Chapter 13

Acquiring knowledge, skill, and attitudes

Focus
how are knowledge, skill,and attitudes acquiring?
Knowlegde objectivites
After reading and studiying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Apply the principles of learning to the instuctional process
2. Design instructional situations conducive to the acquisition of knowledge
3. Design instructional situations conducive to the acquisition of skill
4. Design instructional situations conducive to the acquisition of appropriate
attitudes

Attitude
after reading this chapter, the author that you will
1. Value the stages in knowledge, skill, and attitude acquisition
2. Incorporate the principles into your teaching, so that they become
charecteristic of your instructional style.

Skill transforms human performancd into mastery.

The ultimate objective of instruction is the achievement of mastery.
Relatively inexperienced and naive trainnes and students are raised to
a level of adequacy in a task or role. Adequacy, in such a context is
normally referred to as the Experienced Worker Standard or EWS.
The standard is defined in a number of ways, however, it is
measured in terms of output or services over time. These are
calculated in terms of number, weight, volume, or area. Quality ,
mistakes,wasteage,and similar factors are often added to the
calculation.
The standard is obtained from work stufy or job analysis. It is agreed
on by manegers, supervisors,and union representatives. The standard
can also be recognized intuitively on the basis of experience and
knowledge. Most people, for example, have a good idea of whether
someone is adequate or not in a role or job.
Its important that instruction and learners recognize adequate
performance. The purpose of instruction is to help people prepare
themselves for the world of work and leisure. Instruction is credible as
long as trainees and students reach an EWS standard.
Training and education, in other words, must be tied to standards.
Some of the standards willcome from instruction. Others from outside.
Training objectives are one thing, learning objectives are another.
Standards for learning must be dervided from what is required for
adequate performance.

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The principles of learning

in order for someone to move from a level of inadequacy to a level of
inadequacy, learning must take place. The word learning is an
everday term, yet it is difficult to difine. Most dictionary definitions
focus on the process, rather than the product opf learning. They talk
about gaining knowledge as a result on instruction.

A. Definition of learning
A more usful definition, at lest from the point of view of the
teaching-learning process, is to think of learning as a product.
Learning refers to : a change in behavoir that can be observed and
measured. If learning cant be seen, and carinot be assessed,
instruction is difficult.

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Unless learning involves changes, it would be difficult to

identify in instructional need. Also, it would be almost impossible to
monitor the progress of learning. Finally, it would be next to
impossible to determine when learning had taken place and
adequcy was achieved. Defining learning as a change in behavoir
makes instruction easier.
Such a definition cats instructors and teachers in the role of a
xhange agent. Instructors, in other words, have a responsibility fo
initiating, assisting, reinforcing, and assessing change. The
managing role of an instructor os more important than the
operating one. Management implies goals will be achieved.
Some teachers and instructors feel negative about a
definition of learning that includes the word behavoir. The regard
the word as narrow and mechanistic. They associate it with B.F
skinener and behaviorism.
However, evryone is interested in human behavoir. What
distinguishes behaviorists from non behaviorists is one word.
Behaviorists argue that learning is a change in behavior.
Nonbehaviorists prefer to say that learning refres to or learning
esults from a change in behavior.
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Learning and performace

Learning and performance are not the same thing. There is a
difference be tween the two behavior. The difference involes a key
factor in instruction and teaching .in effect.
Learning involes the acquistition of knowledge, skills, annd
attitudes associated with job mastery.
Performance involves using the knowledge, skill, and attidues to
demonstrate the mastery has been realized at an EWS level.
Learning gives a person potensial. Performance indicates that
the potensial has been realized.
Many things are learned that are not immediately put
into effect. For instance, people may learn a great deal from
watching a film on safety. They will learn about the different
 kinds of safety clothing and the procodures that should be
followed when working on a particular job.
None of this learning, however guarantees that they
will wear the clothing and follow the procedures when they
carry out the task. Perfomance on the job has still to be
demonstrared. To a large exant , it will depend upon the
values,attitudes, and opinions that people have acquired
during instruction. If safety ist attractive , they will a ignore
it.

Two wasy of knowing

Although learning is often spoken of as a single thing,there
are two dimensions of knowing.

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Explicit dimension
This dimension involves clarity. It values good commicaion. Its
objective is to make everthing crystal clear. Understanding is the
ultimate objective.
Tacit dimension
This dimension involves something beyond words. We know
more than we can tell or put into words. Its objective is
concerned with feelings, with personal knowledge.
The explicit dimension is important in learning, while the tacit one is
important in performance.
Skill involves tacit knowing. Its difficult, for example, for someone to
dscribe when to change gear in a nonautomatic car. Its even more difficult to
explain how you know that you have just made a good shot in golf. How can you
tell? You just know words cant descride your knowledge.
Skill resides in an inner feeling. Clarity and explicitiness are obviously
important in instruction. But they arent enough. Somehow the tacit dimension
must be put to work. Media, especially film and television, is helpful. Role
playing, simulations, apprenticeships, practicums,internship, and well continuous
assessment and feedback.

Figure 13.1. some principles of learning useful to instructors and

learners.
Learning from the point of view of the learner

Learning is a natural process. Its not something that is only

done in a formal instructional setting.
People are different. Provision has to be made for differences in
abillity, aptitude, and experience.
Anxiety is essential for learning. However, anxiety must be
managed. Too much anxiety is as bad as too little.
The atmosphere of the instructional group affect learning. People
learn best in a warm, participative environment.
 People who see a learning task as relevant and worthwhile learn
better than people who see it as irrelevant.
Learning from the point of view of behavior

Learners should be active. People learn better when they are

active rather than passive.
Learning involves practice and rehearsal. Overlearning, obtained
from repetition, is essential for performance

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Principles of Learning
Althought learning involves many tactics and strategies, there are a number of
general principals that can act as guidelines in lesson preparation and
implementation. The principales are summarized in figure 13.1.
The most critical points for instructors and teachers to implement are :

Learners must be active rather than passive.

Frequency and recency are important. The more something is
done, and the more recent the performance, the better the
learning.
Learning is purposeful; its not a reflex. There is a conscious
purpose, and this motivation needs to be recognized.
Reinforcement and feedback are essential. If people arent
rewarded they willnt learn. If they dont get feedback, their
learning willnt improve. They will fall into bad habits.
Learning should be pleasant and enjoyable. Unpleasant
situations are avoided.
Learning can be right, and it can be wrong. People learn bad habis
as easily as good ones.

Fatigue
Fatigue occrus when physical and mental energy is expended at a
faster rate than recovery. Many factors contribute to it. Among them
are lenght of work

learning must be reinforced. Rewards are better than

punishment. Tey can come from the learner or the instructor.
They can come from the instructional group or the situation
group or the situation it self.
Learning should be generalized. If the task is to be carried out in
a wide range of settings, practice and rehearsal should be
carried out in variety on contexts. In this way, learning will be
generalized from the one situation to the other.
Learning should be shaped. Its foolish to expect perfect
performance the first time. Learning is a metter of successive
approximations towards mastery.
 Learning from he point view of understanding
Learning is purposeful. Objectives as an important part of the
process.
People learn in different ways, according to their learning style.
Some like to be told, some shown. Some like to work in group,
some by themselves.
Learning that is understood is less likely to be forgotten.
Meaning is important.
Well organized tasks are eariser to learn than poorly organized
ones.
Knowledge of result, called feedback, is essantial to learning.
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Period, speed of work , extent that muscles are involved, tensions the task and
boredom. Environmental factors like noise, heat, cold, and humidity also
contribute.
Fatigue shows itself in learning task in a number of ways. They include:

Reduced concentration and vigilance

Reduced attention and interest
Reduced speed and smoothness of movement
Reduced reaction speed and coordination
Physical discomfort and tiredness
Reduced resistence to stress and anxiety
These show themselves in a lowering of motivation toward
further involvement in the learning task.
From the point of view of physical and mental activity,
instructors and teachers should allocate:
The most exacting work in the morning
The more interesting work during the afternoon
Arduous mental activities to daytime. The avoided for such
activities.
Figure 13.2 illustrates a figure curve for an instructional day. The only
break is at lunch time.
It will be noticed that the most productive times are the early
morning and afternoon. Late morning and late afternoon, as a general
rule, should be avoided, as far as sustained mental activity is concerned.
Fatigue, however, can be dramatically reduced in three ways.
Instructors and teachers can introduce into the lesson:

A change of pace
Take the pressue off, let the learners proceed at a more leisurely
pace for a time.

Figure 13.2. fatigue during an instructional day

High

fatigue lunch

Low
Morning
Afternoon
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A change of activity
Change from a demonstration to discussion.
A work break
A moment to stretch, talk,and walk around; a coffe break or just
ten minutes free time.

Introducing a change of pace a activity or giving learning a short

break will delay the onset of fatigue. It will increase the
efficiency and effectiveness of the learning teaching process. Its
better to have four half hour sessions, with a change or break
between each, than to have one continuous two hour block.

Domains of learning
Although learning is unitary,its usual to divide it into three parts
called do mains. The three domains are:
Knowledge domain
Skills domain
Attitude domain

Dividing learning in this way is artificial and a metter of

convenience.
There is a skills and attitude component to attitude. They are
facets of the same thing. However, the acquisition of skills and
attitudes presents a number of particular difficulties.
Figure 13.3 ilustrates something of the relationship between
the three domains. Each domain suports the other. Good
instrution demands that adequate attention be given to all three.
In some situations, one demand will be more important ; in other
situations the others may become dominant.

The Acquisition Of Knowledge

Knowledge is fundamental to skill and attitude. Skill and attitude
that are firmly based on knowledge are strong and long lasting.
In the past, most people earnd their livelihood as a result of the
skills they possessed. Today, because of rapidly changing
tecnologies , the knowledge worker is preeminent. The day of
the manual worker has largely passed.

The Human Memory

The word memory is rather old fashioned. When we talk about
someone having a good memory , we are really talking about
their ability to remember. We are commenting on their ability to
retain, recall,and recognize knowledge or skill. Its the opposite
of forgetting.
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Figure 13.3 the three domains of learning

Naive learners

Knowledge domian: Skills domain :

Wha whe Who

Wha How
t to to
How Why Wher do do it

Whe
n to
do it

Attitude domian :

What to like How

& dislike much to
like &
dislike

When to
like &
dislike

Experienced people standard