DISCUSSION

The purpose of this experiment is to verify the total head for each point in the
horizontal pipe using Bernoulli principle when applied to the steady flow of water.
Bernoulli's principle indicates that, if an in viscid fluid with constant flow rates is flowing
along a pipe of varying cross section, then the pressure is lower at constrictions with respect
to its velocity which is higher, and pressure will become higher at large cross-sectional area
and the fluid stagnates. Overall, from the tables provided previously, it can be seen that by
using Bernoullis equation, the highest velocity, Vib is achieved at cross section D. This is
because the tube has small diameter second only to C, which is equivalent to 20mm,
providing its large cross sectional area, thus resulting low pressure and high velocity.

The preassure head, and velocity head and total head also depends on the flow rates
of water. In this experiment we also use the different flow rates, 6 ,8 and 9 unit??. Result
shows that all preassure head, and velocity head and total head increase with the flow rates.
the However, by using continuity equation, the highest velocity head, Vic is achieved at cross
section C which has the cross sectional area of 10mm. Therefore, we had calculated the
difference between Vib and Vic for each section to further investigate the significance of
these two equations (i.e. Bernoulli equation and Continuity equation) and how they are
related to each other.

According to Bernoullis, as the speed of the liquid increased, the pressure is lower.
Taking example from Table 1.3, this statement can be proved. Constant flow rate of 6L/min
equivalent to m3/s has the lowest speed which was calculated at the cross section A. The
velocity, Vib at A is recorded 1.112 m/s and hi was recorded at 0.215 m. This is because the
difference between height (level) of liquid, (h hi) with respect to tube A is high resulting the
highest pressure in the system. Hence, the velocity at A is lower. Next, is where the fastest
velocity in the tube, at cross section D with velocity of 2.054 m/s and hi at 0.035 m, this time
with the lowest pressure in the system. Thus, the Bernoullis statement was proven.11

For continuity, it is based on a condition that is, what goes in equal to what goes out
(Q in = Q out). Plus that the fluid is considered as incompressible. For this case,
water can be considered as incompressible. Looking at the calculation using continuity
equation, in all flow rates, the highest velocity is also achieved at cross section C, due to its
largest cross-sectional area. It obeys the theory where the cross sectional area is larger, the
pressure is lower. Hence, when the pressure is lower, the velocity is increased. In this
experiment, this situation happened accordingly to cross-section C at all readings. The
condition is vice versa at low velocity. If it was gas, continuity cannot be applied as it can be
compressed, changing its density, thus resulting in Q in Q out. However, while
demonstrating the significance of both Bernoulli equation and Continuity equation, there is
though one abnormally results which can be seen at each table, at cross section C. The
difference of velocity (Bernoullis minus Continuity) is negative. Basically, this condition
cannot happen as explained earlier, continuity equation was derived on one basic condition,
what goes in equal to what goes out. But in Bernoullis, the kinetic energy of the fluid was
also calculated. So actually, the Bernoullis should have a bigger velocity. The reason for this
may happen is because; there is a bubble formation in the venturic tube. This may be cause
by low flow rate in of the water, but high flow out of the tube. When this happen (the air
inside tube),the reading of hi will not be accurate.

CONCLUSION

From the experiment conducted, there are different cross-sections for each tube A, B,
C, D, E and F. These differences resulted in varieties of value obtained for total head h, and
pressure head. By using Bernoulli equation to calculate the velocity, it can be said that the
velocity and velocity head of fluid increase as the fluid is flowing from a wider to narrower
tube and the velocity decrease in the opposite direction. This also indicates that the pressure
of fluid decreases as the velocity increases. The highest total head for 6 L is ?? and the lowest
total head is ??. . The highest total head for 6 L is ?? and the lowest total head is ?? . The
highest total head for 6 L is ?? and the lowest total head is ??. The highest total head for 6 L is
?? and the lowest total head is ?? . The highest total head for 6 L is ?? and the lowest total
head is ??. The highest total head for 6 L is ?? and the lowest total head is ?? . The highest
total head for 6 L is ?? and the lowest total head is ??.
 The Bernoullis principle is proven where the highest total head Vib, 2.054 m/sis
achieved at cross section D because of the small tube diameter. As for the larger diameter
tube at A, the velocity head is the lowest which is 1.112 m/s. The first inclination might be to
say that, where the velocity is the greatest, the pressure is higher. So that A big force could be
feel on the hand in the flow where its going the fastest. However, the force does not come
from the pressure therefrom the hand taking away the momentum from the liquid. The
continuity equation is also used in this experiment to relate the pressure in pipes to their
changes in diameter. The equation of continuity shows that liquid flows at constant mass rate
and can also relates speed to pressure. There are few readings which go against the continuity
equation. These circumstances occurred due to errors when the experiment was conducted. In
order to prevent error, proper precautions must be taken before the experiment starts. The
Bernoulli equation forms the basis for solving a wide variety of fluid flow problems such as
jets issuing from an orifice, flows associated with pumps and also turbines. Bernoullis
equation is also useful in demonstration of aerodynamic properties such as drag and lift.
From the result obtained, we can conclude that the Bernoulli equation is valid for flow as it
obeys the equation. As the area decreases at a section, velocity increase and the pressure
decrease

From our recommendation to reduce the error, the eyes of the observer may not
be parallel to the scale and will cause parallax error. To prevent this from happen during the
experiment, the eyes of the observer must be perpendicular to the reading scale. The factors
such as temperature, pressure and other things especially for the air bubble inside the tubes
should be stabilized first before conducting the experiment for the accurate results.
The reading of the venture meter level should be taken more than three times in order to get
an accurate value

Masukkan cerita pasal total head dalam conclusion ngan

discussion. Aku xda data so aku xtau nak masukkan macam
mana..