MIGRATION OF LABOUR FROM INDIA

INTRODUCTION

International labour flows from the developing countries have

increased significantly during the last two decades coinciding with
globalisation and post-reform. In many ways, it has now come to occupy the
core of the discourse on development - both as important drivers of the
globalisation process and also as one of its more important consequences.
Sharp divergence in demographic trends in the developed and developing
countries, increased labour shortage in several high-income countries,
growing economic imbalances across developed and developing countries,
changing trend in consumerism, and the rapid advancement of transport and
communication technologies are, inter alia, the key factors propelling large
scale cross country labour flows (Martin, Abella and Kuptsch, 2006;
GCIM,2005; ILO, 2004a, 2005; IOM, 2005; OECD, 2006; UN, 2004, 2006a).
This took place despite the fact that globalisation did not encompass any
'opening up' of national boundaries for human mobility across borders,
although it contained all strategies to let capital and commodities flow across
them unabated. More people live outside their country of origin today than at
any time in history and the numbers of people who move across national
boundaries, especially for better economic prospects, are expected to rise in
future. It is also well recognised that migrant workers make huge
contributions to economic and social development in both their host and
home countries (OSCE, IOM and ILO, 2006).

India, with a vast reservoir of both highly skilled and semi and
unskilled labour force, is a major contributor to the contemporary global
labour flows. Available evidences indicate that migrant labour flows from
India since the 1990s have not only registered impressive growth in respect
of the traditional destinations like the United States of America (USA), the
United Kingdom (UK), Canada and the Gulf countries but also have
diversified and expanded to newly emerging migrant destinations in
continental Europe (Germany, France, Belgium), Australasia (Australia, New
Zealand), East Asia (Japan), and SouthEast Asia (Singapore, Malaysia).
Consequently the proportion of Indian migrants in total immigration inflows
in the major receiving countries has registered considerable increases in
recent years.

Such an emerging scenario necessitates investigations, inter alia, on

the issues related to promotion and sustenance of labour flows on the one
hand and protection of migrants on the other. This paper addresses these
two critical issues from an Indian perspective with the objective of providing
inputs for further strengthening policy structures governing the management
of labour migration in India.

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We begin by assembling all available information to trace the

magnitude and the composition of the labour flows from India. One of the
important objectives of such an exercise is also to identify the existing
information gap pertaining to international labour flows from India. The
bridging of such an information gap is pivotal from the perspective of
evolving relevant and sustainable migration management policies.
Thereafter, we sketch the evolution of the overseas foreign employment
policies in India and detail the major provisions of the most important
legislative instrument of foreign employment policy in India, the Emigration
Act, 1983. We also examine the operation and relevance of the Emigration
Act, 1983 in the changing context. Subsequently, we outline some of the
recent and major policy initiatives in India aimed at promoting labour
migration and also protecting the migrants. This information is significant not
only from the perspective of understanding the evolving nature of policies in
India but also could serve as guidepost to other major labour sending
countries in formulating their migration strategies. Then we provide a review
of the changing nature of immigration policies of few destination countries
and its implications for migration flows from India. In the concluding section,
we outline certain policy contours and perspectives for managing labour
migration effectively and thus maximizing the developmental potential of
migration both from the standpoint of the nation as well as from the
viewpoint of migrants.

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International Migration Introduction

International labour migration is defined as the movement of people

from one country to another for the purpose of employment. Today, an
estimated 105 million persons are working in a country other than their
country of birth. Labour mobility has become a key feature of globalization
and the global economy with migrant workers earning US$440 billion in
2011, and the World Bank estimating that more than $350billion of that total
was transferred to developing countries in the form of remittances. However,
despite the efforts made to ensure the protection of migrant workers, many
remain vulnerable and assume significant risks during the migration process.

International labour migration is defined as the movement of people

from one country to another for the purpose of employment. Today, an
estimated 105 million persons are working in a country other than their
country of birth. Labour mobility has become a key feature of globalization
and the global economy with migrant workers earning US$440 billion in
2011, and the World Bank estimating that more than $350billion of that total
was transferred to developing countries in the form of remittances. However,
despite the efforts made to ensure the protection of migrant workers, many
remain vulnerable and assume significant risks during the migration process.

When properly managed, labour migration has far-reaching potential

for the migrants, their communities, the countries of origin and destination,
and for employers. While job creation in the home country is the preferred
option, demographic, social and economic factors are increasingly the drivers
of migration. As a result, a growing number of both sending and receiving
countries view international labour migration as an integral part of their
national development and employment strategies. On one hand, countries of
origin benefit from labour migration because it relieves unemployment
pressures and contributes to development through remittances, knowledge
transfer, and the creation of business and trade networks. On the other
hand, for destination countries facing labour shortages, orderly and well-
managed labour migration can lighten labour scarcity and facilitate mobility.

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International migration occurs when peoples cross state boundaries

and stay in the host state for some minimum length of time. Migration occurs
for many reasons. Many people leave their home countries in order to look
for economic opportunities in another country. Others migrate to be with
family members who have migrated or because of political conditions in their
countries. Education is another reason for international migration, as
students pursue their studies abroad. While there are several different
potential systems for categorizing international migrants, one system
organizes them into nine groups: temporary labour migrants; irregular,
illegal, or undocumented migrants; highly skilled and business migrants;
refugees; asylum seekers; forced migration; family members; return
migrants; and long-term, low-skilled migrants. These migrants can also be
divided into two large groups, permanent and temporary. Permanent
migrants intend to establish their permanent residence in a new country and
possibly obtain that countrys citizenship.

Temporary migrants intend only to stay for a limited periods of time;

perhaps until the end of a particular program of study or for the duration of a
work contract or a certain work season. Both types of migrants have as
significant effect on the economies and societies of the chosen destination
country and the country of origin.

Similarly, the countries which receive these migrants are often grouped
into four categories: traditional settlement countries, European countries
which encouraged labour migration after World War II, European countries
which receive a significant portion of their immigrant populations from their
former colonies, and countries which formerly were points of emigration but
have recently emerged as immigrant destinations.

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LABOUR MIGRATION THE BACKGROUND

Movement of people across

boundaries of the Indian sub continent is
of old standing. Trade, political and
religious links have necessitated regular
contacts with southeast, eastern and
central Asia and Africa. However, with the
advent of colonial rule, international
migratory movement entered a completely
new phase. The imperial needs for labour
led to the substantial recruitment of
migrant labour from India in the
plantations or mines in different British
colonies: to far-away places such as
Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Fiji: to not
so distant lands such as Mauritius, Malaysia, Singapore and South Africa; and
even to neighbouring countries like Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Burma (now
Myanmar) (Davis, 1951). The bulk of these migrants went as indentured
labourers. Davis estimates that about 30.2 million Indians had emigrated
between 1834 and 1937. This scale of movement was as large as the
European migration to the Americas in the 19th century. It declined with the
ending of indenture in 1921. However a significant free migration did
continue with Indian workers migrating mainly to East Africa and Persian Gulf
states.

The effect of such long-term migration pattern is visible in the size and
diversity of the Indian diaspora in the contemporary world. The magnitude of
the diasporic Indian community is estimated at 25 million residing in nearly
130 countries (Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, 2008). The Indian
overseas community consists of both the persons of Indian origin (PIOs) who
have acquired the citizenship of other countries and the Non Resident
Indians (NRIs) who continue to hold Indian passports and are citizens of
India.

Migration from one area to another in search of improved livelihoods is

a key feature of human history. While some regions and sectors fall behind in
their capacity to support populations, others move ahead and people
migrate to access these emerging opportunities. Industrialization widens the
gap between rural and urban areas, inducing a shift of the workforce towards
industrializing areas. There is extensive debate on the factors that cause
populations to shift, from those that emphasize individual rationality and

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household behavior to those that cite the structural logic of capitalist

development.

Moreover, numerous studies show that the process of migrations

influenced by social, cultural and economic factors and outcomes can beastly
different for men and women, for different groups and different locations. In
the past few decades new patterns have emerged, challenging gold
paradigms. First, there have been shifts of the workforce towards the tertiary
sector in both developed and developing countries. Secondly, in developed
countries, urban congestion and the growth of communication infrastructure
has slowed down urbanization. Thirdly, in developing countries, the
workforce shift towards the secondary/tertiary sector has been slow and has
been dominated by an expansion of the informal sector, which has grown
over time. In countries like India, permanent shifts of population and
workforce co-exist with the circulatorymovement of populations between
lagging and developed regions and between rural and urban areas, mostly
being absorbed in the unorganized sector of the Economy. Such movements
show little sign of abating with development. The sources of early migration
flows were primarily agro-ecological, related to population expansion to new
settlements or to conquests (e.g. Eaton, 1984). There is considerable
information on patterns of migration during the British period.

Indian emigration abroad was one consequence of the abolition of

slavery and the demand for replacement labour. This was normally through
indenture, a form of contract labour whereby a person would bind himself for
a specified period of service, usually four to seven years in return for
payment of their passage. They left for British, Dutch and French colonies to
work in sugar plantations and subsequently for the tea and rubber
plantations of Southeast Asia. Similar demands for labour rose internally with
the growth of tea, coffee and rubber plantations, and coal mine sand, later,
modern industry. Much of this labour was procured through some form of
organized mediation and some portion of it remained circulatory and
retained strong links with the areas of origin. But as it settled down, it
provided a bridgehead to other migrants, whose numbers grew to satisfy
colonial demand.Urban pockets like Kolkata and Mumbai attracted rural
labourers mainly from labour catchment areas like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and
Orissa in the east and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala and
Karnataka in the south. The historical pattern of the flow of labours persisted
even after independence.

In 2001, Indias population exceeded 1 billion. At that time, 67.2% lived

in rural areas and 32.8% in towns and cities. Between 1951 and 2001, the
proportion of the population living in urban areas rose from17.3% to 32.8%.
Of the total workforce, 73.3% remained in rural areas, declining marginally
from 77.7% in 1991 and 79.3% in 1981; 58%remained dependent upon
agriculture.

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In a country of Indias size,

the existence of significant
regional disparities should not
come as a surprise. The scale
and growth of these disparities is,
however, of concern. The ratio
between the highest to lowest
state per capita incomes,
represented by Punjab and Bihar
in the first period, and
Maharashtra and Bihar in the
second period, has increased
from2.6 in 198083 to 3.5 in
199700. The Planning
Commission estimates that26.1% of Indias population lives below the
poverty line (based on the controversial National Sample Survey of 1999
2000). The rural poor have gradually concentrated in eastern India and rain
fed parts of central and western India, which continue to have low-
productivity agriculture. In19992000, the states with the highest poverty
levels were: Orissa (47.2%), Bihar (41.2%), Madhya Pradesh (37.4%), Assam
(36.1%) and Uttar Pradesh (31.2%) Generally, Indias poor have meager
physical assets and human capital and belong largely to socially deprived
groups such as scheduled castes (SC) and tribes (ST). Women share an
extraordinary burden of deprivation within households. The poor rely on
different types of work to construct a livelihood; wage labour and cultivation
are the most important. Earlier studies have shown that poor households
participate extensively in migration. More recent studies have reconfirmed
that migration is a significant livelihood strategy for poor households in
several regions of India.

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International Migration Program

In this era of globalization,

almost all countries in the world are
involved in migration as countries of
origin, destination, or transitor all
three. Of the several millions of
people living outside their countries
of birth, the ILO estimates that
almost 90 per cent are migrant
workers and their families. While
international migration can be a
positive experience for migrant
workers, many suffer poor working
and living conditions, including low
wages, unsafe work environments, a
virtual absence of the social safety
net, denial of freedom of association and workers rights, discrimination and
xenophobia. Therefore, the ILO approaches international labour migration
international migration undertaken for workfrom a labour market and
rights-based perspective with the intent to promote decent working
conditions for migrants as well as migrants labour and human rights.

As the UN specialized agency on labour issues, the ILO has been

dealing with labour migration since its foundation in 1919. The very
Constitution of the ILO specifically mandates the organization in its Preamble
to give attention to the "protection of the interests of workers when
employed in countries other than their own". The International Migration
Branch (MIGRANT) is the main unit responsible for labour migration issues in
the ILO.

MIGRANT promotes the ratification and implementation of international

standards; facilitates the participation of ILOs tripartite constituents in
formulating and implementing migration policy; provides advisory services
and a forum for consultations; serves as a global knowledge base on
international labour migration; and conducts or coordinates various projects
to strengthen the capacity of ILOs tripartite constituents and other relevant
partners such as non-governmental organizations and migrants associations,
to deal with a wide range of labour migration issues.

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INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION FROM INDEPENDENT INDIA

The pattern and dimension of international labour flows from

independent India have been characterized by significant transformations
over the past half a century (Nayyar, 1994; Indian Council of World Affairs,
2001; Sasikumar, 2001; Srivastava and Sasikumar, 2003). These changes
have become all the more pronounced since the 1990s both in terms of the
destinations and occupations of the migrants. We piece together all the
latest available information to highlight the emerging trends and patterns of
international labour flows from India. Major flows of international labour from
India since the 1990s can be schematized as follows: First, persons with
professional expertise, technical qualifications and skills migrate to high-
income developed and traditionally migrant receiving countries like USA, UK,
and Canada, either as permanent immigrants or to take up temporary
employment. Second, unskilled, semi-skilled and professionals

In India, the migration of its labour force within and across its national
boundaries is nothing new. Indias geographical position has ensured contact
with the Persian Gulf region and South East Asian countries for trade in
goods and movement of people, a contact which goes back to several
centuries. The migration of workers on a significant scale was, however, to
come much later. It began in the colonial era and continues now to
independent India.

Migratory flow during the period of

colonial domination was very much tied to
the investment interests of the colonial
rulers and took place under their aegis. For
instance a great part of the nineteenth
century and the early twentieth century
witnessed a regular migration of Indian
workers as indentured labour for plantations
or mines in the British colonies; this
migration was to faraway places such as
Guyana, Jamaica and Fiji, to not so-distant
lands such as Malaysia and Singapore and
even to neighboring countries such as Sri
Lanka and Burma.

Since Independence, two distinct types of labour migration have been

taking place from India. The first is characterized by a movement of persons
with technical skills and professional expertise to the industrialized countries
like the United States, Britain and Canada which began to proliferate in the
early 1950s. The second type of migration pertains to the flow of labour to
the oil exporting countries of the Middle East which acquired substantial

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dimensions after the dramatic oil price increases of 1973-74 and 1979.The
nature of this recent wave of migrations strikingly different, as an
overwhelming proportion of these migrants are in the category of unskilled
workers and semi-skilled workers skilled in manual or clerical occupations.

MIGRATION OF PROFESSIONALS AND HIGHLY SKILLED

Although international migration flows from India to the industrialized

and traditionally migrant receiving countries such as USA, UK and Canada
have continued unabated for a long time, there is hardly any Indian data
source on this phenomenon. We attempt to analyze the composition of these
flows based on immigration statistics provided by the destination countries.

The available evidence on trends in permanent immigration from India

to the selected industrialised countries, the USA, the UK and Canada, during
the period 1995 to 2005 is presented in Table 2. The data clearly shows that
considerable numbers of Indians are immigrating on a permanent basis to
these industrialized nations. The average annual inflows of the Indian
immigrants to all these countries recorded substantial growth since the
1990s as compared to the earlier decades. In the case of the United States,
the average annual inflow of immigrants recorded at 26,184 persons during
the 1980s (Nayyar, 1994) almost doubled to reach 48,844 during 1995 to
2005. As regards Canada, the average annual inflows which was 7930
persons in the 1980s more than tripled to reach 23,471 during the period
1995- 2005. Similarly, the average inflow of immigrants from India to the
United Kingdom increased from 5400 persons during the 1980s to 6,576
during 1995-2005.

It is striking to note that there has been a further increase in the

number of Indians immigrating on a permanent basis in all these three
countries since turn of the 21st century. Such an increase has also
considerably scaled up the proportion of Indians in the total immigration
flows in these countries in recent years. For instance, in the case of the USA,
this proportion which had more or less hovered around 5 per cent during
1995-2000 has registered rapid increases during 2000-2005 to reach 7.5 per
cent by 2005. Similarly in Canada, the proportion of Indians as percentage of
the total immigrants which averaged around 9.5 per cent during 1995-1999,
rose up to an average of nearly 13 per cent during the 2000-2005. In the
case of United Kingdom, the proportion of Indians which had indicated a
declining trend from 1995-2002 (from around 8 per cent to 6.8 per cent) has
registered increases since then reaching 8 per cent in 2004

One of the major characteristics of immigration from India to these

countries during the period 1950-1990 was that such labour flows were
made up almost entirely of permanent migration in so far as the proportion

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of immigrants who returned to India, after a finite period of time, were

almost negligible (Nayyar,1994). However, such a trend has undergone
significant transformations since the 1990s as a large number of Indian
professionals and skilled personnel are migrating to these countries on
temporary basis, thereby making 'return' an inevitable component. This is
primarily due to the fact that all these countries have in the recent past
introduced various temporary employment programmes to admit migrants,
especially those with specialized professional skills, to meet specific the skill
needs and labour shortages2 .

The most notable case is that of the United States which introduced
the H-1B programme to admit migrants to perform services in 'specialty
occupations' based on professional education, skills, and/ or equivalent
experience. Under the H-1B programmme, specialty workers are permitted to
be employed for as long as three years initially with extensions not
exceeding three years. Specialty occupations mainly include computer
systems analysts and programmers, physicians, professors, engineers, and
accountants. Large number of Indian professionals have availed H-1B visa
route to seek employment in the United States during the past decade. The
data pertaining to the number of Indians who have been granted the
approval to take up employment under the H-1B programme during 2000-
2005.

In terms of occupational groups, health and medical services are

reported to have grown significantly over time in relation to other sectors
and occupations. A large number of Indians who have acquired work permits
are engaged in health related professions. For instance, data on the stock of
registered doctors in United Kingdom by country of qualification show that
the largest number is accounted by Indian doctors.

One of the salient features of international labour flow from India in

recent years is that the destination of Indian migrants, especially high-skilled
migrants, has diversified considerably. Significant numbers of Indian
professionals are now heading towards new and emerging destinations in
continental Europe, East Asia and Australasia.

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International organization for migration

IOMs Vision

IOM strives to protect migrant workers and to optimize the benefits of labour
migration for both the country of origin and destination as well as for the
migrants themselves.

IOMs Objective

In its labour migration programming IOM builds capacity in labour migration

management by:
Offering policy and technical advice to national government
Supporting the development of policies, legislation and administrative
structures that promote efficient, effective and transparent labour
migration flows.
Assisting governments to promote safe labour migration practice for their
nationals.
Facilitating the recruitment of workers, including pre-departure training
and embarkation preparedness.
Promoting the integration of labour migrants in their new workplace and
society.

Principal beneficiaries:

IOM implements various labour migration programs in 70 countries. The

beneficiaries of these programs include:

Migrants, their families and their communities.

Local and national governments.
Private sector entities such as employers and industry representatives
Regional organizations.

IOMs Approach

Through its global network of more than 440 offices, IOM is able to bring
together governments, civil society and the private sector to establish labour
migration programs and mechanisms that balance their various interests,
and address migrants needs. The IOM approach to international labour
migration is to foster the synergies between labour migration and
development, and to promote legal avenues of labour migration as an
alternative to irregular migration. Moreover, IOM aims to facilitate the
development of policies and programs that are in the interest of migrants
and society, providing effective protection and assistance to labour migrants
and their families.

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CAUSES OF MIGRATION

Given the diversity in the nature of

migration in India, the causes are also bound
to vary. Migration is influenced both by the
pattern of development, and the social
structure. The National Commission on Rural
Labour, focusing on seasonal migration,
concluded that uneven development was the
main cause of seasonal migration. Along with
interregional disparity, disparity between
different socio economic classes and the
development policy adopted since
independence has accelerated the process of seasonal migration. In tribal
regions, intrusion of outsiders, the pattern of settlement, displacement and
deforestation, also have played a significant role. Most migration literature
makes a distinction between pull and push factors, which, however, do not
operate in isolation of one another. Mobility occurs when workers in source
areas lack suitable options for employment/livelihood, and there is some
expectation of improvement in circumstances through migration.

The improvement sought may be better employment or higher

wages/incomes, but also maximization of family employment or smoothing of
employment/ income/ consumption over the year At one end of the migration
spectrum, workers could be locked into a debt-migration cycle, where
earnings from migration are used to repay debts incurred at home or in the
destination areas, thereby cementing the migration cycle. At the other end,
migration is largely voluntary, although shaped by their limited choices.

The NCRL has recognized the existence of this continuum for poor
migrants by distinguishing between rural labour migration for survival and
for subsistence. The landless poor, who mostly belong to lower caste,
indigenous communities, from economically backward regions, migrate for
survival and constitute a significant proportion of seasonal labour flow. The
growth of intensive agriculture and commercialization of agriculture since the
late 1960s has led to peak periods of labour demand, often also coinciding
with a decline in local labour deployment.

In the case of labour flows to the rice producing belt of West Bengal,
wage differentials between the source and destination have been considered
as the main reason for migration. Moreover, absence of non-farm
employment, low agricultural production has resulted in a growth of seasonal
migration. Migration decisions are influenced by both individual and
household characteristics as well as the social matrix, which is best captured
in social-anthropological studies. Factors such as age, education level,

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wealth, and land owned, productivity and job opportunities influence the
participation of individual sand households in migration, but so do social
attitudes and supporting social networks. Where migration is essentially
involuntary, it makes little sense to use voluntaristic models to explain the
phenomenon. In Dhule region sugarcane cultivation leads to high demand for
labour, but landowners recruit labourers from other districts for harvesting as
they can have effective control over the labour. Local labourers are thus
forced to migrate with their households to South Gujarat.

Labour mobility is one of the key features of economic development

and its characteristics are closely tied with the nature of this development.
Historically, development is associated with unevenness and structural
change, giving an impetus to the movement of workers from one region to
another, and from one sector to another. Even within the macro-structural
features which determine the supply of, and demand for, certain types of
migrant labour, the pattern of migration depends on a host of factors
determined by labour market characteristics, together with individual,
household and community level features, and the existence of social
networks, among other things. These factors cumulatively determine the
causes of migration. On the other hand, labour migration plays a key role in
influencing the pattern of development, through its impact on a host of
economic and non-economic variables, both in the origin and destination
areas.

Labour migration does not recognize bordersbut borders, whether

urban, state, or international influence migration through a host of policies
and regulatory measures. A key distinction between internal and
international migration is the existence of national regulatory frameworks
such as immigration controls (which leads to a distinction between regular
and irregular migration). But regulatory frameworks and restrictive policies
also operate within nation states.

Early development literature conceptualized labour migrations

occurring from the rural to urban, agricultural to industrial, and informal to
formal sectors. However, the workforce pattern has changed across the
world in favour of the services sector, and the informal sector is more
prominent today, both in developing and developed countries than it was
twenty or thirty years ago. In developing countries, the informal sector is no
longer conceived as a temporary destination for migrants but in most cases,
as a final destination. The (changing) structural features of world capitalism
have an important bearing on both internal and international migration.

The theme on labour migration will explore all types of labour

migration internal, inter-state, cross-border and international. It will
encourage cross disciplinary studies and papers based on both field work
and secondary data.

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We would welcome papers which explore not only economic issues but
also historical, political, sociological and psychological factors affecting
labour migration and the consequences of migration at more disaggregate
levels, viz., for various socio-economic strata and segments of the population
and for women, men, the elderly and children separately, wherever possible.
The contributors should confine themselves to the issue of worker migration,
as conventionally defined in SNA accounts, and to leave out those types of
forced labour migration, which are not conventionally included in work but
are covered in international conventions on forced labour and trafficking. The
paper contributors should not be concerned with other forms of non-labour
migration (such as refugee or student migration) or with population mobility,
which is important for an understanding urban growth.

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DATA AND METHODS

Data and methods The paper uses data from Census of India 2001 as
well as data from the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) 55th
Round on Migration. According to Indian Census, a Person is considered a
migrant if birthplace or place of last residence is different from Place of
enumeration. The National Sample Survey Organization of Government of
India Carried out an all-India survey on the situation of employment and
unemployment in India during the period July 1999-June 2000. This 55th
Round Data was published in August 2001. In this survey, data was collected
on migrants as well. It defines a migrant as a member of the sample
household who had stayed continuously for at least six months or more in a
place other than the place of enumeration. It collects the reasons for leaving
the last usual place of residence under the following heads:

In search of employment
In search of better employment
To take up employment/better employment
Transfer of service/contract
Proximity to place of work
Studies
Acquisition of own house/flat
Housing problems
social/political problem
Health
Marriage
Migration of parent/earning member of the family and
Others.

A simple analysis using vicariate tables has been carried out in the
paper to bring out the extent of employment oriented migration in India.
Moreover, the paper also attempts to study the difference between the
stated reasons for migration and the labour force participation, taking into
account duration and educational qualification of the migrants. Employment
oriented migration

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IMPACT OF MIGRATION

Impact of migration on migrants and their families poorer migrant

workers, crowded into the lower ends of the labour market, have few
entitlements vis a vis their employers or the public authorities in the
destination areas. They have meagre personal assets and suffer a range of
deprivations in the destination areas. In the source areas, migration has both
negative and positive consequences for migrants and their families.

Living conditions: migrant labourers,

whether agricultural or non-agricultural,
live in deplorable conditions. There is
no provision of safe drinking water or
hygienic sanitation. Most live in open
spaces or makeshift shelters in spite of
the Contract Labour Act which
stipulates that the contractor or
employer should provide suitable
accommodation (NCRL,1991; GVT,
2002; Rani and Shylendra, 2001). Apart
from seasonal workers, workers who migrate to the cities for job live in parks
and pavements. Slum dwellers, who are mostly migrants, stay in deplorable
conditions, with inadequate water and bad drainage. Food costs more for
migrant workers who are not able to obtain temporary ration cards.

Health and Education: Labourers working

in harsh circumstances and living in
unhygienic conditions suffer from serious
occupational health problems and are
vulnerable to disease. Those working in
quarries, construction sites and mines
suffer from various health hazards, mostly
lung diseases. As the employer does not
follow safety measures, accidents are quite
frequent. Migrants cannot access various
health and family care programmes due to
their temporary status. Free public health
care facilities and programmes are not accessible to them. For women
workers, there is no provision of maternity leaves, forcing them to resume
work almost immediately after childbirth. Workers, particularly those working
in tile factories and brick kilns suffer from occupational health hazards such
as body ache, sunstroke and skin irritation (NCRL, 1991).

Changes in migrants attitudes: Exposure to a different environment,

including the stresses that it carries, has a deep impact on the attitudes,
habits and awareness levels of migrant workers, depending upon the length

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of migration and the place to which it occurs. Changes are more dramatic in
the case of urban migrants. Migrant workers develop greater awareness
regarding conditions of work (Srivastava, 1999). Life style and changes in
awareness may lead to a mixed impact on family members. The increased
awareness which migrants, especially in urban areas, gain often helps them
realize the importance of their childrens education.

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IMPACT ON SOURCE AREA

The major impacts of migration on source areas occur through changes

in the labour market, income and assets, changes in the pattern of
expenditure and investment.

Although seasonal outmigration potentially has the effect of smoothing

out employment over the annual cycle, rural outmigration could cause a
tightening of the labour market in some circumstances. However, empirical
evidence from out-migrant areas does not often attest to this. This may be
because outmigration often takes place in labour surplus situations. There is
also evidence of the replacement of out-migrant male labour by female and
even child labour. Study of seven villages in Uttar Pradesh showed some
variation over regions. While the situation in the study villages in Eastern and
central Uttar Pradesh conformed to a situation of labour surplus, this was not
the case in Western Uttar Pradesh where seasonal migration coincided with
the agricultural peak season (Rabi) and employers complained of labour
shortages. Significantly in all the regions studied, labourers on their part
gave uncertainty of employment along with employment conditions and poor
relations with their agricultural employers as the major reasons for
outmigration.

Even if labour tightening is not an outcome, outmigration may still

speed up qualitative changes in existing labour relationships in rural areas,
and thereby affect the pace of change. This may occur in sever always. First,
there is the well-documented impact of migration on attitudes and
awareness as migrant labourers and return migrants are more reluctant to
accept adverse employment conditions and low wages. Secondly,
outmigration leads to a more diversified livelihood strategy. Combined with
some increase in the income and employment portfolio of poor households,
this may tend to push up acceptable level of wages (reservation wages) in
rural areas and may make certain forms of about relationships (as for
example, those involving personalised dependency) less acceptable.

Outmigration as a result of debt at home, or debt-interlocking(i.e. the

repayment of debts through advance labour commitment)
involvingemployers in the destination areas or their middlemen, is quite
common.Such outmigration may or may not eliminate the causes of debt.
Thereduction of personalised dependencies or interlocked relationships
mayalso accelerate labour mobility and migration as labourers seek
outalternative sources of cash income.

EMPLOYMENT ORIENTED MIGRATION

Employment oriented migration is obtained by combining the migrants
that have given work/employment and business as their reason for

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migration. It is found that employment oriented migration is quite small,

particularly among female migrants with just around 2 percent of total
female migrants giving employment or business as the reason for their
migration

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TRENDS IN GLOBAL MIGRATION

Migration Mankind and migration have been linked to each other since
the beginning of time; life without migration could not be thought of.
Migration has a history of its own, both at the national and international
levels. The mobility of capital and technology has indeed changed the history
of peoples. At the same time, migration has created a greater impact on
history.

In India, the cultural ethos of the country has actually dissuaded

people from going abroad. There are myths and superstitions surrounding
migration in almost every Indian tradition. The fear of kala-pani, literally
translated as black waters, which meant ostracism, was a strong deterrent.
Such myths were prevalent also in other ancient cultures like China and
Japan, preventing people from going abroad. For a variety of reasons, be it
economic or cultural or personal, the concept of we and they, and the
notions of individual, intellectual and spiritual pollution and the fear of
consequent ostracism prevented people from leaving their home soil until
the advent of the Europeans which in turn stimulated an interest for Indians
to migrate overseas.

Characteristically, most of these migrants were poor, illiterate and

unskilled. It was supposed to be a voluntary system, but there are horror
stories about coercion, and how these people were picked up literally from
the streets of their hometowns, collected at various embarkation points, and
forced to go to a foreign land, of which they knew nothing about. Gender did
not come in the way, and women picked up as indentured labour were made
to stay with men. Many were declared man and wife, and packed off to
foreign destinations. All said and done, this can be considered as apercus or
to the global migration of Indians.

However, there is the problem of Indian embassies in most of these

countries not being very cooperative towards the migrant community. The
embassies are not exactly attuned to the needs of these people, nor are the
officials always aware of their problems, their issues and their needs be itin
terms of their labour contracts, or the laws of the land. There is greater room
for the Indian embassies to play a more effective and cooperative role in this
context. Many a time, because of the indifference and the ignorance of the
Indian missions in these countries, the migrant workers are almost always at
the mercy of the employers and the laws that they adhere to. It is only in
recent years that the Government is waking up to the need for appointing a
separate Labour Attach in the Indian embassies in these countries, to cater
to the demands of the workers, and to take care of their needs.

In 2000, the high-powered Indian Diaspora Committee, chaired by the

jurist, Dr. L.M.Singhvi, recommended the Pravasi Bharatiya Divas

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celebrations on January 9 each year and also contributed to the setting up of

a full-fledged Ministry for Overseas Indians at the Centre. Following upon this
report, the Prime Minter of the day announced the institution of the Prabhasi
Bharatia Samman awards in recognition of the contribution made by the
Indian Diaspora, to the nation. The report also raised major issues of concern
to the Diaspora -- from consular difficulties to larger and abiding issues
pertaining to culture, economic development, education, health, media,
science and technology, philanthropy, and dual citizenship. Based on
carefully-gathered statistics on overseas Indians, the Singhvi Committee
report is the first ever-comprehensive statement of the Indian Diaspora, and
provides a comprehensive framework for discussing Indias relations with
Indians overseas. Till now, these relations had been discussed in a tentative
and casual manner. The report is full of highly novel and important practical
suggestions, including special economic and political concessions to
overseas Indians all leading to effective NRI contribution to Indias
economic, political, cultural and other areas of development. The report will
increase the general level of consciousness in India about the countrys
overseas connections, going back to several centuries. We tend to think of
ourselves as a people 7 whose history was made only in India. The report
shows how wrong this view is, and how PIOs are a part of the body politic in
119 countries

There is the possibility of migration from India growing in the coming

years and decades. The probability of a younger age population in India
coupled with declining birth-rates in the developed world leading to a labour
shortage, be it unskilled, skilled or professional, are among the causes. The
interface between outsourcing, migration and growing social networks are
also contributory factors. There is also the factor of newer destinations,
Japan, for instance, emerging on the horizon. In this, the Indians abroad have
transitioned from being dependants to being dictators through their
significant presence, positional clout and numerical strength coupled with
effective networking, and coordinated organisation. There is now the Global
Organization for the People of Indian Origin (GOPIO), which has set its
priorities in pooling resources, both financial and professional, for the benefit
of PIOs, in the countries they come from, and in India. In all this, India
derives material support from the Diaspora, and they derive psychological
satisfaction of being a part of the Indian nationhood, and in the process of
crafting a resurgent India.

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EFFECTS OF MIGRATION

Migration of labour has its positive as well as negative effects both on

native and host countries. We will
examine these effects as under:

POSITIVE EFFECTS:

Wage Rate: Labourers usually

migrate from low wage counties to
higher wage nations. Unless prevented
or guarded by law, wage Ireland, Italy,
Norway and Sweden between the
period 1870 and 1913 has come to the
conclusion that real wages during this
period had increased in all the
countries, but substantially in the home countries.

Supply of labour: Developed countries like Canada, Australia, some

European countries and USA have experienced scarcity of skilled as well as
unskilled labour. Many Asian doctors and engineers, nurses and teachers are
employed in developed countries. Unskilled labour migrated from developing
countries, provided labour to those areas where the native people would not
wish to take up the jobs. This is more evident in the so called dirty jobs. In
USA such jobs are taken up by labourers from Mexico, South American, Africa
and Asia.

Employment: Migration takes place primarily in search of employment, to

earn, more income and to enjoy better quality of life. While enjoying these
benefits in the host countries the migrants at the disguised unemployment.
In the early stages of large scale migration from Europe to North America, it
helped in mitigating population problem of European countries.

Remittance: Emigrants remit a part of their income back to their families in

their native country. Many of the European countries, Mexico and Asian
countries have benefited from the remittance of their emigrants. At present
china and India receive a substantial amount of remittance. It helps the
home countries reduce their balance of payment problem or increase
investment at home; import capital goods thus promote development of their
economies.

Remittance would reduce over a period of time as the emigrants settle

in the migrated country along with their families. The size of the remittance
depends on the number of emigrants from a country and the nature and
duration of employment. Many countries including India, offer additional

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incentives to the emigrants to remit and keep the money back in their home
country.

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NEGATIVE EFFECTS

Brain Drain: Emigrants comprise people educated and trained at different

levels. Majority of the emigrants are of low education and unskilled.
Emigrants also include highly educated professionals such as doctors,
engineers, professors and other technically and professionally trained
people. A good number of medical, engineering and management students
from India migrate to countries like USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
Germany, and France and to some rich gulf countries. These students take
the advantage of subsidised education financed by tax payer money and
leave the country when they become productive agents or labourers. Ts is
also argued that educated emigrants help the home countries when these
countries rare not in a position to employ them. Beside it also reduces the
claim on goods and service of the home country when labourers migrate.

Problem of social Integration: Immigrants in a country belong to different

countries, race, religion and culture. They form their own groups based on
the above factors. In the initial stages these groups live in ghettoes. Social
assimilation with the people of the host country becomes difficult. In USA,
Canada and Australia or in countries dominated by white coloured people,
social integration becomes difficult due to colour complex. Religion is
another factor which makes immigrants identify with the host country where
the majority belong to another religion. Cultural differences also deter the
process of integration especially when each group develops a complex of
cultural superiority. At times ethnic and religious differences create a
problem for the host country as it happens in UK and India.

Illegal Immigrants: It is a serious problem for many countries. USA has a

large number of illegal immigrants from Mexico. Similar problems are faced
by Canada, Australia and some of the European countries. Illegal migration
to a neighbouring country is a common occurrence due to political,
economic, social and religious factors. India is facing such a problem with
illegal immigrants from Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

Cheap Labour: Developed countries, specially organise labour through their

Trade Union oppose the liberal migration policy. They argue that the migrant
labourers who are willing to work at lower workers. However this argument
does not merit serious consideration wage rate in such economies is
determined by market forces, Exploitation can be prevented through
minimum wage law, which also safeguards the interest of migrant labourers.

Fiscal Imbalance: Immigrants positively contribute to the growth of the

host country. When immigrants constitute in large numbers, the host country
requires spending huge amount of capital to provide the required economic
and social infrastructure. As they settle down permanently, the government

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requires to spend for providing social security benefits. Expenditure on all

these counts may create fiscal imbalance in the form of increased budgetary
deficit.

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CASE STUDY

What is economic migration?

Economic migration is where people move to other countries to benefit from their greater
economic opportunities. Traditionally this is from LEDCs in the developing south to MEDCs in the
affluent north. The main areas for economic migration are: Mexico to the USA, north Africa to
Europe, and from territories to their former mother country.

International Migration

This chart shows the number of migrants entering and

leaving the 6 continents. Above the line indicates migrants are
entering the country which suggests they are moving here for
employment, and wealth. Below the line indicates people are
moving out of these areas for economic and health reasons.

CASE STUDY: MEXICO TO U.S.

In 1980s 3.5 million migrants entered the USA from Mexico of which 700,000 are legal, 2.3
million were legalised and 500,000 were illegal. The huge wealth gap between Mexico and the
neighbouring USA promotes this movement. People move to look for casual employment in farming
in the southwest.

Hopes and Fears

Many economic migrants find the reality is very different from their dreams. Some people
experience hostility from their new countrymen and feel that they are treated as second class
citizens. Many immigrants work in low paid jobs that no one else want to do. Also there is little
protection from unscrupulous employers who take advantage of these illegal workers, in the terms
and conditions they offer. As a result, many economic immigrants live in appalling conditions and
again find themselves in the poverty trap they sought to leave behind.

Push Factors

The problems of an area that encourage people to leave are known as push factors.
Examples include:

Natural

Lack of employment

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Low pay, and poor standard of living

Poor housing

Lack of educational opportunities

Shortage of medical facilities and services

War and/or persecution

Pull Factors

The attractions of a area that migrants move to are called pull factors. They include Better
employment opportunities. Better education chances, including higher education. Better medical
care. Higher wages, and improved standard of living. The bright lights, that is entertainments like
pubs and clubs

CASE STUDY: NORTH AFRICA TO EUROPE

Europe-North Africa

Migration has changed in Africa over the last 100 years. Migration has changed from a
mainly male based population to a more balanced gender percentage. Migration has become more
commercial with less labour seeking migrants and more entrepreneurs.

Problems with Migration

AIDS pandemic in Africa creates a problem in Europe with migrants passing on the disease.
African migrants are adopting more sophisticated, daring, and evasive methods to elude increasingly
tight border controls and enter countries in the developed North. Brain drain in Africa as the
educated elite are migrating into Europe leaving Africa with fewer professionals.

Resolutions in Africa

African countries are encouraging regional migration so that certain professionals can be
distributed evenly across the countries. The free movement of people in Africa has been introduced
to help promote this theory. Providing more jobs to reduce the levels of unemployed persons in Africa
and more incentive to stay in their mother country. Confronting leaders to provide economic, social,
and political stability within their country.

Attitudes to Migration

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Migrants may not have equal opportunities in obtaining employment, and may be subject to
discrimination. The cost for housing, educating, and unemployment causes resentment within
taxpaying residents. The government policy of constructing safe centers causes racial unrest.
Attitude to migration depends on economic stability of host country. If in period of recession,
migrants are accused of taking jobs. However when in period of economic growth migrants residents
do not worry about migrants.

Multicultural Societies

This is a result of migration of various ethnic groups. In most countries there is at least one
minority group which results in prejudice and discrimination towards this group. Skin colour is a
visible distinction between people, but they vary in terms of language, religion and culture.
Multicultural societies may be a result of an oppression in the migrants mother country causing
migration to another country.

Multicultural Society in South Africa

For a long time the white minority in South Africa was in political and economic control. The
black population making up 75% had virtually no say in the running of the country. In 1946 the policy
of apartheid was introduced. This meant that mixed race were now considered coloureds. Indians
were second class and blacks had no rights outside their homeland. Nelson Mandela was released
from prison in 1994 and more ethnic stability followed. However there are still many black people
living in poverty and high unemployment.

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CONCLUSION

Migration has become a global

phenomenon. As discussed earlier
people migrate to another country for a
number of reasons of which economic
and political are the important ones.
From our earlier explanation it is
evident that migration has positive as
well as negative effects both on the
host and native countries. In a
globalised world, the number of
migrants is bound to increase. However
in the larger interest of nations and
people(migrants) involved it is
necessary to introduce measures so that the positive effects are maximised
while the negative ones are minimised if they cannot be totally eliminated.
The suggestions in this direction are to promote labour rights to immigrants.
Allow the migrant workers to join Trade Unions. Treat immigrants on the
same level as those of workers of host country. Safety conditions should be
made applicable even if they are on temporary work. Promote ethical
recruitment. Prevent exploitation and discrimination. Reform work permits
schemes to reduce powers of employers. Legislate to prevent employers
from withholding migrant workers passport. Initiate international action to
regulate the activities of private recruitment agencies. All the countries
should ratify 1990 UN convention on the protection of rights of all migrant
workers and their families

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