LITERATURE REVIEW

Being always present in class and getting to school on time are two of the crucial

determining factors of a students success, not just as a student but as a person who will be

managing his/her own life in the future. Given the importance of being punctual, this study aims

to explore and find out the factors that affect the punctuality of JBLFMU-SHS students. In this

chapter, we will be discussing about the background of our study. It includes facts about

tardiness, the different factors that causes it and its effect to the students as students and as bearer

of their own lives in the future. From reliable research materials like online journals and research

papers, we will provide some facts and theories from authors, teachers and notable people in

order to have a concrete justification of our study.

Student Absenteeism

Over the years, psychologists, social/criminal justice experts, educators, medical experts,

and other researchers have studied student absenteeism, with some suggesting it is difficult to

define. While studies across the aforementioned disciplines offer similar findings, I found some

discrepancy across literature in how related terminologies are defined and used.

Psychologists tend to use terms such as school phobia, separation anxiety, school refusal,

and school refusal behavior when describing absenteeism (Kearney, 2008). School phobia can be

described as absenteeism driven by fears, which are often times linked to a circumstance within

the school setting. For example, a student experiencing school phobia may have a fear of being

separated from his or her class for a period of time or a fear related to a pending safety alarm

ordrill. Separation anxiety often stems from the fear of being away from a parent or caregiver.
 Students experiencing separation anxiety may often times come to school but return

home,

because they are challenged by leaving the side of their parent or caregiver when they enter the

school. School refusal and school refusal behavior are characterized by an anxiety based or

child-based absenteeism causing a general feeling of unrest across the entire school day beyond

the fear of an isolated circumstance at school. All of the aforementioned terms are considered to

be within-child, rather than related to the environment.

On the contrary, social/criminal justice experts place a greater emphasis on looking at

behaviors and external factors related to truancy and delinquency when describing absenteeism

(Attwood & Croll, 2006; Henry, 2007; Reid 2005). Truancy is termed by excessive unexcused

absences caused by a variety of circumstances. Delinquency is associated with rule-breaking

behaviors and those often associated with conduct disorders. These terms are often characterized

by factors within the environment, or in combination with internalizing factors

Risk Factors Associated with Student Absenteeism

Research has pointed to a multitude of risk factors associated with student absenteeism.

Kearney (2008) suggested such risk factors, as noted across studies, can be categorized by child,

parent and family, peer, school, and community (p. 266). Over time such risk factors, particularly

when co-existing, can cause increased levels of student absenteeism (Kearney, 2008).

Child-related factors. Child-related factors are those which have been described by

researchers as stemming from within a child and, they are often referred to as internalizing

symptoms (Kearney, 2008; Lauchlan, 2003). Such symptoms can be further described as anxiety,
fear, and depression. Anxiety, fear, and depression can lead to withdrawal and escape from the

school environment. A student may fear a particular circumstance in the school setting resulting

in increased anxiety. He or she may suffer from increased anxiety when away from his or her

parent or caregiver. A student suffering from depression may seek to withdraw from the personal

interactions within the school environment. While these symptoms are often considered

internalizing, they at times present themselves through recognizable physical symptoms such as

headaches and nausea. Frequent physical symptoms and illness among students account for a

high percentage of absences from school (Eaton et al., 2008).

Parent and family-related factors. Unlike child-related factors, which come from

within the child, parent and family-related factors, among others, are considered to be those

which have been imposed on the student. Specifically, students throughout K-12 public

education in the United States have been faced with parent and family-related factors linked to

the current financial state of the nation. Student attendance has been impacted overtime by issues

stemming from unemployment, poverty, transiency, and homelessness (Epstein & Sheldon,

2002; Kearney, 2008; Reid 2008b). The impact of a parents unemployment, poverty, transiency,

and homelessness has been described by some researchers as taking a toll on an entire family. In

particular, for some it has resulted in depression on the part of a parent, which in turn has

impacted his or her ability to make sure his or her child is in school. In reality, finding a job,

putting food on the table, and/or securing consistent shelter may take precedence to ensuring

student attendance at school. Further, in light of the current economy, many students have been

described by researchers as being expected to seek employment to support their families, to

provide childcare for younger siblings during school hours, and to provide transportation to and

from school on their own (Dube & Orpinas, 2009; Hartnett, 2007). As previously noted, securing
and maintaining employment to support a family can have a negative impact on a students

attendance. Also, a parents work schedule may require a student to watch younger siblings

during school hours and/or impact his or her ability to get him or herself to school.

Additionally, many students are faced with parents who exhibit inadequate parenting

skills or involvement, low expectations of school performance, and poor communication with

school officials (Kearney, 2008; Reid, 2008b; Wilkins, 2008). Lack of parent support, in general

and in relation to the school experience, can have a negative impact on student attendance in

school. This is further compounded by those parents who exhibit poor supervision,

psychopathology, intense conflict and chaos, and a history of school attendance and truancy

issues themselves (Kearney, 2008). Parents who exhibit poor supervision may not be aware their

child is not in school. Students of parents who exhibit high needs related to psychopathology and

intense conflict and chaos may find themselves turning to support their parents in lieu of

attending school. Also, parents with a history of school attendance and truancy issues may, at

times, discredit their childs attendance in school, resulting in increased absences. It is also worth

noting those parents who take their students out of school for religious holidays, family

vacations, and stressful family events related to illnesses or deaths in the family (Eaton et al.,

2008; Epstein & Sheldon, 2002) add to the number of days students are out of school.

School-related factors. The literature centered on school-related factors raised concern

over the negative impact of school practices, organizational cultures, and relationships among

students and school personnel on student attendance (Attwood & Croll, 2006; Epstein &

Sheldon, 2002; Hartnett, 2007; Kearney, 2008; Reid, 2008b). Hartnett (2007) suggested some

policies are ineffective and may inadvertently cause [a] disconnect by rewarding the

nonattendance of particular peer groups (p. 38). In particular, she spoke to the use of excused
and unexcused absences among Jocks and Burn-Outs. Further, she studied the attendance of

students who do and do not participate in recognized extracurricular activities. She noted some

discrepancy in how attendance was tracked among the aforementioned peer groups, suggesting

not all students were treated equally (Hartnett, 2007).

Epstein and Sheldon (2002) and Reid (2008b), like Harnett (2007) have shared a common

belief that schools have influenced and in some cases, caused non-attendance among students.

School characteristics and practices can influence rates of absenteeism and truancy among

students, (Attwood & Croll, 2006, p. 309). Much truancy and other forms of non-attendance

are caused by schools themselves, (Reid, 2008b, p. 346). Kearney (2008) raised concern about

the impact of inconsistent attendance practices and policies, negative student-teacher

relationships, and inadequate responses to diversity as they relate to student absenteeism (pp.

266-267). Some policies and practices, as previously noted, have historically perpetuated student

attendance concerns. Also, some relationships between teachers and students, and the

discrepancy in how students are treated based on their cultural background and race have been

described as having a negative impact on student attendance.

Community-related factors. As previously noted, social/criminal justice experts have

studied external factors related to student absenteeism. In particular, they have focused on

community-related factors, which on a larger scale, are those outside of the school and home

settings. Such factors have been described as unsafe neighborhoods, inconsistent law

enforcement, media pressure, and a lack of support services (Kearney, 2008; Reid 2008b). In

some cases, when students have felt unsafe in their neighborhoods, due to violence and high

gang-related activities, they have been described as hesitant to leave their homes. This is
compounded when students and families have not felt protected by local law enforcement

agencies and/or have felt like they do not have access to outside community supports. Overtime,

this can have a negative impact on student attendance in schools.

Implications of Student Absenteeism

Simply stated, children who are excessively absent from school are at risk for various

negative health and social problems (Dube & Orpinas, 2009, p. 87). Similarly, students who

are absent from school for any reason, whether with or without permission, are more likely to

engage in health risk behaviors than students who have no absences (Eaton et al., 2008, p. 226).

Such problems have included drug and alcohol use, risky sexual behavior, teenage pregnancy,

suicide attempt, and violent acts (Dube & Orpinas, 2009; Eaton et al., 2008; Henry, 2007;

Kearney, 2008). Researchers have described all of these problems as presenting, in and of

themselves, with potential challenges related to non-attendance in schools and beyond.

Additionally, research suggested a high level of absenteeism places students at risk

for permanent dropout from school (Attwood & Croll, 2006; Dube & Orpinas, 2009). Permanent

dropout from school closes the door to a multitude of academic and social opportunities that

cannot be replicated in other settings. Permanent dropout from school can lead to more

significant problems later in adulthood, including unemployment, economic deprivation, marital

difficulties, and in some cases incarceration (Dube & Orpinas, 2009; Epstein & Sheldon, 2002;

Henry, 2007; Kearney, 2008; Wilkins, 2008). Overtime, unemployment and economic

deprivation, if not resolved, can lead to transiency, poverty, and homelessness. These factors can

cause a great deal of stress on all individuals within a family, resulting in a familys inability to

stay together. In extreme cases, permanent dropout from school can lead to behaviors resulting in
incarceration.

Tardiness

As an JBLFMU students, we are expected to perform well with excellence in everything

that we do, most especially in the academic aspect. One factor that dictates the quality of

performance of a student is his/her punctuality that is, getting to school on time or being tardy.

As cited by Nakpodia and Dafiaghor (2011), lateness can be defined as the situation where an

individual arrives after the proper, scheduled or usual time (Oxford Advance Learners

Dictionary, 5th ed., 1995), Lauby (2009) puts it as a term used to describe people not showing

up on time and Breeze et al. (2010) contributed by saying that, lateness is synonymous with

tardiness, which implies being slow to act or slow to respond, thus not meeting up with proper

or usual timing. Lastly, Weade (2004) defined tardiness as being late for any measurable length

of time past the stated or scheduled start time for work or school. In most schools, a student is

considered tardy when he/she is not present when the school bell rings or when the first teacher

starts to give instructional materials for the first subject in the morning class.

One of the most recurring and the most frustrating problem that the schools are having

with their students nowadays is tardiness (Sprick and Daniels, 2007). It creates problems, not just

to the students but also to the teachers (Cowan Avenue Elementary School Community, 2007,

para 1). Cowan Crier, the official School Publication of CAESC, also states that while having

occasional tardy isnt a big deal, unfailing tardiness is and it gives students problems including

being ill-prepared for the job market. According to the results of the study of the U.S.

Department of Education on truancy, which is related to tardiness, being present and on time

in going to school are big factors on the success and behavior of the students (Zeiger, 2010,

para 1). Thus, it is a lot important to value time and practice being on time while being a student.
 According to CAESC (2007) and Zeiger (2010), the most essential learning time of the

day for the students lies in the morning, specifically between 8:00 to 9:30 AM. It is because the

students are most mindful and observant at this time of the day. It is also the reason why the most

important lessons and subject matters are discussed during this time. So when students are late or

are not present during this time of the day, they, in effect, miss out most of the important lessons

to be noted and learned.

Factors affecting Punctuality

Reasons for being late in class and other factors affecting the punctuality if a student

vary. There had been some theories that pointed out that tardiness is caused by the personality of

a person. Santillano (2010) stated that psychological theorists considered some personality

traits, including low self-esteem and anxiety as triggering factors of tardiness (para 2). She also

mentioned that while some theorists considered tardiness as an inborn quality since our being

early or late is partially biologically determined, which she also agreed, other experts also

believed that some people are chronically tardy for the reason that they consciously and

unconsciously get good things from it (para 3).

Nakpodia and Dafiaghor attribute lateness or tardiness to a lot of factors or causes. Going

late to bed and waking up late next morning are the most common. The authors added film-

watching late at night as a cause for tardiness. The student may forget that he/she needs to be in

school the next day. The distance between the students home and school or solely the schools

location is also considered by Nakpodia and Dafiaghor as a possible cause for tardiness. Not just

because it takes more time to get to school, but according to the authors, the student is

susceptible to more distractions and hindrances along the way. Parents untimely tasks and
commands are also reasons that students come late to school. Habitual tardiness can also be

learned from other members of the family, especially from the older ones. Lack of a firm and

consistent policy on punctuality also encourages students to come late at school since there are

no consequences attached to lateness or tardiness. These causes of tardiness will lead to serious

effects.

Effects of Tardiness

Tardiness among students has its own negative repercussions. Nakpodia and Dafiaghor

(2011) emphasized that lateness or tardiness is not just the problem of the late student but it

affects the surrounding people. A student coming late in class distracts the rest of the students

and disrupts the flow of the teachers discussion. It is even a burden to the student/s whom the

late students ask for what to catch up with. The rest of the effects given by Nakpodia and

Dafiaghor are about the welfare of the whole school, its productivity and revenue. Knowing the

possible effects of lateness or tardiness, it is necessary for solutions to be executed.

Studies have revealed that those students with perfect or near-perfect attendance have

good grades compared to those students who misses classes often and late-comers (Cowan

Avenue Elementary School Community, 2007, para 3). Moreover, as mentioned by Zeiger

(2010), the results from the survey report conducted by teachers show that students with high

tardiness rates have higher rates of suspension and other disciplinary measures (National

Center for Education Statistics Indicators of School Crime and Safety [NCESISCS] (2007)). It

also causes the students to have behavioral problems and to drop out. Lastly, Zeiger (2010) stated

that Students who are frequently tardy to school are also more apt to be fired from a job for

showing up late (para 5).

 A study conducted by Barbara Lee Weade on 2004 tried to "determine if school tardiness

is a predictor of work tardiness" (Weade, 2004). It provided a lot of literature that observes

correlations and factors affecting a student's tardiness. As cited by Weade, the 3rd most common

cause for the failure of a student is "excessive tardiness and unexcused absences" (Ligon and

Jackson, 1988). "Inconsistency of school rules" (Britt, 1988) and situations such as crowded

halls, limited opportunities for social interaction, irrelevant course content, and teacher

indifference (Damico et al., 1990) are also factors that affect a student's attendance and

punctuality. As mentioned by Weade, personal values, financial security and lack of parental

guidance (Payne, 2001) as well as family background (Featherstone et al., 1992) influence

tardiness and absences of students.

The study was very comprehensive in its subject matter. It tackles not just school

tardiness but its implications on work tardiness. It shows that "students who are on-time for

school classes are also likely to be on-time at work while students who are tardy frequently at

school will probably also be tardy at work" (Weade, 2004). The study requires a lot of data but

Weade was able to gather a sufficient amount. Though some possible correlations were not

established, it is outside the scope of this research.

Some schools have already started finding solutions that would effectively minimize

and/or eliminate tardiness among students. One of the solutions made by some schools is

implementing tardiness policies, wherein they take steps in approaching the students and parents

for them to solve the problem. CAESC has their policy worked this way. Other schools initiated

interdisciplinary curriculum that integrates discipline and conduct in academics. Cordogan (as

cited by Weade, 2004), said that a school in Chicago, Illinois adapted a similar curriculum and

yielded positive results. Students under the interdisciplinary program exhibited more positive
behaviors from students not from the curriculum. Interdisciplinary students showed less absences

and tardiness, as well as higher grades. Other schools made smaller academic changes such as

developing personality works and cooperative learning activities, such as creation of portfolios

and tutorial to younger students. These taught the students better goal-setting, decision making

skills and time management. In return, students under these behavior modification programs

yielded less tardiness and higher grades.

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