g h t minus p o r e p r e s s u r e
(SUMAN 1975 b ) . D u r i n g d r i l l i n g , t h e r a d i a l e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s must be m a i n t a i n e d
a t a v a l u e below t h e m i n o r h o r i z o n t a l e f f e c t i v e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s i n o r d e r t o
avoid o r minimize the l i k e l i h o o d o f r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r i n g . I n f l a t a b l e external
c a s i n g packers can be used f o r p u r g i n g of mud f r o m t h e c a s i n g / f o r m a t i o n annulus
and imposing l o a d upon t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l up t o f r a c t u r i n g p r e s s u r e . D r i l l i n g
mud w e i g h t has t o be h i g h enough f o r p r e v e n t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n d i l a t i o n , b u t cau-
t i o n has a l s o t o be e x e r c i s e d t o i n h i b i t p r o d u c t i v i t y r e d u c t i o n by mud damage
i n t h e r e s e r v o i r . The r a d i a l e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s imposed d u r i n g cementation e s t a -
b l i s h e s l a t e r a r c h l o a d c o n d i t i o n s . The r a d i a l e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s c o u l d range
from t h e minimum t o p r e v e n t d i l a t i o n up t o t h a t which would f r a c t u r e t h e forma-
t i o n . A c t u a l a r c h l o a d which i s necessary t o be imposed m i g h t depend upon o r i g i -
n a l s t r e s s s t a t e , d e p t h o f zone, and expected p o r e p r e s s u r e h i s t o r y . O t h e r va-
r i a b l e s which a r e i m p o r t a n t t o t h e degree o f o b t a i n e d a r c h s t a b i l i t y a r e sand
g r a i n a n g u l a r i t y and c l a y c o n t e n t .

5.9.5.2. Sand arching combined with resin consolidation

If a sand a r c h b u i l d s and l a t e r f a i l s by g r a i n c r u s h i n g and f a b r i c c o l l a p s e ,
i t may r e f o r m w i t h r e l i e v e d s t r e s s e s i n t h e d i l a t a n t range o r a t the c r i t i c a l
c o n s t a n t - v a l u e s t r e s s . A sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n t r e a t m e n t by r e s i n i n j e c t i o n a t
t h i s stage can p r o v i d e ample cohesiveness t o s t a b i l i z e t h e f o r m a t i o n sand a t a
l o a d i n g l e v e l i n i t s d i l a t a n t range, b u t i f s t r e s s e s l a t e r i n c r e a s e enough due
t o p r e s s u r e drawdown o r o t h e r causes t o r e a c h t h e c r u s h i n g s t r e s s o f t h e sand,
t h e a r c h w i l l f a i l . F u l l y e f f e c t i v e a r c h s t a b l i z a t i o n by r e s i n i n j e c t i o n t h u s
r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e sand i s a b l e t o remain i n t h e d i l a t a n t range t h r o u g h o u t t h e
borehole l i f e .

The l a t t e r n e c e s s i t y can be assured by p e r orming a c o m b i n a t i o n o f mechani-

c a l and chemical sand c o n t r o l by l i n k i n g g r a v e l packing, f o r m a t i o n c o n s o l i d a -
t i o n and s e m i - n a t u r a l sand a r c h i n g , i n c l u d i n g i n j e c t i o n o f a sand whose c r i t i -
c a l s t r e s s f o r constant-volume s h e a r i n g i s w e l l above t h a t o f t h e r e s e r v o i r
sand. I n case o f i n j e c t i o n so as t o achieve a dense enough p a c k i n g t o be d i l a -
t a n t , such a sand can f o r m v e r y s t a b l e arches even when u s i n g a p l a s t i c w i t h
o n l y moderate cohesiveness f o r i t s c o n s o l i d a t i o n (HALL & HARRISBERGER 1970) i n
o r d e r t o a s c e r t a i n maximum o r i g i n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y r e t e n t i o n . The e f f e c t o f com-
p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h on sand s t a b i l i z a t i o n by n a t u r a l g r a i n a r c h i n g i s a l r e a d y e v i -
d e n t i n t h e f i e l d where sand f l o w tendency decreases w i t h i n c r e a s i n g w e l l d e p t h
as a consequence o f t h e r e s u l t i n g h i g h e r g r a i n - t o - g r a i n s t r e s s by p r o g r e s s i v e
overburden ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 9 . 5 . 1 . 3 . ) .
 824

5.9.5.3. Grain surface roughness

N a t u r a l sand a r c h s t a b i l i t y r e q u i r e s some s u r f a c e roughness o r a n g u l a r shape
o f t h e sand g r a i n s ( s i m i l a r l y as s y n t h e t i c g r a v e l pack and p r o p p a n t package s t a -
b i l i t y ; c f . s e c t i o n s 5.2.3. and 1 . 4 . 3 . , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) t o p r o v i d e t h e necessary
cohesion and f r i c t i o n (HALL & HARRISBERGER 1970). Well-rounded sand g r a i n s w i t h
smooth s u r f a c e do n o t generate s t a b l e arches. F l u i d e f f e c t s a l s o add t o g r a i n -
t o - g r a i n cohesion, because t h e r e s i d u a l w e t t i n g phase forms p e n d u l a r r i n g s
around g r a i n c o n t a c t p o i n t s which p r o v i d e cohesiveness through i n t e r f a c i a l t e n -
s i o n . L a c k i n g s u f f i c i e n t g r a i n - t o - g r a i n s t r e s s and i f connate w a t e r were t h e
o n l y cohesive f o r c e p r e s e n t , a r c h s t a b i l i t y may be lessened by i n c r e a s e d s a t u r a -
t i o n o f the w e t t i n g f l u i d .

I n case o f i n s u f f i c i e n t l y rough g r a i n surface, t r i a x i a l t e s t r e s u l t s empha-

s i z e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s between s t r o n g - g r a i n e d round sands and weaker-
g r a i n e d a n g u l a r sands w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s t r e s s l e v e l s f o r g r a i n c r u s h i n g and
t h u s c o n t r a c t i o n by a r c h c o l l a p s e (HALL & HARRISBERGER 1970). Arch f a i l u r e un-
d e r l o a d occurs a t l o w e r s t r e s s e s f o r a n g u l a r sands, w i t h g r a i n c r u s h i n g u s u a l -
l y b e i n g q u i t e e v i d e n t , whereas r o u n d e d - g r a i n sands a r e more s t a b l e . Arch s t a b i -
l i t y t h u s r e q u i r e s d i l a t a n c y and cohesiveness o r some o t h e r r e s t r a i n t on t h e
s u r f a c e g r a i n s o f t h e aggregate, because l o o s e l y packed sand does n o t a r c h .
Shearing which causes c r u s h i n g and c o l l a p s e cannot propagate i n a c o n f i n e d a r c h
s t r u c t u r e i n a sand loaded w i t h i n i t s d i l a t a n t range.

5.9.5.4. Fluid mixing relationships

The f o r m a t i o n o f a s t a b l e l o a d - c a r r y i n g sand a r c h spanning t h e p r o d u c t i o n ca-
v i t y and s t a b i l i z i n g weakly-cemented r e s e r v o i r s a g a i n s t f u r t h e r sanding a f t e r
some i n i t i a l s o l i d s p r o d u c t i o n i s f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e presence o f two d i f f e r e n t
f l u i d s such as o i l and w a t e r i n t h e pay zone which may c o n t r i b u t e c o h e s i v e f o r -
ces between t h e sand g r a i n s i f t h e w e t t i n g - p h a s e s a t u r a t i o n i s near i r r e d u c i b l e
(TIXIER, LOVELESS & ANDERSON 1973). The cohesive f o r c e s r e s u l t f r o m t h e i n t e r f a -
c i a l t e n s i o n between t h e two f l u i d s where t h e i r s u r f a c e c o n t a c t s t h e g r a i n s ,
and t h e e f f e c t i s t o p u l l t h e sand p a r t i c l e s t o g e t h e r . The cohesive f o r c e s a r e
n o t e f f e c t i v e a t l o w e r o i l s a t u r a t i o n s where t h e hydrocarbons e x i s t as separa-
t e d g l o b u l e s and t h e r e i s no c o n t a c t o f t h e o i l - w a t e r - i n t e r f a c e w i t h t h e sand
g r a i n s , as i n d i c a t e d by t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t many w e l l s do n o t produce sand un-
t i l the water c u t r i s e s considerably.

E f f e c t s o f p r o d u c i n g r a t e on sand a r c h f o r m a t i o n i n u n c o n s o l i d a t e d and weak-

l y - l i t h i f i e d r e s e r v o i r s a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d by T I P P I E (1973) and T I P P I E & KOHLHAAS
(1973, 1974), and t h e impact o f f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s on sand a r c h g e n e r a t i o n and
s t a b i l i t y i s i l l u s t r a t e d by CLEARY (1978 c ) and CLEARY, MELVAN & KOHLHAAS
( 1 9 7 9 ) . I n f l u e n c e o f g r a i n s i z e on sand a r c h r e s i s t a n c e i s analyzed by WOOD
( 1 9 7 9 ) , and MELVAN (1978); CLEARY, MELVAN & KOHLHAAS (1979) and BENTON (1984)
examine t h e r o l e o f d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s e s i n sand a r c h s t a b i l i t y . O t h e r aspects o f
sand a r c h c o n s i s t e n c y a r e d i s c u s s e d by AYERS (1965); GETZLER, KOMORNIK & MAZU-
R I K (1968); S T E I N & HILCHIE (1972); DURRETT, GUBIN, MURRAY & TIGHE (1977); CLEA-
RY, MELVAN & KOHLHAAS (1979); LASAKI (1980), BRATLI & R I S N E S (1981); RISNES,
BRATLI & HORSRUD (1982 a, 1982 b ) ; MORITA, WHITFILL, FEDDE & L0VIK (1987) and
Y A S S I N & PEDEN ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

5.9.6. Pre-pack liners and multiwire-wrapped screens

Advanced s a n d - c o n t r o l hardware systems w i t h p r e i n s t a l l e d o r s i m u l a t e d g r a v e l
pack m a t e r i a l a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by pre-pack l i n e r s and m u l t i w i r e - w r a p p e d screens
which a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d as f o l l o w s .
 825

5.9.6.1. Pre-pack liners

Pre-pack l i n e r s and m u l t i w i r e - w r a p p e d screens can even be r u n w i t h o u t a g r a -
v e l pack b e l t between s a n d - c o n t r o l hardware and b o r e h o l e w a l l o r casing, where-
as s l o t t e d l i n e r s and c o n v e n t i o n a l wire-wrapped screens o f wrapped-on-pipe,
grooved, r i b b e d o r a l l - w e l d e d t y p e have t o be g e n e r a l l y i n s t a l l e d i n combina-
t i o n w i t h a g r a v e l pack m a n t l e i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e b r i d g i n g o f f o r m a t i o n
sand ( t h e o n l y e x c e p t i o n i s a s u i t a b l e g r a i n s i z e o f t h e r e s e r v o i r sand t h a t
can c r e a t e a n a t u r a l g r a v e l pack around an i n s e r t e d screen o r l i n e r upon pay
f a i l u r e and sand i n f l u x i n t o t h e borehole; c f . s e c t i o n 5.2.3.6.). Some aspects
o f pre-pack l i n e r s i n g r a v e l p a c k i n g and pump p r o t e c t i o n a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l -
lows.

5.9.6.1.1. Gravel packing

Pre-pack l i n e r s f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h an i n t e g r a l surround-
i n g g r a v e l bed designed t o r e s t r a i n t h e pay f o r m a t i o n i n accordance t o s i z e se-
l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a a p p l y i n g f o r l o o s e g r a v e l . M u l t i - w r a p p e d screens have s e v e r a l
l a y e r s o f w i r e wrap, w i t h each succeeding l a y e r f r o m o u t s i d e - i n h a v i n g s m a l l e r
openings between w i r e s . The m u l t i p l e w i r e wraps a r e t o b r i d g e l a r g e r sand
g r a i n s a t t h e o u t e r l a y e r , i n t e r m e d i a t e - s i z e p a r t i c l e s i n successive l a y e r s ,
and s m a l l e r s i z e s a t t h e i n n e r m o s t l a y e r , t h u s s i m u l a t i n g a s e l e c t i v e l y s o r t e d
o r zoned g r a v e l pack m a n t l e o f t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n sand w i t h i n t h e screen
(SPURLOCK & DEMSKI 1972).

Pre-pack l i n e r s and m u l t i w i r e - w r a p p e d screens a r e n o r m a l l y n o t a p p l i e d i n -

s i d e c a s i n g because o f t h e need t o gravel-pack p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and beyond
i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t severe p r o d u c t i v i t y impairment. I n open hole, pre-pack li-
n e r s and m u l t i w i r e - w r a p p e d screens n e c e s s a r i l y have t o be somewhat s m a l l e r than
t h e b o r e h o l e diameter which p e r m i t s t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s n o t w i t h -
h o l d by a c a s i n g t o s h i f t when t h e w e l l i s produced. A l l these drawbacks f a v o u r
t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a g r a v e l pack between screen and c a s i n g o r b o r e h o l e w a l l as
t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n o f sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t i n any r e s p e c t ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n
5.10.1.). Pre-pack l i n e r s t h a t a r e covered w i t h a g r a v e l l a y e r which i s cemen-
t e d by r e s i n have been r e p e a t e d l y s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d i n Cretaceous o i l sands
i n Germany FRG (GESEMANN & BADURA 1976) and T e r t i a r y o i l sands i n A u s t r i a (MU-
RER 1981).

5.9.6.1.2. Pump protect ion

A s p e c i a l t y p e o f pre-packed l i n e r s a r e downhole pump p r o t e c t o r s which aim
on t r a p p i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f f l o u r - l i k e f o r m a t i o n f i n e s i n v a r i o u s c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s , because t h e p o w d e r - l i k e m a t e r i a l c a n n o t be stopped w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l
g r a v e l packs (SOLUM & RAMEZANI 1987; c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5.8.4.3.2.). The pump p r o -
t e c t o r s c o n s i s t o f a s l o t t e d o u t e r s l e e v e and a s l o t t e d base p i p e which c o n t a i n
a g r a v e l pack as f i l t e r medium. Gravel i s s e l e c t e d such t h a t t h e maximum pore
s i z e o f t h e g r a v e l pack i s s m a l l e r than t h e s i z e o f t h e f i n e p a r t i c l e s i n o r d e r
t o s t o p t h e f l o u r - l i k e m a t e r i a l c o m p l e t e l y . As hexagonal arrangement o f t h e
pack does n o t o n l y g i v e s t a b i l i t y , b u t a l s o reduces p o r e s i z e o r i n t e r s t i t i a l
tube s i z e o f t h e g r a v e l ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.8.4.1.), hexagonal p a c k i n g i s achieved
by v i b r a t i n g t h e l i n e r d u r i n g g r a v e l compaction i n t o t h e pump p r o t e c t o r a t t h e
m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t . F o r optimum r e s u l t , t h e pump p r o t e c t o r i s assembled,
packed and v i b r a t e d i n v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n .

The pump p r o t e c t o r i s i n s t a l l e d i n t h e w e l l s i m i l a r l y as c o n v e n t i o n a l p r e -
packed l i n e r s , and can be p u l l e d from t h e h o l e when and i f t h e f i l t e r elements
become plugged w i t h f l o u r - l i k e f i n e s . The pump p r o t e c t o r can t h e n be disassem-
b l e d , c l e a n e d and repacked w i t h v i b r a t i o n . The pump p r o t e c t o r s can be used r e -
p e a t e d l y , as o n l y t h e f i l t e r g r a v e l must be r e p l a c e d and o u t e r and i n n e r s l o t s
cleaned, w i t h t h e pump p r o t e c t o r s t h u s i n c r e a s i n g l i f e span o f t h e pumps and r e -
 826

d u c i n g p r o d u c t i o n downtime. When a shutdown o c c u r s due t o s u r f a c e f a i i u r e , a

back f l u s h i n g e f f e c t sends t h e f i n e s b r i d g e d o f f on t h e o u t e r s l e e v e and some
f i n e s f r o m t h e f i l t e r pack t o b o t t o m , t h e r e b y d i m i n i s h i n g t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p
a c r o s s t h e pump p r o t e c t o r . I n a d d i t i o n , when s u r f a c e shutdowns o c c u r , t h e f l u i d
r e m a i n i n g i n t h e t u b i n g i s n o t s a n d - l a d e n , t h u s e l i m i n a t i n g pump f a i l u r e s due
t o t h e pump l o c k i n g up due t o sand a f t e r a shutdown.

5.9.6.2. Multiwire-wrapped screens

LIVESEY & TOMA ( 1 9 8 4 ) and TOMA, LIVESEY & HEIDRICK ( 1 9 8 6 ) p r e s e n t a p r e -
p a c k e d l i n e r as a s u i t a b l e s a n d - c o n t r o l f i l t e r which consists o f s t a i n l e s s
s t e e l wool sandwiched between c o a r s e s t e e l c l o t h w i t h i n t h e a n n u l a r space o f a
d u a l - w a l l e d p i p e . T h i s f i l t e r was d e s i g n e d f o r t h e s p e c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n i n h o r i -
z o n t a l s t e a m - i n j e c t i o n w e l l s where g r a v e l p a c k i n g had so f a r been u n s a t i s f a c t o -
r y . The m e t a l l i c w o o l - c l o t h f i l t e r has a h i g h e r open a r e a and t h u s a much
h i g h e r p o r o s i t y t h a n a c o n v e n t i o n a l s c r e e n - g r a v e l pack f i l t e r . The s t e e l c l o t h
s e r v e s t o c o n f i n e and compress t h e s t e e l wool and i n a d d i t i o n i m p r o v e s i t s f i l -
t e r i n g a b i l i t y by a s s i s t i n g the b r i d g i n g o f s o l i d p a r t i c l e s a t t h e s t e e l wool/
steel cloth interface.

The i n t e r n a l c a p t u r i n g e l e m e n t o f t h e f i l t e r c o n s i s t s o f a dense n e t w o r k o f
c r i s s - c r o s s i n g f i l a m e n t s w i t h i r r e g u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n s . The c a p t u r e o f p a r t i c -
l e s t o t h e f i b r o u s s t r u c t u r e by v a r i o u s adhesion f o r c e s i s s t r o n g l y dependant
on t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g t h e s o l i d g r a i n s i n c l o s e o r d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h
t h e f i b e r s w h i c h i n c r e a s e s w i t h f i l t e r t o r t u o s i t y t h a t i s a f u n c t i o n o f compres-
s i o n . F i e l d t e s t s have r e v e a l e d t h a t t h i s s p e c i a l f i l t e r c a n n o t o n l y in l i g h t
o f t e c h n i c a l performance, b u t a l s o i n view o f economical f e a s i b i l i t y r e p r e s e n t
a reasonable a l t e r n a t i v e t o gravel packing i n t h e harsh steam-drive environment
( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 7 . ) . CHEN, ZHOU & L I U ( 1 9 8 6 ) comment on f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e w i t h
p r e - p a c k e d l i n e r s i n C h i n a . Epoxy r e s i n i s t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d b o n d i n g
agent f o r t h e gravel mantle o f t h e l i n e r .

A n o t h e r means o f sand c o n t r o l and a l s o p r o p p a n t f l o w b a c k h a n d l i n g i n h y d r a u -

l i c f r a c t u r i n g a r e t u b i n g - c o n v e y e d sand f i l t e r s w h i c h , however, a r e g e n e r a l l y
i n f e r i o r i n p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s (POPE, WILES & P I E R C E
1 9 8 7 ) . Wire-wrapped s c r e e n s and s l o t t e d l i n e r s have f r e q u e n t l y a l s o been i n s t a l -
l e d w i t h o u t g r a v e l pack w h i c h a l l o w s t h e w e l l t o i n i t i a l l y p r o d u c e f o r m a t i o n
sand t h a t c r e a t e s a g r a v e l - p a c k - t y p e m a n t l e a r o u n d t h e h a r d w a r e (AUSTIN, ROSE &
SCHUH 1988; HALLIBURTON 1 9 8 8 ) . T h i s method, however, p r o m o t e s f o r m a t i o n d i s t u r -
bances and p e r m e a b i l i t y damage, i n c l u d e s t h e r i s k o f f a i l u r e o f pack e s t a b l i s h -
ment, and b e a r s t h e d a n g e r o f s c r e e n p l u g g i n g and s e v e r e p r o d u c t i o n l o s s ( c f .
section 5.2.3.6.).

5.10. Influence of completion type on gravel packing

B o r e h o l e c o n d i t i o n s have an i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e on b o t h d e s i g n and p e r f o r -
mance o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g . Two b a s i c c o m p l e t i o n t y p e s c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d c o i r p r i -
s i n g c a s e d and open h o l e s . W h i l e t h e l a t t e r may be m o s t d e s i r a b l e I , _ni t h e
p o i n t o f w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y , i t i s i n m o s t c a s e s n e c e s s a r y t o r u n c a s i n g and t o
p e r f o r a t e i t s u b s e q u e n t l y due t o r e a s o n s o f h o l e s t a b i l i t y , m e c h a n i c a l a n d / o r
c h e m i c a l p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r , o r s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e p a y zone f r o m o t h e r
l a y e r s such as w a t e r - and g a s - b e a r i n g sands o r p l a s t i c a l l y m o b i l e s h a l e s . Some
t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t g r a v e l p a c k i n g l a y o u t i n c a s e d and open h o l e s
a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s . F a c t o r s i m p r o v i n g g r a v e l pack e f f i c i e n c y a r e b r i e f l y
summarized, and comments a r e a l s o g i v e n on l i n e r p l a c e m e n t , w e l l b o r e damage and
water c o n t r o l i n gravel-packed holes.
 827

5.10.1. Inside gravel packing

The i n s t a l l a t i o n o f i n s i d e o r i n t e r n a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n cased h o l e s i s i n -
e v i t a b l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h some l o s s o f p r o d u c t i v i t y , because a p a r t f r o m t h e g r a -
v e l pack, f l o w r e s i s t a n c e t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t e d cement and c a s i n g i s a l r e a d y p r i -
m a r i l y g r e a t e r than t h a t i n a b a r e f o o t w e l l (MUSKAT 1949). The chosen t h i c k n e s s
o f t h e g r a v e l pack i n cased h o l e s i s always a compromise between e f f e c t i v e sand
stoppage and p r o d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e due t o i n c r e a s e d f l o w r e s i s t a n c e (PEDEN, RUS-
SELL & OYENEYIN 1985). Commonly a minimum a n n u l a r g r a v e l w i d t h o f 1 i n . i s con-
s i d e r e d t o be d e s i r a b l e i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e e f f e c t i v e sand b r i d g i n g , w i t h a
much b e t t e r performance, however, b e i n g achieved w i t h g r a v e l m a n t l e t h i c k n e s s e s
o f 4 - 5 i n . ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.2.3.3.; s i m i l a r g r a v e l w i d t h s between r e s e r v o i r
w a l l and sand c o n t r o l hardware a r e r e q u i r e d a t l e a s t i n some open-hole comple-
t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e average d i a m e t e r i n t h e l a t t e r a p p l i c a t i o n i s s l i g h t l y
broader; c f . s e c t i o n 5.10.2.2.).

Pressure l o s s i s a f u n c t i o n o f p e r f o r a t i o n diameter, w i t h l a r g e - d i a m e t e r
h i g h - d e n s i t y p e r f o r a t i o n s b e i n g an adequate means t o o b t a i n a c c e p t a b l e p r e s s u r e
l o s s e s which i n case o f b e i n g s t i l l e x c e s s i v e r e q u i r e change t o open-hole com-
p l e t i o n where p r e s s u r e l o s s i s minimal (ECONOMIDES 1986). Pressure l o s s cannot
be c a l c u l a t e d a b s o l u t e l y , b u t has t o be r e l a t e d t o hydrocarbon type, as s u i -
t a b l e p r e s s u r e l o s s e s i n h i g h - v i s c o s i t y o i l r e s e r v o i r s may be beyond d i s c u s s i o n
f o r h i g h - r a t e gas pay zones and v i c e v e r s a . Annular p a c k i n g e f f i c i e n c y can a l s o
be a m e l i o r a t e d by i n c r e a s i n g screen diameter which r e s u l t s i n r i s i n g a n n u l a r
s l u r r y t r a n s p o r t v e l o c i t y , and by i n c r e a s i n g f l u i d l e a k o f f r a t e . Some aspects
o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p a c k i n g as w e l l as two-stage and o n e - t r i p
systems a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s .

5.10.1.1. Significance of perforation tunnel packing

I n s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f cased h o l e s w i t h placement o f t h e g r a v e l between
screen and c a s i n g r e q u i r e s p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e p a c k i n g w i t h v i s c o u s c a r r i e r
f l u i d s . I n f i l l i n g o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s w i t h compacted g r a v e l i s achieved
by s p o t t i n g and squeezing o f t h e f l u i d s i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n w i t h t h e open-ended
t u b i n g t e c h n i q u e ( w i t h o r w i t h o u t r e c i p r o c a t i o n ) o r t h e packer squeeze method
(RAWLINGS 1958, HAYNES & GRAY 1974). H i g h g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n v i s c o u s
f l u i d s may be p r e f e r a b l e t o m i n i m i z e i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and r e s e r v o i r sand.
I n s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g can be performed i n two stages, w i t h f i r s t p r e - p a c k i n g
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s and second c i r c u l a t i n g g r a v e l i n t o p l a c e i n t h e s c r e e n - c a s i n g
annulus by washdown, r e v e r s e c i r c u l a t i o n o r c r o s s o v e r methods, o r can be c a r -
r i e d o u t i n o n l y one b o r e h o l e t r i p (BERCEGEAY & RICHARD 1974; c f . s e c t i o n
5.10.1.2.). The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l p l u g g i n g f o r s u c c e s s f u l i n -
s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s a l s o o u t l i n e d i n s e c t i o n s 5.2.2.1.1., 5.4.3.5., 5.6.1.,
5.8.1.1. and 5.11.1.

5.10.1.2. Two-stage and one-trip systems

Gravel compaction i s enhanced by u s i n g r e l a t i v e l y low g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
and l o w - v i s c o s i t y placement f l u i d s . Dense v i s c o u s f l u i d s w i t h h i g h sand s a t u r a -
t i o n s , however, may a l s o be u t i l i z e d f o r advantages such as reduced f l u i d vo-
lume and l e s s screen c u t t i n g , and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n case o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
packer squeeze method i n s i n g l e - s t a g e g r a v e l p a c k i n g (BERCEGEAY & RICHARD
1974). Two-stage g r a v e l p a c k i n g has t h e b e n e f i t t h a t g r a v e l i s more e f f i c i e n t l y
d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e many p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i f squeezed s e p a r a t e l y , w h i c h i s an
i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n r e m e d i a l - t y p e o p e r a t i o n s where t h e f o r m a t i o n has t o
be r e s t r e s s e d i n o r d e r t o r e s t o r e mechanical s t a b i l i t y . T h i s can be b e s t a c h i e -
ved by m u l t i p l e squeezing, w i t h t h e r e p e a t e d squeeze r u n s b e i n g performed t o
screenout t h a t i s reached when no f u r t h e r g r a v e l can be p u t away a t l e s s t h a n
o r i g i n a l f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e (SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER 1983). I n t h e l a s t years, r e -
p e a t e d l y o n e - t r i p m u l t i p l e - i n t e r v a l g r a v e l pack systems have been p r e s e n t e d
 828

w h i c h have t h e a d v a n t a g e o f m i n i m i z a t i o n o f f o r m a t i o n damage and o p e r a t i n g

t i m e . Some a s p e c t s o f i n t e r v a l l e n g t h v s . r e s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y a r e a l s o o u t -
lined.

5.10.1.2.1. Minimization of formation damage and operating time

HAILEY, DONOVAN & SICKLE ( 1 9 8 5 ) p r e s e n t an i n t e g r a t e d o n e - t r i p p e r f o r a t i n g
and g r a v e l p a c k i n g system. P r o v i d e d enough r a t h o l e a v a i l a b l e i n t h e w e l l t o ac-
c e p t t h e s p e n t h o l l o w c a r r i e r s o f t h e combined t r e a t m e n t s t r i n g when t h e assem-
b l y i s moved down t o t h e g r a v e l p a c k i n g p o s i t i o n a f t e r f i r i n g o f t h e p e r f o r a -
t i o n guns, t h i s s y s t e m does n o t o n l y save a t l e a s t one r o u n d t r i p o f r i g t i m e ,
b u t e l i m i n a t i o n o f an a d d i t i o n a l r o u n d t r i p a l s o g r e a t l y r e d u c e s c o m p l e t i o n -
f l u i d l o s s t o t h e f o r m a t i o n b y d i m i n i s h i n g e x p o s u r e t i m e and t h u s m i n i m i z i n g r e -
s e r v o i r p e r m e a b i l i t y damage w h i c h i s b e n e f i t t i n g t h e l o n g - t e r m p r o d u c t i v i t y o f
t h e w e l l . F o r u s u a l g r a v e l pack o p e r a t i o n s , a r a t h o l e o f 5 t o 10 f t l e n g t h i s
r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o a l l o w some sand s l u m p i n g b e f o r e t h e g r a v e l i s i n p l a c e
(SPARLIN & COPELAND 1 9 7 2 ) . W E I R I C H , ZALESKI & TYLER ( 1 9 8 8 ) i n t r o d u c e a o n e - t r i p
m u l t i p l e - z o n e gravel packing technique f o r low-pressure shallow w e l l s .

G r a v e l p a c k i n g s h o u l d be i d e a l l y p e r f o r m e d i n one c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n i n -
s t e a d o f r e p e a t i n g many s e p a r a t e d s h o r t - i n t e r v a l g r a v e l packs (ZALESKI & SPATZ
1 9 8 8 ) . O n e - t r i p m u l t i p l e - z o n e g r a v e l p a c k i n g (BRUIST, JEFFERIS & BOTTS 1983;
JEFFERIS, BRUIST & BOTTS 1983) a l l o w s v e r y l o n g s e c t i o n s t o be g r a v e l p a c k e d i n
s h o r t s t a g e s w i t h o u t t r i p p i n g p i p e and r u n n i n g i n d i v i d u a l s c r e e n a s s e m b l i e s ,
and i f any phase i s u n s u c c e s s f u l , i t i s a l s o n o t n e c e s s a r y t o remove e q u i p m e n t
from p r e v i o u s l y packed i n t e r v a l s . I n terms o f i n t e r v a l l e n g t h , t h e p r i m a r y con-
s i d e r a t i o n i s c a r r y i n g c a p a b i l i t y and l e a k o f f t e n d e n c y o f t h e s l u r r y (ZALESKI &
SPATZ 1 9 8 8 ) . A l t h o u g h g r a v e l t r a n s p o r t c a n be e a s i l y a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h many t y -
pes o f c a r r i e r f l u i d s , l e a k o f f i n t o a h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g c i r c u -
l a t i o n i n c r e a s e s g r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n and d e c r e a s e s s l u r r y v e l o c i t y u n t i l a
b r i d g e i s c r e a t e d , and t h e r e f o r e h i g h f l u i d - l o s s r a t e s o f g r a v e l t r a n s p o r t me-
d i u m a r e d e s i r a b l e f o r g e n e r a t i n g a t i g h t pack ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 5 . 3 . 1 . 1 . ) .

5.10.1.2.2. Interval length vs. reservoir permeability

Based o n e x i s t i n g c a r r i e r f l u i d s and pumping e q u i p m e n t , i t seems f e a s i b l e t o
a t t e m p t g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n t e r v a l s o f 400 f t f o r l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r m a t i o n s
( l e s s t h a n 100 md), whereas r e s e r v o i r s w i t h v e r y h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y ( m o r e t h a n
1,000 md) s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be l i m i t e d t o 200 f t i n t e r v a l s u n l e s s l e a k o f f r a t e s
c a n be c o n t r o l l e d . R e g a r d l e s s o f s e c t i o n l e n g t h and open o r c a s e d - h o l e comple-
t i o n , i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o c i r c u l a t e t h e s l u r r y t o t h e e n d o f t h e s c r e e n and
take r e t u r n s through a concentric t a i l p i p e , w i t h a l a r g e t a i l p i p e being desi-
r a b l e t o prevent c h a n n e l l i n g o f f l u i d s through t h e screens. F o r proper gravel
placement i n long h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t e r v a l s , h i g h - v i s c o s i t y c a r r i e r f l u i d s
a r e r e q u i r e d t o t r a n s p o r t g r a v e l t o b o t t o m , and pumping r a t e s m u s t be s u f f i -
c i e n t t o a l l o w f o r m a t i o n o f a s t a b l e bank o f g r a v e l o v e r w h i c h t h e s l u r r y m u s t
c o n t i n u e t o pass.

I n c o n t r a s t t o conventional stacking o f i n s i d e perforated casing gravel

packs, o n e - t r i p mu1 t i p l e - i n t e r v a l g r a v e l p a c k i n g a l l o w s s e q u e n t i a l p a c k i n g o f
a l l zones t h r o u g h t h e i r p o r t c o l l a r s and r e t u r n t o l o w e r s e c t i o n s f o r r e p a c k i n g
i f r e q u i r e d (BRUIST, JEFFERIS & BOTTS 1983; JEFFERIS, BRUIST & BOTTS 1 9 8 3 ) . Ad-
d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t s o f t h e o n e - t r i p m u l t i p l e - z o n e g r a v e l p a c k system a r e t h a t
downhole r o t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e g r a v e l p a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n i s e l i m i n a t e d , a f u l l c o -
lumn o f g r a v e l - l a d e n s l u r r y c a n be r e v e r s e d o u t a f t e r s c r e e n o u t w i t h o u t p r e s s u -
r i n g o t h e r i n t e r v a l s , e a c h h o r i z o n c a n be r e p a c k e d d u r i n g c o m p l e t i o n l i f e , and
by i n s t a l l i n g production s e a l i n g u n i t s w i t h s l i d i n g sleeves i n s i d e t h e screen
and l i n e r a s s e m b l i e s , any c o m b i n a t i o n o f i s o l a t e d s e c t i o n s c a n be p r o d u c e d o r
selected f o r water i n j e c t i o n .
 829

5.10.1.3. Other aspects

Aspects o f p r o d u c t i v i t y o f i n s i d e c a s i n g g r a v e l - p a c k c o m p l e t i o n s a r e a l s o
discussed by WILLIAMS, ELLIOTT & WEAVER (1972). YILDIZ & LANGLINAIS (1988) p r e -
s e n t c a l c u l a t i o n o f p r e s s u r e l o s s e s across g r a v e l packs. S p e c i a l aspects o f wa-
t e r - i n j e c t i o n w e l l g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e r e p o r t e d by WADE ( 1 9 6 7 ) . Another c r i t i c a l
area o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n cased h o l e s i s t h e w i d t h o f t h e s c r e e n - c a s i n g annu-
l u s . I f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between o u t s i d e screen diameter and i n s i d e c a s i n g diame-
t e r i s a b t . 1 i n . , t h e j o b i s p r o b l e m a t i c a l , w i t h b e t t e r r e s u l t s b e i n g achieved
i f t h e c l e a r a n c e i s 1.5 - 2 i n . ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.2.3.4.). An annulus o f 50 mm a l -
lows easy o v e r s h o o t i n g and overwashing o f t h e l i n e r i n case o f necessary work-
o v e r (MURER 1981). Well c o m p l e t i o n geometry i n f r i a b l e sands a l s o has i m p o r t a n t
impact on maximum s a n d - f r e e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s w i t h o u t g r a v e l p a c k i n g (STEIN,
ODEH & JONES 1974). SOKOLL & ROGERS (1982) d e s c r i b e a technique f o r g r a v e l pack-
i n g o f s h o r t i n t e r v a l s . POSTON, TURNER, TOBOLA & BARGER (1986) i n t r o d u c e a t e c h -
n i q u e f o r two-stage sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n by r e s i n cementation ( c f . s e c t i o n
5.9.1.5.4.).

5.10.2. Open-hole gravel packing

Open-hole g r a v e l p a c k i n g i s w i d e l y a p p l i e d where f o r m a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a l l o w b a r e f o o t c o m p l e t i o n s and where t h e sand c o n t r o l i n s t a l l a t i o n must p e r m i t
maximum r e s e r v o i r f l u i d f l o w f o r h i g h e r p r o f i t a b i l i t y (SUMAN, ELLIS & SNYDER
1983). The h i g h e r p r o d u c t i v i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o i n s i d e g r a v e l p a c k i n g and a l s o
chemical sand c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s achieved by t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f r e s t r i c t i v e ca-
s i n g p e r f o r a t i o n s and improvement o f r a d i a l f l o w i n t o t h e w e l l by e n l a r g i n g t h e
d r a i n a g e area o f t h e b o r e h o l e by underreaming t h e w e l l b o r e which a l l o w s t h e i n -
s t a l l a t i o n o f a broader g r a v e l pack m a n t l e between b o r e h o l e w a l l and screen o r
l i n e r than i n cased and p e r f o r a t e d w e l l s . F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f some advanta-
ges and drawbacks o f open-hole g r a v e l packing, an o u t l i n e i s g i v e n on b o r e h o l e
underreaming as w e l l as p o r t c o l l a r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and pack washing.

5.10.2.1. Advantages and drawbacks o f open-hole gravel packing

The much g r e a t e r area open t o f l o w o f f l u i d s i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e and t h e c o r -
responding r e d u c t i o n i n c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y p r o v i d e s maximum p r o d u c t i v i t y o f open-
h o l e g r a v e l p a c k i n g which t h e r e f o r e s h o u l d always be s e l e c t e d i f c o m p a t i b l e
w i t h o t h e r c o m p l e t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s (ALLEN & ROBERTS 1982). Reverse c i r c u l a -
t i o n and c r o s s o v e r g r a v e l p a c k i n g techniques a r e commonly used i n r e l a t i v e l y
s h o r t open-hole i n t e r v a l s o r where w e l l s a r e n o t g r e a t l y d e v i a t e d and separa-
t i o n o f zones i s n o t necessary. Washing-in l i n e r s o r screens i n open h o l e s
bears t h e danger o f f o r m a t i o n sand l o o s e n i n g and i n t e r m i x i n g w i t h t h e g r a v e l
(MALY & VOZELINEK 1978). Open-hole c o m p l e t i o n s a r e e s p e c i a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r c o a r -
s e r sands t h a t have some i n h e r e n t n a t u r a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n due t o g r a i n f r i c t i o n ,
whereas f o r v e r y f i n e and v e r y u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sands, openhole g r a v e l p a c k i n g
s h o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d ( N I N I & OWEN 1983).

Open-hole g r a v e l packs a r e always l e s s expensive than comparable cased-hole

packs because o f s a v i n g s on c a s i n g , cementing and p e r f o r a t i n g (ZALESKI & SPATZ
1988). On t h e o t h e r hand, open-hole g r a v e l packs o f f e r l e s s f l e x i b i l i t y i n p l u g -
backs, s e l e c t i v e completions, and r e m e d i a l t r e a t m e n t s f o r damage removal o r p r e -
mature w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n . I n comparison w i t h cased-hole c o m p l e t i o n s , i t r e q u i r e s
f o u r p e r f o r a t i o n s p e r f o o t p e n e t r a t i n g c a s i n g and cement sheath and e x t e n d i n g
r e a s o n a b l y deep i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n i n o r d e r t o equal open-hole e x p l o i t a b i l i t y .
As such a p e r f o r a t i o n s h o t d e n s i t y almost resembles a f r a c t u r e and may i n p r a c -
t i c e be near t h e boundary o f t e c h n i c a l performance c a p a b i l i t y , an opening o r ca-
v i t y i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r beyond t h e main p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l i s needed t o ap-
proach open-hole p r o d u c t i v i t y , w i t h such a space h a v i n g t o be h e l d open i n un-
c o n s o l i d a t e d sands by g r a v e l o r a r t i f i c i a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g f o r -
 830

m a t i o n . Open-hole c o m p l e t i o n e x p l o i t a b i l i t y c a n be c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d b y u n -
d e r r e a m i n g i n o r d e r t o expand t h e h o l e t o a l a r g e r s i z e .

5.10.2.2. Borehole underreaming

U n d e r r e a m i n g i s f r e q u e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g o p e n - h o l e g r a v e l - p a c k comple-
t i o n f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f a m e l i o r a t i n g r e s e r v o i r e x p l o i t a t i o n ( H I L L 1941) b y i n -
c r e a s i n g g r a v e l s h e a t h t h i c k n e s s between w e l l b o r e and s c r e e n (HALLIBURTON
1 9 8 8 ) . Open-hole c o m p l e t i o n b y s a n d i n g - u p f o l l o w i n g u n d e r r e a m i n g has been f r e -
q u e n t l y a p p l i e d f o r g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f s h a l l o w Lower C r e t a c e o u s o i l - b e a r i n g sand-
s t o n e s i n Germany FRG and N e t h e r l a n d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 5 . 1 . ) . H i g h g r a v e l p l a c e -
ment e f f i c i e n c y i s a s c e r t a i n e d b y an u n i f o r m d i a m e t e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e u n d e r r e a -
med h o l e ( t o be v e r i f i e d b y c a l i p e r l o g g i n g ; c f . s e c t i o n s 6 . 2 . 1 . 8 . and 6 . 3 . 7 . ) ,
a v o i d i n g a c o r k s c r e w e d w e l l b o r e p r o f i l e b y u n d e r r e a m i n g a t m o d e r a t e speed, and
t h o r o u g h c i r c u l a t i o n o f h o l e o p e n i n g d e b r i s o u t o f t h e w e l l p r i o r t o r u n n i n g li-
n e r , s c r e e n and g r a v e l .

E x p e r i e n c e has shown t h a t f r e q u e n t l y good r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d b y underream-

i n g t h e w e l l t o g i v e a g r a v e l t h i c k n e s s o f 3 - 4 i n . o r e v e n more ( f o r d e s i -
r a b l e w i d t h o f the gravel b e l t o r diameter o f the gravel p l u g c f . sections
5 . 2 . 3 . 4 . and 5 . 1 0 . 1 . ) , and f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f s u f f i c i e n t s a f e t y , t h e o p e n - h o l e
i n t e r v a l s h o u l d b e underreamed 4 - 6 i n . on t h e d i a m e t e r t o p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s -
s a r y g r a v e l t h i c k n e s s between r e s e r v o i r w a l l and sand c o n t r o l h a r d w a r e , and t o
remove d r i l l e d s o l i d s and mud c a k e f r o m t h e f a c e o f t h e open h o l e and t h e imme-
d i a t e l y a d j o i n i n g i n f i l t r a t e d , i n v a d e d and d e t e r i o r a t e d f o r m a t i o n zone (ALLEN &
ROBERTS 1 9 8 2 ) , w i t h m a i n t a i n i n g b o t h m e c h a n i c a l b o r e h o l e s t a b i l i t y and f l u i d
c o m p a t i b i l i t y b y u s i n g p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d non-damaging c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s (SUMAN,
ELLIS & SNYDER 1 9 8 3 ) . U n d e r r e a m i n g o f o p e n - h o l e i n t e r v a l s p r i o r t o g r a v e l p a c k -
i n g , however, c a n i n some c a s e s g i v e r i s e t o s e r i o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e e f -
f e c t b y p r o v o k i n g f o r m a t i o n damage b y g r a v e l p a c k i n g w h i c h l e a d s t o p r o d u c t i o n
r a t e r e d u c t i o n (PRACHNER 1 9 7 6 ) .

5.10.2.3. Port collar implementation and pack washing

G r a v e l p l a c e m e n t i s a l s o enhanced b y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a p o r t c o l l a r w i t h i n
l i n e r o r screen. I f i n s u f f i c i e n t g r a v e l i s packed i n t h e annulus, t h e p o r t c o l -
l a r i s c l o s e d and t h e s c r e e n i s washed w h i l e l o w e r i n g t h e c o m b i n a t i o n t o o l .
T h i s s u p p o s e d l y d i s l o d g e s any g r a v e l b r i d g e s t h a t have caused v o i d s in t h e
p a c k , and t h e p o r t c o l l a r may t h e n be r e o p e n e d t o c o m p l e t e t h e p a c k i n g o p e r a -
t i o n . Pack w a s h i n g , however, has t o be e x e c u t e d w i t h c a u t i o n , because added g r a -
v e l i n p u t l i k e l y does n o t come f r o m v o i d s , b u t f r o m a d d i t i o n a l h o l e volume cau-
sed b y l o o s e n e d f o r m a t i o n sand i n v a d i n g t h e pack, w i t h t h i s b e i n g an e f f e c t
w h i c h i s h i g h l y u n d e s i r a b l e (MALY & VOZELINEK 1978; c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 8 . 4 . 4 . ) . In
l o n g o p e n - h o l e i n t e r v a l s where c a s i n g and p e r f o r a t i o n s w o u l d be t o o r e s t r i c -
t i v e , b u t where p a y zones m u s t be s e p a r a t e d , e x t e r n a l p a c k e r s and p o r t c o l l a r s
a l l o w s e l e c t i v e m u l t i p l e g r a v e l p a c k i n g and s e p a r a t i o n b y c e m e n t i n g . I n s t e a d o f
u s i n g p o r t c o l l a r s , a l s o v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e h y d r a u l i c j a r c a n be a p p l i e d t o v i -
b r a t e t h e sand i n t o p l a c e (MURPHEY, ROLL & WONG 1 9 8 5 ) .

JONES & THORP ( 1 9 7 7 ) i n v e s t i g a t e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f b o t h i n s i d e and open-

h o l e g r a v e l p a c k s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e computed e x p e c t a t i o n and d i s c u s s v a r i o u s
r e a s o n s f o r d i s c r e p a n c i e s between d e s i g n and r e s u l t . Open-hole c o m p l e t i o n s have
t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t t h e g r a v e l pack i s n o t e x e r t i n g f o r m a t i o n damage b y p r o v i -
d i n g an a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e l o s s t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s (LEDLOW, SAUER & T I L L
1 9 8 5 ) . As i n o p e n - h o l e g r a v e l p a c k s t h e w e l l b o r e may t e n d t o c a v e i n d u r i n g o r
b e f o r e g r a v e l placement, a l o n g e r lower t e l l t a l e screen a l l o w s p a r t i a l coverage
w i t h t h e s l u r r y b e i n g s t i l l c i r c u l a t e d i n p l a c e . GOTTSCHLING & LEGAN ( 1 9 8 1 ) c h a -
r a c t e r i z e l o n g - i n t e r v a l open-hole gravel packing.
 831

5.10.3. Factors improving gravel pack efficiency

STRACKE (1987) o u t l i n e s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f v a r i o u s f a c t o r s d u r i n g c o m p l e t i o n
on t h e success o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s and w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y . G e n e r a l l y ,
t h e r e i s no s i n g l e f a c t o r t o ensure h i g h - e f f i c i e n c y g r a v e l pack completion, b u t
a c o m b i n a t i o n o f f a c t o r s i s i n v o l v e d . The a s s o c i a t i o n o f underbalanced p e r f o r a -
t i o n w i t h a surge chamber and subsequent p e r f o r a t i o n washing and breakdown p r o -
duces s u p e r i o r c o m p l e t i o n r e s u l t s . A c i d i z i n g a f t e r g r a v e l p a c k i n g can o f t e n
y i e l d good r e s u l t s as immediate f l o w back i s p e r m i t t e d b u t has t o be c a r r i e d
o u t w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e c a u t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 5.11.4.), whereas a c i d i z i n g d u r i n g
g r a v e l p a c k i n g s h o u l d p r i n c i p a l l y be avoided u n l e s s t h e r e i s s p e c i a l demand and
e x p e r i e n c e . The e f f e c t i v i t y o f t h e g r a v e l pack t r e a t m e n t can be f u r t h e r impro-
ved by i n c r e a s e d p e r f o r a t i o n r a d i u s a t t h e expense o f f o r m a t i o n p e n e t r a t i o n . As-
p e c t s o f a m e l i o r a t i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g techniques f o r h i g h - r a t e c o m p l e t i o n s and
maximum p r o d u c t i v i t y a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by GURLEY, COPELAND & HENDRICK (1977)
and McLEOD & CRAWFORD (1983).

5.10.4. Liner placement

The most commonly used t e c h n i q u e f o r p l a c i n g t h e l i n e r i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e du-
r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s i s t o wash t h e l i n e r i n a f t e r t h e g r a v e l has
been s e t (SPARLIN & COPELAND 1972), b u t t h i s should p r e f e r a b l y be performed i n
one c o n t i n u o u s j o b . An a l t e r n a t i v e method i s i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e l i n e r i n t h e
borehole before the gravel is inserted, w i t h t h i s technique being p a r t i c u l a r l y
s u i t a b l e f o r applications i n wellbores w i t h long producing i n t e r v a l s o r w i t h
low b o t t o m - h o l e p r e s s u r e s . The g r a v e l i s p l a c e d by pumping i t t h r o u g h a c r o s s -
o v e r t o o l (SPARLIN 1969).

The p r i m a r y advantages o f t h e method o f f i r s t l i n e r placement and second g r a -

v e l i n s e r t i o n a r e a v o i d i n g t h e danger t o g e t t h e l i n e r s t u c k i n l o n g i n t e r v a l s
when adding a j o i n t o f p i p e d u r i n g t h e procedure o f w a s h i n g - i n o f t h e l i n e r
which i s t h e n i n t e r r u p t e d by a shut-down, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f performance i n
w e l l s which do n o t possess s u f f i c i e n t bottom-hole p r e s s u r e t o s u p p o r t a column
o f f l u i d d u r i n g t h e l i n e r wash-in o p e r a t i o n , e l i m i n a t i o n o f one r o u n d t r i p w i t h
t h e t u b i n g , no d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e g r a v e l t h a t i s packed i n s i d e t h e w e l l b o r e
a f t e r t h e f o r m a t i o n has ceased t o a c c e p t g r a v e l , and s a v i n g a l o t o f t i m e on
b o r e h o l e s t h a t r e q u i r e more t h a n one b a t c h o f s l u r r y by c o n t i n u o u s l y m i x i n g and
pumping t h e s l u r r y . A c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h methods o f l i n e r placement a l s o has
been used s u c c e s s f u l l y , w i t h t h e h o l e b e i n g b a i l e d c l e a n a f t e r t h e s l u r r y i s i n
place, t h e l i n e r then b e i n g r u n i n t o t h e w e l l , and a small g r a v e l s l u r r y volume
b e i n g pumped down t h e annulus (SPARLIN & COPELAND 1972). SHURTZ & BREINER
(1975) p r e s e n t t h r o u g h - t u b i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g techniques.

5.10.5. Wellbore damage in gravel-packed holes

One o f t h e most d i f f i c u l t w e l l b o r e cleanup problems i s encountered i n g r a -
vel-packed b o r e h o l e s (CRAWFORD, COULTER & OSBORN 1980). The g r a v e l pack p r e -
sents an a d d i t i o n a l b a r r i e r t o overcome when b r i n g i n g mud and s o l i d s back i n t o
t h e w e l l b o r e , and p a r t i c u l a r l y l o s t d r i l l i n g mud i s d i f f i c u l t t o f l o w t h r o u g h a
g r a v e l pack. An a c i d system c o n t a i n i n g e f f e c t i v e complexing and d i s p e r s i n g
agents has t u r n e d o u t t o be an optimum s o l u t i o n t o v a r i o u s cleanup problems o f
w e l l b o r e damage i n gravel-packed h o l e s (CRAWFORD, COULTER & OSBORN 1980). An-
o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f o i l - c o n t i n u o u s f l u i d s a l l t h e t i m e du-
r i n g open-hole g r a v e l pack completions, w i t h o i l - b a s e d mud e f f e c t i v e l y p r e v e n t -
i n g f o r m a t i o n d e t e r i o r a t i o n and p r o v i d i n g h o l e s t a b i l i t y d u r i n g underreaming
and g r a v e l placement. STADALMAN, NOVOTNY & HOUCHIN (1985) emphasize t h a t under-
s t a n d i n g w e l l b o r e p r e s s u r e s d u r i n g changing b o r e h o l e c o n d i t i o n s improves sand
c o n t r o l l o n g e v i t y . O t h e r aspects o f w e l l b o r e and f o r m a t i o n damage d u r i n g g r a v e l
p a c k i n g a r e d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 5.11.
 832

5.10.6. Water control in gravel packed cornletions

The design of high-volume gravel packed completions has considerably evolved
during the l a s t 15 y ear s , with the main advances having been increasing of the
area open t o flow a n d optimization of wellbore t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y of f l u i d s (CAR-
ROLL & BULLEN 1988). H i g h formation f l u i d t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y in the completion
near the borehole, however, renders i t o f t en d i f f i c u l t t o control unwanted wa-
t e r production. S e t t i n g a p l u g or a nipple a t predetermined i n t e r v a l s in the
screen assembly i s unsuccessful, because water production bypasses the plug in
the ribbed se c t i o n of the screen or in the high-permeability gravel in the
screen-casing annulus. An a l t e r n a t i v e approach i s t o loc a te the water produc-
tio n i n t e r v a l and place material above or within i t ( c f . se c tion 5 . 9 . 1 . 7 . ) in
order t o seal the flow area in the screen a n d t o e lim ina te gravel permeability
a t t h i s patch.
A basal plug of sand or cement i s s e t , with depth depending on water e n t r y ,
p e r f o r a t i o n s , a n d formation permeability b a r r i e r s . P l a s t i c i s spotted on the
base, and p l a s t i c s e t time co n t r o l l ed by ad ditive s a n d r e s e r v o i r temperature
has t o be adjusted such as t o allow enough time f o r f l u i d displacement in the
gravel packed completion and t o t a l r ad i al penetration of the p l a s t i c i n t o the
gravel pack which must be achieved i n order t o r e s t r i c t v e r t i c a l movement of
produced f l u i d s . Water-production zone determination can be performed by pulsed
neutron logging ( c f . s ect i o n 6 . 3 . 3 . 4 . ) . This water-control technique re pre se nts
secondary gravel consolidation by r e s i n cementation which i n c o n t r a s t t o the
conventional a p p l i cat i o n s of r e s i n bonding does not have the purpose of gravel
s t a b i l i z a t i o n with permeability p r es er v at i o n , b u t follows the a i m of local per-
meability d e s t r uct i o n of the formerly highly porous gravel pack i n order t o
shutoff i n t e r v a l s producing water instead of gas o r o i l ( c f . a l s o se c tion
5 . 9 . 1 . 7 . ) . Improved polyacrylamide treatments f o r water control in producing
wells a r e o u t l i n e d by ZAITOUN, KOHLER & G U E R R I N I 1989).

5.11. Formation damage during gravel packing

I n c o n t r a s t t o hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g where almost no e a r l i e r damage can a f -
f e c t the f r e s h l y generated crack p r i o r t o i t s opening and a l l phenomena of f o r -
mation and f r a c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n a r e d i r e c t l y linked t o the hydraulic stimula-
t i o n process i t s e l f , the open or cased borehole wall t o be gravel packed can a l -
ready have been subjected t o various types of formation damage p r i o r t o i n s e r -
t i o n of the sand control f i l t e r which consequently l a t e r a f f e c t the performance
of the gravel pack i n addition t o the f e a t u r e s newly o r i g i n a t i n g when s e t t i n g
the sand supervision mantle i n place.

Moreover, the design of g r ai n s i z e and thus permeability of the gravel pack

follows o t h e r c r i t e r i a than t h a t of g r ai n s i z e a n d thereby c onduc tivity of the
proppant package within the hydraulic f r a c t u r e ( c f . se c tion 1 . 3 . 2 . and
1 . 4 . 1 0 . ) , with the gravel pack g r ai n s i z e a l s o being lim ite d in upper d i r e c t i o n
by formation g r ai n s i z e t o be withheld, a n d the re fore impairment of tra nsm issi-
b i l i t y not being able t o be compensated by considerable inc re a se s i n g r a i n s i z e
as could be done i n hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g provided the c oa rse r p a r t i c l e s could
be s a f e l y transported t o t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n within the crack ( c f . se c tion
4 . 3 . 5 . ) . The discussion as follows includes pe rfora tion tunnel plugging, d r i l -
l in g mud l o s s , completion f l u i d l o s s , formation damage removal by a c i d i z i n g ,
a n d f l u i d a n d hardware c l e a n l i n e s s .

5.11.1. Perforation tunnel plugging

Pe r f o r a t i o n tunnel plugging i s the most s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of the whole gravel
packing operation, because unless the p er f o r ation holes a re properly i n f i l l e d
w i t h t i g h t l y packed g r a v e l , the goal of r es ervoir sand s t a b i l i z a t i o n a n d pres-
 833

sure drop m i n i m i z a t i o n through t h e g r a v e l pack cannot be achieved. P r i o r t o com-

menting on s p e c i f i c aspects o f n e c e s s i t y o f c l e a n open p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e s f o r
t i g h t g r a v e l i n f i l l i n g and impact o f p e r f o r a t i o n h o l e diameter, some g e n e r a l
comments a r e o f f e r e d on r e s e r v o i r impairment by t h e g r a v e l pack as w e l l as co-
v e r i n g o f damaged f o r m a t i o n by t h e g r a v e l pack.

5.11.1.1. Reservoir impairment by the gravel pack

Gravel p a c k i n g i s a l s o i t s e l f r e p r e s e n t i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y impairment, because
i t always p r o v i d e s an a d d i t i o n a l p r e s s u r e loss t o t h e w e l l system (LEDLOW,
SAUER & T I L L 1985). Gravel packs a r e e s p e c i a l l y s u s c e p t i b l e t o impairment, be-
cause t h e g r a v e l i s t r a p p i n g t h e damage i n p l a c e and a t l e a s t complicates, i f
n o t c o m p l e t e l y p r e v e n t s i t s removal by mechanical o r chemical means (SPARLIN &
HAGEN 1986). F o r m a t i o n d e t e r i o r a t i o n p r i o r t o o r d u r i n g course o f h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g i s i n most cases e q u a l i z e d by t h e deep p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e c r a c k
which breaks through t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y narrow damage zone s u r r o u n d i n g t h e bore-
h o l e and exposes such a l o n g s e c t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r m a t r i x a l o n g t h e high-permea-
b i l i t y d r a i n a g e avenue t h a t pay d e t e r i o r a t i o n a t t h e f r a c t u r e w a l l s i s compensa-
t e d by t h e l a r g e a c c e s s i b l e area o f t h e l o n g c r a c k t h a t i n a d d i t i o n i s c h a r a c t e -
r i z e d by a v e r y h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t t o t h e f o r m a t i o n f a c e .

5.11.1.2. Covering of damaged formation by gravel packing

Gravel packing, however, i s o n l y c o v e r i n g and i n f i l l i n g t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g
b o r e h o l e geometry and volume, and i f p a r t s o f t h e o r i g i n a l s u r f a c e area a r e
d e t e r i o r a t e d , t h i s has a t once s e r i o u s impact on g r a v e l pack performance and i n
t h e w o r s t case can c o m p l e t e l y d e t e r i o r a t e i t s e f f e c t i v i t y . Thus f o r m a t i o n
damage i s a much more s e r i o u s concern i n g r a v e l p a c k i n g than i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r i n g and s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n i s necessary d u r i n g d r i l l i n g , t e s t i n g and comple-
t i o n t o keep i n f l u e n c e s d e t e r i o r a t i n g r e s e r v o i r p r o p e r t i e s as l i m i t e d as pos-
sible.

Many b a s i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l l y g r a v e l packed w e l l s s u f f e r f r o m reduced produc-

t i v i t y as a r e s u l t o f f o r m a t i o n damage induced by g r a v e l pack c o m p l e t i o n p r a c t i -
ces, and g r a v e l p a c k i n g o f even an o n l y s l i g h t l y d e t e r i o r a t e d r e s e r v o i r can a l -
ready r e s u l t i n l o n g - t e r m d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s on p r o d u c t i o n (HOUCHIN, DUNLAP &
HUTCHINSON 1988). The p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g c o m p l e t i o n s i s l i m i t -
i n g p r e s s u r e drawdown across p e r f o r a t i o n s and sand c o n t r o l f i l t e r .

5.11.1.3. Necessity o f clean open perforation

holes for tight gravel infilling
The most s e r i o u s problem i s t h a t because t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s a r e n o t com-
p l e t e l y open p r i o r t o g r a v e l packing, optimum f l u i d l e a k o f f i s n o t a t t a i n e d and
dehydration o f the gravel c a r r i e r f l u i d i s r e s t r i c t e d , the p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels
cannot be t i g h t l y packed, v o i d s o r i g i n a t e i n t h e screen-casing annulus, and
t h e r e f o r e t h e g o a l o f l i t t l e o r no p r e s s u r e drawdowr, across t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s i s
n o t reached. F l u i d l e a k - o f f d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g may be o p t i m i z e d by s i m u l t a -
neous p r o c e s s i n g o f t h e g r a v e l pack s l u r r y w i t h l o w - s t r e n g t h a c i d , whereas sub-
sequent i n j e c t i o n o f a c i d may r e s u l t i n c r e a t i n g o r expanding e x i s t i n g t u n n e l
v o i d s and pack b r i d g e s i n t h e screen-casing annulus (McLEOD 1986). The areas o f
i n t e r e s t i n which f o r m a t i o n damage can be l i m i t e d d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g i n c l u d e
perforation, f i l t r a t i o n , c a r r i e r f l u i d s e l e c t i o n , l o s t c i r c u l a t i o n c o n t r o l and
w o r k s t r i n g hygiene (HOUCHIN, DUNLAP & HUTCHINSON 1988).
 834

5.11.1.4. Impact of perforation hole diameter

Concerning reduction of formation d e t e r i o r a t i o n during pe rfora tion (McLEOD
1978, LOCKE 1980), s e l e c t i o n of p er f o r at i o n geometry design which includes e f -
f e c t i v e shot d e n s i t y , p en et r at i o n depth, g u n phasing and tunnel diameter can
f u r t h e r influence well p r o d u ct i v i t y through additional pressure drops ( B E L L
1982). As gravel packing involves another pressure drop experience across the
f i l l e d p e r f o r a t i on s (McLEOD & CRAWFORD 1983), l a r g e r tunnel diameters a r e requi-
red t o compensate o r t o minimize t h i s additional pressure drop ( c f . a l s o sec-
tio n 5 . 6 . 1 . ) . Large-diameter s h o t s , however, cannot be chosen in highly washed-
out zones where the cement sheath i s so thick t h a t the pe rfora tion charge can-
n o t p e n e t r a t e i t , with tunnel diameter s e l e c t i o n thus having t o be based on
borehole q u a l i t y a n d i n t e g r i t y v e r i f i c a t i o n by c a l i p e r log i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( c f .
section 6 . 2 . 1 . 8 . ) .

Because p e r f o r at i o n area i s s a c r i f i c e d as a function of pe ne tra tion depth,

considerable improvement can be achieved with large-diameter tunnels i f they
can be properly i n s t a l l e d (HOUCHIN, DUNLAP & HUTCHINSON 1988). Damage removal
in completely or p a r t i a l l y plugged p er f o r at i o n holes can be achieved by wash-
ing, surging a n d aci d i zi n g ( c f . s ect i o n 5 . 1 1 . 4 . ) . Underbalanced pe rfora tion
techniques have the b e n e f i t t h a t the crushed material p a r t i c u l a r l y accumulating
a t the end of the p er f o r at i o n tunnel i s a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y removed by the surge
e f f e c t ( c f . s e c t io n 5 . 6 . 1 . 4 . ) . Additional cleanup of the rock powder can be
achieved with low-strength mud aci d s a n d with brine s.

Serious damage i n gravel packing can be caused when high-density ge l/gra ve l

s l u r r y i s pumped down i n t o the p er f o r at i o n s (McLEOD, LEDLOW & T I L L 1983). Pump-
ing t h i s gel/gravel s l u r r y down d i r t y pipe w ill squeeze pipe dope, mill sc a le
and o t h e r contaminants i n t o the p er f o r at i o n s ( c f . se c tion 5 . 1 1 . 5 . ) .

5.11.2. Drilling mud loss

P r o d u c t i v i t y problems in many gravel packing completions a re a t t r i b u t a b l e t o
inadequate removal of l o s t c i r c u l a t i o n ad d i t i ve s from the d r i l l i n g period (SPAR-
LIN & HAGEN 1986). This drawback, however, i s inherent in the purpose of a l o s t
c i r c u l a t i o n system which i s t o c r e a t e formation damage i n order t o control and
to st o p excessive d r i l l i n g mud l eak o f f . I f d e t e r i o r a t i o n caused by l o s t c i r c u l a -
tio n material i s not removed p r i o r t o gravel packing, s u f f i c i e n t l y high leakoff
r a t e s of the gravel c a r r i e r f l u i d which ar e e s s e n t i a l f o r pe rfora tion tunnel
p l u g g i n g and s l u r r y dehydration wi l l be prohibited (McLEOD & CRAWFORD 1983).

Various mechanical and chemical methods of l o s t c i r c u l a t i o n f i g h t i n g e x i s t ,

with p a r t i c u l a t e s o l i d s being most common f o r c o n t r o l l i n g severe d r i l l i n g mud
l e a k o f f . S o l i d s achieve f l u i d - l o s s containment by forming a f i l t e r cake along
the borehole w a l l a t the r e s e r v o i r f ace, invasion o f pore space and absolute
f i l l i n g of p e r f o r at i o n t u n n el s . Each of the p a r t i c u l a t e s o l i d s as well as chemi-
cal agents having been i n s er t ed f o r the purpose of l o s t c i r c u l a t i o n control
must be removed p r i o r t o gravel packing in order t o optimize c a r r i e r f l u i d leak-
off a n d gravel placement ( H O U C H I N , DUNLAP & HUTCHINSON 1988). I n extreme c a se s,
p a r t i c u l a t e bridging can be so t i g h t t h a t complete removal i s impossible o r che-
micals t h a t have t o be applied f o r cleaning have in t u r n a negative e f f e c t on
formation permeability.

5.11.3. Completion fluid loss

I n addition t o compensation of the e f f e c t s c re a te d by d r i l l i n g mud l o s s con-
t r o l techniques, gravel pack completion f l u i d leakoff s h o u l d be r e s t r i c t e d t o
the necessary volumes during actual placement, a n d f u r t h e r f l u i d escape i n t o
the formation p r i o r t o o r a f t e r s e t t i n g of the gravel mantle should be avoided,
a s t h i s unnecessary f l u i d l o s s may a l s o cause r e s e r v o i r damage. A fte r discus-
 835

s i o n o f some g e n e r a l aspects, t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s as
w e l l as t h e i r i n s e r t i o n and subsequent removal i s i l l u s t r a t e d . Comments a r e
a l s o o f f e r e d on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f g r a v e l as d i v e r t i n g agent.

5.11.3.1. General aspects

D e n s i t y c o n t r o l o f g r a v e l p a c k i n g c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s i s a v i a b l e l e a k o f f go-
vernment t e c h n i q u e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n low-pressure f o r m a t i o n s and should be r e i n -
f o r c e d by p o r e p r e s s u r e data, because d r i l l i n g mud w e i g h t c o r r e l a t i o n s can be
i n a c c u r a t e and g i v e almost always t o o h i g h v a l u e s . F l u i d d e n s i t y c o n t r o l may be
achieved w i t h n i t r o g e n - g e n e r a t e d foam which i s capable o f m a i n t a i n i n g i t s s t a b i -
l i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o m p l e t i o n o p e r a t i o n s . F l u i d d e n s i t y c o n t r o l i s a l s o a va-
l u a b l e t e c h n i q u e f o r a m e l i o r a t i o n o f s e l e c t i v e p r o p p a n t placement i n h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n s 4.2.2.3.3.3. and 4 . 2 . 2 . 6 . ) . The f o l l o w i n g
o u t l i n e i l l u s t r a t e s some aspects o f mechanical f l u i d - l e a k o f f c o n t r o l and types
of fluid-loss additives.

5.11.3.1.1. Mechanical fluid-leakoff control

C r o s s l i n k e d polymers have t o d a t e p r o v i d e d t h e b e s t success due t o t h e i r
a b i l i t y t o m a i n t a i n foam q u a l i t y f o r extended p e r i o d s o f t i m e i n a broad
temperature and p r e s s u r e range. Mechanical f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l i s accomplished
by c a r r y i n g o u t a o n e - t r i p c o m p l e t i o n w i t h a combined p e r f o r a t i n g / g r a v e l
p a c k i n g downhole assembly which l i m i t s t h e amount o f f l u i d l e a k o f f d u r i n g
c o m p l e t i o n by r e d u c i n g t h e t i m e o f f o r m a t i o n exposure, b u t i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e
when p e r f o r a t i o n s u r g i n g o r washing i s r e q u i r e d . Completion f l u i d l o s s t o t h e
f o r m a t i o n f o l l o w i n g p e r f o r a t i o n c l e a n i n g by washing, s u r g i n g o r a c i d i z i n g has
t o be l i m i t e d as much as p o s s i b l e , because t h i s c r e a t e s a d d i t i o n a l damage i n
the p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels which p r o h i b i t s proper l e a k o f f o f the gravel packing
carrier fluids.

5.11.3.1.2. Types of fluid-loss additives

F l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y used i n c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s and p i l l s i n
o r d e r t o reduce f l u i d c o s t s and f o r m a t i o n damage, b u t many o f these agents i n
f a c t c r e a t e more d e t e r i o r a t i o n t h a n t h e y p r e v e n t (SPARLIN & HAGEN 1986). There-
f o r e common recommendations a r e t o use f l u i d - l e a k o f f a d d i t i v e s t h a t w i l l be d i s -
s o l v e d by t h e produced f l u i d s , a c i d o r water, and t h u s can be r e a d i l y removed
a f t e r a j o b , w i t h t y p i c a l a d d i t i v e s b e i n g o i l - s o l u b l e r e s i n , c a l c i u m carbonate
p a r t i c l e s and s a l t suspensions. S i l i c a f l o u r i s more d i f f i c u l t t o d i s s o l v e and
r e q u i r e s h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d u t i l i z a t i o n which i n c l u d e s t h e danger o f p a c k i n g g r a -
v e l a t t a c k and d i s s o l u t i o n t h a t g i v e s r i s e t o pack slumping and t h e r e f o r e
s h o u l d be avoided.

W h i l e i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t s o l u b l e a d d i t i v e s a r e used f o r w e l l s
t h a t a r e t o be g r a v e l packed s i n c e g r a v e l i s t r a p p i n g i n s o l u b l e s o l i d s i n t h e
borehole, even some s o l u b l e m a t e r i a l s may remain i n p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and i m -
p a i r w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y . Excess f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s a l s o p r e v e n t complete cove-
rage o f a zone w i t h g r a v e l e i t h e r due t o inadequate l e a k o f f t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o r
p a r t i a l p l u g g i n g o f t h e screen, I t i s t h e r e f o r e i m p e r a t i v e t h a t these agents
a r e removed by a c i d w a t e r o r s o l v e n t s p r e c e d i n g t h e g r a v e l s l u r r y , b u t i f t h e i r
removal causes c i r c u l a t i o n l o s s , t h e r e s u l t s a r e e q u a l l y bad.

5.11.3.2. Application of gravel as diverting agent

Thus t h e most p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n i s u s i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n o f g r a v e l and v i s -
cous f l u i d s as a d i v e r t i n g system f o r t h e l i q u i d s t h a t removes t h e a d d i t i v e s
w i t h o u t c r e a t i n g a d d i t i o n a l r e s e r v o i r damage (SPARLIN & HAGEN 1 9 8 6 ) . When t h i s
 836

system i s used j u s t ahead of a gravel s l u r r y , i t not only helps t o remove the

f l u i d - l o s s agents, b u t a l s o helps t o prevent excessive f l u i d leakoff a n d p a r -
t i a l l y prepacks the formation with g r av el . Excessive f l u i d - l o s s r a t e s which a r e
common i n weak o r unconsolidated high-permeability sandstones not only hinder
complete zone coverage by gravel packs, b u t a l s o may lead t o blowouts. The com-
bination of s o l i d s and g el l ed f l u i d s e f f e c t i v e l y c ontrols f l u i d leakoff i n most
w e l l s.

5.11.3.3. Insertion of solid fluid-loss additives

The most commonly used f l u i d - l o s s ad d i t i v es a re calcium carbonate p a r t i c l e s
which a r e a c i d -s o l u b l e, r e s i n d i s p er s i o n s t h a t a re o i l - s o l u b l e , and s a t u r a t e d
s a l t brine t h a t can be removed by water. S i l i c a f l o u r which i s only soluble in
hydrofluoric acid i s replaced by calcium carbonate t h a t can be dissolved by hy-
d r o c h l o r i c acid whenever possible i n order t o prevent pack d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n by
a tt a c k o f gravel and sand by hydrofluoric acid ( c f . a l s o se c tion 5 . 1 1 . 4 . 3 . ) .
Calcium carbonate c o n t r o l s f l u i d l o s s by invasion of formation pores, bridging
a t the r e s e r v o i r entrance by f i l t e r cake generation, and f i l l i n g of pe rfora tion
tunnel s .

Smaller g r i n d s supervise f l u i d leakoff more e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n l a r g e r grinds,

b u t p o t e n t i a l l y cause formation damage as they a re more d i f f i c u l t t o remove.
Larger and smaller grinds ar e needed f o r r es ervoirs w i t h higher a n d lower per-
meability having broader and narrower pores, re spe c tive ly. I f t o o f i n e grinds
a r e used, the p a r t i c l e s ar e invading deeply i n t o the pay zone matrix a n d do n o t
e f f e c t i v e l y reduce f l u i d - l o s s r a t e unless high concentrations or la rge volumes
of p a r t i c l e s a r e ap p l i ed , whereas i f too coarse grinds a r e u t i l i z e d , only few
of the p a r t i c l e s migrate f a r i n t o the formation, b u t the high-permeability f i l -
t e r cake i s l e s s e f f e c t i v e in reducing f l u i d le a koff.

5.11.3.4. Removal of solid fluid-loss additives

Removal of s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s ad d i t i v es i s most commonly performed by a c i d i -
zing i f the components a r e s o l u b l e. Incomplete e lim ina tion a n d withdrawal of
f lu i d - l e a k o f f agents prevents proper gravel placement in pe rfora tion tunnels
and d e t e r i o r a t e s the whole gravel packing o p e ra tion.

5.11.3.4.1. Acidizing
I n terms of removal of f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s by a c id, the ne t e f f e c t of the
calcium c a r b o n a t e - f i l l e d formation pores, f i l t e r cake, and plugged pe rfora tion
tunnels a t equilibrium i s t o cause the acid to i n i t i a l l y flow uniformly i n t o
a l l zones, b u t uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n in r es er v oir se c tions w i t h d i f f e r e n t permea-
b i l i t y leads t o p r e f e r e n t i a l calcium carbonate d i s s o l u t i o n in low-permeability
i n t e r v a l s t h a t a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o have been f i l l e d before cleaning s t a r t s i n
the high-permeability p o r t i o n s t h a t have accepted l a r g e r volumes of s o l i d s .
Once acid has removed the calcium carbonate from some of the low-permeability
zones, acid w i l l then follow t h i s p a t h of l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e a n d bypass the re -
maining damaged i n t e r v a l s , a n d the acid f r o n t w ill a l s o become n e u t r a l i z e d ,
w i t h the only way t h a t additional r eact i on can take place being t o increase
pressure a n d t o fo r ce ad d i t i o n al acid i n t o the plugged zones which, however,
may give r i s e t o exceeding the formation f r a c t u r e gra die nt and r e s u l t i n g pres-
sure p a r t i n g of the r e s e r v o i r . On the o t h er hand, i f gravel i s pumped immediate-
l y a f t e r a c i d i n j e c t i o n , the gravel t r a p s the undissolved calcium carbonate in
p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels and formation pores.
 837

5.11.3.4.2. Problems o f incomplete f h i d - loss addi t ive remova 1

Incomplete removal o f f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s may cause c o n s i d e r a b l e g r a v e l p l a -
cement problems. I f s o l i d s s e t t l e o u t o f a p i l l and pack around t h e l o w e r t e l l -
t a l e screen ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 3 . 5 . ) o r l o w e r p a r t o f t h e main screen, a c i d bypas-
ses t h i s packed c a l c i u m carbonate and i s e i t h e r i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o r
c i r c u l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e upper p a r t o f t h e main screen, w i t h i n e i t h e r case b e i n g
no assurance t h a t g r a v e l w i l l be packed around t h e lower screen i n t e r v a l . I f
c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e - l a d e n f l u i d i s c i r c u l a t e d through t h e screen b e f o r e t h e a c i d
has a r r i v e d on bottom, any p a r t i c l e s i z e s equal t o o r l a r g e r than t h e screen
openings a r e p l u g g i n g p r e f e r e n t i a l l y t h e l o w e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e screen as t h e y
f o l l o w t h e f l u i d f l o w . I f c i r c u l a t i o n i s t h r o u g h t h e l o w e r t e l l t a l e screen, i t
may become c o m p l e t e l y o b s t r u c t e d and p r e v e n t a c i d f r o m c o n t a c t i n g i t , and c o u l d
be v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o c l e a n w i t h o u t p u l l i n g i t o u t o f t h e h o l e . Any p e r f o r a t i o n s
t h a t a r e f i l l e d w i t h c a l c i u m carbonate do n o t accept g r a v e l , and where f l u i d
f l o w i s r e s t r i c t e d , g r a v e l w i l l n o t be t i g h t l y packed. T h e r e f o r e a l l o f t h e
f l u i d - l o s s agents used p r i o r t o g r a v e l p a c k i n g must be removed f r o m w e l l b o r e ,
p e r f o r a t i o n s and near-borehole f o r m a t i o n t o assure a complete g r a v e l pack.

Another i m p o r t a n t i t e m r e q u i r i n g a t t e n t i o n i s p i p e dope t h a t can s e r i o u s l y

i m p a i r g r a v e l pack and f o r m a t i o n . Unless t h e p i p e dope i s handled v e r y c a r e f u l -
l y , o t h e r s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s a r e almost useless, because p i p e dope damage o f
f o r m a t i o n and/or g r a v e l pack can screw up t h e whole sand c o n t r o l j o b . P i p e
t h r e a d components c o n t a i n m e t a l l i c a d d i t i v e s t o l u b r i c a t e and h e l p t h r e a d s seal
which a r e n o t s o l u b l e i n a c i d s and o t h e r e c o n o m i c a l l y a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s , w i t h
t h e b e s t h a n d l i n g approach b e i n g t o e l i m i n a t e c l o s i n g t h e box end o f t h e t u b i n g
and t o p a i n t t h e p i n w i t h a small brush.

5.11.4. Formation damage removal by acidizing

F o r m a t i o n damage d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g can f u r t h e r r e s u l t f r o m d i r t y work-
s t r i n g s when p i p e dope d e p o s i t s can become s e r i o u s , d i r t y c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s
which a r e n o t p r o p e r l y f i l t e r e d and l e a v e p l u g g i n g r e s i d u e s i n t h e p o r e space
o f b o t h r e s e r v o i r and g r a v e l pack, and i n s u f f i c i e n t b r e a k e r performance i n t h e
c a r r i e r f l u i d . A c i d i z i n g i s a v e r y common remedy a c t i o n f o r v a r i o u s types o f de-
t e r i o r a t i o n . D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between a c i d i z i n g p r i o r t o and a f t e r g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on g r a v e l u n c o n s o l i d a t i o n and d i s s o l u -
t i o n by a c i d i z i n g .

5.11.4.1. Acidizing prior to gravel packing

I f any p o t e n t i a l o f f o r m a t i o n damage e x i s t s p r i o r t o g r a v e l packing, a c i d i -
z i n g should be c a r r i e d o u t as remedial t r e a t m e n t (CRAWFORD, COULTER & OSBORN
1980; McLEOD & CRAWFORD 1983; LEDLOW, SAUER & TILL 1985). The d e s i g n o f a p r e -
g r a v e l pack a c i d j o b , however, i s c r i t i c a l , because i n case o f poor p e r f o r -
mance, t h e a c i d can c r e a t e more d e t e r i o r a t i o n than p r e v i o u s l y e x i s t e d . Low-
s t r e n g t h a c i d reduces t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p r e c i p i t a t i n g a c i d b y - p r o d u c t s (McLEOD
1984), and t h e a c i d s h o u l d be d i v e r t e d t o achieve as c l o s e t o u n i f o r m placement
as p o s s i b l e (SPARLIN & HAGEN 1986). I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t o v e r - a c i d i z a t i o n o f p a r -
t i c u l a r p o r t i o n s o f t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l and t o promote u n i f o r m a c i d d i s t r i -
b u t i o n , t h e s i z e o f t h e stages s h o u l d be k e p t t o a minimum and sand-laden p i l l s
should be i n j e c t e d between t h e a c i d stages. The f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e i l l u s t r a t e s
some aspects o f g r a v e l and o t h e r m a t e r i a l s as d i v e r t i n g agents, d i v e r t i n g agent
i n j e c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n , and f o r m a t i o n wetness and c l a y s t a b i l i z a t i o n .

5.11.4.1.1. Gravel and other materials as diverting agents

The c o m b i n a t i o n o f c a r r i e r f l u i d v i s c o s i t y and a b s o l u t e p e r f o r a t i o n f i l l i n g
by g r a v e l p r o v i d e s t h e d i v e r t i n g mechanism. The a c i d should be o v e r f l u s h e d i n t o
 838

t h e f o r m a t i o n , because t h e s p e n t a c i d w i l l r e m a i n i n t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r an e x t e n -
ded p e r i o d o f t i m e b e f o r e i t c a n b e p r o d u c e d . O v e r f l u s h i n g t h e a c i d a maximum
d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e e l i m i n a t e s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f p r o d u c t i v i t y l o s s due t o
a c i d - i n d u c e d damage. An a d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t o f t h e g r a v e l - l a d e n p i l l d i v e r t i n g
technique i s p e r f o r a t i o n pre-packing which i s p a r t i c u l a r l y valuable i n a c i r c u -
l a t i n g g r a v e l pack ( c f . s e c t i o n 5 . 6 . 7 . ) . P r e v i o u s p r e - p a c k i n g t e c h n i q u e s have
i n v o l v e d f i l l i n g o f c a s i n g and p e r f o r a t i o n s w i t h g r a v e l pack sand p r i o r t o r u n -
n i n g t h e g r a v e l - p a c k i n s t a l l a t i o n assembly downhole (PENBERTHY & COPE 1 9 7 9 ) ,
w i t h t h e g r a v e l i n s i d e t h e c a s i n g l a t e r b e i n g washed o u t . T h i s t e c h n i q u e , how-
e v e r , a l l o w s f o r s u b s t a n t i a l i n t e r m i x i n g o f g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand and i s
t h e r e f o r e n o t a d v i s a b l e (HOUCHIN, DUNLAP & HUTCHINSON 1 9 8 8 ) .

A c i d d i v e r s i o n t o a l l p e r f o r a t i o n s d u r i n g a p r e - g r a v e l pack t r e a t m e n t i s
b e s t a c c o m p l i s h e d b y u s i n g t h e g r a v e l i t s e l f as d i v e r t e r (SPARLIN & HAGEN
1 9 8 6 ) . The a c i d t r e a t m e n t i s d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l s t a g e s , and g r a v e l c a r r i e d b y
g e l l e d b r i n e i s i n j e c t e d between t h e a c i d s t a g e s . G r a v e l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e
g e l l e d b r i n e s h o u l d n o t be e x c e s s i v e and i s u s u a l l y i n t h e r a n g e o f 1 - 5 l b s /
g a l . The g r a v e l volume i n t h e f i r s t and second d i v e r t e r s l u r r i e s s h o u l d be de-
s i g n e d t o f i l l a b t . 10 % o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s each. I n w e l l s t h a t have p r o d u c e d
a l o t o f sand b e f o r e t h e j o b , t h e volume o f d i v e r t e r g r a v e l m u s t be i n c r e a s e d .
When t h e d i v e r t e r g r a v e l s l u r r y e n t e r s t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e i n -
c r e a s e s , because t h e e f f e c t o f g r a v e l f i l l i n g p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s and v o i d s o u t -
s i d e t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s i n c r e a s e s t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o f l o w o f t h e g e l l e d f l u i d as
t h e p o s t p a d i s squeezed i n t o t h e g r a v e l - p a c k e d p e r f o r a t i o n s . The e f f e c t o f g r a -
v e l - f i l l e d p e r f o r a t i o n s on i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e depends on number o f p e r f o r a t i o n s
t h a t a r e g r a v e l packed and/or cleaned by a c i d , s e v e r i t y o f p l u g g i n g o f o t h e r
p e r f o r a t i o n s , undamaged i n j e c t i v i t y o f t h e c o m p l e t e d i n t e r v a l , downhole dynamic
v i s c o s i t y o f t h e g e l l e d b r i n e , g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i t y and i n j e c t i o n r a t e .

5.11.4.1.2. Divert ins agent inject ion and distribution

The i d e a l s i t u a t i o n i s when a c i d i s b e i n g l o s t t o t h e f o r m a t i o n a t a r a t e
and p r e s s u r e e q u a l t o t h e i n j e c t i v i t y i n t o t h e undamaged c o m p l e t i o n i n t e r v a l .
The d i v e r t i n g s y s t e m f o r p r e - g r a v e l pack a c i d i z i n g u s i n g g r a v e l and g e l l e d
b r i n e i n c r e a s e s t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p t h r o u g h empty p e r f o r a t i o n s and f o r c e s a c i d
i n t o c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e - f i l l e d p e r f o r a t i o n s w h i c h i m p r o v e s w e l l c l e a n u p and p r o -
v i d e s a means o f m a i n t a i n i n g f l u i d r e t u r n s d u r i n g t h e g r a v e l p a c k i n g p r o c e s s .
O t h e r s u i t a b l e d i v e r t e r s a r e o i l - s o l u b l e r e s i n s and n i t r o g e n foam (CROWE 1971,
NIERODE & KRUK 1973; BRANNON, NETTERS & GRIMMER 1 9 8 7 ) . C o n t i n u o u s i n j e c t i o n o f
the d i v e r t e r a t high concentrations helps t o e s t a b l i s h a c i d d i s t r i b u t i o n t o the
whole i n t e r v a l , because t h e s u c c e s s o f w e l l s t i m u l a t i o n depends on p r o p e r p l a -
cement o f t r e a t i n g f l u i d s i n t o damaged o r l o w - p e r m e a b i l i t y zones and away f r o m
h i g h e r - p e r m e a b i l i t y l a y e r s . O i v e r t i n g a g e n t added c o n t i n u o u s l y t o t r e a t i n g
f l u i d equalizes the flow i n a l l intervals, and d i v e r t i n g a g e n t i n j e c t e d i n
s m a l l s t a g e s ahead o f t r e a t i n g f l u i d s c a n c a u s e a h i g h l y skewed d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
the injected f l u i d .

O i l - s o l u b l e r e s i n c a n a l s o be u s e d as m a t r i x d i v e r t i n g a g e n t a t l o w concen-
t r a t i o n s f o r a c i d i z i n g t h r o u g h g r a v e l p a c k s (NIERODE & KRUK 1973, K I N G & HOL-
LINGSWORTH 1979) and i s an e f f e c t i v e f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e i n f r a c t u r e a c i d i z i n g
o f c a r b o n a t e s a t h i g h s a t u r a t i o n s . As o i l - s o l u b l e r e s i n b u i l d s a v e r y t h i n e f f i -
c i e n t f i l t e r c a k e t h a t i s e a s i l y and r a p i d l y s o l u b l e i n h y d r o c a r b o n s , i t s a p p l i -
c a t i o n as b o t h d i v e r t i n g a g e n t and f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e a l s o t h r o u g h g r a v e l
p a c k s i s w t h o u t any d a n g e r o f damaging w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y .

5.11.4 1.3. Formation wetness and clay stabilization

Sands w t h h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n of m o b i l e w a t e r - w e t c l a y m i n e r a l s b e a r t h e dan-
g e r t h a t t h e f i n e s m i g r a t e t o w a r d s t h e w e l l b o r e once w a t e r p r o d u c t i o n s t a r t s
and i n v a d e t h e g r a v e l pack n e a r t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s where b r i d g i n g c a n r e s u l t i n
 839

p r o d u c t i v i t y impairment (THOMAS & CROWE 1978; McBRIOE, RATHBONE & THOMAS 1979).
F l u o b o r i c a c i d g e n e r a t i n g h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d i n - s i t u can b o t h s t i m u l a t e and s t a -
b i l i z e clays i n p o o r l y consolidated formations, w i t h the treatment being able
t o be c a r r i e d o u t b o t h b e f o r e and a f t e r g r a v e l p a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s . Thickened
v e r s i o n s o f f l u o b o r i c a c i d can be used a l s o as t r a n s p o r t f l u i d s f o r h i g h - d e n s i -
t y g r a v e l p a c k i n g (CONSTIEN & WALLACE 1980), w i t h t h e system r e t a i n i n g t h e p r o -
p e r t i e s o f the acid being retarded h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d generation ( c f . section
4 . 5 . 5 . 4 . 3 . ) as w e l l as c l a y s t a b i l i z a t i o n by b o r o s i l i c a t e f o r m a t i o n and a l s o de-
v e l o p i n g adequate v i s c o s i t y t o t r a n s p o r t g r a v e l up t o 1 5 l b s / g a l .

C o n t i n u a t i o n o f i n j e c t i o n o f d i v e r t e r s l u r r i e s and a c i d u n t i l a l l t h e p e r f o -
r a t i o n s a r e f i l l e d w i t h g r a v e l i s n o t p r a c t i c a l , as i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o c o u n t
on a l l t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s b e i n g open t o accept t h e g r a v e l . I f t o o much g r a v e l i s
i n j e c t e d , some o f i t w i l l c o v e r t h e l o w e r t e l l t a l e screen and i n t e r f e r e w i t h
g r a v e l placement. T h e r e f o r e as a p r a c t i c a l g u i d e l i n e t h e combined volume o f g r a -
v e l i n t h e d i v e r t e r s l u r r i e s should n o t exceed 30 % o f t h e t o t a l g r a v e l volume
e s t i m a t e d t o be packed o u t s i d e o f t h e c a s i n g d u r i n g g r a v e l p a c k i n g .

P r e - g r a v e l p a c k i n g a c i d i z i n g , however, i s i n many cases n o t t h e b e s t s o l u -

t i o n , as i t i s more b e n e f i c i a l and economical t o f i r s t b r i n g t h e w e l l on produc-
t i o n , e v a l u a t e t h e damage and then second a d m i n i s t e r a f u l l - s c a l e a c i d j o b
through a c o i l e d - t u b i n g u n i t (BRANNON, NETTERS & GRIMMER 1987).

5.11.4.2. Acidizing after gravel packing

A c i d i z i n g a f t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l pack i n o r d e r t o remove c a l c i u m
carbonate f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s must be done v e r y c a r e f u l l y and s h o u l d be a v o i -
ded i f p o s s i b l e (SPARLIN & HAGEN 1986). F l u i d i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e g r a v e l pack may
d i s t u r b i t and push t h e g r a v e l away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e i n t o t h e v o i d spaces gene-
r a t e d by c a r b o n a t e d i s s o l u t i o n i n p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s o r o u t s i d e o f t h e c a s i n g
as w e l l as i n t o c a v i t i e s c r e a t e d by d i s s o l u t i o n o f n a t i v e r e s e r v o i r m a t e r i a l .
The u n d e s i r a b l e r e s u l t s o f t h i s procedure a r e f o r m a t i o n o f h o l e s i n t h e g r a v e l
pack and/or i n t e r m i x i n g o f p a c k i n g g r a v e l and r e s e r v o i r sand. I n p a r t i c u l a r l y
severe cases, t h e g r a v e l column can s e t t l e c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e annulus and can
even expose t h e upper p a r t o f t h e p e r f o r a t e d s e c t i o n as a consequence o f de-
s t r u c t i o n o f pack i n t e g r i t y b y a c i d i z i n g . Some aspects o f s e l e c t i v e a c i d pene-
t r a t i o n vs. p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l c o n t e n t as w e l l as d i f f i c u l t y o f f l u i d - l o s s
agent removal t h r o u g h t h e g r a v e l pack a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

5.11.4.2.1. Selective acid penetration

vs. perforation tunnel content
A l t h o u g h t h e r e may be d r a m a t i c a l i n c r e a s e s i n p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s by p o s t - g r a -
v e l pack a c i d j o b s d i s s o l v i n g r e s i d u a l c a l c i u m carbonate f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s ,
m u l t i p l e a c i d t r e a t m e n t s a r e o f t e n r e q u i r e d t o approach an undamaged p r o d u c t i o n
r a t e , because i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e a c i d t o c o n t a c t a l l o f t h e c a l c i u m
carbonate i n a g r a v e l packed w e l l , as a c i d can be i n j e c t e d t h r o u g h p e r f o r a t i o n s
f i l l e d w i t h g r a v e l much more e a s i l y than t h r o u g h those plugged w i t h c a l c i u m c a r -
bonate due t o c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r m e a b i l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s . P e r f o r a t i o n s c l e a n e d by
p r e - g r a v e l pack a c i d i z i n g accept t h e p o s t - g r a v e l pack a c i d much more r e a d i l y
than those which remain f i l l e d w i t h c a l c i u m carbonate (SPARLIN & HAGEN 1986).
i f t h e r e i s adequate l e a k o f f r a t e t h r o u g h some unplugged p e r f o r a t i o n s , t h e a c i d
does n o t remove c a l c i u m carbonate packed i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s , because t h e r e i s
n o t enough p r e s s u r e d r o p across them t o f o r c e unspent a c i d t h r o u g h them. I n any
case, i t i s t h u s f a r b e t t e r t o c i r c u m v e n t t h e need f o r an a c i d j o b a f t e r g r a v e l
pack i n s t a l l a t i o n by removing a l l f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s by p r e - g r a v e l pack a c i d i -
z i n g which p r o v i d e s h i g h e r hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i v i t y and more p o s i t i v e sand con-
trol.
 840

5.11.4.2.2. Difficulty of fluid-loss

agent removal through the gravel pack
An even more d i f f i c u l t problem i s removal o f c a l c i u m carbonate t h a t has been
i n j e c t e d i n t o a g r a v e l pack f o r t h e purpose t o c o n t r o l e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l e a k o f f
w h i l e p r e p a r i n g t h e w e l l f o r p r o d u c t i o n a f t e r a g r a v e l pack o r w h i l e i n s t a l l i n g
a g r a v e l pack i n an upper zone. I f t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e s o f t h e a d d i t i v e s i n such
f l u i d - l o s s p i l l s a r e such t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e s f l o w through t h e g r a v e l and gene-
r a t e a f i l t e r cake on t h e f o r m a t i o n face, t h e c a l c i u m carbonate would be most
d i f f i c u l t t o remove as i t f i l l s g r a v e l p o r o s i t y i n some o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n -
n e l s . Every e f f o r t s h o u l d be made t o p r e v e n t k i l l i n g a b o r e h o l e t h a t has been
g r a v e l packed w i t h a f l u i d - l e a k o f f p i l l by u s i n g t o o l s t h a t i s o l a t e t h e g r a v e l
pack, b u t if a c a l c i u m carbonate p i l l i s i n e v i t a b l e , t h e median p a r t i c l e s i z e
o f t h e f l u i d - l o s s a d d i t i v e s h o u l d a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal t h e median p o r e s i z e o f
t h e g r a v e l . T h i s w i l l m i n i m i z e c a l c i u m carbonate i n v a s i o n i n t o p e r f o r a t i o n t u n -
n e l s and f o r m a t i o n m a t r i x and s h o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s adequately c o n t r o l f l u i d l o s s
r a t e . Complete c a l c i u m carbonate removal, however, may a l s o r e q u i r e an a l t e r -
n a t e f l u i d - l o s s agent i n t h e a c i d t r e a t m e n t .

Improvement o f m a t r i x a c i d i z i n g t h r o u g h g r a v e l packs and p r e v e n t i o n o f subse-

q u e n t p r o d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e can be performed w i t h f l u o b o r i c a c i d w h i c h g e n e r a t e s
h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d i n - s i t u t h a t can deeply p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n and
which s t a b i l i z e s r e s e r v o i r f i n e s by f u s i n g them (McBRIDE, RATHBONE & THOMAS
1979; KUNZE & SHAUGHNESSY 1980; c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 5 . 5 . 4 . 3 . ) . SCRIMGEOUR & SHEPHERD
(1988) r e p o r t s u c c e s s f u l post-pack a c i d i z i n g o f gravel-packed w e l l s w i t h h a l f -
s t r e n g t h mud a c i d f o r t h e purpose o f o b t a i n i n g t h e t a r g e t p r o d u c t i v i t i e s and i n -
j e c t i v i t i e s , whereas ROGERS (1976) documents f o r m a t i o n and pack damage by p o s t -
g r a v e l p a c k i n g a c i d i z i n g . TORREST (1982 d) o u t l i n e s i n j e c t i v i t y t e s t i n g f o r g r a -
v e l pack qua1 it y d e t e r m i n a t i o n . MURER (1981) r e p o r t s good r e s u l t s o f p o s t - g r a -
v e l p a c k i n g a c i d i z i n g w i t h m i x t u r e s o f h y d r o f l u o r i c and h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d which
removed m i g r a t i n g f i n e s and c a l c i t e s c a l e t h a t had g i v e n r i s e t o r e s e r v o i r and
g r a v e l p e r m e a b i l i t y damage and which enabled i n a b t . 50 % o f t h e cases achieve-
ment o f c o n s i d e r a b l e a d d i t i o n a l o i l p r o d u c t i o n .

5.11.4.3. Gravel unconsolidation and dissolution by acidizing

While common processes o f r e s e r v o i r and g r a v e l damage a f t e r a c i d i z i n g a r e
d i s p e r s i o n and p l u g g i n g w i t h f i n e s and c l a y m i n e r a l s , o t h e r e f f e c t s o f a c i d i -
z i n g a r e g r a v e l u n c o n s o l i d a t i o n and d i s s o l u t i o n (McLEOD 1 9 8 6 ) . Gravel may be
flushed from p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels during a c i d i z i n g i n t o dissolved formation
v o i d s o r a c i d i z e d g r a v e l c a v i t i e s i n t h e s c r e e n - c a s i n g annulus, o r p e r f o r a t i o n
t u n n e l v o i d s may have e x i s t e d p r i o r t o a c i d i z i n g as a r e s u l t o f poor g r a v e l p l a -
cement. P r o d u c t i o n s t a r t - u p r a t e c o n t r o l s how r e s e r v o i r sand e n t e r s p a r t i a l l y
f i l l e d v o i d s a f t e r a c i d i z i n g , w i t h moderate o f f t a k e r a t e s a l l o w i n g f o r m a t i o n
sand t o e n t e r t h e t u n n e l above t h e g r a v e l so t h a t a more c o n d u c t i v e p a r a l l e l
a l i g n m e n t o f sand and g r a v e l i n t h e t u n n e l i s c r e a t e d . A f t e r an o u t l i n e o f g r a -
v e l and r e s e r v o i r p l u g g i n g by m i g r a t i n g f i n e s , g r a v e l d i s s o l u t i o n and u n c o n s o l i -
d a t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h f o r m a t i o n sand movement a r e i l l u s t r a t e d .

5.11.4.3.1. Gravel and formation plugging by migrating fines

P r o d u c t i v i t y impairment and r e s t r i c t i o n a f t e r g r a v e l p a c k i n g which cannot be
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y e x p l a i n e d by g r a v e l damage i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s can be r e a -
sonably m o d e l l e d by r e s e r v o i r sand d e t e r i o r a t i o n a d j a c e n t t o t h e g r a v e l packed
h o l e s . Concerning movement and t r a p p i n g o f f i n e s f o l l o w i n g g r a v e l pack a c i d i -
z i n g , an e n t r a p p i n g mechanism i s necessary f o r t h e d i s p e r s e d f i n e s t o cause
plugging near p e r f o r a t i o n s . Apart from c l a y s t a b i l i z a t i o n a d d i t i v e s , hydrofluo-
r i c a c i d i z i n g w i t h s u f f i c i e n t o v e r f l u s h i n g of t h e spent a c i d has a c o n s o l i d a -
t i n g e f f e c t i t s e l f . When f i n e s move e a s i l y through f o r m a t i o n sand t h a t has been
 841

c l e a n e d by a c i d i z i n g , t h e i n t e r f a c e between r e s e r v o i r sand and p a c k i n g g r a v e l

o f f e r s t h e f i r s t r e s t r i c t i o n f o r f i n e s entrapment. The a c i d r e a c t i o n f r o n t c r e a -
t e s t r a s h a l o n g w i t h p o s s i b l e o i l sludge t h a t c o u l d cause p l u g g i n g d u r i n g r e -
t u r n f l o w i f r a t e s a r e t o o h i g h . Slow s t a r t u p r a t e s a l l o w some o f t h i s m a t e r i a l
t o separate and t o be produced t h r o u g h t h e g r a v e l pack, whereas f a s t s t a r t u p r a -
t e s c o u l d d i s l o d g e t h e t r a s h and send i t a t once t o t h e sand/gravel i n t e r f a c e
where i t can be t r a p p e d and f o r m a f i l t e r cake t h a t i n t u r n w i l l t r a p o t h e r f -
nes moving o u t o f t h e f o r m a t i o n .

5.11.4.3.2. Gravel dissolution

A p a r t f r o m f i n e s c o n c e n t r a t i o n , g r a v e l pack p r o d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e a f t e r a c i d -
z i n g i s caused by u n c o n s o l i d a t i o n and d i s s o l u t i o n o f g r a v e l . Once h y d r o f l u o r c
a c i d has c l e a n e d f o r m a t i o n sand f r o m t h e c l a y - s i z e d f i n e s , i t works more slow y
on t h e r e m a i n i n g l a r g e r s i l i c a g r a i n s b e i n g p a c k i n g g r a v e l and r e s e r v o i r sand
(GATEWOOD, HALL, ROBERTS & LASATER 1970). Thus some r e d u c t i o n i n volume o f t h e
g r a v e l pack w i l l occur as a consequence o f h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d d i s s o l u t i o n espe-
c i a l l y a t h i g h e r temperature i n deeper pay zones (CHEUNG 1985). Some comments
a r e o f f e r e d on g r a v e l g r a i n s i z e and a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n as w e l l as m o b i l i t y o f
l o o s e p a c k i n g g r a v e l and pay sand.

5.11.4.3.2.1. Gravel grain size and acid concentration

The g r a v e l has a b e t t e r chance t o s t a y i n t a c t w i t h d e c r e a s i n g mesh s i z e . As
g r a v e l d i s s o l u t i o n and t h e r e s u l t i n g framework u n c o n s o l i d a t i o n a r e s e r i o u s de-
t e r i o r a t i o n s o f g r a v e l pack s t r u c t u r e and e f f e c t i v i t y , a c i d j o b s s h o u l d be de-
s i g n e d t o d i s s o l v e n o t more t h a n 5 % o f t h e g r a v e l . T h i s can be achieved by r e -
d u c i n g e f f e c t i v e a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n , u s i n g weaker h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d , o r a p p l y -
i n g retarded acids w i t h lower a v a i l a b l e h y d r o f l u o r i c acid s a t u r a t i o n t o l i m i t
a c i d a t t a c k on t h e g r a v e l (McLEOD 1986; c f . s e c t i o n 4.5.5.4.3.). Thus t h e u t i l i -
z a t i o n o f s i l i c a f l o u r as s o l i d f l u i d - l o s s c o n t r o l a d d i t i v e which can o n l y be
removed by h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d a p p l i c a t i o n s h o u l d be avoided i f anyhow p o s s i b l e ,
because s i l i c a f l o u r d i m i n u t i o n and w i t h d r a w a l i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y l i n k e d w i t h
p a c k i n g g r a v e l and f o r m a t i o n sand a t t a c k by h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d which provokes
framework d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f r e s e r v o i r r o c k and g r a v e l pack.

5.11.4.3.2.2. Mobility o f loose packing gravel and pay sand

Excessive g r a v e l d i s s o l u t i o n c r e a t e s a l o o s e pack where g r a v e l can be d i s p l a -
ced f r o m p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e d u r i n g hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n
a f t e r a c i d i z i n g , t h e r e b y p a r t i a l l y emptying t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s f r o m t h e i r s u p p o r t -
i n g g r a v e l p l u g . Moderate g r a v e l d i s s o l u t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y compensated by f i r s t
f a l l i n g o f g r a v e l r e s e r v e i n t h e annulus downwards t o e q u a l i z e v o i d s b e f o r e g r a -
v e l i s moving f r o m t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s back i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e , b u t t h e r i s k
always e x i s t s t h a t o v e r a c i d i z a t i o n o f t h e g r a v e l generates dangerous v o i d s
which w i l l n o t a l l be f i l l e d by slumping o f t h e g r a v e l r e s e r v e above t h e screen
i n t h e annulus (CHEUNG 1985).

Temperature and h y d r o f l u o r i c a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e t h e most i m p o r t a n t para-

meters c o n t r o l l i n g g r a v e l d i s s o l u t i o n (McLEOD 1986). F o r m a t i o n sand s i z e reduc-
t i o n by d i s s o l u t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y no problem, because even i f t h e l a r g e p a r t i c l e
s i z e s a r e diminished, a c i d removes t h e f i n e s t h e r e b y l e a v i n g t h e same average
p a r t i c l e s i z e as b e f o r e a c i d i z i n g . A t h i g h temperatures when a l o t o f sand i s
d i s s o l v e d , however, t h e l a r g e f r a c t i o n may be s u f f i c i e n t l y decreased i n s i z e t o
invade t h e g r a v e l packed p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s .

I n a d d i t i o n , r e s e r v o i r sand always has an e n t r y i n t o t u n n e l s where o r i g i n a l

g r a v e l i n s e r t i o n has n o t been complete. I f p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s a r e o n l y p a r t i a l -
l y f i l l e d w i t h g r a v e l due t o f o r m a t i o n damage b e f o r e and d u r i n g g r a v e l pack p l a -
 84 2

cement, s u b s e q u e n t f l o w c a n p r o d u c e h y d r o c a r b o n s a t r e a s o n a b l e r a t e s u n t i l c r i -
t i c a l p r e s s u r e drawdown i s exceeded w h i c h g i v e s r i s e t o c o l l a p s e o f s t a b l e open
p e r f o r a t i o n s and e n t e r i n g o f t h e t u n n e l s b y r e s e r v o i r sand (McLEOD & CRAWFORD
1 9 8 2 ) . F o r m a t i o n sand w h i c h has been c o m p l e t e l y u n c o n s o l i d a t e d b y h y d r o f l u o r i c
a c i d i s f r e e t o e n t e r p a r t i a l l y f i l l e d p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s (McLEOD 1986) and r e -
s t r i c t s w e l l f l o w e v e n i f t h e r e s e r v o i r sand i n t h e t u n n e l s i s a h i g h - q u a l i t y
a c i d - c l e a n e d m a t e r i a l w h i c h has a h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y t h a n o r i g i n a l l y due t o r e -
moval o f c l a y m i n e r a l s b y a c i d i z i n g .

5.11.4.3.3. Gravel unconsolidation

Flow v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n tunnels are s u f f i c i e n t t o f l u s h p a r t o r
a l l o f the gravel from the holes i f a v o i d e x i s t s outside the tunnel o r i s crea-
t e d by a c i d i z i n g a t h i g h i n j e c t i o n pressures. I f a c i d coverage i s poor i n case
o f n o d i v e r s i o n , o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s may be t a k i n g a c i d , there-
by r e s u l t i n g i n h i g h v e l o c i t i e s and f l u s h i n g g r a v e l o u t o f t h o s e t u n n e l s w h i l e
t h e o t h e r s r e m a i n t i g h t l y packed. When h y d r o c a r b o n f l o w resumes, f o r m a t i o n sand
e n t e r s t h e h o l e s o r m i x e s w i t h t h e g r a v e l as i t i s pushed back i n t o t h e t u n -
n e l s . I f a c i d c o v e r a g e i s c o m p l e t e , a l l p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e open w i t h e q u a l f l o w
r a t e s per p e r f o r a t i o n , b u t f l u s h i n g o f gravel s t i l l takes p l a c e i n a l l p e r f o r a -
t i o n s t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , and g r a v e l w i l l be s l o w l y d i s p l a c e d o u t u n t i l t h e ve-
l o c i t y above t h e r e m a i n i n g g r a v e l f a l l s b e l o w t h e c r i t i c a l v e l o c i t y f o r s a l t a -
t i o n flow, w i t h the r e s u l t being that a l l perforations are p a r t i a l l y f i l l e d
with gravel.

When p e r f o r a t i o n s aI r e p a r t i a l l y f l u s h e d , h i g h s t a r t u p r a t e s c a n move g r a v e l
and sand i n t o t h e t u n n e l where b o t h a r e packed i n s e r i e s w i t h sand on t h e o u t -
s i d e p o s i t i o n . A t l o w s t a r t u p r a t e s , t h e l a r g e r g r a v e l i s s t i l l l y i n g , and t h e
v o i d above t h e q r a v e l w i 11 be q r a d u a l l v f i l l e d w i t h sand as p r o d u c t i o n r a t e i s
increased, w i t h the l a t t e r c o n d i t i o n g i v i n g r i s e t o p a r a l l e i f l o w paths through
f o r m a t i o n sand and g r a v e l i n t h e t u n n e l . As more f l o w r e s i s t a n c e i s p r e s e n t
when sand and g r a v e l a r e i n s e r i e s , s l o w s t a r t u p a f t e r a c i d i z i n g and i m i t i n g
pressure drops across t h e completion are s u i t a b l e instruments t o r e s t r c t t h e
amount o f r e s e r v o i r sand coming i n t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n t u n n e l s o r s h i f i n g t h e
g r a v e l t o a l l o w more i n f l u x o f f o r m a t i o n sand.

5.11.5. Fluid and hardware cleanliness

One o f t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l s t e p s i n d e s i g n i n g and e x e c u t i n g a sand c o n t r o l com-
p l e t i o n i s w e l l b o r e p r e p a r a t i o n (LEDLOW, SAUER & T I L L 1 9 8 5 ) . B o t h t u b i n g work
s t r i n g s w h i c h a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d f o r cement squeeze j o b s and new t u b i n g
s t r i n g s c o n t a i n i n g m i l l s c a l e and r u s t a r e u n d e s i r a b l e . The m o s t e f f i c i e n t s o l u -
t i o n i s w a t e r - b l a s t i n g t h e t u b i n g o r have an e x t r a s t r i n g o f t u b i n g t h a t i s e x -
c l u s i v e l y u s e d f o r sand c o n t r o l . When w a t e r - b l a s t i n g i s n o t f e a s i b l e , t h e t u -
b i n g c a n be c l e a n e d w i t h a r o m a t i c s o l v e n t s and a c i d , w i t h a good p r o c e d u r e
b e i n g t o r u n t h e t u b i n g i n t o t h e h o l e p r i o r t o p e r f o r a t i n g and c i r c u l a t i n g an
a r o m a t i c s o l v e n t t o s p o t , and f o l l o w i n g r e v e r s e - o u t s p o t t i n g a c i d w h i c h i s t h e n
a l s o r e v e r s e d o u t j u s t b e f o r e t h e c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d i s p l a c e d (ECONOMIDES 1 9 8 6 ) .

P i p e dope s h o u l d be m i n i m i z e d , w i t h t h e p i n ends b e i n g doped s p a r i n g l y w i t h

a f i n e b r u s h o n l y when r e q u i r e d w h i l e t r i p p i n g i n t h e h o l e i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e
p l u g g i n g o f t h e s c r e e n s l o t s and c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d c o n t a m i n a t i o n ( N I N I & OWEN
1 9 8 3 ) . The c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o have an o v e r b a l a n c e o f a b t .
100 - 150 p s i f o r o i l w e l l s and a b t . 300 p s i f o r gas w e l l s t o c o n t r o l t h e f o r m a -
t i o n w h i c h has t o be l o w e r t h a n d r i l l i n g mud o v e r b a l a n c e t h a t i s u s u a l l y a b t .
300 - 500 p s i , because l a c k o f s o l i d s i n t h e c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d s a l l o w f r e e f l o w
i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r and t h u s h i g h e r o v e r b a l a n c e r e s u l t s i n e x c e s s i v e f l u i d l o s s .
I n m o s t cases, t h e d r i l l i n g f l u i d l e f t i n t h e c a s i n g i s h e a v i e r t h a n t h e comple-
t i o n f l u i d , w i t h t h e d e n s i t y and v i s c o s i t y d i f f e r e n c e between b o t h f l u i d s f a v o u -
r i n g r e v e r s e c i r c u l a t i n g when swapping o u t t h e s e f l u i d s .
 843

6 . P r o p p e d F r a c t u r e a n d
G r a v e l P a c k n o n i t o r n s
6.0.Summary a n d a s s o c i a t e d t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s

Planning and execution of hydraulic proppant f r a c t u r i n g and gravel packing re-

q u i r e c l o s e monitoring i n terms of p r ed i ct i o n, supervision and r e t r o a c t i v e eva-
lu a t i o n by various wi r el i n e well logging, seismic and othe r techniques in order
to control mainly height and azimuth of the cracks and to improve the design of
c u r r e n t and f u t u r e treatments. The most important logging methods f o r f r a c t u r e
height determination a r e temperature, gamma-ray, a c oustic and noise recording.
Temperature logging aims on d i s t i n c t i o n of the cold f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d pumped
i n t o the crack from the warm formation f l u i d and i s a simple and cheap techni-
que i f c a r r i e d out u p t o 24 hrs a f t e r termination of the hydraulic stim ula tion
operation p r i o r t o thermal eq u al i zat i o n of the borehole surroundings, b u t can
be negatively influenced by anomalous thermal re se rvoir c o n d u c t i v i t i e s . Conven-
tio n a l gamma-ray logging of n a t u r a l l y r ad i o a c tive z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants
provides propped f r a c t u r e height in c o n t r a s t t o created ( f l u i d - p e n e t r a t e d ) f r a c -
tu r e height as evidenced by temperature d i s p la y and i s a l s o a straightforward
and a f f o r d a b l e technique, b u t s u f f e r s from f r e que ntly inhomogeneous r a d i o a c t i v i -
ty a n d the high p r i c e of z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants. Thermal decay time moni-
to r i n g provides permeable f r a c t u r e height which comprises the se c tion taking u p
stimulation f l u i d as well as co n t r i b u t i n g t o hydrocarbon production and the re -
f o r e r e p r e s e n t s e f f e c t i v e f r a c t u r e height in terms of r e s e r v o i r e x p l o i t a t i o n .
Synthetic t r a c e r i n g of f r a c t u r i n g mat er i al s by coating of proppants with radio-
a c t i v e p e l l i c l e s , intermixing of r ad i o act i ve gra ins i n t o the proppant l o t , and
addition of s o l i d or l i q u i d markers t o the f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s has the advantage
of i n s e r t i o n of co n t r o l l ed concentration and i n t e n s i t y of ra dia tion which can
be e a s i l y d i st i n g u i s h ed from the natural formation background r a d i o a c t i v i t y .
While conventional s i n g l e- and double-marker monitoring has h i t h e r t o been com-
monly applied e i t h e r alone o r in combination with temperature logging a s simple
and cheap methods, the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e lim ite d. Although be-
ing considerably more expensive, mu l t i p l e- t r ac e r discrimination by gamma-ray
spectroscopy i s the most s o p h i s t i cat ed , advanced and unambiguous f r a c t u r e
height monitoring technique, because d i f f e r e n t markers can be added t o se pa ra te
proppant and f l u i d l o t s in staged and multi-horizon treatments, and d i s t i n c t i o n
of natural and/or a r t i f i c i a l r ad i at i o n coming from fra c ture d formation, and syn-
t h e t i c r a d i a t i o n deriving from cement sheath around the wellbore and borehole
f l u i d s can a l s o be performed. Mu l t i p l e- t r acer discrimination by gamma-ray spec-
troscopy should t h er ef o r e be applied in a l l hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g treatments
where the r e s u l t s are d eci s i v e f o r the design of othe r wells of the stim ula tion
campaign a n d where several d i s c r e t e f l u i d and/or proppant s t e p s have t o be d i s -
tinguished. Future innovation of o r i en t ed gamma-ray spectrometry could provide
an unique combination of horizontal and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e determination. Dis-
t i n c t i o n of p r a c t i c a l l y u p t o f o u r t r a c e r s can be made based on d i f f e r e n t
energy l e v e l s and/or h a l f - l i f e times, with in the l a t t e r case a l s o time-lapse
monitoring allowing t o control changes of f r a c t u r e height due t o t i p c losure a s
a consequence of p r o p p a n t crushing with increasing closure s t r e s s during pro-
g r e s s i v e r e s e r v o i r depletion a n d pressure drawdown. Fracture determination by
a c o u s t i c logging i s mainly c a r r i e d out by a na lysis of sonic wave transforma-
tio n s and p a r t i c u l a r l y e x p l o i t s at t en u at i o n and absorption of c irc um fe re ntia lly
t r a v e l l i n g Rayleigh and Stoneley fluid-formation i n t e r f a c e o r tube waves. Noise
logging records f l u i d movement in the f r a c t u r e and i s mainly used f o r v e r i f i c a -
tio n of temperature anomalies which can come from thermal formation conductivi-
t y a n i so t r o p i e s or from the f l u i d - f i l l e d f r a c t u r e . Caliper logging with bore-
hole e c c e n t r i c i t y evaluation i s the most important technique of f r a c t u r e a z i -
m u t h p r e d i c t i o n because of the intimate r e l a t i o n s h i p of ge ostre ss f i e l d o r i e n t a -
t i o n and wellbore o v al i zat i o n . The long a x i s of the e l l i p t i c a l borehole c ross-
s e c t i o n i s usually p a r a l l e l t o the d i r e c t i o n of l e a s t princ ipa l formation
s t r e s s which i s perpendicular t o f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n , with the f r a c t u r e t h u s
propagating normally t o the long a x i s of the e l l i p s e . Borehole t e l e v i s i o n and
 844
formation microscanning ar e together w i t h spinner surveying important techni-
ques f o r d i r e c t observation and measurement of f r a c t u r e height in c o n t r a s t t o
o th e r logging methods which a r e based on inferences due t o i n d i r e c t i n t e r p r e t a -
tio n and c a l c u l a t i o n of recorded data curves. Acoustical a n d e l e c t r i c a l imaging
of the wellbore w a l l by televiewer and formation microscanner allow d e t a i l e d vi-
s u a l i z a t i o n of sedimentary and s t r u c t u r a l r e s e r v o i r f e a t u r e s which can only be
matched o r surpassed i n terms of q u a l i t y by expensive coring of the pay se-
quence. I n a d d i t i o n t o determination of hydraulically-induced f r a c t u r e s , detec-
t i o n and e v a l u at i o n of n at u r al f r a c t u r e s can be made by various well logging
techniques such as formation microscanner and borehole televiewer ( t h e s e me-
thods a l s o allow d i s t i n c t i o n of n a t u r a l and drilling-induc e d c r a c k s ) , dipmeter
logging, d u a l l a t er o l o g recording, a n d sonic logging with f u l l waveform analy-
s i s . As many d i f f e r e n t open-hole logging methods a re a ffe c te d by f l u i d - f i l l e d
f r a c t u r e s which cause anomalous readings, a f r a c t u r e proba bility program can be
developed where various individual crack i ndic a tors a re simultaneously used t o
compute the l i k e l i h o o d of a zone of being n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d . The composite f r a c -
tu r e index log assigns a level of p l a u s i b i l i t y t o each response and produces a
log t h a t r e f l e c t s the cumulative p r o b ab i l i t y of a l l f r a c t u r e i n d i c a t o r s . The me-
chanical p r o p e rt i es l o g which i s computed from sonic a n d de nsity input logs i s
a p r e d i c t i v e tool f o r r e t r o a n a l y s i s of d r i l l e d wells and prognosis d e r i v a t i o n
from the r e s u l t s of an e a r l i e r borehole f o r the b e t t e r a n d more e f f e c t i v e opera-
tio n of a subsequent wel l . Mechanical p r o p er tie s computation enables hydraulic
f r a c t u r e propagation modelling a n d migration a na lysis and i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i -
f i c a n t f o r proper design of multi-horizon treatments by disc rim ina tion of d i f f e -
r e n t formation f r a c t u r a b i l i t i e s . Seismical and gravimetrical methods aim in con-
t r a s t t o most well-logging techniques not or n o t only on f r a c t u r e height d e t e r -
mination, b u t a r e mainly applied in order t o d e t e c t crack azimuth. Fra c ture
height monitoring can be performed by i n - s i t u well-seismic de te c tion w i t h a n ac-
celerometer t h a t operates p r i n c i p a l l y l i k e a geophone, with e i t h e r a c t i v e e xc i-
t a t i o n of the formation or passive evaluation of microseismic events produced
by the c l o s i n g crack. F r act u r e azimuth has major implications on r e s e r v o i r ex-
p l o i t a t i o n s t r a t e g y by being in the d i r e c t i o n of maximum horizontal i n - s i t u
s t r e s s a n d t h u s being s i g n i f i c a n t information f o r well p a t t e r n and spacing mo-
d e l l i n g i n o r d e r t o most s u i t a b l y d r a i n the r e s e r v o i r with as few boreholes and
f r a c t u r e s a s p o s s i b l e including avoiding of crack i n t e r f e r e n c e . Fra c ture a z i -
m u t h mapping i s mainly c a r r i e d o u t by microseismic event monitoring coming from
the closing crack with r e g i s t r a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of shear a n d compressio-
nal waves a n d can be combined with pressure pulse r e g i s t r a t i o n . Other techni-
ques of f r a c t u r e azimuth mapping a r e observation of associated surfa c e deforma-
tio n by t i l t m e t e r an al y s i s , s t r a i n r el ax at i o n evaluation of orie nte d c ore s,
e l e c t r i c a l p o t e nt i al f i e l d recording, a n d magnetometrical measuring. Tiltm e te r
a n a l y si s i s a l s o ab l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h horizontal and v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s . Inter-
p r e t a t i o n of st i mu l at i o n d a t a such as p r essure s, inje c tion r a t e s , d e n s i t i e s ,
concentrations and volumes i s important f o r pre-treatment scheduling, re a l-tim e
job supervision a n d post-operation assessment f o r the purpose of enhanced con-
trol a n d design of c u r r e n t and f u t u r e hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g performance. Real-
time a n a l y s i s c a p a b i l i t i e s enable simultaneous execution a n d e va lua tion of the
operation by computer-controlled s u p er v i s i o n , thus permitting t o make design
changes d u r i n g the treatment which ar e p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r e a r l y recog-
n i t i o n and avoidance of premature screenout termination of the job. Screenout
p r e d i c t i o n i s the most important task of f r a c t u r e pressure i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , with
pressure evolution r e f l e c t i n g propagation of the crack. Q u a l i t y control i s a
s p e c i a l type of stimulation d a t a a n a l y s i s a n d job performance supervision and
b a s i c a l l y aims on improving success r a t e s of the treatments by reducing prema-
tu r e screenout f a i l u r e which may occur due t o various reasons. Fra c ture migra-
t i o n modelling i s a p r e- s t i mu l at i o n f o r e c a s t of formation f r a c t u r a b i l i t y a n d
prognosis of d i f f er en ces in f r a c t u r e g r ad ie nt a n d thus open-up behaviour bet-
ween various hydrocarbon-bearing zones of the r e s e r v o i r column. Fra c ture migra-
t i o n a n a l y si s i s a combination of sonic waveform i n t e r p r e t a t i o n with bulk vo-
lume evaluation a n d l i n e a r f r a c t u r e mechanics w i t h treatment f l u i d de nsity a n d
can a l s o be used f o r f r a c t u r e height containment pre dic tion. I n f l a t a b l e impres-
sion packers a r e mechanical monitoring devices which record imprints of propped
 845

h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s l e f t on t h e s o f t p l i a b l e c o a t i n g when t h e packer i s pressed

a g a i n s t t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l upon i n f l a t i o n . S t e r e o p a i r photography and c o m p u t e r i -
zed s a t e l l i t e imagery i n c l u d i n g f a l s e - c o l o u r d i s p l a y o f v a r i o u s processed ima-
ges a r e e x c e l l e n t t o o l s f o r d e t e c t i n g and t r e n d mapping o f l a r g e n a t u r a l geomor-
p h o l o g i c a l f r a c t u r e s and f r a c t u r e systems. The main s i g n i f i c a n c e o f photography
and imagery i s r e d u c t i o n o f t h e number o f d r y h o l e s and improvement o f w e l l p r o -
d u c t i v i t y by p i c k i n g - u p o f a p p r a i s a l and o f f s e t d r i l l i n g l o c a t i o n s a t m a j o r
f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t i o n s which p e r m i t s a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l y f a s t e r p r o s p e c t genera-
t i o n . Gravel pack c h e c k i n g and e v a l u a t i o n aims on i n s p e c t i o n o f pack d e n s i t y
and c o n t i n u i t y as w e l l as d e t e c t i o n o f v o i d spaces w i t h i n t h e pack, and on de-
t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e t o p o f t h e c y l i n d r i c a l g r a v e l column i n t h e w e l l b o r e i n o r -
d e r t o v e r i f y i t s p r o p e r coverage o f t h e p r o d u c i n g zone. Gravel pack e f f e c t i v i -
t y m o n i t o r i n g i n q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e manner i s p o s s i b l e by g r a v e l den-
s i t y e x a m i n a t i o n and e x t e n s i o n c o n t r o l by compensated neutron, gamma-ray and
photon ( w h i c h i s a s p e c i a l t y p e o f gamma-ray) l o g g i n g . Photon l o g g i n g i s a s h a l -
low r e a d i n g d e v i c e which s i m i l a r l y as t h e o t h e r techniques r e c o r d s changing g r a -
v e l pack d e n s i t y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t f o r m a t i o n and f l u i d d e n s i t y a r e more o r
l e s s c o n s t a n t a l o n g t h e surveyed i n t e r v a l , and t h e r e f o r e t h e c h i e f f a c t o r cau-
s i n g v a r y i n g l o g response i s g r a v e l pack d e n s i t y . Voids w i t h i n t h e g r a v e l pack
r e p r e s e n t l o w - d e n s i t y pockets and b r i d g e s i n an o t h e r w i s e u n i f o r m and c o n t i -
nuous medium, and marked d e n s i t y changes a l s o o c c u r a t t o p and b o t t o m o f t h e
g r a v e l pack. An enhanced t e c h n i q u e i s photon/vibrapack c o m b i n a t i o n which i s a
complete system f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f d e f i c i e n c i e s i n g r a v e l packs and immedia-
t e i n - s i t u r e p a i r by shaking which provokes improved d e n s i t y by s e t t l i n g o f t h e
g r a v e l . Gamma-ray assessment o f g r a v e l pack d e n s i t y can be performed i n q u a n t i -
t a t i v e manner by assuming c o n s t a n t f o r m a t i o n and f l u i d d e n s i t y and t h u s c o r r e l a -
t i n g gamma-ray c o u n t r a t e s t o percentages o f g r a v e l pack o r o n l y f l u i d - f i l l e d
a n n u l a r s e c t i o n s . Top and b o t t o m o f t h e g r a v e l pack can be i d e n t i f i e d by sudden
i n c r e a s e s i n c o u n t r a t e , and v o i d spaces o f t h e i n t e r v a l a l o n g t h e screen can
a l s o be p i c k e d up by t h e i r anomalous c o u n t r a t e . Neutron l o g g i n g i s based on
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e presence o f g r a v e l i n t h e b o r e h o l e c o n s i d e r a b l y changes t h e
apparent p o r o s i t y r e c o r d e d by t h e t o o l . Combination o f n e u t r o n and gamma-ray
l o g g i n g w i t h placement o f r a d i o a c t i v e l y - c o a t e d g r a v e l and/or -tagged f l u i d
enables c r o s s - c h e c k i n g o f t h e n e u t r o n r e c o r d which i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t
i n g a s - b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s where t h e r e a d i n g o f t h e n e u t r o n t o o l can be d i s t u r -
bed by t h e gas i n f l u e n c e . Time-lapse g r a v e l pack m o n i t o r i n g i s i m p o r t a n t f o r de-
t e r m i n a t i o n o f p r o g r e s s i v e g r a v e l s e t t l i n g w i t h i n c r e a s i n g compaction u n l e s s f i -
n a l p a c k i n g d e n s i t y i s i m m e d i a t e l y achieved by v i b r a t i o n d u r i n g i n s e r t i o n .
W h i l e t h e v a r i o u s l o g g i n g methods aim on q u a l i t y m o n i t o r i n g o f t h e g r a v e l pack
once i t has been i n s t a l l e d between screen and c a s i n g o r b o r e h o l e w a l l , t h e f u n c -
t i o n o f t h e t e l l - t a l e screen i s t o determine t h e end o f t h e g r a v e l pack opera-
t i o n by i n d i c a t i n g t h e moment when t h e t r e a t m e n t i s c o m p l e t e l y performed. Mecha-
n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s l o g g i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t p r i o r t o p l a n n i n g and d e s i g n o f sand
c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s i n o r d e r t o check t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e v a r i o u s hydrocarbon-
b e a r i n g sands i n t h e p r o s p e c t i v e column and t o p r e d i c t p r i o r t o o n s e t o f e x p l o i -
t a t i o n o r i n c r e a s e o f o f f t a k e r a t e s whether t h e g r a i n f a b r i c would be s t r o n g
enough t o a l l o w t o s t a r t o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n o r t o i n c r e a s e pumping r a t e s
w i t h o u t t h e danger o f p r o v o k i n g sand problems i n t h e w e l l b o r e , o r whether t h e
r o c k s t r u c t u r e i s t o o weak and g r a v e l p a c k i n g and o t h e r s a n d - c o n t r o l measures
have t o be c a r r i e d o u t i n o r d e r t o p e r m i t u n d i s t u r b e d hydrocarbon o f f t a k e . The
mechanical p r o p e r t i e s l o g as a p r e d i c t i v e t o o l i s t h u s an a i d f o r s c r e e n i n g o f
g r a v e l p a c k i n g c a n d i d a t e s and has c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e i n e a r l y r e c o g n i -
t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l sand-trouble-making h o r i z o n s and t h e n e c e s s i t y o f performance
o f s a n d - c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t s p r i o r t o w e l l b o r e damage by o n s e t t i n g sand produc-
tion, as w e l l as i n money s a v i n g and t h u s budget containment by p i c k i n g up o f
h o r i z o n s which w i l l r e s i s t t o a l l t h e p o s s i b l e d r a g f o r c e s and p r e s s u r e draw-
downs d u r i n g hydrocarbon o f f t a k e w i t h o u t sand p r o d u c t i o n and t h e r e f o r e do n o t
need any a r t i f i c i a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n . The i n t e g r a t e d sand p r o d u c t i o n f o r e c a s t sys-
tem s y n e r g i s t i c a l l y uses g e o l o g i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n , c o r e t e s t i n g , l o g a n a l y s i s and
r e s e r v o i r simulation t o p r e d i c t p e r f o r a t i o n c a v i t y s t a b i l i t y a t i n i t i a l condi-
t i o n s and t h r o u g h o u t t h e l i f e o f t h e w e l l . C a l i p e r l o g g i n g i n open h o l e s can be
used as an a i d i n e s t i m a t i n g t h e amount o f m a t e r i a l r e q u i r e d f o r g r a v e l pack-
 846

i n g , t h e r e b y b e i n g a t o o l f o r o p t i m i z i n g d e s i g n o f t h e sand c o n t r o l t r e a t m e n t .

6.1. Introduction ............................. . . . . . . . . . . 852

6.2. F r a c t u r e detection and determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
6.2.0. General aspects o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1. W e l l l o g g i n g methods ................................
6.2.1.1. Temperature l o g g i n g .......................
6.2.1.1.1. General aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1.1.2. G r a d i e n t and d i f f e r e n t i a l t e m p e r a t u r e
r e c o r d i n g ............................. 855
6.2.1.1.3. I n f l u e n c e o f anomalous t h e r m a l f o r m a -
t i o n c o n d u c t i v i t y ..................... 855
6.2.1.1.3.1. S i g n i f i c a n c e and d i s t r i -
b u t i o n o f warm a n o m a l i e s 856
6.2.1.1.3.2. C1 a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e r m a l
c o n d u c t i v i t y a n o m a l i e s . . 856
6.2.1.1.3.3. O t h e r a s p e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . 857
6.2.1.1.4. Improvement o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n f i -
dence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
6.2.1.2. Gamma-ray l o g g i n g o f n a t u r a l p r o p p a n t r a d i o a c t i v i t y 858
6.2.1.2.1. Measurement p r i n c i p l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
6.2.1.2.2. R e c o r d i n g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n drawbacks 859
6.2.1.2.2.1. P r o p p a n t r a d i o a c t i v i t y . . 859
6.2.1.2.2.2. P r o p p a n t p r i c e .......... 8 6 0
6.2.1.3. Gamma-ray l o g g i n g o f a r t i f i c i a l p r o p p a n t o r f l u i d
r a d i o a c t i v i t y ..................................... 860
6.2.1.3.1. Tracer aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
6.2.1.3.1.1. Tracer types
p o s s i b i l i t i e s . . . . . . . . . . . 861
6.2.1.3.1.2. M a r k e r s t a b i l i t y and d i s -
p e r s i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
6.2.1.3.1.3. T r a c e r r e q u i r e m e n t s and
c o m p o s i t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
6.2.1.3.1.4. M a r k e r i n j e c t i o n and p l a -
cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
6.2.1.3.1.5. Tracer d i s t
recording . . . . . . . . . . . 863
6.2.1.3.2. Conventional s i n g l e - o r d
monitoring ..............
6.2.1.3.2.1. Principles
6.2.1.3.2.2. Application
6.2.1.3.3. A d m i n i s t r a t i v e and e n v i r o n m e n t a
p e c t s o f t r a c e r m o n i t o r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
6.2.1.3.3.1. R e s t r i c t i o n s and o b l i g a -
t i ons o f r a d i o a c t i v e t r a -
c e r h a n d l i n g ............ 865
6.2.1.3.3.2. Intermediate safety pro-
c e d u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
6.2.1.3.3.3. C o s t c o n t a i n m e n t v s . ad-
vanced r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r
m o n i t o r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
6.2.1.3.4. M u l t i p l e t r a c e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b y spec-
t r a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
6.2.1.3.4.1. G e n e r a l a s p e c t s o f gamma-
r a y s p e c t r o s c o p y . . . . . . . . 867
6.2.1.3.4.2. Distinction of radiation
provenance from f r a c t u r e d
f o r m a t i o n and b o r e h o l e
fluid . . . . . . . . . . 868
6.2.1.3.4.3. S p e c t r o m e t r i c a l deconvo-
l u t i o n o f composite r a -
 847

d i a t i o n p r o f i l e s . . . . . . . . 869
6.2.1.3.4.4. Gamma-ray spectroscopy
applications i n hydraulic
proppant f r a c t u r i n g ..... 870
6.2.1.3.4.5. Gamma-ray spectroscopy
a p p l i c a t i o n s i n a combi-
n a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g ...... 872
6.2.1.4. Combination o f temperature and gamma-ray l o g g i n g .. 873
6.2.1.4.1. Logging c o s t containment i n f r a c t u r i n g
campaigns ............................. 873
6.2.1.4.2. C l a r i f i c a t i o n o f temperature anomalies 874
6.2.1.4.3. D i s t i n c t i o n o f c r e a t e d and propped
f r a c t u r e h e i g h t ....................... 874
6.2.1.4.4. Time-lapse m o n i t o r i n g r e p e t i t i o n l o g -
g i n g .................................. 875
6.2.1.4.4.1. Temperature and conven-
t i o n a l gamma-ray t i m e
l a p s i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
6.2.1.4.4.2. S p e c t r a l gamma-ray t i m e
l a p s i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
6.2.1.5. Thermal decay t i m e l o g g i n g ........................ 876
6.2.1.5.1. General aspects ....................... 876
6.2.1.5.2. F r a c t u r e h e i g h t types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
6.2.1.5.2.1. Created and propped f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
6.2.1.5.2.2. Permeable f r a c t u r e h e i g h t 877
6.2.1.5.3. E v a l u a t i o n o f a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n . . . . . . . . 878
6.2.1.5.3.1. A c i d e f f e c t on p u l s e d
n e u t r o n c a p t u r e l o g g i n g . 878
6.2.1.5.3.2. Gel-pad-created vs. a c i d -
e t c h e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t . . 878
6.2.1.5.3.3. Influence o f w e l l devia-
t i o n and i n t e r v a l t h i c k -
ness .................... 879
6.2.1.6. A c o u s t i c l o g g i n g .................................. 879
6.2.1.6.1. R e c o g n i t i o n o f f r a c t u r e s f r o m wave
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ........................ 879
6.2.1.6.1.1. Sonic wave t y p e s and
t h e i r p r o p a g a t i o n ....... 880
6.2.1.6.1.2. Sonic wave a t t e n u a t i o n as
f r a c t u r e i n d i c a t o r s . . . . . 880
6.2.1.6.1.3. Additional information
f o r f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n . . 881
6.2.1.6.2. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n 881
6.2.1.7. Noise l o g g i n g ..................................... 882
6.2.1.7.1. V e r i f i c a t i o n o f temperature anomalies . 882
6.2.1.7.2. F l u i d movement d e t e c t i o n by sound r e -
c o r d i n g ............................... 882
6.2.1.8. C a l i p e r l o g g i n g ................................... 883
6.2.1.8.1. Borehole e l l i p t i c i t y .................. 883
6.2.1.8.1.1. O v a l i z a t i o n and s t r e s s
o r i e n t a t i o n ............. 883
6.2.1.8.1.2. M a j o r and m i n o r e c c e n t r i -
c i t i e s .................. 884
6.2.1.8.2. Breakout vs. creep d e f o r m a t i o n ........ 884
6.2.1.9. Borehole t e l e v i e w e r ............................... 885
6.2.1.9.1. A c o u s t i c b o r e h o l e t e l e v i s i o n . . . . . . . . . . 885
6.2.1.9.1.1. Recording mechanism . . . . . 885
6.2.1.9.1.2. Advantages and drawbacks 886
6.2.1.9.1.3. Image t y p e s ............. 886
6.2.1.9.1.4. Improvement by d i g i t a l
 848
r e c o r d i n g and p r o c e s s i n g 887
6.2.1.9.1.5. Simultaneous m o n i t o r i n g
of f r a c t u r e opening and
c l o s i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
6.2.1.9.1.6. E f f e c t s of f o r m a t i o n l i -
thology and b o r e h o l e w a l l
c o n d i t i o n s on t e l e v i e w e r

6.2.1.9.1.8. E f f e c t s of b o r e h o l e geo-
metry on t e l e v i e w e r l o g
q u a l i t y ................. 888
6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . 2 . E l e c t r i c a l f o r m a t i o n microscanning _ _ . 889 .
6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . 3 . O p t i c a l b o r e h o l e t e l e v i s i o n and video-
camera r e c o r d i n g ...................... 890
6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . 3 . 1 . Image r e s o l u t i o n and
b o r e h o l e f l u i d c l a r i t y . . 890
6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . 3 . 2 . P o s s i b i l i t i e s of enhanced
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . 890
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . Natural f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n by v a r i o u s logging me-
.............................. 891
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 0 . General a s p e c t s of n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e r e -
c o g n i t i o n ............................. 891
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 1 . Formation microscanner and b o r e h o l e t e -
leviewer ..........................
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 1 . 1 . Borehole v i s u a l i z a t i o
and f o r m a t i o n imagi
reservoir coring .
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 1 . 2 . D i s t i n c t i o n of n a t u r a l
and d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d
f r a c t u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 1 . 3 . Coring-induced f r a c t u r e s
indicating hydraulic
f r a c t u r e propagation d i -
r e c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 1 . 4 . E l e c t r i c a l microscanning
vs. a c o u s t i c a l t e l e v i s i o n 896
6.2.1.10.1.5. Acoustical t e l e v i s i o n vs.
d i p m e t e r r e s i s t i v i t y re-

6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 2 . Dipmeter logging ..
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 2 . 2 . Dipmeter and c a l
ponse t o f r a c t u r
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 2 . 3 . Dipmeter e v a l u a t i o n f o r
fracture detection ...... 899
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 2 . 4 . Other r e a s o n s than f r a c -
tures c a u s i n g d i p m e t e r
curve s e p a r a t i o n . . . . . . . . 899
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 2 . 5 . Borehole s p a l l i n g and
dipmeter response . . . . . . . 900
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 3 . Other a s p e c t s of r e s i s t i v i t y logging
t e c h n i q u e s ............................ 900
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 3 . 1 . General a s p e c t s ......... 900
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 3 . 2 . Dual l a t e r o l o g r e c o r d i n g 900
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 3 . 3 . Dual l a t e r o l o g i n t e r p r e -
tation .................. 901
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 4 . Sonic logging w i t h f u l l waveform a n a l y -
s i s ................................... 901
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 4 . 1 . Mode c o n v e r s i o n a t t e n u a -
t i o n of s o n i c waveforms . 902
 849

6.2.1.10.4.2. Amplitude s p i k e a n a l y s i s 902

6.2.1.10.4.3. C r i s s c r o s s a n a l y s i s ..... 902
6.2.1.10.4.4. S t o n e l e y wave e v a l u a t i o n 903
6.2.1.10.5. S p e c i a l methods f o r h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u -
r e s ................................... 903
6.2.1.10.5.1. General aspects ......... 903
6.2.1.10.5.2. Distinction of vertical
and h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s
by dual l a t e r o l o g r e c o r d -
i n g ..................... 904
6.2.1.10.6. F r a c t u r e p r o b a b i l i t y program .......... 904
6.2.1.10.7. Mechanical p r o p e r t i e s l o g . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
6.2.1.10.7.1. P r i n c i p l e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
6.2.1.10.7.2. A p p l i c a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
6.2.1.10.8. O t h e r techniques ...................... 906
6.2.1.10.8.1. Gamma-ray d e t e c t i o n o f
u r a n i u m - m i n e r a l i z e d j o i n t 906
6.2.1.10.8.2. Formation f a c t o r equation
exponent v a l u e and p l o t s 907
6.2.1.10.8.3. Radar p u l s i n g . . . . . . . . . . . 907
6.2.1.10.8.4. M i s c e l l a n e o u s ........... 907
6.2.1.10.8.5. Fracture height logging
i n v e r t i c a l and d e v i a t e d
w e l l s ................... 908
6.2.2. S e i s m i c a l and g r a v i m e t r i c a l methods ......................... 909
6.2.2.1. F r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g ........................ 909
6.2.2.1.1. A c t i v e vs. p a s s i v e b o r e h o l e s e i s m i c s .. 909
6.2.2.1.2. S e i s m i c a l f r a c t u r e h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n 910
6.2.2.1.2.1. Seismic waves and o r i e n -
t a t i o n s ................. 910
6.2.2.1.2.2. Seismic e v e n t g e n e r a t i o n
and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . . . . . . 910
6.2.2.1.2.3. V e r t i c a l seismic p r o f i l -
i n g and o t h e r aspects . . . 911
6.2.2.2. F r a c t u r e w i d t h d e t e r m i n a t i o n ...................... 911
6.2.2.3. F r a c t u r e azimuth mapping .......................... 912
6.2.2.3.1. G e o e l e c t r i c a l and g r a v i m e t r i c a l r e c o r d -
i n g ................................... 912
6.2.2.3.1.1. Geoelectrical fracture
d e t e c t i o n .............._912
6.2.2.3.1.2. Other methods o f f r a c t u r e
azimuth mapping . . . . . . . . . 913
6.2.2.3.2. M i c r o s e i s m i c f r a c t u r e m o n i t o r i n g ...... 913
6.2.2.3.2.1. A c t i v e and p a s s i v e r e -
c o r d i n g ................. 914
6.2.2.3.2.2. Shear and compressional
wave r e g i s t r a t i o n . . . . _ . .915
6.2.2.3.2.3. Wave r e c o r d i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n and s i g n a l d i s t i n c -
t i o n .................... 915
6.2.2.3.2.4. Shear wave p o l a r i z a t i o n . 916
6.2.2.3.2.5. Acoustic emission i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n ............... 916
6.2.2.3.3. Combination o f microearthquake and
p r e s s u r e p u l s e r e g i s t r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . 917
6.2.2.3.3.1. Influences o f pressure
p u l s i n g on s e i s m i c moni-
t o r i n g .................. 917
6.2.2.3.3.2. P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f improve-
ment .................... 918
6.2.2.3.3.3. P o t e n t i a l and l i m i t a t i o n s
of s e i s m i c m o n i t o r i n g . . . 918
 850

6.2.2.3.3.4. Anelastical s t r a i n reco-

6.2.2.3.3.5. Other geophysi

i n g s .................... 922
6.2.2.3.4.3. First-order levelling ___ 922
6 . 2 . 2 . 3 . 5 . H y d r a u l i c impedance a n a l y s i s . . . . . . . . . . 922
6.2.2.3.5.1. Free o s c i l l a t i o n period
and f r a c t u r e growth . . . . . 922
6.2.2.3.5.2. F r a c t u r e compliance vs.
impedance m a g n i t u d e . . . . . 9 2 3
6.2.2.3.6. Hydraulic resonance a n a l y s i s . . .
6 . 2 . 2 . 4 . D i s t i n c t i o n o f v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s .. 923
6.2.2.4.1. Tiltmeter surveys ...............
6 . 2 . 2 . 4 . 2 . R e s e r v o i r f l u i d f l o w m o d e l l i n g . . . . . . . . 924
6 . 2 . 2 . 4 . 3 . Dual l a t e r o l o g c u r v e s e p a r a t i o n
6.2.2.4.4. Combination o f h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l
f r a c t u r e s ... ..................... 925
6 . 2 . 2 . 5 . F r a c t u r e permea . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
6.2.3. M a g n e t o m e t r i c a l methods . ..................... 926
6.2.4. Stimulation data analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
6 . 2 . 4 . 1 . S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t r e a t m e n t parame l u a t i o n . . . . 926
6 . 2 . 4 . 1 . 1 . O p t i m i z a t i o n o f current and f u t u r e j o b s 926
6.2.4.1.2. S i m u l a t i o n vs. f i e l d e v i d e n c e . . . . . . . . . 927
6.2.4.2. Fracture ure i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
forecast .................
6.2.4.2.1. Pressure e
v e n t i o n .. ...........
6.2.4.2.1.
c u r r e n c e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
6.2.4.2.1.2. S c r e e n o u t i n d i c a t i o n s and
remedy a c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . 929
6.2.4.2.1.3. Avoidance o f s c r e e n o u t
f a i l u r e by pumping r a t e
and volume a d j u s t m e n t ... 930
6.2.4.2.1.4. High- and l o w - s t r e s s e d
z o n e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
6.2.4.2.1.5. Other r e a s o n s o f a b n o r -
mally high treatment
p r e s s u r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
6.2.4.2.1.6. Screenout f o r e c a s t possi-
b i 1 it i e s ,. 932
6.2.4.2.2. P r e s s u r e e v o l u t i o n and
s i o n .................................. 932
6.2.4.2.2.1. C o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e rise
reflecting fracture
growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
6.2.4.2.2.2. P r e s s u r e r i s e t y p e s and
corresponding s i g n i f i -
c a n c e ................... 932
6.2.4.2.2.3. Other a s p e c t s . . . . . .
6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 3 . F r a c t u r e h e i g h t and r e s e r v o i r t h i c
6.2.4.2.3.1. F r a c t u r e h e i g h t and
t r e a t m e n t p r e s s u r e magni-
tude . . . . . . 934
6.2.4.2.3.2. Fract reser-
v o i r stress l e v e l . . .
6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 4 . M i n i f r a c t u r i n g e v a l u a t i o n and 3-D s
........................ 934
 85 1

6.2.4.2.4.1. Proppant b r i d g i n g and

f l u i d loss provoking
screenout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934
6.2.4.2.4.2. S i m u l a t i o n m o d e l l i n g and
screenout c a n d i d a t e r e -
c o g n i t i o n ............... 935
6.2.4.2.4.3. Fracture height calcula-
t i o n and c h e c k i n g by w e l l
l o g g i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935
6 . 2 . 4 . 2 . 5 . F r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e and g e o t e c t o n i c a l
s e t t i n g ............................... 936
6.2.4.2.6. P r e v e n t i o n o f p r e s s u r e - o u t s i t u a t i o n .. 936
6 . 2 . 4 . 3 . Computerized r e a l - t i m e j o b s u p e r v i s i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
6 . 2 . 4 . 3 . 1 . General aspects o f o n - l i n e t r e a t m e n t
m o n i t o r i n g ............................ 937
6.2.4.3.2. S p e c i a l technology f o r computerized j o b
s u p e r v i s i o n ........................... 937
6 . 2 . 4 . 3 . 3 . C o n s e r v a t i v e and p r o g r e s s i v e f r a c t u r e
j o b c o n t r o l ........................... 938
6 . 2 . 4 . 4 . Q u a l i t y c o n t r o l ................................... 938
6.2.5. F r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n a n a l y s i s ................................. 939
6 . 2 . 5 . 1 . F r a c t u r a b i l i t y p r e d i c t i o n ......................... 939
6.2.5.1.1. P r i n c i p l e s ............................ 939
6 . 2 . 5 . 1 . 2 . A p p l i c a t i o n s .......................... 940
6 . 2 . 5 . 2 . F r a c t u r e h e i g h t containment a n a l y s i s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940
6.2.6. I n f l a t a b l e i m p r e s s i o n packers ............................... 941
6 . 2 . 6 . 1 . Mechanical f r a c t u r e i m p r i n t s t u d y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941
6 . 2 . 6 . 2 . Fracmeter approach ................................ 942
6 . 2 . 6 . 3 . I m p r e s s i o n packer vs . b o r e h o l e t e l e v i s i o n . . . . . . . . . 942
6.2.7. Photography and imagery ..................................... 942
6.3. Gravel pack checking and evaluation ................................. 943
6 . 3 . 1 . Photon l o g g i n g .............................................. 943
6 . 3 . 1 . 1 , Gravel pack m o n i t o r i n g vs . h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n -
s p e c t i o n .......................................... 944
6 . 3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . Temperature and n e u t r o n l o g g i n g . . . . . . . 944
6 . 3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . O e n s i t y change generated by g r a v e l and
proppants ............................. 944
6 . 3 . 1 . 2 . P r i n c i p l e s o f photon l o g g i n g ...................... 945
6 . 3 . 1 . 3 . Conventional photon l o g g i n g ....................... 945
6 . 3 . 1 . 4 . Photon/vibrapack c o m b i n a t i o n ...................... 946
6 . 3 . 2 . Gamma-ray l o g g i n g ........................................... 947
6 . 3 . 2 . 1 . Q u a l i t a t i v e gamma-ray g r a v e l pack e v a l u a t i o n . . . . . . 947
6 . 3 . 2 . 2 . Q u a n t i t a t i v e gamma-ray g r a v e l pack e v a l u a t i o n ..... 947
6 . 3 . 2 . 3 . N a t u r a l and a r t i f i c i a l r a d i o a c t i v i t y l o g g i n g . . . . . . 948
6 . 3 . 2 . 4 . Gamma-ray spectroscopy o f m u l t i p l e r a d i o a c t i v e t r a -
c e r s .............................................. 948
6 . 3 . 3 . Neutron l o g g i n g ............................................. 949
6 . 3 . 3 . 1 . O p e r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s ............................ 949
6 . 3 . 3 . 2 . Q u a l i t a t i v e n e u t r o n g r a v e l pack e v a l u a t i o n . . . . . . . . 949
6 . 3 . 3 . 3 . Q u a n t i t a t i v e n e u t r o n g r a v e l pack e v a l u a t i o n ....... 950
6 . 3 . 3 . 4 . O t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s ................................ 950
6 . 3 . 4 . O t h e r g r a v e l pack l o g g i n g techniques ........................ 951
6 . 3 . 4 . 1 . Combination o f n e u t r o n and gamma-ray l o g g i n g . . . . . . 951
6 . 3 . 4 . 2 . O t h e r methods ..................................... 951
6.3.4.3. Time-lapse m o n i t o r i n g o f g r a v e l s e t t l i n g .......... 951
6.3.5. T e l l - t a l e screen ............................................ 952
6 . 3 . 5 . 1 . Lower and upper t e l l - t a l e screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952
6 . 3 . 5 . 2 . T e l l - t a l e screen a c t i o n and g r a v e l p a c k i n g stage . . 952
6 . 3 . 6 . Mechanical p r o p e r t i e s l o g ................................... 953
6 . 3 . 6 . 1 . R e l a t i o n s h i p s between f o r m a t i o n s t r e n g t h and sand
i n f l u x ............................................ 953
 852

6.3.6.1.1. F o r m a t i o n p e r m e a b i l i t y and c o n s o l i d a -
t i o n .................................. 954
6.3.6.1.2. C o r r e c t i o n s and improvements . . . . . . . . . . 954
6.3.6.2. R e s e r v o i r s t a b i l i t y p r e d i c t i o n .................... 954
6.3.6.2.1. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f sand s t a b i l i t y f o r e c a s t 955
6.3.6.2.2. Gravel packing candidate r e c o g n i t i o n .. 955
6.3.6.2.3. Optimum mud w e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n . . . . . . 955
6.3.6.2.4. Maximum h y d r o c a r b o n o f f t a k e r a t e e s t i -
m a t i o n ................................ 956
6.3.6.3. I n t e g r a t e d sand p r o d u c t i o n f o r e c a s t s y s t e m . . . . . . . . 956
6.3.6.3.1. External c a l i b r a t i o n o f mechanical pro-
p e r t i e s l o g s .......................... 956
6.3.6.3.2. E a r l y appraisal d r i l l i n g vs. l a t e i n -
f i l l d r i l l i n g ......................... 957
6.3.6.3.3. Synergistic evaluation ..... . 957
6.3.6.4. S i n g l e - vs. m u l t i p l e - w e l l f e a s i b i l i t y aspects . . . . . 957
6.3.7. Caliper logging ............................................. 958

6.1. Introduction
H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g has a c h i e v e d c o n s i d e r a b l y p r o g r e s s i n g i m p o r -
t a n c e d u r i n g t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s s i n c e t h e i n v e n t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h -
strength synthetic proppants w i t h regard t o improving w e l l p r o d u c t i v i t y , increa-
s i n g r e s e r v e s and a m e l i o r a t i n g d r a i n a g e o f p r o d u c i n g i n t e r v a l s ( c f . s e c t i o n
1.2.). S u c c e s s f u l t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s a r e an i m p o r t a n t e c o n o m i c a l f a c t o r
by p e r m i t t i n g t o r e d u c e t h e number o f w e l l s d r i l l e d i n o i l a n d / o r gas f i e l d s .
I n o r d e r t o o p t i m i z e t h e e f f e c t i v i t y o f h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g , azimuth,
l e n g t h and h e i g h t o f t h e c r a c k have t o be d e t e r m i n e d b y downhole o r s u r f a c e mea-
s u r e m e n t s (WITTRISCH & SARDA 1 9 8 7 ) . Assessment o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i n -
duced f r a c t u r e r e q u i r e s knowledge o f d i m e n s i o n s , o r i e n t a t i o n s and s p a t i a l cha-
r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the crack i n r e l a t i o n t o the o i l - o r gas-bearing formation
(HART, ENGI & M O R R I S 1 9 8 3 ) . A c o m p r e h e n s i v e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e p r o p a -
g a t i o n n o t o n l y a i d s i n s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t design f o r t h e r e s e r v o i r , b u t can
a l s o h e l p s p e c i f y w e l l spacings which w i l l minimize i n t e r f e r e n c e o f drainage
p a t t e r n s and t h u s m a x i m i z e e c o n o m i c a l r e c o v e r y p o t e n t i a l .

H y d r a u l i c p r o p p a n t f r a c t u r i n g and g r a v e l p a c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s have t o be c l o s e -
l y m o n i t o r e d and s u p e r v i s e d p r i o r t o t h e j o b , d u r i n g course o f the treatment
and a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e b o r e h o l e m a n i p u l a t i o n i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e optimum
r e s u l t s o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n and s t a b i l i z a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s e s p e c i a l l y i n numerous
p r o b l e m a t i c a l r e s e r v o i r s which cannot produce a t commercial r a t e s w i t h o u t a r t i -
f i c i a l improvements o f p e r m e a b i l i t y and c o n s o l i d a t i o n . F r a c t u r e and g r a v e l pack
m o n i t o r i n g b a s i c a l l y c o m p r i s e p r e d i c t i o n , s u p e r v i s i o n and r e t r o a c t i v e e v a l u a -
t i o n . P r e d i c t i o n has i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t o n t h e d e s i g n o f t h e c u r r e n t j o b , s u p e r v i -
s i o n h e l p s t o s e c u r e s a f e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e o p e r a t i o n and p r o v i d e s o p p o r t u n i -
t i e s t o change t h e s c h e d u l e d u r i n g c o u r s e o f t h e p r o c e d u r e i f n e c e s s a r y p a r t i c u -
l a r l y i n l i g h t o f avoiding premature screenout t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e treatment,
and r e t r o a c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e d e s i g n o f f o l l o w - u p
operations by implementing t h e experience received from t h e execution o f ear-
l i e r j o b s and i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e knowledge o f t h e r e a c t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r t o
t h e t r e a t m e n t and t h u s a s s e s s i n g m a t c h o r d i s c r e p a n c y o f a n t i c i p a t i o n and r e -
s u l t o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g s t i m u l a t i o n . An i m p o r t a n t t a s k o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i -
t o r i n g i s checking o f separating b a r r i e r s t a b i l i t y i n order t o avoid undesired
breakthroughs t o higher o r lower horizons.

F o l l o w i n g the discussion o f various technological aspects o f h y d r a u l i c prop-

p a n t f r a c t u r i n g ( c h a p t e r 4 ) as w e l l as g r a v e l p a c k i n g and sand c o n t r o l ( c h a p t e r
5 ) , t h i s d i v i s i o n summarizes methods o f f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n and d e t e r m i n a t i o n as
w e l l as g r a v e l pack c h e c k i n g and e v a l u a t i o n .
 853

6.2. Fracture detection and determination

C o n t r o l o f p r e d i c t e d vs. achieved h e i g h t o f t h e h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c -
t u r e by g e o p h y s i c a l c a b l e ( w i r e l i n e ) w e l l - l o g g i n g (AGNEW 1965; OOBKINS 1979,
1981; PEARCE 1979, FERTL 1980, VOEGELE & JONES 1980; HUNT, HASKETT, RAYMOND &
P I R I E 1981; McGHEE, LESS0 & WATERFILL 1981; JULIAN 1982, PEETERS & HARTLEY
1984, FRISINGER Y COOPER 1985, OARILEK 1986; SORRELLS, GRANT, MAHRER, MAUK, MUL-
CAHY, STUMP & SWANSON 1986; AHMEO 1987; NOBLETT, FERTL & GUY 1987) w i l l become
i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t p a r t i c u l a r l y i n such h o r i z o n s where f r a c t u r e containment
i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n i s i n e v i t a b l e due t o environmental s a f e t y o b l i g a t i o n s by
m i n i n g a u t h o r i t y o r n a t u r a l p r o t e c t i o n department, o r r e s e r v o i r e n g i n e e r i n g r e -
quirements such as danger o f b r e a k t h r o u g h t o w a t e r - b e a r i n g h o r i z o n s i n s h a l l o w
t o moderate d e p t h ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 2 . ) .

The p r o g r e s s i v e improvement o f r e l i a b i l i t y and e f f e c t i v i t y o f f r a c t u r e

h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g i s a l s o an i m p o r t a n t means o f p r o m o t i o n o f n o t o n l y w e l l - l o g -
g i n g jobs, b u t u l t i m a t e l y a l s o f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s . T h e r e f o r e a l s o coopera-
t i o n between w e l l - l o g g i n g companies on t h e one hand and s e r v i c e and p r o p p a n t
companies on t h e o t h e r hand i s necessary t o t r i g g e r i n c r e a s i n g performance o f
s t i m u l a t i o n s and f o l l o w i n g p o s t - j o b r e s u l t m o n i t o r i n g which has been f a c i l i t a -
t e d and a m e l i o r a t e d by some b i g merges and takeovers i n t h e l a s t y e a r s t h a t
b r o u g h t i n s e v e r a l cases l o g g i n g and pumping d i v i s i o n s o r companies i n t o one
c o r p o r a t i o n . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s o f f r a c t u r e m o n i t o r i n g and d e t e r m i n a t i o n
a r e c r a c k azimuth mapping and f r a c t u r e w i d t h e s t i m a t i o n . The p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f
c h e c k i n g o f t h e o r e t i c a l p l a n n i n g vs. p r a c t i c a l outcome f o c u s on p o s t - j o b q u a l i -
t y c o n t r o l m o n i t o r i n g , b u t s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s can a l s o be made by p r e -
t r e a t m e n t m o d e l l i n g and p r e d i c t i o n . I n some i n s t a n c e s , a l s o s u p e r v i s i o n d u r i n g
course o f t h e o p e r a t i o n can p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s f o r enhancement o f
the r e s u l t s .

6.2.0. General aspects of fracture height monitoring

D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f achieved f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i s an i m p o r t a n t s t e p t o e v a l u a t e
t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t , t o e s t i m a t e t h e subsequent p r o -
d u c t i o n b e h a v i o u r o f t h e w e l l , and t o check t h e accuracy o f f r a c t u r e d e s i g n and
h e i g h t p r e d i c t i o n models t h a t were used t o p l a n t h e h y d r a u l i c j o b (AHMEO 1987).
Knowledge o f t h e a c t u a l crack h e i g h t i s a l s o r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f an
e x a c t f r a c t u r e l e n g t h and i s t h e r e f o r e an i m p o r t a n t i n p u t parameter f o r geome-
t r y m o d e l l i n g o f t h e c r a c k and hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r e c a s t . F r a c t u r e
h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n can be performed by d i r e c t measuring w i t h f o r m a t i o n m i c r o -
scanner and b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r , and by i n d i r e c t i n f e r e n c e f r o m v a r i o u s w e l l -
l o g g i n g methods. D i r e c t measurement techniques can o n l y be a p p l i e d i n open ho-
l e s , whereas t h e b a s i c l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e i n d i r e c t methods i s t h e i r small r a d i u s
o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f s e i s m i c a l techniques, dual l a t e r o l o g mo-
n i t o r i n g , and p a r t i a l l y a l s o m u l t i p l e - t r a c e r gamma-ray spectroscopy.

Several techniques o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n by w e l l - l o g g i n g a f t e r
t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e t r e a t m e n t e x i s t which a r e m a i n l y based on temperature
and r a d i o a c t i v i t y e f f e c t s . A l e s s common method i s t h e n o i s e l o g (DOBKINS 1979)
which has i t s main s i g n i f i c a n c e i n c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f anomalous r e a d i n g s o f tempe-
r a t u r e l o g s . Comments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on w e l l l o g g i n g methods f o c u s s i n g
on f r a c t u r e h e i g h t c o n t r o l , s e i s m i c a l and g r a v i m e t r i c a l methods i n c l u d i n g f r a c -
t u r e azimuth d e t e r m i n a t i o n , and magnetometrical methods. An o u t l i n e o f t h e s i g -
n i f i c a n c e o f s t i m u l a t i o n d a t a a n a l y s i s i s a l s o g i v e n . The r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e -
p o r t a l s o i n c l u d e s a c o m p i l a t i o n o f techniques f o r d e t e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s
which p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n many r e s e r v o i r s f o r b o t h hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n
and p r o g n o s i s o f p r o p a g a t i o n d i r e c t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s d u r i n g s t i m u l a -
t i o n jobs, w i t h a c o u s t i c a l and e l e c t r i c a l imaging methods as w e l l as d i p m e t e r ,
s o n i c l o g g i n g and dual l a t e r o l o g r e c o r d i n g b e i n g t h e most s u i t a b l e means f o r
t h i s purpose. F i n a l l y t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n model as a p r e -
d i c t i v e t o o l i s i l l u s t r a t e d . The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a t e s on m o n i t o r i n g
 854

of h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d c r a c k s i n v e r t i c a l o r m o d e r a t e l y - i n c l i n e d w e l l s , w i t h
some s p e c i a l a s p e c t s of f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n h i g h l y - d e v i a t e d
w e l l s a l s o being d i s c u s s e d .

6.2.1. Well logging methods

Cable ( w i r e l i n e ) well logging methods of h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e m o n i t o r i n g and
d e t e r m i n a t i o n c h i e f l y aim on c r a c k h e i g h t c o n t r o l and t o s u b o r d i n a t e amounts
a l s o on f r a c t u r e azimuth p r e d i c t i o n a n d / o r checking. Some i n f o r m a t i o n on c r a c k
width could a l s o be g a i n e d . The most i m p o r t a n t t o o l s f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t i n s p e c t i o n a r e t e m p e r a t u r e , s i n g l e - and m u l t i p l e - t r a c e r gamma-ray, acous-
t i c and n o i s e logging i n s t r u m e n t s . C a l i p e r logging i s t h e most s i g n i f i c ' a n t t o o l
f o r i n - s i t u s t r e s s p a t t e r n d e t e r m i n a t i o n and hence f r a c t u r e azimuth p r e d i c t i o n ,
whereas b o r e h o l e t e l e v i s i o n and f o r m a t i o n microscanner a l s o r e v e a l some i n s i g h t
i n t o c r a c k width and morphology. Natural f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n can mainly be p e r -
formed by a c o u s t i c a l and e l e c t r i c a l b o r e h o l e imaging a s well a s d i p m e t e r , wave-
form s o n i c measurements and dual l a t e r o l o g r e g i s t r a t i o n . The mechanical p r o p e r -
t i e s log i s t o g e t h e r w i t h f r a c t u r e m i g r a t i o n a n a l y s i s ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 5 . ) an
i m p o r t a n t p r e d i c t i v e t o o l f o r f r a c t u r e geometry modelling b e f o r e the h y d r a u l i c
s t i m u l a t i o n j o b . Comments on o t h e r well logging methods a r e a l s o b r i e f l y o f f e -
red.

6.2.1.1. Temperature logging

The s i m p l e s t and c h e a p e s t method of w i r e l i n e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g i s
r e c o r d i n g the t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r a s t between t h e c o l d pumped s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d
w i t h i n the c r a c k and t h e warm s u r r o u n d i n g f o r m a t i o n by running a t e m p e r a t u r e
log u p t o a b t . 24 hrs a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e t r e a t m e n t ( t e m p e r a t u r e logging
i s a l s o p o s s i b l e a t any l a t e r s t a g e provided p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e well by renewed
i n j e c t i o n of c o l d f l u i d i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e ) . The t e m p e r a t u r e log m o n i t o r s the
v e r t i c a l e x t e n s i o n of the i n t e r v a l t h a t has taken u p the i n j e c t e d f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d which c o r r e s p o n d s t o c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 2 . ) .
The well has t o be shut i n f o r t e m p e r a t u r e l o g g i n g , because flowing c o n d i t i o n s
would s e r i o u s l y d i s t u r b t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n t o be r e c o r d e d . The h i g h l y
s u s c e p t i b l e l o g g i n g t o o l s a r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e i n 1 11/16 " s l i m s i z e f i t t i n g
through the normal 3 1 / 2 " t u b i n g and t h u s s a v i n g r o u n d - t r i p time f o r p u l l i n g
and i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h e t u b i n g .

6.2.1.1.1. General aspects

Temperature logging i s t o g e t h e r w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray r e c o r d i n g the o l -
d e s t t e c h n i q u e of h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g of h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s and i s a p p l i e d i n
s t i m u l a t i o n s u r v e y s i n t h e f i e l d s i n c e more than 25 y e a r s . Temperature l o g g i n g
i s a b l e t o a l m o s t unmistakably document the d i s t u r b a n c e o f the g e n e r a l l y l i n e a r
geothermal t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t by marked b r e a k s and l e v e l changes a t the upper
and lower b o u n d a r i e s of t h e f r a c t u r e , a s t h e non-permeable o v e r - and underbur-
den r e f l e c t i n g a t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o the geothermal g r a d i e n t
a r e i n pronounced c o n t r a s t t o t h e c o o l e d f r a c t u r e d i n t e r v a l t h a t i s s t i l l a f f e c -
t e d by the i n j e c t i o n of s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d w i t h more o r l e s s s u r f a c e tempera-
t u r e . The b e s t r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d when running the t e m p e r a t u r e log between 18
and 24 hrs a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n of the h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t
when o n l y the major c o o l i n g e f f e c t s remain and t h e minor f l u c t u a t i o n s have d i e d
away o r have been e q u a l i z e d ( P E A R C E 1 9 7 9 ) . A f t e r 18 h r s , the c a s e d b o r e h o l e a s
well a s any small c h a n n e l s behind p i p e have r e t u r n e d t o n e a r the s t a t i c tempera-
ture g r a d i e n t , and only t h o s e i n t e r v a l s where l a r g e amounts of f l u i d have e n t e -
r e d d u r i n g c o u r s e of t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n e x h i b i t s t i l l a c o o l i n g e f f e c t .

As t e m p e r a t u r e logging o n l y r e c o r d s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e i n j e c t e d c o l d
s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d w i t h i n t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i n t e r s e c t i n g the warm re-
 855

s e r v o i r ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.5.2.), t h e method can be a p p l i e d f o r p o s t - t r e a t m e n t

m o n i t o r i n g o f b o t h p r o p p a n t and a c i d f r a c t u r i n g i n sandstones and carbonates.

A t l e a s t 20 f t ( 6 m), b u t p r e f e r a b l y 50 f t (15 m) o r more o f c l e a n h o l e b e t -

ween proppant f i l l and deepest zone o f i n t e r e s t i s necessary t o g e t .good i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n o f b o t h temperature and r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r surveys. Temperature l o g -
g i n g should go upwards above t h e zone o f i n t e r e s t a t l e a s t 100 % o f r e s e r v o i r
i n t e r v a l t h i c k n e s s , and l o g g i n g speed s h o u l d be i n t h e range o f 20 f t / m i n . The
f o l l o w i n g o u t l i n e comprises g r a d i e n t and d i f f e r e n t i a l temperature r e c o r d i n g , i n -
f l u e n c e o f anomalous thermal f o r m a t i o n c o n d u c t i v i t y , and improvement o f i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n confidence.

6.2.1.1.2. Gradient and differential temperature recording

D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between temperature g r a d i e n t and d i f f e r e n t i a l tem-
p e r a t u r e r e c o r d i n g . G r a d i e n t documentation g i v e s o n l y t h e a b s o l u t e f o r m a t i o n
temperature, whereas d i f f e r e n t i a l r e a d i n g p r o v i d e s a r e l a t i v e comparison b e t -
ween s u c c e s s i v e p o i n t s and a l l o w s more d i s t i n c t r e c o g n i t i o n o f anomalies. Tempe-
r a t u r e l o g e v a l u a t i o n can be enhanced by p l o t t i n g t h e temperature d i f f e r e n c e
between two p o i n t s spaced a c o u p l e o f f e e t i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n along a m u l t i -
r e c o r d e r t o o l , by e l e c t r o n i c r e c o m p u t a t i o n o f t h e survey by a s i n g l e - r e c o r d e r
i n s t r u m e n t i n s t e a d o f t h e a b s o l u t e temperature, o r by t h e t i m e l a p s e procedure
w i t h s u b t r a c t i o n o f one v a l u e f r o m t h e o t h e r , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l temperature
b e i n g c o n s t a n t b o t h above and below t h e c r a c k , b u t b e i n g v a r i a b l e w i t h i n t h e
f r a c t u r e d s e c t i o n . The method i s e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y w i t h o u t any hazards, because
n e i t h e r source n o r r e c o r d e r c o n t a i n r a d i o a c t i v e elements. Temperature l o g g i n g
i s s t i l l t h e most r e l i a b l e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n method due t o t h e e l i -
m i n a t i o n o f d i s t u r b i n g i n f l u e n c e s such as f l u c t u a t i n g s t i m u l a t i o n chemical
and/or f o r m a t i o n r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n gamma-ray l o g g i n g , and i s a l s o t h e economical-
l y most f e a s i b l e and t e c h n i c a l l y most s i m p l e means among t h e v a r i o u s a v a i l a b l e
techniques f o r f r a c t u r e m o n i t o r i n g (DOBKINS 1979).

While t h e a b s o l u t e c o s t o f a temperature r e c o r d i s comparable o r even s l i g h t -

l y lower t h a n t h a t o f a gamma-ray measurement, sometimes f u r t h e r containment of
l o g g i n g expenses can be achieved by t h e f a c t t h a t a p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g temperature
l o g i s n o t r e q u i r i n g a p r e - s t i m u l a t i o n r e f e r e n c e l o g which i s i n d i s p e n s i b l e i n
case o f r u n n i n g a gamma-ray l o g f o r f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g . Temperature l o g -
g i n g i s independent f r o m proppant t y p e and i t s m i n e r a l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n as
w e l l as f r o m a d m i x t u r e o f r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s t o proppants and f l u i d s and t h e i r
environmental hazards. Improvement o f c o n v e n t i o n a l temperature g r a d i e n t o r d i f -
f e r e n t i a l surveys can be made w i t h t h e r a d i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l temperature l o g
(COOKE 1979, DOBKINS 1979) where t h e temperature d i f f e r e n c e i s r e c o r d e d around
t h e c a s i n g f o r some r e v o l u t i o n s f o l l o w e d by s t o p p i n g t h e r o t a t i o n o f t h e tool
and measurement o f t h e s t a t i c temperature.

Temperature l o g g i n g can o n l y r e c o r d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d
w i t h i n t h e c r a c k , and i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e r e s t r i c t e d t o c r e a t e d
f r a c t u r e height ( c f . section 6.2.1.5.).

6.2.1.1.3. Influence of anomalous thermal formation conductivity

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f temperature l o g g i n g surveys can be c o m p l i c a t e d by low tem-
p e r a t u r e c o n t r a s t s , f l o w back f r o m t h e f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e and/or a f t e r t h e t r e a t -
ment, o r f l u i d movement b e h i n d t h e c a s i n g (PEMPER, FLECKER, McWHIRTER & OLIVER
1988) as w e l l as thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y d i f f e r e n c e s , secondary f l o w i n t h e f r a c -
t u r e , and c o n v e c t i o n c u r r e n t s (PEETERS & HARTLEY 1984). The most abundant com-
p l i c a t i o n o f c r a c k h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g by temperature l o g g i n g i s development o f
an anomalous warm nose a t t h e f r a c t u r e t o p (DOBKINS 1979, VEATCH 1983) which
may be caused by warmed f l u i d i n t h e f r a c t u r e f l o w i n g back p a s t t h e w e l l b o r e
f r o m one p o r t i o n o f t h e c r a c k t o a n o t h e r a f t e r pumping has ceased a t t h e end o f
 856

t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b (PEETERS & HARTLEY 1984). Probably c o n t i n u e d f r a c t u r e e x t e n -

s i o n a f t e r s h u t - i n can c r e a t e a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f l u i d i n t h e c r a c k c a r r y i n g
h e a t back a c r o s s t h e w e l l b o r e t h e r e b y t r i g g e r i n g development o f t h e warm nose.
Many o f t h e unusual r e a d i n g s , however, a r e caused by anomalous thermal forma-
t i o n c o n d u c t i v i t y i n some patches o f t h e r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l .

The appearance o f a warm anomaly a t t h e t o p o r above t h e t r e a t m e n t zone (DOB-

K I N S 1979) i s a g e o g r a p h i c a l l y widespread problem i n t h e USA and i s p a r t i a l l y
t h e consequence o f d i f f e r e n t thermal c o n d u c t i v i t i e s o f t h e r o c k s and a l s o o f
o p e r a t i o n a l procedures. The o v e r v i e w as f o l l o w s c o n c e n t r a t e s on s i g n i f i c a n c e
and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f warm anomalies, c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y anoma-
l i e s , and o t h e r a s p e c t s .

6.2.1.1.3.1. Significance and distribution o f warm anomalies

Thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y (EVANS 1977) v a r i e s depending on t h e m i n e r a l o g i c a l and
p e t r o g r a p h i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e rocks, w i t h f o r m a t i o n s w i t h h i g h thermal con-
d u c t i v i t y changing temperature more s l o w l y t h a n those w i t h low thermal c o n d u c t i -
v i t y . Thus h i g h thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y zones c o o l l e s s q u i c k l y down t h a n low t h e r -
mal c o n d u c t i v i t y zones do when a c o l d f l u i d i s pumped down a h o t w e l l b o r e , w i t h
t h u s h i g h thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y zones showing up as warm anomalies on tempera-
t u r e surveys c a r r i e d o u t soon a f t e r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n , whereas low-con-
d u c t i v i t y i n t e r v a l s q u i c k l y a d j u s t t o t h e changed e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s a f -
t e r i n s e r t i o n o f t h e c o o l t r e a t m e n t f l u i d s . I f t h e thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y charac-
t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r o c k p i l e a r e determined by a p r e - f r a c t u r i n g c o l d w a t e r c i r c u -
l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t f o l l o w e d by a r e f e r e n c e temperature survey, thermal c o n d u c t i v i -
t y anomalies can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m c r a c k anomalies i n t h e p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g
r e c o r d . In case o f such a r e f e r e n c e l o g b e i n g p r e s e n t , t h e b e s t r e s u l t s o f
c r a c k h e i g h t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a r e o b t a i n e d when r u n n i n g t h e p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g tempe-
r a t u r e l o g as soon as p o s s i b l e a f t e r t h e end o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n .

As a consequence o f t h e occurrence o f anomalous h i g h thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y zo-

nes a l o n g t h e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n t h e upper p a r t o f t h e s e c t i o n ,
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c r a c k bottom i s o f t e n q u i t e e a s i l y performed f r o m t h e d e p t h a t
which successive temperature l o g s converge o r c r o s s , whereas f r a c t u r e t o p i s
f r e q u e n t l y more d i f f i c u l t t o r e a l i z e and c o n f i d e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has i n many
cases t o i n c l u d e c r o s s - c h e c k i n g w i t h gamma-ray i n t e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n ( c f . sec-
t i o n 6.2.1.4.2.), e v a l u a t i o n o f changes i n g r a d i e n t s o f t h e temperature p r o f i l e
(PEARSON, ABOU-SAYED & NGUYEN 1985) o r n o i s e assessment ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 7 . ) .

D i f f i c u l t i e s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f temperature l o g s may a l s o a r i s e f r o m p r e -
f r a c t u r e e x i s t e n c e s o f temperature anomalies i n thermal o r chemical enhanced
o i l r e c o v e r y p r o j e c t s (SMITH 1981). Such anomalies may r e s u l t f r o m t h e normal
i n j e c t i o n o f h o t w a t e r i n t o a c o o l e r f o r m a t i o n and by t h e f a l l i n g f l u i d l e v e l
i n t h e w e l l s a f t e r s h u t - i n which c o n t i n u e d t o c a r r y warm f l u i d i n t o t h e f r a c t u -
r e d zone f o r s e v e r a l hours, t h e r e b y o b s c u r i n g t h e development o f temperature
anomalies. W h i l e i n j e c t i o n o f f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s t h a t a r e c o l d e r t h a n t h e n a t u -
r a l r e s e r v o i r f l u i d s g i v e r i s e t o an o v e r a l l c o o l i n g e f f e c t , insertion of hot
w a t e r o r steam d u r i n g t e r t i a r y o i l r e c o v e r y p r o j e c t s has t h e i n v e r s e conse-
quence o f h e a t i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n up above t h e g e o t h e r m i c a l temperature l e v e l ,
w i t h these two r e v e r s e temperature changes b e i n g a b l e t o t r i g g e r c o n s i d e r a b l e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s i n case o f i n t e r f e r e n c e and s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n .

6 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 3 . 2 . Clarification of thermal conductivity anomalies

A s u i t a b l e means o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n whether t h e r e c o r d e d temperature anomalies
belong s t i l l t o t h e f r a c t u r e o r a l r e a d y t o t h e u n t r e a t e d f o r m a t i o n i s n o i s e o r
sound l o g g i n g ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 7 . ) . P r e - f r a c t u r i n g temperature s u r v e y i n g es-
t a b l i s h i n g t h e temperature g r a d i e n t o f t h e u n s t i m u l a t e d f o r m a t i o n i s a l s o a pos-
s i b i l i t y o f p r o p e r assessment o f anomalous temperature r e a d i n g s (HART, ENGI &
 857
MORRIS 1983) and i s o f t e n performed a f t e r c i r c u l a t i n g f l u i d i n o r d e r t o simu-
l a t e w e l l b o r e c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g pumping. D u r i n g t h e f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n , l a r g e
volumes o f c o o l f l u i d e n t e r t h e r e s e r v o i r t h e r e b y l o c a l l y r e d u c i n g t h e tempera-
t u r e . Anomalies q e n e r a l l y o r i q i n a t e when t h e temperature o f f r a c t u r e d zones de-
cays a t a l e s s e r - r a t e t h a n t h a t o f u n s t i m u l a t e d zones.

P o s t - f r a c t u r i n g temperature l o g s f r e q u e n t l y show an i n f l e c t i o n p o i n t r o u g h l y
o p p o s i t e t h e b o t t o m o f t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l (PEETERS & HARTLEY 1984). T h i s
i s p r o b a b l y because t h e b o r e h o l e f l u i d beneath t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s s n o t d i s t u r -
bed d u r i n g t h e i n j e c t i o n o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s and o n l y m i n o r c o o l ng occurs as
a r e s u l t o f m i x i n g and r a d i a t i o n .

Temperature l o g g i n g may i n some cases g i v e o n l y a p e s s i m i s t i c view o f g r o s s

f r a c t u r e h e i q h t (BEGNAUD & CLAIBORNE 1985). The f l o w r a t e d u r i n g c ack propaga-
t i o n w i t h i n - t h e pay may be 30 - 80 t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t t h r o u g h an a r e a - o f
t h e f r a c t u r e o n l y 1 / 3 as wide which can cause p r o p p a n t b r i d g i n g and t h u s p r o -
duce more c o o l i n g o v e r t h e wide p o r t i o n o f t h e i n t e r v a l . The p e s s i m i s t i c growth
v a l u e f r o m temperature l o g s i s i n p a r t i n f l u e n c e d by t h e s t a g n a n t f l u i d below
t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h t h i s number may be c o n s e r v a t i v e , u s u a l l y t h e h e i g h t
d i f f e r e n c e missed i s i n a r e g i o n o f v e r y small w i d t h and i n most cases would
n o t be propped e f f e c t i v e l y a t a l l ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.5.2.).

6.2.1.1.3.3. Other aspects

Another problem o f o b t a i n i n g a good temperature survey i s t h a t i n many cases
t h e b o t t o m i s tagged somewhere above o r w i t h i n t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l which
does n o t a l l o w t o o b t a i n a good v a l u e o f t h e f r a c t u r e bottom. I n o r d e r t o g e t a
temperature log below t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s f o r t h e purpose o f c r a c k b o t t o m d e t e r m i -
n a t i o n , t h e w e l l i s f l o w e d back a t a moderate r a t e when s c r e e n i n g o u t and b e i n g
n o t f u l l y f l u s h e d . A c l e a n bottom-up i s r e c o r d e d a f t e r a w e l l b o r e volume o f
f l u i d has been produced which i s t o be expected f o l l o w i n g a screenout, t h u s i n -
d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e p r o p p a n t w i t h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n i s n o t f l o w i n g back. Sometimes
i t may be d i f f i c u l t t o determine t h e l o w e r boundary o f t h e f r a c t u r e because o f
c o m p l i c a t i o n s i n l o w e r i n g t h e t o o l s below t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s due t o t h e accumula-
t i o n o f sand o r proppants (DOBKINS 1981 a; HART, ENGI & MORRIS 1983). As t h e
temperature l o g u s u a l l y i n d i c a t e s l i t t l e o t h e r than more o r l e s s pronounced
c o o l i n g o v e r t h e wide p o r t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e i n t h e main pay, presumably f o r a
normal-cased c o m p l e t i o n t h e i n s u l a t i n g e f f e c t o f t h e cement p l u s t h e f a c t t h a t
a l l t h e f l u i d must l e a v e t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s c o u l d c r e a t e a c o o l anomaly o v e r t h e
p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l . Since t h i s s e c t i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e r e s e r v o i r , interpre-
t a t i o n c o u l d be e r r o n e o u s l y made t h a t c o n f i n e d h e i g h t growth o c c u r r e d when i n
f a c t e x c e s s i v e h e i g h t p r o p a g a t i o n has t a k e n p l a c e .

WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, CIPOLLA, LORENZ & THORN (1988) r e p o r t t h e phe-

nomenon t h a t good r e s u l t s o f temperature l o g g i n g i n t h e i r case s t u d y c o u l d o n l y
be o b t a i n e d when r u n n i n g t h e l o g s i n upward d i r e c t i o n , whereas downward r u n s
gave f l a t temperature p r o f i l e s as a consequence o f t o o l problems o r f o r m a t i o n
and w e l l b o r e b e h a v i o u r .

6.2.1.1.4. Improvement o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n confidence

Improvement o f temperature l o g g i n g can be made by r e f e r e n c e r u n s b o t h b e f o r e
and a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t where t h e c o o l i n g e f f e c t o f t h e i n j e c t e d f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d can be c l e a r l y p i c k e d up and t h e r m o c o n d u c t i v i t y anomalies become e a s i l y
d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e . F o r m a t i o n thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s and v a r i a t i o n s i n
cement annulus t h i c k n e s s a f f e c t t h e p r e - o p e r a t i o n temperature survey i n a s i m i -
l a r manner as t h e p o s t - j o b r e c o r d , and t h e r e f o r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n b o t h read-
i n g s a r e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t (DOBKINS 1981 a ) . The use
o f a l i t h o l o g y l o g t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e temperature survey a l s o enhances t h e i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n and may even e l i m i n a t e t h e need of a p r e - o p e r a t i o n r e f e r e n c e tempera-
 858

t u r e l o g i n e v e r y w e l l o f t h e f i e l d . I n s h a l l o w b o r e h o l e s where t h e d i f f e r e n c e
between b o t t o m h o l e t e m p e r a t u r e and i n j e c t e d f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d t e m p e r a t u r e i s
s m a l l , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e l o g may n o t be a b l e t o r e l i a b l y i d e n t i f y t h e anomaly cau-
s e d b y t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t , whereas i n deep w e l l s , t h e h i g h e r t h e tempera-
t u r e c o n t r a s t between f o r m a t i o n and i n j e c t e d s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s , t h e c l e a r e r
the m o n i t o r i n g o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t by temperature logging.

The u s e o f p o s t - o p e r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s u r v e y s a t f r e q u e n t i n t e r v a l s and com-

p a r i s o n o f t h e r e s u l t s c a n a l l o w r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e zones t h a t t o o k u p t h e m a j o -
r i t y o f t h e f l u i d w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e w i d e s t f r a c t u r e segments, w i t h t h i s
relationship therefore enabling estimation o f the q u a l i t a t i v e crack width
t h r o u g h o u t t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t . Flowback f r o m t h e f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e and
a f t e r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b and f l u i d movement b e h i n d t h e c a s i n g c a n o b s c u r e t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e l o g r e a d i n g s and p r o v i d e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s (AHMED 1987).
Improvement o f t e m p e r a t u r e l o g e v a l u a t i o n c a n a l s o be made b y p e r f o r m i n g seve-
r a l r u n s w i t h s u f f i c i e n t t i m e between them i n o r d e r t o p i c k u p t h e s u b t l e chan-
ges n e c e s s a r y f o r a c c u r a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (WAREMBOURG, KLINGENSMITH, HODGES &
ERDLE 1985).

Various aspects o f temperature logging f o r f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g a r e

a l s o o u t l i n e d b y WITTERHOLT & T I X I E R (1972), SMITH & STEFFENSON ( 1 9 7 5 ) ; HARRING-
TON, HANNAH & BEIRUTE (1978); SMITH; HOLMAN, FAST & COLVIN ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; WAGES
(1982). GREENFIELD & AHMED (19831. M O R R I S & SINCLAIR (1984). PEETERS & HARTLEY
( i 9 8 4 j ; JORDEN & CAMPBELL (1985) ;a; PEARSON, ABOU-SAYED& NGUYEN ( 1 9 8 5 ) . I m p r o -
ved t e m p e r a t u r e l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n g u i d e l i n e s a r e summarized b y SMITH & STEFFEN-
SON (1973). F i e l d examples o f f r a c t u r e e v a l u a t i o n b y t e m p e r a t u r e l o g g i n g a r e
p r e s e n t e d b y PEARCE (1979); AHMED, SCHATZ, HOLLAND, JONES & GREENFIELD (1982);
BEGNAUD & CLAIBORNE (1985); K I M , CHAMPION & COOPER (1985); L I & ZHU (1986); N I E -
MEYER & REINART (1986), NOLTE ( 1 9 8 6 ) , LEE ( 1 9 8 7 ) , HUCKABEE (1988) and TAN, McGO-
WEN, LEE & SOLIMAN (1988).

6.2.1.2. Gamna-ray logging o f natural proppant radioactivity

Gamma-ray l o g g i n g aims on r e c o r d i n g o f f o r m a t i o n and p r o p p a n t r a d i o a c t i v i t y
and i s i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h e g e o t h e r m i c g r a d i e n t , and t h u s i s a s u i t a b l e a l t e r n a -
t i v e t o temperature logging f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e h e i g h t monitoring, w i t h both
methods b e i n g a b l e t o a c t t o g e t h e r i n a c o m p l e m e n t a r y manner ( c f . s e c t i o n
6 . 2 . 1 . 4 . ) . Gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y o f m u l t i p l e r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s ( c f . s e c t i o n
6 . 2 . 1 . 3 . ) i s p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d , advanced and unambiguous f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t e v a l u a t i o n t e c h n i q u e d e v e l o p e d t o d a t e , and i t s h i g h e r c o s t w i t h r e s p e c t
t o t h e expenses f o r t h e method i s i n many c a s e s w e l l p a i d - o f f b y a b e t t e r r e t r o -
s p e c t i v e f r a c t u r e c o n t r o l and p o s i t i v e i m p a c t on d e s i g n o f f u t u r e s t i m u l a t i o n
o p e r a t i o n s . The m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f gamma-ray l o g g i n g a r e n a t u r a l p r o p -
p a n t r a d i o a c t i v i t y , a r t i f i c i a l p r o p p a n t o r f l u i d r a d i o a c t i v i t y , and c o m b i n a t i o n
o f t e m p e r a t u r e and gamma-ray l o g g i n g . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on t h e r m a l de-
c a y t i m e r e c o r d i n g w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f n e u t r o n and gamma-ray l o g -
g i n g , and a b r i e f s k e t c h o f d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e h e i g h t t y p e s as r e g i s t e r e d by va-
r i o u s logging techniques i s a l s o given.

Gamma-ray l o g g i n g o f n a t u r a l r a d i o a c t i v i t y o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s i s
a p a r t f r o m t e m p e r a t u r e d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n o t h e r s i m p l e , cheap and s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
t e c h n i q u e o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g i f a l l t h e e m i t t i n g and r e c o r d i n g c o n d i -
t i o n s a r e f a v o u r a b l e w h i c h , however, has i n t h e p a s t t u r n e d o u t n o t t o have a l -
ways been t h e c a s e . Due t o r e g i s t r a t i o n o f r a d i a t i o n e m i t t e d b y t h e p r o p p a n t s
s u p p o r t i n g t h e i n f i l l e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t , gamma-ray l o g g i n g o f n a t u r a l p r o p p a n t
r a d i o a c t i v i t y i s l i m i t e d t o proppant f r a c t u r i n g , w i t h monitoring o f a c i d f r a c t u -
r i n g h a v i n g t o be c a r r i e d o u t b y i n s e r t i o n o f a r t i f i c i a l t r a c e r s . F o l l o w i n g a
s k e t c h o f t h e measurement p r i n c i p l e s , some of t h e r e c o r d i n g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
drawbacks a r e o u t l i n e d .
 859

6.2.1.2.1. Measurement principles

A p a r t f r o m temperature measurements, another s t a n d a r d t e c h n i q u e f o r f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s r u n n i n g a c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g i n case o f i n f i l -
l i n g o f t h e c r a c k w i t h r a d i o a c t i v e proppants and/or f l u i d s . P r i o r t o d i s c u s s i o n
o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s , i t has t o be emphasized t h a t t h i s method i s o f t e n
more c o m p l i c a t e d and does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d e l i v e r c l e a r and undoubted r e s u l t s
due t o i n v a r i o u s cases n o t c o n s t a n t n a t u r a l o r a r t i f i c i a l r a d i o a c t i v i t y o f
proppants and/or f l u i d s , changing n a t u r a l r a d i o a c t i v i t y o f t h e f o r m a t i o n , and
more d i f f i c u l t e v a l u a t i o n by t h e d i s t u r b i n g e f f e c t o f t h e d i v e r s i f i e d back-
ground r a d i o a c t i v i t y o f t h e l i t h o l o g i c a l column.

W h i l e r e c o r d i n g o f a s p e c t r a l gamma-ray t h a t c o u l d e l i m i n a t e t h e l a t t e r draw-
back i s c e r t a i n l y a d i f f i c u l t economical p o i n t o f d i s c u s s i o n and d e c i s i o n f o r
mono-isotope n a t u r a l p r o p p a n t r a d i o a c t i v i t y d i s p l a y because o f c o n s i d e r a b l y
h i g h e r l o g g i n g c o s t and i s o n l y r e a s o n a b l y a p p l i e d f o r m u l t i p l e - t r a c e r m o n i t o r -
i n g i n w e l l s where s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t zones have been f r a c t u r e d o r v a r i o u s t y p e s
and/or g r a i n s i z e s o f proppants have been i n j e c t e d ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 4 . ) ,
a l s o t h e expenses f o r a c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray c o u l d be h i g h e r ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o
t h e c o s t o f a temperature l o g ) u n l e s s a r e f e r e n c e gamma-ray had been anyway r e -
corded p r i o r t o s t i m u l a t i o n f o r t h e purpose o f p e t r o p h y s i c a l f o r m a t i o n e v a l u a -
tion, geological c o r r e l a t i o n , sedimentological i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o r completion
depth determination, and i s s t i l l o f s u f f i c i e n t q u a l i t y and a c t u a l i t y t o a l l o w
an unmistakable match w i t h t h e p o s t - f r a c t u r i n g gamma-ray r u n f o r t r e a t m e n t e f -
f e c t i v i t y m o n i t o r i n g . Some r e c o r d i n g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n drawbacks o f c o n v e n t i o -
n a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g o f n a t u r a l proppant r a d i o a c t i v i t y a r e sketched as f o l -
lows.

6.2.1.2.2. Recording and interpretation drawbacks

Concerning r a d i o a c t i v i t y o f proppants and/or f l u i d s , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y
l e a s t hazardous and t h u s a l s o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y l e a s t c o m p l i c a t e d and i n h i b i -
t e d way i s i n f i l l i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h h i g h - s t r e n g t h z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e prop-
p a n t s where t r a c e s o f r a d i o a c t i v e c a t i o n s a r e d i a d o c h o u s l y r e p l a c i n g z i r c o n i a
c a t i o n s i n t h e l a t t i c e s of t h e z i r c o n i a m i c r o c r y s t a l s d i s p e r s e d w i t h i n t h e g l a s -
sy a l u m i n a s i l i c a t e m a t r i x o f t h e proppants and d e r i v e from n a t u r a l l y implemen-
t e d r a d i o a c t i v e i m p u r i t i e s i n t h e c r y s t a l l a t t i c e o f t h e z i r c o n raw m a t e r i a l o f
p r i m a r y o r secondary magmatic o r metamorphic provenance. The advantages o f t h e
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and a p p a r e n t l y unambiguous technique, however, a r e d e t e r i o r a t e d
o r even compensated by some drawbacks c o m p r i s i n g proppant r a d i o a c t i v i t y and
proppant p r i c e .

6.2.1.2.2.1. Proppant radioactivity

The e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e p a s t has shown t h a t as a r e s u l t o f t h e use o f s e v e r a l
z i r c o n raw m a t e r i a l s o f d i f f e r e n t s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l , palaeogeographical and geo-
t e c t o n i c a l provenance and t h e r e b y d i f f e r e n t p e t r o g r a p h i c a l and geochemical com-
p o s i t i o n and c o n s e q u e n t l y d i f f e r e n t spectrum and l e v e l o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y , produc-
t i o n o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y have t o l e a d t o homoge-
n i z a t i o n o f t h e r a d i o a c t i v i t y d u r i n g t h e f u s i n g process. D i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e n i -
veau o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y may even o c c u r between samples taken f r o m d i f f e r e n t p a r t s
o f s m a l l e r l o t s o f d e l i v e r e d proppants, w i t h f i e l d measurements r e v e a l i n g t h a t
i n t h e w o r s t cases, d i s t i n c t i o n o f proppant-induced r e l a t i v e r a d i o a c t i v i t y f r o m
background r a d i o a c t i v i t y coming f r o m t h e f o r m a t i o n may be almost i m p o s s i b l e , o r
even t h e z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants a r e h a r d l y r a d i o a c t i v e a t a l l . I n case o f
s e g r e g a t i o n e f f e c t s d u r i n g proppant p r o c e s s i n g when u s i n g u n u s u a l l y p u r e raw ma-
t e r i a l s , p r o p p a n t r a d i o a c t i v i t y may be below the c r i t i c a l boundary l e v e l t h a t
i s e s s e n t i a l f o r undoubted r e c o g n i t i o n and d i s t i n c t i o n f r o m n a t u r a l r e s e r v o i r
r o c k r a d i o a c t i v i t y beyond t h e o b l i t e r a t i n g range o f t e c h n i c a l measurement d e v i a -
tion.
 860

WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, LORENZ, NORTHROP, MANN & FROHNE (1985) r e p o r t

an analogous example of gamma-ray s u r v e y i n g showing o n l y s p o r a d i c t r a c e s of r a -
d i o a c t i v e sand i n t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l , thus g i v i n g no r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t i o n
of f r a c t u r e h e i g h t . MEEHAN & PENNINGTON (1981) a s c e r t a i n p r o p e r r a d i o a c t i v e
sand d i s t r i b u t i o n by i n j e c t i o n of the t r a c e r - b e a r i n g proppants t h r o u g h o u t the
job.

6.2.1.2.2.2.Proppant price
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e drawback of p o s s i b l y inhomogeneous o r i n s u f f i c i e n t r a d i o -
a c t i v i t y , the h i g h - s t r e n g t h z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e proppants a r e much more e x p e n s i v e
than i n t e r m e d i a t e - and h i g h - s t r e n g t h alumina oxide and s i l i c a t e ceramic prop-
p a n t s , w i t h t h e h i g h e r proppant c o s t s e r i o u s l y l i m i t i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n due t o
economical r e a s o n s of f r a c t u r e expense containment ( p a r t i c u l a r l y o f f s h o r e ) and
o f t e n r e s t r i c t i n g i t t o a t a i l - i n of s m a l l e r q u a n t i t i e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e
b o r e h o l e just f o r immediate logging p u r p o s e s , b u t n o t f o r f r a c t u r e - s u p p o r t i n g
r e a s o n s i n the primary l i n e ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 2 . 3 . ) . As opposed t o t h e p r i c i n g
s i t u a t i o n , the problem of l e v e l and c o n s t a n c y of the r a d i o a c t i v i t y , however,
can be r e a s o n a b l y c o n t r o l l e d by l i m i t a t i o n of the z i r c o n raw m a t e r i a l t o o n l y
one s o u r c e where the niveau of r a d i o a c t i v i t y i s s u f f i c i e n t l y and r e p r o d u c i b l y
h i g h . In c o n t r a s t t o f r a c t u r e h e i g h t , r e a s o n a b l e r e s u l t s on f r a c t u r e w i d t h have
so f a r n o t been o b t a i n e d with gamma-ray logging of n a t u r a l proppant r a d i o a c t i v i -
ty.
The p r i c i n g s i t u a t i o n can o n l y be rendered more f a v o u r a b l e f o r z i r c o n i a - s i l i -
c a t e p r o p p a n t s (which a r e b a s i c a l l y a very good p r o d u c t , b u t a r e o n l y d i f f i c u l t
t o market due t o t h e i r high s e l l i n g p r i c e a s a consequence of e l e v a t e d produc-
t i o n c o s t s ) by p r i c e i n c r e a s e s f o r alumina s i l i c a t e and o x i d e p r o p p a n t s u p t o a
l e v e l r e a s o n a b l y comparable w i t h t h a t of z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t s . T h i s
p r i c e approaching o r a l m o s t e q u a l i z a t i o n can be achieved e i t h e r d i r e c t l y by ac-
t i o n s undertaken by the proppant companies i n terms of p r i c e c o r r e c t i o n ( c f .
section 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) , o r i n d i r e c t l y by a s t r e n g t h e n i n g US $ and a s a r e s u l t of
t h i s r i s i n g of i t s exchange r a t e w i t h r e s p e c t t o o t h e r world g u i d e c u r r e n c i e s
such a s DM and L ( c f . s e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 3 . ) .

Conventional gamma-ray logging of n a t u r a l proppant r a d i o a c t i v i t y i s l i m i t e d

t o m o n i t o r i n g of proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e i n f i l l e d and s u p p o r t e d c r a c k ,
w i t h i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n thus p r o v i d i n g propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t ( c f . s e c t i o n
6.2.1.5.).

6.2.1.3.Gama-ray logging of artificial

proppant or fluid radioactivity
Gamma-ray t r a c e r logging has been u t i l i z e d s i n c e o v e r 25 y e a r s f o r f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n (ZHUVAGIN & AKCHASYANOV 1960; WEBSTER, GOINS & BERRY 1964;
PEMPER, FLECKER, McWHIRTER & OLIVER 1988). As a r t i f i c i a l t r a c e r s can be added
t o any type of f l u i d r e g a r d l e s s of composition i f they a r e s t a b l e in t h e s p e c i -
f i c chemical environment, r a d i o a c t i v e marker monitoring of f l u i d s f o r d e l i n e a -
t i o n of c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t can be a p p l i e d i n both proppant and a c i d f r a c t u -
r i n g . The d i s c u s s i o n of gamma-ray logging of a r t i f i c i a l proppant o r f l u i d r a d i o -
a c t i v i t y a s f o l l o w s f o c u s s e s on t r a c e r a s p e c t s , c o n v e n t i o n a l s i n g l e - o r double-
t r a c e r m o n i t o r i n g , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and environmental a s p e c t s of t r a c e r m o n i t o r -
i n g , and m u l t i p l e t r a c e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n by s p e c t r a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g .

6.2.1.3.1.Tracer aspects
Gamma-ray c o n v e n t i o n a l and s p e c t r o s c o p y m o n i t o r i n g of s y n t h e t i c t r a c e r s t h a t
have been i n s e r t e d i n t o b o r e h o l e , f r a c t u r e a n d / o r f o r m a t i o n f o r s p e c i a l purpo-
 86 I

ses and w i t h d e t a i l e d aims r e q u i r e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f marker b e h a v i o u r and dyna-

mics. The f o l l o w i n g summary d i s c u s s e s t h e most i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s a l o n g t h e l i n e s
o f t r a c e r types and t a g g i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s , marker s t a b i l i t y and d i s p e r s i o n , t r a -
c e r r e q u i r e m e n t s and composition, marker i n j e c t i o n and placement, and t r a c e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n and r e c o r d i n g .

6.2.1.3.1.1. Tracer types and tagging possibilities

I n terms o f a r t i f i c i a l r a d i o a c t i v i t y o f proppants and/or f l u i d s , t h r e e d i f f e -
r e n t t y p e s o f t r a c e r i n g can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . The f i r s t t y p e comprises c o a t i n g
o f n a t u r a l sand o r s y n t h e t i c proppants o f any chemical and m i n e r a l o g i c a l compo-
s i t i o n w i t h r a d i o a c t i v e p e l l i c l e s . The second t y p e i s i n t e r m i x i n g o f l i t t l e
amounts o f r a d i o a c t i v e g r a i n s o f any c o m p o s i t i o n i n t o a l o t o f s t a n d a r d man-
made proppants o r common sand. The t h i r d t y p e i n c l u d e s a d d i t i o n o f r a d i o a c t i v e
tracers i n l i q u i d o r s o l i d form t o the f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s o r the fluid-proppant-
s l u r r y (TESLJUK 1957; WHEELER, PARSONS, CONCHIE & DURHAM 1985; PRO-TECHNICS
1987). D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n has f u r t h e r t o be made between s i n g l e - and/or d o u b l e - t r a -
c e r c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g and m u l t i p l e - t r a c e r gamma-ray spectroscopy,
depending on whether o n l y one o r two t r a c e r s have been added t o proppants and/
o r f l u i d s , whether v a r i o u s p r o p p a n t and/or f l u i d stages have been i n d i v i d u a l l y
tagged by d i f f e r e n t i d e n t i f i e r s , o r whether even substages o f s o l i d a n d / o r li-
q u i d f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t c o n s t i t u e n t s have been s e p a r a t e l y marked by d i s t i n g u i -
shable r a d i o a c t i v e i s o t o p e s .

D i s c r i m i n a t i o n can f u r t h e r be made between i n e r t and t e m p e r a t u r e - s e n s i t i v e

c h e m i c a l l y r e a c t i n g t r a c e r s (ROBINSON, TESTER & BROWN 1984). While h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g i n most cases r e q u i r e s i n e r t markers w i t h good ab-
s o r p t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f c h e m i c a l l y r e a c t i n g t r a c e r s i n spe-
c i a l s i t u a t i o n s can p r o v i d e f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y on marker d i s p e r -
s i o n w i t h i n t h e c r a c k e d f o r m a t i o n . I n m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e systems, t r a c e r d i s p e r -
s i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d by a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h r e e mechanisms b e i n g l a r g e - s c a l e f l o w
h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s such as c r a c k s o f d i f f e r e n t s i z e and v a r y i n g c u r r e n t impedance,
c r o s s f l o w between d i f f e r e n t main f r a c t u r e s as w e l l as s i d e c r a c k branches, and
f l o w dispersion w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l cracks. Various s i n g l e - f r a c t u r e dispersion
sources e x i s t c o m p r i s i n g roughness o f f r a c t u r e surface, h o l d - u p o f t r a c e r i n
dead-end secondary f r a c t u r e s b r a n c h i n g o f f t h e one i n which t h e f l o w i s occur-
r i n g , d i f f e r e n t a r r i v a l times o f t h e f l u i d caused by t h e v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e , and
m o l e c u l a r d i f f u s i o n between d i f f e r e n t s t r e a m l i n e s o f t h e c u r r e n t (HORNE & R O D R I -
GUEZ 1983, ROBINSON & TESTER 1984). NGUYEN & STEVENS (1988) use i n e r t gas r a d i o -
a c t i v e markers f o r steam i n j e c t i o n p r o f i l i n g . Mechanisms o f t r a c e r d i s p e r s i o n
and m i g r a t i o n a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by NERETNIEKS & RASMUSON ( 1 9 8 4 ) .

6.2.1.3.1.2. Marker stability and dispersion

C o a t i n g o f p r o p p a n t g r a i n s w i t h r a d i o a c t i v e p e l l i c l e s , f u s i n g o f marker sub-
stances on p r o p p a n t g r a i n s u r f a c e s , and i n t e r m i x i n g o f p r o p p a n t - s i z e d r a d i o a c -
t i v e g r a i n s i n t o t h e p r o p p a n t p o p u l a t i o n a r e t h e t e c h n i c a l l y most secure and en-
v i r o n m e n t a l l y most s a f e methods, because i t almost guarantees t h a t once s e t i n
p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the fracture, t h e r a d i o a c t i v e l y - t a g g e d proppants remain i n
p l a c e and u n l e s s chemical d i s s o l u t i o n by a g g r e s s i v e b r i n e s o r mechanical t r a n s -
p o r t o f crushed f i n e s occur, no marker r e d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l happen which enables
n o t o n l y c o n s t a n t - r e c o r d r e p e t i t i o n l o g g i n g i n terms o f t r a c e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n
( r e g a r d l e s s o f d e c l i n i n g marker i n t e n s i t y w i t h t i m e ) , b u t a l s o p r e v e n t s any
i d e n t i f i e r flowback i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e and c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f f l u i d s which may
e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y reach the surface.

I n case o f i n t e r m i x i n g o f l i q u i d o r s o l i d t r a c e r s i n t o t h e f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d ,
emphasis has t o be p u t on e i t h e r r a p i d v a n i s h i n g o f r a d i a t i o n by a p p l i c a t i o n o f
r a d i o n u c l i d e s w i t h v e r y s h o r t h a l f - l i f e t i m e (which, however, i s s e r i o u s l y li-
m i t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t i m e - l a p s e m o n i t o r i n g ) , o r on s u f f i c i e n t chemical
 862

adsorption of cr y s t al l o g r ap h i cal bonding of the marker isotopes t o proppants,

formation s a n d g r a i n s , r es er v o i r cl ay minerals or f r a c t u r e wall f i l t e r cake i n
order t o f i x the t r a c e r in place a n d prevent i t s r e d i s t r i b u t i o n which would not
only impair the comparability of r e p e t i t i o n logging runs, b u t a l s o re pre se nt en-
vironmental hazard due t o the p o s s i b i l i t y of marker tra nsport with the f l u i d s
during flowback i n well cleanup or l a t e r production t o the borehole a n d from
th e r e t o the s u r f ace.

6.2.1.3.1.3.Tracer requirements and composition

Important f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g s e l e c t i o n of s p e c i f i c isotopes a n d concentra-
tio n s of r a d i o a c ti v e t r a c e r s (PRO-TECHNICS 1987) a r e r e l a t i v e gamma-ray i n t e n s i -
t i e s , f l u i d volume t o expected f r a c t u r e height r a t i o , proppant q u a n t i t i e s t o ex-
pected crack height r a t i o , expected time between stim ula tion operation and log-
ging, and isotope h a l f - l i f e . Other f a c t o r s involving chemical and physical na-
t u r e of the isotopes ar e c r i t i c a l t o accu r at e ly tra c ing the c o n s t i t u e n t s of the
treatment. The sel ect ed isotopes must possess s u f f i c i e n t l y d i f f e r i n g gamma ener-
gy sp e c t r a t h a t can be discriminated with logging tools a n d software. Liquid
t r a c e r s must have the a b i l i t y t o be transported i n t o the f r a c t u r e without s i g n i -
f i c a n t l y absorbing onto the t u b u l ar s through which they a r e pumped, and conver-
s e l y they must be able t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y absorbed o n t o the formation rock so
t h a t when the spent s t i mu l at i o n f l u i d s ar e flowed back, the isotopes w ill n o t
contaminate wellbore a n d surface equipment. I t i s f u r t h e r d e s i r a b l e t h a t s o l i d
t r a c e r s used t o t a g proppant l o t s possess the same s i z e , de nsity and compres-
s i v e s t r e n g t h as the p r o p p a n t i n order t o allow stim ula tion t o achieve maximum
accuracy. Solid t r a c e r mat er i al s a l s o must possess low w a sha bility so t h a t the
isotopes they employ d o not end u p in the f l u i d phase.

VETTER & CRICHLOW ( 1 9 7 9 ) o u t l i n e f r eq u en tly la rge marker losse s due t o unde-

s i r e d adsorption in the r e s e r v o i r matrix. To prevent disappointing r e s u l t s , a
b e t t e r s o l u t i o n than a s i n g l e t r a c e r i s a c oc kta il of m ultiple markers where
each individual element and chemical compound has predetermined adsorption i s o -
therms, w i t h these isotherms i n addition t o material balances and v a r i a t i o n s i n
r e t e n t i o n times allowing good r e s e r v o i r modelling and t r a c e r record i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n . Aspects of r ad i o act i v e marker adsorption in re se rvoir rocks a re a l s o d i s -
cussed by G R A V E , KOLLTVEIT, L I E N & SKAUGE (1988).

6.2.1.3.1.4.Marker injection and placement

Radioactive s l u r r y configuration i s generally a l i q u d o r s o l i d proppant r a -
dioisotope held i n a viscous c a r r i e r f l u i d (PRIEST 988). I n j e c t i o n of prop-
pant-entrained radioisotopes a t the l a t e s t time before ra c turing f l u i d e n t e r s
the wellbore following flow through the s u rfa c e equipment chain and high-pres-
sure downhole pumps minimizes personnel exposure t o ra dia tion a n d hazards of
tr a n sp o r t i n g r a d i o act i v e m a t e r i a l . Radioisotopes have been h i t h e r t o added ma-
n u a l l y or by mechanical means t o the upstream s i d e of high-pressure downhole
pumps including the mixing t a n k on the blending equipment or a se lf-c onta ine d
low-pressure i n j e c t i o n u n i t used before o r a f t e r the blending equipment. D ire c t
i n j e c t i o n of the radioisotope in the high-pressure s i d e near the wellhead a t
the downstream s i d e of the high-pressure pumps can reduce the physical volume
of the radioisotope a n d can g r e a t l y minimize the problems of contamination. Ra-
dioisotope concentration should take i n t o account the maximum qua ntity of radio-
isotope t h a t can be placed in a c e r t a i n volume of c a r r i e r f l u i d and s t i l l be i n -
je c t e d in c o n s i s t e n t manner. Aspects of choice, implementation and s a f e t y of
t r a c e r s a r e a l s o discussed by McINTYRE, POLKOWSKI, BRON & POW (1988). Tracer
placement techniques f o r improved r ad i o act i v e marker l o g g i n g a r e a l s o outline d
by H I L L , BOEHM & AKERS (1988).
 863

6.2.1.3.1.5. Tracer distribution and recording

Gamma-ray l o g g i n g of i n j e c t e d f l u i d t h a t has been marked by a t r a c e r r e v e a l s
c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 5 . ) . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n can be i n f l u e n -
ced by r e l a t i v e p o r o s i t y and f l u i d uptake c a p a c i t y o f v a r i o u s zones, because
the radioactively-tagged f l u i d leaks o f f i n t o the formation n o t necessarily i n
homogeneous d i s t r i b u t i o n across t h e p e r f o r a t e d o r open i n t e r v a l . Propped f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t i s o b t a i n e d by gamma-ray m o n i t o r i n g o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r a d i o a c -
t i v e l y - c o a t e d p r o p p a n t s . F o r p r o p e r f r a c t u r e h e i g h t r e c o r d i n g , t h e proppants co-
vered w i t h r a d i o a c t i v e p e l l i c l e s have t o be added a t t h e b l e n d e r i d e a l l y
t h r o u g h o u t t h e j o b , because t h e f i r s t amount o f proppants does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
e n t e r t h e same zones as t h e l a s t l o t . The f l u s h volume should be a c c u r a t e l y c a l -
c u l a t e d , because o v e r f l u s h i n g would push t h e proppants t o o f a r i n t o t h e forma-
t i o n away f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e where t h e e m i t t e d r a d i a t i o n becomes i n s e n s i t i v e t o
t h e measuring t o o l , and u n d e r f l u s h i n g would keep some p r o p p a n t m a t e r i a l w i t h i n
t h e borehole, t h e r e b y d e l a y i n g t h e l o g g i n g u n t i l t h e w e l l b o r e i s cleaned (AHMED
1987) o r even f a l s i f y i n g t h e f r a c t u r e m o n i t o r i n g r e c o r d .

L i q u i d r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s i n j e c t e d f o r gamma-ray l o g g i n g have g e n e r a l l y t o
be o v e r d i s p l a c e d i n o r d e r t o remove a l l t h e r a d i o a c t i v e r e s i d u e f r o m t h e w e l l -
bore, because t h e t o o l can s t i l l p i c k up t h e marker when i t i s o v e r d i s p l a c e d
due t o t r a c e r l e a k i n g i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r (BUNDY 1981). They a l s o have t o adhere
t o f o r m a t i o n sand g r a i n s o r have t o be bound w i t h i n sheets o f c l a y m i n e r a l c r y -
s t a l s i n t h e p o r e space i n o r d e r t o keep more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t p o s i t i o n and n o t
t o be produced back d u r i n g w e l l cleanup and f l u i d o f f t a k e . R a d i o a c t i v e l y - t a g g e d
proppants, however, c a n n o t be r e c o r d e d by t h e i n s t r u m e n t i f t o o much o v e r d i s p l a -
ced i n t o t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e . F a i l u r e t o o v e r d i s p l a c e l i q u i d and/or s o l i d t r a -
c e r w i l l l e a v e r a d i o a c t i v e r e s i d u e i n t h e b o r e h o l e which can o b l i t e r a t e t h e
r e a d i n g s and i n t h e w o r s t case r u i n t h e l o g . I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h f r a c t u r e h e i g h t
m o n i t o r i n g , gamma-ray l o g g i n g can a l s o be used t o f i n d mechanical w e l l problems
such as c h a n n e l l i n g o r c a s i n g s p l i t s which i s i n d i c a t e d by t r a c e r m a t e r i a l be-
i n g r e c o r d e d i n t h e wrong p l a c e . E s p e c i a l l y l a r g e r a d i o a c t i v e peaks r e g i s t e r e d
a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t r e a t e d i n t e r v a l a r e an i n d i c a t o r o f p r e f e r e n t i a l down-
wards growth o f t h e f r a c t u r e (WARPINSKI, BRANAGAN, SATTLER, CIPOLLA, LORENZ &
THORNE 1988).

T r a c e r placement techniques f o r improved r a d i o a c t i v e marker l o g g i n g a r e d i s -

cussed by HILL, BOEHM & AKERS ( 1 9 8 8 ) . Aspects o f marker i n j e c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n
and r e c o r d i n g a r e a l s o e v a l u a t e d by WILEY & COCANOWER (1975), ANTHONY & HILL
(1984) and HILL & SOLARES (1985). D i s t i n c t i o n can p r i n c i p a l l y be made between
t r a c e r l o s s , v e l o c i t y s h o t and two-pulse methods f o r improved marker l o g g i n g i n -
t e r p r e t a t i o n (HILL & SOLARES 1985; HILL, BOEHM & AKERS 1988). Logging prepara-
t i o n a f t e r t r a c e r i n j e c t i o n o f t e n necessitates casing s t r i n g decontamination
(LABUDOVIC 1981).

6.2.1.3.2. Conventional single- or double-tracer monitoring

As an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o an e x t e n s i v e r e v i e w and s t a t u s r e p o r t o f gamma-ray
spectroscopy r e c o r d i n g and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , p r i n c i p l e s and a p p l i c a t i o n s o f con-
v e n t i o n a l s i n g l e - o r d o u b l e - t r a c e r gamma-ray m o n i t o r i n g a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l -
lows.

6.2.1.3.2.1. Principles
The r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s a r e i n most cases added i n t h e t e r m i n a l stage o f
p r o p p a n t - f l u i d - s l u r r y pumping t o ensure t h e i r d e p o s i t i o n c l o s e t o t h e w e l l b o r e
where t h e y can be e a s i l y r e c o r d e d by t h e l o g g i n g t o o l and show up as pronounced
anomalies c o n s i d e r a b l y above t h e n a t u r a l background r a d i a t i o n l e v e l even a t r e -
l a t i v e l y low-energy a c t i v i t y peaks o f t h e a r t i f i c i a l markers (LEICHT 1 9 8 5 ) . The
o t h e r advantage o f n e a r - w e l l b o r e t r a c e r placement i n t h e f i n a l stage o f f l u i d
 864

o r p r o p p a n t pumping i s t h a t o n l y c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i t t l e amounts o f a r t i f i c i a l l y
r a d i o a c t i v e proppants o r f l u i d a r e r e q u i r e d f o r tagging o f t h e p r o p p a n t - f l u i d -
s l u r r y . R e c o r d i n g and p r o c e s s i n g i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t d i s c u s s e d f o r m o n i t o r i n g
o f n a t u r a l p r o p p a n t r a d i o a c t i v i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) . I n t e r m s o f gamma-ray
spectroscopy ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.3.4.), t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e between s p e c t r o m e -
t r i c a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l background r a d i o a c t i v i t y o f t h e r e s e r v o i r
f o r m a t i o n and v a r i o u s s y n t h e t i c t r a c e r s w h i c h have been a r t i f i c i a l l y i n t r o d u c e d
i n t o hydrocarbon-bearing i n t e r v a l m a t r i x , f r a c t u r e , g r a v e l pack mantle and/or
borehole.

C o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g c o m p r i s e s l a b e l l i n g o f
p r o p p a n t s o r f l u i d s w i t h a s i n g l e r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r and l o g g i n g a f t e r comple-
t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t . D o u b l e - t r a c e r a p p l i c a t i o n has h i t h e r t o been
l i m i t e d t o t h e usage o f i s o t o p e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t decay r a t e s t h a t c a n be d i s c r i -
m i n a t e d t h r o u g h m u l t i p l e - r u n t i m e - l a p s e c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g , because
gross gamma-ray c o u n t i n g t o o l s a r e s e n s i t i v e o n l y t o t h e o v e r a l l p r e s e n c e o f
gamma r a y s and n o t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l gamma-ray e n e r g y s i g n a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
o f d i f f e r e n t t r a c e r s (GADEKEN, SMITH & SEIFERT 1 9 8 7 ) . C o n v e n t i o n a l f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n b y s i n g l e - o r d o u b l e - t r a c e r gamma-ray l o g g i n g p r o v i d e s
c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i n c a s e o f f l u i d t a g g i n g and p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t
f o r t h e occasion o f proppant marking, o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y t a g g i n g o f two p a r t s o f
t h e w h o l e f r a c t u r i n g m a t e r i a l assembly w i t h m a r k e r s o f d i f f e r e n t h a l f - l i f e
l e a d s t o d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f b o t h f r a c t u r e h e i g h t t y p e s i n c a s e o f p r o p p a n t and
f l u i d s p o t t i n g and t i m e - l a p s e m o n i t o r i n g o f i s o t o p e d e c a y ( c f . s e c t i o n s
6 . 2 . 1 . 4 . 4 . and 6 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 2 . ) .

6.2.1.3.2.2.Applications
F i e l d p e r f o r m a n c e examples o f c o n v e n t i o n a l s i n g l e - o r d o u b l e - t r a c e r gamma-
r a y m o n i t o r i n g o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s a r e r e p o r t e d b y PEARCE ( 1 9 7 9 ) . The s u r -
v e y s p e r m i t t o r e c o g n i z e w h e t h e r l a r g e amounts o f p r o p p a n t s were d r o p p e d o u t i n
t h e w e l l b o r e w h i l e pumping and w h e t h e r f r a c t u r e s were c r e a t e d b e l o w t h e t o p o f
proppant f i l l i n i t i a l l y ( p r i o r t o tagging o f proppant-laden f l u i d w i t h radioac-
t i v e sand) o r b y n a t u r a l d i v e r s i o n w h i l e pumping w i t h n o r a d i o a c t i v e sand b e i n g
p l a c e d i n t h e c r a c k ( t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s become o n l y e v i d e n t a f t e r c l e a n i n g - o u t
o f t h e w e l l s ) . S t a n d a r d gamma-ray and t e m p e r a t u r e l o g g i n g f o r f r a c t u r e h e i g h t
m o n i t o r i n g i s a l s o c a r r i e d o u t b y HOWELL & THOMAS ( 1 9 7 8 ) , MEDLIN & FITCH
( 1 9 8 3 ) ; GREGORCZYK, PAULS, HOLTMYER, VENDITTO & CHISHOLM ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; HOLDITCH, RO-
BINSON, WHITEHEAD & ELY ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; HUEBINGER, WEBSTER, CHISHOLM, VENDITTO & HUNT
( 1 9 8 8 ) ; KULAR, CHHINA, BEST & MACKENZIE ( 1 9 8 8 ) ; NORTHCUTT, ROBERTSON & HANNAH
( 1 9 8 8 ) and TAN, McGOWEN, LEE & SOLIMAN ( 1 9 8 8 ) . HOOVER & ADAMS ( 1 9 8 8 ) a r e a b l e
t o d i s t i n g u i s h between m i n i f r a c t u r i n g d a t a - g a t h e r i n g and c a l i b r a t i o n t r e a t m e n t
and m a i n s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n by d i f f e r e n t i a l t a g g i n g .

T e m p e r a t u r e and s i n g l e - t r a c e r c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g a r e a l s o v i a b l e
methods f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f l u i d u p t a k e zones when e n c o u n t e r i n g s e v e r e d r i l -
l i n g mud l o s s e s d u r i n g p e n e t r a t i o n o f e x t e n s i v e l y n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d r e s e r v o i r
o r b a r r e n i n t e r v a l s (CANSON 1 9 8 5 ) . L o s t c i r c u l a t i o n s e c t i o n s c a n a l s o be r n o n i t o -
r e d b y n o i s e l o g g i n g as w e l l as b y s p i n n e r and f l o w m e t e r s u r v e y s ( c f . s e c t i o n
6 . 2 . 1 . 7 . ) . An enhanced gamma-ray l o g g i n g a p p l i c a t i o n i s s e l e c t i v e downhole mar-
k e r i n j e c t i o n and s u b s e q u e n t r e c o r d i n g o f t h e t r a v e l p a t h o f t h e f l u i d c o n t a m i -
nated by t h e i n s e r t e d t r a c e r .

6.2.1.3.3. Administrative and environmental

aspects of tracer monitoring
The t e c h n i c a l l y f a v o u r a b l e i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f t r a c e r u t i l i z a -
t i o n f o r gamma-ray c o n v e n t i o n a l o r s p e c t r o s c o p y m o n i t o r i n g o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t are q u i t e prominent, b u t the procedure o f f i e l d a p p l i c a t i o n i s of-
t e n c o m p l i c a t e d b y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , e n v i r o n m e n t a l and e c o n o m i c a l a s p e c t s . Some
 865

p o i n t s i n c l u d i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s and o b l i g a t i o n s o f r a d i o a c t i v e marker h a n d l i n g as
w e l l as c o s t containment vs. advanced r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r m o n i t o r i n g a r e b r i e f l y
summarized as f o l l o w s . Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on i n t e r m e d i a t e s a f e t y proce-
dures.

6.2.1.3.3.1, Restrict ions and obligations

of radioactive tracer handling
While a l l t h r e e methods o f a r t i f i c i a l i n t r o d u c t i o n o f r a d i o a c t i v e markers
i n t o f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s and proppants have t h e advantage o f good c o n t r o l o f homo-
geneous d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e t a g g i n g m a t e r i a l w i t h i n t h e t o t a l p r o p p a n t and
f l u i d package i n f i l l i n g t h e f r a c t u r e as w e l l as maintenance o f c o n s t a n t concen-
t r a t i o n o f s u f f i c i e n t l y high i n t e n s i t y o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y thereby guaranteing re-
p r o d u c i b i l i t y , one m a j o r drawback a r e t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f hand-
l i n g o f these e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y hazardous m a t e r i a l s . S a f e t y o b l i g a t i o n s by m i n i n g
a u t h o r i t i e s , l a b o u r departments and n a t i o n a l environmental o f f i c e s a r e p a r t i c u -
l a r l y r e s t r i c t i v e i n Great B r i t a i n and Germany FRG and u n f o r t u n a t e l y o f t e n do
n o t a l l o w t o t a k e a r t i f i c i a l r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r i n g o f proppants and/or f l u i d s
i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t i m e needed f r o m a p p l i c a t i o n t o ob-
t a i n m e n t o f p e r m i s s i o n and t h e p a r t i a l l y r e q u i r e d p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l
( b e i n g n o t a b l e t o be c a r r i e d o u t b e f o r e a p p r o v i n g d e c i s i o n has been made by
t h e a u t h o r i t y ) i s f r e q u e n t l y t o o l o n g and c o s t s a l o t o f money i f a w e l l which
i s ready f o r t r e a t m e n t has t o w a i t ( t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y v a l i d f o r e x p l o r a t i o n
and a p p r a i s a l w e l l s where t h e r i g i s s t a n d i n g on t h e d r i l l i n g s i t e ) .

T r a c e r a p p l i c a t i o n can under t h e c u r r e n t h a n d l i n g and s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s i n

Europe almost o n l y meet t h e o b l i g a t i o n s s e t by v a r i o u s a u t h o r i t i e s i n develop-
ment campaigns where p r o p e r p l a n n i n g o f marker u t i l i z a t i o n and performance o f
t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e procedure can be done r e a s o n a b l y i n advance, w i t h e v e r y t h i n g
b e i n g w e l l s e t once t h e b o r e h o l e i s ready f o r s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t and i d e n t i -
f i e r i n j e c t i o n . As p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e N o r t h Sea i n Europe where most o f t h e hy-
d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y i s going t o take place during the n e x t
y e a r s ( c f . s e c t i o n s 2 . 2 . 1 . 6 . 2 . and 2 . 4 . 5 . ) , f i e l d development i s performed i n
w e l l - p r e p a r e d campaigns a f f e c t i n g a s u i t e o f b o r e h o l e s i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s , no
practical r e s t r i c t i o n o f radioactive tracer application f o r hydraulic fracture
h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g by c o n v e n t i o n a l o r advanced gamma-ray l o g g i n g t e c h n i q u e s i s
seen f o r t h e predominant amount o f s t i m u l a t i o n j o b s i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e i n Eu-
rope.

As t h e advantages o f t h e e x a c t l y known and c o n t r o l l e d l e v e l o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y

which can be used f o r p r o p e r c a l i b r a t i o n o f measuring and r e c o r d i n g d e v i c e s i s
u n f o r t u n a t e l y f r e q u e n t l y compensated by o r g a n i z a t o r y drawbacks, a t t h e bottom
o f t h e l i n e p r e f e r e n c e has e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e p a s t o f t e n been g i v e n t o t h e
s i m p l e and cheap methods o f temperature l o g g i n g o f any p r o p p a n t t y p e ( c f . sec-
t i o n 6.2.1.1.) and gamma-ray l o g g i n g o f n a t u r a l l y r a d i o a c t i v e p r o p p a n t s i n f i l -
l i n g t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.2.) f o r n o t o n l y t e c h n i c a l and economical,
b u t a l s o a d m i n i s t r a t i v e reasons. I n t h e f u t u r e , however, based on e a r l y p l a n -
n i n g o f t r a c e r u t i l i z a t i o n and performance o f o b l i g a t o r y procedures, m u l t i p l e
marker scanning by gamma-ray spectroscopy w h i c h i s t h e most s o p h i s t i c a t e d and
advanced t e c h n i q u e o f f r a c t u r e m o n i t o r i n g i s expected t o be r a p i d l y s p r e a d i n g
out t o increasingly d i v e r s i f i e d applications i n hydraulic well stimulation.

6.2.1.3.3.2. Intermediate safety procedures

An i n t e r m e d i a t e s a f e t y procedure i n o r d e r t o meet b o t h t e c h n i c a l and admini-
s t r a t i v e r e q u i r e m e n t s and t o p e r f o r m an e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y l e s s hazardous t r e a t -
ment i s r e n o u n c i n g o f t h e common p r a c t i c e t o i n s e r t a r t i f i c i a l l y r a d i o a c t i v e l y -
c o a t e d g r a i n s i n t o t h e f i n a l stage o f p r o p p a n t pumping. I n j e c t i o n o f t r a c e r - t a g -
ged p a r t i c l e s w i t h t h e f i n e r - g r a i n e d l e a d - i n l o t and t h e n o r m a l - g r a i n e d main
q u a n t i t y o f t h e p r o p p a n t l o a d g i v e s r i s e t o a good d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r a d i o a c t i v e
 866

m a t e r i a l w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e , and pumping o f c o n v e n t i o n a l n o r m a l l y - o r c o a r s e -
g r a i n e d p r o p p a n t s i n t h e t e r m i n a l o r t a i l - i n s t a g e (HART, ENGI & M O R R I S 1983)
w i t h o n l y l i t t l e m a r k e r t a g g i n g u n d e r enhanced c o n t r o l o r even w i t h o u t any t r a -
c e r i n t e r m i x i n g g u a r a n t e e s t h a t any r e m a i n i n g sand w h i c h i s c i r c u l a t e d o u t o f
t h e b o r e h o l e and a l s o m a t e r i a l t h a t f l o w s back o u t o f t h e f r a c t u r e mouth i n t o
the w e l l b o r e i s n o t r a d i o a c t i v e l y contaminated.

Therefore t h e operational s a f e t y i s considerably increased by l i m i t a t i o n o f

m a r k e r - t a g g e d p r o p p a n t s t o t h e f r a c t u r e s e c t i o n s l o c a t e d f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e
b o r e h o l e (DRESSER ATLAS 1 9 8 2 ) . C a u t i o n has t o be e x e r c i s e d , however, that the
r a d i o a c t i v e p r o p p a n t o r f l u i d i s n o t t r a n s p o r t e d t o o f a r away f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e
mouth t o become u n d e t e c t a b l e b y t h e gamma-ray t o o l ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 1 . 3 . ) ,
because u n l e s s s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n f i d e n t d i s t i n c t i o n o f n a t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d r a d i o a c -
t i v i t y and a r t i f i c i a l p r o p p a n t a n d / o r f l u i d r a d i o a c t i v i t y c a n be done, the ra-
d i o a c t i v e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g a p p r o a c h i s u s e l e s s . MEEHAN & PENNINGTON
( 1 9 8 1 ) a s c e r t a i n optimum d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r a d i o a c t i v e l y - c o a t e d sand w i t h i n t h e
f r a c t u r e by continuous i n j e c t i o n throughout the s t i m u l a t i o n job.

6.2.1.3.3.3. Cost containment vs.

advanced radioactive tracer monitoring
A n o t h e r i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r i n Europe i s t h e o f t e n e x a g g e r a t e d c o s t c o n t a i n -
ment o f t h e o p e r a t i n g companies w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r l y l i m i t s t h e more a b u n d a n t ap-
p l i c a t i o n o f advanced gamma-ray t r a c e r l o g g i n g t e c h n i q u e s such as gamma-ray
s p e c t r o s c o p y . S e r v i c e and s u p p l y companies a l w a y s r u n i n t o g r e a t t r o u b l e s when
t r y i n g t o c o n v i n c e many o p e r a t o r s t h a t f o l l o w i n g d r i l l i n g o f an e x p e n s i v e h o l e
down t o t e r m i n a l d e p t h , a l i t t l e a d d i t i o n a l sum o f money s h o u l d be s p e n t on p r o -
p e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c t i v e h o r i z o n s b y l o g g i n g , t e s t i n g and s t i -
mulation ( c f . sections 2.2.1.5.2., 2.3.4. and 2 . 4 . 2 . ) . A l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r e x -
penses a r e t o g e t h e r o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f t h e d r i l l i n g c o s t , i n many c a s e s t h e s e
i t e m s a r e t h e f i r s t w h i c h a r e k i l l e d b y n o t o r i o u s c o s t - c u t t i n g managers, w i t h
o b j e c t i v e l y n o j u s t i f i c a t i o n b e i n g a b l e t o be seen f o r such a p r o c e d u r e . In t h e
USA, f i r s t e n v i r o n m e n t a l o b l i g a t i o n s o f t r a c e r h a n d l i n g a r e more f a v o u r a b l e and
second t h e m e n t a l i t y i s more d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s a c q u i s i t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a -
t i o n on t h e r e s e r v o i r e v e n i f l i n k e d w i t h h a v i n g t o p a y a premium, and t h e r e -
f o r e gamma-ray t r a c e r l o g g i n g o f any t y p e i s a c o n t i n u o u s l y e x p a n d i n g m a r k e t
t h e r e e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r t h e s u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a t i o n o f gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y i n
various c r i t i c a l r e s e r v o i r c o n s t e l l a t i o n s i n the l a s t years.

Thus t h e m a j o r m a r k e t i n g e f f o r t o f s e r v i c e and s u p p l y companies i n E u r o p e

and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d o u t s i d e t h e USA has i n t h e n e x t y e a r s t o be p u t o n
c o n v i n c i n g h y d r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n companies t h a t t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e expenses f o r
d r i l l i n g a r e a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o j u s t i f y i f a s m a l l a d d i t i o n a l amount o f a b t .
10 - 20 % o f t h e t o t a l sum i s n o t i n v e s t e d f o r p r o p e r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e column
o f g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s p e n e t r a t e d b y t h e d r i l l i n g b i t and e x p o s e d a l o n g t h e
borehole wall, and a d e q u a t e t e s t i n g and s t i m u l a t i o n o f a l l t h e h o r i z o n s w h i c h
m i g h t c o n t a i n i m p o r t a n t o i l and gas r e s e r v e s t h a t , however, a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t -
l y o r u n m i s t a k a b l y e v i d e n t on l o g g i n g r e c o r d s .

The o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y t o i n c r e a s e r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s i n t h e framework o f
more and more d i f f i c u l t e x p l o r a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s and d e c r e a s i n g d i s c o v e r y r a t e s
vs. i n c r e a s i n g consumption i s provenance o f a d d i t i o n a l q u a n t i t i e s f r o m hydrau-
l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t s o f m a r g i n a l r e s e r v o i r s , and t h e s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r f o r -
mance o f s t i m u l a t i o n has t o be s e c u r e d b y s o p h i s t i c a t e d and unambiguous m o n i t o -
r i n g o f t h e c r a c k . In t h i s c o n t e x t , two a s p e c t s r e q u i r e m a j o r emphasis c o m p r i -
s i n g p r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n and m o n i t o r i n g t e c h n i q u e c h o i c e . P r o p p a n t s e l e c t i o n has
t o f o c u s on a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e m o s t s u i t a b l e t y p e and g r a i n s i z e f o r t h e g i v e n
r e s e r v o i r r e g a r d l e s s o f p o s s i b l y h a v i n g t o p a y a premium f o r a b e t t e r p r o p p a n t ,
and m o n i t o r i n g t e c h n i q u e c h o i c e has t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e method
w i t h h i g h e s t r e s o l u t i o n and a c c u r a c y .
 867

6.2.1.3.4. Multiple tracer discriminat ion

by spectral gamna-ray logging
D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made between s i n g l e - and m u l t i p l e - t r a c e r r e c o r d i n g by
gamma-ray l o g g i n g t o o l s . While t r a d i t i o n a l l y s i n g l e - t r a c e r a p p l i c a t i o n s have
commonly been f u l l y s u f f i c i e n t f o r f r a c t u r e e v a l u a t i o n and d o u b l e - t r a c e r t r e a t -
ments w i t h i s o t o p e s o f d i f f e r e n t decay r a t e s t h a t have t o be d i s c r i m i n a t e d b y
m u l t i p l e - r u n t i m e - l a p s e c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g have been s u b o r d i n a t e ex-
c e p t i o n s , nowadays many f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s a r e more complex. Standard
s i n g l e - i s o t o p e r e c o r d i n g cannot d i s t i n g u i s h between r a d i o a c t i v e l y - t a g g e d mate-
r i a l which i s l o c a t e d i n s i d e t h e w e l l b o r e , i n v o i d s o r channels o f t h e cement
annulus, o r a c t u a l l y w i t h i n t h e c r e a t e d o r propped f r a c t u r e , w i t h t h e t o t a l gam-
ma-ray a c t i v i t y b e i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a l l t h e emissions f r o m t h e v a r i o u s sour-
ces. M u l t i p l e zones a r e f r a c t u r e d , t r e a t m e n t f l u i d s and proppants a r e i n j e c t e d
i n s e v e r a l stages, and d i v e r t i n g agents a r e used between t h e i n d i v i d u a l stages
t o separately route s t i m u l a t i o n m a t e r i a l s i n t o the desired i n t e r v a l s . Necessity
a l s o e x i s t s f o r d i s t i n c t i o n o f the r a d i o a c t i v e material w i t h i n the f r a c t u r e d
f o r m a t i o n and w i t h i n t h e b o r e h o l e . I t i s t h e r e f o r e o f t e n d e s i r a b l e t o i n j e c t
and m o n i t o r m u l t i p l e t r a c e r s (GADEKEN & SMITH 1986, AHMED 1987, PRO-TECHNICS
1987),

A f t e r d i s c u s s i n g some general aspects o f gamma-ray spectroscopy, t h e o u t l i n e

o f m u l t i p l e t r a c e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n by s p e c t r a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g as f o l l o w s f o -
cusses on d i s t i n c t i o n o f r a d i a t i o n provenance f r o m f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n and bore-
h o l e f l u i d , s p e c t r o m e t r i c a l d e c o n v o l u t i o n o f composite r a d i a t i o n p r o f i l e s , and
gamma spectroscopy a p p l i c a t i o n s i n h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g as w e l l as i n combina-
t i o n s o f n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g .

6.2.1.3.4.1. General aspects o f gamna-ray spectroscopy

M u l t i p l e t r a c e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n by s p e c t r a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g (gamma-ray spec-
troscopy; gamma-ray spectrometry; compensated s p e c t r a l n a t u r a l gamma r a y sys-
tem; WICHMANN, McWHIRTER & HOPKINSON 1975; FERTL & R I E K E 1979; FERTL, STAPP,
VAELLO & VERCELINO 1980; FERTL & OLIVER 1983; SMITH, ROBBINS, ARNOLD, GADEKEN &
DEATON 1983; GADEKEN, ARNOLD & SMITH 1984; ANDERSON, PEARSON, ABDU-SAYED &
MYERS 1986; CRAIGHEAD, McDOUGALL & HOTZ 1987; WILLIAMS & McCARTHY 1987; mul-
t i p l e r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r scanning; GADEKEN & SMITH 1986; GADEKEN, SMITH & S E I -
FERT 1987; GADEKEN, SMITH, ARNOLD & ROBBINS 1988; p r e c i s i o n r a d i o a c t i v e i s o t o p e
s p e c t r a l measurement; PEMPER, FLECKER, McWHIRTER & OLIVER 1988; WESTERN ATLAS
1988 b ) comprises break-up o f t h e r a d i a t i o n i n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s o t o p e c o n t r i -
b u t i o n s o f v a r i o u s t r a c e r s by spectrum u n f o l d i n g and weighted-square d a t a p r o -
c e s s i n g (WESTERN ATLAS 1988 b ) .

I n most cases up t o f o u r and i n e x t r e m e l y f a v o u r a b l e cases even up t o s i x

d i f f e r e n t t r a c e r s w i t h h a l f - l i f e times o f p r e f e r e n t i a l l y a b t . 30 - 90 days each
can be i n s e r t e d i n t o v a r i o u s f l u i d and proppant stages (PRO-TECHNICS 1987) and
can be r e c o r d e d and d i s c r i m i n a t e d i n one run. P r a c t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n t o f o u r d i f -
f e r e n t i s o t o p e s , however, i s recommended, because w i t h a g r e a t e r amount o f com-
ponents, t h e decrease i n number o f degrees o f freedom makes i t l i k e l y t h a t s t a -
t i s t i c a l v a r i a t i o n s c o u l d be m i s t a k e n f o r f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t r a c e r c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y when b o t h b o r e h o l e and f o r m a t i o n components a r e s e l e c t e d (GA-
DEKEN, SMITH & SEIFERT 1987), w i t h i n t h e l a t t e r case even two o r t h r e e d i f f e -
r e n t markers b e i n g sometimes t h e upper l i m i t f o r unambiguous i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e t r a c e r scanning r e c o r d . A h i g h e r amount o f d i f f e r e n t markers
t o be d i s c e r n e d a l s o bears t h e p o t e n t i a l danger t h a t some o f t h e i d e n t i f i e r sha-
pes t o be d i s c r i m i n a t e d l o o k i n f a c t q u i t e s i m i l a r .

As t h e t r a c e r i s o t o p e s have d i f f e r e n t energy peaks and/or h a l f - l i f e times,

and f l u i d and proppants can be d i f f e r e n t l y tagged (PRO-TECHNICS 1987), gamma-
r a y spectroscopy a l l o w s assessment o f c r e a t e d vs. propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t ( c f .
 868

s e c t i o n 6.2.1.5.2.) by energy spectrum d i s t i n c t i o n and/or t i m e - l a p s e d i f f e r e n -

t i a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t r a c e r s i n c o n t r a s t t o s t a n d a r d gamma-ray l o g g i n g
which g i v e s o n l y propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t , w i t h c r e a t e d v e r t i c a l c r a c k e x t e n s i o n
i n t h e l a t t e r case h a v i n g t o be determined by temperature l o g g i n g . Gamma-ray
spectroscopy can a l s o be u t i l i z e d f o r a n a l y s i s and d e c o n v o l u t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l
r a d i o a c t i v i t y p r o f i l e o f t h e r e s e r v o i r f o r m a t i o n (HEFLIN & NETTLETON 1980,
FERTL 1982).

6.2.1.3.4.2, D i s t i n c t i o n o f r a d i a t i o n provenance
from f r a c t u r e d formation and borehole f l u i d

A l t h o u g h t h e spectrum u n f o l d i n g o r d e c o n v o l u t i o n t e c h n i q u e r e v e a l s t h e v e r t i -
c a l p o s i t i o n o f t r a c e r r n a t e r i a ? a l o n g a w e l l b o r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o depth, i t i s
n o t always apparent whether t h e d e t e c t e d r a d i a t i o n i s coming f r o m f o r m a t i o n , ce-
ment channels b e h i n d casing, o r w i t h i n t h e b o r e h i l e i t s e l f i n s i d e o f t h e c a s i n g
(PEMPER, FLECKER, McWHIRTER & OLIVER 1988). I n case o f t r e a t m e n t o f two sepa-
r a t e i n t e r v a l s o f t h e pay zone complex, t h e r a d i a t i o n i n t e n s i t y c u r v e s may
c l e a r l y d e f i n e t h e m a j o r f r a c t u r e s e c t i o n s , b u t a l s o show a low l e v e l amount o f
t r a c e r m a t e r i a l i n t h e r e g i o n below, between o r above t h e f r a c t u r e d segments,
p o i n t i n g t o r a d i a t i o n d e r i v i n g f r o m b o r e h o l e o r cement channels b e h i n d t h e ca-
s i n g . As i t i s g e n e r a l l y n o t uncommon f o r f l u i d and p r o p p a n t t o channel b e h i n d
c a s i n g and t o c r e a t e a d d i t i o n a l f r a c t u r e s i n a d j a c e n t zones, d i s t i n c t i o n o f va-
r i o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f r a d i a t i o n provenance i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t . B a s i c d i s c r i m i -
n a t i o n techniques and s p e c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n methods a r e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d as
follows.

6.2.1.3.4.2.1. Basic d i s c r i m i n a t i o n techniques

P r e c i s i o n r a d i o a c t i v e i s o t o p e s p e c t r a l measurements (WESTERN ATLAS 1988 b)
p e r m i t a l s o d i s t i n c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l w i t h i n t h e b o r e h o l e and w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u -
r e d f o r m a t i o n by gamma-ray p e a k - t o - d o w n s c a t t e r r a t i o s as w e l l as comparative
e v a l u a t i o n o f Compton d o w n s c a t t e r i n g and p h o t o e l e c t r i c a l a b s o r p t i o n e f f e c t s ba-
sed on t h e shapes o f t h e t r a c e r s p e c t r a , and s e n s i t i v i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s account-
i n g f o r a b s o l u t e magnitude d i f f e r e n c e s and r e l a t i v e shape changes f r o m h i g h t o
low e n e r g i e s due t o Compton s c a t t e r i n g e f f e c t s (GAOEKEN, SMITH & SEIFERT 1987;
PEMPER, FLECKER, McWHIRTER & OLIVER 1988). Another p o s s i b i l i t y o f d i s t i n c t i o n
o f r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l w i t h i n t h e b o r e h o l e and w i t h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n b e h i n d t h e
c a s i n g i s t h e s p e c t r a l gamma-ray c r o s s p l o t o f t o t a l p h o t o sum vs. background
window c o u n t r a t e (ANDERSON, PEARSON, ABOU-SAYED & MYERS 1 9 8 6 ) . A weighted-
l e a s t - s q u a r e s spectrum u n f o l d i n g a l g o r i t h m c a l c u l a t e s t h e r a d i o a c t i v e i n t e n s i -
t i e s as a f u n c t i o n o f d e p t h .

6.2. 1.3.4.2.2. Special d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n met hods

D i s t i n c t i o n o f gamma-rays coming from b o r e h o l e and/or f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n by
p h o t o e l e c t r i c a l e f f e c t i s based on t h e f a c t t h a t t h e chemical element w i t h t h e
h i g h e s t atomic number dominates a b s o r p t i o n (GADEKEN, SMITH & SEIFERT 1987; PEM-
PER, FLECKER, McWHIRTER & OLIVER 1988). I n cased w e l l s , u s u a l l y i r o n i s most
s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e low-energy spectrum. Gamma-rays d e r i v i n g f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e d
f o r m a t i o n have t o t r a v e r s e t h e c a s i n g and t h u s s u f f e r s t r o n g a b s o r p t i o n by
i r o n , whereas t h e spectrum o f gamma-rays emanating f r o m t h e f l u i d - f i l l e d w e l l -
bore i s n o t changed. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p h o t o e l e c t r i c a l e f f e c t , Compton s c a t t e r -
i n g i s no f u n c t i o n o f t h e atomic number o f t h e chemical elements, b u t i s a f u n c -
t i o n o f d e n s i t y and t h i c k n e s s o f t h e m a t e r i a l t r a v e r s e d by gamma-rays. After
Compton d o w n s c a t t e r i n g , d i f f e r e n t shapes o f t r a c e r s p e c t r a a r e l e f t as a conse-
quence o f d i f f e r e n t provenance o f t h e r a d i a t i o n , and mathematical t y p e c u r v e
matching based on weighted l e a s t squares can i n i d e a l cases even d i s t i n g u i s h r a -
d i a t i o n coming f r o m f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n , cement sheath around t h e w e l l b o r e , and
b o r e h o l e f l u i d . The energy spectrum w i t h c a s i n g ( r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n
 869

case) shows fewer gamma-rays i n t h e peak r e g i o n and more gamma-rays i n t h e down-

s c a t t e r window than t h e spectrum accumulated w i t h o u t c a s i n g between i n s t r u m e n t
and r a d i o a c t i v e source ( c o m p r i s i n g t h e b o r e h o l e c a s e ) . I n o r d e r t o improve t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , e i t h e r t h e n a t u r a l r a d i o a c t i v i t y has t o be s u b t r a c t e d o r t h e
t r a c e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n has t o be i n c r e a s e d f o r a l l o w i n g c l e a r e r m o d e l l i n g o f spec-
t r a shapes.

The high-energy counts/low-energy counts r a t i o i s a q u i c k i n d i c a t o r o f t h e

d i s t a n c e o f t h e source o f r a d i a t i o n w i t h i n t h e f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n , a l t h o u g h
some a m b i g u i t y i s l e f t w i t h t h i s d o w n s c a t t e r i n g r a t i o , because f o r example an
e x c l u s i v e t r a c e r enrichment i n t h e cement sheath m i g h t l o o k as i f b e i n g d i s t r i -
b u t e d h a l f each i n r e s e r v o i r and b o r e h o l e f l u i d . Another h i n t t o r a d i a t i o n p r o -
venance i s p r o v i d e d b y r e p e a t e d l o g g i n g r u n s . I f t h e gamma-ray spectrum changes
w i t h r e p e t i t i o n r e c o r d i n g , t h e t r a c e r p r o b a b l y comes f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e where i t
i s moving i n t h e f l u i d , whereas more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t r a d i a t i o n p r o f i l e s p o i n t
t o d e r i v a t i o n f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e d f o r m a t i o n where t h e t r a c e r i s e i t h e r mechani-
c a l l y f i x e d o r c h e m i c a l l y bound o r adsorbed.

6.2.1.3.4.3. Spect romet r ical deconvolut ion

of composite radiation profiles
By means o f gamma-ray spectroscopy, t h e observed t o t a l composite r a d i o a c t i v i -
ty spectrum can be deconvolved i n t o s t a n d a r d s p e c t r a o f t h e n a t u r a l potassium,
t h o r i u m and uranium i s o t o p e s which compose t h e background r a d i a t i o n , and o f t h e
s y n t h e t i c t r a c e r s t h a t were added t o proppants and/or f l u i d s i n t h e h y d r a u l i c
f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . Some aspects o f elemental s e p a r a t i o n by s p e c t r a l s t r i p -
ping, common r e f e r e n c e s p e c t r a o r i s o t o p e f i n g e r p r i n t s , and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f
d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r i n g j o b stages a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

6.2.1.3.4.3.1. Elemental separation by spectral stripping

Elemental s e p a r a t i o n i s achieved by u s i n g s p e c t r a l s t r i p p i n g t e c h n i q u e s o r a
w e i g h t e d - l e a s t - s q u a r e s a l g o r i t h m f o r spectrum u n f o l d i n g (GAOEKEN & SMITH 1986;
PEMPER, FLECKER, McWHIRTER & OLIVER 1988). T h i s spectrum u n f o l d i n g o r deconvolu-
t i o n i s a method o f s p e c t r a l f i t t i n g t o o b t a i n e l e m e n t a l y i e l d s . Spectrum un-
f o l d i n g o r d e c o n v o l u t i o n has a l s o been proven t o be u s e f u l i n a v a r i e t y o f
o t h e r w e l l l o g g i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s such as n a t u r a l (MARETT, CHEVALIER, SOUHAITE &
SUAU 1976; SERRA, BALDWIN & Q U I R E I N 1980; SMITH, ROBBINS, ARNOLD, GADEKEN & OEA-
TON 1983) and p u l s e d n e u t r o n (HERTZOG 1980; GRAU & SCHWEITZER 1987) gamma-ray
spectroscopy. I n t h e w e i g h t e d - l e a s t - s q u a r e s spectrum u n f o l d i n g technique, t h e
assumption i s made t h a t each measured spectrum i s composed o f a l i n e a r combina-
t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e c t r a f r o m r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s found i n f o r m a t i o n
and b o r e h o l e environment.

JACKSON & GARTNER (1988) p r e s e n t a s p e c i a l s t r i p p i n g t e c h n i q u e f o r computa-

t i o n o f q u a n t i t a t i v e concentrations f o r a l l r a d i o a c t i v e isotopes i n f r a c t u r e
and f o r m a t i o n once b e i n g p r o p e r l y c a l i b r a t e d . Apparent d i s t a n c e t o t h e source
f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l i s i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d gamma-ray spectrum
which p e r m i t s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f t r a c e r s b e i n g i n s o l u t i o n i n t h e b o r e h o l e o r
c o l l e c t i n g i n t h e f r a c t u r e s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r . Accurate c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a l l o w t o
r e c o n s t r u c t t h e o r i g i n a l gross gamma-ray l e v e l , t h e r e b y p o s s i b l y e l i m i n a t i n g
t h e need o f t h e p r e - f r a c t u r i n g r e f e r e n c e l o g and t h u s e n a b l i n g w e l l e v a l u a t i o n
i n a s i n g l e l o g g i n g run. As t h e d a t a i s independent o f t h e measurement system,
a comparison o f o p e r a t i o n s performed i n d i f f e r e n t w e l l s i n t h e same area i s mea-
n i n g f u l . The elemental s p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s program can compute c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f
up t o seven i s o t o p e s based on up t o 50 d i f f e r e n t s p e c t r a l windows. The s u i t e o f
i s o t o p e s can be examined b e f o r e t h e f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o determine
t h e optimum s e l e c t i o n o f t r a c e r i s o t o p e s . OVERBEY, YOST & WILKINS (1988) deve-
l o p s p e c i a l procedures f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g e f f e c t s o f v a r i o u s f l o w r a t e s and
p r e s s u r e s d u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t by s e l e c t i v e t r a c e r m o n i t o r i n g .
 870

6.2.1.3.4.3.2. Comon reference spec t r a o r i sot ope f i nger pr i nt s

S t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e s p e c t r a f r o m each t r a c e r r e p r e s e n t i n g i s o t o p e f i n g e r -
p r i n t s a r e o b t a i n e d v i a measurements i n known t e s t c o n d i t i o n s and a r e t h e n u s e d
as i n p u t s a l o n g w i t h t h e o b s e r v e d c o m p o s i t e s p e c t r a i n t h e d e c o n v o l u t i o n p r o -
c e s s w h i c h i n c l u d e s m a t h e m a t i c a l t y p e - c u r v e m a t c h i n g . The b e s t r e s u l t s a r e
a c h i e v e d i f t r a c e r s w i t h s e p a r a t e d gamma-ray l i n e s a r e c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d , be-
cause o v e r l a p p i n g o f s e v e r a l gamma-ray peaks coming f r o m d i f f e r e n t i s o t o p e s
w i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y n a r r o w e n e r g y r e g i o n c a n cause p r o b l e m s a t l e a s t i n s t r i p -
p i n g processing.

6.2.1.3.4.3.3. D i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r i n g job stages

The d e c i s i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y o f s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t
markers i s t h e separation o f d i f f e r e n t stages o f a f r a c t u r i n g j o b by s e l e c t i v e
r e c o r d i n g and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e t r a c e r s . The o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s p e c i -
f i c gamma-ray s i g n a t u r e o f each t r a c e r i n t h e f r a c t u r e o r cement m a t e r i a l r e q u i -
r e s o n l y one b o r e h o l e t r i p w i t h t h e l o g g i n g i n s t r u m e n t (GADEKEN & SMITH 1 9 8 6 ) .
Due t o h i g h t o o l r e s o l u t i o n , t h e u p h o l e c o m p u t e r s o f t w a r e c a n be t a i l o r e d t o
p r o c e s s v i r t u a l l y any c o m b i n a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e t r a c e r s . Gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y
i s therefore p a r t i c u l a r l y i n d i c a t e d f o r proper evaluation o f multistage prop-
p a n t and f l u i d s c h e d u l e s w i t h i n t h e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t where a l l
t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e pumping p r o g r a m c a n be s e p a r a t e l y marked
w i t h d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e i s o t o p e s . I t c a n a l s o be d e t e r m i n e d w h e t h e r f l u i d and p r o p -
p a n t have c h a n n e l l e d b e h i n d t h e c a s i n g and c r e a t e d a d d i t i o n a l f r a c t u r e s i n ad-
j a c e n t zones b y e v a l u a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l b e i n g i n s i d e o r o u t s i d e o f f o r m a t i o n and
b o r e h o l e , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y i s a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h between
n a t u r a l f o r m a t i o n i s o t o p e s and s y n t h e t i c i n s e r t e d t r a c e r s w i t h o u t n e c e s s i t a t i n g
a pre-marker-injection r e f e r e n c e l o g (PEMPER, FLECKER, McWHIRTER & OLIVER
1 9 8 8 ) . I n m o s t cases, t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e t r a c e r m a t e r i a l i n t h e f r a c t u r e i s
a b t . one t o two o r d e r s o f m a g n i t u d e g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e n a t u r a l r e s e r v o i r
background.

Gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y t o o l s a r e a v a i l a b l e i n 3 5 / 8 " and 1 1 1 / 1 6 " o u t e r

d i a m e t e r (PEMPER, FLECKER, McWHIRTER & OLIVER 1988; WELEX 1 9 8 8 ) . A1 t h o u g h t h e
l a r g e r v e r s i o n o f t h e t o o l has g r e a t e r c o u n t i n g r a t e c a p a b i l i t i e s due t o t h e
b i g g e r t h a l l i u m - a c t i v a t e d sodium i o d i d e s c i n t i l l a t i o n c r y s t a l i m p l e m e n t e d , t h e
1 11/16 " s l i m h o l e i n s t r u m e n t i s more p o p u l a r , because i t s u t i l i z a t i o n does n o t
n e c e s s i t a t e r e m o v a l o f t u b i n g f r o m t h e w e l l b o r e . The c o u n t i n g r a t e c a p a b i l i t y
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two systems c a n be compensated by r e d u c i n g t h e l o g g i n g
speed o f t h e s m a l l e r i n s t r u m e n t . The s p e c t r a l s t a n d a r d s employed f o r d a t a a n a l y -
s i s have t o be m a t c h e d t o c o m p o s i t i o n and d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e c r y s t a l f o r e i t h e r
tool.

6.2.1.3.4.4. Gama-ray spectroscopy a p p l i c a t i o n

i n h y d r a u l i c proppant f r a c t u r i n g
Gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y e v a l u a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e t r a c e r s added t o t h e m a t e r i a l s
inserted i n t o the borehole i s a successful monitoring technique i n hydraulic
proppant f r a c t u r i n g , a c i d f r a c t u r i n g , cementing, water o r chemical f l o o d i n g ,
and even s t e a m - d r i v e o p e r a t i o n s . The m a i n a p p l i c a t i o n s o f m u l t i p l e - t r a c e r d i s -
c r i m i n a t i o n b y gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y a r e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f d i -
v e r t i n g agents used i n staged f r a c t u r i n g treatments, e v a l u a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t i n m u l t i s t a g e p r o p p a n t o r a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n s , d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between
p r o p p a n t and f l u i d p l a c e m e n t , d i s t i n c t i o n o f i n s e r t i o n o f r e s i n - c o a t e d and con-
ventional proppants o r d i f f e r e n t proppant types i n t a i l - i n operations, d i s c r i m i -
n a t i o n o f c r e a t e d and p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t , assessment o f t h e p l a c e m e n t o f
d i f f e r e n t p r o p p a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , a p p r a i s a l o f r e l a t i v e l o c a t i o n s o f l e a d and
 871

t a i l s l u r r i e s i n p r i m a r y cementing o p e r a t i o n s , e v a l u a t i o n o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
squeeze cementing and g r a v e l pack procedures, m o n i t o r i n g o f i n j e c t i o n w e l l p e r -
formance i n secondary and t e r t i a r y enhanced o i l r e c o v e r y p r o j e c t s , determina-
t i o n o f i n t e r w e l l o r i n t e r s t o r e y communication o r i s o l a t i o n and t h u s c o n t r o l o f
t h e degree o f r e s e r v o i r h e t e r o g e n e i t y , survey o f i n j e c t e d hazardous wastes i n
d i s p o s a l w e l l s , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c c o n t a c t between t r e a t e d and t h i e f
zones, d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c e n t r e s o f d r i l l i n g mud and c o m p l e t i o n f l u i d l o s s , l o c a -
l i z a t i o n o f c a s i n g o r t u b i n g l e a k s , c o n t r o l o f p e r f o r a t i o n breakdown s t a t u s ,
and m o n i t o r i n g o f g r a v e l pack h e i g h t and d e n s i t y . P a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g as-
p e c t s a r e d i s t i n c t i o n between c r e a t e d and propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t as w e l l as
j o i n t f r a c t u r e azimuth and h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n .

6.2.1.3.4.4.1.Created vs . propped fracture height

D i s t i n c t i o n between c r e a t e d and propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t by d i f f e r e n t t a g g i n g
o f f l u i d s and proppants can e a s i l y and r e l i a b l y be performed by gamma-ray spec-
t r o s c o p y b o t h i n s i n g l e - and m u l t i p l e - h o r i z o n s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s . F l u i d l a -
b e l l i n g and m o n i t o r i n g has t h e advantage t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o h e l p i n g t o i n d i -
c a t e f r a c t u r e segments which may have c l o s e d a f t e r t h e end o f t h e o p e r a t i o n ,
a l s o communication p a t h s t o nearby w a t e r - b e a r i n g i n t e r v a l s o r b r i d g e s between
two superimposed zones t h r o u g h t h e s e p a r a t i n g b a r r i e r can be d i s c e r n e d (GADEKEN
& SMITH 1986). I n terms o f cementing a p p l i c a t i o n s , gamma-ray spectroscopy can
l o c a t e d i f f e r e n t types o f cements and measure t h e average r a d i a l cement t h i c k -
ness (GADEKEN, SMITH & SEIFERT 1987).

WILLIAMS & McCARTHY (1987) comment on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e r a d i o a c -

t i v e t r a c e r s t o o p t i m i z e s t i m u l a t i o n design. F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e o f f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g by l o g g i n g r a d i o a c t i v i t y of m u l t i p l e a r t i f i c i a l t r a c e r s i s r e -
p o r t e d by AHMED, NEWBERRY & CANNON (1985); BARBER & THEMIG (1985); PEARSON,
ABOU-SAYED & NGUYEN (1985); HOLDITCH, ROBINSON, WHITEHEAD & ELY (1987) and
YOST, OVERBEY, WILKINS & LOCKE ( 1 9 8 8 ) . CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VETTER
(1981) ; TESTER, B I V E N S & POTTER (1982) ; GUDMUNDSSON, HAUKSSON, THORHALLSSON, AL-
BERTSSON & THOROLFSSON (1984); ROBINSON, TESTER & BROWN (1984) and ROBINSON &
TESTER (1985) d e s c r i b e chemical and r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r i n g f o r performance moni-
t o r i n g o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s i n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s .

6.2.1.3.4.4.2. Joint fracture azimuth and height determination

An advanced a p p l i c a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e - t r a c e r gamma-ray spectroscopy would be
o r i e n t e d r e c o r d i n g aiming on f r a c t u r e azimuth d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n a d d i t i o n t o
c r a c k h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g . The achievement o f good r e s u l t s , however, would r e -
q u i r e p e r f o r a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e g e o s t r e s s f i e l d i n o r d e r t o se-
c u r e optimum f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n and f u l l communication w i t h t h e b o r e h o l e t r a -
j e c t o r y ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 4 . 1 0 . 3 . ) . T h i s t e c h n i q u e which i s c u r r e n t l y s t i l l i n
e x p e r i m e n t a l stage would r e p r e s e n t an unique c o m b i n a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e a n a l y s i s
i n b o t h h o r i z o n t a l ( f r a c t u r e azimuth) and v e r t i c a l ( f r a c t u r e h e i g h t ) d i r e c t i o n
and would be t h e most s o p h i s t i c a t e d method d e l i v e r i n g a maximum o f r e s u l t s f r o m
o n l y one i n s t r u m e n t and one b o r e h o l e r u n and would t h e r e f o r e be i n a v e r y compe-
t i t i v e p o s i t i o n once c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e .

Gamma-ray spectroscopy can a l s o be r u n through t u b i n g w i t h up t o 1 11/16 "

s l i m h o l e t o o l s and can be combined w i t h temperature and c a s i n g c o l l a r l o c a t o r
i n s t r u m e n t s i n one r u n . I n c o n t r a s t t o s t a n d a r d gamma-ray l o g g i n g , gamma-ray
spectroscopy e l i m i n a t e s p r e - t r e a t m e n t surveys f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f background
r a d i a t i o n by s p e c t r a l d e c o n v o l u t i o n o f t h e r e c o r d e d data. Enhanced n a t u r a l gam-
ma-ray spectroscopy can be u t i l i z e d f o r m i n e r a l o g i c a l and geochemical w e l l l o g -
g i n g (SCHLUMBERGER 1987 c ) .
 872

6.2.1.3.4.5.Gama-ray spectroscopy application

in a combination of natural and hydraulic fracturing
P o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f gamma-ray spectroscopy i n c o m b i n a t i o n s o f na-
t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by some examples o f n a t u r a l
c r a c k w i d e n i n g by h y d r a u l i c t r e a t m e n t , m u l t i p l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n h o r i z o n -
t a l w e l l s , and c o e x i s t e n c e o f two n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems as f o l l o w s .

6.2.1.3.4.5.1. Natural fracture widening by hydraulic treatment

LOPUS, SEIFERT & SCHEIN (1987) r e p o r t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c o n d u c t i n g n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e s u t i l i z i n g m u l t i p l e r a d i o a c t i v e i s o t o p e t r a c e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s and gam-
ma-ray spectroscopy. The use o f m u l t i p l e r a d i o a c t i v e markers i n c o n j u n c t i o n
w i t h a d e n d r i t i c f r a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.8.4.) has been a p p l i e d
f o r e f f e c t i v i t y m o n i t o r i n g o f t h e v a r i o u s d i v e r t e r stages d u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t
and t h u s s e l e c t i v e v e r t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n check o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l f r a c t u r i n g p u l -
ses. Gamma-ray spectroscopy a n a l y s i s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s e v e r a l t r a c e r s has
v e r i f i e d the r e s t r i c t i o n o f the hydraulic s t i m u l a t i o n t o the p r e - e x i s t i n g p a t -
t e r n o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s by t h e d e n d r i t i c h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g p r o c e d u r e ( c f .
also section 4.5.4.4.3.).

I n t h e example o u t l i n e d by LOPUS, SEIFERT & SCHEIN (1987), f o u r t r a c e r s were

i n s e r t e d i n d i f f e r e n t stages o f t h e o p e r a t i o n . The f i r s t marker was used f o r i n -
d i c a t i o n o f t h e most c o n d u c t i v e f r a c t u r e s , t h e second i s o t o p e was a p p l i e d f o r
monitoring o f l e s s conductive o r blocked f r a c t u r e s a f t e r the h i g h - c o n d u c t i v i t y
c r a c k s have been t e m p o r a r i l y d i v e r t e d w i t h proppants, t h e t h i r d t r a c e r was i n -
s e r t e d a f t e r pumping o f a n o t h e r d i v e r t e r t o r e f l e c t s t i l l l e s s c o n d u c t i v e f r a c -
t u r e s , and f o l l o w i n g a l a r g e volume o f f r e s h w a t e r f l u s h i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e
t h e e f f e c t of t h e d i v e r t e r s , t h e l a s t t r a c e r aimed on m o n i t o r i n g o f t h e gross
v e r t i c a l i n t e r v a l which was e f f e c t i v e l y t r e a t e d , t h u s r e p r e s e n t i n g t o t a l f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t c h e c k i n g . S o l u b l e d i v e r t e r s such as r o c k s a l t were used t o s e a l o f f
t h e m a j o r n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s i n o r d e r t o f o r c e t h e f l u i d i n t o s m a l l e r c r a c k s and
t o c r e a t e a r t i f i c i a l f r a c t u r e s , and a f i n a l l a r g e f l u s h had t h e purpose t o d i s -
solve the s a l t o u t o f the blocked p o s i t i o n s .

F r a c t u r e h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n by s p e c i a l gamma-ray a n a l y s i s i s a l s o c a r r i e d
o u t by ANDERSON, PEARSON, ABOU-SAYED & MYERS ( 1 9 8 6 ) . Aspects o f gamma-ray spec-
t r o s c o p y f o r m u l t i p l e r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r w e l l l o g g i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by GA-
DEKEN, SMITH & SEIFERT (1987). An advanced t e c h n i q u e i s p u l s e d n e u t r o n induced
gamma-ray spectroscopy (MYERS 1988). D i g i t a l s o n i c l o g g i n g i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h
h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n d i p m e t e r and induced gamma-ray spectroscopy p r o v i d e s an unique
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r r e t r o a n a l y s i s of f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s and p r o d u c i b i l i t y o f
t i g h t gas sands as w e l l as p r e d i c t i v e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s m o d e l l i n g a i m i n g on
c r a c k boundary f o r e c a s t (HUNT, RAYMOND, HASKETT & P I R I E 1981). F r a c t u r e e v a l u a -
t i o n by q u a n t i t a t i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e n a t u r a l gamma-ray spectrum
i s o u t l i n e d by JACKSON & GARTNER ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

6.2.1.3.4.5.2. Multiple hydraulic fracturing in horizontal wells

OVERBEY, YOST & WILKINS (1988) e v a l u a t e m u l t i p l e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g i n ho-
r i z o n t a l wellbores i n t e r s e c t i n g n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d r e s e r v o i r s . Special d i s c r i n i -
n a t i o n procedures a l l o w t o s e p a r a t e l y examine t h e impacts o f v a r i o u s f l o w r a t e s
and p r e s s u r e s which e x i s t e d d u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t s . R a d i o a c t i v e i s o t o p e s p e c t r o -
scopy can be e f f e c t i v e l y used t o t r a c e f l o w p a t h s t o a d j a c e n t i n t e r v a l s , be-
cause t h e i s o t o p e s c o u l d n o t have appeared i n these zones w i t h o u t t r a v e l l i n g
back t o t h e w e l l b o r e v i a f r a c t u r e s of an o r i e n t a t i o n c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t
than t h a t o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f l u i d e n t r y
p o i n t s i n d i c a t e s t h a t n a t u r a l c r a c k s a r e s e l e c t e d a t low i n j e c t i o n r a t e s w h i l e
induced f r a c t u r e s a r e chosen a t h i g h e r pumping r a t e s . Gamma-ray spectroscopy o f
 873

m u l t i p l e r a d i o a c t i v e tracers i n conducting m u l t i p l e i n j e c t i o n t e s t s i s thus

v e r y b e n e f i c i a l i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g n a t u r a l vs. induced p r e f e r r e d f l u i d p a t h s .

6.2.1.3.4.5.3. Coexistence of two natural fracture systems

LAYNE & SIRIWARDANE (1988) p e r f o r m gamma-ray spectroscopy o f m u l t i p l e t r a -
c e r s i n r e s e r v o i r s i n t e r s e c t e d by two d i s t i n c t n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems. Marker
m o n i t o r i n g r e v e a l e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e f i r s t phase o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b , f l u i d s
propagated i n t o t h e f i r s t c r a c k system and e n t e r e d a f a u l t zone which crosses
t h e m i d d l e p o r t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r complex. I n t h e second phase o f t h e opera-
t i o n when i n j e c t i o n r a t e s and p r e s s u r e s were increased, f l u i d s p e n e t r a t e d t h e
second f r a c t u r e network and t r a v e l l e d back t o t h e w e l l b o r e as i n d i c a t e d by t r a -
c e r enrichment i n t h e l o w e r segment o f t h e pay. These r e l a t i o n s h i p s t e s t i f y t o
e x i s t e n c e o f a h i g h l y - c o n n e c t e d n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e system i n t h e p r o s p e c t i v e i n -
t e r v a l which promotes m u l t i p l e p a t h s o f expanded n a t u r a l c r a c k s f r o m a s i n g l e
s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t . F r a c t u r e d i a g n o s t i c s can even be expanded t o i d e n t i f y
t h e r e l a t i v e amount o f f l u i d t h a t e n t e r e d each c r a c k i n a s e m i - q u a n t i t a t i v e man-
ner. Two forms o f f l u i d e n t r a n c e can be r e c o g n i z e d i n c l u d i n g annulus l e a k o f f
and l a r g e i n j e c t i o n f l o w i n t o d i s c r e t e f r a c t u r e s .

6.2.1.4. Combination of temperature and gamna-ray logging

The optimum c o m b i n a t i o n i n o r d e r t o reproduce t h e r e s u l t s , t o c a l i b r a t e t h e
i n d i v i d u a l l o g s and t o cross-check t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e r e c o r d e d d a t a as w e l l
as t o pay a t t e n t i o n t o t h e economical need o f proppant and l o g g i n g c o s t c o n t a i n -
ment i s c a r r y i n g o u t f r a c t u r i n g j o b s w i t h h i g h - s t r e n g t h z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p -
p a n t t a i l - i n s ( c f . s e c t i o n 2.4.1.2.3.) i n some c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d w e l l s i n t h e
f i e l d and r u n n i n g t h e r e i n b o t h temperature and c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g s
( b o t h t o o l s can be combined and may t h u s be r e c o r d e d i n one r u n even i n
1 11/16 " s l i m s i z e ) s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t . The f e a s i b i l i t y
o f t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h f o r f i e l d - w i d e m o n i t o r i n g campaigns i n
t i g h t gas r e s e r v o i r s where most o f t h e w e l l s have t o be f r a c t u r e d and gamma-ray
spectroscopy i s beyond c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r economical reasons due t o r e l a t i v e l y
simple f r a c t u r i n g operation design.

I t has t o be emphasized, however, t h a t any s t i m u l a t i o n j o b r e q u i r i n g d i s c r i -

m i n a t i o n o f more t h a n one component o f s y n t h e t i c t r a c e r and/or n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l
r a d i o a c t i v i t y can o n l y be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y m o n i t o r e d w i t h gamma-ray spectroscopy.
The f o l l o w i n g b r i e f o u t l i n e i n c l u d e s aspects o f l o g g i n g c o s t containment i n
f r a c t u r i n g campaigns, c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f temperature anomalies, d i s t i n c t i o n o f
c r e a t e d and propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t , and t i m e - l a p s e m o n i t o r i n g r e p e t i t i o n l o g -
ging.

6.2.1.4.1. Logging cost containment in fracturing camaigns

The c o m b i n a t i o n o f temperature and gamma-ray l o g g i n g does n o t o n l y a l l o w com-
p a r i s o n o f t h e r e s u l t s d e l i v e r e d by t h e d i f f e r e n t methods i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l
w e l l , b u t u s i n g t h e e x i s t i n g temperature l o g s f o r c a l i b r a t i o n and r e f e r e n c e , it
i s f u l l y s u f f i c i e n t t o r u n o n l y s t a n d a r d temperature l o g s i n t h e o t h e r w e l l s o f
the f i e l d t o o b t a i n the requested information, w i t h i n f i l l i n g o f the f r a c t u r e s
w i t h sand a n d / o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o h i g h - s t r e n g t h proppants o f any c o m p o s i t i o n
keeping t r e a t m e n t c o s t w i t h i n a reasonable frame, and temperature l o g g i n g b e i n g
even a l s o s l i g h t l y cheaper than gamma-ray r e c o r d i n g , t h e r e b y d r a s t i c a l l y con-
t a i n i n g t h e l o g g i n g expenses f o r l a r g e f r a c t u r i n g campaigns a f f e c t i n g up t o se-
v e r a l dozens o f w e l l s i n b i g f i e l d s i n case o f unambiguous temperature r e a d i n g s
i n f o r m a t i o n s w i t h normal thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y . I n case o f hardwork a t t h e b o t -
tom o f t h e h o l e n o t p e r m i t t i n g t h e t o o l t o g e t c o m p l e t e l y down i n t h e s i t u a t i o n
of s h o r t r a t h o l e s , a t l e a s t t h e upper boundary o f t h e f r a c t u r e can be c l e a r l y
p i c k e d up.
 874

T h i s t y p e o f c o m b i n a t i o n and r e p l a c e m e n t o f t e m p e r a t u r e and c o n v e n t i o n a l gam-

m a - r a y l o g g i n g i n f i e l d - w i d e campaigns w i t h r e c o r d i n g o f b o t h l o g s i n a f e w se-
l e c t e d w e l l s and l a t e r m e a s u r i n g o n l y s t i l l e i t h e r gamma-ray o r t e m p e r a t u r e
l o g s w i t h i n t e r b o r e h o l e c a l i b r a t i o n , c o m p a r i s o n and c o r r e l a t i o n , however, i s
o n l y p o s s i b l e i n c a s e o f n o t t o o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between c r e a t e d and
p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t o n t h e one hand ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.5.2.) and r e s e r v o i r
t h i c k n e s s s e t t i n g t h e s t a g e f o r a b s o l u t e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t on t h e o t h e r hand,
thus g u a r a n t e i n g reasonably matching readings o f t h e two d i f f e r e n t determina-
t i o n techniques (otherwise t h e o n l y r e l i a b l e b u t a l s o expensive s o l u t i o n i s
m u l t i p l e - t r a c e r gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y ; c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 4 . ) .

6.2.1.4.2. C l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t e m e r a t u r e anomalies
I n t e r m s o f warm a n o m a l i e s a t t h e t o p o f t h e f r a c t u r e as r e f l e c t e d b y tempe-
r a t u r e logging ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.1.3.), d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i -
t y a n o m a l i e s and f r a c t u r e a n o m a l i e s c a n a l s o be made b y c h e c k i n g a p a r a l l e l gam-
m a - r a y l o g t h a t can show w h e t h e r t h e warm zone i s a l s o i n f i l l e d b y r a d i o a c t i v e
p r o p p a n t o r f l u i d m a t e r i a l and t h u s s t i l l b e l o n g s t o t h e c r a c k o r n o t (DOBKINS
1 9 7 9 ) . I n some c a s e s , however, t h e gamma-ray l o g does n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e tempe-
r a t u r e s u r v e y , w i t h t h e t e m p e r a t u r e l o g b e i n g assumed t o be more a c c u r a t e , be-
cause t h e f l u i d c o u l d e n t e r and c o o l a f r a c t u r e r e g a r d l e s s o f i t s s i z e , whereas
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r a d i o a c t i v e p r o p p a n t s i n t h e f r a c t u r e may have been r e s t r i c t e d
b y p r o p p a n t g r a i n s i z e and c r a c k w i d t h , w i t h p r o b a b l y o n l y l i t t l e m a t e r i a l ha-
v i n g e n t e r e d t h e f r a c t u r e a t t h e n a r r o w e r u p p e r and l o w e r t e r m i n a l t i p s w h i c h
t h e n m i g h t n o t show u p o n t h e gamma-ray r e c o r d due t o p o s s i b l y b e i n g b e l o w b a c k -
ground l e v e l o f r a d i a t i o n .

On t h e o t h e r hand, i n such c a s e s t h e gamma-ray l o g shows t h e e f f e c t i v e f r a c -

t u r e height, because t h e u p p e r and l o w e r t i p s r e f l e c t e d b y t h e t e m p e r a t u r e l o g
d o n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o r e s e r v o i r d r a i n a g e i f n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y p r o p p e d t o become
d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e on t h e gamma-ray r e c o r d . The d i f f e r e n c e s between c r e a t e d c r a c k
h e i g h t as r e f l e c t e d b y f l u i d m o n i t o r i n g w i t h t h e t e m p e r a t u r e l o g and p r o p p e d
f r a c t u r e h e i g h t as d i s p l a y e d b y p r o p p a n t s u r v e y i n g w i t h t h e gamma-ray l o g ( c f .
s e c t i o n 6.2.1.5.2.) c a n o n l y be c l a r i f i e d b y c o m p a r a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f b o t h r e -
cords, and in c a s e o f d o u b t f u l r e s u l t s o f t h e s e s t a n d a r d t e c h n i q u e s , t h e o n l y
r e l i a b l e p o s s i b i l i t y i s gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 4 . ) .

6.2.1.4.3. D i s t i n c t i o n o f created and propped f r a c t u r e height

The c o m b i n a t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e and c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g t h e r e f o r e
a l s o a l l o w s t o d e t e r m i n e and t o d i s t i n g u i s h b o t h c r e a t e d and p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.5.2.) by separate f l u i d recording (temperature l o g -
g i n g ) and p r o p p a n t d e t e c t i o n (gamma-ray l o g g i n g ) . T e m p e r a t u r e and gamma-ray s u r -
v e y s c a n be f u r t h e r combined w i t h p r e - f r a c t u r i n g i n j e c t i v i t y t e s t i n g t o make
s u r e t h a t t h e e n t i r e c o m p l e t e d i n t e r v a l w i l l be t r e a t e d d u r i n g t h e s t i m u l a t i o n
j o b , and i f n o t so, t h e l o g s a c t as a r o a d map t o d e t e r m i n e where a d d i t i o n a l
p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d (BUNDY 1 9 8 1 ) . A s p e c t s o f c o m b i n a t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e
and c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y GREGORCZYK, PAULS,
HOLTMYER, CHISHOLM & VENDITTO ( 1 9 8 4 ) and BEGNAUD & CLAIBORNE ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

A more s o p h i s t i c a t e d , a l t h o u g h i n m o s t c a s e s a l s o a more e x p e n s i v e t e c h n i q u e
o f d i s t i n c t i o n o f c r e a t e d and p r o p p e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i s gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y
( c f . section 6.2.1.3.4.). While a standard combination run o f conventional
gamma-ray and t e m p e r a t u r e t o o l s i s c h e a p e r t h a n gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y , time-
l a p s e r e c o r d i n g b y s e v e r a l r u n s o f c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g i n o r d e r t o
s e p a r a t e f l u i d and p r o p p a n t r a d i a t i o n c o m p r i s i n g t r a c e r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t h a l f -
l i f e t i m e s c o u l d be more e x p e n s i v e t h a n gamma-ray s p e c t r o s c o p y a t t h e b o t t o m o f
t h e l i n e , w i t h t h e major advantage o f t h e l a t t e r s o p h i s t i c a t e d technique b e i n g
t h e u n a m b i g u i t y of r e s u l t s due t o c l e a r s e g r e g a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t t r a c e r s b o t h
 875

i n terms o f energy peak l e v e l and decay r a t e s .

6.2.1.4.4. Time-lapse monitor ins repet it ion logging

R e p e t i t i o n o f e i t h e r temperature o r gamma-ray l o g g i n g r u n s d u r i n g course o f
l o n g - t e r m p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y can a l s o document p r o g r e s s i v e c l o s u r e a t t h e upper
and l o w e r ends o f t h e f r a c t u r e due t o c r u s h i n g o f t h e p r o p p i n g m a t e r i a l as a
consequence o f i n c r e a s i n g s t r e s s w i t h successive r e s e r v o i r d e p l e t i o n and p r e s -
s u r e drawdown which f i r s t a f f e c t s t h e narrow upper and l o w e r f r a c t u r e t i p s
where mono- o r o l i g o - l a y e r p r o p p i n g i s p r e s e n t i n c o n t r a s t t o m u l t i - l a y e r prop-
p i n g o f t h e m i d d l e p o r t i o n s o f t h e crack, w i t h consequently a s u c c e s s i v e l y shor-
t e r f r a c t u r e appearing on t h e r e c o r d s w i t h p r o g r e s s i n g hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a -
t i o n . Some comments a r e o f f e r e d on temperature and c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray t i m e
l a p s i n g as w e l l as s p e c t r a l gamma-ray t i m e l a p s i n g .

6.2.1.4.4.1. Temperature and conventional gamma-ray time lapsing

Temperature l o g g i n g a t a l a t e r stage, however, r e q u i r e s p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e
w e l l by renewed i n j e c t i o n o f c o l d f l u i d s i n t o t h e f r a c t u r e ( c f . s e c t i o n
6.2.1.1.), w i t h t h u s t i m e - l a p s e m o n i t o r i n g o f changes o f c r a c k dimension ( s i m i -
l a r l y as t i m e - l a p s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p r o g r e s s i v e r i s e o f t h e hydrocarbon-water-
c o n t a c t d u r i n g course o f d e p l e t i o n by thermal n e u t r o n decay t i m e l o g g i n g ; CLA-
V I E R , HOYLE & MEUNIER 1971; SCHLUMBERGER 1974) b e i n g i n terms o f o p e r a t i o n s
much e a s i e r and cheaper performed by gamma-ray r e c o r d i n g t h a n by temperature
measurement. The s i m p l e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r i n g c r a c k geometry
by r e p e a t i n g gamma-ray l o g g i n g f r o m t i m e t o t i m e d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n h i s t o r y a l s o
argues f o r c a r r y i n g - o u t o f combined gamma-ray and temperature l o g g i n g s h o r t l y
a f t e r t h e f r a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n a t l e a s t i n some w e l l s o f a group o f t r e a t e d
b o r e h o l e s i n f i e l d s where s t i m u l a t i o n i s an i m p o r t a n t improvement o f t h e hydro-
carbon o u t p u t .

The o n l y l i m i t a t i o n o f t i m e - l a p s e m o n i t o r i n g by c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray repe-

t i t i o n l o g g i n g i s t h e d e c l i n i n g i n t e n s i t y o f p r o p p a n t and/or f l u i d r a d i o a c t i v i -
t y . W h i l e most o f t h e s y n t h e t i c t r a c e r s a r e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t - l i v e d w i t h h a l f -
l i f e t i m e s o f t h e i s o t o p e s o f a b t . 30 - 90 days and t h u s a r e i d e a l means f o r
short-term time-lapse monitoring, the r a d i o a c t i v e i m p u r i t i e s i n n a t u r a l z i r c o n
by diadochous c a t i o n replacement i n t h e c r y s t a l l a t t i c e ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.2.)
have l o n g e r h a l f - l i f e t i m e s up t o g e o c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y e x p l o i t a b l e p e r i o d s . The
r a d i o a c t i v e i m p u r i t i e s i n t h e z i r c o n raw m a t e r i a l a r e more o r l e s s homogenized
and r e d i s t r i b u t e d d u r i n g t h e f u s i o n process o f z i r c o n i a - s i l i c a t e p r o p p a n t manu-
f a c t u r i n g , w i t h t h i s p r o p p a n t t y p e t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e most s u i t a b l e ma-
t e r i a l f o r l o n g - t e r m t i m e - l a p s e m o n i t o r i n g o f f r a c t u r e h e i g h t changes d u r i n g
p r o g r e s s i v e r e s e r v o i r e x p l o i t a t i o n by c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g g i n g .

6.2.1.4.4.2. Spectral gamma-ray t ime lapsing

Time-lapse gamma-ray spectroscopy i s a s u i t a b l e means o f d i s t i n c t i o n o f seve-
r a l t r a c e r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t h a l f - l i f e t i m e s i n a d d i t i o n t o o r as an a l t e r n a t i v e
t o s e g r e g a t i o n o f markers w i t h d i f f e r e n t energy peaks ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.3.4.).
I t i s a l s o a p o s s i b l e , b u t c e r t a i n l y a l s o more expensive a p p l i c a t i o n f o r moni-
t o r i n g o f p r o g r e s s i v e f r a c t u r e c l o s u r e a t t h e upper and lower ends o f t h e c r a c k
wings, a l t h o u g h t h i s goal can a l s o be achieved by c o n v e n t i o n a l gamma-ray l o g -
g i n g . Summaries o f r e c e n t advances and e x p e r i e n c e o f t e c h n i c a l w e l l - l o g g i n g f o r
p r o d u c t i o n m o n i t o r i n g a r e g i v e n by BRADEL (1980), BRADEL & DRAXLER (1982) and
NOBLETT, FERTL & GUY (1987), and problems o f l o g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t i g h t gas
sands a r e reviewed by RUHOVETS & FERTL (1982); KUKAL, BIDDISON, HILL, MONSON &
SIMONS (1983); MONSON & SIMONS (1983), KUKAL (1984), KUKAL & SIMONS (1985),
TSAY & FANG (1986) and KUCHUK ( 1 9 8 7 ) . An overview o f l o g measurement and i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s i s p r o v i d e d by SERRA (1985, 1987) and ELLIS ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
 876

6.2.1.5. Thermal decay time logging

An a l t e r n a t i v e t o temperature and gamma-ray l o g g i n g f o r h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s thermal decay t i m e r e c o r d i n g (PEETERS & HARTLEY (1984)
which i n f a c t i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f n e u t r o n andgamma-ray l o g g i n g . A f t e r d i s c u s -
s i n g some g e n e r a l aspects o f thermal decay t i m e l o g g i n g , d i s t i n c t i o n o f s e v e r a l
f r a c t u r e h e i g h t types i s made. Comments a r e a l s o o f f e r e d on e v a l u a t i o n o f a c i d
s t i m u l a t i on.

6.2.1.5.1. Genera 1 aspects

The thermal decay t i m e t o o l sends b u r s t s o f h i g h - e n e r g y n e u t r o n s i n t o t h e r e -
s e r v o i r where t h e y a r e r a p i d l y slowed down t o thermal v e l o c i t i e s and a r e t h e n
c a p t u r e d by n u c l e i w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g e m i s s i o n o f gamma r a y s (PEETERS & HART-
LEY 1984). D e t e c t i o n o f t h e number o f gamma r a y s as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e i s a mea-
s u r e o f t h e change i n t h e thermal n e u t r o n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e f o r m a t i o n . Because
c h l o r i n e i s a s t r o n g thermal n e u t r o n absorber, t h e response o f t h e thermal de-
cay t i m e l o g i s p r i m a r i l y determined by t h e c h l o r i n e p r e s e n t i n r e s e r v o i r
b r i n e . I n d u c i n g a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e l e a d s t o replacement o f f o r m a t i o n b r i n e by
stimulation fluid, and t h u s comparison o f thermal decay t i m e l o g s r u n b e f o r e
and a f t e r t h e t r e a t m e n t can g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n o f c r a c k h e i g h t .

As t h e thermal decay t i m e i n s t r u m e n t has a v e r y l i m i t e d d e p t h o f i n v e s t i g a -

t i o n , c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e f l u i d i n t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s has i n many cases a g r e a t e r i n -
f l u e n c e on t h e t o o l response than t h e f r a c t u r e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p e r f o r a t i o n
e f f e c t p o s s i b l y overshadowing t h a t o f t h e crack, t h e t o o l i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o
changes i n a p p a r e n t b o r e h o l e s a l i n i t i e s w h i c h a r e u s u a l l y unknown when comple-
t i o n f l u i d s a r e d i s p l a c e d by s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s . A d u a l - b u r s t thermal decay
t i m e l o g g i n g system i s i n t r o d u c e d by OLESEN, MAHDAVI, STEINMANN & YVER (1987)
and STEINMAN, ADOLPH, MAHDAVI & PREEG ( 1 9 8 8 ) . Pulsed n e u t r o n l o g g i n g w i t h a n a l y -
s i s o f c a p t u r e c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f gamma-rays r e s u l t i n g f r o m thermal decay o f neu-
t r o n s i s a l s o a p p l i e d f o r g r a v e l pack h e i g h t and d e n s i t y e v a l u a t i o n ( c f . sec-
t i o n 6.3.3.).

Reviewing s e v e r a l drawbacks o f v a r i o u s f r a c t u r e h e i g h t d e t e r m i n a t i o n l o g g i n g
methods, PEETERS & HARTLEY (1984) conclude t h a t c r a c k h e i g h t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
s h o u l d be regarded as an a r t , and i n o r d e r t o improve c o n f i d e n c e i n m o d e l l i n g ,
a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a number o f d i f f e r e n t techniques s h o u l d be u t i l i z e d .

6.2.1.5.2. Fracture height types

A t t e n t i o n has t o be p a i d t o t h e f a c t t h a t d i f f e r e n t l o q.q.i n q t o o l s respond t o
~

d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e h e i g h t s . D i s t i n c t i o n can be made between crea ed, propped

and permeable f r a c t u r e h e i g h t (PEETERS & HARTLEY 1 9 8 4 ) .

6.2.1.5.2.1. Created and propped f r a c t u r e height

As s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d e n t e r s t h e f r a c t u r e and c o o l s t h e whole e n g t h o f t h e
crack which was o r i g i n a l l y opened, temperature l o g g i n g responds t o t o t a l c r e a -
t e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t where f l u i d had a chance t o p e n e t r a t e (PEETERS & HARTLEY
1984; c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 1 . ) . I n r a r e cases when p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e f l u i d v o l u -
mes were i n j e c t e d and t h e c o o l i n g e f f e c t i s e x t e n d i n g upwards a n d / o r downwards
beyond t h e c r a c k t i p s due t o f u r t h e r advance o f t h e c o l d f r o n t beyond t h e f r a c -
t u r e boundaries by c o n d u c t i o n , c r a c k h e i g h t r e f l e c t e d by temperature l o g g i n g
c o u l d be even more than t h e t r u e c r e a t e d one, b u t t h i s e f f e c t i s i n most cases
o f n e g l i g i b l e magnitude. Proppant d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e f r a c t u r e i s i n f l u e n c e d by
s e t t l i n g o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g c r a c k c l o s u r e and g r a i n s i z e l i m i t a t i o n s f o r e n t e r i n g
 877

t h e narrow upper and l o w e r t i p s o f t h e f r a c t u r e , w i t h t h e r e f o r e propped c r a c k

h e i g h t as measured by t h e gamma-ray t o o l i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h r a d i o a c t i v e prop-
pants ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) b e i n g i n most cases l e s s t h a n c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t as r e g i s t e r e d by temperature l o g g i n g , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r l y propped c r a c k
t o p b e i n g l o w e r i n t h e b o r e h o l e than c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e t o p as a consequence o f
proppant s e t t l i n g and banking ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.12.2.).

I n l o w - v i s c o s i t y f r a c t u r i n g f l u i d s , t h e proppant bank i s growing f r o m t h e

b o t t o m o f t h e c r a c k i n upwards d i r e c t i o n b y p r o g r e s s i v e v e r t i c a l proppant aggra-
d a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e r a d i o a c t i v e proppants added o n l y i n t h e l a t e stage o f t h e
t r e a t m e n t a r e n o t r e f l e c t i n g t h e t r u e propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t . Thus r a d i o a c t i v e
g r a i n s s h o u l d be i n t e r m i x e d i n t o t h e p r o p p a n t p o p u l a t i o n p r e f e r a b l y t h r o u g h o u t
t h e j o b f o r t h e purpose o f r e f l e c t i n g t o t a l propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t upon gamma-
r a y l o g g i n g , w i t h a d d i t i o n b e i n g stopped j u s t b e f o r e t h e a f t e r - f l u s h i n o r d e r
t o a v o i d accumulation o f r a d i o a c t i v e p r o p p a n t i n t h e t u b u l a r s .

Created and propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t as r e f l e c t e d by f l u i d e n t r y and p r o p p a n t

d i s t r i b u t i o n can a l s o be termed upper and l o w e r c r a c k h e i g h t (GRI 1988) as a
consequence o f t h e f a c t t h a t c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i s g e n e r a l l y l a r g e r than
propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t f o r t h e reason o f t h e i n a b i l i t y o f p r o p p a n t i n s e r t i o n
i n t o t h e upper and l o w e r narrow t e r m i n a l t i p s o f t h e c r a c k . F r a c t u r e h e i g h t ob-
tained from pressure decline e v o l u t i o n o f m i n i f r a c t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n treatments
(CASTILLO 1987) i s u s u a l l y g r e a t e r and s m a l l e r than t h a t r e c o r d e d by gamma-ray
and temperature w e l l l o g g i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y (WAREMBOURG 1988). T h e r e f o r e p r e s -
s u r e a n a l y s i s r e q u i r e s i n p u t o f a l e a k o f f o r f l u i d - l o s s c r a c k h e i g h t which i s
termed n e t f r a c t u r e h e i g h t ( i n c o n t r a s t t o g r o s s f r a c t u r e h e i g h t b e i n g o v e r a l l
c r a c k h e i g h t ) i n t h e c a l i b r a t i o n j o b assessment. F l u i d - l o s s o r n e t f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t i s g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e n e t hydrocarbon pay zone because o f p e r -
meable i n t e r v a l s above and/or below t h e n e t hydrocarbon pay zone.

6.2.1.5.2.2.Permeable fracture height

L i q u i d r a d i o a c t i v e t r a c e r s r e c o r d e d by gamma-ray l o g g i n g as w e l l as thermal
decay t i m e m o n i t o r i n g r e v e a l permeable f r a c t u r e h e i g h t which i s l i k e l y t o be
d i f f e r e n t from c r e a t e d c r a c k h e i g h t as d i s p l a y e d by temperature l o g g i n g and
propped f r a c t u r e h e i g h t as r e g i s t e r e d by gamma-ray l o g g i n g o f r a d i o a c t i v e p r o p -
p a n t s (PEETERS & HARTLEY 1984). L e a k - o f f o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d i n t o t h e p e r -
meable i n t e r v a l o f t h e f r a c t u r e t r a n s p o r t s t h e 1 i q u i d t r a c e r e x c l u s i v e l y i n t o
t h a t s e c t i o n o f t h e c r a c k which l a t e r i s a l s o a c t i v e i n hydrocarbon p r o d u c t i o n .
Permeable f r a c t u r e h e i g h t t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t s e f f e c t i v e c r a c k h e i g h t concern-
i n g hydrocarbon e x p l o i t a t i o n . The thermal decay t i m e l o g responds t o t h e amount
o f c h l o r i n e i n t h e f o r m a t i o n b r i n e and t h e r e f o r e a l s o d i s p l a y s t h e permeable
f r a c t u r e i n t e r v a l where r e s e r v o i r b r i n e i s r e p l a c e d by s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s .

Created c r a c k h e i g h t as r e f l e c t e d by temperature l o g g i n g c o u l d approach p e r -

meable f r a c t u r e h e i g h t measured by thermal decay t i m e m o n i t o r i n g i f no c l o s u r e
a f t e r g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e c r a c k occurs, f o r m a t i o n f l u i d i s r e p l a c e d by f r a c t u r i n g
f l u i d along t h e f u l l l e n g t h o f t h e crack, and l a t e r a l l y and v e r t i c a l l y p r o g r e s -
s i v e r e s e r v o i r c o o l i n g by c o n d u c t i o n i s n e g l i g i b l e . I n such cases, t h e i n t e r v a l
where warm r e s e r v o i r f l u i d s have been r e p l a c e d by c o o l s t i m u l a t i o n l i q u i d s i s
equal t o t h e s e c t i o n where thermal decay t i m e l o g g i n g r e g i s t e r s a s a l i n i t y
change. I f p a r t s o f t h e c r e a t e d f r a c t u r e a r e subsequently c l o s i n g again, t h e
t i p s may be s t i l l r e f l e c t e d by t h e temperature l o g due t o t h e c o o l i n g e f f e c t o f
t h e i n j e c t e d t r e a t m e n t f l u i d s , b u t replacement o f f o r m a t i o n l i q u i d s does n o t ne-
c e s s a r i l y have t o o c c u r and t h u s s a l i n i t y c h e c k i n g by thermal decay t i m e l o g -
ging gives another r e s u l t .

The e x i s t e n c e o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t f r a c t u r e h e i g h t s c o m p r i s i n g c r e a t e d , p r o p -
ped and permeable c r a c k h e i g h t which a r e m o n i t o r e d by d i f f e r e n t l o g g i n g t e c h n i -
ques i s t h e reason why comparison o f s e v e r a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n methods can never
come t o agreement c o n c e r n i n g f r a c t u r e h e i g h t m o d e l l i n g , and t h e r e f o r e p r o p e r un-
 878

d e r s t a n d i n g o f a l l t h e d i f f e r e n t c r a c k h e i g h t s has t o be a c h i e v e d b y a combina-
t i o n o f a number o f i n d e p e n d e n t t e c h n i q u e s .

6 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 3 . Evaluation o f acid stimulation

I n a d d i t i o n t o conventional time lapse monitoring o f water saturations, p u l -
sed n e u t r o n c a p t u r e l o g g i n g ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 6 . 3 . 3 . 4 . ) i s an e x c e l l e n t t o o l i n
t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f a c i d s t i m u l a t i o n i n c h a l k and o t h e r c a r b o n a t e r e s e r v o i r s (COR-
WITH & MENGEL 1 9 8 8 ) . O t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e assessment o f p i l o t - s c a l e w a t e r
i n j e c t i o n p r o j e c t s , w a t e r and gas s a t u r a t i o n changes, and c o m p a c t i o n m o n i t o r -
i n g . Some a s p e c t s o f a c i d e f f e c t o n p u l s e d n e u t r o n c a p t u r e l o g g i n g , g e l - p a d -
c r e a t e d v s . a c i d - e t c h e d f r a c t u r e h e i g h t , and i n f l u e n c e o f w e l l d e v i a t i o n and i n -
t e r v a l t h i c k n e s s a r e d i s c u s s e d as f o l l o w s .

6 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 3 . 1 . Acid effect on pulsed neutron capture logging

C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e a c i d e f f e c t i s based on t h e change i n f o r m a t i o n c a p t u r e
c r o s s - s e c t i o n due t o a c i d w h i c h g i v e s a good i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
t h e d i v e r t e r s t a g e s o f a t r e a t m e n t c o n s i s t i n g o f a pad o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d con-
t a i n i n g e i t h e r b a l l s e a l e r s o r c h e m i c a l b r i d g i n g a g e n t s w h i c h f u n c t i o n t o tempo-
r a r i l y p l u g o f f t h e more p e r m e a b l e zones t o a l l o w s u c c e s s i v e s t i m u l a t i o n s t a g e s
t o t r e a t l e s s p e r m e a b l e i n t e r v a l s (CORWITH & MENGEL 1 9 8 8 ) . C o m p a c t i o n m o n i t o r -
i n g t o c o n t r o l f i e l d s u b s i d e n c e b y p u l s e d n e u t r o n c a p t u r e l o g g i n g has i n s u f f i -
c i e n t v e r t i c a l resolution f o r the desired calculation precision, w i t h radioac-
t i v e markers g i v i n g b e t t e r r e s u l t s .

The a c i d e f f e c t on p u l s e d n e u t r o n c a p t u r e l o g g i n g i s caused b y l o c a l i n c r e a -
ses i n p o r o s i t y a n d / o r r e t e n t i o n o f CaC12 r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t s b y t h e f o r m a t i o n ma-
t r i x (AL-SAIF, COCHRANE, EDMUNDSON & YOUNGBLOOD 1 9 7 5 ) . I n c a s e o f p r e d o m i n a n t
a c i d f r a c t u r i n g , the p o r o s i t y increase i n the near-wellbore area i s n o t s i g n i f i -
c a n t , w i t h t h e a c i d e f f e c t t h e n p r i m a r i l y b e i n g t r i g g e r e d b y an i n c r e a s e i n
c h l o r i d e c o n t e n t i n t h e i n t e r s t i t i a l w a t e r due t o CaC12 r e a c t i o n p r o d u c t (COR-
WITH & MENGEL 1 9 8 8 ) . T h e r e f o r e t h e a c i d e f f e c t i s e x p e c t e d t o d i s s i p a t e a f t e r
t h e w e l l begins t o produce w a t e r w i t h i n t h e o i l o r a f t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n o f water-
f 1ood s e c o n d a r y r e c o v e r y .

A c i d s t i m u l a t i o n m o n i t o r i n g i s a l w a y s p e r f o r m e d b y c o m p a r i n g p r e - and p o s t -
treatment records, w i t h invasion o f d r i l l i n g f l u i d s i n f l u e n c i n g the p r e - t r e a t -
ment l o g n o t d i s t u r b i n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e a c i d e f f e c t . The a c i d e f f e c t r e -
s u l t s i n r e d u c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l counts recorded by pulsed neutron capture t o o l .
The c o u n t s a r e a l s o a f f e c t e d i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n b y i n c r e a s e d w a t e r s a t u r a -
t i o n , b u t t h e m a g n i t u d e o f d e c r e a s e a p p e a r s t o be much g r e a t e r f o r a c i d s t i m u l a -
t i o n than f o r r i s i n g w a t e r c u t . A comparison o f background-corrected counts p r o -
v i d e s a t l e a s t a q u a l i t a t i v e i n d i c a t i o n o f where a c i d e f f e c t r e m a i n s .

6 . 2 . 1 . 5 . 3 . 2 . Gel-pad-created vs. acid-etched fracture height

Thermal decay t i m e and t e m p e r a t u r e l o g g i n g i n c h a l k r e s e r v o i r s o c c a s i o n a l l y
reveals t h a t gel-pad-created f r a c t u r e height i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from
a c i d - e t c h e d c r a c k h e i g h t (SNOW & HOUGH 1 9 8 8 ) . W h i l e g e l - p a d - c r e a t e d c r a c k s a r e
g e n e r a l l y r a d i a l , a c i d i s c o n f i n e d w i t h i n a zone bounded b y l o w - p o r o s i t y
l a y e r s , because t h e f r a c t u r e t h i n s a t t h e s e l o w - p o r o s i t y s e c t i o n s t h e r e b y r e -
s t r i c t i n g a c i d f l o w t o t h e w i d e segments o f t h e i n t e r v a l . F r a c t u r e t h i n n i n g o c -
c u r s b o t h because t h e l o w - p o r o s i t y zones t e n d t o b e h a r d e r and more cemented
w i t h a h i g h e r modulus and s i n c e t h e y have s l i g h t l y h i g h e r i n - s i t u s t r e s s e s .
A c i d e f f e c t on t h e r m a l decay t i m e l o g s and f l o w c o n t r i b u t i o n .on s p i n n e r s u r v e y s
i s u s u a l l y observed from a l l p e r f o r a t i o n sets w i t h t h e c l u s t e r p e r f o r a t i o n tech-
nique.
 879

6.2.1.5.3.3. Influence of well deviation and interval thickness

Where w e l l b o r e i n c l i n a t i o n i s l e s s than 20 degrees and t h e p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e
c l o s e r than a b t . 20 f t t o g e t h e r , one p e r f o r a t i o n s e t u s u a l l y does n o t r e c e i v e
a c i d and does n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o f l o w , because h i g h e r s t r e s s e s a r e c r e a t e d i n
t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e induced c r a c k s thus i n c r e a s i n g t h e l o c a l s t r e s s e s near t h e
u n f r a c t u r e d p e r f o r a t i o n s and r e s t r i c t i n g c r a c k growth t h e r e (SNOW & HOUGH
1988). I f t h e p e r f o r a t e d i n t e r v a l i s more t h a n 15 f t l o n g and b o r e h o l e i n c l i n a -
t i o n i s more than 20 degrees, thermal decay t i m e l o g g i n g r e f l e c t s f o r m a t i o n o f
m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e same p e r f o r a t e d s e c t i o n . Where s e v e r a l hundred
f e e t o f p e r f o r a t i o n s a r e placed, a c i d e f f e c t on thermal decay t i m e l o g i s u s u a l -
l y r e c o r d e d o v e r t h e e n t i r e i n t e r v a l even though f l o w i s u s u a l l y o n l y f r o m a li-
m i t e d area. The uneven c u r r e n t i s due e i t h e r t o p e r m e a b i l i t y v a r i a t i o n s o r poor
d i v e r s i o n , w i t h i n t h e l a t t e r case t h e p r i m a r y f l o w i n t e r v a l h a v i n g been hydrau-
l i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d w h i l e t h e o t h e r p o r t i o n s have been o n l y m a t r i x a c i d i z e d .

6.2.1.6. Acoust ic logging

Conventional a c o u s t i c l o g g i n g d e v i c e s have f o r a l o n g t i m e been used f o r l o -
c a t i n g p r e d o m i n a n t l y n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems which i n t e r s e c t t h e w e l l b o r e i n a
h o r i z o n t a l o r n e a r - h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e (NOBLETT, FERTL & GUY 1987; c f . s e c t i o n
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 4 . ) . Such t o o l s t y p i c a l l y employ shear wave d e t e c t i o n techniques ap-
p l i e d t o f u l l - w a v e a c o u s t i c s i g n a t u r e s . Loss o f shear wave amplitude, coupled
w i t h i n c r e a s i n g t r a n s i t t i m e s i n t h e presence o f a f l u i d - f i l l e d c r a c k system,
i s used t o determine f r a c t u r e l o c a t i o n . As t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c r a c k s s h i f t s
towards t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i n t e r s e c t i n g w e l l b o r e , c o n v e n t i o -
n a l a c o u s t i c d e v i c e s become u n r e l i a b l e f o r f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n purposes. Acous-
t i c l o g g i n g g e n e r a l l y measures t h e e f f e c t o f t h e c r a c k s on t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e
a c o u s t i c energy through t h e f o r m a t i o n , b u t t h e f r a c t u r e system has t o be such
t h a t i t i n f l u e n c e s t h e a c o u s t i c energy (HEFLIN 1979).

The C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l A c o u s t i l o g (SETSER 1981, VOGEL & HEROLZ 1981, BOTTER

1982, GUY & FERTL 1984; GUY, FERTL & OLIVER 1986; GUY, CORLEY, FERTL & FROST
1987; NOBLETT & FERTL 1987; NOBLETT, FERTL & GUY 1987; C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l M i c r o s o -
n i c T o o l ; BOTTER 1982, SCHLUMBERGER 1982; F u l l Wave Sonic Logging; M I N E A R 1986,
WELEX 1987) employs t h e p r i n c i p l e o f g e n e r a t i n g and d e t e c t i n g c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y
i n s t e a d o f l o n g i t u d i n a l l y and t r a n s v e r s e l y p r o p a g a t i n g a c o u s t i c waves o f boun-
d a r y c h a r a c t e r and is based on a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y o r i e n t e d a c o u s t i c t r a n s m i t -
t e r - r e c e i v e r a r r a y f o r d e t e c t i o n o f v e r t i c a l and n e a r - v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e systems
such as o c c u r r i n g i n r e s e r v o i r s i n g r e a t e r depth. A u x i l i a r y i n s t r u m e n t s r u n i n
c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l A c o u s t i l o g sonde i n c l u d e a n a t u r a l gamma-
r a y d e t e c t o r and an o r i e n t a t i o n s e c t i o n , w i t h t h e l a t t e r measuring d e v i a t i o n o f
t h e b o r e h o l e f r o m v e r t i c a l p l u s azimuth and r e l a t i v e b e a r i n g o f t h e r e c e i v e r -
c o n t a i n i n g pad. The d a t a a r e d i s p l a y e d i n v a r i a b l e d e n s i t y l o g and/or s i g n a t u r e
waveform format. F o l l o w i n g an overview o f r e c o g n i t i o n o f f r a c t u r e s f r o m wave
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , an o u t l i n e o f f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s g i v e n .

6.2.1.6.1. Recognition of fractures from wave transformations

The main a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l A c o u s t i l o g i s azimuth mapping o f
n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e systems o r j o i n t bundles, a l t h o u g h t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e d i -
r e c t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f hydraulically-induced cracks i s also possible. Careful
c a l i b r a t i o n and r e c o r d i n g should a l s o a l l o w v e r t i c a l h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g o f promi-
n e n t l a r g e - s c a l e n a t u r a l and h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s by f o l l o w i n g c o n t i -
nuous t r e n d s o f more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t azimuth r e a d i n g s o f m a j o r c r a c k s t h a t a r e
separated by zones r e f l e c t i n g o n l y l i t t l e j o i n t i n g ( i f a t a l l ) r e p r e s e n t i n g
boundary s e a l s e c t i o n s o f t h e f r a c t u r e d pay i n t e r v a l . The b r i e f summary as f o l -
lows focusses on s o n i c wave types and t h e i r p r o p a g a t i o n , s o n i c wave a t t e n u a t i o n
as f r a c t u r e i n d i c a t o r s , and a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n f o r f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n .
 880

6.2.1.6.1.1. Sonic wave types and t h e i r propagation

The o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l c o m p r e s s i o n a l wave g e n e r a t e d i n t h e f l u i d by t h e r a d i a l
mode e x c i t a t i o n o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e r e n s u r e s t h a t a c o u s t i c e n e r g y w i l l a r r i v e a t
the f l u i d - f o r m a t i o n i n t e r f a c e a t the borehole w a l l a t the c r i t i c a l angle t o pro-
duce r e f r a c t e d - d i f f r a c t e d b u l k c o m p r e s s i o n a l and b u l k s h e a r waves i n v a r y i n g li-
t h o l o g i e s (GUY, FERTL & OLIVER 1 9 8 6 ) . Two t y p e s o f b o u n d a r y o r i n t e r f a c e waves
a r e a l s o c r e a t e d a t t h e f l u i d - r e s e r v o i r i n t e r f a c e c o m p r i s i n g R a y l e i g h wave and
S t o n e l e y wave w h i c h p r o p a g a t e i n f o r m a t i o n and f l u i d , r e s p e c t i v e l y , c i r c u m f e r e n -
t i a l l y a l o n g t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l i n t h e f i n i t e medium o f t h e w e l l b o r e , i n con-
t r a s t t o l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e t r a v e l l i n g o f c o m p r e s s i o n a l and s h e a r wa-
ves, r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n an i n f i n i t e medium. B o r e h o l e c u r v a t u r e causes m u l t i p l e r e -
f l e c t i o n p a t h s t o a r i s e a t l o w g r a z i n g a n g l e s . A n o t h e r wave i s t h e d i r e c t com-
p r e s s i o n a l f l u i d wave, and t h e o r d e r o f a r r i v a l a t t h e r e c e i v e r i s b u l k compres-
s i o n a l wave, b u l k s h e a r wave, R a y l e i g h wave, d i r e c t f l u i d c o m p r e s s i o n a l wave
and g u i d e d f l u i d S t o n e l e y wave (MINEAR 1 9 8 6 ) .

The m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t wave f o r f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n i s t h e R a y l e i g h wave w h i c h

as a consequence o f b e i n g a b o u n d a r y wave t r a v e l l i n g a l o n g t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e
b o r e h o l e i s n o t g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d b y g e o m e t r i c a l s p r e a d i n g . The m o t i o n o f t h e
p a r t i c l e i s n o r m a l t o t h e w e l l b o r e w a l l and t h e r e f o r e w i l l be h i g h l y a t t e n u a t e d
b y v e r t i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s such as f r a c t u r e s i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e b o r e h o l e and l y -
i n g i n t h e p r o p a g a t i o n p a t h between s o u r c e and r e c e i v e r . The g u i d e d f l u i d S t o n e -
l e y wave as a n o t h e r b o u n d a r y wave i s damped due t o r a d i a l e n e r g y e m i s s i o n f r o m
t h e f l u i d i n t o t h e f o r m a t i o n as t h e wave p r o p a g a t e s a r o u n d t h e w e l l b o r e . The
m a g n i t u d e o f damping o f t h e S t o n e l e y wave i s t o a l a r g e d e g r e e a f u n c t i o n o f
t h e c o n t r a s t between t h e a c o u s t i c impedances o f f l u i d and r e s e r v o i r . D i g i t a l i n -
t e r p r e t a t i o n techniques analyze t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l a c o u s t i c waveform informa-
t i o n as t o t h e f i r s t a r r i v a l t i m e o f t h e v a r i o u s wave components as w e l l as am-
p l i t u d e measurements w i t h i n s e l e c t e d t i m e windows (GUY, CORLEY, FERTL & FROST
1987).

6.2.1.6.1.2. Sonic wave a t t e n u a t i o n as f r a c t u r e i n d i c a t o r s

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l A c o u s t i l o g i s based o n t h e f a c t t h a t
an open v e r t i c a l o r n e a r - v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e b o r e h o l e between
t r a n s m i t t e r and r e c e i v e r r e s u l t s i n s i g n i f i c a n t a t t e n u a t i o n o f t h e R a y l e i g h
wave w h i c h w i l l t y p i c a l l y n o t p r o p a g a t e a c r o s s t h e c r a c k (WALKER 1962, PAILLET
1981; GUY, CORLEY, FERTL & FROST 1987; NOBLETT, FERTL & GUY 1 9 8 7 ) . The absence
o f R a y l e i g h waves f r o m t h e s o n i c r e c o r d s t h e r e f o r e i n d i c a t e s t h e p r e s e n c e o f
f r a c t u r e s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n . As t h e t o o l employs a q u a d r a t u r e measurement t e c h n i -
que, d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e R a y l e i g h wave i n two q u a d r a n t s and n o t i n t h e o t h e r
two i s i n t e r p r e t e d as an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a f r a c t u r e s y s t e m . To a
l e s s e r degree, t h e g u i d e d f l u i d S t o n e l e y wave w i l l s u f f e r some a t t e n u a t i o n i n
t h o s e q u a d r a n t s where t h e c r a c k i s e n c o u n t e r e d and c a n t h e r e f o r e be u s e d t o de-
t e c t f r a c t u r i n g i n l i t h o l o g i e s t h a t w i l l n o t s u p p o r t a good R a y l e i g h wave due
t o h i g h c r a c k and m a t r i x p o r o s i t i e s (BOTTER & ARKEL 1 9 8 2 ) , w i t h t h e measurement
b e i n g enhanced b y t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e d i r e c t f l u i d c o m p r e s s i o n a l wave b y a
b a f f l e system. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e R a y l e i g h wave, t h e g u i d e d f l u i d S t o n e l e y wave
p r o p a g a t e s a c r o s s t h e f r a c t u r e and o n l y e x p e r i e n c e s some e n e r g y l o s s .

The o r i e n t a t i o n s e c t i o n p r o v i d e s t h e c a p a b i l i t y f o r d e t e r m i n i n g d i r e c t i o n a l
s u b s u r f a c e t r e n d s o f m a j o r d e t e c t e d f r a c t u r e systems b y m e a s u r i n g a z i m u t h and
r e l a t i v e b e a r i n g o f t h e r e f e r e n c e a c o u s t i c pad and d e v i a t i o n a n g l e o f t h e b o r e -
h o l e f r o m v e r t i c a l . The i n s t r u m e n t r o t a t e s d u r i n g t h e l o g g i n g r u n i n o r d e r t o
a l l o w a more p r e c i s e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n o f m a j o r t r e n d s b y ad-
d i t i o n a l a z i m u t h r e a d i n g s i n f r a c t u r e d i n t e r v a l s w i t h r e s p e c t t o an a x i s - r e l a -
t e d s t a t i o n a r y upwards movement i n t h e w e l l b o r e . I n m a j o r v e r t i c a l l y f r a c t u r e d
i n t e r v a l s , r e s o l u t i o n i s i n c r e a s e d b y s l o w i n g down o r e v e n t o t a l l y s t o p p i n g
 881

tool rotation.

6.2.1.6.1.3. Addi t iona 1 information for fracture detect ion

I n a d d i t i o n , two independent c a l i p e r p a i r s a t t h e C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l A c o u s t i l o g
i n s t r u m e n t p r o v i d e b o r e h o l e s i z e measurements. F r a c t u r e d i n t e r v a l s may show up
on t h e c a l i p e r r e c o r d by t h i c k mud-cake b u i l d u p p a r t i c u l a r l y when u s i n g l o s t
c i r c u l a t i o n m a t e r i a l o r h e a v i l y w e i g h t e d mud, and by w e l l b o r e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
e l o n g a t i o n observed p r e f e r e n t i a l l y i n t h e main d i r e c t i o n o f s u b s u r f a c e n a t u r a l
f r a c t u r e t r e n d s . The f r a c t u r e - r e l a t e d washout/breakout i n d i c a t i o n s r e s u l t f r o m
c h i p p i n g w h i l e d r i l l i n g those c r a c k e d i n t e r v a l s ( f o r e v a l u a t i o n of b o r e h o l e
e l o n g a t i o n by c a l i p e r l o g g i n g c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 8 . ) .

The C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l A c o u s t i l o g o r M i c r o s o n i c l o g waveshape, however, can r e s -

pond t o f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n f r a c t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g b o r e h o l e c o n d i t i o n s , lithology,
p o r o s i t y and m i c r o s t r a t i g r a p h y (SCHLUMBERGER 1982). D i s t o r t i o n can o c c u r near
laminae and bed boundaries p a r t i c u l a r l y when d i p is l a r g e , and low wave a m p l i t u -
des can r e s u l t f r o m poor pad c o n t a c t i n rugose b o r e h o l e s and washouts as w e l l
as i n s e c t i o n s o f s h a l e s and h i g h - p o r o s i t y sands. Given u n i f o r m l i t h o l o g y and
w e l l b o r e c o n d i t i o n s and one o r more quadrants showing h i g h - a m p l i t u d e r e c o r d s ,
low-amplitude readings are i n d i c a t i v e o f fractures. A b e t t e r understanding o f
a m p l i t u d e a t t e n u a t i o n i s achieved by comparison o f t h e a c t u a l a m p l i t u d e s w i t h
t h e v a l u e s r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m p o r o s i t y and l i t h o l o g y i n d i c a t o r s by a non-parame-
t r i c r e g r e s s i o n technique, w i t h f r a c t u r e s b e i n g l i k e l y t o account f o r measured
amplitudes b e i n g l o w e r than t h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d ones.

6.2.1.6.2. Interpretation of fracture orientation

I n terms o f f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e f i r s t a r r i v a l wave may
be a t t e n u a t e d by s e v e r a l f o r m a t i o n and b o r e h o l e c o n d i t i o n s , and a t t e n u a t i o n may
be observed i n one t o f o u r measurement quadrants. A t t e n u a t i o n i n o p p o s i t e o r i n
any two a d j a c e n t quadrants b e s t d e f i n e s v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s and t h e d i r e c t i o n o f
subsurface s t r e s s planes, whereas o t h e r combinations o f a t t e n u a t i o n a r e a l s o
t h e consequence o f v a r i a t i o n s i n l i t h o l o g y , p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e ge-
n e r a l l y more o r l e s s heterogeneous r e s e r v o i r s . The v a r i a b l e d e n s i t y l o g f o r m a t
i s most s u i t a b l e f o r a q u i c k l o o k o n - s i t e a n a l y s i s , whereas a more d e t a i l e d eva-
l u a t i o n i s accomplished by u s i n g t h e s i g n a t u r e waveform p r e s e n t a t i o n .

F i e l d examples o f c r a c k e v a l u a t i o n by C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l A c o u s t i l o g r e c o r d i n g
a r e o u t l i n e d by NOELETT, FERTL & GUY ( 1 9 8 7 ) . F r a c t u r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and subsur-
f a c e t r e n d mapping d e f i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f p r o p e r l y s e l e c t e d o f f s e t w e l l s . Loca-
l i z a t i o n o f n a t u r a l c r a c k s a l s o i s an i m p o r t a n t a i d f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t a r g e t
zones f o r s t i m u l a t i o n , and r e c o g n i t i o n o f f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n t r e n d s can a l s o
a s s i s t i n d e f i n i n g f u t u r e w e l l locations. Detection o f major f a u l t s t h a t great-
l y a f f e c t s u b s u r f a c e f r a c t u r e and s t r e s s p l a n e d i r e c t i o n r e s u l t s i n i d e n t i f i c a -
t i o n o f b o t h d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n and t r a v e l p a t h o f s t i m u l a t i o n f l u i d s and t h e r e -
f o r e c o n t r i b u t e important i n p u t f o r the design o f hydraulic f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t -
ments. I n o t h e r f o r m a t i o n s , t h e d i s c o v e r y t h a t s h a l e s t r e a k s i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h
the r e s e r v o i r storeys are also n a t u r a l l y cracked permits t h e i r incorporation
i n t o p e r f o r a t i o n and s t i m u l a t i o n i n c l u d i n g p r o p p i n g o f t h e v e r t i c a l l y communica-
t i n g f r a c t u r e s and t h u s commingling o f s e v e r a l pay zone i n t e r v a l s , g i v i n g r i s e
t o improved d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d c r a c k s and hence an o v e r -
a l l enhanced r e s u l t o f t h e s t i m u l a t i o n j o b . The C i r c u m f e r e n t i a l A c o u s t i l o g i s
v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o h i g h - a n g l e f r a c t u r e s (HEFLIN 1979), and can a l s o be success-
f u l l y a p p l i e d i n o i l - b a s e d d r i l l i n g muds where many o t h e r c u r r e n t f r a c t u r e de-
t e c t i o n methods do n o t work (GUY, CORLEY, FERTL & FROST 1987).

SARDA, PERREAU & DEFLANDRE (1988) comment on a c o u s t i c e m i s s i o n i n t e r p r e t a -

t i o n f o r estimating hydraulic f r a c t u r e extent ( c f . also section 6.2.2.3.2.5.).
Other aspects o f s o p h i s t i c a t e d a c o u s t i c l o g g i n g w i t h u t i l i z a t i o n o f waveform
 882

a n a l y si s a r e discussed by P A I L L E T & WHITE (1982) a n d ZEMANEK, ANGONA, WILLIAMS

& CALDWELL (1984).

6.2.1.7. Noise logging

Noise or sound logging (McKINLEY, BOWER & RUMBLE 1973; Sonan logging; DRES-
SER ATLAS 1982) records f l u i d movement in the f r a c t u r e o r i n channels behind
the pipe in case of i n s u f f i c i e n t cement bond. The t o o l records the sound p a t -
t e r n s t h a t a r e associated with f a m i l i a r downhole problems such as casing o r t u -
b i n g leaks a n d flow i n the cement annulus behind casing. Simulation of these
downhole e f f e c t s in a s u r f ace flow loop f a c i l i t y a n d recording of t h e i r sound
p a t t e r n s generates a s e t of model responses enabling problem dia gnosis. Because
of the h i g h degree of s e n s i t i v i t y of the sound-recording microphone, the most
r e l i a b l e data a r e acquired when wi r el i n e a n d instrument a re s t a t i o n a r y , thereby
g r e a t l y reducing o r in ideal cases even almost completely e lim ina ting the unde-
s i r a b l e background noise t h a t i s otherwise generated by the movement of the
t o o l . Therefore sound o r noise logging has t o be c a r r i e d o u t by stop-and-go re -
cording in o r d er t o el i mi n at e cab l e, tubing, casing and borehole f l u i d noise
a n d t o be able t o recognize f r a c t u r e and formation f l u i d flow behind the casing
( B R I T T 1977). The sound logging instrument can the re fore a l s o only be combined
w i t h o t h e r passive t o o l s such as temperature log, b u t n o t with a c t i v e mechani-
cal devices. Some comments a r e o f f er ed as follows on v e r i f i c a t i o n of tempera-
t u r e anomalies a n d f l u i d movement d et ect i o n by sound recording.

6.2.1.7.1.Verification o f temerature anomalies

Running the noise log i n combination w i t h a temperature se nsor, i n t e r v a l s of
increasing noise level a t a l l frequencies matching with temperature anomalies
r e f l e c t the zones of f l u i d movement and a l s o help t o i d e n t i f y warm noses repre-
senting anomalies of thermal conductivity of formation or crack ( c f . se c tion
6 . 2 . 1 . 1 . 2 . ) a s belonging s t i l l t o the f r act u r e d iiite rva l. I n order t o s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y reduce or even almost t o t a l l y el i mina te disturbing background noise,
sound logging should be p r e f e r e n t i a l l y performed in a step-wise manner with
s p o t - l i k e s t a t i o n a r y recording between phases of tool advancement. The most im-
p o r t a n t patches f o r noise logging ar e bottom a n d top of the f r a c t u r e as well a s
warm anomalies shown by the temperature l o g . As a consequence of the ope ra tio-
n a l complication of the s t a t i o n a r y recording i n c r i t i c a l i n t e r v a l s , noise log-
ging has i t s most important ap p l i cat i o n i n v e r i f i c a t i o n of u n c e r t a i n t i e s l e f t
by temperature surveys by checking of l i mi t ed patches a n d s p e c i f i c s p o t s , b u t
should g e n e r a l l y n o t be c a r r i e d o u t as an exclusive base documentation of f r a c -
tu r e height.

I n formations which have turned o u t already in several wells of a f i e l d t o

c r e a t e anomalies i n the temperature record t h a t d o n o t allow stra ightforw a rd
f r a c t u r e height determination without additional noise logging o r conventional
gamma-ray recording, replacement of temperature logging a n d a dditiona l i n t e r p r e -
t a t i o n help such as noise r e g i s t r a t i o n by gamma-ray spectroscopy ( c f . se c tion
6 . 2 . 1 . 3 . 4 . ) i s recommended a n d could a l s o be the cheaper solution a t the bottom
of the l i n e f o r g e t t i n g s t r ai g h t f o r war d unambiguous r e s u l t s without any inve st-
ment of a d d i t i o nal time a n d money in case of complications.

6.2.1.7.2.Fluid movement detection by sound recording

Fluid movement behind the casing i s a l s o indicated by the ra dia l d i f f e r e n -
t i a l temperature log which allows i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of f l u x i n some type of chan-
nel in the annulus where the cement bond has been damaged by the f r a c t u r i n g
treatment. Within the formation, f l u i d flow recorded by noise logging occurs in-
d isp e n s i b l y within cracks i n case of a low-permeability r e s e r v o i r rock ( D O B K I N S
1979). During course o f t e s t i n g a f t e r the f r a c t u r i n g ope ra tion, i t i s a l s o
 883

p o s s i b l e t o execute o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l l o g g i n g which r e c o r d temperature,

f l o w r a t e s and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y i n t h e b o r e h o l e .

Noise l o g g i n g works p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l i n open holes, b u t does n o t measure

f r a c t u r e h e i g h t growth i n t o i n t e r v a l s where no f l u i d i n f l u x i n t o t h e w e l l b o r e
occurs. I n a s i m i l a r way as n o i s e l o g g i n g , Spinner surveys i n d i c a t e f l u i d - e n t r y
p o i n t s i n t o t h e borehole, b u t a l s o cannot d e l i v e r r e s u l t s i n segments where no
f l u i d i s moving. A l t h o u g h Spinner surveys can a l s o be performed i n cased h o l e s ,
t h e t o o l o n l y i d e n t i f i e s t h a t s e t o f p e r f o r a t i o n s which was a c t u a l l y f r a c t u r e d
and i s e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o e x p l o i t a t i o n (AHMED 1987). Spinner surveys
i n d i c a t i n g l a r g e decreases i n g e n e r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y i n some zones t e s t i f y t o -
g e t h e r w i t h enhanced i n j e c t i v i t y o f f l u i d due t o a c c e p t i o n o f e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y
l a r g e volumes by t h e f o r m a t i o n , c o r e e v a l u a t i o n , and r a p i d p r e s s u r e response
between a d j a c e n t w e l l s d u r i n g i n t e r f e r e n c e t e s t s t o i n t e r v a l s w i t h v e r y w e l l - d e -
veloped n a t u r a l j o i n t systems o f h i g h p e r m e a b i l i t y (BELFIELD 1988, SNOW & HOUGH
1988). F i e l d examples o f combined temperature and n o i s e l o g g i n g a r e a l s o r e p o r -
t e d by PENNEBRAKER & WOODY (1977), KENNEDY & McELHINEY (1979) and WYMAN, HOL-
DITCH & RANDOLPH (1979). S p e c i a l aspects o f n o i s e l o g g i n g a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d by
McKINLEY & BOWER (1977), and b o r e h o l e a u d i o t r a c e r survey methods a r e a l s o il-
l u s t r a t e d by BRITT ( 1 9 7 7 ) .

A l l t h e d i s c u s s e d methods do o n l y p e r m i t t o determine t h e f r a c t u r e h e i g h t i n
t h e almost immediate s u r r o u n d i n g s o f t h e w e l l b o r e . F r a c t u r e h e i g h t f a r t h e r away
from t h e borehole, however, cannot y e t be m o n i t o r e d w i t h h i t h e r t o a v a i l a b l e
techniques (LEICHT 1985) and can o n l y more o r l e s s be e s t i m a t e d i n an i n d i r e c t
manner by f r a c t u r e p r e s s u r e e v a l u a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (cf. section
6.2.4.2.).

6.2.1.8. Ca 1 iper logging

W h i l e temperature, gamma-ray, a c o u s t i c and n o i s e l o g g i n g aim on f r a c t u r e
h e i g h t m o n i t o r i n g , i t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o determine t h e azimuth o f t h e crack,
i n order t o avoid interference o f f r a c t u r e s extending from neighbouring w e l l s
i n t i g h t gas f i e l d s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.10.5.). Caliper logging generally locates
b o r e h o l e w a l l r u g o s i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f r a c t u r e s . A p a r t f r o m usage i n o t h e r
f i e l d s o f d r i l l i n g and completion, two a p p l i c a t i o n s o f c a l i p e r l o g g i n g e x i s t i n
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g d e s i g n and e x e c u t i o n c o m p r i s i n g f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n and i n -
s i t u s t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n ( f r o m which f r a c t u r e azimuth p r e d i c t i o n i s made). Com-
ments a r e o f f e r e d as f o l l o w s on b o r e h o l e e l l i p t i c i t y as w e l l as b r e a k o u t vs.
creep d e f o r m a t i o n .

6.2.1.8.1. Borehole ellipticity

A very useful p r e d i c t i v e i n d i c a t i o n o f the d i r e c t i o n o f f r a c t u r e propagation
can be o b t a i n e d by f o u r - a r m c a l i p e r l o g g i n g p r i o r t o s e t t i n g o f c a s i n g and i n -
t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the e l l i p t i c a l elongation ( o v a l i z a t i o n ) o f the wellbore cross-
s e c t i o n (COX 1983). C a l i p e r l o g g i n g r e f l e c t s t h e r a d i a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n p r o -
v i d e d t h a t t h e r o c k i n t h e neighbourhood o f t h e b o r e h o l e remains l i n e a r e l a s t i c
and no e x c e s s i v e f l u i d movement i s a l l o w e d i n o r o u t o f t h e f o r m a t i o n (DETOUR-
NAY & FAIRHURST 1982, GOUGH & BELL 1982). I n t h e l a t t e r case, e r o s i o n p l a y s a
n o n - n e g l i g i b l e r o l e and q u i c k l y overshadows t h e e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n f i e l d . As-
p e c t s o f o v a l i z a t i o n and s t r e s s o r i e n t a t i o n as w e l l as m a j o r and m i n o r e c c e n t r i -
c i t i e s a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

6.2.1.8.1.1,Oval izat ion and stress orientation

I f t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a n i s o t r o p i c a l as usual, t h e b o r e h o l e c r o s s - s e c -
t i o n i s e l l i p t i c a l and t h e l o n g a x i s o f t h e e l l i p s e i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c -
t i o n of l e a s t p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s which i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n ,
 884

w i t h the crack thus propagating normally t o the long axis o f the e l l i p s e ( c f .

a l s o GRIFFIN 1985, LEICHT 1985). The e r o s i o n p a t t e r n , however, i s b i a s e d b y t h e
m i c r o c r a c k i n g due t o t h e i n - s i t u s t r e s s f i e l d around t h e b o r e h o l e , and t h e r e -
s u l t i n g e l l i p t i c i t y can be r e l a t e d t o s t r e s s o r i e n t a t i o n (COX 1983).

A more s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n i q u e i s b r e a k o u t l o g g i n g which r e c o r d s t h e r e g i o -
n a l t e c t o n i c a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n (SCHLUMBERGER 1983; ZOBACK, MOOS, M A S T I N & AN-
DERSON 1985). A s u f f i c i e n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e p r i n c i p a l h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s
causes a c i r c u l a r w e l l b o r e t o spa11 and t o f o r m breakouts, t h e r e b y c r e a t i n g an
e l l i p t i c a l b o r e h o l e w i t h t h e l o n g a x i s b e i n g a t r i g h t a n g l e t o t h e expected hy-
d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e azimuth (GOUGH & BELL 1981, COX 1983, PLUMB & HICKMAN 1985).
I n - s i t u s t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n f r o m w e l l b o r e e l o n g a t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d by BLANTON &
TEUFEL ( 1 9 8 5 ) . TEUFEL (1982, 1985) and TEUFEL & WARPINSKI (1984) o u t l i n e i n - s i -
t u s t r e s s c a l c u l a t i o n and p r e d i c t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e azimuth by t h e an-
e l a s t i c s t r a i n r e c o v e r y method. As b r e a k o u t e v a l u a t i o n f o r i n - s i t u s t r e s s model-
l i n g r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f n o t o n l y s t r e s s , b u t a l s o f a i l u r e mode, t h e o n l y
c o n c l u s i o n w h i c h can be d e r i v e d f r o m an e l a s t i c a l model i s t h e l i n k between t h e
l o c a t i o n o f such b r e a k o u t s and t h e p r i n c i p a l i n - s i t u s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n (DETOUR-
NAY & ROEGIERS 1 9 8 6 ) . Borehole o v a l i t y can a l s o be determined by open-hole r u n -
n i n g o f m i c r o a c o u s t i c cement e v a l u a t i o n t o o l s .

6.2.1.8.1.2. Major and minor eccentricities

Very weak f o r m a t i o n s p a l l i n g r e s u l t i n g o n l y i n l i t t l e b o r e h o l e e c c e n t r i c i -
t i e s which a r e almost below t h e r e s o l u t i o n boundary o f t h e c a l i p e r t o o l can
a l s o be a consequence o f f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n s t r e s s f i e l d o r i e n t a t i o n and s h o u l d
t h e r e f o r e be o n l y c o n s i d e r e d f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i f matching w i t h d a t a f r o m more
pronounced w e l l b o r e e l l i p t i c i t y i n t h e same r e s e r v o i r i n t e r v a l (GRIFFIN 1985).
While i n many cases t h e m i n o r e c c e n t r i c i t i e s r e f l e c t t h e s t r e s s o r i e n t a t i o n o f
t h e f o r m a t i o n and c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e a l i g n m e n t o f t h e m a j o r e l l i p t i c i t i e s , t h e
former seem i n o t h e r cases t o r e s u l t from r o c k m a t e r i a l inhomogeneities and a r e
o r i e n t e d a t o b l i q u e angles t o t h e l a t t e r , o r even t e s t i f y t o t h e m i n o r s t r e s s
a x i s and a r e d i r e c t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l a r g e - s c a l e o v a l i z a t i o n s . The ma-
jor ellipticities, however, a r e always o r i e n t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s t r e s s
f i e l d . The degree o f f o r m a t i o n s p a l l i n g l e a d i n g t o b o r e h o l e o v a l i z a t i o n i s i n -
f l u e n c e d by b i t w e i g h t as w e l l as v e l o c i t y , v i s c o s i t y and t i m e o f c i r c u l a t i o n .

6.2.1.8.2.Breakout vs. creep deformation

D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i n - s i t u s t r e s s a t r e s e r v o i r depth f r o m c a l i p e r measurements
o f a deformed w e l l b o r e (BLANTON & TEUFEL 1985) i s based on t h e f a c t t h a t i n
b r i t t l e rock, w e l l b o r e d e f o r m a t i o n r e s u l t s i n s p a l l i n g o r b r e a k o u t o f t h e bore-
h o l e w a l l , whereas i n d u c t i l e r o c k , creep d e f o r m a t i o n g i v e s r i s e t o w e l l b o r e
c l o s u r e . Equations d e r i v e d f r o m v i s c o e l a s t i c i t y r e l a t e t h e minimum and maximum
r a d i i o f a deformed w e l l b o r e t o t h e maximum and minimum s t r e s s e s p e r p e n d i c u l a r
t o the a x i s o f t h e b o r e h o l e . F o r a v e r t i c a l w e l l b o r e d r i l l e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o
a p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s plane, t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e g r e a t e s t h o r i z o n t a l p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s w i l l be p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f maximum s h o r t e n i n g o f w e l l b o r e d i a -
meter, and t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e l e a s t s t r e s s w i l l be p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c -
t i o n o f minimum s h o r t e n i n g . Creep c i o s u r e o f a w e l l b o r e may a l s o be a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h b o r e h o l e b r e a k o u t s . The f o r m a t i o n o f b r e a k o u t s may a l s o be time-dependent,
w i t h e x t e n s i o n o f t h e b r e a k o u t growing w i t h t i m e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m i n i -
mum s t r e s s (PLUMB & HICKMAN 1985). I n o t h e r cases, w e l l b o r e e l o n g a t i o n i s most
l i k e l y due t o washouts i n n a t u r a l l y c r a c k e d and induced f r a c t u r e zones r a t h e r
than a response t o t h e r e g i o n a l t e n s i o n a l s t r e s s regime (OWEN, TORONTO & PETER-
SON 1988). O t h e r aspects o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s between b o r e h o l e b r e a k o u t s , i n - s i t u
s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n and f r a c t u r e azimuth a r e r e p o r t e d by BELL & GOUGH (1978), BLAN-
TON (1983), BLANTON & TEUFEL (1983); FORDJOR, BELL & GOUGH (1983); TEUFEL (1985
b) and ZOBACK, MOOS, M A S T I N & ANDERSON ( 1 9 8 5 ) .
 885

Borehole b r e a k o u t d e t e r m i n a t i o n can be performed by c a l i p e r l o g g i n g o f e l o n -

g a t i o n o r e l l i p t i c i t y as w e l l as by a c o u s t i c a l t e l e v i e w e r r e c o r d i n g (PAILLET &
K I M 1985; ZOBACK, MOOS, M A S T I N & ANDERSON 1985). D i s t i n c t i o n has t o be made b e t -
ween o v a l i t y and b r e a k o u t i n b o r e h o l e s . Breakout r e f l e c t s t h e s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n ,
whereas o v a l i t y i s m a i n l y coming f r o m t h e p i p e i n f l u e n c e . Breakout o r i e n t a t i o n
determination o f the i n - s i t u stress p a t t e r n i s n o t possible i n highly-deviated
wells.

6.2.1.9. Borehole televiewer

Borehole t e l e v i s i o n and f o r m a t i o n microscanning a r e t o g e t h e r w i t h s p i n n e r
s u r v e y i n g s i g n i f i c a n t t e c h n i q u e s f o r d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n and measurement o f f r a c -
t u r e h e i g h t i n c o n t r a s t t o o t h e r l o g g i n g methods which a r e based on i n f e r e n c e s
as a consequence o f i n d i r e c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and c a l c u l a t i o n o f measured d a t a
c u r v e s (AHMED 1987). B o r e h o l e t e l e v i s i o n can be performed i n two ways. The con-
v e n t i o n a l method comprises a c o u s t i c t e l e v i s i o n by a s p e c i a l i z e d s o n i c l o g g i n g
t o o l , w h i l e t h e second t e c h n i q u e i s s i m p l e o p t i c a l t e l e v i s i o n o r videocamera r e -
c o r d i n g . An a l t e r n a t i v e t e c h n i q u e o f even h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n i s t h e e l e c t r i c a l
f o r m a t i o n microscanner which, however, can o n l y be u t i l i z e d i n c o n d u c t i v e mud.

6.2.1.9.1. Acoustic borehole television

The c o n v e n t i o n a l b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r i s an a c o u s t i c l o g g i n g t o o l t h a t has a
f i n e v e r t i c a l r e s o l u t i o n which i s e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l f o r d e t e c t i n g f r a c t u r e o r i e n -
t a t i o n , bedding d i p d i r e c t i o n , t h i n h i g h - p e r m e a b i l i t y s t r e a k s and l i t h o l o g i c a l
changes (ZEMANEK, CALDWELL, GLENN, HOLCOMB, NORTON & STRAUS 1969; WILEY 1980,
PASTERNACK & GOODWILL 1983, TAYLOR 1983; RAMBOW 1984, 1985; PAILLET, KEYS &
HESS 1985; CLERKE & AKKEREN 1986; PLUMB 1988). A b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r l o g i s com-
p a r a b l e t o a p i c t u r e o f a c o n t i n u o u s c o r e and may y i e l d even more i n f o r m a t i o n
s i n c e i t i s an image o f t h e c o r e h o s t environment (TAYLOR 1983). Some p o i n t s o f
r e c o r d i n g mechanism, advantages and drawbacks, and image types a r e i l l u s t r a t e d
as f o l l o w s . Comments a r e a l s o g i v e n on improvement by d i g i t a l r e c o r d i n g , s i m u l -
taneous m o n i t o r i n g o f f r a c t u r e opening and c l o s i n g , and e f f e c t s o f f o r m a t i o n
l i t h o l o g y , borehole w a l l conditions, and b o r e h o l e geometry on t e l e v i e w e r l o g
q u a l i t y . The impact o f f r a c t u r e w i d e n i n g d u r i n g d r i l l i n g i s a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d .

6.2.1.9.1.1.Recording mechanism
The w e l l t e l e v i e w e r t o o l a c q u i r e s a d e t a i l e d a c o u s t i c image o f t h e e n t i r e cy-
l i n d r i c a l inner surface o f the borehole o r casing w a l l w i t h a v e r t i c a l resolu-
t i o n o f a b t . 1 / 3 i n . ( 8 mm) and an a n g u l a r r e s o l u t i o n o f a b t . 1.5 degrees. I n d i -
v i d u a l a c o u s t i c p u l s e r e f l e c t i o n s from t h e r o c k f a c e a r e a r e s u l t o f t h e succes-
s i v e f i r i n g s o f a t r a n s v e r s e mounted p u l s e d a c o u s t i c t r a n s d u c e r which r o t a t e s
i n s i d e t h e c e n t r a l i z e d t o o l and e m i t s a p u l s e d u l t r a s o n i c beam. The r e f l e c t e d
s i g n a l i s r e c o r d e d b o t h i n terms o f a m p l i t u d e and t r a v e l t i m e . A q u a s i - o p t i c a l
a c o u s t i c image i s composed f r o m t h e r e f l e c t i o n s o f t h e u l t r a s o n i c p u l s e s f r o m
t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l and d i s p l a y e d i n b l a c k - w h i t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , and a f l u x g a t e
magnetometer r o t a t i n g w i t h t h e p i e z o e l e c t r i c t r a n s d u c e r c r y s t a l i s used t o de-
t e c t t h e e a r t h ' s magnetic n o r t h on each r o t a t i o n . F r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n i s d e t e r -
mined by t r i g g e r i n g t h e o s c i l l o s c o p e sweep so t h a t t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c r e c o r d i s
s p l i t on t h e n o r t h s i d e o f t h e b o r e h o l e c y l i n d e r , w i t h d i r e c t i o n a l determina-
t i o n o f t h e p r o v o k i n g p o i n t b e i n g m a i n t a i n e d by t h e f l u x - g a t e magnetometer.

The image shows t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l as i f i t were s p l i t v e r t i c a l l y and l a i d

f l a t . V e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s appear as s t r a i g h t l i n e s , and c r a c k s d i p p i n g between
v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l appear as s i n u s o i d a l t r a c e s w i t h s t r i k e and d i p o f t h e
f r a c t u r e s b e i n g determined f r o m a m p l i t u d e and phase o f t h e s i n u s o i d s . The t o o l
i s v e r y c o n c l u s i v e i n terms o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , b u t i s a l s o v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o
h o l e r u g o s i t y and mud c o n d i t i o n s which r e s t r i c t s a c o u s t i c c o u p l i n g (HEFLIN
 886

1979).

An i m p o r t a n t i m p r o v i n g m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r i s a n automa-
t i c g a i n c o n t r o l w h i c h a l l o w s good images t o be o b t a i n e d e v e n i n o u t - o f - r o u n d
b o r e h o l e s o r when t h e t o o l i s o f f - c e n t e r e d (RAMBOW 1 9 8 4 ) . HEARD ( 1 9 8 1 ) p r e s e n t s
a system capable o f o p e r a t i o n i n high-temperature environments.

6.2.1.9.1.2. Advantages and drawbacks

The b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r c a n n o t o n l y i d e n t i f y p r e s e n c e and o r i e n t a t i o n o f
c r a c k s , vugs and o t h e r f e a t u r e s , b u t a l s o r e v e a l s t h e i r r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e f r a c -
t u r e f a c e where i t i n t e r s e c t s t h e b o r e h o l e , such as f o r example c h a n g i n g a p e r -
t u r e i n d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s o f t h e c r a c k . The t e l e v i e w e r c a n a l s o be u s e d t o i n -
f e r f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m a j o r a x i s o f e l l i p t i c i t y as w e l l
as t h e m a i n a x i s o f w e l l b o r e s p a l l i n g (GRIFFIN 1 9 8 5 ) , and due t o t h e h i g h samp-
l i n g r a t e , t h e t e l e v i e w e r c a n be u t i l i z e d t o d e s c r i b e b o r e h o l e shape w i t h an a c -
c u r a c y and r e s o l u t i o n n o t p o s s i b l e w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l c a l i p e r s (TAYLOR 1 9 8 3 ) .
W e l l b o r e s a r e commonly c o n s i d e r e d t o be r o u n d o r e l l i p t i c a l i f two i n d e p e n d e n t
c a l i p e r s r e a d s i m i l a r l y o r d i f f e r e n t l y , r e s p e c t i v e l y , whereas t e l e v i e w e r l o g s
reveal t h a t n o n c i r c u l a r boreholes a r e u s u a l l y elongated, b u t are n o t t r u l y e l -
l i p t i c a l in shape. T r a n s i t t i m e measurements g e n e r a l l y show w e l l b o r e s t o be e r o -
ded o r e l o n g a t e d on o p p o s i t e s i d e s w i t h no e r o s i o n i n d i c a t e d a r o u n d t h e r e m a i n -
i n g c i r c u m f e r e n c e . The b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r i s a l s o a u s e f u l and u n i q u e d i p m e t e r
d e v i c e , because m a g n i t u d e and d i r e c t i o n o f i n c l i n a t i o n a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m bed-
d i n g p l a n e s and f r a c t u r e s t h a t a r e v i s i b l e on t h e l o g .

The m a j o r drawbacks o f t h e t e l e v i e w e r a r e t h a t in e l o n g a t e d , r u g o s e o r c o l -
l a p s i n g b o r e h o l e s i t w o r k s o n l y p o o r l y o r even n o t a t a l l (SCHLUMBERGER 1987
a ) . Good p i c t u r e s r e q u i r e n e a r - p e r f e c t c e n t e r i n g o f t h e sonde i n a n e a r l y c i r c u -
l a r w e l l b o r e , a l o w c o n t e n t o f s o l i d s i n t h e b o r e h o l e f l u i d , and a c o n s t a n t
s l o w l o g g i n g speed. The t e l e v i e w e r d a t a s t i l l need c o n s i d e r a b l e m a n i p u l a t i o n
even i n s m o o t h - w a l l e d w e l l b o r e s . F a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g t r a n s d u c e r r e s o l u t i o n and
detection limits, i n f l u e n c e o f b o r e h o l e shape and sonde p o s i t i o n on t h e appea-
r a n c e o f p l a n a r f r a c t u r e s , and e f f e c t o f w e l l b o r e c r o s s s e c t i o n and sonde p o s i -
t i o n on t h e r e t u r n - s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e a r e summarized b y GEORGI ( 1 9 8 5 ) . F r a c t u r i n g
gel leaking o f f from the crack face i n t o the borehole a f t e r completion o f the
h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s q u e l c h e s and a b s o r b s t h e s o n i c s i g n a l and t h u s
renders t h e t e l e v i e w e r useless u n t i l the bottom o f the w e l l b o r e i s cleaned o u t
and b a c k f l o w o f f r a c t u r i n g g e l f r o m t h e c r a c k i n t o t h e b o r e h o l e has ceased.

6.2.1.9.1.3. Image types

The b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r d e l i v e r s t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f images c o m p r i s i n g
p o l a r p l o t , a m p l i t u d e l o g and t i m e - o f - f l i g h t l o g (TAYLOR 1983, CLERK & AKKEREN
1986). The p o l a r p l o t i s a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l v i e w o f t h e w e l l b o r e a t a g i v e n
d e p t h composed o f 250 s u c c e s s i v e measurements o f t h e r o u n d - t r i p t r a v e l t i m e
( t i m e o f f l i g h t ) o f s o n i c p u l s e s f r o m t r a n s d u c e r t o b o r e h o l e w a l l and b a c k du-
r i n g one r e v o l u t i o n and t h e r e f o r e c a n be r e g a r d e d as an a c o u s t i c c a l i p e r l o g .
The a m p l i t u d e l o g i s composed f r o m t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e r e f l e c t e d s o n i c p u l s e
w h i c h i s c o n t r o l l e d b y a c o u s t i c impedance o f l i t h o l o g y , a t t e n u a t i o n l e n g t h and
r e f l e c t i o n g e o m e t r y due t o b o r e h o l e s i z e and shape, and a c o u s t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f
t h e mud. The l o g image i s coded i n g r a y shades and i s p r e s e n t e d as a c y l i n d e r
t h a t has been s l i c e d open a l o n g t h e n o r t h edge and l a i d f l a t . The t i m e - o f -
f l i g h t l o g r e f l e c t s the t r a v e l time o f the sonic pulses from transducer t o w e l l -
b o r e w a l l and back, and c a n be t h o u g h t o f as a r e l i e f map o f t h e b o r e h o l e s u r -
f a c e w i t h w h i t e r i d g e t o p s , b l a c k v a l l e y s and c o n t o u r s o f g r a y shades ( t r a n s i t
t i m e l o g ; TAYLOR 1 9 8 3 ) . S e n s i t i v i t y o f t i m e c o n t o u r s c a n be v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g t o
d e s i r e d r e s o l u t i o n and i n t e n d e d mapping p u r p o s e s . A f o u r t h r e a l - t i m e l o g p r e s e n -
t a t i o n i s t h e average amplitude curve which h i g h l i g h t s r a p i d v e r t i c a l v a r i a -
t i o n s i n t h e w e l l b o r e and f a c i l i t a t e s c o m p a r i s o n w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l l o g c u r v e s .
 887

Experience r e p o r t s o f f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n w i t h t h e b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r a r e g i -
ven by KEYS (1979), KEYS & SULLIVAN (1979), PAILLET (1981, 1983), KAMP (1983),
FLECKENSTEIN (1984), GRIFFIN (1985), CLERKE & AKKEREN (1986), DARILEK (1986),
HACKBARTH & TEPPER (1988) and LAUBACH, BAUMGARDNER, MONSON & MEADOR ( 1 9 8 8 ) .
CAMPBELL, HANOLD, SINCLAIR & VETTER (1981) d e s c r i b e f r a c t u r e performance moni-
t o r i n g by b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r surveys i n geothermal r e s e r v o i r s .

6.2.1.9.1.4. Improvement by digital recording and processing

The analog e v a l u a t i o n o f b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r l o g g i n g can be c o n s i d e r a b l y i m -
proved by d i g i t a l r e c o r d i n g and p r o c e s s i n g (PASTERNACK & GOODWILL 1983). Simul-
taneous d i g i t i z i n g o f a c o u s t i c r e f l e c t a n c e and t r a v e l t i m e f r o m t e l e v i e w e r wave-
forms r e c o r d e d on v i d e o t a p e and m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e d i g i t a l d a t a a l l o w s b o t h q u a l i -
t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e t o o l . Enhancements o f l o g g i n g techno-
l o g y comprise p r o c e s s i n g o f d i g i t i z e d a c o u s t i c r e f l e c t a n c e images (WILEY 1980)
and s c r o l l i n g r a s t e r scan d i s p l a y , image p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y , simultaneous r e -
c o r d i n g o f r e f l e c t a n c e and a c o u s t i c t r a v e l t i m e images, and t i l t e d p o l a r scan
d i s p l a y (BRODING 1981). Other improvements i n c l u d e image enhancement by source
d e c o n v o l u t i o n and p a t t e r n r e c o g n i t i o n (TAYLOR 1983), d i s p l a y o f range o f f l i g h t
d a t a i n a d d i t i o n t o a c o u s t i c a m p l i t u d e o f t h e r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l (RAMBOW 1984)
and c o n t r o l o f d e p t h o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n by v a r y i n g source f r e q u e n c y (BRODING
1984).

Independent p r o c e s s i n g o f d i g i t a l d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m analog w a v e t r a i n s r e c o r -
ded i n t h e f i e l d (PASTERNACK & GOODWILL 1983) p e r m i t s v a r i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i m -
provements i n c l u d i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f d i g i t a l t e l e v i e w e r d a t a as a h i g h - r e s o l u -
t i o n c a l i p e r l o g by c o n s i d e r i n g t r a v e l t i m e p i c t u r e s as c a l i p e r images, e s t i m a -
t i o n of degree and d i r e c t i o n o f b o r e h o l e e l l i p t i c i t y f r o m t h e t e l e v i e w e r t r a v e l
t i m e data, t h i n bed r e s o l u t i o n and e x a m i n a t i o n o f c a s i n g d e f e c t s and p e r f o r a -
tions.

6.2.1.9.1.5. Simultaneous monitoring

of fracture opening and closing
Enhanced a p p l i c a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y has p e r m i t t e d t o p r e s s u r i z e t h e w e l l w i t h
t h e t e l e v i e k e r i n t h e b o r e h o l e (RAMBOW 1984) and t h u s a l l o w s t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
m o n i t o r opening and c l o s i n g o f c r a c k s d u r i n g t h e h y d r a u l i c process. The w i r e -
l i n e t o o l i s r u n through a p a c k o f f . Opening o f f r a c t u r e s w h i l e t h e w e l l i s un-
d e r p r e s s u r e can be d e t e c t e d by r e c o r d i n g t h e c r a c k i n t e r c e p t i o n s and e s t i m a t -
i n g t h e i r w i d t h . C l o s i n g o f t h e f r a c t u r e s s i m i l a r l y i s performed by comparative
m o d e l l i n g o f i n c r e a s i n g and/or d e c r e a s i n g apparent c r a c k w i d t h i n t h e d i f f e r e n t
stages o f t h e j o b and a f t e r t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e t r e a t m e n t . O b s e r v a t i o n o f p r o -
g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s i n g v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e h e i g h t by s u c c e s s i v e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e
c r a c k i n upwards and downwards d i r e c t i o n enables t o s u p e r v i s e f r a c t u r e c o n t a i n -
ment and i n case o f n e c e s s i t y t o reduce pumping r a t e o r t o s t o p i n j e c t i o n com-
p l e t e l y . The system works s a t i s f a c t o r i l y even i n 12 l b s / g a l i n v e r t e d emulsion
o i l mud, t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g an e x c e l l e n t c o n t r o l on g e n e r a t i o n and e x t e n s i o n of
h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e s d u r i n g course o f s t i m u l a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s .

6.2.1.9.1.6. Effects of formation lithology and

borehole wall conditions on televiewer log quality
The q u a l i t y o f t h e a c o u s t i c a l t e l e v i s i o n l o g depends c o n s i d e r a b l y on forma-
t i o n l i t h o l o g y and b o r e h o l e w a l l c o n d i t i o n s (PAILLET, KEYS & HESS 1985). F r a c -
t u r e f a c e s a t t h e w e l l b o r e w a l l have undergone s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and r e -
l e a s e d u r i n g d r i l l i n g and subsequent washout, and mechanical breakage d u r i n g
c i r c u l a t i o n and m u l t i p l e t r i p s o f t h e d r i l l s t r i n g . The way i n which d r i l l i n g
 888

and s u b s e q u e n t s t r e s s e s a f f e c t t h e f r a c t u r e - b o r e h o l e i n t e r s e c t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y
c o n t r o l s d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c r a c k image c h a r a c t e r o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e a c o u s t i c a l t e -
l e v i e w e r l o g . M a s s i v e c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k s p r o v i d e an u n i f o r m l y r e f l e c t i v e b o r e -
h o l e w a l l w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s an i d e a l b a c k g r o u n d f o r f r a c t u r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The
m a j o r i t y o f n a t u r a l cracks i n c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k s a r e a r t i f i c i a l l y widened near
t h e borehole d u r i n g d r i l l i n g by s t r e s s concentration a t t h e f r a c t u r e - b o r e h o l e
i n t e r s e c t i o n d u r i n g passage o f t h e d r i l l i n g b i t .

F r a c t u r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s can be d i f f i c u l t because o f t h e
g e n e r a l l y l e s s s o n i c r e f l e c t i v i t y , v a r i a b l e b a c k g r o u n d r e f l e c t i v i t y , and e x t e n -
s i v e d r i l l i n g damage o f f r i a b l e bedded d e p o s i t s . V e r t i c a l v a r i a t i o n s i n b o r e -
h o l e w a l l r e f l e c t i v i t y a r e m a i n l y a f u n c t i o n o f c h a n g i n g mud c o n t e n t i n t h e f o r -
m a t i o n . Comparison o f a c o u s t i c a l t e l e v i e w e r l o g s and c o r e sequences r e v e a l s
t h a t many f r a c t u r e s a p p e a r i n g c l o s e d i n c o r e s show u p open o n t h e t e l e v i e w e r
log, thereby u n d e r l i n i n g t h e i r secondary opening d u r i n g t h e d r i l l i n g process.

6.2.1.9.1.7. Impact of fracture widening during drilling

Crack a p e r t u r e and p e r m e a b i l i t y c a n be a t l e a s t q u a l i t a t i v e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y
a c o u s t i c a l b o r e h o l e t e l e v i s i o n , w i t h f r a c t u r e s a p p e a r i n g w i d e s t and d a r k e s t r e -
p r e s e n t i n g t h e m o s t p e r m e a b l e ones, whereas c r a c k s w i t h o n l y a f a i n t d i s c o n t i n u -
ous t r a c e b e i n g a l m o s t t i g h t (PAILLET, KEYS & HESS 1 9 8 5 ) . An open f r a c t u r e p r o -
duces an image because n o s i g n a l i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e l o g g i n g sonde, and a p l u g -
ged c r a c k c r e a t e s a p i c t u r e i f t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t s o n i c c o n t r a s t between t h e
f i l l i n g m a t e r i a l i n t h e j o i n t and t h e h o s t r o c k t o p r o d u c e a weaker r e f l e c t e d
s i g n a l (TAYLOR 1 9 8 3 ) . D i s t i n c t i o n o f open and f i l l e d f r a c t u r e s c a n be o p t i m i z e d
by c o m b i n i n g a m p l i t u d e and t r a n s i t t i m e l o g s , w i t h an image o n b o t h d i s p l a y s i n -
d i c a t i n g an open f r a c t u r e , whereas a p i c t u r e o n l y on t h e a m p l i t u d e l o g c h a r a c -
t e r i z e s a f i l l e d c r a c k . Drawbacks o f t h e f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y e s t i m a t i o n ap-
p r o a c h a r e l i n k e d w i t h t h e w i d t h o f t h e a c o u s t i c beam p r o v i d e d b y t h e s o u r c e
w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s m a l l c r a c k w i d t h has been c o n v o l v e d w i t h a b r o a d
s o u r c e f u n c t i o n . As a l s o f r a c t u r e o p e n i n g a t t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l may have been
s u b s t a n t i a l l y widened d u r i n g d r i l l i n g , apparent crack w i d t h on t e l e v i e w e r l o g s
may n o t be a r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t o r o f r e l a t i v e a n d / o r e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y .

D r i l l i n g t e c h n i q u e s c a n g r e a t l y a f f e c t a c o u s t i c a l t e l e v i e w e r l o g s because o f
b o r e h o l e w a l l r o u g h n e s s and n o n - c i r c u l a r w e l l b o r e c r o s s - s e c t i o n as w e l l as b o r e -
hole breakouts. F r a c t u r e aperture widening occurs d u r i n g d r i l l i n g by h y d r a u l i c
o p e n i n g due t o i n v a s i o n o f h i g h - p r e s s u r e mud ( n o t mud f i l t r a t e ) , o r b y e r o s i o n
o f s o f t a l t e r a t i o n p r o d u c t s o u t o f t h e c r a c k w h i c h o r i g i n a l l y have been p r e s e n t
i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e f r a c t u r e plane around t h e borehole. I n terms o f t e l e v i e -
wer r e s o l u t i o n combined w i t h w i d e n i n g b y d r i l l i n g , f r a c t u r e s l e s s t h a n 1 / 3 2 i n .
d i a m e t e r and e v e n h a i r l i n e c r a c k s o f t e n e r o d e and become w i d e enough a t t h e
w e l l b o r e s u r f a c e t o be d e t e c t e d b y t h e t e l e v i e w e r (TAYLOR 1 9 8 3 ) .

6.2.1.9.1.8. Effects of hole geometry on televiewer log quality

V e r t i c a l r o u n d b o r e h o l e s a l l o w optimum r e s u l t s o f a c o u s t i c a l t e l e v i s i o n l o g -
g i n g , whereas d e v i a t i o n s f r o m i d e a l w e l l b o r e g e o m e t r y t r i g g e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n s o f
l o g q u a l i t y (GEORGI 1 9 8 5 ) . The b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r u t i l i z e s an u l t r a s o n i c t r a n s -
d u c e r i n a c o n v e n t i o n a l p u l s e - e c h o mode. The t e l e v i e w e r images a r e c o n s t r u c t e d
f r o m t h e a m p l i t u d e o f s p e c u l a r l y r e f l e c t e d a c o u s t i c e n e r g y . As t r a n s d u c e r e n e r -
g y i s s t r o n g l y c o l l i m a t e d , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e s o n i c beam i s n e a r l y n o r m a l
t o t h e w e l l b o r e w a l l , and t h e c o n s t r u c t e d images a r e a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d when
t h e t o o l i s d e c e n t r a l i z e d o r t h e b o r e h o l e c r o s s - s e c t i o n i s n o t r o u n d . Some a s -
p e c t s o f h o l e r o u n d n e s s and i n s t r u m e n t c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , c o r r e c t i o n i n e l l i p t i c a l
h o l e and e c c e n t e r e d t o o l , and s i g n a l a t t e n u a t i o n b y s o l i d - l a d e n d r i l l i n g mud
a r e i l l u s t r a t e d as f o l l o w s .
 889

6.2.1.9.1.8.1. Hole roundness and instrument central i zat ion

I n c i r c u l a r boreholes w i t h centered instrument, the f r a c t u r e signatures are
s i m p l e s i n u s o i d s , b u t i n e l l i p t i c a l w e l l b o r e s w i t h c e n t r a l i z e d t o o l o r i n round
boreholes w i t h o f f - c e n t e r e d i n s t r u m e n t , t h e c r a c k s i g n a t u r e s can be s e v e r e l y
d i s t o r t e d and fragmented by compression and e x t e n s i o n o f d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e
s i n u s o i d , because t h e w e l l b o r e r a d i u s i s no l o n g e r independent o f t h e a z i m u t h a l
angle (GEORGI 1985). When t h e a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e d i v e r g e s f r o m 10 degrees,
l i t t l e o r no energy i s r e f l e c t e d back towards t h e t r a n s d u c e r , and t h e r e f o r e
when t h e t e l e v i e w e r i s e c c e n t e r e d o r t i l t e d i n a c i r c u l a r borehole, t h e r e s u l t -
i n g images e x h i b i t two p r o m i n e n t v e r t i c a l s t r i p e s r e p r e s e n t i n g l o w - a m p l i t u d e r e -
t u r n s (TAYLOR 1983). When t h e t o o l i s c e n t e r e d i n e l l i p t i c a l w e l l b o r e s , acous-
t i c r e t u r n s a r e r e c e i v e d f r o m f o u r s e c t o r s , c e n t e r e d on t h e m a j o r and m i n o r
axes, g i v i n g r i s e t o f o u r prominent b l a c k and w h i t e s t r i p e s on g r a y - s c a l e d ima-
ges (WILEY 1980).

6.2.1.9.1.8.2. Correction in elliptical hole and eccentered tool

Tool c e n t e r i n g i n n o n - c i r c u l a r b o r e h o l e c r o s s - s e c t i o n s can a l s o d i s t o r t t h e
c l a s s i c a l s i n e wave s i g n a t u r e o f d i p p i n g p l a n a r f r a c t u r e s . L i t t l e o r no d i s t o r -
t i o n occurs f o r h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l f e a t u r e s , whereas maximum d i s t o r t i o n t a -
kes p l a c e f o r o b l i q u e l y o r i e n t e d p l a n a r phenomena (GEORGI 1985). F o r s m a l l w e l l -
bore e l l i p t i c i t i e s and c e n t r a l i z e d t o o l s , t h e d i s t o r t i o n i s n e g l i g i b l e and
l i t t l e e r r o r w i l l be i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e e s t i m a t e d f r a c t u r e d i p s and s t r i k e s .
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n problems due t o n o n c i r c u l a r b o r e h o l e s and e c c e n t e r e d l o g g i n g son-
des a r e e a s i l y overcome b y u s i n g t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f a m p l i t u d e and t r a n s i t t i m e
logs (TAYLOR 1983). Tool p o s i t i o n and w e l l b o r e shape cannot be determined f r o m
v a r i a t i o n s i n s i g n a l s t r e n g t h which a r e r e c o r d e d on t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a m p l i t u d e
l o g , b u t can be determined f r o m i n t e r v a l t r a n s i t t i m e which v a r i e s o n l y as t h e
t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r a s i g n a l t o t r a v e l f r o m t h e l o g g i n g sonde t o t h e b o r e h o l e
w a l l . A w h i t e s p e c k l e d appearance o f t h e t r a n s i t t i m e l o g r e f l e c t i n g a l t e r n a -
t i n g no s i g n a l and f a r s i g n a l t y p i f i e s a rugose w e l l b o r e s u r f a c e due t o e r o s i o n
o r elongation.

6.2.1.9.1.8.3. Signal attenuation by solid-laden drilling mud

Another n e g a t i v e e f f e c t i n b o r e h o l e s i s a t t e n u a t i o n o f u l t r a s o n i c b o r e h o l e
t e l e v i e w e r s i g n a l s by suspended s o l i d s i n f r e s h w a t e r d r i l l i n g mud which can be
up t o 10 d B / i n . (RAMBOW 1984). I n e l l i p t i c a l w e l l b o r e s , t h i s i n t e n s i t y a t t e n u a -
t i o n depends on t h e a z i m u t h a l a n g l e b e i n g l a r g e s t a l o n g t h e m a j o r a x i s and
l e a s t along t h e m i n o r a x i s . S i g n a l l o s s a l s o occurs due t o a d i v e r g e n c e o f i n c i -
d e n t and r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s (GEORGI 1985). As t h i s a n g u l a r s e p a r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s ,
t h e n a t u r e o f t h e observed s i g n a l changes. F o r small angles, the amplitude o f
t h e r e t u r n s i g n a l i s dominated b y s p e c u l a r l y r e f l e c t e d energy, whereas f o r l a r -
g e r angles, t h e observed a m p l i t u d e s a r e dominated by b a c k - s c a t t e r e d energy.

6.2.1.9.2. Elect r ica 1 format ion microscanni ng

The f o r m a t i o n microscanning i n s t r u m e n t (EKSTROM, CHEN, R O S S I , LOCKE & ARON
1986; EKSTROM, DAHAN, CHEN, LLOYD & R O S S I 1986; LLOYD, DAHAN & H U T I N 1986;
PLUMB & LUTHI 1986, SCHLUMBERGER 1986 b) and t h e h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n d i p m e t e r t o o l
(SCHLUMBERGER 1982, 1983), however, have much h i g h e r v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l r e -
s o l u t i o n t h a n t h e w e l l b o r e t e l e v i e w e r and a r e t h u s s u p e r i o r means f o r f r a c t u r e
r e c o g n i t i o n (PLUMB 1988), m a i n l y as a consequence o f d i f f e r e n t r e c o r d i n g t e c h n i -
ques. The b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r i s an a c t i v e a c o u s t i c d e v i c e and behaves p o o r l y
i n heavy mud where s i g n a l t r a n s m i s s i o n i s impaired, b u t works i n a l l t y p e s o f
d r i l l i n g mud r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r c o n d u c t i v i t y n a t u r e . F o r m a t i o n microscanner
and d i p m e t e r a r e p a s s i v e r e s i s t i v i t y t o o l s which, however, do n o t work i n o i l -
based muds t h a t a r e non-conductive. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e q u a l i t y drawback, t h e
 890

wellbore televiewer sees the f u l l circumference of the borehole w a ll, whereas

the formation microscanner only records s ect i ons of i t not exceeding half of
the t o t a l circumference, and an improvement of coverage re quire s repeated log-
g i n g runs a t d i f f e r e n t azimuths ( a s both borehole televiewer a n d formation mi-
croscanner have t h e i r chief ap p l i cat i o n i n natural f r a c t u r e de te c tion a n d pic tu-
r in g , more d e t a i l s on b o t h instruments and t h e i r recording techniques a r e pre-
sented i n s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 1 . ) .

6.2.1.9.3. Optical borehole television and videocamera recording

A p a r t from acoustic-logging borehole t e l e v i s i o n , a l s o d i r e c t optic a l t e l e v i -
sion a n d photography systems have been developed a n d suc c e ssfully applied in
f r a c t u r e height, a z i m u t h , width a n d morphology inspection ( B R I D G E S 1964; SMITH,
ROSENBERG & BOWEN 1982; YOUNG, BARKER & CLARK 1984). The o u t l i n e as follows fo-
cusses on image r es o l u t i o n a n d borehole f l u i d c l a r i t y a n d p o s s i b i l i t i e s of en-
hanced i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

6.2.1.9.3.1. Image resolution and borehole fluid clarity

High-resolution d i r e c t observation of the wellbore wall can a l s o serve t o es-
t a b l i s h whether s i g n i f i c a n t damage by crushing and/or permanent deformation
and/or enlargement of the borehole has occurred during explosive f r a c t u r i n g
( c f . s e c t i o n 4.7.3. a n d p l a t e I V / l ) , and can a l s o provide information on f r a c -
t u r e width a t i t s mouth and on b en ef i t s obtained from various wellbore-notching
techniques. Some of the o p t i cal t e l e v i s i o n and photography systems can be run
in a f l u i d - f i l l e d borehole i f i t i s an adequately c l e a r water s o l u t i o n , b u t
b a i l i n g the well dry has a l s o turned out t o d e l i v e r good r e s u l t s of observation
and documentation. Poor water c l a r i t y cr eat ed by f l u i d r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o r f l u i d
movement i n the wellbore can d e t e r i o r a t e any optic a l t e l e v i s i o n f r a c t u r e inspec-
t io n (SMITH, ROSENBERG & BOWEN 1982). With the l o g g i n g cable being inside of
c o i l e d tubing, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o e n t e r any well with downhole videocamera and
t o be confident t o see the borehole s t r u c t u r e s by ensuring t h a t a nitrogen
cushion i s surrounding the camera while in hole (MACEWEN 1988). By a djusting ni-
trogen pumping pressure and wellhead pressure accordingly, i t i s possible t o
move the nitrogen cushion u p a n d down the well w i t h the camera. Small qua nti-
t i e s of nitrogen can be used a t the same time i n the form of small j e t s t o keep
the camera lens c l e a r of wellbore f l u i d s .

Experience of t e l e v i s i o n camera borehole surveys a r e a l s o reported by FITZ-

PATRICK, KARR & O'SHEA (1985) and SMITH, R E N , SORRELS & TEUFEL (1985). Downhole
o p t i c a l t e l e v i s i o n logging a n d viewing i s the simplest way of f r a c t u r e a z i m u t h
determination, because t h er e i s no i n t e r p r e t a t i o n involved (SMITH, ROSENBERG &
BOWEN 1982). Optical p i c t u r e s of hydraulic f r a c t u r e s in wellbores by p h o t o g r a -
phy a r e a l s o shown by WATERHOUSE, CHARARA & NURMI (1987). OVERBEY, YOST & WIL-
KINS (1988); OVERBEY, YOST & YOST (1988) a n d YOST, OVERBEY, WILKINS & LOCKE
(1988) analyze natural f r a c t u r e s i n a horizontal well by borehole videocamera
imaging (with the camera having been d r i l l - p i p e conveyed) i n a c le a n, a i r - d r i l -
led wellbore.

6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . 3 . 2 . Possibilities of enhanced interpretat ion

Special video enhancement and playback equipment can be used t o examine the
video tape a n d t o o r i e n t f e a t u r e s i n the wellbore. Determination o f t o p and/or
bottom of the borehole on the video image enables o r i e n t a t i o n of natural f r a c -
tu r e s because wellbore a z i m u t h i s k n o w n . The angle of inte rc e ption of a crack
with the borehole can be derived from the focal length of the camera a s an i n -
p u t f o r e st i m a t i n g f r a c t u r e e n t r y p o i n t lengths along the wellbore combined
with borehole diameter in the tangent f u n ct i on, and from development of a se -
r i e s of models of cracks i n t e r s e c t i n g the wellbore a t low angles a n d using them
 891

as m u l t i p l e x e d r e f r e s h e d s i g n a l s t o t h e v i d e o m o n i t o r f o r d i r e c t comparison t o
a c t u a l w e l l b o r e images by s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n on t h e same screen.

The knowledge o f t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e s and f a u l t s f r o m a v i d e o survey

can be u t i l i z e d t o make d e c i s i o n s about where t o s t i m u l a t e i n o r d e r t o a v o i d i n -
t e r f e r e n c e w i t h e x i s t i n g w e l l s and t o p r e v e n t i n t e r f e r e n c e as f i e l d development
proceeds. Observing c r a c k s s t a i n e d w i t h n a t u r a l gas l i q u i d s g i v e s p r o o f o f an
added dimension o f c o m p l e x i t y o f f l o w through a n i s o t r o p i c s h a l e gas r e s e r v o i r s .
F r a c t u r e m o n i t o r i n g by downhole videocamera survey i s a l s o performed by LAU
(1980), LAYNE & SIRIWARDANE (1988); MERCER, PRATT & YOST (1988); OVERBEY, YOST
& WILKINS (1988) and SCHRAUFNAGEL & LAMBERT (1988). Comparison o f a c o u s t i c a l
and o p t i c a l b o r e h o l e t e l e v i s i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t by PAILLET, KEYS & HESS (1985).

6.2.1.10.Natural fracture detection by various logging methods

I n c o n t r a s t t o d e t e r m i n a t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d and
p r o p p a n t - i n f i l l e d f r a c t u r e s o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y l a r g e r s c a l e which i s d i s c u s s e d i n
above ( c f . s e c t i o n s 6.2.1.1. - 6.2.1.8.), t h e s m a l l e r - s c a l e networks o f n a t u r a l
c r a c k s and j o i n t s w i t h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n can a l s o be assessed by v a r i o u s w i r e l i n e
w e l l l o g g i n g techniques. L o c a l i z a t i o n and c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s
i s i m p o r t a n t t o a i d i n s e l e c t i o n o f t a r g e t zones f o r h y d r a u l i c s t i m u l a t i o n p r o -
cedures, and d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s can a s s i s t
i n c h o i c e o f s i t e s f o r d r i l l i n g o f f u r t h e r w e l l s (GUY, FERTL & OLIVER 1986). I n
a d d i t i o n , n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s t h e i r s e l v e s may be t h e key t o economical h y d r o c a r -
bon p r o d u c t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n s w i t h low m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y , and t h e i r d e t e c t i o n
becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f e x p l o r a t i o n and deve-
lopment t o s u c c e s s i v e l y deeper s t o r e y s o f t h e g e o l o g i c a l column where t h e p e t r o -
p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e rock m a t r i x a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y poorer, and e s p e c i a l l y
p r i m a r y m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y lower, w i t h secondary f r a c t u r e p e r -
m e a b i l i t y ( c f . s e c t i o n 4.8.8.1.) becoming d e c i s i v e f o r r e s e r v o i r p r o s p e c t i v i t y .

As c r a c k s a r e anomalies i n t h e r o c k due t o l o s s o f cohesion i n t h e f o r m a t i o n

i t s e l f , t h e y cause anomalous responses i n w i r e l i n e l o g s w i t h r e s p e c t t o read-
i n g s i n u n d i s t u r b e d g e o l o g i c a l sequences (SCHLUMBERGER 1982). The e v a l u a t i o n of
n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f r o c k s i s n o t o n l y o f c o n s i d e r a b l e importance
f o r o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n , b u t a l s o o f s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r enhanced p e t r o l e u m r e -
covery, geothermal e x p l o r a t i o n , r a d i o a c t i v e waste d i s p o s a l and earthquake p r e -
d i c t i o n (PAILLET 1981).

6.2.1.10.0.General aspects of natural fracture recognition

The e x i s t e n c e o f f r a c t u r e s may be d e r i v e d f r o m l o g s because o f t h e response
of t h e t o o l s t o p h y s i c a l c r a c k p r o p e r t i e s such as v i s i b i l i t y (MYUNG & CALDWELL
1971), p o r o s i t y (PICKETT & REYNOLDS 1969), p e r m e a b i l i t y (HEFLIN, NEILL & D A V I E S
1976), r e s i s t i v i t y (MINNE & GARTNER 1979) and a c o u s t i c impedance c o n t r a s t (BRO-
D I N G 1981). O t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s on l o g s f r o m which t h e presence o f f r a c t u r e s may
be i n f e r r e d a r e c a l i p e r response t o h o l e - s i z e r e d u c t i o n o r e l o n g a t i o n , and ano-
malous response f r o m temperature and n o i s e l o g s (MYUNG 1976).

I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e g e o s t r e s s f i e l d which determines t h e d i r e c t i o n o f l o n g i t u -
d i n a l f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n can be o b t a i n e d by e v a l u a t i o n o f n a t u r a l c r a c k o r i e n -
t a t i o n by b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r (ZEMANEK, CALDWELL, GLENN, HOLCOMB, NORTON &
STRAUS 1969; KAMP 1983, FLECKENSTEIN 1984, CLERKE & AKKEREN 1986, DARILEK
1986), h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n dipmeter a n a l y s i s ( e s p e c i a l l y wave-form i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ;
PERRIER & QUIBLIER 1973, SHIELDS 1974, GILREATH 1977; SCHLUMBERGER 1982, 1983)
w i t h f o u r - o r even s i x - a r m t o o l s (MORRISON & THIBODAUX 1984; GOETZ, TYSON & GA-
RAT 1987), f o r m a t i o n microscanner (EKSTROM, CHEN, R O S S I , LOCKE & ARON 1986; EK-
STROM, DAHAN, CHEN, LLOYD & R O S S I 1986; PLUMB & LUTHI 1986; SCHLUMBERGER 1986
b, 1987 a; HANSEN 1988) and f r a c m e t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (CHARLEZ & DESPAX 1987).
Summaries o f f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n w i t h w e l l l o g s a r e g i v e n by AGUILERA (1976);
 892

SHANKS, KWON, V R I E S & WICHMANN ( 1 9 7 6 ) ; HEFLIN ( 1 9 7 9 ) , SUAU & GARTNER ( 1 9 7 9 ) ;

HIRSCH, C I S A R , GLASS & ROMANOWSKI ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; SCHLUMBERGER (1982, 1987 a ) and
PLUMB, BRIE & HSU ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s a r e e i t h e r open and c o n d u c t i v e o r c l o s e d and t i g h t b y f o r -

m a t i o n d e b r i s a n d / o r m i n e r a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n . They a r e d e f i n e d b y s t r i k e , d i p ,
a p e r t u r e , s p a c i n g and c o n d u c t i v i t y . The s i m p l e s t and m o s t d i r e c t p o s s i b i l i t y o f
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l crack system i s v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n o f cores. Bore-
h o l e measurement systems d e s i g n e d f o r f r a c t u r e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n a r e g e n e r a l l y
based o n one o f t h r e e p r i n c i p l e s c o m p r i s i n g e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f f l u i d -
f i l l e d f r a c t u r e s , a c o u s t i c a t t e n u a t i o n d u r i n g p r o p a g a t i o n a c r o s s f r a c t u r e s , and
b o r e h o l e w a l l i m a g i n g (PAILLET 1 9 8 1 ) . F r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n w i t h w i r e l i n e l o g s com-
p r i s e s i n d i r e c t v i s u a l i z a t i o n b y f o r m a t i o n m i c r o s c a n n e r and b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r
w h i c h a r e e l e c t r i c a l and a c o u s t i c a l i m a g i n g d e v i c e s , and m e a s u r i n g o f v a r i o u s
f o r m a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s and t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s o u t l i -
nes f o r m a t i o n m i c r o s c a n n e r and b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r , d i p m e t e r l o g g i n g , o t h e r a s -
p e c t s o f r e s i s t i v i t y l o g g i n g t e c h n i q u e s , d i p m e t e r , s o n i c l o g g i n g w i t h f u l l wave-
f o r m a n a l y s i s , s p e c i a l methods f o r h o r i z o n t a l f r a c t u r e s , f r a c t u r e p r o b a b i l i t y
program, m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s l o g g i n g and o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s .

6.2.1.10.1. Formation microscanner and borehole televiewer

F o r m a t i o n m i c r o s c a n n e r and b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r a r e p a s s i v e r e s i s t i v i t y and
a c t i v e a c o u s t i c t o o l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e b o r e h o l e and
i m a g i n g o f n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s ( c f . a l s o s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . ) . The f o r m a t i o n m i c r o -
s c a n n e r c a n be r e g a r d e d as an enhanced e x t e n s i o n o f t h e h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n dipme-
t e r ( c f . section 6.2.1.10.2.). B o t h f o r m a t i o n m i c r o s c a n n e r and d i p m e t e r have
t h e a d v a n t a g e t h a t t h e c a l i p e r o r i e n t s i t s e l f w i t h one p a i r o f pads a l o n g t h e
f r a c t u r e and b r e a k o u t p l a n e ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 8 . ) . The f o r m a t i o n m i c r o s c a n n e r
a l l o w s r e c o g n i t i o n o f open c r a c k s , d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r s t r i k e and d i p , and
d i s t i n c t i o n between n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d c r a c k s o r b o r e h o l e
damage (SCHLUMBERGER 1986 b ) . A n o t h e r b o r e h o l e v i s u a l i z a t i o n t o o l p r o d u c i n g
h i g h - q u a l i t y images i s t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n d i p m e t e r (SHDT; HACK-
BARTH & TEPPER 1988; c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 2 . ) . The d i s c u s s i o n as f o l l o w s concen-
t r a t e s o n b o r e h o l e v i s u a l i z a t i o n and f o r m a t i o n i m a g i n g v s . r e s e r v o i r c o r i n g ,
d i s t i n c t i o n o f n a t u r a l and d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s , c o r i n g - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s
i n d i c a t i n g hydraulic f r a c t u r e propagation, e l e c t r i c a l microscanning vs. acousti-
c a l t e l e v i s i o n , and a c o u s t i c a l t e l e v i s i o n v s . d i p m e t e r r e s i s t i v i t y r e c o r d i n g .

6.2.1.10.1.1. Borehole visualization and

formation imaging vs. reservoir coring
W h i l e c o r e s p r o v i d e t h e m o s t d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n o n f r a c t u r e s and t h e i r r e l a -
t i o n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r r o c k , c o r e r e c o v e r y i n j o i n t e d and c r a c k e d r o c k i s common-
l y p o o r and c o r e o r i e n t a t i o n methods may f a i l , w i t h t h u s g e o p h y s i c a l l o g s t h a t
image t h e b o r e h o l e b e i n g a b l e t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n o n some c r i t i c a l a s p e c t s
o f r e s e r v o i r f r a c t u r e s (LAUBACH, BAUMGARDNER, MONSON, HUNT & MEADOR 1 9 8 8 ) . P a r -
t i c u l a r l y t h e f o r m a t i o n m i c r o s c a n n e r p r o d u c e s h i g h - q u a l i t y r e s e r v o i r images
w h i c h a r e r i v a l e d i n d e t a i l o n l y b y c o r e samples (SCHLUMBERGER 1986 b, 1987 a ) .
The f o r m a t i o n m i c r o s c a n n e r t h u s r e p r e s e n t s t h e c l o s e s t a p p r o a c h t o t h e u l t i m a t e
g o a l o f s o p h i s t i c a t e d w i r e l i n e l o g g i n g t o p r o v i d e an i n - s i t u d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
pay t h a t c o u l d o t h e r w i s e o n l y b e o b t a i n e d b y t h e e x p e n s i v e and more t i m e - c o n s u -
ming procedure o f f u l l - h o l e c o r i n g .

B o r e h o l e v i s u a l i z a t i o n b y m i c r o s c a n n e r and t e l e v i e w e r p e r m i t s a l s o f r a c t u r e
mapping on t h e w e l l b o r e w a l l and d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e g e o m e t r y ( s t r i k e ,
d i p , l e n g t h , w i d t h ) , m o r p h o l o g y , d i s t r i b u t i o n , f r e q u e n c y , s p a c i n g , a p e r t u r e and
open v s . c l o s e d n a t u r e , i n c o n t r a s t t o o t h e r l o g g i n g t e c h n i q u e s o f i n d i r e c t n a -
t u r e w h i c h r e v e a l o n l y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f c r a c k s and p r o b a b l y p e r m i t t o d i s c r i m i -
n a t e open and c l o s e d f r a c t u r e s , o r even s u f f e r f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t responses
 893

a s c r i b e d t o c r a c k s can a l s o have been caused by bedding, vugs, mud cake, l i t h o -

l o g y changes, washouts o r even moderate w e l l b o r e e l o n g a t i o n ( w h i c h can be cau-
sed by b r e a k o u t c o l l a p s e o f t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l f r o m r e l e a s e o f n a t u r a l s t r a i n ,
o r can be an a r t i f a c t f r o m d r i l l i n g due t o e x c e s s i v e o r i n s u f f i c i e n t mud p r e s -
s u r e o r damage o f t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l by t h e d r i l l i n g s t r i n g ) .

Comparative e v a l u a t i o n o f b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r l o g s , f o r m a t i o n microscanner
l o g s and r e s e r v o i r c o r e s r e v e a l s t h a t v e r t i c a l e x t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e s a r e u s u a l l y
v i s i b l e on b o t h l o g types, whereas low-angle n a t u r a l shear c r a c k s cannot be ima-
ged (LAUBACH, BAUMGARDNER, MONSON, HUNT & MEADOR ( 1 9 8 8 ) . Both w e l l b o r e t e l e v i e -
wer and f o r m a t i o n microscanner r e p r e s e n t f r a c t u r e shape and d i s t i n g u i s h c r a c k s
f r o m b o r e h o l e b r e a k o u t s . E x i s t i n g commercial b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w i n g and r e s e r v o i r
microscanning t e c h i q u e s , however, do n o t g i v e a q u a n t i t a t i v e measure o f c r a c k
aperture. Fracture o r i e n t a t i o n i s r e a d i l y obtained f o r i n c l i n e d cracks from e i -
t h e r w e l l b o r e t e l e v i e w e r o r f o r m a t i o n microscanner l o g s , b u t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f
v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e s i s commonly ambiguous on b o t h l o g s . B o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r and
r e s e r v o i r microscanner a r e g e n e r a l l y u s e f u l a d j u n c t s t o core-based c r a c k s t u -
d i e s f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f n a t u r a l l y j o i n t e d pays.

6.2.1.10.1.2. Distinct ion o f natura 1 and dr i 1 1 ins- induced cracks

F o r m a t i o n microscanner and b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r can d i s t i n g u i s h n a t u r a l
c r a c k s h a v i n g been p r e s e n t i n t h e r o c k b e f o r e d r i l l i n g f r o m f r a c t u r e s r e l a t e d
t o w e l l b o r e damage b y h y d r a u l i c f o r m a t i o n breakdown o r mechanical r o c k b r e a k o u t
as a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f d r i l l i n g and/or c o r i n g . The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n focusses
on m o r p h o l o g i c a l and g e n e t i c a l c r a c k t y p e spectrum, r e l a t i o n s h i p t o w e l l t r a j e c -
t o r y and r o c k type, hackle-plume geometry and f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n , and conduc-
t i v i t y c o n t r a s t between f r a c t u r e - f i l l i n g m i n e r a l s and h o s t r o c k .

6.2.1.10.1.2.1.Morphological and genetical crack type spectrum

Induced c r a c k s can be caused by h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g , thermal f r a c t u r i n g and
u n l o a d i n g s t r e s s e s (WATERHOUSE, CHARARA & NURMI 1987). H y d r a u l i c double-winged
c r a c k s a r e c r e a t e d when t h e w e l l b o r e p r e s s u r e exceeds t h e combined r e s e r v o i r
pore p r e s s u r e and r o c k t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , and t h e induced f r a c t u r e s a r e o r i e n t e d
v e r t i c a l l y a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f l e a s t p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s across t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l .
Thermal f r a c t u r i n g o c c u r s d u r i n g d r i l l i n g and c o r i n g when l a r g e thermal g r a -
d i e n t s a r e generated between h o t r o c k and c o o l e r d r i l l i n g f l u i d , and g i v e r i s e
t o t e n s i l e c r a c k s around t h e w e l l i n a d i r e c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e tempera-
t u r e g r a d i e n t . Unloading f r a c t u r e s appear as a r e s u l t o f t h e r e d u c t i o n o f o v e r -
burden p r e s s u r e near t h e s u r f a c e o f s t r e s s removal and propagate p e r p e n d i c u l a r
t o t h e u n l o a d i n g d i r e c t i o n . Numerous u n l o a d i n g f r a c t u r e s a l s o o c c u r i n c o r e s as
a consequence o f removing t h e samples f r o m t h e subsurface s t r e s s environment.

6.2.1.10.1.2.2. Relationship to well trajectory and rock type

N a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s h a v i n g been p r e s e n t p r i o r t o d r i l l i n g u s u a l l y c u t d i a g o n a l -
ly across t h e b o r e h o l e and a r e b e t t e r developed i n sandstone i n t e r v a l s o f a
c l a s t i c s e r i e s , whereas d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d h y d r a u l i c , thermal o r mechanical f r a c -
tures run p a r a l l e l t o the borehole t r a j e c t o r y over longer distances, are best
developed i n m u d s t o w s e c t i o n s and t e n d t o t e r m i n a t e as t h e y e n t e r sandstone i n -
terbeds, and a r e ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f u n l o a d i n g c r a c k s ) n o t found i n c o r r e s -
ponding c o r e s (6. a l s o LORENZ & FINLEY 1987, 1988). The p o s s i b i l i t y o f d i s c r i -
m i n a t i o n between n a t u r a l and d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s i s t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t
advantage o f f o r m a t i o n microscanner and b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o
o t h e r i n d i r e c t w e l l l o g g i n g techniques which respond t o a l l t y p e s o f open
c r a c k s encountered a l o n g t h e b o r e h o l e t r a j e c t o r y . D i s t i n c t i o n o f n a t u r a l and
d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s i s o n l y p o s s i b l e by d i r e c t imaging, because t h e phy-
s i c a l r e c o r d o f b o t h types o f c r a c k s by i n d i r e c t l y measuring t o o l s i s t h e same.
 894

The b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r c a n a l s o d i s c r i m i n a t e open and s e a l e d f r a c t u r e s b y com-

p a r i n g t i m e o f f l i g h t and r e f l e c t e d a m p l i t u d e i n f o r m a t i o n (TAYLOR 1983, RAMBOW
1984; c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . 1 . 6 . ) .

6.2.1.10.1.2.3. Hackle-plume geometry and fracture orientation

KULANDER & DEAN ( 1 9 8 8 a, 1988 b ) comment o n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f d r i l l i n g - i n d u -
c e d f r a c t u r e s i n c o r e s . H a c k l e plume components i n c l u d i n g c r a c k p l a n e m o r p h o l o -
g y and f r e q u e n c y o f c l o s e l y - s p a c e d i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s show a u n i q u e g e o m e t r i c a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o c o r e b o u n d a r i e s n o t d e v e l o p e d w i t h n a t u r a l j o i n t s . H a c k l e plume
g e o m e t r y and f r a c t u r e o r i e n t a t i o n r e f l e c t p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n s e x i s t i n g
d u r i n g p r o p a g a t i o n a t any p o i n t o f t h e c r a c k f a c e . I n d u c e d f r a c t u r e f r e q u e n c y
i s commonly i n f l u e n c e d b y m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f c o n t r a s t i n g l i t h o l o g i e s . P r o -
p e r l y l o g g e d d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d c r a c k s may p r e d i c t p r e f e r r e d h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e
s t i m u l a t i o n d i r e c t i o n s and r o c k b e h a v i o u r t o d i v e r s e t r e a t i n g p r o c e d u r e s . I n
c o n t r a s t t o d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s , n a t u r a l j o i n t s show n o g e o m e t r i c a l r e l a -
t i o n s h i p t o c o r e p a r a m e t e r s . C r i t e r i a f o r d i s t i n c t i o n o f n a t u r a l and d r i l l i n g -
i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s i n c o r e s a r e a l s o c o m p i l e d b y SANGREE ( 1 9 6 9 ) and LORENZ & F I N -
LEY (1987, 1 9 8 8 ) .

6.2.1.10.1.2.4. Conductivity contrast between

fracture-filling minerals and host rock
LAUBACH, BAUMGARDNER, MONSON, HUNT & MEADOR ( 1 9 8 8 ) c o n c l u d e f r o m c o m p a r a t i v e
e v a l u a t i o n o f b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r , f o r m a t i o n m i c r o s c a n n e r and r e s e r v o i r c o r e s
t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f n a t u r a l and d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s c a n n o t b e p e r f o r -
med o n t h e base o f r e l i a b l e c r i t e r i a ( c f . a l s o LORENZ & FINLEY 1987, 1988 f o r
r e s u l t s o f macroscopical c o r e i n s p e c t i o n a n a l y s i s ) . Formation microscanning can
o n l y d i s t i n g u i s h n a t u r a l from d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d cracks i f a s u f f i c i e n t conducti-
v i t y c o n t r a s t e x i s t s between f r a c t u r e - f i l l i n g m i n e r a l s and h o s t r o c k . P r i m a r i l y
q u a r t z - f i l l e d n a t u r a l c r a c k s do n o t c o n t r a s t i n c o n d u c t i v i t y w i t h t h e h o s t
quartz a r e n i t e . Healed f r a c t u r e s are detectable by borehole t e l e v i e w e r i f t h e
m a t e r i a l f i l l i n g t h e c r a c k has an a c o u s t i c impedance t h a t i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f -
f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e h o s t r o c k ( s u c h as c a l c i t e - f i l l e d c r a c k s i n t e r s e c t i n g
q u a r t z i t e s and q u a r t z i t i c s a n d s t o n e s ) . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c concave-downward
c u r v e o f d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e s (LAUBACH & MONSON 1988)
can sometimes be used t o d i s c r i m i n a t e between d r i l l i n g - i n d u c e d and n a t u r a l
c r a c k s . I n c l i n e d d r i l l i n g - c r e a t e d p e t a l f r a c t u r e s commonly c u r v e o r hook i n t o
v e r t i c a l n a t u r a l c r a c k s t h e r e b y g e n e r a t i n g c o m p o s i t e f r a c t u r e s w i t h shapes s i m i -
l a r t o d r i l l i n g - p r o v o k e d p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e cracks.

6.2.1.10.1.3. Coring-induced fractures indicating

hydrau 1 i c fracture propagat ion d i rect ion
The s t r i k e o f e x t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e s c r e a t e d i n f r o n t o f t h e d r i l l i n g b i t du-
r i n g coring is a potentially useful indicator o f horizontal stress anisotropy
t h a t i s e a s i l y o b t a i n e d f r o m o r i e n t e d c o r e (LAUBACH & MONSON 1 9 8 8 ) . C o r i n g - i n d u -
c e d e x t e n s i o n c r a c k s have d i s t i n c t i v e g e o m e t r y and s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e s , and a r e
p a r a l l e l maximum h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s u n l e s s n e a r - w e l l b o r e s t r e s s p e r t u r b a t i o n s o r
m e c h a n i c a l a n i s o t r o p y i n t h e r o c k have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t o n f r a c t u r e s t r i k e .
C o r i n g - i n d u c e d c r a c k s c a n be r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e i r o r i g i n s n e a r
o r w i t h i n t h e c o r e , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f r a c t u r e shapes, and absence o f m i n e r a l i z a -
t i o n (KULANDER, BARTON & DEAN 1 9 7 9 ) . F r a c t u r e o r i g i n s c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d b y
plume s t r u c t u r e s and a r r e s t l i n e s . A z i m u t h o f maximum h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s c a n b e
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m s t r a i n r e c o v e r y measurements o n o r i e n t e d c o r e , w e l l b o r e b r e a k -
o u t s o b s e r v e d w i t h d i p m e t e r and b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r l o g s , and s t r i k e o f c r a c k s
c r e a t e d i n o p e n - h o l e s t r e s s t e s t s . The o u t l i n e as f o l l o w s i l l u m i n a t e s some a s -
p e c t s o f p e t a l and p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e m o r p h o l o g y and p r o p a g a t i o n as w e l l
 895

as s t r e s s f i e l d p e r t u r b a t i o n s near t h e w e l l b o r e .

6.2.1.10.1.3.1. Petal and petal-center line fracture morphology

P e t a l and p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e s a r e two common t y p e s o f c o r i n g - i n d u c e d
c r a c k s which t e n d t o have a p r e f e r r e d o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t i s c o n t r o l l e d by e i t h e r
contemporaneous s t r e s s o r p r e - e x i s t i n g r o c k f a b r i c (KULANDER, BARTON & DEAN
1979). P e t a l and p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y c u r v e i n t o t h e
c o r e i n downhole d i r e c t i o n . P e t a l c r a c k s a r e s h o r t i n c l i n e d f r a c t u r e s t h a t a r e
concave downward w i t h v a r i o u s i n i t i a t i o n angles and a wide range o f c u r v a t u r e s .
P e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e s a r e s i n g l e c r a c k s t h a t a r e composed o f a s h o r t
smoothly c u r v i n g concave downward p e t a l segment which g r a d u a l l y merges i n down-
c o r e d i r e c t i o n w i t h a p l a n a r c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e segment t h a t may b i s e c t t h e
c o r e . The l o w e r and upper t e r m i n a t i o n s o f p e t a l and p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e s
occur i n s i d e and o u t s i d e o f t h e core, r e s p e c t i v e l y , and t h e c r a c k s commonly a r e
composed o f m u l t i p l e s t r a n d s r a t h e r t h a n s i n g l e f r a c t u r e p l a n e s which do n o t r e -
s u l t i n complete s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e c o r e . P e t a l c r a c k s a l s o f r e q u e n t l y i n t e r s e c t
and r e a c t i v a t e n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s , b u t c o r i n g - i n d u c e d c r a c k s a r e more common and
l o n g e r where n a t u r a l j o i n t s a r e absent.

6.2.1.10.1.3.2. Petal and petal-center 1 ine fracture propagation

P e t a l and p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e s propagate i n f r o n t o f t h e c o r e b i t as
i n d i c a t e d by t h e edges o f p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e c r a c k s b e i n g commonly scoured by t h e
b i t o r c r o s s c u t by grooves c r e a t e d by s c r i b e k n i v e s l o c a t e d i n s i d e t h e c o r e b a r -
r e l assembly (KULANDER, BARTON & DEAN 1979). Palaeomagnetical r e s u l t s a l s o t e s -
t i f y t h a t p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e s p r e d a t e h o r i z o n t a l s p i n o f f c r a c k s which
f o r m a f t e r t h e c o r e e n t e r s t h e b a r r e l . P e t a l and p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e s a r e
h y d r a u l i c c r a c k s which f o l l o w s t r e s s t r a j e c t o r i e s i n f r o n t o f t h e c o r e b i t t h a t
r e f l e c t r e g i o n a l s t r e s s a n i s o t r o p y and d i r e c t l y below t h e b i t near t h e p e t a l
f r a c t u r e o r i g i n , w i t h t h e reduced v e r t i c a l l o a d b e i n g caused by t h e presence o f
t h e b o r e h o l e . I n o t h e r cases, h i g h shear s t r e s s e s c r e a t e d by t h e r o t a t i n g c o r e
b i t can a l s o l o c a l l y r e o r i e n t p r i n c i p a l h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s and provoke p e t a l
s t r i k e t o d e v i a t e f r o m p a r a l l e l i s m w i t h r e g i o n a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n s (LORENZ &
FINLEY 1987, 1988). C o r i n g - i n d u c e d p e t a l and p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e s a r e
u s u a l l y s u b p a r a l l e l t o t h e s t r i k e o f n a t u r a l e x t e n s i o n c r a c k s i f t h e modern and
p a l a e o s t r e s s t r a j e c t o r i e s a r e s i m i l a r (LAUBACH & MONSON 1988), and n a t u r a l f r a c -
t u r e a n i s o t r o p y does n o t c o n t r o l t h e s t r i k e o f c o r i n g - i n d u c e d c r a c k s .

6.2.1.10.1.3.3. Stress field perturbations near the wellbore

F r a c t u r e s c r e a t e d i n s m a l l - s c a l e s t r e s s t e s t s a r e composed o f s i n g l e c r a c k
p l a n e s o r m u l t i p l e anastomosing f r a c t u r e s t r a n d s . L o c a l l y , c r a c k s generated i n
s t r e s s t e s t s have d i p s o f 70 - 80 degrees which i s n o t as s t e e p as i s t y p i c a l
f o r n e a r - v e r t i c a l p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e s which may i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e d i p o f
t h e l a t t e r t y p e o f c r a c k s does n o t r e c o r d t h e p r e c i s e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e v e r t i -
c a l p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s . S i m i l a r l y as f o r r e t r o s p e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s t r e s s
f i e l d , c o r i n g - i n d u c e d p e t a l and p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e f r a c t u r e s can be used f o r p r e -
d i c t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n azimuth. Accuracy o f d i r e c t i o n a l f o r e -
c a s t , however, can o c c a s i o n a l l y be d e t e r i o r a t e d i f p e t a l and p e t a l - c e n t e r l i n e
c r a c k s r e f l e c t p e r t u r b a t i o n s o f t h e s t r e s s f i e l d near t h e w e l l b o r e i n s t e a d o f
r e g i o n a l s t r e s s e s . Shear s t r e s s e s caused by b i t r o t a t i o n c o u l d provoke c o r i n g -
induced f r a c t u r e s t o develop a s t r i k e t h a t d e v i a t e s i n a c l o c k w i s e d i r e c t i o n
f r o m t h e r e g i o n a l maximum h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s (LORENZ & FINLEY 1987, 1988).

Such p e r t u r b a t i o n s can o n l y be e v a l u a t e d w i t h h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n d a t a on r e -
g i o n a l and l o c a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n s . Moreover, w i t h i n - w e l l f l u c t u a t i o n i n co-
r i n g - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s t r i k e may r e f l e c t s u b t l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e o r i e n t a t i o n
o f h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s w i t h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o r i m p r e c i s e c o r e o r i e n t a t i o n (NEL-
 896

SON, LENOX & WARD 1987). C o r i n g - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s and n a t u r a l cracks occurring

t o g e t h e r i n t h e same c o r e which a r e n o t p r e c i s e l y p a r a l l e l t o each o t h e r i n d i -
c a t e t h a t a l s o h y d r a u l i c a l l y - i n d u c e d f r a c t u r e s do n o t propagate e x a c t l y p a r a l -
l e l t o n a t u r a l c r a c k s ( c f . s e c t i o n 4 . 8 . 8 . 1 . ) . RAD, ADVANI, CHANG, LEE & DEAN
(1979) comment on i n - s i t u s t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n based on f r a c t u r e responses asso-
c i a t e d w i t h c o r i n g o p e r a t i o n s , and DANESHY, SLUSHER, CHISHOLM & MAGEE (1986)
d i s c u s s i n - s i t u s t r e s s measurements d u r i n g d r i l l i n g . Aspects o f c o r e - i n d u c e d
f r a c t u r e s a r e a l s o analyzed by OWEN, TORONTO & PETERSON ( 1 9 8 8 ) .

6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 1 . 4 . Electrical microscanning vs . acoustical television

The f o r m a t i o n microscanner measures e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y by mapping t h e
b o r e h o l e w a l l w i t h a dense a r r a y o f sensors g i v i n g r i s e t o a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n
e l e c t r i c a l image o f t h e r e s e r v o i r (SCHLUMBERGER 1986 b, 1987 a ) . The t o o l r e -
L.;t ds m i c r o c o n d u c t i v i t y changes caused by bedding s u r f a c e s and f r a c t u r e p l a n e s
i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e w e l l b o r e . The a r r a y s o f m i c r o r e s i s t i v i t y sensors a r e s e t on
two o r t h o g o n a l pads t o g i v e two o r i e n t e d image s l a b s o f t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l ,
w h i l e a l l f o u r pads c o n t a i n e l e c t r o d e s f o r t h e s t a n d a r d h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n dipme-
t e r r e c o r d i n g . A t r i a x i a l accelerometer and t h r e e s i n g l e - a x i s magnetometers p r o -
v i d e a c c u r a t e o r i e n t a t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n and enable speed c o r r e c t i o n s t o be made
on t h e a c q u i r e d d a t a .

P i c t u r i n g coverage o f t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l i s u s u a l l y 20 % and can be i n c r e a s e d

up t o 50 % by r e p e t i t i o n r u n s which i s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e 100 % coverage by t h e
w e l l t e l e v i e w e r ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . ) . The c o n d u c t i v i t y changes d e t e c t e d i n
t h e f o r m a t i o n can be d i s p l a y e d by d a t a p r o c e s s i n g as a v a r i a b l e - i n t e n s i t y g r a y
s c a l e o r c o l o u r image. D e t e r i o r a t i o n s o f image q u a l i t y a r e caused by e x c e s s i v e
s t i c k i n e s s c a u s i n g e x t r e m e l y i r r e g u l a r t o o l movement along t h e b o r e h o l e t r a j e c -
t o r y which cannot be c o m p l e t e l y handled by speed c o r r e c t i o n a l g o r i t h m s , and
out-of-gauge c o n d i t i o n s i n rugose and washed-out b o r e h o l e s , b u t as a conse-
quence o f w e l l b o r e improvement across pay zones due t o mud cake b u i l d - u p p r o -
t e c t i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n , t h e danger o f p o t e n t i a l image l o s s across r e s e r v o i r sec-
t i o n s i s v e r y low. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h i c k f i l t e r cakes d r a p i n g t h e b o r e h o l e
w a l l may o b l i t e r a t e v i s i b i l i t y o f s m a l l - s c a l e sedimentary and t e c t o n i c a l s t r u c -
t u r e s by t r i g g e r i n g a c c e n t u a t i o n o r smoothening o f e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y d i f f e -
rences, b u t such mud-cake impact i s i n most cases o f o n l y n e g l i g i b l e o r d e r .
Some aspects o f t o o l s e n s i t i v i t y and f r a c t u r e a p e r t u r e as w e l l as i n s t r u m e n t r e -
s o l u t i o n and b o r e h o l e w a l l coverage a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

6 . 2 . 1 . 1 0 . 1 . 4 . 1 . Tool sensitivity and fracture aperture

The c h i e f advantage o f t h e f o r m a t i o n microscanner o v e r t h e b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e -
wer i s t h a t i t can d e t e c t a range o f c r a c k a p e r t u r e s f r o m those s e v e r a l centime-
t r e s across t o m i c r o f r a c t u r e s which a r e open o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f a m i l l i m e t e r
and can even escape d e t e c t i o n i n v i s u a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f c o r e samples (SCHLUMBER-
GER 1986 b, 1987 a ) . E l e c t r i c a l imaging by r e s e r v o i r microscanner i s much more
s e n s i t i v e than a c o u s t i c a l p i c t u r i n g by b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r , because a w a t e r - o r
m u d - f i l l e d f r a c t u r e can be up t o 1,000 t i m e s more c o n d u c t i v e than s u r r o u n d i n g
hydrocarbon-bearing r o c k s . I n comparison, t h e a c o u s t i c impedance c o n t r a s t b e t -
ween most f l u i d s and r o c k s i s o n l y a b t . f o u r t o one.

The h i g h r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e f o r m a t i o n microscanner a l s o a l l o w s m o n i t o r i n g o f
s m a l l - s c a l e sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s such as c r o s s - b e d d i n g and h o r i z o n t a l - s t r a t i -
f i c a t i o n (PLUMB & LUTHI 1986) and t h u s enables d e t a i l e d c o m p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s
o f t h e pay i n t e r v a l . The s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e r e s e r v o i r microscanner i s a l m o s t i n -
dependent f r o m l o g g i n g speed, whereas t h e b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r produces s a t i s f a c -
t o r y r e s u l t s o n l y a t slow t o o l p u l l i n g r a t e s . The i d e a l way i s u s i n g w e l l t e l e -
v i e w e r and f o r m a t i o n microscanner c o n j o i n t l y f o r f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n because o f
t h e 360 degrees b o r e h o l e coverage o f t h e f o r m e r and t h e h i g h s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e
l a t t e r (SCHLUMBERGER 1987 a ) . F i e l d e x p e r i e n c e o f f r a c t u r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n by r e -
 897

s e r v o i r microscanner a p p l i c a t i o n i s r e p o r t e d by McNAUGHTON, CASARTA & BORNEMANN

(1988), and s u c c e s s f u l u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r f o r t h e same p u r -
pose i s d e s c r i b e d by WALBE ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

6.2.1.10.1.4.2. Instrument resolution and borehole wall coverage

LAUBACH, BAUMGARDNER, MONSON, HUNT & MEADOR (1988) p e r f o r m comparative eva-
l u a t i o n o f b o r e h o l e t e l e v i s i o n , f o r m a t i o n m i c r o s c a n n i n g and r e s e r v o i r c o r i n g .
The 360 degrees w e l l b o r e coverage o f t h e t e l e v i e w e r p e r m i t s r e l i a b l e f r a c t u r e
identification, o r i e n t a t i o n , and e s t i m a t i o n o f c r a c k abundance. Borehole break-
o u t s f r o m which p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n s can be deduced a r e a l s o more e a s i l y
r e c o g n i z e d w i t h complete w e l l b o r e coverage. The b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r , however,
i s l i m i t e d by l o w e r r e s o l u t i o n and by t h e v e r t i c a l s t r i p i n g t h a t occurs i n e l -
l i p t i c a l o r e n l a r g e d h o l e s o r when t h e t o o l i s o f f - c e n t e r . The h i g h e r sampling
r a t e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n microscanner and c o n d u c t i v i t y c o n t r a s t b e i n g l a r g e r t h a n
t h e a c o u s t i c a l c o n t r a s t between f r a c t u r e s and m a t r i x enables t h e microscanner
t o f i n d more c r a c k s (DENNIS, STANOEN, GEORGI & CALLOW 1987), whereas i n o t h e r
cases t h e t e l e v i e w e r can p i c k up more f r a c t u r e s because i t s coverage o f t h e
b o r e h o l e w a l l i s more complete t h a n t h a t o f t h e microscanner.

The h i g h r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r microscanner makes i t v a l u a b l e f o r de-

t e c t i n g small f e a t u r e s and f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g l i t t l e c r a c k s f r o m w e l l b o r e
s p a l l s . A n a l y s i s o f f r a c t u r e o r i g i n and r e l a t i o n o f c r a c k s t o bedding which i s
u s e f u l f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n between m a t r i x and f r a c t u r e p e r m e a b i l i t y i s
augmented by h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n microscanner images o f c r a c k shape and sedimentary
s t r u c t u r e s . Conductive j o i n t s , however, appear t o be w i d e r on microscanner l o g s
than i n c o r e . D e t e c t i o n o f small f r a c t u r e s and low-angle c r a c k s depends on v e r -
t i c a l sampling r a t e and s c a l e o f image more than on t o o l p h y s i c s .

6.2.1.10.1.5. Acoustical television

vs. dipmeter resistivity recording
A c o u s t i c a l b o r e h o l e t e l e v i s i o n has a l s o an i m p o r t a n t advantage w i t h r e s p e c t
t o d i p m e t e r r e s i s t i v i t y r e c o r d i n g (RAMBOW 1984). W h i l e dipmeter t o o l s r e a d w i t h
f o u r o r s i x arms and t h u s o b t a i n o n l y i n f o r m a t i o n on l i m i t e d s e c t i o n s o f t h e
w e l l b o r e w a l l ( c f . s e c t i o n 6.2.1.10.2.), the televiewer r e g i s t e r s the f u l l c i r -
cumference o f t h e b o r e h o l e and can t h e r e f o r e l e a d i n v a r i o u s cases t o s a f e r i n -
t e r p r e t a t i o n ( c f . s e c t i o n 6 . 2 . 1 . 9 . ) . Improvement o f w e l l b o r e a c o u s t i c a l t e l e v i -
s i o n t e c h n o l o g y enables a l s o l o g g i n g o f s o f t r e s e r v o i r s w h i c h f l o w and heal
most marks w i t h i n a s h o r t p e r i o d o f time. B o r e h o l e geometry a n a l y s i s by dipme-
t e r i n s o f t f o r m a t i o n s may g i v e evidence o f a pronounced e l l i p t i c i t y , b u t t h e
t e l e v i e w e r r e v e a l s t h a t r e a l l y a key s e a t i s d e v e l o p i n g a l o n g some f a c e s o f t h e
w a l l because o f t h e s o f t n e s s o f t h e f o r m a t i o n . Dipmeter e v a l u a t i o n c o u l d t h u s
r e s u l t i n m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f w e l l b o r e e l o n g a t i o n and t h u s e r r o r i n e a r t h
s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n d e t e r m i n a t i o n , whereas b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r e x a m i n a t i o n p r o v i -
des t h e c o r r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n .

A p a r t f r o m i t s c l a s s i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f f r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n and c a s i n g i n -
s p e c t i o n , t h e w e l l b o r e t e l e v i e w e r can a l s o i t s e l f be used as a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n
d i p m e t e r . I n many r e s p e c t s , t h e b o r e h o l e t e l e v i e w e r surpasses d i p m e t e r p e r f o r -
mance because i t can d e t e c t and d i f f e r e n t i a t e between f r a c t u r e s and bedding,
f o l d s and f a u l t s , and a l s o r e a l i z e s m a l l e r w e l l b o r e f e a t u r e s such as vugs and
b u r r o w i n g . The t e l e v i e w e r a l s o e x c e l s as a b o r e h o l e geometry t o o l because o f
i t s e s s e n t i a l l y c o n t i n u o u s coverage o f t h e w a l l c i r c u m f e r e n c e (TAYLOR 1983; c f .
s e c t i o n 6.2.1.9.1.2.).
 898

6.2.1.10.2. Dipmeter logging

Dipmeter a n a l y s i s being a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n m i c r o r e s i s t i v i t y t o o l i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n i s a l s o a good means f o r d e t e c t i o n o f open f l u i d - f i l l e d n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s
(SHIELDS 1974, GILREATH 1977; OELHOMME, PANCI, LESLIE, CIGNI & SPILA 1981;
SCHLUMBERGER 1982 a, 1983; OELHOMME, PILENKO, CHERUVIER & CULL 1986; DRESSER AT-
LAS 1987 b; ENDERLIN, EDMISTON & EPPS 1 9 8 8 ) . Some a s p e c t s o f r e c o r d i n g p r i n c i p -
l e s , d i p m e t e r and c a l i p e r r e s p o n s e t o f r a c t u r e s , d i p m e t e r e v a l u a t i o n f o r f r a c -
t u r e detection, o t h e r reasons than f r a c t u r e s causing dipmeter curve separation,
and b o r e h o l e s p a l l i n g and d i p m e t e r r e s p o n s e a r e o u t l i n e d as f o l l o w s .

6.2.1.10.2.1.Recording principles
The d i p m e t e r sonde i s a f o u r - p a d h y d r a u l i c u n i t w i t h t h e pads spaced 90 de-
g r e e s a p a r t a r o u n d t h e b o r e h o l e and i s d e s i g n e d t o d e t e r m i n e a n g l e and d i r e c -
t i o n o f d i p o f b e d d i n g and f r a c t u r e p l a n e s where t h e y i n t e r s e c t t h e b o r e h o l e
(SCHLUMBERGER 1982, 1983; DRESSER ATLAS 1987 b ) . A b u t t o n o n e a c h p a d r e c o r d s a
m i c r o f o c u s e d c o n d u c t i v i t y c u r v e w i t h h i g h r e s o l u t i o n , and a second b u t t o n o n
two pads r e a d s a n o t h e r c u r v e f o r speed c o r r e c t i o n s . H i g h i n c l i n o m e t e r a c c u r a c y
i s a c h i e v e d b y a t r i a x i a l a c c e l e r o m e t e r and t h r e e s i n g l e - a x i s m a g n e t o m e t e r s sup-
p l y i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on t o o l d e v i a t i o n and a z i m u t h w h i c h a r e n e c e s s a r y t o c o n v e r t
t h e computed c o r r e l a t i o n s t o t r u e f o r m a t i o n d i p and t o p e r f o r m speed c o r r e c -
t i o n s i n c a s e o f i n s t r u m e n t s t i c k i n g i n p o o r b o r e h o l e s . The s h o r t s p a c i n g b e t -
ween t h e two measure e l e c t r o d e s o n each o f t h e f o u r pads means t h a t t h e s i d e -
b y - s i d e curve l i k e n e s s i s b e t t e r than t h a t from pad-to-pad, p e r m i t t i n g s h o r t
c o r r e l a t i o n i n t e r v a l s t o b e used. The c r o s s - l i n k i n g o f o p p o s i t e arms g u a r a n t e e s
s e l f c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e sonde i n t h e b o r e h o l e w h i c h i s n e c e s s a r y f o r k e e p i n g
a l l e l e c t r o d e s c o - p l a n a r . An advanced v e r s i o n o f t h e t o o l o p e r a t e s w i t h s i x
pads (MORRISON & THIBOOAUX 1984; GOETZ, TYSON & GARAT 1 9 8 7 ) .

6.2.1.10.2.2. Dipmeter and caliper response to fractures

I f t h e m i c r o r e s i s t i v i t y r e c o r d i n g s a r e made w i t h l e s s s e n s i t i v i t y , r e s i s t i v i -
t y a n o m a l i e s r e l a t e d t o b e d d i n g a r e removed w h i c h a l l o w s t h e s u s p e c t e d f r a c t u r e
t o g i v e an anomalous c o n d u c t i v e k i c k when d e t e c t e d by any o f t h e f o u r pads
(SCHLUMBERGER 1982, 1983; DRESSER ATLAS 1987 b ) . A h i g h - a n g l e c o n d u c t i v e anoma-
l y such as a f l u i d - f i l l e d open c r a c k w i t h i n an o t h e r w i s e r e s i s t i v e g e o l o g i c a l
u n i t w i t h low t o moderate m a t r i x p e r m e a b i l i t y produces pronounced reading,
w i t h t h e v a r i a t i o n s d e p e n d i n g o n anomaly g e o m e t r y and i n s t r u m e n t r o t a t i o n .
S t r i k e and d i p o r i e n t a t i o n a n a l y s i s o f open f l u i d - f i l l e d f r a c t u r e s c a n a l s o b e
performed. Healed cracks are n o r m a l l y n o t o f i n t e r e s t except o f p o s s i b l e i n d i c a -
t i o n s o f p l a n e s o f weakness w h i c h may be u s e d t o p l a n a h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g
j o b . The m a j o r a d v a n t a g e o f t h e d i p m e t e r t o o l w i t h r e s p e c t t o l a t e r o l o g i n s t r u -
ments a r e t h e f o u r s e n s o r s w h i c h p r o v i d e a g r e a t e r chance o f f i n d i n g c r a c k ano-
m a l i e s t h a n w i t h a s i n g l e one, and t h e a d d i t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n p e r -
m i t t i n g f r a c t u r e azimuth determination. V e r t i c a l cracks f i l l e d w i t h conductive
mud o r mud f i l t r a t e a r e n o r m a l l y seen as c o n d u c t i v e a n o m a l i e s on a s i n g l e pad,
on t w o a d j a c e n t p a d s o r on t w o o p p o s i t e p a d s .

F r a c t u r e d e t e c t i o n b y d i p m e t e r e v a l u a t i o n i s enhanced by c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h
t h e four-arm c a l i p e r r e c o r d i n g which r e f l e c t s e l o n g a t e borehole geometry i n t h e
j o i n t e d i n t e r v a l . In t h e breakout plane, instrument r o t a t i o n n o r m a l l y stops,
w i t h t h e t o o l t r a j e c t o r y t h r o u g h t h e f r a c t u r e d zone f o l l o w i n g a f i x e d p a t h . The
h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n d i p m e t e r l o g i s a l s o s e n s i t i v e t o h a i r l i n e c r a c k s . As many w e l l -
b o r e c o n d i t i o n s o t h e r t h a n f r a c t u r e s cause r e s p o n s e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e r e l a t e d
t o c r a c k s , f r a c t u r e i n d i c a t i o n b y d i p m e t e r r e a d i n g s s h o u l d be compared and c o r