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INTRODUCTION
1
Full reusability implies that the vehicle launches, carries a payload to
orbit, and returns to Earth with the vehicle (or vehicle stages) intact and
without the assistance of any expendable stages. Single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO)
vehicle concepts fall into this category, as do the two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO)
concepts in which both the orbital vehicle and a booster vehicle fly back to
Earth for reuse (many such designs were originally proposed for the Space
Shuttle, and several others are currently under study)
These types of vehicles have one stage (either the booster or orbiter) that
is reused and other stages that are expendable. The Pegasus launch system, for
example, relies on a reusable atmospheric aircraft to carry an expendable
rocket launch vehicle to altitude.
2
1.1 HISTORY
In the early 1950s popular science fiction often depicted space launch
vehicles as either single-stage reusable rocket ships which could launch and
land vertically (SSTO VTVL), or single-stage reusable rocket planes which
could launch and land horizontally (SSTO HTHL).
The late 1960s saw the start of the Space Shuttle design process. From an
initial multitude of ideas a two-stage reusable VTHL design was pushed
forward. That eventually ended up as a reusable orbiter with an expendable
drop tank and reusable solid rocket boosters to reduce design expenses.
3
Eventually the Shuttle was found to be expensive to maintain, even more
expensive than an expendable launch system would have been. The
cancellation of a Shuttle-Centaur rocket after the loss of Challenger also
caused a hiatus that would make it necessary for the United States military to
scramble back towards expendables to launch their payloads. Many
commercial satellite customers had switched to expendables even before that,
due to unresponsiveness to customer concerns by the Shuttle launch system.
The end of that decade saw the implosion of the satellite constellation market
with the bankruptcy of Iridium. In turn the nascent private launch industry
collapsed. The fall of the Soviet Union eventually had political ripples which
led to a scaling down of ballistic missile defense, including the demise of the
"Brilliant Pebbles" program.
The 21st century saw rising costs and teething problems lead to the
cancellation of both X-33 and X-34. Then the Space Shuttle Columbia
disaster and another grounding of the fleet. The Shuttle design was now over
20 years old and in need of replacement. Meanwhile the military EELV
program churned out a new generation of better expendables.
4
successfully in 1992. India has made tremendous strides in launch vehicle
technology to achieve self-reliance in satellite launch vehicle programme with
the operationalisation of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).
5
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle(GSLV)-Mark I&II ,is capable of placing
INSATII class of satellites (2000 2,500 kg) into
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO). GSLV is a
three stage vehicle GSLV is 49 m tall, with 414 t lift
off weight. It has a maximum diameter of 3.4 m at the
payload fairing. First stage comprises S125 solid
booster with four liquid (L40) strap-ons. Second
stage (GS2) is liquid engine and the third stage (GS3)
is a cryo stage. The vehicle develops a lift off thrust
of 6573 kN. The first flight of GSLV took place from Fig 1(b): GSLV - II
SHAR on April 18, 2001 by launching 1540 kg GSAT-1. It was followed by six
more launches Typical Parameters of GSLV
6
The GSLV-III or Geosynchronous Satellite
Launch Vehicle Mark III , is a launch vehicle
currently under development by the Indian Space
Research Organization. GSLV Mk III is conceived
and designed to make ISRO fully self reliant in
launching heavier communication satellites of
INSAT-4 class, which weigh 4500 to 5000 kg. Fig 1(c): GSLV - III
It would also enhance the capability of the country to be a competitive
player in the multimillion dollar commercial launch market. The vehicle
envisages multi-mission launch capability for GTO, LEO, Polar and
intermediate circular orbits.
GSLV-Mk III is designed to be a three stage vehicle, with 42.4 m tall with a
lift off weight of 630 tonnes. First stage comprises two identical S200 Large
Solid Booster (LSB) with 200 tonne solid propellant, that are strapped on to
the second stage, the L110 re-startable liquid stage. The third stage is the C25
LOX/LH2 cryo stage. The large payload fairing measures 5 m in diameter and
can accommodate a payload volume of 100 cu m. Realization of GSLV Mk-III
will help ISRO to put heavier satellites into orbit.
1.3 AVATAR
1.3.1 Concept
7
The idea was to develop a hyperplane vehicle that can take off from
conventional airfields, collect air in the atmosphere on the way up, liquefy it,
separate oxygen and store it on board for subsequent flight beyond the
atmosphere.AVATAR is proposed to weigh only 25 tonnes in which 60 per cent
of mass will be liquid hydrogen fuel. The oxygen required by the vehicle for
combustion is collected from the atmosphere, thus reducing the need to carry
oxygen during launch. AVATAR is said to be capable of entering into a 100-km
orbit in a single stage and launching satellites weighing up to one tonne
8
cost of launching satellites. A miniature Avatar, which is also being conceived,
would be hardly bigger than a MiG-25 or an F-16.
1.4 ACTUATOR
1.5TYPES OF ACTUATORS
1.5.1Mechanical actuators
9
Mechanical linear actuators typically operate by
conversion of rotary motion into linear motion.
Conversion is commonly made via a few simple types
of mechanism:
Screw
Some mechanical linear actuators only pull, such as hoists, chain drive and belt
drives. Others only push (such as a cam actuator). Pneumatic and hydraulic
cylinders or lead screws can be designed to generate force in both directions.
10
Hydraulic actuators or hydraulic cylinders typically
involve a hollow cylinder having a piston inserted in
it. An unbalanced pressure applied to the piston
generates force that can move an external object.
Since liquids are nearly incompressible, a hydraulic
cylinder can provide controlled precise linear
displacement of the piston. A familiar example of a
Fig 1(e): Hydraulic Actuator
manually operated hydraulic actuator is ahydraulic car jack.
11
1.6 SELECTED ELECTRO MECHANICAL ACTUATOR
1.6.1Simplified design
A linear actuator using standard motors will commonly have the motor
as a separate cylinder attached to the side of the actuator, either parallel with
the actuator or perpendicular to the actuator. The motor may be attached to the
end of the actuator.
Compact linear actuators use specially designed motors that try to fit the motor
and actuator into the smallest possible shape.
The inner diameter of the motor shaft can be enlarged, so that the drive
shaft can be hollow. The drive screw and nut can therefore occupy the
center of the motor, with no need for additional gearing between the motor
and the drive screw.
Similarly the motor can be made to have a very small outside diameter,
but instead the pole faces are stretched lengthwise so the motor can still
have very high torque while fitting in a small diameter space.
The weight of the vehicle changes linearly as the mass of the vehicle
decreases during flight due to propellant mass flow. The relationship between
weight and mass is given by
W=mg (i)
Wherem is the total mass of the vehicle at any instant and g is the
acceleration due to the Earths gravity. Regardless of the vehicles orientation,
gravity always acts downward towards the Earths center through the vehicles
center of gravity (CG). During the ascent of a launch vehicle, momentum is
lost due to gravity. This effect is called gravity losses and is related to the
amount of time it takes for a vehicle to reach orbit. The following relationship
defines gravity losses as where is the change in altitude from launch to orbit,
ht is the time to orbit and V is the vertical velocity. Thrust is used to
accelerate a vehicle from rest at the Earths surface to orbital velocity in space.
Both rocket and air breathing vehicles produce thrust by accelerating
propellant out the back of the engine. In the case of rockets, the propellant is
initially at rest with respect to the vehicle. The thrust produced is the sum of
14
the momentum changes of the propellant by the engine and the pressure losses
due to atmospheric back-pressure.
Regardless of size, mass or shape, has a point inside called the center of
mass (CM). The CM is the exact spot where all of the mass of that object is
perfectly balanced. You can easily find the CM of an object such as a ruler by
balancing the object on your finger. If the material used to make the ruler is of
uniform thickness and density, the CM should be at the halfway point between
one end of the stick and the other. If the ruler was made of wood and a heavy
nail was driven into one of its ends, the CM would no longer be in the middle.
The balance point would then be nearer the end with the nail. The CM is
important in rocket flight because it is around this point that an unstable rocket
tumbles. As a matter of fact, any object in flight tends to tumble. Throw a
stick, and it tumbles end over end. Throw a ball, and it spins in flight. The act
of spinning or tumbling is a way of becoming stabilized in flight.
1.7.3 MASS
15
propellants; 3 percent should be tanks, engines, fins, etc.; and 6 percent can be
the payload.
Payloads may be satellites, astronauts, or spacecraft that will travel to other
planets or moons. In determining the effectiveness of a rocket design,
rocketeers speak in terms of mass fraction (MF). The mass of the propellants
of the rocket divided by the total mass of the rocket gives MF.
..(ii)
From the Law of Conservation of Momentum follows:
vm= mve[Ns]
This is the change of momentum of spacecraft. This implies the change of
momentum of the expelled propellant.
16
(iii)
Orbital mechanics, also called flight mechanics, is the study of the motions of
artificial satellites and space vehicles moving under the influence of forces
such as gravity, atmospheric drag, thrust, etc. Orbital mechanics is a modern
offshoot of celestial mechanics which is the study of the motions of natural
celestial bodies such as the moon and planets. The root of orbital mechanics
can be traced back to the 17th century when mathematician Isaac Newton
(1642-1727) put forward his laws of motion and formulated his law of
universal gravitation. The engineering applications of orbital mechanics
include ascent trajectories, reentry and landing, rendezvous computations, and
lunar and interplanetary trajectories.
17
from two fixed points, called foci, is constant (see Figure 5a). The longest and
shortest lines that can be drawn through the center of an ellipse are called the
major axis and minor axis, respectively. The semi-major axis is one-half of the
major axis and represents a satellite's mean distance from its
primary. Eccentricity is the distance between the foci divided by the length of
the major axis and is a number between zero and one. An eccentricity of zero
indicates a circle.
Inclination is the angular distance between a satellite's orbital plane and the
equator of its primary (or the ecliptic plane in the case of heliocentric, or sun
centered, orbits). An inclination of zero degrees indicates an orbit about the
primary's equator in the same direction as the primary's rotation, a direction
calledprograde (or direct). An inclination of 90 degrees indicates a polar orbit.
An inclination of 180 degrees indicates a retrograde equatorial orbit.
A retrogradeorbit is one in which a satellite moves in a direction opposite to
the rotation of its primary.
Nodes are the points where an orbit crosses a plane, such as a satellite crossing
the Earth's equatorial plane. If the satellite crosses the plane going from south
to north, the node is the ascending node; if moving from north to south, it is
the descending node. The longitude of the ascending node is the node's
18
celestial longitude. Celestial longitude is analogous to longitude on Earth and
is measured in degrees counter-clockwise from zero with zero longitude being
in the direction of the vernal equinox.Geosynchronous orbits (GEO) are
circular orbits around the Earth having a period of 24 hours. A geosynchronous
orbit with an inclination of zero degrees is called a geostationary orbit. A
spacecraft in a geostationary orbit appears to hang motionless above one
position on the Earth's equator. For this reason, they are ideal for some types of
communication and meteorological satellites. A spacecraft in an inclined
geosynchronous orbit will appear to follow a regular figure-8 pattern in the sky
once every orbit. To attain geosynchronous orbit, a
Space craft is first launched into an elliptical orbit with an apogee of 35,786
Fig 1(h): Geosynchronous Orbit
km (22,236 miles) called a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO). The orbit is
then circularized by firing the spacecraft's engine at apogee.
Polar orbits (PO) are orbits with an inclination of 90 degrees. Polar orbits are
useful for satellites that carry out mapping and/or surveillance operations
because as the planet rotates the spacecraft has access to virtually every point
on the planet's surface.
Sun synchronous orbits (SSO) are walking orbits whose orbital plane
processes with the same period as the planet's solar orbit period. In such an
orbit, a satellite crosses periapsis at about the same local time every orbit. This
19
is useful if a satellite is carrying instruments which depend on a certain angle
of solar illumination on the planet's surface.
Molniya orbits are highly eccentric Earth orbits with periods of approximately
12 hours (2 revolutions per day). The orbital inclination is chosen so the rate of
change of perigee is zero, thus both apogee and perigee can be maintained over
fixed latitudes. This condition occurs at inclinations of 63.4 degrees and 116.6
degrees.
A space vehicle's orbit may be determined from the position and the velocity
of the vehicle at the beginning of its free flight. A vehicle's position and
velocity can be described by the variables r, v, and , where r is the vehicle's
distance from the center of the Earth, v is its velocity, and is the angle
between the position and the velocity vectors, called the zenith angle (see
Figure). If we let r1, v1, and 1 be the initial (launch) values of r, v, and , then
20
we may consider these as given quantities. If we let point P2 represent the
perigee, then equation becomes
(i)
Substituting equation, we can obtain an equation for the perigee radius Rp.
(ii)
(iii)
21
2. LITERATURE SURVEY
Benjamin Srloff, USN (2006)[1] studied and compared of the variety of the
performance of rocket and air breathing, single stage-to-orbit, re-usable launch
vehicles. Fuel consideration which includes bio-propellant and tri-propellant
combination of hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuels. Methodology used to design
and manufacture of Re-usable launch vehicle.
Sippel and Klevanski (2001), [2] focused on study of two RLV in particular.
It describes one RLV in detail with the application of a heavy lift launches.
Further topics discussed on aerodynamic shape, preliminary mechanical layout
and wing structure.al results are presented including simulations and
optimizations for ascent and reentry.
Michael and James (2003) [3] give the basics of astrodynaimics. It focuses on
the laws governing space mechanics and orbits .it mention the different
environment that a space vehicle is subjected to. It also gives some details
about propulsion systems and power control.
Martin J.L Turner [4] focuses mainly on rocket propulsion systems. Liquid
and solid propellants are explained in details. The different types of propulsion
are discussed. Different types of rocket propulsion engine are also discussed.
Martin and Josef (2001) [5] proposes a new and different approach for return
to the launch site of non-SSTO reusable space transportation vehicles. The
performance gain by the advanced capturing method shows a possible increase
in delivered payload. The paper presents a detailed description of the proposed
method, giving data of numerical simulations.
Wallace and Olds , A.C (1992) [6] dramatic design and analysis time savings
of Reusable Military Launch System under WPAFB. This incorporates
parametric geometry, aerodynamics, ass properties, aero heating, and rocket
propulsion and trajectory analysis. Several analysis done for optimal vehicle
22
design which include load factor, engine type, staging mach number, fuel
selection, number of engines, allowable wing loading.
Wiley and James, (1995) [8] focuses on space mission, in particular the cost
and risk involved. It contains more practical details, such as physical and
engineering data, empherical formulae and design algorithms. It also contains
contribution of the last decade by many engineers and managers
Beer and Russell, (2012) [10] presents the principles of kinematics and
dynamics. The basic concepts of force, momentum, impulse, acceleration,
work and energy are introduced and applied to particles and bodies.th concepts
of linear and angular momentum and also the laws of motion are discussed in
detail.
23
3. SELECTION OF MECHANISM
The final mechanism for the design was selected by a process that included
analysing several designs and eliminating them on several parameters. Some
of the parameters considered were weight, cost, ease of manufacture,
availability etc. some of the designs that were considered during the selection
process are shown here.
3.1 MECHANISM 1
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3.2 MECHANISM 2
Inference: The placement of the piston in a horizontal direction meant that the
amount of force to be applied was increased. Also the number of links in the
mechanism is high which meant increased weight. The mechanism was
rejected.
3.3 MECHANISM 3
This mechanism included only three links and was also considerably
lighter than the previous mechanism. The piston was placed at an angle and
this also meant that lesser force only needed to be applied.
25
Fig 3(c): Mechanism 3
Inference: The unequal arm lengths made the placement of the payload
difficult. The payload could not be correctly positioned and all angles could
not be obtained. The mechanism was rejected
3.4 Mechanism 4
This mechanism is similar to the mechanism 3 the only difference is here all
the links have same length while in the above mechanism the length of the
links are different.
Interference: Equal arm length made the placement of the payload. The
payload can be correctly positioned and all angles are obtained. Construction
of the mechanism is simple and single actuator is employed. Hence the
mechanism was selected.
26
4. DESIGN
4.1 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
27
4.3 FORCE Fig
CALCULATIONS
4(c): Geometric Dimension of Mechanism
28
For the purpose of actuator selection the force that the actuator needs to apply
has to be calculated. These calculations are performed by two methods.
First
Fig 4(d): Force diagram of observe that the actions at A & E
mechanism
do no work. Denoting by y the elevation of
the platform above the base and by s the
length of DG of the cylinder and position
assembly, we write
u = o;
-W y + FDHs = 0 (i)
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Y=EC sin
= asin
y = acos . ..(ii)
S2 = a2 + m2 2 a m cos
2 s s = -2 a m (-sin)
Calculations:
1. Weight (W)
W=m*g
=1000 * 9.81
= 9810 N
W = 9.81 KN
30
2. Length of the actuator from its base position to the connected position on
the link (s)
S2 = a2 + l22 2 a l2cos
s = 2.406 m
FDH = 16592 N
4.3.2 C PROGRAM
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
void main()
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float Fdh,W,s,a,l2,m,d,theeta,cottheeta;
clrscr();
scanf("%f",&a);
scanf("%f",&l2);
scanf("%f",&m);
scanf("%f",&d);
theeta=d*(3.14159/180);
s=sqrt((a*a+l2*l2)-(2*a*l2*cos(theeta)));
W=m*9.81;
cottheeta=1/tan(theeta);
Fdh=(2*W*s*cottheeta)/l2;
printf("\n\n");
getch();
32
33
4.3.4 ALTERNATE METHOD
The mechanism considered of the platform and of the linkage. Its free body
Fig an
diagram includes 4(e)input
: Free body
force FDHdiagram of mechanism
exerted by the cylinder, the weight W is
equal and opposite to output force & reactions at A and E that we assumes to
be directed as shown. Since more than three unknown are involved, this
diagram will not be used. The mechanism is dismembered and free body
diagram is drawn for each of its components parts.
34
B+C W = 0
B+C = W
C*l1 W*l3 = 0
C = (W* l3) / l1
C = 9558.46 N ..(ii)
B= W-C
B = 251.539 N..(iii)
35
Fig 4 (g) : Free body diagram of Roller B
FBC = B cot
We know that
FDH = 2* W *(cos/sin)
36
Applying first law of sines of triangles
sin/EG = sin/DG
DG = 2.406 m
FDH = (2*W*DG*cot) / l2
FDH = 16592N
3.4.5 C PROGRAM
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
37
#include<math.h>
void main()
float Fdh,W,a,l1,m,d,theeta,cottheeta,l3,C,Fbc,D,B,l2;
clrscr();
scanf("%f",&a);
scanf("%f",&m);
scanf("%f",&l1);
scanf("%f",&d);
scanf("%f",&l3);
scanf("%f",&l2);
theeta=d*(3.14159/180);
cottheeta=1/tan(theeta);
W=(m*9.81);
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C=(W*l3)/l1;
B=W-C;
Fbc=B*cottheeta;
D=sqrt((a*a+l2*l2)-(2*a*l2*cos(theeta)));
Fdh=(2*W*D*cottheeta)/l2;
printf("\n\n");
getch();
5. ANALYSIS
39
5.1 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS USING SOLIDWORKS
5.1.1 SOFTWARE
The software used for this analysis was SolidWorks 2011. SolidWorks is
a 3D mechanical CAD (computer-aided design) program that runs
on Microsoft Windows and is being developed by DassaultSystmsSolidWorks
Corp. SolidWorksis a Parasolid-based solid modeler, and utilizes a parametric
feature-based approach to create models and assemblies. Parameters refer to
Design 1
CALCULATIONS RESULT
Total weight- 1500 Kg
Force to be applied
Factor of safety- 8.3
F= m X g
= mass of satellite X acceleration due to gravity
= 1000 Kg X 9.81N
= 9810 N 10,000 N
Design 2
The total weight of design 1 was found to be too high and also a factor of
safety of 8.3 was not required. Therefore the structure was redesigned using
different material and analysis was carried out.
41
Fig 5(b): SolidWorks Analysis of Design 2
CALCULATIONS
RESULT
Force to be applied
Total weight- 920 Kg
F= m X g
Factor of safety- 3.8
= mass of satellite X acceleration due to gravity
= 1000 Kg X 9.81N
= 9810 N 10,000 N
As shown above two designs were taken up and analyzed. For the analysis the
entire payload was assumed to be 1000 Kg, including the satellite and the
rockets. Design 1 showed better factor of safety than the first but was rejected.
The main reason is the usage of more material. This made the weight of the
design very much higher. 1500 Kg of the first design was reduced to 920 Kg in
the second design. This was possible with the reduction in metal and also the
diameter of the pipes. The factor of safety of the second design was reduced
3.8 but the design was more feasible because a factor of safety of 3.8 was
sufficient for the safety of the design. Design 2 was finally selected as the best
design.
42
5.2 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS USING SOLIDWORKS
Design 1
DESIGN PARAMETERS
velocity 7000 m/s
Iterations: 13441
Analysis interval: 845
Due to the high drag force obtained from the first design alterations were made
to the first design and analysis was carried out again
Design 2
44
Fig 5(d) :CFD of Design 2 using SolidWorks
M = Mach number
5.2.1 ANALYSIS CALCULATIONS
a = velocity of sound
Wing span (L) = 10 m
v = free stream velocity
b = 2.2 m
q = dynamic pressure
S = l x b = 22 m
CD = coefficient of drag
v = 632.064 m/s
D = drag force
45
1
q v 2
= 2
1
= 2 *0.654 * 632.062
L
CL = q s
2.2105
= 1.310522
= 0.076
2
CL b2
CD = eAR AR = s
2
0.076
= 10.22 = 0.00835
q SC D
D= = 0.00835 * 22* 1.3*105
D= 2.388 *104 N
46
Normal Force 1 [N]
GG Z - Component of 1x 104
Normal Force 1 [N] -0.05697255 -0.06799603 -0.04748165
Iterations: 9386
Analysis interval: 865
As shown above two designs were taken up and analyzed. For the analysis the
basic parameters were assumed. The RLV was assumed to be travelling at a
speed of 7000 m/s with a Mach number of 2. The main aim was to determine
the coefficient of lift and coefficient of drag and also the drag force. Once the
results were obtained by software they were also manually calculated and
compared. First the analysis for design 1 was carried out. After the analysis
was completed the forces along the axis was obtained. The value along the X
axis direction was obtained as 4.33x 104, this was taken up as the drag force.
Using formulas and equations the coefficient of lift and drag and the drag force
were calculated manually. The drag force obtained through the software and
manually were found to match with slight variations. Also the design 2 was
found to be a better design due to the reduced drag.
47
5.3COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS USING FLUENT GAMBIT
SOFTWARE
5.3.1 FLUENT
5.3.2 GAMBIT
48
block. Unstructured grids are more difficult to handle computationally because
their connectivity is stored for each node. Unstructured grids, however, tend to
be easier to construct and do not waste memory in far field cell resolution.
Unstructured solvers often result in simpler computer codes too, which means
they are easier to maintain and modify.
5.3.3DESIGN PROCESS
1. The solid body of the Launch vehicle was created using SolidWorks
software using the basic options available. The completed part was
saved and converted as an IGS file.
2. This file was then imported to gambit and then the design was modified
to work in gambit.
3. The body was then placed in an indefinite cube. This cube was taken as
the boundary and the body along with the boundary surface was split.
4. Then meshing process was carried out. This is a process in which the
body is split into many number of small portions.
5. After the meshing was completed the boundary conditions were applied.
a. Inlet pressure
b. Outlet pressure
c. Wall symmetry
6. This model was then imported to Fluent for the flow analysis.
7. Then the models, material properties and boundaries were specified and
iteration was started.
8. The number of iterations was given as 1000 and the flow simulation was
obtained.
49
5.3.4MESHING OF SOLID MODEL OF RLV
RESULT
Cd = 2 X Pd/(v2)
= 2 X (4.62 X 104) /(1.225 X 7002)
Cd = 0.1539
density ()=1.225kg/m3
Lift coefficient velocity (v)=700m/s
Computational fluid dynamics for both design were carried out using both
softwares. The results obtained through both softwares were compared. There
was slight variation in the values of coefficient of drag but the values of
coefficient of lift were found to match almost perfectly. The coefficient of lift
and drag for an RLV is in the range of 0.005 0.01 and 0.001 0.5
respectively, and the values were also found to be within the specified range.
Design 2 was found to be a better design considering the lesser amount of drag
force generated.
51
6. OPTIMIZATION
Optimization is the act of obtaining the best result under given circumstances.
In design,construction, and maintenance of any engineering system, engineers
have to take manytechnological and managerial decisions at several stages.
The ultimate goal of all suchdecisions is either to minimize the effort required
or to maximize the desired benefit.Since the effort required or the benefit
desired in any practical situation can be expressedas a function of certain
decision variables, optimization can be defined as the processof finding the
conditions that give the maximum or minimum value of a function.Modern
Methods of Optimization. The modern optimization methods, also some-times
called nontraditional optimization methods, have emerged as powerful and
popular methods for solving complex engineering optimization problems in
recent years. These methods include genetic algorithms, simulated annealing,
particle swarm optimization, ant colony optimization, neural network-based
optimization, and fuzzy optimization. The genetic algorithms are computerized
search and optimization algorithmsbased on the mechanics of natural genetics
and natural selection.
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6.1 STATEMENT OF AN OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM
gj (X) 0, j = 1, 2, . . . ,m
lj (X) = 0, j = 1, 2, . . . , p
53
Figure 1.4 shows a hypothetical two-dimensional design space where the
infeasibleregion is indicated by hatched lines. A design point that lies on one or
more than oneconstraint surface is called a bound point, and the associated
constraint is called anactive constraint. Design points that do not lie on any
constraint surface are known asfree points. Depending on whether a particular
design point belongs to the acceptableor unacceptable region, it can be
identified as one of the following four types:
1. Free and acceptable point
2. Free and unacceptable point
3. Bound and acceptable point
4. Bound and unacceptable point
All four types of points are shown in the following figure.
54
design is optimized,when expressed as a function of the design variables, is
known as the criterion or meritor objective function . The choice of objective
function is governed by the nature ofproblem. The objective function for
minimization is generally taken as weight in aircraftand aerospace structural
design problems. In civil engineering structural designs, theobjective is usually
taken as the minimization of cost. The maximization of mechanicalefficiency
is the obvious choice of an objective in mechanical engineering systemsdesign.
Thus the choice of the objective function appears to be straightforward in
mostdesign problems.
The design variables are the mean diameter (d) and tube thickness (t) :
X = x1 = d
( )()
x2 t ..(i)
55
f ( x )=5 W +2 d
5 ldt +2 d
f (x)
= 13.9 x1x2 +2d .(ii)
2 2
= 64 (d0 + di ) (d0+ di) (d0 di)
= 64 [(d+t)2 +(d-t)2 ]. [ (d+t)+(d-t) ]. [(d+t)
- (d-t)]
= 8 dt (d2 +t2 )
= 8 x1 x2( x12+ x22) .(v)
56
6000
928 0
g1(X) = x1 x2 .(vi)
2 d 14
0.2 t 0.8
Since there are only two design variables the problem can be solved
graphically. First the constraint surfaces are to be plotted in a two dimensional
design space where the two axes represent the two design variables x1 and x2.
x1x2 2.058
that is, Thus the curve x1x2 = 0.103 represents the constraint surface g 1(X) = 0.
This curve can be plotted by finding several points on the curve. The points on
57
the curve can be formed by giving a series of values to x1 and finding the
corresponding values of x2 that satisfy the relation x1x2 = 2.058:
Similarly, the second constraint g2(X) 0 can be expressed as x1x2 (x12 + x22)
57.98 and lying on the constraint surface g2(X) =0 can be obtained as follows
Next, the contours of the objective functions are to be plotted before finding
the optimum point. For this, we plot the curves given by
58
X2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
X1 11.8 8.38 6.5 5.3 4.48 3.90 3.42 3.05
These contours are shown in figure and it can be seen that the objective
function cannot be reduced below a value of 40.07 (corresponding to point B)
without violating some of the constraints. Thus the optimum solution is given
by point B with d* = x1* = 5.3 cm and t* = x2*= 0.4 cm with fmin = 40.07.
59
Fig 6(b): Graphical Optimization of the design
60
7. CONCLUSION
Launch vehicles are an integral part of space research. A lot of money and
effort is being spent to make their use as much as reusable as possible. The
main aim of our design has been to make the production of these RLVs more
cost efficient. We hope to achieve this either by use of different material or in
the simplicity of the design. A complete literature survey on all topics related
to this particular field was completed before the design phase was started.
Many mechanisms were considered and eliminated on several parameters such
as ease of construction, simplicity, cost etc. and finally the current design was
finalized. To support of design all possible analysis have been carried out to
make the design foolproof and reliable. The high factor of safety shows the
reliability of the model. Aerodynamics has also been considered as the CFD
analysis have been carried out and drag has been minimized considerably by
modifying the design. Special attention has also been given to actuator and
material selection. These selections have supported by relevant calculations to
determine the force required to lift the entire mechanism. The design has also
been optimized as possible and we hope it will be advantages economically
and mechanically.
61
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