Cambridge ENDORSED BY International AS and A Level # CAMBRIDGEENDORSED BY [3 CAMBRIDGE International Examinations Cambridge International AS and A Level eta Peter Cann & Peter Hughes (> HODDER ? EDUCATION ‘ater UR Com‘Questions from Caunbrdge International AS und A Level Chemisty papers are reproduced by ‘Permission of Cambridge Inernational Examinations, ‘Cambeidge Intemational Examinations hears no responsiiay forthe example answers to ‘questions taken from is past question papers which are contained in hls beolCD. ‘Questions fom OCR past papers ate rependiced by permisslon of CCK. 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Apt fromm any use permited under UK copyright law, no pat ofthis pblcation may be repreuced or tansmited in any fon of by any means, electronic o¢ ‘mechanic, nehiding photocopying and recording, of hold within say sformaien storage ane renee system, without person in weting frm the publisher or under cence fom the Copyright Lcersing Agency Lime Frter datas ef sch Heences (or reprogaphlc reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyaght Licensing Agency Limite, Sfiron House, 6-10 Kuby Stoo, London CANT. Cover photo by © kurgaya ~ Poti. ‘Musrauons by Backing Dog An ‘Typeset in ITC Garamond Light 9/12 by Aptara In. Priced Dubal ‘tale recon fo dis eis vate fom the Bish tary ISBNOTS 1444 18133 3Contents Introduction AS Level CR us Topic 1 Chemical formulae and moles Topic 2 The structure of the atom Topic 3 Chemical bonding i Topic 4 Solids, liquids and gases simple molecules . Topic 5 Energy changes in chemistry Topic 6 Acids and bases Topic 7 Oxidation and reduction Topic 8 Rates of reaction Topic 9 Equilibria... reseed Topic 10 Periodicity Topic 11 Group 17 Topic 12 Introduction to organic chemistry Topic 13 Alkanes Topic 14 Alkenes Topic 15 Halogenoalkanes Topic 16 Alcohols... Topic 17 Aldehydes and ketones. Topic 18 Carboxylic acids and esters. rece) ee) Topic 19 Practical work 20 44 Cy 97 118 136 14 1m 186 202 209 24 251 267 281 294 305 316Contents rN ETA} DER eusi ‘Topic 20 Further energy changes. Topic 21 Quantitative kinetics Topic 22 Quantitative equilibria Topic 23 Electrochemistry Inorganic chemistry Topic 24 The 3d block. Cees Topic 25 Arenes and phenols Topic 26 Carboxylic acids ~ derivatives and further reactions Topic 27 Amines, amides and amino acids Topic 28 Addition and condensation polymers Topic 29 Techniques of analysis ‘Topic 30 Organic synthesis and analysis. Student's CD contents Answers to ‘Now try this’ questions Additional work Interactive tests Topic summaries Revision checklists Examination structure Planning your revision Examination technique Glossary of command words Mathematical background Chemical data Glossaries iv 329 349 367 381 397Acknowledgements ‘We are grateful forthe help given by Judy Potter in selecting and writing topic-oriented questions, and forthe unstntingly professional support and cooperation given by the staf at Hodder Education: Nina Konrad, Emilie Kerton, Laurice Suess, Anne ‘Trevllion and Anne Wane ‘The Publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: Photo credits: p.1 © The Granger Collecion, NYC/TopFoto; p.2 © Jeff Blackler/Rex Features; Iv © Bicipici/Alamy; be © Niks Jorgenseny/Rex Features; br © Chis Lofty ~ Fotolia; pt © Eye OF Science/Sclence Photo Library; p14 © lowefoto/Alamy: p.21 © Rex Feauures; p.23 © RGB Ventures/Supersiock/Alamy; p.27 © Geoff Tompkinson/Science Photo Library; p.73 © Zygimancas Copaitis— Fotolia; p.81 he © De Jeremy Burgess/Sclence Photo Library; br ® Alired Pasicka/Scionce Photo Library; p.87 © David Hughes/Hemera Thinkstock; p.88 © Paul Fleer/Alamy; p.90 be © Charles D. 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Chilleaid P.6; p.9s P-12; p.16; PBL; P.8G; P.87; p.8B; p.L18; p.127: p.129, p.130, p.145: p-A4T, p.158; p.1GI: p.205; p.206; p.215; 216; p.224: p.225; p.255; P.255: p.256; p.269; p.283; p.300; p-301; P-519; p.320; P.321; P.375: PAT: PAT: PAST: P.ATT: ATS: p.529: p.530 Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers will be pleased to malce the ncceseary atrangements atthe Fst opportunityIntroduction Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemichy ses some of the content from Chemistry for Advanced Level, but thas been completely revised by the original authors to cater for those students and teachers involved with the Cambridge Invernational Examinations syllabus 9701 ‘The book has been fully endorsed by Cambridge Intemational Examinations, andl i listed as an endorsed textbook for scents studying ths syllabus. The syllabus ‘content has been covered comprehensively, and has been separated into AS material, which comprises Topies 1-19, ‘hilt the A Level material is dealt with in Topics 20-30 All the Learning ouitcomes specified in che syllabus are Included in the hook. Af the stat of each Topic the specific Learning outcomes relevant to that Topic are cleadly stated, sing the same wording as in the syllabus, so that students ‘can cleuly see the syllabus areas covered by the Topic. ‘The chatt on the following page summarises the syllabus ‘coverage in each Topic. ‘Throughout each Topie there are worked examples, with answer, 10 illustrate the concepts recently introduced. These are followed by a few ‘Now try this’ questions, allowing suidents ta test themselves, Answers to these questions are ‘on the accompanying Students! CD-ROM, Each Topie ends with a simmary of the key points covered, together with a ist of key reactions where relevant Finally, several past examination questions have been selected that ilustrite how the subject matter of the Topic thas been assessed in the past. Answers to these questions ‘will be Found on the Teachers! CD-ROM ‘To allow students andl teachers locate easily the various aspects of the subject, the onder of Topics is a logical one, ‘starting withthe essential basi principles of physical chemisry and then inirlucing the application of those principles fsaly to inorganic chemisty and then to organic chemistry. No teaching order is implied by this, however Tr has been found that axing principles and applications with facmial content ‘thionighout the course is often the best way to achieve a deeper and broader understanding of chemisty, Teachers are recommended to consul the schemes of work published by ‘Cambridge International Examinations on their website for some suggested methods of delivering the subject material, A feature of the new 2016 syllabus isthe intreuction of Key concepts. These are essential ideas, theories, principles ‘of mental tools that help learners o develop a deep Understanding of their subject and make links between the different topics, Although teachers are likely 1 have these in mind at all times when they ae teaching the syllabus, we have included in the text the following icons at points whece the Key concepts relate to the text. Atoms and forces ~ Matter is built from atoms intecacting and bonding through electrostatic forces. The structure of iter affects its physical and chemical propeaies, and inflvences how substances react chemically Experiments and evidence ~ Chemists use evidence sained from observations and experiments to build models ‘and theories of the structure and reactivity of materials e 8 Patierns in chemical behaviour and reactions ~ By Identifying pattems in chemical hehaviowr we can predict the propetios of substances and how they can be transformed into new substances by chemical reactions. This allows us to design new materials of use to society. (Chemical bonds — the understanding of how chemical bonds are made and broken by the movement of electrons allows us to predict patterns of reactivity. e. 8 Energy changes ~The energy changes that take place ducing chemical reactions can be used to predict both the lextent and the rate of such reactions “This hook has heen designed to he accessible to all AS and A Level students, but also attempts to go some way towards satisfying the curiosity of the able student, and to answering the questions of the inquistiv. although based firmly on the AS and A Level syllabus of Cambridge International Examinations, teachers and students will ind the subject matter and style of questions make i suitable {or several other syllabuses. The subject mater has been ‘extended in some areas where an application, oF a more Jundamental explanation, is deemed to be appropriate ‘These extensions are clearly delimited from the main ext in panels, and can be bypassed on first reading “The majonity of students starting an AS course in ‘chemistry come from 2 backgroud of IGCSE Chemisy ‘oF Combined Science, and the inkial chapters sat at a level and a pace that is sited to all such students, Some students come to AS chemistry with the belif that they wil find the mathematics dificult, although the mathematical concepts required for chemistry are simple in principle and Jew in number, We hope to demonstrate tha, as long as the processes are understood, rather than learned by roe, the mathematics in both the AS and A Level Topics is well within the grasp of those who have gained a grade C at IGcse* students also sometimes consider that chemistry isa subject fll of dificult concepts. Ths is nt tae. Most of |‘chemistry is based on the very simplest idea of electrostatics = like charges repel, unlike charges atract. When the subsle ramifications of this generalisation are studied during the AS and A Level courses, students should constantly remind themselves of the inherent simplicity ofthis relationship, Chemisty is the central science, atthe crossroads of biology and its associated disciplines on the one hand, and phiysies on the other: Chemistry relies on physics for its Uunderstanding of the fundamental building blocks oF matte, and biology relies on chemisry for an understanding of the ‘enicnares of living organisms, and the processes that go oa inside thom that we call life, Standing at this crosscoads, the chemist is uniquely positioned 10 understand, and make significant contributions to, many interdiseiplinany areas of ‘cocrent and future importance. The chemisty-based sciences of biochemisty, genetic engineering, pharmacology, andl polymer and material science will all make increasing ‘contibutions to our physical and material well-being in the future. Chemists are also playing a key role in the fight against industrial society's pollution of our envionment ‘We hope you enjoy discovering the secrets of chemistry during your A8/4 Level course, Peter Cann Peter Hughes (® IGCSE is the registered trademark of Cambeidge International Examinations sow the Cantngeoxring cts cote bythe 30 Tes eee 1 [eis 16 [rat 2 [zras wp 3 [pa saas0 is | @ isiab ies @ fauaaasamas, [19 ]- a2 630.08 = [eae 529 20a Sh, Ha, 53541010) & [isa 7a | > [@e-m) 926,83 7 [asm,61.629 | 2 [720473 20) a ab, aaa, | 2 [62.63.68 aad ofa be |b), 122, 3 BA us 1 [aasasa |B [wa isave totae, 131,122 TW [tens 25 [7d 9H) 12 | 1.5b), 14.12),b), che), 27 | 20.1, 20.2, 203 tants B [si 15308 Ea REE ve [raa.ts2 va |i. 222,723,724 bs i [ia t62 30 [a3This page intentionally left blankAS Level Physical chemistry 1 Chemical formulae and moles inthe levels emia!) (eaming outcomes ere etten eMA | by end cftstone yous babe o valencies (or combining powers) of ‘atoms and ions. We also introduce the chemists’ fundamental counting unit, the mole, and show you how ‘1.4a) define and uso the terms relative atomic, isotopic, molecular and formula masses, bbasad on the "scale 4124) deline and use the term mole in terns ofthe Avogacio constant, {.a) define and use the terms empirical and molecular formula Uiconibe ales cer iree ier {Lb) calculate empircal and molecular formulae, using combustion data or composition ‘empirical formulae and the amounts yas SIRE ee) 15a) orite and construct balanced equations rari chloe) feiss ores 115b) perform calculators, including use ofthe mole concept, involving reacting open col ena eset mass (rom formulae and equations), volumes of gases (ein the burning of the worked examples, and then try hhysrocarbors), volumes and concentrations of solutions, and relate the number of the ‘Now try this’ questions that ‘igatficant figures in your answers to those given or asked for in the question follow them. 115¢) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations such a those in 1.5b) 1.1 Introduction What is chemistry? [Chemistry is the study of the properties of matter. By matter, we mean the substances that we can see, feel, touch, taste and smell ~ the stuff that males up the ‘material world. Passive observation forms only a small part of a chemists interest fn the world, Chemisss are actively inquisitive scientists. We tr Co understand why matter has the properties it does, and how 10 modify these properties by changing ‘one substance into another through chemical reactions Chemistry as a modern science began a few hundred years ago, when chemists started to relate the observations they made about the substances they were investigating to theories of the structure of matter. One of the most important of these theories was the Atomic Theory. It is just over 200 years since John Dakton put forward his ides that all matter was composed of atoms. is theory stated that: @ the atoms of different clements were different from each other the atoms of a particular clement were identical to each other 4 all atoms stayed the same over time and could be neither created nor destroyed all mater was made up From a relatively small number of elements (Dalton thought, bout 50) combined in vardous ways Figure 1.1 iohn Dalion, who fist suggested Although Dalton's theory bias had to be mocified slighty, is sil a useful starting tha madein Atomic Theory point for the sul of chemistryPHYSICAL CHEMISTRY Since that time chemists have uncovered and explained many of the world's mysteries, from working ont how elements are formed within stars to discovering. how our genes replicate, On the way they have discovered thousands of new methods of conveiting one substance into another, and have made millions of new substances, many of which are of great economic and medical benefit the human race (see Figure 1.2) Figure 1.2 some examples ofthe economic medical and agrcutural bereits of chemisty Classifying matter - elements, compounds and mixtures (Chemists classify matter into one of three categories. '¢ Elements contain just one sort of atom, Although the atoms of particular element may lifer slightly in mass (see Section 2.3), hey all have identical chemical seactions. Examples of elements include hydrogen gas, copper metal and diamond crystals (hich are eashon), {¢ Compounds are made up from the atoms of ro or more different elements, boncled together chemically. The ratio of elements within a particular compound is fixed, and is given by its chemical Formula (see page 7). The physical and chemical properties of a compound are akvays different from those of the elements that ‘make it up. Examples of compounds inchude sodium chloride (containing sodium and chlorine ions), water (containing hydrogea and oxygen atoms) and penicillin (containing hydrogen, carbon, aiteogen, oxygen and sulfur atoms).‘Chemical formulae and moles {¢ Mixtures consist of more than one compound or eloment, mixed but not chemi cally combined. The components can he mixed in any proportion, and the proper ties ofa mixture are often the sum of, oF the average of, the propenies of the individval components, Examples of mistuces inchide aig, sea water and alloys such as brass, 1.2 Intensive and extensive properties ‘The propenies of matter may be divided ito two groups. f¢ The extensive properties depend on how much mater-we are studying. Common examples are mass and volume —a cupful of water has less mass, and less volume, than a swimming pool (¢ The osher group are the imensive properties, which do not depend on how much matter we have. Examples inchide temperature, colour and density. A copper Using the 4: values O= 16.0, Mg = 240, S= 3200, calculate the amount of substance {in moles) in each ofthe following samples. 1 2409 of caggen 2 2409 of sulfur 3 16.09 of magnesium 1 =6,022 « 10 mot! Now try ti Calculate the amount af substance (in moles) in 1a sample of uranium that contains 1.0 10% atoms 2 a sample of fluorine that contains 5x 10" atoms Chemical formulae and moles Ie follows from the above definition thar there is a clear relationship berween the ‘mass (mi of a sample of aa element and the number of moles (n) it contains arount(n makes) =« TS co) amp What i the amount (in moles of carbon in 30g of carbon? Use the value 4,carbon) = 12.0 to wrt its molar mass, and use equation (1) above: m=30g and M=120gr0l" ee ‘Togmort 25mol er As we saw on page 5, the actual masses of atoms are vory smal. We would therefore ‘expect the muimber of stoms in & mole of an clemeat to be wea lage. This is indeed the ease. One mole of an clement contains «staggering 6.022% 10" atoms (six duunded and two thoussnd two hundred milion milion mlion atoms), This value is called the Avogadro constant, symbot L “The approximate value of = 6.0 x 10 mols often adequate, and will be used fn calewlations i this book. ‘The relationship between the number of moles in a sample of an element and the amber of atoms & contains sa follows: number of atoms = Lx number of roles of N=Ln How many hydrogen atoms ae there in 1.51mol of hydrogen ators? Answer Uso equation (2), and the value of Lgivan abow: 1=60x 102mor? and n=1.5mol $2 N=60x 102mor x 1.8mol = 9.0% 102 1.6 Atomic symbols and formulae ach clement has a unique Symbol. Symbols consist of either one or two letters. The fictis always a capital letter and the second, if present, is always a lower-case letter, ‘This rule avoids confusions an ambiguities when the symbols are combined to make the formulae of compounds. For example: {the symbol for hydrogen is H {the symbol for helium is He (aot HE or bE) {the symbol for cobalt is Co (not CO — this is the formula of carbon monoxide ‘which contains two atoms in its molecule, one of carbon and one of oxygen).