Proceedings of The Fourteenth (2004) International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference

Toulon, France, May 2328, 2004

Copyright 2004 by The International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers
ISBN 1-880653-62-1 (Set); ISSN 1098-6189 (Set)

THE POTENTIAL FOR FRICTION STIR WELDING

IN OIL AND GAS APPLICATIONS
Philip L Threadgill and Richard Johnson
TWI Ltd
Cambridge, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT
Friction stir welding is a solid state one shot joining process originally
developed for aluminium alloys. It uses a simple rotating tool to
generate frictional heat at the interface between two components to be
welded. The material is softened and contained by the tool and backing
support. The progress of of the tool along the joint line subjects the
materials to very high strains, forcing consolidation into a solid state
weld. The principle is demonstrated in Figure 1. In aluminium, the
process can weld materials from <1mm to >60mm in a single pass, and
these limits are constantly being extended.
Since its invention at TWI in 1991, friction stir welding has made
significant inroads into the aluminium fabrication industry, for use in
airframes, rocket fuel tanks, shipbuilding, railcar manufacturing and
automotive applications. New applications are constantly coming on
stream, and this trend is likely to continue.
There have of course been significant efforts put into extending the
processes to materials other than aluminium, and progress has been
made with joining magnesium, copper, titanium, steels and nickel.
These developments open the way to exploiting the advantages of the
process for the offshore industry, in particular in the joining of steel
pipelines and other structures.
Friction stir welding of steel has been demonstrated for several steels of
interest to the offshore industry, including high strength structural
steels, several pipeline steels up to API 5LX-100, and several corrosion
resistant alloys such as AISI 316L and 304L. The number of materials
for which the process has been demonstrated continues to rise.
However, there are still challenges to be overcome when welding such
materials, and most of these are centred on the choice of material for
the welding tool. Several materials are being investigated, all have
certain positive features, but all have disadvantages which make their
immediate use unlikely. Rapid progress is however being made, and it
is expected that a tool material which is reliable, obtainable and
affordable will emerge in the near future.
offshore industry, and the state of the art in the development of systems
which can be used in an environment where performance and reliability
are at a premium.
INTRODUCTION
Definition of process
The principle of the process is shown in Figure 1. FSW can be thought
of as a process of constrained extrusion. Friction between the rotating
tool and the workpieces generates heat, and the high pressure under the
tool causes a plasticised zone of material to form around the probe. As
the tool is traversed along the joint line, the workpiece material is
heated, plasticised, and extruded around the tool probe. The extruded
material forms a solid-phase joint behind the tool as it passes.
The advantages of the process can be summarised as follows:
Solid phase process
Single pass process (<1mm to >60mm per pass in Al alloys)
Mechanised process
No special pre-weld edge profiling or cleaning
No shielding gas or filler wire required for most materials (gas
shield usually required for steels and Ti alloys)
Low distortion and shrinkage
1-D, 2-D or 3-D, any position
Excellent mechanical properties
No welding fume or spatter hazards
No UV or electromagnetic radiation hazards
Low energy consumption
High joint completion rates for thicker section materials.
There are of course some disadvantages:
Workpieces must be rigidly clamped
Backing bar normally required
Keyhole usually left at the end of each weld
Cannot make fillet welds, or any geometry which requires a filler.

This paper reviews the process and how it works, its possible
advantages and disadvantages, potential applications of relevance to the

1

Figure 1. Principal of friction stir welding.
Of these advantages, low distortion, zero consumable requirement, full
automation and very low defect incidence have probably been the most
attractive to marine fabricators. Studies of mechanical properties have
shown that tensile strengths are generally above those obtainable by
fusion processes, and welding speeds are generally comparable or
better in the thickness range of interest. There are numerous
publications (reviewed by Threadgill, 1999) which show fatigue
properties to exceed those of MIG welding, although as yet this is not
reflected in design codes. Several Classification Societies have
approved the process, generally on a case by case basis, but this has
opened the way for the process to make significant inroads into the
shipbuilding industry.
Weldable materials
Studies to date have demonstrated satisfactory welds in many common
engineering alloys, as detailed in the following list.
Wrought aluminium alloys (virtually all grades/tempers)
Aluminium alloy extrusions (6xxx, 7xxx, all tempers)
Aluminium alloy castings (Al-Si and Al-Mg based)
Aluminium based metal matrix composites
Magnesium alloys (castings and wrought)
Copper and copper alloys (electrical grades, brasses, etc)
Titanium alloys (CP-Ti, Ti-6Al-4V, alloys)
C-Mn and low alloy steels
Stainless steels (austenitic, duplex and martensitic)
Nickel alloys
Zinc and lead
Thermoplastics
Of these, aluminium alloys represent almost all of the commercial
usage of the process. Copper and magnesium are now welded
commercially, but with very few applications at the moment. Friction
stir welding of steels of all varieties is under development, although
substantial progress has been made. Titanium is in a similar situation,
whereas work on nickel alloys is still at an embryonic stage, although
the possibility of successful welding has been demonstrated.
Non-Oil and Gas Applications
The friction stir process is becoming widely used in the fabrication of
aluminium alloys throughout the world, in particular for long straight
welds where its advantages can be most easily exploited. There are
current commercial applications in aerospace, shipbuilding, railways,
2
automotive and other industries, many of these being safety critical
welds. Many further applications are under development. At the time of
writing, there are over 100 licensees of the process, a number which is
growing continuously.
FSW OF C-Mn STEELS
Current developments
Although the friction stir welding process has been developed initially
for joining aluminium, it was inevitable that interest would emerge in
applying it to other materials. An increasing volume of work is
appearing on friction stir welding of materials such as magnesium,
copper, titanium and steels. It has been known for some time that many
steels can be welded by the process, including C-Mn steels used in
shipbuilding, but the process is not yet ready for shipyard use. The
main reason for this lies in the tools used to make the weld. In
aluminium, the process seldom achieves temperatures above 500C,
and there are therefore a number of materials which can be used which
will operate well at these temperatures. When welding C-Mn steels,
much higher temperatures of between 1000C and 1200C are
achieved, and the options for tool materials are greatly reduced,
especially when the high forces present are considered. It is essential
that the tool does not degrade by wear, deformation, microstructural
instability, reaction with the workpiece or fracture.
The same problem will also apply to C-Mn structures in the offshore
industry, irrespective of the application. There is also strong interest in
the use of corrosion resistant alloys such as duplex stainless steels,
austenitic stainless steels and nickel alloys. Although these materials
can be welded by the process, a long tool life is not guaranteed.
So far, two tool material types have given promising results, although
neither meets all of the criteria for an industrial tool material. These
materials are refractory alloys based on the tungsten rhenium (W-Re)
system, and a ceramic solution based on polycrystalline cubic boron
nitride (PCBN), (Sorensen and Nelson, 2003). W-Re alloys exhibit
excellent high temperature strength and toughness, but are prone to
wear and deformation, in particular when higher strength steels are
used. However, they are cheaper than PCBN, and have an advantage in
that they can be machined more easily. PCBN is a very hard material
(boron nitride is thought to be the second hardest material known), and
therefore wear rates are very low. However, the fracture toughness of
the material is, like almost all ceramics, very low and the tools are
prone to cracking and sudden failure unless handled with great care.
The extreme hardness of the materials means that they are very difficult
to process to more complex shapes. The tools undergo a very protracted
manufacturing process, and are therefore expensive. Rapid progress is
being made to improve the characteristics and performance of both tool
materials, and indeed further work is underway to identify alternative
tool materials.
Figure 2 shows typical tool designs currently under evaluation. They do
not necessarily represent optimum designs. The W-Re tool in Figure
2(a) shows a simple design, demonstrating a compromise between the
desirability of a fluted profile to promote material movement, and a
lack of sharp features that will be prone to rapid wear. The PCBN tool
shown in Figure 2(b) shows the very simple design which is dictated
both by the difficulty in machining this material, and also by the poor
fracture toughness. On this particular tool, there are two small flats on
the pin.
 Properties of steel welds
Examples of single and two pass welds (Johnson and dos Santos 2003)
in a ferritic structural steel (EN10025:1993 S355) are given in Figure 3.
Unlike aluminium welds, friction stir welds in C-Mn steels do not show
a distinct nugget region, and microstructural regions are more difficult
to distinguish, as the extent of plastic deformation is generally difficult
to determine. The microstructure in the weld centre is generally similar
to the HAZ of a conventional fusion weld, although the maximum
austenite grain size is generally less. As the distance from the original
(a) Typical W-25%Re tool bond line increases, the microstructure exhibits the normal features of
fine grained supercritical HAZ, intercritical HAZ and subcritical HAZ.
Hardness values can vary, but high hardness levels are unusual. Typical
examples of microstructures are shown in Figure 4a-d.

(b) Typical PCBN tool

Figure 2: Tools for friction stir welding of steels.

(a) Parent material microstructure

(a) Two pass weld

(b) Intercritical HAZ microstructure

(b) single pass weld

Figure 3. Sections through two pass and single pass friction stir welds
in a 12mm structural steel (Johnson and dos Santos 2003).

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(c) Fine grained stir zone microstructure
(d) Microstructure at centre of stir zone
Figure 4. Microstructures in various regions of a friction stir weld in a
C-Mn steel.
Charpy data are rather variable, and as expected lower than parent
values in the weld region. Data from a C-Mn steel (EN10025:1993
S355) are shown in Figure 5 (Johnson and dos Santos 2003). No direct
comparative data with more established welding processes are known.
Direct comparison may be difficult, as friction stir welds are normally
made in one or two passes when welding material of 10-12mm thick,
whereas competing processes may have several passes, allowing
tempering of earlier passes by later passes. Additional data has been
generated on shipbuilding steels such as DH36 and HSLA-65 in the
USA (Lienert et al 2003, Konkol et al 2001, Posada et al 2003), but the
data obtained generally reflect that illustrated above. Although data are
at present limited, it appears that weld Charpy properties are influenced
by the parent material values, therefore it is necessary to weld tough
materials if good nugget/HAZ properties are required. There are no
known public domain data on pipeline steels at the time of writing,
although investigations are known to be underway.
No data on fracture toughness as measured by more sophisticated
4
120
base
100 nugget
Impact Energy (J)
HAZ
80
Poly. (base)
Poly. (nugget)
60
Poly. (HAZ)
40
20
0
-50 -25 0 25
Temperature (C)
Figure 5. Charpy data for friction stir welded C-Mn structural steel
(Johnson and dos Santos 2003)
techniques such as CTOD are available, but it is clear that the
generation of a considerable volume of such data will be needed to give
industry the confidence to use the process. A similar lack of data exists
for fatigue in friction stir welded steel, and the same argument
regarding the need for such data is valid. At present, most research
efforts are directed towards solving the main challenges, which are the
development of improved tool technology and possible improved
process technology.
FSW OF CORROSION RESISTANT ALLOYS
Progress has been reported by a number of authors on the welding of
stainless steels, the majority of the work being on austenitic or super-
austenitic grades, and encouraging results have been obtained with W-
Re and PCBN tools. As for C-Mn steels, the former are prone to wear,
and the latter are likely to fracture if not handled with the greatest of
care.
The primary requirement of a weld in any corrosion resistant alloy is
that the corrosion resistance is not seriously compromised. At present
there are no published studies on the corrosion resistance of alloys of
interest to the offshore industry. This is not surprising, as research
efforts have concentrated on developing reliable and repeatable
welding conditions.
There has been considerable activity in the characterisation of friction
stir welds in austenitic stainless steels. Most of the work has
concentrated on alloys such as 304L and 316L, although there is also
limited information on duplex alloys and superaustenitic alloys such as
AL6-XN.
Typical nugget microstructures from 5mm 316L material are shown in
Figure 6. The macros show quite different macro structures, depending
on whether W-Re or PCBN tools have been used. It should be noted
that considerably faster travel speeds have been achieved with W-Re
tools, presumably because these seem to tolerate higher traversing
forces than PCBN tools. Whatever the reason may be, it is seen that the
weld in Figure 6 made with PCBN tools exhibits dark etching regions,
and a more detailed examination of these shows that they are associated
with the formation of retained ferrite. This is in line with the expected
higher peak temperature and longer thermal cycle which will result
from the use of slower travel speeds. It should also be stated that the
welding procedures may not be fully optimised; after all one of the
criteria for claiming an optimised procedure would be the achievement
of optimum corrosion resistance.
The formation of retained ferrite is not confined to PCBN tools
however, as can be seen from the micrograph in Figure 7, taken from
the nugget region of a weld in 304L made with a W-Re tool. If the
thermal cycle is sufficiently protracted at high temperature, there will
be a risk of delta ferrite formation.
(a) Weld made with W-25Re tool.
(b) Weld made with PCBN tool.
Figure 6; Macrosections of two pass welds in 5mm 316L stainless
steel, using different tool materials.
Figure 7. Microstructure of nugget region of 304L weld, showing
extensive retained ferrite.
More recent work (Park et al, 2003) has shown beyond doubt that the
retained ferrite can contain sigma phase. This has been identified by
electron diffraction in welds made with PCBN tools. This statement
does not necessarily mean that sigma does not form in welds made with
W-Re tools. As already mentioned, delta ferrite has been reported in
such welds (Johnson and Threadgill, 2002), but no detailed electron
microscopy has yet been carried out.
5
Therefore it must be concluded that, although the friction stir welding
process can give sound welds in austenitic steels, it is possible to
generate conditions under which sigma phase can form. It is therefore
evident that careful qualification of welding procedures will be
required.
Microstructures in stainless steel friction stir welds are shown in Figure
8. The nugget region may or may not be well defined, this may depend
on both the alloy being welded and the welding parameters, and it is
not possible at this time to predict if a clearly defined nugget will form.
It is not particularly important. At the weld centre, the microstructure
indicates that a dynamically recrystallised microstructure exists, usually
with a finer grain size than the parent material. However, detailed
evaluations of the microstructure are only just beginning to emerge, and
it is likely that more detailed information will be available in the near
future. In the sample shown in Figure 8, the microstructure of the
parent material and the weld centre is clearly similar, although there are
very few twins in the nugget area compared to the parent material.
(a) Parent material microstructure
(b) Nugget/TMAZ boundary microstructures.

(c) Nugget centre microstructure.
Figure 8: Microstructures in various regions of a friction stir weld in a
304L stainless steel.
Mechanical properties of friction stir welds in stainless steels are
unlikely to be a problem. Data available show that the welds are
typically harder than the parent materials, and the fine grain size should
ensure more than adequate toughness in a material where toughness is
seldom an issue.
Very little work has been reported on the friction stir welding of duplex
materials. A very brief study (Okamoto et al, 2003) showed sound
welds in a 6mm 329 material. As expected, the nugget microstructure is
a mixture of ferrite and austenite grains of about 5m diameter. The
authors have reported an increase in the austenite percentage from 43%
in the parent material to 56% in the weld nugget. However, this is the
result of a limited study, and it is very likely that the use of different
welding conditions would lead to a different phase balance. No
corrosion data were reported for these welds.
FSW OF ALUMINIUM
Almost all of the commercial production of friction stir welding is at
present for aluminium. All common aluminium alloys can be friction
stir welded, irrespective of the ease with which they can be welded by
fusion processes. There are a few applications for aluminium in the
offshore sector, but it is known that the process has been used in the
manufacture of helidecks, and would also be suitable for use in
manufacturing lightweight topside structures for accommodation
modules etc, similar to cruise ship superstructures. There has been
some interest in the use of aluminium in other offshore related
structures, but this remains at a development stage.
There is a wealth of information on friction stir welding of aluminium
alloys, and it would be impossible to summarise this in a paper of this
type. Readers seeking more information should go to TWIs website
(www.twi.co.uk), which will provide a good starting point.
FUTURE CHALLENGES
Without doubt, the greatest challenge facing the future of the friction
stir welding of steel and CRAs is the development of a tool material
which meets all the required technical and commercial criteria.
Although progress has been rapid, there is still some way to go before
this process can be used commercially in the oil and gas industry. This
area is, however, the focus of considerable attention and progress is
expected in the short term.
The process has possibilities for welding pipelines, both circumferential
6
and orbital welds, and indeed such welds have been successfully made
in pipeline steels. However, both the technical and economic case for
using the process must be demonstrated, and the perceived benefits
proven unambiguously. This will require considerable effort and
investment in an industry which rightly takes a conservative approach
to the introduction of new technologies in safety critical areas.
Friction stir welding is still very much an embryonic technology as far
as steels are concerned, although initial studies have produced very
exciting results. There is still a significant lack of information in certain
key areas, for example fracture toughness, fatigue, corrosion
performance etc., and these areas are unlikely to assume a high priority
until the problems of tool materials have been further addressed. It will
also be necessary to evaluate the economics of the process for offshore
applications. Clearly, there is much to be done, and this will require
significant investment, particularly if progress is expected in the short
term.
SUMMARY
This work has demonstrated the viability of the friction stir welding
process for use with C-Mn and stainless steels of interest to the
offshore industry.
Although good quality welds can be made, further progress is needed in
the development of improved friction stir welding tool materials.
Further characterisation of the weld performance is also needed, in
particular in fracture toughness and corrosion performance. The
economics of the process, when applied to offshore structures, also
need to be demonstrated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
This work was partially funded by Industrial Members of TWI as part
of TWIs Core Research Programme. The authors are indebted to many
colleagues in the friction stir welding community for useful discussions
relating to the content of this paper.
REFERENCES
Johnson R and dos Santos J F (2003). Mechanical Properties of
Friction Stir Welded S355 C-Mn Steel Plates. 4th International
Friction Stir Welding Symposium, Park City UT, USA.
Johnson R and Threadgill P L (2002). Progress in Joining
Austenitic Stainless Steels by Friction Stir Welding. ASM 6th
Trends in Welding Research Conference, Pine Mountain GA,
USA
Konkol P J, Mathers J A, Johnson R and Pickens J R (2001).
Friction Stir Welding of HSLA-65 for Shipbuilding. 3rd
International Friction Stir Welding Symposium, Kobe, Japan.
Lienert T J, Tang W, Hogeboom J A and Kvidahl L G (2003).
Friction Stir Welding of DH36 Steel. 4th International
Friction Stir Welding Symposium, Park City UT, USA.
Okamoto K, Hirano S, Inagaki M, Park S H C, Sato Y S,
Kokawa H, Nelson T W and Sorenson C D (2003).
Metallurgical and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir
Welded Stainless Steels. 4th International Friction Stir
Welding Symposium, Park City UT, USA.
Park S H C, Sato Y S, Kokawa H, Okamoto K, Hirano S and
Inagaki M (2003). Rapid Formation of the Sigma Phase in
304 Stainless Steel during Friction Stir Welding. Scripta
Mat., 49, 1175-1180.
Posada M, DeLoach J J, Reynolds A P, Fonda R W and Halpin J
P (2003). Evaluation of Friction Stir Welded HSLA-65. 4th
 International Friction Stir Welding Symposium, Park City UT,
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Sorensen C D and Nelson T W (2003). Progress in
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Process. 4th International Friction Stir Welding Symposium,
Park City UT, USA.
Threadgill P L (1999). Friction stir welding the state of the
art. TWI members Report 678/1999