z. Geomorph. N.F. Suppl.-Bd. 63 Berlin .

Stuttgart Marz 1987

Neotectonic research in applied geomorphological studies

by

M. PANIZZA and D. CASTALDINI, Modena, Italy, in collaboration with

G. BOLLETTINARI, Sassari, A. CARTON, Modena, and F. MANTOVANI, Ferrara, Italy

with 28 figures

Summary. The authors illusrrare severa I rnerhods of geomorphological and morpho-neorectonic

analysis focused on differenr pracrical applicarions. The firsr case concerns the research rhar should
be carried our immediarely following a destrucrive seismic event (geomorphological studies in tbe euent
of earthquakes). A second case is relared to rhe planning of major civil engineering works such as
power planrs and dams, or to georhermal research (morpbo-neotectonic s!udies for major projec!s).
Geomorphological srudies in the evenr of earrhquakes rnusr essemially have two principal ob-
jecrives, which may be pursued concurrenrly: one thar is strictly scientific and rhe orher concerned
wirh rhe solurion of pracrical problems. The firsr is airned ar the idenrification and location of mor-
phological manifesrarions caused by earrhquakes and of hydrogeological modifications. The second,
however, must be orienrared rowards rhe immediare resolurion of pracrical problems for rhe popula-
tion affecred by the earthquake (for example, selection of suirable areas for tem and camper ciries,
and idcntificarion of impending hazards).
Regarding rnorpho-neorecronic invesrigarions for major projecrs, the aurhors propose thar
srudies be carried out according to whether one is working in mounrainous areas or in alluvial
plains. In borh siruations, studies are to be developed through four phases of research with differing
degrees of inrerprerarive derail:
Phase A: Bibliographical research and regional remare sensing;
Phase B: Detailed aerial photograph inrerprerarion;
Phase C: Field surveys;
Phase D: Final synrhesis.
The final product of this research is a docurnent derived from a comparison of rhe dara obtain-
ed in Phases A, B, and C, in which active tectonic elernenrs and those held to be active in the time
inrerval under cansiderarian are represenred, as weJl as arcas undergaing uplifr, subsidence ar tilring,
and Iinearnenrs rhar may be linked in some way to acrive rectonic elemcnts. Each phase of rhe in-
vestigation is illusrrated with examples of dara sheers and maps.
I

Rsum. Les aureurs illusrrenr quelques rnrhodes d'analysfs gomorphologiques er mor-

phonotectoniques ayam pour but diffrenres siruations d'applications pratiques. Un premier cas
concerne des recherches effectuer dans Ies jours imrndiatemcnr successifs un venement sis-
mique destructif (tudes gomorphologiques l'occasion de tremblements de terrey; un deuxieme cas est li
au projer d'imporranrs uavaux civils d'ingnieurs (pour exernple, cenrrales lecrriques er digues) ou
aux recherches de gothermie (tudes morpbo-notectoniques pour d'importants projets).

12 Zeirschrifr fiir Gcomorphologic N,F. Suppl-Bd. 63

0044-2798/87/0063-0173 $ 7.25
1987 Gebrder Bomrraeger, Dl000 Berlin . D-7000 Srurrgarr
 174 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

En particulier les rudes gomorphologiques l'occasion de trernblemenrs de rerre doivent

avoir essenriellemenr deux objeccifs principaux conremporainemenr ralisables: l'un rypiquemenr
scienrifique et l'aurre de consultarion rechnique. Le premier consiste en localisation et ras-
semblement de rnanifestarions morphologiques des aux tremblemenrs de terre er en nouvelles de
modifications hydrogologiques; Ia consultarion rechnique doir par conrre s'occuper de rsoudre les
problrnes d'urilit immdiate pour les popularions rouches par le rrernblemenr de rerre (pour
exemple, choix de zones adaptes l'insrallation de rentes er de roulorres, er individualisarion
d'boulernenrs menaanrs des villages).
Pour les rudes morpho-norecroniques au sujet des projers importanrs les aureurs proposenr les
recherches effectuer selon que I'on se rrouve dans des secreurs montagneux ou bien sur des plaines
alluviaJes. Dans Jes deux cas les tudes devronr trc dveloppes travers quatre phases de re-
cherches de diffrenr degr de drail inrerprrarif
Phase A: recherche bibliographique er rldrecrion rgionale;
Phase B: phoroinrerprrarion draille;
Phase C: levs sur le rerrain;
Phase D: synrhese finale.
Le produir final de ces recherches est un documenr, qui drive d'un comparaison de donnes
prises de Ia phase A, B, et C ou figurenr des lrnenrs recroniques acrifs cr considrs acrifs dans
l'inrervale de temps considr, des aires en soulvernenr er/ou en affaissemenr, basculemenrs, les l-
menrs qui peuvent en quelque sorte rre lis des lrnenrs recroniques actifs, erc. Chaque phase de
Ia recherche esr illustre par des dossiers er des documents carrographiques.

Introduction

GeomorphoJogy is gradually becoming more important in neotectonic studies. Such stud-

ies include both the consequences of destrucrive movernenrs, mostly in connection with
seismic evenrs, and thc locating of past tectonic movemenrs on rhe basis of particular
geomorphological evidence. Srudies of this rype are part of rhat branch of earth science
known as "morpho-neorectonics". This is included in the more general field of mor-
phorectonics, which in turn, is a parr of strucrural geomorphology (fig. 1). Morpho-neo-

<
morpho-
palaeotectonics
MORPHOTECTONICS -------- MORPHOTECTODYNAMICS
morpho-
Landforms and neotectcnics

relationships between

tectonic movements

STRUCTURAl
GEOMORPHOLOGY

MORPHOLlTHOLOGY Clithology)

MORPHOSELECTION
~ MORPHOTECTOSTATICS tpassfve tectcmcs)

Landforms and

relationships between

structure tn a passive role

Fig. 1. Relationships in strucrural geomorphology.

 Neotectonic research in applied geomorphological srudies 175

tecronics is concerned with the relations berween landforms and neotectonics, that is, re-
cem and current tectonic movernenrs (P ANIZZA & PIACENTE 1976; DEMEK &
EMBLETON1978) or Neogene tectonic movements (OLLIER 1985). Modifications of the
Earth's surface brought about by neorecronics are either of rhc direct rype, such as earrh-
quake cracks and landslide phenomena, or of the indirect rype, such as scarps, asymrnerri-
cal valleys and river bends (PANIZZA & PIACENTE1978; PANIZZA 1983).
In rhe case of earthquakes, which represem the most obvious manifestations of
present-day rectonic movernents, the direcr geomorphological consequences, which often
cause considerable damage to persons and objecrs, prove to be surprisingly great. Morpho-
logical investigations, whether sciemific or applied (and which we shalI terrn Geomorpbo-
logica! studies in tbe euent of earthquakes), should be carried out immediately afrer a seisrnic
event in order to limit the resulting damage.
Ir is also clear that the srudy of geomorphological effects, both direct and indirect,
may lead us back to the neotecronic rnovemenrs that produced rhern and enable us to esti-
mate the chance of recurrence in the future (CARRARO 1976). Some examples of this
have been illustrated by PANIZZA er aI. (1978), PANIZZA (1983, 1984). Thorough studies
of this rype (which we shall term Morpho-neotectonic studies for major projects) are indispens-
able to the planning of major civil engineering works such as large building complexes,
dams and power-plants, and to research of a geothermal narure.
In rhe folIowing notes, study methodologies are described and examples provided for
rhe two cypes of problem lisred. This coincides with the objectives ser out by the I.G.u.
Morphorectonics Working Group (Chairman: M. PANIZZA). In addition, rhis paper is
included in rhe studies being conducted as pare of the Progetto di Ricerca MorJoneotettonica
which is funded by the Italian Ministry of Education. Particular attention has been given
to study methodologies for major projecrs, The studies considered here have been partially
outlined by PANIZZA & CASTALDINI(1985).

Geomorphoiogical studies in the event of earthquakes

Geomorphological and geological problems linked to destrucrive seismic events have been
illustrared by GOVI & SORZANA (1977) and by CAVALLINet aI. (1977) for the earth-
quake in Friuli (northeasr Italy) in May 1976. They have been summarized by COTECCHIA
(1981) for the earthquake in Irpinia, Basilicata (southern Italy) in Novernber 1980
(fig. 2). The geomorphological investigations to be carried out in the event of earth-
quakes wirh a high destructive potencial have been outlined by PANIZZA et aI. (1981).
This ourline wilI be amplified in the foIlowing. In essence, rhese geomorphological in-
vestigations have two principal objectives: one rhat is strictly scientific, the other concern-
ing the solution of practical problems. Both objectives should be pursued afrer the seis-
mic evcnt, over the entire area involved in rhe earrhquake.
The scientific study consists of rhe identification and collection of rhelargest possible
number of morphological manifestations of the earrhquake, such as fault scarps, fissures,
landslides, ground subsidence, land swelling, mud volcanoes, erc. The scientific study may
also include the collection of data on drainage system modifications, such as appearances
or disappearances of springs, changes ora physical and/or chemical narure in the ground-
water system and variations of water levels in wells. It is of fundamental importance that
all such rnanifesrations be Iocarcd, idenrified and examined withurgency, before they can
 176 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

Fig.2.
1: Area involved in the earrhquake in May,
o 100 1976 - Friuli;
I
2: Area involved in the earrhquake in
Km
Novernber, 1980 - Irpinia-Basilicara.

be altered or even erased, especially if rhey are of small dimensions or produced in in-
coherenr or loose terrain (for example, the surface fault described in BOLLETTINARI &
PANIZZA 1981). Oblireration may take place rhrough rhe inrervcntion of man, ar-
mospheric agenrs and subsequenr seismic or graviraronal movemenrs.
The scienrific parr of the study should be synrhesised in the form of a large-scale map,
where all the dara collecred will be indicared, 50 as to offer a general picrure of thc earth-
quake's rnorphorecronic consequences. Examples of such maps are given by P ANIZZA
(1983). This document will consritute an indispensable foundation for the planning and
subdivision of subsequent scientific operations in which orher aurhoririeswill also be in-
volved. These scienrific operarions will also be useful for the general seisrnotectonic srudy
of rhe areas affected by the earthquake and for technical consultarion .
.The applied parr of the srudy rnust focus on problems of immediate irnporrance to
the people affecred and provide support for the public organizations in charge of coordi-
nation and assistance such as military services and fire deparrments. Ir should thus aid in
the selection of suitable areas for rhe locarion of tem cities, barracks and areas for trailers.
Such areas should not be sreeply sloping or unstable, should nor be siruared ar rhe foor of
landslide slopes, and should nor be subjecr to flooding. The sites rnusr also be locared ar
points where rhey will not hold up rraffic for rescue operations and where adequare sani-
tary facilities may be easily ser up. Other areas musr be designated for specific back-up
facilities, such as food and clorhing srorehouses, and field hospirals, Still others must be
designared for the dumping of debris fram desrroyed buildings and waste marerials.
 Neorectonic research in applied geomorphological studies 177

Another task is that of identifying areas with landslides and debris-threatened dweBings or
other potential obstructions to roads.
In the cases of the earrhquakes in Friuli (1976) and in Irpinia, Basilicata (1980), study
and comparison of aerial photographs taken prior to and after the earthquake proved to be
particularly important in determining the effects produced by seismic tremors on slopes.
In borh cases, the areas were characterised by persistent seismic activity with repeated and
relatively strong shocks even a few days later, which were capable of modifying the pre-
vious situation and creating an intermixture of cause and effect. In fact, it was clear that
rhe earrhquake shocks had ser earlier, unstabilised landslides inro rnotion, caused coIIapse
on slopes that had already been subject to mass movement in the past, and mobilised talus
slopes in condirions of unsrable equilibrium. Reference will also be made to studies of a
technical nature for the initial repair and reguIating work to be done on the water system
and any orher ground-level or underground mains.
This phase of inrervention wiII also culminate in the productionof a map which
should be compiled alongside the one described previously. This map wiII offer a picrure
of the disturbed places thar have been examined. In this way, ir wiU serve as a basis for the
technicians who wiII be working in the subsequent zoning and reconsrruction srage in rhe
disrurbed area (see, for example, C.N.R., 1983).
An example of a map of disturbances prior to and relared to an earchquake is shown
in figo 3. The rypology and aims, both irnrnediare and long-rerm, of the study proposed
thus far, are summarised briefly in rhe outline shown in figo4.

Morpho-neotectonic studies for major projects

As has been rnentioned, the phrase "Morpho-neotectonic srudies for major projects" refers
to those invesrigations to be carried out prior to the planning of major civil engineering
works. The term also encompasses studies that are conducted to evaluare an area's geo-
thermal potential in cases where the area is rectonicaIIy active. In this latter case, tectonic
elernents such as faulrs and fracrures may be connected with recent intrusive plutonic
rocks.
The methods described below have been developed on the basis of research conducted
in Italy as part of the project enrirled Progetto Finalizzato Geodinamica - Sottoprogetto Neo-
tettonica. The project is funded by the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (see, for
example, C.N.R. 1978, 1979, 1980, 1982). The methods have also been derived from ap-
plied studies carried ou t by the authors in Italy, Indonesia and South America.
Firsr, invesrigarive criteria should be differentiated according to whether the area in
question corresponds to a mountainous or plain sector (1st. Geol. Univ. Modena, 1978;
CASTALDINI1984). In mountainous secrors undergoing active erosion, ir is generally pos-
sible to identify outcrops of disjunct and folded strucrures. On rhe othcr hand, in alluvial
plains undergoing acrive sedirnentarion, loosc deposirs may cover rhe tectonic structures.
These different geological situations require different methods of srudy. They are dis-
cussed separately here, but ir might be necessary to apply both merhods in rhe case where
one sire presents both situations ar when one is investigating an extensive area.
The neotectonic period to be considered wiII vary according to the aims of the study.
In this contribution, the Quaternary has been adopted.
 178 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

CAUSED
by
IHACT/VE ACTlVE
N,thqu.k

*
~-~:"'-_--+---I ,

12----

13 ---------

14

15 : +
o 2km
I

Fig. 3. Simplified detail from the geological map of the Friuli area primarily involved in the 1976
earthquake (from MARTINIS (1977) with modifications). 1) gravei; 2) fan; 3) talus; 4) landslide
debris; 5) talus cone; 6) srrongly-cernenred breccia; 7) landslide blocks; 8) boulders due ro rockfall;
9) earthquake-induced ground crack; 10) rill; l1) bedrock; 12) fault; 13) supposed fault; 14) over-
rhrust; 15) strike and dip of beds.
 Neotectonic research in applied geomorphological srudies 179

Geomorphological studies
to be carried out in the
event of earthquakes

j I
Scientific Studies
, ,
Technical Consultation Studies

- Locating and collection of - Selection of suitable areas

morphological manifesta- for tent cities, barracks,
tions of the earthquakes and trailers
- Collection of data - Selection of areas designated
concerning for assistance facilities
hydrological modifications - Selection of areas for
unloading debris and waste
I
materiaIs
I - ldentification hazards
i threatening dwellings

I and roads
- Contribution to water
I system and main repairs
I Geological studies ~ I
<, /
I Geophysical /
I Seismological studies /
\ Applied

/ geological

\
,/

(
studies

//
\ t ~/
Hydrogeological
studies

L_ Seismic /
zoning _
/'

Fig.4. Outline summary of the geomorphological srudies to be carried out in the event of earth-
quakes.
i
!
I
I

I
I
i
I
 180 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

Studies tn mountamous areas

These srudes have been divided into four phases of researeh with differing degrees of in-
terpreta ti ve detail:
Phase A: Bibliographieal researeh and regional remote sensing;
Phase B: Derailed aerial photograph inrerprerarion;
Phase C: FieJd surveys;
Phase D: Final synthesis.
It should be noted that, beeause of their confidential narure, figs. 6, 8, 10, 13, 15 and
16 are shown without topographieal referenees.

Phase A: Bibliographical researcb and regional remate sensing

a) Bibliographical research. - Bibliographieal researeh is undertaken primarily in order to

track down information on the disrribution of Plio-Quaternary deposits as well as infor-
mation on rhe distribution of rectonic elements and any rectonic activiry. Ir should be car-
ried out coneurrendy with regional remo te sensing. The first stage is to loca te ali possible
quotations dealing with neotectonic rnovemenrs and the distribution of Plio-Quarernary
terrains. Every indieation or even mere supposition rhar may be eonneeted with the rec-
tonies of the area should be noted. Only at a later stage should one proeeed to arrange the
various, ill-assorted data more logieally by traeing rhe evolution of rhe interpreta tive
thought of rhe various authors ehronologieally.
The individual neoteetonie elernents should be numbered and individually deseribed
on data sheets, as part of the seeond stage of the bibliographieal researeh. Ali aurhors who
cited the elemenrs should be speeified on rhese sheets in ehronologieal order. The recton-
ie, geologieal and ehronologieal characrerisrics of the elernenrs are to be listed, together
wirh indieations as to what eheeking operations will be performed in the fieJd (fig. 5). As
far as tectonic aetivity is coneerned, importam observations ma)' also be obtained from
publieations dealing with the most reeent seismie events in the area.
The bibliographieal researeh should be eonsolidated in the form of a map of the Plio-
Quaternary terrain and rectonic elements (fig. 6). This eould consist of a small-seale doeu-
ment (1: 100000 to 1: 250000). Transposition of the bibliographieal tectonic elements
(obviously of a length that is compatible with the carrographic seale adopted), from the
original works to the topographieal map does not always prove to be an easy matrer. In
faet, rhe elements indieated by various authors do nor always coincide in length, direetion
and loeation. Furthermore, they may be given on maps containing few topographieal refer-

Bibliographical Data Sheet for Neotectonic Element No.:

Bibliography:
Description:
Chronological summary: Fig. 5. Example of data sheet for
Field checks: the neorecronic elernenrs found in
the bibliographical research.
 Neotecronic research in applied geomorphological srudies 181

QUATERURY I q II
ACTIVE PROBABLY ACTIVE

1) e e e e -+- ~ --+-
PLlocm 2) x K X X + -+--X-
.,.....-.-~
I p II 3)

4 ) i I " I li i i M""T "T"T"T"

5) 1
I
1
I
! 1 1 1
I I I
J....,-~~
6) -----
7l -----
Fig.6. Map of Plio-Quarcrnary rerrains and tcctonic elernenrs. 1) anciclinalaxis; 2) synclina! axis;
3) rhrusr (saw-reerh on overrhrown limb); 4) normal fau!t (harching on downrhrown side); 5) re-
verse faulr (harching on downrhrown side; arrows indicare dip of the fau!c plane); 6) faulr of un-
defined rype; 7) wrench fault.

ences. In the most difficult cases, ir is preferable to choose the alignment as indicared on
maps of a neotectonic nature. In the case of a group of faults, one could represem the line
corresponding to the berter-preserved morphological elemencs which is more likely to ac-
cord with recent tectonics.
Another aim of the bibliographical research is to collect other data that may be utilised
with reference to rhe specific objectives of the study. Thus, it is useful, for example, to
carry out srudies on the seisrnicity of rhe area in quesrion, to be transformed into a map of
seisrnic epicentres ; studies on vertical rnovements of rhe ground, both recent and in-prog-
182 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

ress, to be synthesised in rhe form of isolines relating to the whole of the movernents;
srudies on georhermal or volcanic phenomena, and so on.

b) Regional remote sensing. - This parr of rhe investigation concerns the identification, se-
lection and morphological description of alignments or photo-lineaments. These terms
refer to everything in a sarellite image that shows a continous course, but one whose na-
ture remains undetermined (CARRARO et a!. 1978; Gruppo Geologia Spaziale Settore Al-
pino 1978). However, ir should be nored that HASSAN(1975) has proposed the use of the
terms "Iineation, lineament, and linear" to indicare linear elements which are not qualified
further bur are in decreasing order of size.
The first stage consists of rhe identificarion of the total range of phoro-lineamenrs.
These are lines that have mainly or nearly rectilinear courses, but they may also have
curved or sub-circular courses (CAIRE 1975). In addition, they have been rendered visible
or traceable in the satellite image by photographic and/or morphological expression. By
photographic expression we mean variations in parameters such as tone, texturc, sharp-
ness and brightness of the object, Morphological expression, on the other hand, refers to
lineament patterns of a lithological type (that is, points of contact between different litho-
rypes), of a structural type (strike and dip of the strata, folds, faulrs, fractures), and of a
hydrographic and orographic type (watercourses, valleys, warersheds, scarps).
The following images obtained by sarellite may be utilised for rhe identification of rhe
total range of phoro-linearnents: Landsat spectral band 5-7, Landsat images in composite
false colour, SLAR images, photomosaics and aeromagnetic images (BOLLETTINARI &
MANTOVANI 1986). The ideal is to have images which have been taken at different times.
This enables one to obtain documents that are more plentiful in information and some-

-p<
-<>-<><>- 8~ 14 /// 21 ;t.-J.. 27 A 34 ([)))
2 ~ 9 Li 15 22
-(--f.-J-. 28
CD
'I-
..... 35
~
-of-o- ~ >:

3 10
@ 16 .r;! 23 ~ 29 -==- 36 ~
-<>to-
4 11
~
17
~ 24 ==:> 30 4illIffi 37 ~
5
~
~ 12 8E)E) 18 -+- 25 c==::> 31 38 0

6 ~ 13 /"77 19 ~_o 215 = 32

~
7 )( 20
- 33 ~
Fig.7. Legend for rnorpho-neorectonic fearures (fram PANIZZA & CASTALDINI 1985). 1) linear
ridge; 2) planar disconrinuity of ridge; 3) alrirnetric disconrinuity of ridge; 4) planar-alrirnerricdis-
continuity of ridge; 5) alignmenr of peaks; 6) non-coincidence between alignmenr of peaks and
watershed; 7) col; 8) scarp; 9) reverse slope; 10) landslide; 11) area wirh particular recurrenr and/or
aligned forms of erasion; 12) karsr and pseudo-doline forms; 13) valleyasymrnerry; 14) rectilinear
valley; 15) gully; 16) (a) river bend and (b) double river bend; 17) barbed confluence; 18) step or
anomaly in the longitudinal prafile of a watercourse; 19) (a) blind valley and (b) dry valley; 20)
drainage partem asymmetry; 21) cenrriperal drainage pattem; 22) radial drainage pattem; 23) river
capture; 24) rcctilinear drainage; 25) rectilinear palaeodrainage;26) terrace edge; 27) converging and
diverging terraces; 28) aggradation; 29) srraight coast; 30) (a) triangular facer and (b) trapezoidal
facet; 31) isolated relief; 32) line of undefined nature; 33) disrincr rectonic line; 34) circular struc-
ture; 35) palaeosurface;36) anomaly on palaeosurface;37) fissure; 38) sand and/or mud volcano.
 Neotectonic research in applied geomorphological srudies 183

times to eliminare defects due to cloudiness, atmospheric pollution, vegerarion or solar

azimuth (BODECHTEL et aI. 1975; CASSINIS & MARCOLONGO 1977; FUNICIELLO er al,
1977).
AlJ the photo-lineamenrs that have ernerged during the various phases of interpreta-
tion of the different types of image are finally transferred on to one image. This image

1) ---- 2)L1 ~ e .Ri t>-i>--t>~ (\)) r-/ /~.!._

Fig. 8. Map of selected lineaments in the same area of Fig 6. 1) selecred Iineaments; 2) morpho-
neotectonic features; see legend to Fig. 7.

constirutes the final identification documento Ir is during this final phase that screening of
the photo-lineaments should take place. In the screening process one seeks to sort out
those phoro-Iineamcnrs that are direct1y relared to the purpose of lhe work at hand.
Photo-Iinearnents to be discarded include those of an anthropogenic nature, such as roads,
aqueducts, electrical lines, crop divisions; photo-lineaments found on only one type of
image (as in the case of jet aircraft trails, for example) and those of a natural type that are
not linked to tectonic forms (such as those of climatic origin). The lineaments thus ob-
tained (CARRARO et al 1978; Gruppo Geologia Spaziale Setrore Alpino 1978) must be
selecred with reference to the geomorphological evidence indica tive of Quaternary tecton-
ic activity.
 184 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

The Legend used for the morpho-neotectonic symbols characrerising rhe linearnenrs is
one appropriate to derailed aerial photograph interpretation (Phase B). This Legend, apart
from some additions and modificarions, has been taken from C.N.R. (1976) and has al-
ready been partialIy illustrated by PANIZZA et a!. (1978), PANIZZA (1983, 1984). It is
outlined here (fig. 7) in the integral form appearing in PANIZZA & CASTALDINI (1985).
FolIowing rhe preceding operarion, each Iineament is then individualIy described and
reproduced on a map of selected lineaments (fig. 8) on rhe same scale as that used for the
map ofPlio-Quaternary terrain and tectonic elements (fig. 6).

Lineament Revealed by Remote Senslng, No.:

Location:
Topographical maps:
Orientation: Length:
Geology: Fig. 9. Example of data sheet for
Morphological evidence and observations: lineamenrs obrained through re-
mate sensing.

. A data sheet is compiled for each lineament (fig. 9). The position of the lineamenr
should be indicated with reference to rhe topographical maps on which it is locared, Thc
orienrarion, length, and geology of the terrain crossed by rhe lineament are also specified.
I n rhe case where the lineamems follow a circular course, ir is advisable to indica te rhe
maximum radius of the structure itself, rather than its orienration and length. Lastly, alI
geomorphological signs characterising the Iinearnenr are recorded with any observations,
especially those concerning relationships between the linearnents themselves.

c) Syntbesis 0/
bibliograpbical researcb, regional remate sensing and otber data. - Phase A is
concluded by constructing a synthetic map, prepared by comparison of the following
maps;
Map of rhe Plo-Quaternary terrain and tectonic elernents:
Map of selected lineaments;
Map of seismic epicenrre distribution;
Other docurnenrs depending on rhe specific objectives of the investigation, such as
maps of recent vertical movements, maps of geothermal phenomena and maps of vol-
canic phenomena.
The prepararion of the synthetic map (fig. 10) which should be reproduced on the
same scale as the preceding maps, helps to sub-divide the tectonic elernenrs and lin-
earnents imo three categories:
1. rectonic elemcnts rhat are probably active;
2. tectonic elernents that are probably inactive;
3. Iinearnenrs thar may be linked to possible active recronic elernenrs.

The faults taken from the map of the Plio-Quaternary terrain and rectonic clements,
for example, which can be shown to displace the Quaternary or Plio-Pleisrocene terrain on
the map shown in figo 6, or rhe folded structures which seem to have condirioned or lirn-
 Neotectonic research in applied geomorphological studies 185

ited sedimentation as a consequence of rectonics, are to be inserted in the first category.

Orher tectonic elernents to be inserted in the first category are those that were already
held to be active in the literature. Another group consists of the faults thar coincide wirh
a linearnenr on the map of selecced lineamenrs. Such a lineament should show rhe follow-
ing characteristics: ir rnust be qllalified in terms of the distinctness, quantity, quality, and
congruence of the geomorphological features, and the fault must be linked to several
seismic epicencres.
Ali the elernenrs on the map of Plio-Quaternary terrain and rectonic e1emencs not in-
c1uded in the firsc category come under the second category. Transferring thern to rhe

1) O O O O O O 3) ----

2) X X X X X X A) n_n _

Fig. 10. Phase A synthetic map of the same area of Fig. 6 and 8. 1) probably acrive anticline;
2) probably acrive syncline; 3) probably active fau!t; 4) Iinearnent linked to possible active recronic
elernenr.

Phase A synthetic map is considered unnecessary as they do not involve neotectonic syn-
thesis.
Coming under the category of lineaments that may be linked to possible active tecron-
ic elernenrs are those Iinearnents (on rhe map of selecred Iinearnents, figo 8) which,
though not coinciding with recronic elements drawn frorn the Iiterarure, show the follow-
ing attributes: chey must be qualified in tcrrns of the distinctness, quantiry, quality and
186 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

congruence of the morphological features or appear to be cut into Plio-Quaternary terrain.

These lineaments may find confirmation of their neotectonic validity in their coincidence
with alignments of seismic epicentres. AlI the lineaments that may be linked to possibIe
active tectonic elemenrs should aIso be reproduced on the Phase A synthetic map. As far
as tectonic elernents and linearnents are concerned, rhe Phase A synthetic map (fig. 10)
should contain only the tectonic elements that are probably active and the lineaments that
may be linked to possible active tectonic elements.
AlI rhe elernenrs rnust also be described individually on data sheets as shown in figs. 5
and 9. In addition, these elements must be checked in the field (Phase C) just as in the
case of rhe lineamems that wiII be Iocated during rhe detailed aerial photograph inrerpre-
tation phase.

Phase B: Detailed aenal photograph interpretation

Phase B, which consists of rhe detailed inrerpreration of aerial photographs, has the same
purposes as the regional investigation in Phase A, bur offers greater interprerative pos-
sibilities. Using medium- to large-scale aerial photographs (from 1: 60000 to 1 : 15000 ap-
proximately), ir is aimed mainly ar the identification of rnorpho-neotectonic Iineaments.
These lineamenrs are recorded on the basis of their geomorphological characrerisrics (mor-
pbo-neotectonic investigation). Interpretation should concentra te on the identificarion of alI
fracture-induced lineaments in order to serve as a basis for srarisrical analysis (statistical
analysis 01 the total range 01jractures). This rype of analysis is particularly useful, when
combined with research on perrneabiliry, in the case of studies for evaluating geothermal
potencial.

Data Sheet Aerial Photo No.

Photo No.: Band No.: Seale: Photolin. No.:
Direetn.:
Cartographie Document: Length:
Loeation:
Geology:
Bibliography:
Any eorrespondenee with Phase A elements:

Morpho-neoteetonie Evidenee
Type Quantity Notes: (quality, eongruenee, distinetness, freshness, ete.)

Field Survey
Point Loeation Operations

Fig. 11. Exampleof data sheet for detailed aerialphotograph inrerpretation (Phase B).
 Neotectonic research in applied geomorphological studies 187

a) Morpho-neotectonic investigation. - As rnentioned previously, rnorpho-neotecronic investi-

gation is based upon those geomorphological characrerictics rhat may indicare recent tec-
tonic movernenr. Such evidence is idenrified on the aerial photographs and reproduced on
borh small- and large-scale topographical maps, according to the legend shown in figo 7.
The nexr procedure consists of the idenrificarion, guided by geological data, of landforms
due to inactive tectonics ar rather, to passive structure. These are rhen eliminated from
the map, leaving only fearures (Iinearnenrs) with hypothetical neorecronic significance.
Using aerial photographs, itineraries for field checking are decided and subsequently repre-
sented on the topographical maps, togerher with notes on the specific field-checks that are
to be carried out. A preliminary data sheer (fig. 11) should be compiled for each lin-
eament. The lineament's direcrion, length and location are indicated on rhe data sheet, to-
gether with aerial phorographs on which it wasidentified, the geological terrain involved,
relevant bibliographical references, and any possible correspondence with rhe elernents
drawn from Phase A. All relevam geomorphological fearures musr be reproduced wirh ob-
servations as to their quantity, quality, congruence, distincmess and freshness. Not all rhe
linearnents obrained through regional remete sensing interpretation (Phase A) in the
analysis of the satellite images will necessarily match those revealed through detailed aeri-
ai photograph interpretation (Phase B).

b) Statistical analysis of tbe total range ollractures. - Analysis, imerpretation and classifi-
cation of rhe various fracture sysrems (azimuth, frequency and density), and subdivision
of rhe area being srudied imo classes with differem densities of fracturing must aiso be
undertaken.
The first stage is to identify the total range of Iinearnenrs that may be fracture-as-
sociated, through aerial photograph interpretation. Ali linear elements with topographical
expression (such as scarps, valley-floors and watercourses) and with photographic expres-
sion (different tones of grey dose together), and those which determine the srructural
geological significance of a fracture thar is presem or held to be probable in rocky out-
crops or in the cover material, are to be marked on the aerial photographs. The whole
body ar total range of lineaments that may be fracture-associated must subsequently be
transferred from the photographs on to small-scale topographical maps (for example,
1: 100 000).
A second stage is to define homogeneous arcas of Iinearnents that may be fracture-
associated, using an automatic and/or photographic procedure. The data should be com-
puter-processed to obtain ray-diagrams thar are represenrative of the orientation and
length of Iineaments in relation to their densiry and frequency withineach individual, ho-
mogeneOUS area. The information thus obtained represents one of the two starting points
for the preparation of a map of fracrures (fig. 15). The second starting point consisrs of
strucrural statistical rneasuremcnts raken in the field (Phase C), which will be discussed
later.

Phase C: Pield surveys

Following lirerarure search and aerial photograph inrerpreration, field surveys should be
carried out according to the itineraries determined during the preliminary investigarions.
Fieldwork has severa] purposes: to verify the neotectonic hyporheses regarding the lin-
 188 - M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDlNI

earnents and tectonic elernents cired in the Iiterarure and if necessary, to specify their geo-
rnerrical, geological and geomorphological expression; to check the geological and, in
some cases, the stratigraphical re1ationships of rhe formations; and to make measurements
of the fracturing on significant outcrops.
The aim is to prepare rwo rhernatic maps, one of c1assified Iinearnenrs (fig. 13) and
one of fractures (fig. 15). The next scctions amplify rhe procedures.

a) Morpho-neotectonic checks. - These consists of verifying rhe presence of faulrs, fracrures

or other tecronic srrucrures and of recording the freshness, consistency and distncrness of
the geomorphological expression of the Iinearnents. The field records should include ex-
planatory notes, geological sections, plans, photographs, geological maps or orher types of
maps, depending on the case in hand. A data sheer of the rype shown in Fig. 12 should be
compiled for all lineaments, reporting in particular the geological characterisrics, of borh
the bedrock and the superficial deposits, as well as their inter-re1ationships. Geomorpho-

Field Checks (If not performed, explain why)

Date: Point:
Geology Geomorphology
Bedrock: Evidence:
Strike and dip:
Age:
Superficial deposits (type & genesis):

Bedrock/superf. dep. relationships:

Sketch No.: Point: Photograph No.: Point:

Survey No.: Area: Profile No.: Section:
Results:

Lineament Classification
Category:
Justification:

If lin. = fault:
Type and direction of movement:
Amount of displacement, if possible:

Geognostic investigations, proposals, and justifications:

Lab. analyses:
Data on micro-mesotectonics, pedology, archeological analyses, etc.:

Chronological evaluation:

Fig. 12. Example of data sheer for linearnenr field checks (Phase C).
 Neotectonic research in applied geomorphological srudies 189

logical features should be specified and any other supplementary data recorded. Every lin-
eament must then be classified justifying the classification from a neotectonic point of
view. If it corresponds with a fault, the rype and direction of movemem and, if possible,
the amount of neorectonic displacemem should also be stated on the data sheet, Any
analyses performed in the field or on laboratory samples should also be specified.
The following categories may be distinguished:
1. Active tectonic element: Proven displacement and/or deformation of rocks and/ ar
significam forms.
2. Tectonic elernent held to be acrive: on rhe basis of supporting geomorphological or
other evidence, but showing no visible displacemem or deformation of rock or other
significam forms.
3. Tecronic elernent held to be inactive: lirtle or no geomorphological evidence for tec-
tonic activity, no visible displacement or deformation of the rock or other significam
forms.
4. Inactive tectonic element: proven lack of displacement and/or rock deformation.
5. Qualified lineamem: with numerous, qualified, and congruem geomorphological
features or other indications, but showing no outcrops capable of confirming displace-
ment or deformation.
6. Unqualified linearnent: wirh unqualified or unrelated geomorphological indications
and showing no outcrops capable of confirming displacement or deformation.

2) e=b-:

Fig. B. Map of classified lineaments. 1) c1assified lineaments; 2) field check-points; see Fig. 7 for
rnorpho-ncorecronic symbols.

13 Zcieschrifrfr Geomorphologie N.F. Suppl-Bd. 63

 --
190 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

7. Lineament not corresponding to any tectonic elernenr: though evidently of geomor-

phological origin, shows proven lack of displacement and rock deformation.
It should be recognised, however, that in many cases a neotecronic age cannot be
demonstrated; also, that nor every e1ement obtaincd from rhe aerial photograph interpreta-
tion or Iirerarure search wiII fali neatly into one category alone. In some instances, a lin-
eament may be subdivided into several segments, each with a different neorecronic classifi-
cation. FinalIy, the lineaments are rransferred to a map of cIassified lineaments (fig. 13)
which wilI be quite similar to the map shown in figo 8. The difference between the two
consists primarily in rhe fact that, in light of the larger scale used on the map of classified
lineaments, it is possible to appreciate rhe morphological expression of the rectonic el-
ements and linearnenrs in greater detail, Moreover this map has also been checked in the
field.

b) Litbologicat cbeces. - Lithological checks are necessary both for the precise tectonic defi-
nirion of the lineaments and for the dating of any movement.

c) Structurai-statistical analysis. - Measurernenr and field checking must be planned to pro-

vide the data needed for verification of rhe macrofracturing pattem. The selection of litho-
cypes, the basis of the statistical analysis, is linked to the geological and/or structural
characteristics of the area, as are the procedures to be adopted for the analysis. In the case
of geothermal research, statistical analysis must deal with those lirhorypes which are con-
sidered to be potencial rock reservoirs or impervious cover rocks, related to particular
structural conditions. The srarisrical analysis may be carried out, for example, over a stan-
dard area defined as 1 krn", including measurements of the geometry of alI planes of dis-
continuity, and their representation on stereographic projections (see, for exampIe,

Measurement Station No.: Topographical map No.:

Date: Geological Formation:

Outcrop exposure =
S/D = Principal System Bedding Plane Secondary Systems
Strike/Dip

Frequency

Open System

Closed System

Total Range - Fracture System Partial Range - Most representative systems

Fracture Plane Bedding Plane Direction of flow:

principal
Average Density = secondary =
vertical
Field Notes:

Fig. 14. Example of a microstructural investigarion data sheer used for geothermal research.
 Neotecronic research in applied geomorphological studies 191

PHILLlPS 1954; SNOW 1970; BARTON 1973). This merhod allows one to define the srruc-
tural features of each lirhorype analysed.
An exarnple of the parameters thar may be urilised in rhe measuring of rhe planes, rhe
type of analysis and observarions on the masses of rock ar every observarion point, are
shown on the data sheet, figo 14. The data obtained from the structural-statistical analysis
performed in the field, supplemented with those from the statistical analysis of the total
range of lineamenrs that may be fracture-associated, as revealed in the detailed aerial
photograph interpretation, are then synthesised on a map of fractures (fig. 15). This is a
graphic document represenring reas with different densities of Iineaments that may be
fracture-associared, with relared ray-diagrams, block diagrams and measuring-starion
poinrs,

N M

I------==t'~_._-.-,~_f E ----t-_.
o 30'jb
D.91

F.28 , (

~-
:/-(: .
~ ...
N

rn @ N
~
[l] F
~ [ID ~~

~ H-M-L ~ D
[ID
O e

Fig.15. Example of a map of fractures. 1) fracrure-associatedlinearnents (FAL); 2) boundary sepa-

rating areas with equal FAL densities; 3) FAL density classes: H=high, M=medium, L=low;
4) arca without FAL; 5) ray-diagram; 6) FAL density (km/km2); 7) FAL frequency (number per
km2); 8) block diagram and related measurement poinr.
192 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

In the case of neotectonic research, rhe dynamic and geometrical reconstruction of the
successive tectonic events is possible by means of the study of fault planes, grooves, sry-
lolites and fractures. This is a vast field of research, exemplified in the numerous works by
ANGELIER,CAREY,and MERCIERwhich are cited in the bibliography.

Phase D: Final syntbesi:

Morpho-neorecronic studies for major projects are colIated in a final synthetic map
(fig. 16), preferably on a smalI-scale. This is achieved through the three phases of lirera-
ture review and regional remote sensing, detailed aerial photograph interpretation and
field surveys, as well as through interpolation in those instances where it is not possible to
carry out fieldwork.
The tectonic elernenrs and Iineaments selecred from the Phase A synrhetic map
(fig. 10) and the map of classified Iineaments (fig. 13) are those which appear to indica te
activiry within the lirnirs of the time inrerval considered.
Orientation data which can offer information on recent or current tectonic stress
trends should be extracted from the map offractures (fig. 15).
To be more specific, the final synthetic map should contain rhe folIowing data:
"acrive rectonic elements" and "tectonic elernenrs held to be active" especialIy those
derived from field investigations, bur in some cases interpreted as active on the basis
of the bibliographical references;
"qualified lineaments" which may be linked to possible active tectonic elements, most
of which have been checked in the field and the remainder interprered as in the pre-
ceding case.
Indications of areal tectonic movements (uplift, subsidence or tilting), obtained
principally from the Iirerature, regional rernote sensing and field survey, may also be in-
serted on the map. As regards neotecronic synthesis, the direcrion of the rnost recent prin-
cipal tectonic stress as deduced from the srrucrural-staristical analysis, may be taken into
consideration.
AlI of the elements represented on the final synrheric map should be given a final seri-
aI number and described on data sheers (fig. 17), whether they be tecronic structures or
lineaments. The data sheets should summarise alI the data from Phases A, B and C, and
should contain the following information:
cartographic references,
direction and length of rhe element;
data derived from aerial photographs and/or Iiterarure searches;
surveys performed in the field;
classification according to the categories described (with justification).
The various phases, aperations and objectives of applied neotectonic studies in moun-
tainous areas are summarised in figo 18.
 Neotectonic research in applied geomorphological studies 193

"'~

., I

"o

I
I
I ' o

ACTIVE HELD TO SE ACTlVE

1)
O O O ~.~.~
5) 7) ~
2)
tI X X .z. . .z. . .z. 4)
3) -'-'-'-'- 6)9
Fig. 16. Final synthetic map. 1) anricline; 2) syncline; 3) fault; 4) qualified Iinearnenr; 5) area
undergoing subsidence; 6) area undergoing uplift; 7) tilting.

Element No.:

Location and geometric features

Topographical map:
Direction: Length:

Data derived from aerial photography and/or bibliography

Field surveys:
Fig. 17. Example of a summary
Classification of the element: sheet for elements represented on
the finalsyntheric map.
 194 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

Map of Plio-Quaternary
terrains and tectonic
elements
PHASE A U +
Bibliographlcal research Map of lei. mie epicentrea,
map 01 geothermal phenomena,
ete.
Regional remote nain9
+
l Map of aelected lineamente

"t
Phase A synthetic map

PHASE B Morpho-neotectonic
investigation
1--------lI-l.~~~~~J
I
Oetailed aerial photograp~
investigation
Statistical anal ysis. Areas with identical
total range of densities and
fraetures frequencies of fractures

Morpho-neotectonic Map Df classified

Linearnents
checks

lineaments

PHASEC
Lithological checks +
Field survey.

Areas with
Structural identical densities
Map of fractures
statistical analysis and frequencies
of fractures

Principal
+
tectonic events
and their
characteristics

PHASE O
Explanatory notes
Final synthesis
+

Fig. 18. Summary diagram of rnorpho-neotectonic studies for major projects in mountainous areas.
 Neotectonic research in applied geomorphological studies 195

Studies in alluvial plains

Neotectonic analysis demands a differem approach in the case of alluvialplains where rhe
bedrock is covered with unconsolidated recent sedimem, and where it is seldom possible
to verify directly the displacernent or deformation of deposits or significant forms. From
the morphological point of view, landforms in an alluvial plain are essentially linked to
fluvial sedimentation and erosion processes. Therefore, the main objective is to locare neo-
rectonic movements from study of rhe evolurion of the area's drainage system. The pro-
gramme of investigarion may follow approximately the same four phases of research de-
scribed for rnountainous areas. The examples rhat follow are taken from the Po Plain, the
alluvial plain situared berween rhe Alps and the Apennines (fig. 2).

Pbase A: Bibliographical researcb and regional remate sensing

Bibliographical researcb. - Bibliographical research should concentrare on locating informa-

tion on the distribution of superficial deposirs, their ages and the buried bedrock struc-
tures rhat may have conditioned their deposirion and influenced the evolution of the plain
in general. Compilation of the data sheet shown in figo 5 remains valid, as does the draw-
ing-up of a final small-scale map (1 : 100000 to 1 : 250000) of Quarernary deposits and tec-
tonic elernents, Where possible, a detailed subdivision of the Quatemary deposits should
be shown on the map (for example, Lower, Middle or Upper Pleistocene and Holocene).
An example of such a map is nor provided here as it wilI nor differ subsranrally from that
appearing in figo6, apart from the age factor and the related chronological derails concern-
ing outcropping sedimenrs.
The lirerarure search should also attempt to loca te information on rhe seismicity of
the area, as well as on recent or comemporary movernents obrained frorn geodetic
measurernenrs.

Regional remate sensing. - The procedures previously outlined for the regional rernote sens-
ing phase also apply here. However, rhe morphological expression of the Iinearnents will
be more dearly represenred by anomalies in the drainage network.
Represenration of rhe rerrain characteristics through spectral reflectance (fig. 19) is
another docurnenr rhat may be drawn up as part of this phase. In order to prepare such a
map, the authors conducted an analysis of winrer 7-band Landsat images, taken in one sec-
ror of the Po Plain using electronic optical equipment which allows for a sub-division of
the photographic density inro eight levels. The system's aurput consists of a video image
on which areas of equal photographic density are given the same colour.
The hypothesis assumed is that the specrral signal reflects the arnount of soil water,
considering the season in which the images were taken. Given the geological character-
istics of the plain, rhese characteristics, in turn, are indicative of morphological Iinearnents
and are thus significant in regard to neorectonics,
Fig. 19 was prepared from photographs obtained from the video images and rep-
resents, in a rough and generalized manner, the zonation of the part of thc plain thar was
analysed, as related to those density classes that appeared most significam, rhat is, rhe
lowesr and highest densities. The classes are shown in decreasing order of densiry (increas-
ing order of spectral reflectance), beginning from class 1 which indicates maximum
196 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

.'
CJ" 0
~, 4

o 50km
I I

Fig. 19. Equal density analysis of spectral reflectance characteristics (fram BERNINI et a!. 1980)
l=classes 1+2, 2=classes 3+4, 3=classes 7+8, 4=class 8. l=maximum photographic density
and high amount of soil water; 4=minimum photographic density and minima! amount of soi!
water.

photographic density and with which a greater quamity of soi! water is assumed to be
associated, to class 8 which indicates minimum photographic densiry and minimum quan-
ti ty of soi! water.

researcb, regional remate sensing and otber data. - As described al-

Synthesis o/ bibliographical
ready, Phase A terminates with the construction of a synrheric map similar to figo 10. The
only additiona! point is that tectonic elements that are probably active and lineaments
linked to possible active recronic elements may be obtained from a spectral reflectance
map such as figo 19. For example, those tectonic elements that are known from the lirera-
ture and that correspond to a clear-cut break between areas of different densities may be
inserted among the probably active tectonic elements.
Other data that may be relevant include a map of seismic epicemres.

Phase B: Assemblage 01 information on various aspects 01 the local environment

This phase aims to produce in map form a general picrure of the area's evolution during
the Iatest periods of rhe Quaternary. In this way ir is hoped to loca te recent movernenrs of
the buried, folded and disjunct tectonic structures.
 Neotecronic research in applied geomorphological studies 197

The aspects of the environment to be studied include:

a) geomorphology
b) the natural and man-made drainage nerwork;
c) archaeological and historical data;
d) superficial deposits;
e) subsurface alIuvial deposirs;
f) relationships between fresh and salt water.
The investigations involve various fields of expertise. Thus the geomorphologist wiU
be assisred by researchers frorn other disciplines, such as hydrogeologists and archaeo-
logists.
These srudies wilI be described in the folIowing sections with the aid of selections
from thernatic maps.

a) Geomorphology. - This study is conducted through derailed aerial photograph inrerpre-

tation and field surveys. A first step is to prepare a relief map with closely spaced contours
(for example, a contour interval of 1-2 m on a scale of 1: 25 000). This will probably have
to be constructed by interpolation frorn available spot heights, The map may show up
topographical anomalies or irregularities attributable to palaeo-drainage patterns.
Detailed phorographic interpretation, using large-scale black and white and/or colour
aerial photographs, should focus on locating landforms linked to abandoned fluvial cour-
ses. The identificarion of abandoned palaeodrainage channels in inrensively cultivated areas
such as the Po Plain is possible on aerial photographs since the abandoned course is
marked by a winding strip of colour that is darker than the surrounding terrain. This is
due to rhe greater quantity of water held in the ground and also because the orientarion of
rhe fields culrivared within an abandoned channel is adapted to the winding course of the
latter, showing c1ear discordance with rhe land divisions of rhe surrounding reas. Scarps
and arcas characterized by darker tones in the surrounding zones and by regular man-rnade
drainage sysrems indicating inrerfluvial depressions may also be identified.
Subsequently, field surveys and checks must be carried out. The results of rhe study
are incorporated on a geomorphological map (fig. 20), to which other data will aIso con-
tribute. For example, dating of the palaeodrainage may be derived from archaeological and
historical data; and dating of alluvial deposirs may be achieved from other published
work. All such sources must be checked by means of stratigraphic and pedological investi-
gations as this map is fundamental for understanding the palaeogeographical evolution of
the area.

b) Analysis 01 natural and man-made drainage systems. - The starting point should be to
prepare a map of the drainage nerwork as illustrated in figo 21. The evolurion of alIuvial
plains is conditioned by rwo groups of factors which interact at times in a conflicting
manner: natural factors (tectonic and sedimentary evolurion, with resulting changes in
drainage) and anthropogenic factors (the work carried out by communities to render the
drainage system compatible with agricultural and settlernenr needs). The drainage net, es-
pecial1y the minor nerwork which is directly determined by the pattern af land haldings, is
the ourcome of a variety of events that in time and space have brought about the forma-
tion of the plain. Analysis of this nerwork permits one to discern such evenrs and, with
the aid of historical and archaeological data, to date them.

14 Zcirschrife fr Geomorphologie N. F. Suppl .Bd. 63

198 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

1# 11

,/
11
""
12 "'.
r
, I1

/ 13 d?-
( ./
14 t8BBI
5 -::.:::::~ 15EJ
,--<;
6 l..
_""

74f
aO ~
9 ,-I 1/
li
,
10 / rrI' "

Fig.20. Example of a geomorphological map (simplified from PANIZZAer a!., in press) 1) Po River
palaeodrainage; 2) Po River rriburary palaeodrainage,indicated wirh abbreviarions:M (Mincio Riv
er}; O (Oglio River); 3) disrriburary functioning unril 15lh_17lh cenruries; 4) scarp edge; 5) levee
ridge; 6) interfluvial depressed area; 7) presenr course of rhe Po River; 8) alluvial deposirs abandon-
ed by watercourses or by palaeodrainage passing over rhem; 9) palaeodrainage of late- and POSt-
MiddJe Ages; 10) paJaeodrainageof earJy Middle Ages; 11) palaeodrainage of Roman period; 12)
palaeodrainage of Bronze Age; 13) deviations of the Po River with approximare indications as to
age; 14) alluvial deposits arrriburable to 3000 years B.P. with traces of contemporary palaeodrain-
age; 15) Wrm fluvioglacialterrace wirh traces of preglacial channels.

As an example, one may disringuish rhree rypes of common drainage sysrem in

figo 21, raken from BERNINI et a!. (1980):
a) natural drainage: watercourses that are neirher canalised nor regulared, inrerprered as
rraces of a palaeodrainage sysrem;
b) ear!y agrarian drainage layour;
c) recenr drainage layout.

c) Analysis 01 archaeological, prehistoric and historical data. - As has already been menrioned,
the arrangemenr of features on an alluvial plain is derermined by rhe relarionships berween
human acriviries and narural geomorphological phenomena. The distribution of human
settlernents reflecrs the geomorphological siruarion in the chronological period in which
they developed. The setrlernenrs were constructed in places where the needs of rhe com-
munities were besr met: stable and well-drained land for agricultural use, and proxirniry to
lines of communication, which in such areas were usually represented by waterways. Com-
paring the distribution of serrlernents ar various rimes can rherefore help in daring rhe
palaeogeographical evidence, and aIso in reconsrructing the evolution of the plain in recent
rimes. The limirations and precision of such a merhod depend upon the prehistoric, his-
torical and archaeological data available. The data can be consolidated in thc form of a
 [2lL]A

~B

~C o
"""1"""1iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil!~~!!!I

Fig.21. Example of a map of a drainage nerwork (from BERNINI et a!. 1980) A=natural drainage (palaeodrainage nerwork), B=early
agrarian drainage layout, C= recenr agrariari drainage layout.
 o

A'"

O
O
~

Fidenza

00

O
"lj

>
Z
~
>
..l R>
O
O
.. ~ O ~
A ("l
>
c
O
e

O
(Jl
-l
>
r-
tl
O
O
~
e .. O
O
~ ..

~'.


(jj)
O
O lOkm e O
I ~ ..
..
P'

Fig.22. Map of sertlernents of the Bronze Age and Early Middle Ages (from BERNINI er al, 1980) 1) surface Bronze-Age sertlements
(triangles); 2) buried Bronze-Age settlemcnts (circles); 3) setrlernents of rhe Early Middle Ages (named).
 Neotectonic research in applied geomorphological studies 201

~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~I
2

~ 3

o, 5km
, llillI 4

Fig. 23. Example of a map of superficial deposits (from BARONI er a!. 1980 wirh modifications)
1) mainly gravei; 2) mainly sand; 3) mainly silr; 4) rnainly.clay.

map of the rype shown in figo 22 which was drawn up by BERNINI et aI. (1980) for rhe
same area as that of figo 21.
In an archaeological context, the present levei of the sire is significant. If it is still on
the surface today, this indicares that the area has not been flooded since. On the other
hand, if ir is buried, this indicares an area that has been covered by more recent sedirnent,
affecred by flooding and possibly undergaing subsidence. Whereas the distriburion of re-
cent deposits on the surface has a certain areal significance, the outcropping af older
buried deposits is forruitous, linked to the excavation of an artificial channel or building
foundatians, ar even ta the erosion af a natural watercaurse. The significance af buried
deposirs is therefore localized and may only be exrrapolared within a well-defined geomor-
phalogical contexto
 202 M. PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

d) . Study of the superficial deposits. - The terrn superficial deposit refers to a deposit po-
sirioned immediatdy benearh rhe agricultural soil that has been rilled and humified. A
map of rhe distribution of superficial deposits in terrns of their particle size (fig. 23) can
provide important evidence for determining the migration or evolution of watercourses. lt
is sufficient for particle size classes to be limited to four principal groups as follows: 1)
mainly gravei; 2) mainly sand; 3) mainly silt; 4) mainly clay. The map may be prepared
using bibliographical sources as a base, along wirh field checks (as in figo 23) or by re-
surveying the area. In the latter case, ir is advisable to use relatively quick methods which
do not require exacting laboratory work.

e) Stlldy 01 the slIbsllrjace a//llvial deposits. - This aspect is exrrernely irnportant, for the
stratigraphic and structural reconstruction of rhe Quaternary - normaIly neglected 'in ex-
ploratory driJIing for oil and gas - allows one to determine tectonic movements thar oc-
curred even in the earliest part of the Quaternary. Such reconstruction may be carried out
by derailed examination of the lithostratigraphic units revealed in wells and boreholes,
The resulting data may be displayed as a tectonic map of the aIluvial cover (fig. 24 A) and
in geological sections (fig. 24 B).
Reduced thicknesses in the aIluvial cover may indicare stable or rising areas, just as
increased alIuvial thicknesses may indica te subsidence. Lack of correlarion berween similar
horizons in adjacent lithostratigraphic units may constiture evidence of displacemem,
which rnust be confirmed by comparisons with other maps and docurnents. However, one
should keep in mind that the inter-relationships of rhe parricle-size classes are very com-
plex, considering the alluvial origin of the deposits.
More precise information on the buried surface beneath the alluvium may be obrained
through seismic surveys. These are particularly suited to areas where the existence of
probably active tectonic elernenrs or Iinearnents linked to probably active tectonic el-
ements has been demonsrrared in Phase A.

f) Analysis 01 the relatiomhips between fresb- and sait-water. - This rype of study will yield a
map of the fresh-warer=salt-warer-interface (fig. 25). Areas preseming anomalies in the
chemical composition or ternperature of groundwater may also be shown on this map.
The interface between fresh-warer and salr-water, revealed by elecrrical resisriviry surveys,
does not correspond to a precise stratigraphical level, but is clearly controlled by struc-
tures present and tends to emphasise their trends. There is often a clear correspondence,
then, berween the fresh-water-salt-water inrerface isobaths and the structural patterns.

Phase C: Pield SllrveyS

FieId surveys should be aimed at checking and completing rhe data already presented.
They are carried out simultaneously with Phase B.

Fig.24A. ExampJe of a tecronic map of an arei with an alluvial cover (from CASTALDINI er a!.
1979,with modifications) 1) fault derecrable from field data; 2) fault derecrable thraugh correlation
between lithostratigraphic units derived frorn water wells; 3) isobaths of the top of marine forma-
tions (depths in rnetres refer to Sei-levei);4) positions of the geological sections shown in Fig. 24B.
Neorecronic research in applied gcomorphological studies 203

]
 sw M irendola Profile:1-1 NE
i

strn
I - - ---------=----"it,:::,:/f.J:}?:ZT\::::::::,::gjj::t:::?:::::::::::::;::.3::.:.: .fi.. ----:

50

4
~~[8@~~-

sw --.-
S. Felice

Profile :2-2 NE
Oalm.
I

OOllj

lEGEND

1-~--

2-----
o 5
Fig. 24B. Geological sections 1-1 and 2-2 pertaining to Fig. 24A (from Istituto Geologia Uni-
versit di Modena 1978) 1) probable faults; 2) top of marine substratum , datcd bcrween rhe Mes-
sinian and the Calabrian stages; 3) silry-clayey alluvial deposirs; 4) predominantly sandy alluvial
deposirs with layers of gravei; 5) marine substratum, generally composed of argillites and mar!.
 ____
--300

500

oI
5km
!

-600- Ii --50-- 21 ~ 31
Fig. 25. Example of a map of rhe fresh-water-salt-water inrerface (from CASTALDINI et a!. 1979). 1) isolines ar 100 m intervals;
2) isolines at 50 m inrervals; depths refer to sea-level; 3) areas with hydrochemical anomalies.
N
o
Vi
 3 c:::J 41J

o 3km
I I

Fig. 26. Example of a final synthetic map for rnorpho-neorecronic srudies in alluvial plains (from
PANIZZA et a!., in press) A) neorecronic situation around 3000 years B. P.; B) neorecronic siruation
atrributable to the lron Age, Roman period and Middle Ages; 1) stable area; 2) area undergoing
uplift; 3) arca undergoing subsidence; 4) differenrial subsidence (arrow poinrs towards lowesr area);
5) axis of deformation held to be active (arrow poinrs towards area undergoing subsidencc).
 Neorectonic research in applied geomorphological srudies 207

Element No.:

Location and geometric features

Topographical map:
Direction: Length:

Data obtained from:

Phase A synthesis map:

Phase B:
Geomorphological study:
Drainage network analysis:
Analysis of archeological and historical data:
Study of the superficial deposits:
Study of the subsurface alluvial deposits:
Analysis of fresh water-salt water relationships:

Phase C (Field survey):

Fig. 27. Example of a summary sheet for
Classification of the element: the elernents reprodueed on the final syn-
rheric map.

Phase D: Final synthesis

The outcorne is a final synthetic map, preferably on a small scale. Its compilation should
draw on the comparison between rhe Phase A syntheric map and all the maps prepared in
Phase B. The comparison should not be lirnited to a rnere superimposirion of the maps
which, as specified earlier, rnusr be reproduced on the sarne scale, but rather, the compari-
son should be a se1ective one. To sum up, rhe tecronic elements he1d to be active and the
lineaments linked to possible tecronic elements (as derived from Phase A) are alI in-
fluenced by the morphology, the present and past drainage nerwork, and the distribution
of superficial and subsurface deposits,
The c1assification of rhe tectonic elements and lineaments adopted for the final syn-
theric map could be the same as rhar illustrated on page 192, especially for rhe sake of
uniformity of the rerrninology in srudies having the sarne aims. Ir.rnust be srared, how-
ever, thar active tectonic elements will seldom be identified with such certainry as the dis-
placernenr or deformation of deposits ar significam landforms in aIluvial pIains. On the
orher hand, tectonic elements held to be active are easier to postula te, as in the case,
for example, of structures revealed by oi! and gas prospecting which have clearly influ-
enced the evolution of the drainage network and alluvial sedimentation. These strucrures
may be characterised by rhe presence of seismic epicentres and areas with hydrochemical
anornalies.
Elernents classified as qualified Iinearnents may also be exrracred from the data obtain-
ed in Phase B. If such Iinearnenrs are confirmed from bibliographical references, they will
becorne included as tectonic elernents he1d to be active.
In rhe case of areas for which archaeological and historical strarigraphic data are avail-
able, whether they be of a lithological or pedological type, if they enable the principal
 208 M.'PANIZZA & D. CASTALDINI

PHASE A
Map Df Quaternary depoaita
~nd tectonic elementl

Bibiographical research +
Map Df .ei.mle epieentr.l.
map Df vertical movementa
of the ground.etc.
+
Map Df eelected fineame"t. I
I Regional remote lensing 11 Map Df apeetral
+
reflectence
I charecterietics I
t
I Phase A .ynthetic map ~
PHASE B
+
Contour map h
Geomorphological study [ Geomorphological map I
Photo nterpretaticn
+
Drainage
analysis
network
Map Df the drainage network I
I
+
Archeological and historical
data analysis I
Map Df settlements I
+
r- Study of the superficial Map Df superficial deposits I
deposts
I
+

Study cf the subsurface I I Geological sections and

deposits
I
tectornc map ct
alluvial ccver
+
the
I
Df
Analysis freshwater
h I
salt water relationships
Map Df the freshwater
satt water interface
I
PHASE C PHASE D

----i Field
I
surveys I
I Final synthetic map I
and

Explanatory notes

Fig. 28. Summary diagram of morpho-neorecronic srudies for major projects in alluvial plains.

stages of evolution of the plain area to be dated with sufficiem precision and if the princi-
pal evenrs idemified are considered to be linked to deep tectonic structures with reason-
able certainty, one may then begin to prepare final synrheric maps for various time periods
(fig. 26). As in rhe case of figo 16, data on areal movernents may also be inserred on the
final synrhetic map. The linear elernenrs represented here, whether they be tectonic srruc-
tures or lineaments, should be given a final serial number and described on data sheets
(fig. 27). The data sheers provi de a summary of all the data characterising the elements
themselves and their respecrive classifications. The areal elements (subsidence, uplifr, erc.)
on the other hand, should be described and justified in the explanatory notes accompany-
ing the study.
 Neotectonic research in applied geomorphological studies 209

In conclusion, the various phases and rhe investigations for the studies illustrated
here have been summarised in the flow chart shown in Fig. 28.

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 Neorectonic research in applied geomorphological studies 211

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Addresses of authors: M. PANIZZA, D. CASTALDINIand A. CARTON, Istituto di Geologia, Universi-

t di Modena, 1-41100 Modena, Italy. - G. BOLLETTINARI,Istituro di Geografia, Universit di Sassa-
ri, 1-07100 Sassari, Italy. - F. MANTOVANI,Istiruto di Geologia, Universit di Ferrara, 1-44100 Ferra-
ra, Iraly,