Diffraction

However, if a gets
smaller such that
a>
Diffraction diffraction takes
place and the
interference pattern
is no longer
uniform.

Introduction

Consider an
opening of width
a>>>

If light enters
through the a
opening, what is
the shape of the
light intensity
pattern on the
screen?

Uniform, and has
the same geometry
as the opening

1
 Single-Slit Diffraction Adding up the incremental waves

The finite width of slits is the basis for E1= E cos(t-kx)
understanding Fraunhofer diffraction E2= E cos(t-kx+)

According to Huygenss principle, each portion of E3= E cos(t-kx+2)
the slit acts as a source of light waves E4= E cos(t-kx+3)

Therefore, light from one portion of the slit can
interfere with light from another portion
How can these
wavelets be added
up?

Using phasors

Diffraction- Analysis Adding up the incremental waves

The incoming beam may
be subdivided into N
small sources.

These sources will
interfere together at a far
away distance

Each source has an
electric field of amplitude
E. a
The phase of the last wavelet

Therefore
E1= E cos(t-kx)
E2= E cos(t-kx+)
E3= E cos(t-kx+2)
E4= E cos(t-kx+3)
.
=k OPD
= k y sin

Each phasor differs in phase
from an adjacent one by an
amount of
y
ER is the vector sum of the
incremental magnitudes
is
= N = N k y sin
2
= a sin
y sin

(N is very large)

2
 Resultant E Intensity, cont

Consider the limiting condition of
Imax is the intensity at
y becoming infinitesimal (dy) and =0
N This is the central
maximum

The phasor chains become the
brown curve
Most of the light

Eo = arc length = R (brown curve) intensity is
concentrated in the

ER = chord length (blue line)
central maximum
ER 2
sin =
The graph shows a
2 R plot of light intensity
E 2 sin vs. /2
sin = R ER = E0 2
2 E0
Of course, /2 cannot be measured in the lab,
2 so we need to plot the intensity vs. y or .

NB: = (from before)

Intensity Intensity, cont.

2

Therefore sin ( 2 )
I = I max
2
sin
ER = E 0 2 = E Sinc
0
Minima occur when the intensity = zero.
2
2
Therefore
= m

The light intensity at a point on the screen is 2
proportional to ER2.
m= 1, 2, . 0
2
Each bright fringe peak lies approximately halfway
sin ( 2 ) 2
I = I max = I max Sinc between the dark fringes
2 2

The central bright maximum is twice as wide as
the secondary maxima

3
 Intensity, cont. Locations of dark fringes

The intensity can also

be expressed as 2
sin (a sin ) y2=2L/a
I = I max y1=L/a
a sin
y0=0

Minima occur at y-1=-L/a

= m y-2=-2L/a
2

a sin dark
= m or sin dark = m
a

Locations of dark fringes Angular positions of dark fringes

L>>> a

sin = tan = 2=2/a

1=/a
y dark = L sin dark
0=0
L
=m -1=-/a
a
(m 0) -2=-2/a

4
 Diffraction vs. Interference Resolution

Diffraction refers to the general behavior of

waves spreading out as they pass through a slit

Diffraction is a special case of interference.
Light from the same source interferes together.

Diffraction is used whenever there is
interference from a very large number of
sources.

This collective interference behavior is known as
Depending on the distance d between the two objects,
they can be resolved.
diffraction.

The eyes pupil or the lens of a telescope may be
modeled by a slit.

Resolution

Fig 38-20, p.1221

5
 Resolution Resolution, Rayleighs Criterion

The ability of optical systems to distinguish
When the central
between closely spaced objects is limited maximum of one
because of the wave nature of light image falls on the first

If two sources are far enough apart to keep their minimum of another
central maxima from overlapping, their images image, the images
can be distinguished are said to be just
The images are said to be resolved resolved

If the two sources are close together, the two
Fig. (a) is resolved.
central maxima overlap and the images are not
Fig. (b) is just about
resolved to be resolved.

Fig. (c) is unresolved.

Resolution, Rayleighs Criterion,

Equation

A system can resolve an image more if the angle is larger than min

The angle of separation, min, is the angle subtended by the sources for
which the images are just resolved

From diffraction analysis
sin min =
a

is very small and sin

Therefore, the limiting angle (in rad) of resolution for a slit of width a is

min
a
Resolved objects. The central Unresolved objects. The central
To be resolved, the angle subtended by the two sources must be greater
maxima do not overlap. maxima do overlap.
than min
NB: The slit may be the lens of the eye, a
microscope or a telescope.

6
 Resolution: To what extent can a person
resolve 2 objects

d

Moreover, if D is the pupils diameter min

D a = 2mm , =500nm, L= 25 cm, L a
therefore d = 0.006 cm
(thickness of a humans hair)

Fig P38-17, p.1235

What is the wavelength needed to

see objects
d
min
L a


Therefore

Polarization


The very best that you can do is be close to the
object so that ~, therefore

To observe an object, the wavelength should be
less than the resolution needed for that object.

7
 Polarization of Mechanical Waves
Polarization of Light Waves

The direction of
polarization of each
individual wave is
defined to be the
direction in which the
electric field is
vibrating

In this example, the
direction of
polarization is along
the y-axis
8
Unpolarized Light, Example

This is an unpolarized wave

The arrows show a few
possible directions of the
waves in the beam

All directions of vibration from
a wave source are possible

The resultant em wave is a
superposition of waves
vibrating in many different
directions

The direction of propagation
is normal to this page.

http://www.colorado.edu/phys
ics/2000/polarization/polariza
tionII.html
Polarization of Light, cont.

A wave is said to be linearly polarized
if the resultant electric field E vibrates
in the same direction at all times at a
particular point

The plane formed by E and the
direction of propagation is called the
plane of polarization of the wave- in
this case it is the xy plane

http://www.enzim.hu/~szia/cddemo/e
demo0.htm
 Methods of Polarization Selective Absorption Polaroid

It is possible to obtain a linearly polarized beam
It is common to refer to the direction

from an unpolarized beam by removing all perpendicular to the molecular chains as
waves from the beam except those whose the transmission axis
electric field vectors oscillate in a single plane
In an ideal polarizer,

Processes for accomplishing this include All light with E parallel to the transmission axis
selective absorption is transmitted
reflection All light with E perpendicular to the
double refraction transmission axis is absorbed
scattering If the incident light is unpolarized, and has an
intensity I0, the transmitted is intensity is I0

Transmission of linearly polarized light

Selective Absorption Polaroid through a polariod

The most common technique for polarizing light

A polaroid polarizes light through selective Eo
absorption Eo cos

The molecules readily absorb light whose electric field

vector is parallel to their lengths and allow light through
whose electric field vector is perpendicular to their
lengths
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/polarization/molec
ular_view.html
Light is propagating horizontally.
transmission axis
It is linearly polarized such that the electric field makes an
angle with the vertical, and its value is Eo.

A vertical polarizer, i.e. with a polarization/transmission axis
which is vertical, is placed.
Io Io
The electric field that emerges from the polarizer is Eo cos .

9
 Intensity of a Polarized Beam-
Maluss law
Intensity of a Polarized Beam, cont.

Intensity is proportional to Eo2
The intensity of the transmitted beam is a

The intensity of the polarized beam
transmitted through the polarizing sheet
varies as
I = Imax cos2

Io is the intensity of the polarized wave incident
on the polariod

This is known as Maluss law
maximum when the transmission axes are
parallel
= 0 or 180o

The intensity is zero when the
transmission axes are perpendicular to
each other
This would cause complete absorption

Polarization by Selective Absorption

Active Figure 38.30

A polariod/polarizer transmits waves whose electric

field vectors lie in the plane parallel to a certain
direction (transmission/polarization axis) and absorbs
waves whose electric field vectors are perpendicular
to that direction

10
 Intensity of Polarized Light,
Applications on polarization
Examples

Creating 3D images

Laptop screens (LCD)
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/laptops
/index.html
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/polariz

On the left, the transmission axes are aligned and ation/index.html (on polarization in general)
maximum intensity occurs

In the middle, the axes are at 45o to each other and less
intensity occurs

On the right, the transmission axes are perpendicular
and the light intensity is a minimum- crossed polarizers.

Summary
Intensity = I0 Intensity I1= I0 Intensity I2= I1cos 2

Unpolarized light intensity = I0

Intensity of light emerging from the 1st polarizer
I1 = I0

Intensity of light emerging from the 2nd polarizer
(analyzer)
I2 = I1cos2 = I0 cos2

11