DefiningReflection:AnotherLookatJohnDeweyandReflectiveThinking

June 2002 Teachers College Record

byCarolR.Rodgers
AssistantProfessor
StateUniversityofNewYorkatAlbany

Bio:CarolRodgersisanassistantprofessorinthedepartmentofEducationalTheoryandPracticeatthe
StateUniversityofNewYorkatAlbany.Herresearchinterestsspanthehistoryofprogressiveteacher
education,reflectivepracticeincontemporaryprogramsandschools,andinquiryintohowteacherslearnto
seestudentlearning.HerpreviouspublicationsincludeCommunitiesofReflection,Communitiesof
SupportpublishedinResearchonProfessionalDevelopmentSchools:theTeacherEducationYearbook,
VIII,ATEPub.

ABSTRACT

Thinking,particularlyreflectivethinkingorinquiry,isessentialtobothteachersandstudents
learning.Inthepast1015yearsnumerouscommissions,boards,andfoundationsaswellasstatesand
localschooldistrictshaveidentifiedreflection/inquiryasastandardtowardswhichallteachersand
studentsmuststrive.
However,whilethecryforaccomplishmentinsystematic,reflectivethinkingisclear,itismore
difficulttodistinguishwhatsystematic,reflectivethinkingis.Therearefourproblemsassociatedwiththis
lackofdefinitionwhichmakeachievementofsuchastandarddifficult.First,itisunclearhowsystematic
reflectionisdifferentfromothertypesofthought.Second,itisdifficulttoassessaskillthatthatisvaguely
defined.Third,withoutaclearpictureofwhatreflectionlookslike,ithaslostitsabilitytobeseen,and
thereforehasbeguntoloseitsvalue.Andfinally,withoutacleardefinition,itisdifficulttoresearchthe
effectsofreflectiveteachereducationandprofessionaldevelopmentuponteacherspracticeandstudents
learning.
Itisthepurposeofthisarticletorestoresomeclaritytotheconceptofreflectionandwhatitmeans
tothink,bygoingbacktotherootsofreflectionintheworkofJohnDewey.Ilookatfourdistinctcriteria
whichcharacterizeDeweysviewandofferthemasastartingplacefortalkingaboutreflection,sothatit
mightbetaught,learned,assessed,discussedandresearched,andtherebyevolveindefinitionandpractice,
ratherthandisappear.

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

InthisarticleCarolRodgersreexaminesDeweysoriginalconceptionofreflection,drawingon
hisworkinDemocracyandEducation(1916),HowWeThink(1933),andExperienceandEducation
(1938).Inthepast1015yearsnumerouscommissions,boardsandfoundations,(amongthem,the
NationalBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandards(NBPTS)),aswellasstatesandlocalschooldistricts,
haveidentifiedreflectivepracticeasastandardtowardswhichallteachersandstudentsmuststrive.John
Deweyismentionedconsistentlyinbooksandarticleswrittenonreflection,teachereducation,andstudent
learning,butanextensiveexaminationofwhatheactuallymeantbyreflectionismissingfromthe
contemporaryliterature.Infact,overthepast15years,reflectionhassufferedfromalossofmeaning.In
becomingeverythingtoeverybodyithaslostitsabilitytobeseen.Itisthepurposeofthisarticletobring
someclaritytothequestionofwhatitmeanstoreflectononesteaching.

1
 Rodgersaddressesfourproblemsassociatedwiththelackofacleardefinitionofreflection.First,
itisunclearhowsystematicreflectionisdifferentfromothertypesofthought.Doesmereparticipationina
studygroup,orthekeepingofajournal,forexample,qualifyasreflection?Ifateacherwantstothink
reflectivelyabout/inquireintoherpractice,whatdoesshedofirst?Howdoessheknowifsheisgetting
betteratdoingit?Towhatshouldsheaspire?
Thisleadstoasecond,concomitantproblem:howisaskillthatisvaguelydefinedtobeassessed?
Withthedemandforportfolios,forexample,thatdemonstratereflectivethoughtandpractice,what,
exactly,arewelookingforasevidenceofreflection?Arepersonalruminationsenoughorarethere
specificcriteriathatcanguideassessment?Aninherentriskinanimprecisepictureofreflectionisthat,in
anagewheremeasurable,observablelearningtakespriority,reflectioniseasilydismissedprecisely
becausenooneknowswhattolookfor.Evenworse,itcanbereducedtoachecklistofbehaviors.
Third,withoutaclearpictureofwhatreflectionlookslike,itisdifficulttotalkaboutit.Thelack
ofacommonlanguagemeansthattalkingaboutitiseitherimpossible,orpractitionersfindthemselves
usingtermsthatarecommonbutholddifferentmeanings,oraredifferentbuthaveoverlappingmeanings
(e.g.reflection,inquiry,criticalthinking,metacognition).
Finally,withoutaclearsenseofwhatwemeanbyreflection,itisdifficulttoresearchtheeffects
ofreflectiveteachereducationandprofessionaldevelopment(e.g.,inquirygroups,reflectivejournals,or
bookclubs)uponteacherspracticeandstudentslearning.
Inanattempttoaddressthislackofclarity,theauthorreturnstotherootsofreflectioninDewey.
ShelooksatfourdistinctcriteriathatcharacterizeDeweysconceptofreflectivethought.Thesefour
criteriaincludethefollowing:
First,reflectionisameaningmakingprocessthatmovesalearnerfromoneexperienceinto
thenextwithdeeperunderstandingofitsrelationshipswithandconnectionstootherexperiencesand
ideas.Itisthethreadthatmakescontinuityoflearningpossible,andensurestheprogressofthe
individualand,ultimately,society.Itisameanstoessentiallymoralends.Withthiscriterionthe
authorexploresthedefinitionofameaningfuloreducativeexperience.Aneducativeexperiencehastwo
criteria.Itmustinvolveinteractionbetweentheindividualandhisorherenvironment,anditmusthave
theelementofcontinuity.Therelationshipsandconnectionsthatanindividualperceivesandmakes
withinandbetweenexperiencesarewhatgivemeaningtoexperiencesthatwouldotherwisebe
meaningless.Suchconnectionssubsequentlyallowtheindividualtomoveintofutureexperienceswith
greaterawareness,understanding,andpurpose,providingdirectionandthereforeassuringgrowth.
Secondly,reflectionisasystematic,rigorous,disciplinedwayofthinking,withitsrootsin
scientificinquiry.Underthiscriterion,whichformstheheartofthearticle,theauthorsynthesizesthe
stepsinthereflectiveprocessasconceivedbyDeweyandoutlinedinHowWeThink.AsDeweydefinesit,
reflectionisaparticularwayofthinkingandcannotbeequatedwithmullingsomethingover.Such
thinking,incontrasttoreflection,is,inaword,undisciplined.Rodgersidentifiessixphasesofreflection,
offeringextensiveexplanationsandexamplesofeach.Thesixphasesinclude:
1)anexperience;
2)spontaneousinterpretationoftheexperience;
3)namingtheproblem(s)orthequestion(s)thatarisesoutoftheexperience;
4)generatingpossibleexplanationsfortheproblem(s)orquestion(s)posed;
5)ramifyingwhathasbeenselectedin(4)intofullblownhypotheses;and
6)experimentingortestingtheselectedhypothesis
Attheendoftheprocessonefeelsthatthemeaningonehasascribedtoanexperiencefits,makes
sense,andcanberelieduponinfutureexperiences.Moreoftenthannot,ofcourse,onceonehastested
onestheoriesinaction,morequestions,moreproblems,moreideasarise.Inthissense,reflectioncomes
fullcircle,partofadialecticalprocess:thetestingbecomesthenextexperience,andexperimentand
experiencebecomesynonymous.Ifonetakestheprocessofreflectionseriously,itisimpossibleforitnot
tochangehowoneactsintheworld.
Third,reflectionneedstohappenincommunity,ininteractionwithothers,andrequires
attitudesthatvaluethepersonalandintellectualgrowthofoneselfandofothers.Thecommunityalso
servesasatestinggroundforanindividualsunderstandingasitmovesfromtherealmofthepersonalto
thepublic.Italsoprovidesaforumwhereintheindividualcanputformtowhatitisheorshewasthinking

2
orfeelinginthefirstplace.Oneoftheinterestingbyproductsofworkinginasupportivecommunityis
thatitallowsteacherstoacknowledgetheirinterdependenceinaworldthatscornsaskingforadviceand
values,aboveall,independenceforbothstudentsandteachers.Dewey,alwaysleeryofdualisms,
recognizedthatteachersandstudentsneedboththesupportofthecommunityandtheabilitytoact
independentlywithinthelargerworld.
Finally,reflectionrequiresattitudesthatvaluethepersonalandintellectualgrowthofoneself
andofothers.Deweybelievedthattheattitudesthattheindividualbroughttobearontheactofreflection
couldeitheropenthewaytolearningorblockit.Awarenessofourattitudesandemotions,andthe
disciplinetoharnessthemandusethemtoouradvantage,ispartoftheworkofagoodthinker,heargues.
Herecognizedthetendencyinallhumanbeingstoseewhatwewishweretrue,orwhatwefearmightbe
true,ratherthantoacceptwhatevidencetellsusisso.Reflectionthatisguidedbyattitudesofdirectness,
wholeheartedness,openmindedness,andresponsibilitystandsamuchbetterchanceofbroadeningones
fieldofknowledgeandawarenessandservingthecommunitieswithinwhichonelives.
RodgersconcludesthatbyadheringtotheessentialrigorinherentinDeweysdefinitionof
reflection,teachersandeducationalreformersachieveseveralends.First,theprocessofreflectionrequires
teacherstoconfrontthecomplexityofteachingandlearning.Anyactiontheteachertakeswillthereforebe
consideredratherthanimpulsive.Inlikefashion,onceteacherslearntothinkreflectively,theycanteach
theirstudentstodothesame,forteachersteachbestwhattheyunderstanddeeplyfromtheirown
experience.Fromtheretheycanencouragetheirstudentstoconfrontthoughtfullythephenomenaoftheir
world.
Second,becausereflectionisaparticular,definedwayofthinking,itcanbepracticed,assessed,
andperfected.Oncereflectioncanbetalkedaboutwithprecisionbybothteachersandresearchers(aswell
asstudents),itcannotbesoeasilydismissedassoft,norlostintheflurryofvaguelydefinedmovements.
Rodgersarguesthatreflectionisnotabandwagonissueorafadwhosetimehascomeandgone,but
perhapsthemostessentialpieceofwhatmakesushuman,ofwhatmakesuslearners.
Finally,withaclearlanguageofreflection,therecanbereflectiononreflection,includingresearch
ontheimpactofreflectiononbothteacherspracticeandstudentslearning.Itisintheseways,asDewey
knewwell,thattherewillbegrowthinourlearningabouthowtothink,toteach,andtolearn.Dewey
wouldurgeustoreflectcarefullyuponhistheoryofreflectioninlightofourcollectiveexperience,
changingthattheoryasourexperienceandaccumulatedknowledgedictatethinkingtolearn.

3
 DefiningReflection:AnotherLookatJohnDeweyand
ReflectiveThinking
ByCarolRodgers

Theessentialpointtheinnerintentthatseemssoseldomgraspedeven
byteacherseagertoembracethecurrentreformsisthatinordertolearn
thesortsofthingsenvisionedbyreformers,studentsmustthink.Infact,
suchlearningisalmostexclusivelyaproductorbyproductofthinking.
Thompson&Zeuli,1999

Introduction
Thompson and Zeulis words are as true for teachers as they are for students. In the past 10-15
years numerous commissions, boards and foundations, (among them, the National Board for Professional
Teaching Standards (NBPTS); the National Commission on Teaching and Americas Future (NCTAF); the
National Foundation for the Improvement of Education (NFIE); the National Staff Development Council
(NSDC), as well as states and local school districts, have identified reflection/inquiry, what Thompson and
Zeuli would call thinking to learn, as a standard towards which all teachers and students must strive. The
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) fourth proposition of accomplished teaching
is exemplary of many of these standards: Teachers [must be able to] think systematically about their
practice and learn from experience. [They must be able to] critically examine their practice, seek the
advice of others, and draw on educational research to deepen their knowledge, sharpen their judgment, and
adapt their teaching to new findings and ideas (paraphrased in the report of the National Commission on
Teaching and Americas Future, 1996).
However, while the cry for accomplishment in systematic, reflectivethinkingisclear,andthe
logicthatstudentsandteachersmustthinktolearnisundeniable,itisusefultorevisitwhatitiswemean
byreflectionandthinking.HowisthekindofthinkingwhichThompsonandZeuliandtheNBPTScall
fordifferentfromothermodesofthought?Itisthepurposeofthisarticletobringsomeclaritytothe
questionofhowteachersmustthinkandreflectinordertobeabletothinktolearn.Todoso,Ireturn
totheworkofJohnDewey.Deweyismentionedconsistentlyinbooksandarticleswrittenonreflection,
teachereducation,andstudentlearning,butanextensiveexaminationofwhatheactuallymeantby
reflectionismissingfromthecontemporaryliterature.Infact,overthepast15years,reflectionhas
sufferedfromalossofmeaning.Inbecomingeverythingtoeverybodyithaslostitsabilitytobeseen.
Therearefourproblemsassociatedwiththelackofacleardefinitionofreflection.First,itis
unclearhowsystematicreflectionisdifferentfromothertypesofthought.Doesmereparticipationina
studygroup,orthekeepingofajournal,forexample,qualifyasreflection?Ifateacherwantstothink
reflectivelyabout/inquireintoherpractice,whatdoesshedofirst?Howdoessheknowifsheisgetting
betteratdoingit?Towhatshouldsheaspire?
Thisleadstoasecond,concomitantproblem:howisaskillthatisvaguelydefinedtobeassessed?
Withthedemandforportfolios,forexample,thatdemonstratereflectivethoughtandpractice,what,
exactly,arewelookingforasevidenceofreflection?Arepersonalruminationsenoughorarethere
specificcriteriathatcanguideassessment?
Third,withoutaclearpictureofwhatreflectionlookslike,itisdifficulttotalkaboutit.Thelack
ofacommonlanguagemeansthattalkingaboutitiseitherimpossible,orpractitionersfindthemselves
usingtermsthatarecommonbutholddifferentmeanings,ordifferentbuthaveoverlappingmeanings(e.g.
reflection,inquiry,criticalthinking,metacognition).
Finally,andnolessimportantly,withoutaclearsenseofwhatwemeanbyreflection,itisdifficult
toresearchtheeffectsofreflectiveteachereducationandprofessionaldevelopment(forexample,inquiry
groups,reflectivejournals,orbookclubs)uponteacherspracticeandstudentslearning,anessential
questionwhichmustbeaddressed.
Aninherentriskinanimprecisepictureofreflectionisthat,inanagewheremeasurable,
observablelearningtakespriority,itiseasilydismissedpreciselybecausenooneknowswhattolookfor.

4
Orworse,itisreducedtoachecklistofbehaviors.Deweyremindsusthatreflectionisacomplex,rigorous,
intellectualandemotionalenterprisethattakestimetodowell.Hegivesusawaytotalkaboutreflection
andreflectivepracticesothatitdoesnotfallintodisuseandinsteadbecomesricherandmorecomplexasa
resultofthatconversation.Heprovidesuswithatouchstone,ataproot,fromwhichtheconversationcan
flowandtowhichitcanreturnwhenitgetslostormuddled.
Below,IlookatfourdistinctcriteriathatcharacterizeDeweysviewofreflectivethoughtand
offerthemasastartingplacefortalkingaboutreflection,sothatitmightbetaught,learned,assessed,
discussedandresearched,andevolveinbothmeaningandusefulness.Indoingso,Iacknowledgetherisk
inherentindelineatingreflection.Idonotseektocodifyitorcementitorhaveitaddedtoyetanotherlist
ofstandardstobemetandtested.Mypurposeis,quitesimply,toprovideaclearpictureofDeweys
originalideassothattheymightserveasweimprovise,revise,andcreatenewwaysofderivingmeaning
fromexperiencethinkingtolearn.
DeweysCriteriaforReflection
Nearly100yearsagoJohnDeweyarticulatedhisconceptofhowwethinkinabookbythesame
name(HowWeThink:1933)i.Heidentifiedseveralmodesofthought(includingbelief,imagination,and
streamofconsciousness)butthemodehewasmostinterestedinwasreflection.Nearlyacenturylaterthe
detailsofhisconceptofreflection(which,forthepurposesofthispaper,Iwillequatewithinquiry)arestill
notfamiliar.Althoughhisworkisfrequentlycited,withmanyteachereducationprogramsclaimingtoturn
outreflectivepractitioners,andalthoughmanycurriculaclaimtobeinquirybased,athoroughexploration
oftheprocessandpurposeofreflectionasheoutlineditisscantormissingaltogether.ScholarsofDewey
(e.g.,JamesW.Garrison,MaxineGreene,AnthonyG.Rud,Jr.,NelNoddings),whotendtobe
philosophersratherthanpractitioners,haveaddressedthesequestions,butitisnotclearthatpractitioners
(teachersandteachereducators)refertothisliteratureinconstructingtheirownapproaches.
AnystudentofDeweyknowsthatanencounterwithhisprosecanbework.Inanefforttomake
histhinkingmoreaccessible,IhavedistilledfromhiswritingfourcriteriathatIfeelcharacterizehis
conceptofreflectionandthepurposeshefeltitserved.
Thesefourcriteriaincludethefollowing:
1)Reflectionisameaningmakingprocessthatmovesalearnerfromoneexperienceintothenextwith
deeperunderstandingofitsrelationshipswithandconnectionstootherexperiencesandideas.Itisthe
threadthatmakescontinuityoflearningpossible,andensurestheprogressoftheindividualand,
ultimately,society.Itisameanstoessentiallymoralends.
2)Reflectionisasystematic,rigorous,disciplinedwayofthinking,withitsrootsinscientificinquiry.
3)Reflectionneedstohappenincommunity,ininteractionwithothers.
4)Reflectionrequiresattitudesthatvaluethepersonalandintellectualgrowthofoneselfandofothers.

Criterion#1:

Reflectionasameaningmakingprocess
Thiscriterionisloadedwithseveralimportantsubcriteria,eachinseparablefromtheothersand
partofacoherent,ifcomplex,whole.Connectionamongpiecesthattogetherformawhole,infact,echoes
Deweysviewofreflection.Inordertounderstandindepthwhatthiscriterionmeansandtoarriveatthe
centralityofreflection,itisnecessarytoexamineitspiecesseparately.Istartwiththewhole:Deweys
viewofthepurposeandmeaningofeducation.
ItiscriticaltounderstandthatforDeweythepurposeofeducationwastheintellectual,moral,and
emotionalgrowthoftheindividualand,consequently,theevolutionofademocraticsociety,theworthof
whichismeasuredby:
theextenttowhichtheinterestsofagrouparesharedbyallitsmembers,...thefullness
andfreedomwithwhichitinteractswithothergroups,...[andtheextenttowhichit]
makesprovisionforparticipationinitsgoodofallitsmembersonequaltermsandwhich
securesflexiblereadjustmentofitsinstitutionsthroughinteractionofthedifferentforms
ofassociatedlife...(1916:99)

5
 Suchasocietyisdemocratic,heargued,andneededabrandofeducationwhichwouldgivethe
individualapersonalinterestinsocialrelationshipsandcontrol,andthehabitsofmindwhichsecure
socialchangeswithoutintroducingdisorder(1916:99).
Deweydefinededucationasthatreconstructionorreorganizationofexperiencewhichadds
tothemeaningofexperience,andwhichincreases[one's]abilitytodirectthecourseofsubsequent
experience(1916:74).Deweyessentiallydefineseducationasaverbratherthananoun.Indoingso,he
hasalsogivenusadefinitionoflearning.
Withinthisdefinition,whichechoesthroughoutDeweyslaterworks,oneencountersthe
interactions,habitsofmind,fullnessandfreedom,andsocialrelationshipsarticulatedabove.Inaneffortto
understandallthatiscontainedinthedefinition,Iwillsystematicallyexaminethetermscontainedtherein,
beginningwithDeweysnotionofexperience.
Anexperience,accordingtoDewey,canbebroadlyconceived.Itismorethansimplyamatter
ofdirectparticipationinevents.Itcouldbethat,oritcouldbesomethingasephemeralasinteractingwith
objectswhich[one]constructsinfancy(1938:43).Itcouldalsobethesolitaryreadingofabookora
discussionwithothers.Whatisimportantisthatthereisinteractionbetweenthepersonandhisorher
environment.Theenvironment,Deweyargues,iswhateverconditionsinteractwithpersonalneeds,
desires,purposes,andcapacitiestocreatetheexperiencewhichishad(1938:44).Anexperience,then,is
notanexperienceunlessitinvolvesinteractionbetweentheselfandanotherperson,thematerialworld,the
naturalworld,anidea,orwhateverconstitutestheenvironmentathand.
Deweygoesontopointoutthatbecauseanexperiencemeansaninteractionbetweenoneselfand
theworld,thereisachangenotonlyintheselfbutalsointheenvironmentasaresult.Theeffectis
dialecticalwithimplicationsnotjustforthelearnerbutforothersandtheworld.Throughinteractionwith
theworldwebothchangeitandarechangedbyit.
Interaction,then,isthefirstimportantelementofexperience.Thesecond,whichisinextricably
linkedtothefirst,iscontinuity.TheconceptofcontinuityiscentraltoanunderstandingofDeweysnotion
oflearningandteaching,andisimpliedbythetermsubsequentexperiencefoundinthedefinitionabove.
Deweyspeaksofcontinuityonbothabroadandanarrowscale.Broadly,itisthemarchofcivilization,
whathecallssocialcontinuity.Thecontinuityofanyexperiencethroughrenewingofthesocialgroup,
hewrites,isaliteralfact.Education,initsbroadestsense,isthemeansofthissocialcontinuityoflife
(1938:39).Heattributestheadvancesinscienceandtechnology,law,aswellasmorecivilizedwaysof
interactingwithoneanother,tothefactofcontinuity.(ThecontemporaryreadermustforgiveDeweys
Eurocentricviewofwhatcountedascivilized.Hefrequentlyreferstosavagesincontrasttomore
civilizedpeoples,wordsthatmakeuscringetoday.)
Morenarrowlyconceived,continuitymeanssomethingveryclosetowhatPiagetmeantbyschema
building.Thatis,wemakesenseofeachnewexperiencebaseduponthemeaninggleanedfromourown
pastexperiences,aswellasotherpriorknowledgewehaveabouttheworldwhatwehaveheardand
readofothersexperiencesandideas.Deweywrites:
What[anindividual]haslearnedinthewayofknowledgeandskillinonesituationbecomesaninstrumentof
understandinganddealingeffectivelywiththesituationswhichfollow.Theprocessgoesonaslongaslifeand
learningcontinue(1938:44).
Interactionandcontinuity,theelementsofexperience,arethexandyaxesofexperience.Without
interactionlearningissterileandpassive,neverfundamentallychangingthelearner.Withoutcontinuity
learningisrandomanddisconnected,buildingtowardnothingeitherwithinthelearnerorintheworld.
Ifexperiencesarethebasisofoneslearning,however,theyarenotnecessarilyalways
constructive,oreducativeexperiences.AccordingtoDeweytherearebotheducativeandmis
educativeexperiences.Amiseducativeexperienceisonethatarrestsordistortsgrowth.Aclose
readingofDeweyalsoconveysthatamiseducativeexperienceleadsinacallous,insensitiveandgenerally
immoraldirection.Hegivestheexampleofachildwholearnshowtomanipulatehisparents.Hemayin
factbecome,asmanychildrendo,anexceptionallytalentedmanipulator.Thechildmaywelldemonstrate
real,andmoreandmorerefined,skillatgettingexactlywhathewantsfromothers.Theresultofsuchdoes
notleadtowardsgrowthasDeweydefinesit,nordoesitcontributetothegreatergoodofsociety.Itdoes
notrevealnewperceptionsofbearingsorconnectionswhichleadtoabroadeningofonesmoral
understandingofselfandtheworld.

6
 Amiseducativeexperiencecanalsobeonethatleadssomeoneintoroutineaction,thus
narrow[ing]thefieldoffurtherexperience,andlimitingthemeaninghorizon(1916:78).Routine
actionsuggeststhatoneactswithoutanawarenessoftheeffectofonesactionsontheenvironment
(includingothers).Oneisthereforeclosedtotheimpactthattheenvironmentmighthaveonhimorher.
Thusthecycleofgrowthwhichresultsfromtwowayinteractionsishalted.Routinehabits,Deweypoints
out,possessusratherthanhavingdominionoverthem.Theformersuggestslackofawarenessandself
servingmotives;thelatterawareness,andthedesiretocontributetothelargergood.
Aneducativeexperience,ontheotherhand,isonethatbroadensthefieldofexperienceand
knowledge,bringsawarenesstobear,andleadsinaconstructivedirection,towardsintelligentaction.It
ischaracterizedbyforwardmovementratherthanstagnation.Intelligentactionisconsideredratherthan
impulsive,andisshapedbydatagarneredfromexperienceatoneend,andonesgoalorpurpose(onethat
servessociety)attheother.Itistheaimofprogressiveeducation,wroteDewey,totakepartin
correctingunfairprivilegeandunfairdeprivation,nottoperpetuatethem(1916:119).
Experiencesalone,however,eveneducativeones,arenotenough,claimsDewey.Whatiscritical
istheabilitytoperceiveandthenweavemeaningamongthethreadsofexperience.Experienceisnot
primarilycognitive,Deweyasserts.Thatis,anexperienceisnotthesameasthought.Rather,itisthe
meaningthatoneperceivesinandthenconstructsfromanexperiencethatgivesthatexperiencevalue.An
experienceexistsintimeandisthereforelinkedtothepastandthefuture.[T]hemeasureofthevalueof
anexperienceliesintheperceptionofrelationshipsorcontinuitiestowhichitleadsup.Itincludes
cognitioninthedegreeinwhichitiscumulativeoramountstosomething,orhasmeaning(1916:140).
Andhere,atlast,wecometotheroleofreflection.
Thefunctionofreflectionistomakemeaning:toformulatetherelationshipsandcontinuities
amongtheelementsofanexperience,betweenthatexperienceandotherexperiences,betweenthat
experienceandtheknowledgethatonecarries,andbetweenthatknowledgeandtheknowledgeproduced
bythinkersotherthanoneself.
Indiscoveryofthedetailedconnectionsofouractivitiesandwhathappensin
consequence,thethoughtimpliedincutandtry[sic]experienceismadeexplicit.
Hencethequalityoftheexperiencechanges;thechangeissosignificantthatwemaycall
thistypeofexperiencereflectivethatis,reflectiveparexcellence(1916:170).
Thecreationofmeaningoutofexperienceisattheveryheartofwhatitmeanstobehuman.Itis
whatenablesustomakesenseofandattributevaluetotheeventsofourlives.Deweyascribestheactof
meaningmakingtothesoul.Heponders,
Whatavailisittowinprescribedamountsofinformationaboutgeographyandhistory,to
winabilitytoreadandwrite,ifintheprocesstheindividualloseshisownsoul:loseshis
appreciationofthingsworthwhile,ofthevaluestowhichthesethingsarerelative;ifhe
losesdesiretoapplywhathehaslearnedand,aboveall,losestheabilitytoextract
meaningfromhisfutureexperiencesastheyoccur(1938:49)?
LetusreturnforamomenttoDeweysdefinitionofeducation:thatreconstructionor
reorganizationofexperiencewhichaddstothemeaningofexperience,andwhichincreases[one's]ability
todirectthecourseofsubsequentexperience.Reflectionisthatprocessofreconstructionand
reorganizationofexperiencewhichaddstothemeaningofexperience.(Thestepsinthisprocessare
outlinedindetailbelow.)Anexperiencehasmeaningbecauseoftherelationshipsthattheindividual
perceives.AldousHuxleyoncewrote,Experienceisnotwhathappenstoyou,itswhatyoudowithwhat
happenstoyou(citedinKegan,1983:11).Deweymightalterthistosaythatexperienceiswhathappens
toyou;whatyoudowithwhathappenstoyouisdirectlydependentuponthemeaningthatyoumakeofit.
Andwhiletheexperiencesthatbefallusmaybeoutofourcontrol,themeaningthatwemakeofthemis
not.
Tomovethediscussiontotherealmofteachingforamoment,wecansaythatareflectiveteacher
doesnotmerelyseeksolutions,nordoesshedothingsthesamewayeverydaywithoutanawarenessof
boththesourceandtheimpactofheractions.Rather,fromherpracticeandherstudentslearningshe
seeksmeaningandcreatesfromthisatheorytoliveby,orthatprovidesstructureforthegrowthofher
studentsandherself.Whensheseekssolutionsshealsopursuesconnectionsandrelationshipsbetween
solutionssothatatheorymightgrow.Thistheoryguidespractice(whichincludes,butisnotlimitedto

7
problemsolving)untilitencountersasituationwherethetheorynolongerserves,atwhichpoint,through
morereflection,itiseitherrevised,refined,ordiscarded,andanewtheoryisborn.
Tounderstandthisjourneyfrompracticetotheory,andaroundagaintopractice,itisnecessaryto
understandtheprocessofreflectionitself.Thenextcriterionexploresthatprocess.

Criterion#2:

Reflectionasarigorouswayofthinking

InHowWeThink(1933),Deweyexplorestheprocessofreflectioningreatdetail.Itiscomplex,
andDeweyusesatleastthirtydifferentspecializedtermsinhiseffortstodescribeit.Thismaybeoneof
thereasonsthateducatorshaveshiedawayfromtacklinghisvisionofreflection;Deweywasaphilosopher,
andtheurgetoleavesucheffortstootherphilosophersisunderstandable.Asateachereducator,andnota
philosopher,Ihavefoundithelpfultoapproachthebookwithaneyetowardsmyownexperiencesaswell
asthoseofteacherswithwhomIhaveworked.InanefforttomakeDeweysideasasaccessibleas
possible,Ihavetriedtolimitmyuseofthespecializedtermsherewithoutlosingtheessentialmeaning
behindthem.
AsDeweydefinesit,reflectionisaparticularwayofthinkingandcannotbeequatedwithmere
haphazardmullingoversomething.Suchthinking,incontrasttoreflection,is,inaword,undisciplined.
Deweymentionsthreekindsofthoughtthathedistinguishesfromreflection:streamofconsciousness,
invention,andbelief.Whileheclearlyvaluesreflectionastheroadtolearning,atthesametimehedoes
notdismisstheseotherkindsofthinking,acknowledgingthattheyoftenserveuptheveryquestionsthat
reflectioncanproductivelytackle.
Thefirstoftheseotherkindsofthinkingisstreamofconsciousnessthought.Itisthethinking
allofusareinvoluntarilyawashinallthetime.Anuncontrolledcoursingofideasthroughourheads,
Deweycallsit(1933:4).Thisisoftentheonlykindofthinkingteachershavetimefor.Reflectivethought,
incontrast,comprisesdefiniteunitsthatarelinkedtogethersothatthereisasustainedmovementtoa
commonend(5).
Thesecondkindofthinkingisinvention.Inventionstandsincontrasttodirectperceptionoffacts
itis,inshort,imagination.WhileDeweycontrastsimaginationwiththerigorsofreflection,hedoessee
itsimportancewithinreflection.Reflectionrequiresthatthethinkerdrawuponpastexperience,image
ingothereventsthataresimilartoordifferentfromtheexperiencebeinginquiredinto.Imaginingis
thereforeasubsetofreflection,butcannotbecountedasequivalent.
ThethirdkindofthinkingDeweyidentifiesisbelieving.Hecharacterizesthiskindofthought
asprejudgments,notconclusionsreachedastheresultofpersonalmentalactivity,suchasobserving,
collecting,andexaminingevidence.Evenwhentheyhappentobecorrect[likethebeliefthattheearthis
round]theircorrectnessisamatterofaccidentasfarasthepersonwhoentertainsthemisconcerned(7).
Reflection,incontrasttoacceptanceofconventionalbelief,constitutes[a]ctive,persistent,and
carefulconsiderationofanybelieforsupposedformofknowledgeinthelightofthegroundsthatsupport
itandthefurtherconclusionstowhichittends(italicsinoriginal)(9).DeweycitesChristopher
Columbusasareflectivethinker,notingthathemusthaveconcludedthattheworldwasroundratherthan
flatbasedonhisexperienceasanavigator.(AquestionableexampleonDeweyspartsinceColumbus
contemporariesactuallyknewfullwellthattheearthwasround!)
Theimpulsetoreflectisgeneratedbyanencounterwith,andtheconsciousperceptionof,the
potentialsignificanceinherentinanexperience.Noteveryoneisabletoperceivethispotential.(How
manyappleshadfallenonheadsbeforeNewtonperceivedtheinherentsignificanceoftheevent?)Thusan
additionalqualityisnecessaryinthepersonaqualityofbeingpresenttothenatureoftheexperienceand
anopennesstoitspotentialmeanings.
Itisthebridgeofmeaningthatconnectsoneexperiencetothenextandthatgivesdirectionand
impetustogrowth.Theprocessofreflection,Deweyclaims,movesthelearnerfromadisturbingstateof
perplexity(alsoreferredtobyhimasdisequilibrium)toaharmoniousstateofsettledness(equilibrium).

8
Perplexityiscreatedwhenanindividualencountersasituationwhosewholefullcharacterisnotyet
determined(1916:150).Thatis,themeaning(s)oftheexperiencehasnotyetbeenfullyestablished.The
internalexperienceforthelearnerisoneofdisequilibriumandunsettledness.Itisayearningforbalance
thatinturndrivesthelearnertodosomethingtoresolveitnamely,tostarttheprocessofinquiry,or
reflection.
Anadditionalsourceofmotivationiscuriosity,withoutwhichthereislittleenergyforthehard
workofreflection:[U]ntilweunderstand,weare,ifwehavecuriosity,troubled,baffled,andhence
movedtoinquire(1933:132).Whilecuriositycomesnaturallytochildren,achildlikewonderaboutthe
worldissomethingthatadultsoftenmustcultivateinthemselves.Inmyownworkwithteachers,Ihave
beenstruckbytheimportanceofcuriosity.Whilemanyteachersgetcaughtinthewebofperplexity,not
allofthemcare,or,moreoften,feeltheyhavethetimetoexplorewhytheyarestymied.Theycanrevert
toblamingeitherthestudentsorthemselves,ortheysimplygiveup,figuringtheyllneverunderstandand
lackthetimetodosoanyway.Curiosity,incontrast,bespeaksapositive,wideeyedattitudetowardboth
onesownandotherslearning.IwillreturntotheotherattitudesthatDeweyvaluesinthefourthcriterion.
Theprocessofreflectioncanbebrokendownintosixphases.LetitbesaidthatDeweyhimselfis
lessthanclearaboutthesephasesandleavesittothereadertodividethemup.Forexample,inHowWe
Think(1933),heidentifiesfirsttwoandthenfivephases;inDemocracyandEducation(1916)hewritesof
fiveslightlydifferentphases.Heusestermsambiguously,firstmakingadistinctionbetween,forexample,
anideaandasuggestion,andthenusingtheminterchangeably.Bethatasitmay,hedoesmakeitclearthat
areflectivethinkermovesdeliberatelyfromthedataoftheexperiencetoformulatingatheory,totesting
histheoryabouttheexperience.Inaneffortatclarity,thewordsIusetolabelthesephasesaremyown.
Thefollowingsixphasesofreflection,whichclearlymirrorthescientificmethod,consistently
appearinhiswritingabouttheprocess:
1) anexperience;
2) spontaneousinterpretationoftheexperience;
3) namingtheproblem(s)orthequestion(s)thatarisesoutoftheexperience;
4) generatingpossibleexplanationsfortheproblem(s)orquestion(s)posed;
5) ramifyingwhathasbeenselectedin(4)intofullblownhypotheses;
6) experimentingortestingtheselectedhypothesis.

Ihavealreadyexploredthenatureofanexperience.Iwillthereforestartwithnumbertwo.

2)Spontaneousinterpretationoftheexperience.Assoonasoneisinanexperience,aswellasafteran
experience,spontaneousinterpretationofwhatisgoingonensues.Intheinitialphasesofreflective
thought,thisinterpretationisinvoluntary.Thingsleaptomind.Fromthefeltnessoftheexperience
possiblemeaningssuggestthemselves.Thesesuggestions,asDeweycallsthem,comeoutofour
previousexperiences,andarethereforesensible,thoughnotalwaysthoughtfulconclusions.Tostopthe
thoughtprocesshereisirresponsible,Deweyargues,becauseaninterpretationnecessarilyleadstoan
action,andanactionbasedonaleapttoconclusioncouldbeaninappropriate,orevenaharmful,one.It
requiresdisciplineandpatience:
[Aperson]mayjumpataconclusionwithoutweighingthegroundsonwhichitrests;he
mayforegoorundulyshortentheactofhunting,inquiring;hemaytakethefirst
answer,orsolution,thatcomestohimbecauseofmentalsloth,torpor,impatiencetoget
somethingsettled.Onecanthinkreflectivelyonlywhenoneiswillingtoendure
suspenseandtoundergothetroubleofsearching(1933:16).
Deweynotesthatthefirststeponceoneisinanexperienceistonoteorperceiveafact(e.g.,a
cloud).theseenthingisregardedasinsomewaythegroundorbasisofbeliefinthesuggestedthing;it
possessesthequalityofevidence(1933:10).Thisisacriticalpoint.Whatonesees,thatiswhatone
directsonesattentionto,islimited,especiallyinaclassroomsettingwhereitisimpossibletosee
everything.Onecan,however,developonesabilitytobepresent,toperceivemoreratherthanless.
Experiencedteachersseemtohavethisabilitytheirawarenessspreadslikeanetovertheinfinitenumber
offactsofclassroomlife.

9
 Sothesuggestions,inferences,orinterpretationsateachermakesdependuponwhatsheperceives
anduponherexperience,whichinturn,Deweynotesdependsuponthegeneralstateoftheculture.In
addition,interpretationsaresubjecttothepersonsownpreferences,desires,interests,orevenhis
immediatestateofpassion(1933:96).Thispointstotheimportantrolethatcommitmenttoonesgrowth
andanattitudeofopenmindednessplay.Idiscussthisfurtherunderthefourthcriterion.
Deweywasacutelyawareoftheneedtoslowdowntheintervalbetweenthoughtandactioninthis
phaseofreflection.Timetoreflectisessential,hewrote,especiallywiththenovice.Hedistinguishesthe
thoughtofanexpertandthatofanovice.Itmaybethatonesignoftheexperiencedteacherisa
shorteningofthetimeneededbetweenthoughtandaction.Inotherswords,aveteranteachermaymove
throughallsixphasesofreflectioninarelativeinstant.Arelateddifferencemightresideinthedepthof
theteachersexperience.Theimportantandrelevantaspectsofanexperiencearequicklyrecognizableto
theveteran,sincetheconnectionsthathavebeenformulatedovertimearebroad,andtheskillsonemight
drawupontorespondarewelldeveloped.Ayawningstudenttoanexpertmaysuggestanumberof
possibilitiesrangingfromfatiguetoresistance,witharangeofconcomitantresponsesfromwhichto
choose.Toanoviceitmayonlysuggestboredom,eliciting,forexample,aselfjudgmentaloranangry
interpretationImaboringteacher,orTheyhavenorespect!andareactionthatpunishesherselfor
herstudents,ratherthanrespondstostudentsneeds.
Schnsreflectioninactionisactuallypresentinboththenoviceandexpert.Thedifferenceis
aquestionofwisdomgarneredthroughexperiencebeingabletoselectandapplyjustwhatisneeded
whenitisneeded(1933:65).Soanexpertsspontaneousinterpretationmaybemuchwiserthananovices
consideredresponse.YetDeweywouldcontendthatevenanexpertsinterpretationisnotbeyond
question.Thestoreofoneswisdomistheresultoftheextentofonesreflection.
Itisalsooftenintheslowingdownthatteachers,especiallyexperiencedteachers,beginto
discoverwhatitisthattheyalreadyknowwhatPolanyiandlaterShulmancalledtheirtacitknowledge.

3)Namingtheproblemorthequestionthatarisesoutoftheexperience.Deweycallsthisphaseof
thoughtintellectualization,orlocatingtheproblem.Ichoosetothinkofthisstepandtheprecedingone
asphasesofobservationanddescriptionoftheexperience.Thereisadistancingoftheproblemasitwere
gettingenoughdistancesothatonecansee,likebackingawayfromapaintinginordertoseethewhole
picture.Inaddition,onesfirstemotionalreaction,alongwiththevisiblefactsofanexperience,becomes
anobjectofthought.Onemovesfromanimpressionisticsenseofthingstoanarticulatedidea.[T]here
isaprocessofintellectualizingwhatatfirstismerelyanemotionalqualityofthewholesituation.This
conversioniseffectedbynotingmoredefinitelytheconditionsthatconstitutethetroubleFormulating
theproblemorquestionitselfishalfthework.AsDeweysays,Aquestionwellputishalfanswered
(1933:108).
Therecanbeagreatsenseofreliefandaccomplishmentatthisstageofthereflectiveprocess,
becausemakingmeaninghasbegun.Itisnotacasualprocess,butadisciplinedonewhichdemandsthat
theindividualcontinuallygroundhisorherthinkinginevidenceandnotoverlookimportantdatathatmay
notfithisorherevolvingideas.Thedisciplineofdescriptionasdistinctfrominterpretation)canbring
thesefactstolight.Thisphasealsodemandsthatthelearneralignthosedataandthequestionsheorshe
poses;thatis,isthequestionrelevanttothedatathetextofonesexperience?Isthere,inotherwords,
integritytotheinquiryprocess?
Thisisperhapsoneofthemostchallengingaspectsofthereflection.Thequestionthatalearneris
abletoformulatedependsdirectlyuponthecompletenessandcomplexityofthedataordescriptionthathe
orshehasgatheredandgenerated.Thecompletenessandcomplexityofthedataareinturnmadevisible
accordingtotheextentoftheteachersownabilitytoobserve,payattention,perceive,andbeopenin
short,bepresenttoallthatishappeningintheclassroom.

4)Generatingpossibleexplanationsfortheproblemorquestionposed.Inthisphasetheindividual
returnstothesuggestionsthataroseinphasetwo)eitherrefiningthemsothattheyaremorelike
probabilities,orrejectingthemasimprobable.Deweycallsthistheformationoftentativehypotheses.
Itisthefirstphaseofanalysis.Theexplanationsthatarisewillcomefromasynthesisofthemeaning
derivedfromthecurrentexperiencewiththatdrawnfrompreviousexperiences.Inaddition,inthiscase,

10
thelearnergoestoothersourcesbeyondhimorherself.Bringinginotherresources,bothpeopleand
books,isparamounttodeepeningandbroadeningthescopeofonesunderstanding.Thepointhereisthat
anumberofpossibleconnectionsarenowbeinggenerated,andmeaningisbeginningtotakeshape,rather
likeasculpturethathasundergoneitsfirstdefiningchisel.

5)Ramifyingselectedhypothesesintofullblowntheories.Thedivisionbetweenthisphaseandphase
fourisdifficulttodiscern;oneflowsseamlesslyintothenext.Phasefiveisamoreintenseandfocused
versionofphasefour,buttheybothinvolveanalysis.Deweyhimselfcondensesthematanearlierpoint
undertheheadingofreasoning(1916:150).Itisthesetwophases,Deweycontends,thatsetreflective
thoughtapartfromotherformsofthought.Reconstructingorreorganizingexperiencemeansmorethan
justtakingswipesattheobviouselementsofanexperience,thesculptorhackingawayataprotrusionon
themarbleorwood.Itmeansspendingenoughtimewiththedataofanexperience,withthetextureand
densityandgrainofit,sothatitcanemergeinallitscomplexity.Whatmighthavebeenareactionbased
onasimplemindedanalysis(phasetwo),isthustransformedintoapossiblereflectiveresponsebasedon
fullknowledgeofitsramifications.Thisphasecouldbeunderstoodasaseriesofintellectualdryruns
throughtheproblem/questionanditsvariousconclusions.Itprovidesaplatformofreasonand
understandingfromwhichonecantakethenextstep,intelligentaction.
Deweyunderstoodtheimplicationsofdeprivingteachersofthisphaseofreflection.Hefrequently
referredtotheintellectualdependencyteachershaveonotherauthorities(schoolboards,textbook
publishers,principals,superintendents)tomaketheirteachingdecisionsforthem.Asearlyas1904Dewey
deplored
thewillingnessofourteachingcorpstoacceptwithoutinquiryorcriticismanymethodor
devicewhichseemstopromisegoodresults.Teachersflocktothosepersonswho
givethemclearcutanddefiniteinstructionsastojusthowtoteachthisorthat
(1904:152).
Heconsistentlycitestheneedtodevelopteachersprofessionalism.Suchprofessionalism,heargued,
growsoutofascientific(reflective)approachtoeducation.Aswithanylearner,teacherswhoaregivena
chancetoreflectsystematicallyontheirexperiencecancometoanunderstandingofwhattheirstudentsdo
andwhy.Withtheseunderstandingsinhand,theyarebetterequippedtoarticulatetheirneedsandtheir
studentsneeds,totakestands,andtoproposeactions,bothinsideandoutsidetheclassroomwalls.

6)Experimentation.Oftenthosewhowriteaboutreflectionwillstopbeforethisfinalphase,forgetting
thatforDewey,reflectionmustincludeaction.Deweysnotionofresponsibility,oneofthefourattitudes
hefeltwereintegraltoreflection,impliesthatreflectionthatdoesnotleadtoactionfallsshortofbeing
responsible.Reflectionisnotacasualaffair.Nonetheless,healsounderstoodthattheactionthatonedoes
takeisnotdefinitive.Thatis,itisanexperiment,atestingofonestheories.(Appropriately,thewords
experienceandexperimentsharethesameLatinroot;thesixteenthcenturydefinitionofanexperiencewas
toexperiment,toputtothetest.iiInFrench,theyarestilloneandthesameword,experience.)
Theconsequentactionthatonetakesisintelligentandqualitativelydifferentfromroutineaction
becauseofthethoughtthathasprecededit.Acolleagueofminemakesthedistinctionbetweena
reactionandaresponse.Areaction,hesays,islikethesnapofonesfingers,anautomatictypeof
[reply]thatdoesnothaveanyassessmentorthoughttoit(Millett,1998:2).Aresponse,ontheotherhand,
isbaseduponcarefulassessmentandthought.Infact,theanatomyofaresponseishugelycomplex.Itis
basedonknowledgeandawarenessofthelearner,oneself,thesubjectmatter,thecontextswithinwhich
wealloperate,andthedynamicinteractionsamongallofthese.
Thisfinalphaseofreflectionistheonethatoffersthepossibilityofsettledness,aresolutionto
thedisequilibrium.Onefinallyfeelsthatthemeaningonehasascribedtoanexperiencefits,makessense,
andcanberelieduponinfutureexperiences.Moreoftenthannot,ofcourse,onceonehastestedones
theoriesinaction,morequestions,moreproblems,moreideasarise.Inthissensetheprocessisdialectical;
reflectioncomesfullcircle,thetestingbecomesthenextexperience,andexperimentandexperience
become,infact,synonymous.
Ineffect,itmaybepossibletocollapseDeweyssixphasesintofour:iii
1)presencetoexperience

11
2)descriptionofexperience(ThisstepimpliesholdingatbayspontaneousinterpretationsDeweys
phasetwountilanalysis,wheretheycanbemorecloselyexaminedinlightofthedatagathered.Carinis
work(2000)illuminatestheprofoundpossibilitiesofthisstep.)
3)analysisofexperience(whichsubsumesDeweysphasesfourandfive)
4)intelligentaction/experimentation(Deweysphasesix).
Inmyownworkwithreflectiveprofessionaldevelopmentgroups,wehaveusedthesestepstogoodeffect.
Questions,problems,andideasweavethemselvesthroughallfourphases,evolvingandrefining
themselvesastheydoso.
Itshouldbeclearthatthemovementfromexperience,tospontaneousinterpretation,tonamingthe
problemandreasoningthroughitscomplexities,mustleadtochange.Theindividualactsinthatworld
accordingtothenewmeaningshederivesandimposes. Ialludedabovetothefactthatwhile
individualscancreatemeaninginisolation,interpretationcanbefullerandmorecomplexwhengenerated
incommunity.Thethirdcriterionofreflection,below,explorestheimplicationsofreflectionina
communityoffellowthinkers.
Criterion#3:
Reflectionincommunity
Deweyknewthatmerelytothinkwithouteverhavingtoexpresswhatonethoughtisan
incompleteact.Herecognizedthathavingtoexpressoneselftoothers,sothattheytrulyunderstandones
ideas,revealsboththestrengthsandtheholesinonesthinking.Theexperiencehastobeformulatedin
ordertobecommunicated,hewrites.Thencontinues:
Toformulaterequiresgettingoutsideof[theexperience],seeingitasanotherwouldsee
it,consideringwhatpointsofcontactithaswiththelifeofanothersothatitmaybegot
intosuchformthathecanappreciateitsmeaning.Onehastoassimilate,
imaginatively,somethingofanothersexperienceinordertotellhimintelligentlyof
onesownexperience.Amanreallylivingalone(alonementallyaswellas
physically)wouldhavelittleornooccasiontoreflectuponhispastexperiencetoextract
itsnetmeaning(1916:6).
Healsoknewthatintheactofsharing,onesfieldofexperiencebroadened:
Insofaraswearepartnersincommonundertakings,thethingswhichothers
communicatetousastheconsequencesoftheirparticularshareintheenterpriseblendat
onceintotheexperienceresultingfromourownspecialdoing(1916:186).
Drawingonmyownexperienceasateachereducatorandfacilitatorofreflectiveprofessional
developmentseminars,Ihaveidentifiedatleastthreefactorsthathighlightthebenefitsofcollaborative
reflection:1)affirmationofthevalueofonesexperience:inisolationwhatmatterscanbetooeasily
dismissedasunimportant;2)seeingthingsnewly:othersofferalternativemeanings,broadeningthefield
ofunderstanding;3)supporttoengageintheprocessofinquiry:theselfdisciplinerequiredforthekindof
reflectionthatDeweyadvocates,especiallygiventheoverwhelmingdemandsofateachersday,isdifficult
tosustainalone.Whenoneisaccountabletoagroup,onefeelsaresponsibilitytowardsothersthatismore
compellingthantheresponsibilitywefeeltoonlyourselves.
Oneoftheinterestingbyproductsofworkinginasupportivecommunityisthatitallowsteachers
toacknowledgetheirinterdependenceinaworldthatscornsaskingforadviceandvalues,aboveall,
independenceforbothstudentsandteachers.Dewey,alwaysleeryofdualisms,recognizedthatteachers
andstudentsneedboththesupportofthecommunityandtheabilitytoactindependentlywithinthelarger
world.AspsychologistRobertKeganpointsout,decidingformyselfshouldnotbeconfusedwithdeciding
bymyself(1994:219).Noteacheroutgrowstheneedforothersperspectives,experienceandsupport
notiftheyareinterestedinbeingwhatDeweycallslifelongstudentsofteaching.Thecommunityalso
servesasatestinggroundforanindividualsunderstandingasitmovesfromtherealmofthepersonalto
thepublic.Areflectivecommunityalsoprovidesaforumwhereintheindividualcanputformtowhatitis
heorshewasthinkingorfeelinginthefirstplace.DeweyscholarRichardPrawat(2000)pointsoutthe
criticalrolethatlanguageplaysinmakingpersonalknowledgeuniversal:Languageiskey,hewrites.It
allowstheindividualtotransformhisorherowninchoateunderstandingintoaformthatismoreconscious

12
andrational,thusservingtheself.Italsoallowstheindividualtoshareinsightorunderstandingwith
others,thusservinghecommunity(6).
Whilereflectionwithothersisessential,tospeakofreflectionincommunityandtoignorethe
dispositionsthatareneededistoneglectanessentialpartoftheactofreflection.Deweywasveryawareof
thefactthatreflectivework,andespeciallyworkinreflectivecommunities,demandedparticularattitudes.
Itistotheseattitudesthatwenowturn.
Criterion#4:
Reflectionasasetofattitudes

Humanbeingsarenotnormallydividedintotwoparts,theoneemotional,theothercoldly
intellectualtheonematteroffact,theotherimaginative.Thesplitdoes,indeed,oftenget
established,butthatisalwaysbecauseoffalsemethodsofeducation.Nativelyandnormallythe
personalityworksasawhole.Thereisnointegrationofcharacterandmindunlessthereisfusion
oftheintellectualandtheemotional,ofmeaningandvalue,offactandimaginativerunning
beyondfactintotherealmofdesiredpossibilities(1933:278).
Deweysawarenessofwhateducatorscalltheaffectivedimensionoflearningisoften
overlooked.BecausehewroteHowWeThink,andnotHowWeFeel,itisperhapsnotsurprising.But
Deweyhadakeenunderstandingoftherolethataffectplaysinlearning,whichheexplores,atleastinpart,
inhisdiscussionofattitudes,ordispositionsinbothHowWeThinkandDemocracyandEducation.
Deweybelievedthattheattitudesthattheindividualbroughttobearontheactofreflectioncould
eitheropenthewaytolearningorblockit.Awarenessofourattitudesandemotions,andthedisciplineto
harnessthemandusethemtoouradvantage,ispartoftheworkofagoodthinker,heargues.He
recognizedthetendencyinallhumanbeingstoseewhatwewishweretrue,orwhatwefearistrue,rather
thantoacceptwhatevidencetellsusisso.Deweycautionsagainstthedangersofbelievingthatwhichis
inharmonywithdesire(1933:30).Bythesametoken,therearealsothoseofuswhotendtobelievethe
worstthatwhichwefearmost.Whendesire,fear,need,orotherstrongemotionsdirectthecourseof
inquiry,wetendtoacknowledgeonlytheevidencethatreinforcesthatpremise,causinglearningtobecome
tightlycircumscribed.Incontrast,reflectionthatisguidedbydirectness,ivwholeheartedness,open
mindedness,andresponsibility,whilemoredifficult,standsamuchbetterchanceofbroadeningones
fieldofknowledgeandawareness.Ofcourse,oneisseldomwhollyopenminded,wholehearted,andso
forth,orwhollyfearfulorneedy.Weareusuallyacombinationofmanyofthese.Iexploreeachofthese
fourattitudesbelow.

Wholeheartedness.Wholeheartedness,alsocalledsinglemindednessinDemocracyand
Education,indicatesagenuine,noholdsbarredenthusiasmaboutonessubjectmatter.Ateacherssubject
mattercanbeseenasthreefold:itincludesa)theactualcontentsheisteachingFrench,forexample;b)
thelearnerslearningofFrench;andc)theteachersteachingandhowitisaffectingthestudents
learning.Thistriangleoffactors(teacher/teaching;learner/learning;andcontentwhatHawkinscalledthe
IThouIt)interactstoformadynamicnexus,heldintensionbytheforcefieldofcontext/sthelarger
It,otherIsandThous,theclassroom,school,communityandoutward,eventothelevelsofnation
andglobe.WhileDeweywroteprimarilyaboutcontent,togetherthesefourfactorscanbeassumedto
constituteakindofmetasubjectmatterteachingitself.(SeeFigure1.)

CONTEXTS

I THOU

13
 IT

Figure 1: I, Thou, It, and Contexts

Curiosityaboutandenthusiasmforthatsubjectmatterisessentialtogoodteaching.Withoutthema
teacherhasnoenergy,nofuel,tocarryoutreflectiveinquirymuchlessteachingitself.Thiskindoftotal
engagementiswhatDeweymeantbywholeheartedness.

Withoutwholeheartedness,thereexistsindifference,andtheenergytoobserveandgather
informationaboutlearnersandtheirlearning,onesteachingandsoforth,isnotthere.Itistherefore
essentialtoreflectivethinking.Ontheotherhand,ifateacherpossessesanattitudeofwholeheartedness
yetworksinacontextthatbeatsitoutofherbygivinghertoomanystudents,acurriculumwithout
flexibility,teststhatmustbetaughttoandnotimetosharewithotherteachers,letalonetimetoreflect,
wholeheartednessobviouslysuffers,andtoooftenwitherstoresignationandevenbitterness.

Directness.Deweysaidthatdirectnesscanbestbedescribedbywhatitisnot.Itisnotself
consciousness,distractedness,orconstantpreoccupationwithhowothersperceiveonesperformance.
Rather,itindicatesaconfidence,butnotacockiness,thatisalmostchildlikeinitsgenuineness,yetadultin
itslackofselfabsorption.Itbespeaksanattitudeoftrustinthevalidityofonesownexperiencewithout
spendingalotoftimeworryingaboutthejudgmentofothers.Itresembleswholeheartednessinitssingle
mindednature,butitsfocusonanabsenceofanxietyaboutoneselfmakesitdistinctandimportant.Itis
whatbeginningteachersoftenlack.Becausetheyaresoidentifiedwiththecontentandtheirteachingofit,
theyoftentotallymisswhatisgoingonaroundthem,mostimportantly,thelearnersandtheirlearning.
Whiledirectnessmeansbeingfreeofselfabsorption,itdoesnotprecludeobservingoneselfina
moredetachedway.Indeed,thegrowthofateachermaywellpassfromselfabsorption,toforgetting
herself,andfinallytoselfawareness(observingandreflectinguponheractions,thoughts,andemotions),
asherreflectivepracticeevolves.(SeeFigure2.)

Self-absorption

Forgetting
oneself

Self-awareness

Figure 2: Evolution of Directness in Teachers

Areflectiveteacherwhopossessesanattitudeofdirectnessmightwellask,Wherewasthe
learningintodayswork?ThisisaverydifferentquestionfromWhatdidIteachtoday?Beginning
teachers(aswellasstudents!)oftenconfusethetwoquestions.Beingabletoanswerthefirstquestion
dependsentirelyonateachersabilitytoobserve,andtheabilitytoobserveisdirectlyproportionaltothe
degreetowhichonecanbefreefrompreoccupation.Onecommonpreoccupationforbeginningteachers

14
isthesubjectmatteritself,ortobemoreprecise,lackofsubjectmatterknowledge.Deweywiselypoints
outthatwithoutagroundinginthesubjectmatterreflectionisdifficult:
Theteachermusthavehismindfreetoobservethementalresponsesandmovementof
thestudent...Theproblemofthepupilsisfoundinthesubjectmatter;theproblemof
teachersiswhatthemindsofpupilsaredoingwiththesubjectmatter.Unlessthe
teachersmindhasmasteredthesubjectmatterinadvance,unlessitisthoroughlyat
homeinit,usingitunconsciouslywithoutneedofexpressthought,hewillnotbefreeto
givefulltimeandattentiontoobservationandinterpretationofthepupilsintellectual
reactions.Theteachermustbealivetoallformsofbodilyexpressionofmental
conditiontopuzzlement,boredom,mastery,thedawnofanidea,feignedattention,
tendencytoshowoff,todominatediscussionbecauseofegotism,etc.aswellas
sensitivetothemeaningofallexpressioninwords.Hemustbeawarenotonlyoftheir
meaning,butoftheirmeaningasindicativeofthestateofmindofthepupil,hisdegreeof
observationandcomprehension(1933:275)(italicsinoriginal).
Anattitudeofdirectnessisaprerequisitetoreflectionbecause,untiltheteacherisabletofocuson
allelementsoftheIThouItandtheircontexts,reflectionrisksgettingstuckonthelevelofself.Whileself
isonepartofthesubjectmatterofteaching,itissignificantonlyasitconnectstotheotherelements.Inthe
absenceofsuchaconnection,reflectionrisks,andisoftenrightlyjudgedas,beingnarcissistic.

Openmindedness.OpenmindednessisthethirdofDeweysattitudes.Hehasalovelywayof
characterizingopenmindednessashospitalitytonewwaysofseeingandunderstanding.Hemakesa
delightfuldistinctionbetweenopenmindednessandemptymindedness,however;itisnot,asheputsit,a
matterofsaying,Comerightin;thereisnobodyathome(1933:30)!Inotherwords,openmindednessis
notablindacceptanceofallideaswithoutintelligentcritique.Rather,itmeansawillingnesstoentertain
differentperspectives,coupledwithanacceptanceofthepossibilityoferroreveninthebeliefsthatare
dearesttous(1933:30),andacknowledgmentofthelimitationsofonesownperspective.Deweyreminds
usthattobeopenmindedmeansnotonlybeinghospitablebutplayfulnotclingingtootightlytoour
ideas,butreleasingthemindtoplayoverandaroundthem.

Responsibility.Responsibilityhelpstoboundandgroundwholeheartedness,directness,andopen
mindedness.Itistherealitycheck.Itasks,Whatarethereallifeimplicationsofmythinking?Italso
impliesthatacarefullyconsideredlineofthoughtshouldleadtoaction.Deweywrotethattobe
intellectuallyresponsible
istoconsidertheconsequencesofaprojectedstep;itmeanstobewillingtoadoptthese
consequenceswhentheyfollowreasonablyfromanypositionalreadytaken.[Learnersmust
ask]forthemeaningofwhattheylearn,inthesenseofwhatdifferenceitmakestotherestoftheir
beliefsandtotheiractions(1933:32).
Beingresponsiblealsomeansacknowledgingthatthemeaningweareactingonisourmeaning,
andnotadisembodiedmeaningthatisoutthere.AsKeganputsit,[W]emakesense,butwedonot
alwaystakeresponsibilityforitasmade.Wearemorelikelytobelieveitisthewaytheworldismade
(andleaveouttheagentofthatpassivelyconstructedsentence)(1994:206).
Ourmeaningmakingdoesnotstandisolatedfromourviewoftheworld,butgrowsoutofand
leadsbackintoit,possiblydemandingthatourviewchangeradically.Itmightalsomeanthatthewayin
whichoneparticipatesintheworldhastochange.Forexample,ateacherIknowrecentlycametothe
realizationthatherrefugeestudentslevelofEnglishwasfarbelowwhatshehadthought.Sherealized
aftersomeobservationandanalysisthattheywerenot,infact,resistantorlazy.Beforetheywereableto
readsophisticatedarticlesaboutsexualharassment,forexample,(whereshewantedthemtobe),basic
vocabularyandpronunciation(wheretheyactuallywere)hadtocomefirst.Inotherwords,oncethe
meaningshemadeofherandherstudentsexperienceinclassshiftedfromthestudentsarelazyand
resistanttothestudentsareillequipped,itwouldhavebeenirresponsibletocontinueteachingthemas
shehadbeen.Simultaneously,shehadtotakeresponsibilityforherowndesires,(thatstudentsbemore
advanced,thattheybeabletodigintosophisticatedtopics,thattheybeconcernedwiththesameissuesof

15
socialjusticethatshewas),andthewaysinwhichherdesiresweredistortingthemeaningofher
experienceandherstudentslearning.

Readiness.Asawhole,thefourattitudesabovecomprisetheessentialconstituentsofwhatDeweycalls
readinesstoengageinreflection.Deweyfreelyadmitsthattheydonotnecessarilycovertherangeof
attitudesnecessaryforreflection.Givensuchanopening,Iwouldaddtwoothers,whichDeweydoesrefer
toinotherplacescuriosityandthedesireforgrowth.Withoutthese,thecouragerequiredfortruly
reflectiveworkwouldbeabsent.Trulytoinquireintoonespracticeinawholehearted,direct,open
minded,responsiblewaydemandsthecouragetoreleasenotonlywhatoneholdsdearbuttheelementsof
onesveryidentity.Again,Keganhelpsustounderstandthiswhenhewritesthat
beingabletothink[reflectively]isnotjustadiscreteskill,itisanactivedemonstration
ofamindthatcanstandenoughapartfromitsownopinions,values,rules,and
definitionstoavoidbeingcompletelyidentifiedwiththem.Itisabletokeepfromfeeling
thatthewholeselfhasbeenviolatedwhenitsopinions,values,rules,ordefinitionsare
challenged(1994:231).
Summary
IhavediscussedfourcriteriaforreflectionthatcomeprimarilyfromHowWeThink,Democracy
andEducation,andEducationandExperience.Ihavetriedtodemonstratethatreflectionisnotanendin
itself,butatoolorvehicleusedinthetransformationofrawexperienceintomeaningfilledtheorythatis
groundedinexperience,informedbyexistingtheory,andservesthelargerpurposeofthemoralgrowthof
theindividualandsociety.Itisaniterative,forwardmovingspiralfrompracticetotheoryandtheoryto
practice.Ihaveemphasizedthattheprocessofreflectionisrigorousandsystematic,anddistinctfrom
other,lessstructuredkindsofthinking.Ithasitsoriginsinthescientificmethod,andassuch,includes
precisesteps:observationanddetaileddescriptionofanexperience,ananalysisoftheexperiencewhich
includesgenerationofexplanationsanddevelopmentoftheories,andexperimentationatestoftheory.
Thisexperimentation,whichinvolvesinteractionsbetweentheself,others,andonesenvironment,inturn
servesasthenextexperiencefromwhichlearningcancontinue,aphenomenonwhichDeweycalled
continuity.Thiscanallhappeninsolitude,butincommunitywithothersthelearnerwillbroadenher
understandingofanexperiencebeyondwhereitmightgoinisolation.
Atthesametimethatreflectionrequirescognitivediscipline,italsocallsuponanindividuals
emotionaldiscipline.Asmuchaspossibleshemustremainengagedintheexperienceasitishappening,in
anundistractedway,sothatdatacanbegatheredthroughobservation(wholeheartednessanddirectness).
Shemustalsoremainopenminded,entertainingmanyinterpretationsofherexperiencesothatshedoesnot
limitherunderstandingandtheactionsthatflowfromit.Finally,shemustacceptthatashiftin
understandingofanexperiencemaycallforanentireshiftinoutlook.Andresponsibilitydemandsthat
actionpracticelineupwithoutlooktheory.

Conclusion
Deweywaspreciseinhisdescriptionofwhatitmeanstothinkreflectively.Byadheringtothe
essentialrigorinherentinhisdefinition,teachersandreformersachieveseveralends.First,theprocessof
reflection,andthestepsofobservationanddescriptioninparticular,requiretheteachertoconfrontthe
complexityofstudentsandtheirlearning,ofthemselvesandtheirteaching,theirsubjectmatter,andthe
contextsinwhichalltheseoperate.Anyactiontheteachertakes,therefore,willbeconsideredratherthan
impulsive,andbasedonadeepknowledgeofeachoftheseelementsandtheirinteractions,which
ultimatelycanonlybenefitstudentslearning.Inlikefashion,onceteacherslearntothink,theycanteach
theirstudentstodothesame,forteachersteachbestwhattheyunderstanddeeplyfromtheirown
experience.Fromtheretheycanencouragetheirstudentstoconfrontthoughtfullythephenomenaoftheir
world.
Second,becausereflectionisaparticular,definedwayofthinking,itcanbepracticed,assessed,
andperfected.Oncereflectioncanbetalkedaboutwithprecisionbybothteachersandresearchers(aswell
asstudents!),itcannotbesoeasilydismissedassoft,norlostintheflurryofvaguelydefined
movements.Howtothinkreflectively,afterall,isnotabandwagonissue.Itisnotafadwhosetimehas
comeandgone,butperhapsthemostessentialpieceofwhatmakesushuman,ofwhatmakesuslearners.

16
 Finally,withaclearlanguageofreflection,therecanbereflectiononreflection,includingresearch
ontheimpactofreflectiononbothteacherspracticeandstudentslearning.Itisintheseways,asDewey
knewwell,thattherewillbegrowthinourlearningabouthowtothink,toteach,andtolearn.Dewey
wouldurgeustoreflectcarefullyuponhistheoryofreflectioninlightofourcollectiveexperience,
changingthattheoryasourexperienceandaccumulatedknowledgedictatethinkingtolearn.

References

Allen,D.(Ed.)(1998).Assessingstudentlearning:Fromgradingtounderstanding.NewYork:Teachers
CollegePress.

Argyris,C.,&Schn,D.A.(1974).Theoryinpractice:Increasingprofessionalpractice.SanFrancisco:
JosseyBassPublishers.

Blythe,T.,Allen,D.,&Powell,B.S.(1999).Lookingtogetheratstudentwork:Acompanionguideto
Assessingstudentlearning.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.

CochranSmith,M.,&Lytle,S.(1999).Relationshipsofknowledgeandpractice:Teacherlearningand
communities.InIranNejad,A.&Pearson,P.D.,(Eds.),Reviewofresearchineducation(pp.
249305).Washington,DC:AmericanEducationalResearchAssociation.

Dewey,J.(1904).Therelationoftheorytopracticeineducation.InBorrowman,M.L.(ed.),Teacher
educationinAmerica:Adocumentaryhistory.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.

Dewey,J.(1916/1944).Democracyandeducation.NewYork:FreePress.

Dewey,J.(1933).Howwethink.Buffalo,NY:PrometheusBooks.

Dewey,J.(1938).Experienceandeducation.NewYork:CollierBooks,MacmillanPublishingCo.

Duckworth,E.(1987).Thehavingofwonderfulideasandotheressaysonteachingandlearning.New
York:TeachersCollegePress.

Garrison,J.W.,&Rud,A.G.Jr.(1995).Theeducationalconversation:Closingthegap.Albany,New
York:SUNYPress.

Hawkins,D.(1974).Theinformedvision:Essaysonlearningandhumannature.NewYork:Agathorn
Press.

Himley,M.(Ed.)withCarini.P.(2000).Fromanotherangle:Childrensstrengthsandschoolstandards.
NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.

Johnson,W.(1997).Voices:AninterviewwithJackMillett.InTESOLMatters,October,1997.

Kegan,R.(1983).Theevolvingself:Problemandprocessinhumandevelopment.Cambridge,Mass:
HarvardUniversityPress.

Kegan,R.(1994).InOverourheads:Thementaldemandsofmodernlife.Cambridge,Mass:Harvard
UniversityPress.

Kolb,D.A.(1984).Experientiallearning:Experienceasthesourceoflearninganddevelopment.
EnglewoodCliffs,NewJersey:PTRPrenticeHall.

17
McCarthy,C.L.&Sears,E.(2000).Deweyanpragmatismandthequestfortruebelief.Educational
Theory,Spring2000,Vol.50,No.2,(pp.213227.)

NationalBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandards(1987).Thefivepropositionsofaccomplished
teaching.Internetsite:www.nbpts.org.

NationalCommissiononTeachingandAmericansFuture(1996).Whatmattersmost:Teachingfor
Americasfuture.NewYork:NCTAF.

NationalFoundationfortheImprovementofEducation(1996).Teacherstakechargeoftheirlearning.
Washington,DC:NFIE.

NationalStaffDevelopmentCouncil(1995).Standardsforstaffdevelopment.Oxford,Ohio:NSDC.

Osterman,K.F.,&Kottkamp,R.B.(1993).Reflectivepracticeforeducators:ImprovingSchooling
Throughprofessionaldevelopment.NewburyPark,California:CorwinPress,Inc.

Polanyi,M.(1967).Thetacitdimension.GardenCity,NY:AnchorBooks.

Prawat,R.S.(2000).ThetwofacesofDeweyanpragmatism:Inductionismversussocialconstructivism.
TeachersCollegeRecord,Vol.102,No.4,(pp.805840).

Schn,D.A.(1983).Thereflectivepractitioner:Howprofessionalsthinkinaction.NewYork:Basic
Books.

Shulman,L.(1988).Thedangersofdichotomousthinkingineducation(pp.3139).InGrimmet,P.&
Erickson,G.(1988).Reflectioninteachereducation.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.

Siedel,S.(1998).Wonderingtobedone:Thecollaborativeassessmentconference(pp.2139).InAllen,
D.(Ed.)(1998).Assessingstudentlearning:Fromgradingtounderstanding.NewYork:
TeachersCollegePress.

Thompson,C.L.,&Zeuli,J.S.(1999).Theframeandthetapestry:Standardsbasedreformand
professionaldevelopment.InDarlingHammond,L.&Sykes,G.(Eds.),Teachingasthe
learningprofessional:Handbookofpolicyandpractice(pp.341375).SanFrancisco:Jossey
BassPublishers.

Yinger,R.J.,&HendricksLee,M.S.(1998).Professionaldevelopmentstandardsasanewcontextfor
professionaldevelopmentintheUS.TeachersandTeaching:theoryandpractice,4(2),273278.

Zeichner,K.,&Liston,D.(1996).Reflectiveteaching:Anintroduction.Mahwah,NJ:Lawrence
Earlbaum,Pub.

18
ENDNOTES

19
i2
DeweywrotetwoversionsofHowWeThink,onein1910andthesecondin1933.The1933versionisconsiderably
differentfromthe1910version.RichardPrawat(2000)andothers(McCarthy&Sears,2000)pointoutthatthefirstversion
precededDeweysshiftfromamoreJamesianview(nominalism)toapointofviewmorealignedwithCharlesSanders
Peirce(realism).Theversionreferredtointhispaperisthesecond,1933version.

ii
TheshorteroxfordEnglishdictionaryonhistoricalprinciples,(1965),London.

iii
Thesephaseswerebornofnumerousdiscussionsandajointpresentationatthe1999TESOLconventioninNewYork
CitywithmycolleaguesClaireStanleyandJackMillettoftheSchoolforInternationalTraining,Brattleboro,Vermont.

iv
ThefirsteditionofHowWeThinkwaspublishedin1910andcontainednoexplicitmentionofattitudes.Sixyearslater,
withtheemergenceofDemocracyandEducation,Deweyaddressedfourattitudes:directness,wholeheartedness,open
mindedness,andresponsibility.WiththerevisionofHowWeThinkin1933,Deweyincludedadiscussionofattitudes,but
onlythreeoftheoriginalfoursurvived,leavingdirectnessoutofthe1933text.Directnessresembledwholeheartedness,
whichmaybethereasonhedroppedit,butIfeelitisadistinctattitudeworthcultivating,andsoIincludeithere.