TABLE 26

Extrusive igneous rocks: dissected,fragmental tuff and interbedded flows. From

D.S.Way,1973
FRAGMENTAL TUFF

Topography Sharp-ridged Hill

Tuff formations in all climates erode quickly and form sharp,knife- edged ridges within a
highly dissected topography having characteristics similiar to clay shale. Unlike the shales,
however, hilltops do not occcur at equal elevations. Side slope are very sleep and of uniform
slope, indicating homogenety of materials.

Drainage
Dendritic: fine
An extremely fine dendritic drainage pattern develops in tuff formations, indicating a
uniform composition, welded tuff are, more resistant and do not show this extremely fine
pattern.

Tone
Dull, light grey
If the tonal pattern can be soon through the vegetative cover, it will usually appear as a
uniform dull,ight grey tone.
Gullet
Vary
Size of particles of tuff vary widely, from 4 milimeters in diameter to dust, V-shaped gulles
are common, indicating unconsolidated material of a granular texture.

Vegetation and land use natural cover

Tuff regions are so highly dissected and rugged that they are either and natural forest and
grass cover, depending upon the local climate.

INTERBEDDED FLOWS
Topography
Teracced hillside
A dissected topography exposes stratified layers and interbeddings along the sides of hills.
Parallel ridges with convex side slope are common, in those areas not highly dissected ,
flows line,similiar to those associated with basalt, may be apparent.

DRAINAGE
Parallel dendritic
Interbedded deposits commonly develop dendritic patterns with parallel tributaries, The
drainage systems in rhyolitic and andesitic materials tend to be parallel, with sicklelike, first-
order tributaries.
TONE
Ligth and dark bands
Light and dark bands along hilisides indicate interbedding. The colouring relates to the type
of materials; that is, basalts are darkm rhyolite and andesite are lighter, and tuffs have a light-
grey tone.

GULLES
Vary
The thickness and sequence of interbedding influences the typesof gullies found in these
areas.

VEGETATION AND LAND USE

Cultivated or natural
Humid climates are generally cultivated, depending upon the ruggedness of the topography
and the state of development of the residual soil, Arid regions are typically barren. In both
climate areas that are too rugged for cultivation are forest-covered.
TABLE 27
Metamorphic rocks: Schist ( Humid and arid), From: D.S. Way, 1973)
HUMID

TOPOGRAPHY
Rounded crests, steep sideslopes
In humid climates schist formations develop deep residual soils reflected by rounded hills
with steep sideslopes. The overall appearance of the topography is that of smooth, undulating
hills.

DRAINAGE
Rectangular dendritic; Medium to fine
A rectangular, dendritic drainage system of medium to fine texture, having many long, deep,
paraller gullies, develops in humid climated. The drainage pattern is developed and controlled
by the parallel foliation structure of the parent material, whose weaker materials are more
casily croded to from vallcys and whose more resistant materials form ridges.

TONE
Uniform light greys
In humid climates uniform light greys are observed unless obscured by vegetation cover.

GULLIES
Parallel, U-shaped
Many Parallel, U-shaped gullies occur, indicating sandy of mice fragments within the
residual soil, Gullies are dark, contrasting with tone in surrounding fields.

VEGETATION AND LAND USE CULTIVATED AND FORESTED

In humid climates schist formations may occur ontiruly in forest coveror in a combination of
cultivation an forest cover, depending upon the degree of dissection of the topography.
Typically, the rolling hilltops are cultivated and the steeper slopes facing the drainage system
are forested, Contour farming may be practiced, Indicating highly erosive residual soils.

ARID
TOPOGRAPHY
Parallel laminations
In arid climates schist formations develop topography that appears fairly rugged, the form of
the ridgesand valleys being controlled bu the obvious foliation of the material. When residual
soils are thin, the characteristic banding may be seen.

DRAINAGE
Rectangular dendritic: Fine
A rectangular, fine-textured drainage system develops in arid climates. Many gullies exist,
and tributaries are angular, reflecting the structural control of the rock.
TONE
Light, faint banding
Arid climates have predominantly light tones, but faint banding, emphasised by vegetation,
may be discornible, The bandings are parallel and do not follow contours along hillsides.

GULLIES
Paraller, U-shaped
Many steep-sided gullies are found, but they do not nocessarylly reflect the characteristics of
the residual soil since it is very thin.

VEGETATIONS AND LAND USE

Natural cover
The rugged topography and thin soil cover do not make these areas attractive to intensive
land use or development. They are typically covered with scattered grasses and scrub growth
with some concentrations of vegetation occuring where deeper soils have developed of more
molsture is available. The foliation withinthe rock structured is usually emphasised by
vegetations.
TABEL 28
Sedimentary rocks; Thin interbedded (humid and arid), Form; D.S. Way, 1973)
HUMID

TOPOGRAPHY
Uniform slopes
Thin, interbedded sedimentary materials do not have terracted slopes, although faint banding
may be observed. Sandstones have steeper slopes than shale of limestones masses, Hilltops
throughout such regions have approximately the same elevations.

DRAINAGE
Dendritic: Medium
The drainage pattern in thin, interbedded sedimentary rocks is dendritic and of medium
texture, similiar to shale drainage in humid climates. The presence of shale in the
interbedding, however, increases surface runoff, resulting in a more dissected topography.

TONE
Medium grey
Since the beds are thin and usually covered with residual soil which masks their tonal
differences, an overall medium- grey tone results.

GULLIES
Sag and swalc
Gulllies found in these regions are of the sag-and-swale type, indicating cohesive soils.

VEGETATION AND LAND USE

Cultivation and forested
Gentle slopes, Hilltops, and valleys are cultivatedm while steeper slopes facing the drainage
system are in forest cover, The beds are too thin for differences in vegetation preference to be
easily observed, Highways tend to follow major valleys and ridgeline, to be curvilincar, and
are controlled by the drainage system.

ARID
TOPOGRAPHY
Minor terracing
The well-dissected topography shows very narrow terracng, following hill side contours,
Sandstones and limestone have vertical cliffs, while shale forms more gradual slopes.

DRAINAGE
Dendritic: Fine
Interbedded sedimentaries in arid climates form dendritic patterns with fine textures, If shales
are present, they provide impervious layers which increase surface runoff and dissection.
TONE
Faint, narrow bands
Since little residual soil is present, the different banded tones of the interbedded materials can
be distinguished.

GULLIES
Few
The lack of significant residual soils does not allow gully development.

VEGETATION AND LAND USE

Barren
The land is generally highly dissected, rugged, and has little soil cover. Land uses are not
apparent. Scrub and grass growth are prodominant, and the area may serve as grazing land of
range land. Highways and other manmade structures are rarely present.
TABLE 29
Sedimentary rocks; Tilted, interbedded (humid and arid), Form : D.S. Way, 1973)
HUMID

TOPOGRAPHY
Parallel ridges
In Sandstone-shale combinations sandstone forms resistant, sharp, parallel ridges, shale forms
soft, rounded hills in the lowlands, Limestones-shale forms low, rounded hills in shale
formations, and karst topography with rounded or oval sinkholes in the ridge topography in
the lowlands, Limestones-shale forms low, rounded hills in shale formations, and karst
topography with rounded or oval sinkholes in limestones areas. Thin beds give the ridge
topography a sawtoothed appearance.

DRAINAGE
Trellis and dendritic
In most situantions a trellis drainage pattern of medium to fine texture exists, controlled by
the tilted rock structure, Interbedded limestones and shale may have a dendritic pattern and
solution topography with internal drainage, Stream courses are generally located in shale
lowlands; If they are located in limestones lowlands, some angularity should occur as a result
of jointing influence.

TONE
Faint banding
Faint bands of tonal difference relate to the tones of the different rock materials, These tones
may be masked by the residual soil.

GULLIES
Vary
Gully cross sections relate to the surrounding residual soils, Generally, sag-and-swale gullies
are found in shale and limestones, Gullies with sleeper sides may indicate sandstone.

VEGETATIONS AND LAND USE

Forested and cultivated
Vegetation and land use relates to the types of interbedded rock materials, Sandstones are
very rugged, with steep slopes, and have forest covery shale, with softer hills, has forest
cover and of culvation; Limestone is typically cultivated, Roads and major development
patterns are concentracted in the valleys.

ARID
TOPOGRAPHY
Saw-toothed ridges
Ridge crests in arid climates are much sharper, and the ridges develop a saw-toothed
appearance.The Vs formed between the teeth point down the dip of the rock strata.
Sandstone and limestone both form resistant ridges; shale forms conical lowland hills. Thin
beds give the ridges a finer saw-toothed appearance.

DRAINAGE
Trellis; fine
In arid climates tilted sedimentary rocks are identified by a trellis drainage, pattern which is
normally fine-textured. If there is a regional uniform slope, the trellis pattern may be
modifiedm showing some parallelism.

TONE
Banded
Definite banding can be observed, Exposed limestones is the brigtest, followed by sandstone
and shale, Vegetation on slopes may confues the appearance of natural tones.

GULLIES
Few
Few gullies are present, since little residual soil exists. While gullies indicate limestone.

VEGETATION AND LAND USE

Barren
Because of the arid climate, the ruggedness of the topography, and the thin soils, traditional
land uses are not seen in these regions, Vegetation consists of scattered grasses and scrub
growth, occasionally concatrated along outerops of water-bearing rock. Few highways cross
these regions which are used primarily as rangeland.