CHAPTER I

1.1 INTRODUCTION

A hybrid vehicle uses multiple propulsion systems to provide motive power. The most
common type of hybrid vehicle is the gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles, which use gasoline
(petrol), and electric batteries for the energy used to power internal combustion engines (ICEs)
and electric motors. These motors are usually relatively small and would be considered
"underpowered" by themselves, but they can provide a normal driving experience when used in
combination during acceleration and other maneuvers that require greater power.

HEV and EV applications are a growing interest, related to the need to reduce both the
polluting emissions and fuel consumption of land transportation vehicles with Internal
Combustion Engines (ICE) by replacing or reducing the use of ICEs with electric propulsion

The whole world is moving towards the sources of energy which would never exhaust in
future and do not harm environment. The environment is polluted mostly due to vehicles and
rush of vehicles is increasing day by day and therefore fossil fuels are exhausted day by day. So,
world is finding solution of this problem and in the pave with this they reached on electric
vehicles. Electric vehicles are able to reduce pollution on tailpipe but at last pollution is
increasing in power plants. To reduce the pollution at power plant also, world move towards
renewable source of energy that is solar energy. Next challenge is that alone solar energy is not
enough to drive the vehicle. So, at last world is now focusing on hybrid electric vehicles and
trying to improve efficiency of hybrid electric vehicle. Here we are doing hybridization of solar
energy with electricity.

In recent days, several prototype and series production HEVs are known with electric
motor power up to 80 kW. That means, the whole range of hybridization is covered and there is
not a clearly leading technology detectable (Maskey et al., 1999). With regard to vehicles with
increased inertia weight like sports utility vehicles, medium and full HEVs seem to be preferred
systems, where most of them are operated by an electric motor power between 30 and 70 kW and
an ICE power between 90 and 130 kW.
 An Embedded system has been used to implement the hybrid power source vehicle. In
the proposed system a microcontroller is used which based on the speed measured by the hall
effect sensor mounted on the wheel will send information to the vehicle system to operate either
in gasoline mode or in battery mode. A solar panel is used to charge the battery system. Thus the
power generated by the solar panel is converted into DC voltage using voltage regulator which
will helps to drive the DC motor of the vehicle.

1.2 EXISTING SYSTEM

Hybrid vehicles are designed with the combinations of the multiple energy sources with
same engine. For example it deals with the fuel vehicles with petrol, diesel and gasoline. In other
methods the electrical vehicles are the combinations with the electrical energy from various
sources. These are having some rescues to interface fuel energy with electrical energy.
 CHAPTER II

2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY

[1] Phatiphat Thounthong,,St ephane Ra el, Bernard Dava Control strategy of fuel

cell/supercapacitors hybrid power sources for electric vehicle Journal of Power Sources 158

(2006) 806814.

This paper presents a control principle for utilizing PEM fuel cell as main power source

and supercapacitors as auxiliary power source for electric vehicle applications. The strategy is

based on dc link voltage regulation, and fuel cell is simply operating in almost steady state

conditions in order to minimize the mechanical stresses of fuel cell and to ensure a good

synchronization between fuel flow and fuel cell current. Supercapacitors are functioning during

transient energy delivery or transient energy recovery. To authenticate control algorithms, the

system structure are realized by analogical current loops and digital voltage loops (dSPACE).

The experimental results with a 500 W PEM fuel cell point out the fuel cell starvation problem

when operating with dynamic load, and also confirm that the supercapacitor can improve system

performance for hybrid power sources.

[2] Y.-J. Lee, A. Khaligh, and A. Emadi, Advanced integrated bidirectional AC/DC and
DC/DC converter for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 58, no. 8,
pp. 39703980, Oct. 2009.

Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) technology provides an effective solution for achieving
higher fuel economy, better performance, and lower emissions, compared with conventional
vehicles. Plug-in HEVs (PHEVs) are HEVs with plug-in capabilities and provide a more all-
electric range; hence, PHEVs improve fuel economy and reduce emissions even more. PHEVs
have a battery pack of high energy density and can run solely on electric power for a given range.
The battery pack can be recharged by a neighborhood outlet. In this paper, a novel integrated
bidirectional AC/DC charger and DC/DC converter (henceforth, the integrated converter) for
PHEVs and hybrid/plug-in-hybrid conversions is proposed. The integrated converter is able to
function as an AC/DC battery charger and to transfer electrical energy between the battery pack
and the high-voltage bus of the electric traction system. It is shown that the integrated converter
has a reduced number of high-current inductors and current transducers and has provided fault-
current tolerance in PHEV conversion.

[3] Massimo Barcaro, Nicola Bianchi and Freddy Magnussen PM Motors for Hybrid
Electric Vehicles The Open Fuels & Energy Science Journal, 2009, 2, 135-141

The global warming has become a very important issue during the last decade. The
worldwide research is oriented to obtain efficiency improvements on energy consuming and
sustainable energy sources utilization. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) are able to achieve this
goal. In addition the utilization of high efficiency electric machines, using high energy
permanent magnet, allows an increased reduction of fuel consumption and exhaust gas
emissions. This paper deals about various topologies of the permanent magnet machines and
some commercial vehicles adopting these motors are described.

[4] C.V. Agilan1 and R. Venkatasamy Integrated Motor Assist for Hybrid Two
Wheelers International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Research. ISSN 2249-0019,
Volume 3, Number 6 (2013), pp. 597-602.

In recent days, one of problems faced by our country is increasing in fuel prices and also
its increased demand with the increase in the number of vehicles on the road. In India, majority
of the common people use two wheelers as the means for their transportation. The increase in the
vehicles has in turn increased the threat of pollution and its ill effects on the environment.
Researchers have been working on this and are trying to come up with alternate fuels which are
renewable and those do not emit toxic gases on combustion. The Integrated Motor Assist (IMA)
for Two Wheelers incorporates a similar ideology as introduced by the Honda Motors in their car.
In this system a thin, compact brushless (BLDC) motor is mounted between the engine and the
transmission system. Regenerative braking is used to recharge the battery as in the conventional
IMA. An electronic based microcontroller system is used to control the motor and the IC Engine
(ICE). It is designed to function based on the engaging of the gears by providing a manual
transmission which most of the Indian riders prefer. Since the BLDC motor serves as a secondary
unit, it reduces the running time of the ICE and the exhaust due to combustion of the fuel. The
basic design of IMA is to select the BLDC motor to be coupled with the engine based on the
engine specifications and battery which operates the motor. The sensors and the microcontroller
are selected to control IMA system. Then installation, testing and validation of IMA are carried
out.
 CHAPTER III

3.1 PROBLEM DEFINITION

In electric vehicle when a battery is drained then the vehicle cannot be run. So we

propose a hybrid vehicle system which can be run using both gasoline and battery. An additional

system is proposed for hybrid vehicles using hub setup which is used to shift the operation of

hybrid vehicle from gasoline unit to battery unit based on speed range.

3.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM

In this proposed system a hybrid engine which is combination of hybrid power source
generally gasoline or electricity is implemented. The hub setup makes the smooth path changing
process. Here, the vehicle is initially started with the fuel engine and runs. When the speed is
reached to the particular level means the DC motor starts and the hub changed from fuel engine
to DC motor and runs. The solar panel setup is used to charge the battery on the vehicle.
Embedded based control system is used to control the whole system automatically.
 CHAPTER IV

4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

BATTERY CHARGING UNIT SLOAR PANEL

RELAY IGNITION SYSTEM

VOLTAGE REGULATOR

PIC 16F877

RELAY MOTOR
HALL EFFECT SENSOR

RELAY HUB SYSTEM

LCD

Fig 1 Block diagram of the proposed system

 CHAPTER V

5.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

SELT START MOTOR

RL1
D1 12V
DIODE

Q1
BC547
R2
4k7

U1
13
OSC1/CLKIN RB0/INT
33 DC MOTOR
14 34
OSC2/CLKOUT RB1
RB2
35 RL2
2
RA0/AN0 RB3/PGM
36 D2 12V
3 37 DIODE
RA1/AN1 RB4
4 38
RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF RB5
5 39
RA3/AN3/VREF+ RB6/PGC
6 40
RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT RB7/PGD
7
RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT Q2
15 BC547
RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI
8 16
RE0/AN5/RD RC1/T1OSI/CCP2
9 17
RE1/AN6/WR RC2/CCP1
10 18
RE2/AN7/CS RC3/SCK/SCL
RC4/SDI/SDA
23 FUEL CONTROL
1 24
MCLR/Vpp/THV RC5/SDO
25 LCD1
RC6/TX/CK LM016L
26
RC7/RX/DT
19
RD0/PSP0
20
RD1/PSP1
R1 21
RD2/PSP2
22
RD3/PSP3
4k7 27
RD4/PSP4
RD5/PSP5
28 RL3
VDD
VSS

VEE

29 D3
RW
RS

12V
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
RD6/PSP6
E

30 DIODE
RD7/PSP7
1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
PIC16F877A

Q3
BC547
 CHAPTER VI

BLOCK DESCRIPTION

6.1 MICROCONTROLLER

6.1.1 Introduction

Microcontroller is a general purpose device, which integrates a number of the

components of a microprocessor system on to single chip. It has inbuilt CPU, memory and
peripherals to make it as a mini computer. A microcontroller combines on to the same microchip

The CPU core

Memory(both ROM and RAM)
Some parallel digital i/o
Microcontrollers will combine other devices such as:

A timer module to allow the microcontroller to perform tasks for certain time periods.
A serial i/o port to allow data to flow between the controller and other devices such as
a PIC or another microcontroller.
An ADC to allow the microcontroller to accept analogue input data for processing.
Microcontrollers are:

Smaller in size
Consumes less power
Inexpensive
Micro controller is a standalone unit, which can perform functions on its own without any
requirement for additional hardware like I/O ports and external memory. The heart of the
microcontroller is the CPU core. In the past, this has traditionally been based on a 8-bit
microprocessor unit. For example Motorola uses a basic 6800 microprocessor core in their
6805/6808 microcontroller devices.
 In the recent years, microcontrollers have been developed around specifically designed CPU
cores, for example the microchip PIC range of microcontrollers.

6.1.2 Evolution of PIC:

The microcontroller that has been used for this project is from PIC series. PIC
microcontroller is the first RISC based microcontroller fabricated in CMOS (complementary
metal oxide semiconductor) that uses separate bus for instruction and data allowing simultaneous
access of program and data memory. The main advantage of CMOS and RISC combination is
low power consumption resulting in a very small chip size with a small pin count. The main
advantage of CMOS is that it has immunity to noise than other fabrication techniques.

(i) PIC (16F877):

Various microcontrollers offer different kinds of memories. EEPROM, EPROM, FLASH

etc. are some of the memories of which FLASH is the most recently developed. Technology that
is used in pic16F877 is flash technology, so that data is retained even when the power is switched
off. Easy Programming and Erasing are other features of PIC 16F877.The PIC start plus
development system from microchip technology provides the product development engineer with
a highly flexible low cost microcontroller design tool set for all microchip PIC micro devices.
The picstart plus development system includes PIC start plus development programmer The PIC
start plus programmer gives the product developer ability to program user software in to any of
the supported microcontrollers.

(ii) Features of PIC:

High-performance RISC CPU

Only 35 single word instructions to learn

All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle

Operating speed:

DC - 20 MHz clock input

 DC - 200 ns instruction cycle

Power-on Reset (POR)

Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)

Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC Oscillator for reliable operation

Programmable code-protection

Selectable oscillator options

In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via two pins

Only single 5V source needed for programming capability

Wide operating voltage range: 2.5V to 5.5V

High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA

Low-power consumption:

(iii) Pin Diagram of PIC 16F877A:

The complete architecture of PIC 16F877Ais shown in the figure gives details about the
specifications of PIC 16F877A.

Fig 2 Pin Diagram

a) Pin Description

The most pins of PIC Microcontroller are

multifunctional are multi- functional.

RA3 Port A third digital input/output

AN3 Third analog input
Vref+ Positive voltage reference
C1IN+ Comparator C1positive input
 This small trick is often used because it makes the microcontroller package more compact
without affecting its functionality. These various pin functions cannot be used simultaneously,
but can be changed at any point during operation.

Table 1 Ports of PIC 16F877

Port name No. of I/O pins Use of ports

Port A 6 Pins A/D converter inputs
Port B 8 Pins External interrupt source
Port C 8 Pins Serial ports, Timer I/O
Port D 8 Pins Parallel Slave Port
Port E 3 Pins A/D converter inputs

(iv) Architecture of PIC 16f877a:

 Fig 3 Architecture of PIC 16F877

(v) I/O Ports:

 Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the peripheral

features on the device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin may not be used as a

general purpose I/O pin. PORTA is a 6-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data

direction register is TRISA. Setting a TRISA bit (=1) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an

input, i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a Hi-impedance mode. Clearing a TRISA bit

(=0) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an output, i.e., put the contents of the output latch

on the selected pin. Reading the PORTA register reads the status of the pins whereas writing to it

will write to the port latch. All write operations are read-modify-write operations. Therefore a

write to a port implies that the port pins are read; this value is modified, and then written to the

port data latch. Multiplexed with the Timer0 module clock input to become the RA4/T0CKI pin.

The RA4/T0CKI pin is a Schmitt Trigger input and an open drain output. All other RA port pins

have TTL input levels and full CMOS output drivers. Other PORTA pins are multiplexed with

analog inputs and analog VREF input. The operation of each pin is selected by clearing/setting

the control bits in the ADCON1 register (A/D Control Register1). The TRISA register controls

the direction of the RA pins, even when they are being used as analog inputs. The user must

ensure the bits in the TRISA register are maintained set when using them as analog inputs.

PORTB is an 8-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISB.

Setting a TRISB bit (=1) will make the corresponding PORT B pin an input put the

corresponding output driver in a hi-impedance mode. Clearing a TRISB bit (=0) will make the

corresponding PORTB pin an output, i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin.

Three pins of PORTB are multiplexed with the Low Voltage Programming function.

a PORTA and the TRISA register

 The RA4 pin is a Schmitt Trigger input and an open drain output. All other RA port pins
have TTL input levels and full CMOS output drivers. All pins have data direction bits TRIS
registers) which can configure these pins as output or input. Setting a TRISA register bit puts the
corresponding output driver in a hi-impedance mode. Clearing bit in the TRISA register puts the
contents of the output latch on the selected pin(s).

(b) PORTB and the TRISB register

PORTB is an 8-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data direction register is
TRISB. Setting a bit in the TRISB register puts the corresponding output driver in a high-
impedance input mode. Clearing a bit in the TRISB register puts the contents of the output latch
on the selected pin(s).

(c) PORTC and the TRISC register

PORTC is an 8-bit bi-directional port. Each pin is individually configurable as an input or

output through the TRISC register. PORTC pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers.

When enabling peripheral functions, care should be taken in defining TRIS bits for each
PORTC pin. Some peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an output, while other
peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an input.

(d) PORT D and the TRISD register

PORTD is an 8-bit port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is individually
configurable as an input or output.

(e) PORTE and the TRISE register

PORTE can be up to an 8-bit port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is
individually configurable as an input or output.

(vi) Memory Organization:

 There are three memory blocks in each of the PIC16F877 MUCs. The program memory
and Data Memory have separate buses so that concurrent access can occur.

(a) Program Memory:

The PIC16f877 devices have a 13-bit program counter capable of addressing 8K *14
words of flash program memory. Accessing a location above the physically implemented address
will cause a wraparound. The reset vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector is at 0004h.
(b) Data Memory:

The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which contain the General Purpose
Registers and the special functions Registers. Bits RP1 (STATUS<6) and RP0 (STATUS<5>)
are the bank selected bits.

Table 2 Bank selection of PIC 16F877

RP1:RP0 Banks
00 0
01 1
10 2
11 3

Each bank extends up to 7Fh (1238 bytes). The lower locations of each bank are reserved
for the Special Function Registers. Above the Special Function Registers are General Purpose
Registers, implemented as static RAM. All implemented banks contain special function
registers. Some frequently used special function registers from one bank may be mirrored in
another bank for code reduction and quicker access.

(vii) Instruction Set Summary:

Each PIC 16f877 instruction is a 14-bit word, divided into an opcode which specifies the
instruction type and one or more operand which further specify the operation of the instruction.
The PIC16F877 instruction set summary byte-oriented, bit-oriented, and literal and control
operations. It shows the opcode Field descriptions. For bit-oriented instructions, b represents a
bit field designator which selects the number of the bit affected by the operation, which f
represents the address of the file in which the bits is located. For literal and control operations,
k represents an eight or eleven bit constant or literal value. The instruction set is highly
orthogonal and is grouped into three basic categories:

Byte-oriented operations

Bit-oriented operations

Literal and control operations

All instructions are executed within one single instruction cycle, unless a conditional test
is true or the program counter is changed as a result of an instruction. In this case, the execution
takes two instruction cycles with the second cycle executed as a NOP. One instruction cycle
consists of four oscillator periods. Thus, for an oscillator frequency of 4 MHz, the normal
instruction execution time is 1ms.If a conditional test is true or the program counter is changed
as a result of an instruction, then the instruction execution time is 2ms.

(a) Byte-Oriented Operations

This type of instructions, 'f' represents a file register designator and 'd' represents a
destination designator. The file register designator specifies which file register is to be used by
the instruction. The destination designator specifies where the result of the operation is to be
placed. Ifd is zero, the result is placed in the W register. Ifd is one, the result is placed in the
file register specified in the instruction.

(b) Bit-Oriented Operations

These instructions, 'b' represents a bit field designator which selects the number of the bit
affected by the operation, while 'f' represents the number of the file in which the bit is located.

(c) Literal and Control Operations

 All instructions are executed in one single instruction cycle, unless a conditional test is
true or the program counter is changed as a result of an instruction. In these cases, the execution
takes two instruction cycles with the second cycle executed as an NOP. One instruction cycle
consists of four oscillator periods. Thus, for an oscillator frequency of 4 MHz, the normal
instruction execution time is 1ms. If a conditional test is true or the program counter is changed
as a result of an instruction, the instruction execution time is 2ms.

i Status Register as Destination

If an instruction writes to the STATUS register, the Z, C, DC and OV bits may be set or
cleared as a result of the instruction and overwrite the original data bits written. For example,
executing CLRF STATUS will clear register STATUS, and then set the Z bit leaving 0000 0100b
in the register.

(ii) PCL as Source or Destination

Read, write or read-modify-write on PCL may have the following results:

Read PC: PCL dest; PCLATH does not change;

Write PCL: PCLATH PCH;

8-bit destination value PCL

Read-Modify-Write: PCLALU operand

PCLATH PCH;

8-bit resultPCL

Where PCH = program counter high byte (not an addressable register), PCLATH =
Program counter high holding latch, dest = destination, W register or register file f.

(iii) Bit Manipulation

 All bit manipulation instructions will first read the entire register, operate on the selected
bit and then write the result back (read-modify-write (R-M-W)) the specified register. The user
should keep this in mind when operating on some special function registers, such as ports.

Note:

Status bits that are manipulated by the device (including the interrupt flag bits) are set or
cleared in the Q1 cycle. So there is no issue with executing R-M-W instructions on registers
which contain these bits.

(viii) Q Cycle Activity

Each instruction cycle (Tcy) is comprised of four Q cycles (Q1-Q4). The Q cycle is the
same as the device oscillator cycle (TOSC). The Q cycles provide the timing/designation for the
Decode, Read, Process Data, Write etc., of each instruction cycle. The following diagram shows
the relationship of the Q cycles to the instruction cycle.

The four Q cycles that make up an instruction cycle (Tcy) can be generalized as:

Q1: Instruction Decode Cycle or forced No Operation

Q2: Instruction Read Cycle or No Operation

Q3: Process the Data

Q4: Instruction Write Cycle or No Operation

Each instruction will show the detailed Q cycle operation for the instruction.

Fig 4 Q cycle activity

6.2 SOLAR PANEL

6.2.1 Introduction

Solar panel refers either to a photovoltaic module, a solar hot water panel, or to a set of
solar photovoltaic (PV) modules electrically connected and mounted on a supporting structure. A
PV module is a packaged, connected assembly of solar cells. Solar panels can be used as a
component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and
residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test
conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts. The efficiency of a module
determines the area of a module given the same rated output an 8% efficient 230 watt module
will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt module. There are a few solar panels
available that are exceeding 19% efficiency. A single solar module can produce only a limited
amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically
includes a panel or an array of solar modules, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and/or solar
tracker and interconnection wiring.

6.2.2 Theory and Construction

Solar modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through
the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-
film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying) member of a
module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from
mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are
available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar modules were first used in space in 1958.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to
provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current off the modules
may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals. The cells must be
connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular terrestrial
usage photovoltaic modules use MC3(older) or MC4 connectors to facilitate easy weatherproof
connections to the rest of the system.
 Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module shading,
to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated. Some recent solar module designs
include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller
cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a
cost-effective way.

6.2.3 Efficiency

Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range

of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range
(specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the
incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies if
illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into
different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This
has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. Scientists from Spectrolab, a
subsidiary of Boeing, have reported development of multifunction solar cells with an efficiency
of more than 40%, a new world record for solar photovoltaic cells. The Spectrolab scientists also
predict that concentrator solar cells could achieve efficiencies of more than 45% or even 50% in
the future, with theoretical efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more than three junctions.

Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is around
21.5% in new commercial products typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation.
The most efficient mass-produced solar modules have power density values of up to
175 W/m2 (16.22 W/ft2). Research by Imperial College, London has shown that the efficiency of
a solar panel can be improved by studding the light-receiving semiconductor surface
with aluminum nanocylinders similar to the ridges on Lego blocks. The scattered light then
travels along a longer path in the semiconductor which means that more photons can be absorbed
and converted into current. Although these nanocylinders have been used previously (aluminum
was preceded by gold and silver), the light scattering occurred in the near infrared region and
visible light was absorbed strongly. Aluminum was found to have absorbed the ultraviolet part of
the spectrum, while the visible and near infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be scattered
by the aluminum surface. This, the research argued, could bring down the cost significantly and
improve the efficiency as aluminum is more abundant and less costly than gold and silver. The
research also noted that the increase in current makes thinner film solar panels technically
feasible without "compromising power conversion efficiencies, thus reducing material
consumption".

Efficiencies of solar panel can be calculated by MPP(Maximum power point) value

of solar panels
Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power by performing MPPT process:
solar inverter samples the output Power (I-V curve) from the solar cell and applies
the proper resistance (load) to solar cells to obtain maximum power.
MPP(Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage(V mpp) and
MPP current(I mpp): it is a capacity of the solar panel and the higher value can make
higher MPP.

Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel which produces more output than
normal panels which are wired in series with the output of the series determined by the lowest
performing panel (this is known as the "Christmas light effect"). Micro-inverters work
independently so each panel contributes its maximum possible output given the available
sunlight.

6.2.4 Crystalline Silicon Modules

Most solar modules are currently produced from solar cells made
of polycrystalline and monocrystalline silicon. In 2013, crystalline silicon accounted for more
than 90 percent of worldwide PV production.

6.2.5 Thin Film Modules

Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce a relatively high-
efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar technologies.

(i) Rigid Thin-Film Modules

 In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same
production line.The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical
connections are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The substrate or superstrate
is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of glass.

The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si tandem,
or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate of 6-12%.

(ii) Flexible Thin-Film Modules

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by
depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a substrate. If the substrate is
an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic integration can be used.

If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used. The
cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent colorless fluoropolymer on
the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate
on the other side. The only commercially available (in MW quantities) flexible module
uses amorphous silicon triple junction (from Unisolar).

So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on compound-

semiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in July 2008. The University of
Michigan's solar car that won the North American Solar Challenge in July 2008 used IMM thin-
film flexible solar cells.

The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the residential needs
are simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell technology progresses, the other base line
equipment such as the battery, inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be
compacted and unitized for residential use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the service
will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex parabolic reflectors and solar
concentrators are becoming the dominant technology.

Flexible thin-film panels are optimal for portable applications as they are much more
resistant to breakage than regular crystalline cells, but can be broken by bending them into a
sharp angle. They are also much lighter per square foot than standard rigid solar panels. The
global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in the overall PV
industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to 2019, surpassing 32 GW according
to a major new study by IntertechPira.

6.2.6 Smart Solar Modules

Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This enables
performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module individually, and the
measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault detection at module level. Some of
these solutions make use of power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to
maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems. As of about 2010, such electronics
can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section of a module
causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module to fall to zero, but not
having the output of the entire module fall to zero.

6.2.7 Module Performance and Aging

Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions

(STC): irradiance of 1,000 W/m, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25 C.

Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open circuit
voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power
voltage(VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, Wp, and module efficiency (%).

Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best suited to
charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar modules were only used to charge
batteries. The actual voltage output of the module changes as lighting, temperature and load
conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the module operates. Nominal
voltage allows users, at a glance, to make sure the module is compatible with a given system.

Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the module can produce when
not connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be measured with a meter directly on an
illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected cable.
 The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not
the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure approximately 1x2 meters
or 2x4 feet, will be rated from as low as 75 watts to as high as 350 watts, depending on their
efficiency. At the time of testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a
typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 watt increments, and either rate them at +/-
3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.

Solar modules must withstand rain, hail, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat and cold for
many years. Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a warranty that guarantees
electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25 years at 80%

6.2.8 Recycling

Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 97% of certain

semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Some private companies and non-profit organizations are currently engaged in take-back and
recycling operations for end-of-life modules.

Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:

Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are dismantled
manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and
the different fractions are separated - glass, plastics and metals. It is possible to
recover more than 80% of the incoming weight. This process can be performed by
flat glass recyclers since morphology and composition of a PV module is similar to
those flat glasses used in the building and automotive industry. The recovered glass
for example is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass insulation industry.
Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as the
use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor materials. For
cadmium telluride modules, the recycling process begins by crushing the module and
subsequently separating the different fractions. This recycling process is designed to
recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials
 contained. Some commercial-scale recycling facilities have been created in recent
years by private companies.

Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together manufacturers, recyclers
and researchers to look at the future of PV module recycling.

6.2.9 Mounting System

(i) Ground Mounted

Ground mounted photovoltaic systems are usually large, utility-scale solar power plants.
Their solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are attached to ground based
mounting supports.

Ground based mounting supports include:

Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in concrete.

Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the
solar module system in position and do not require ground penetration. This type of
mounting system is well suited for sites where excavation is not possible such as
capped landfills and simplifies decommissioning or relocation of solar module
systems.

(ii) Roof Mounting

Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by racks or
frames attached to roof-based mounting supports.

Roof-based mounting supports include:

Pole mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use additional rails
for attaching the module racking or frames.

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the
panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This mounting method
 allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on
the roof structure.

All wiring connecting adjacent solar modules to the energy harvesting equipment must be
installed according to local electrical codes and should be run in a conduit appropriate for the
climate conditions

(iii) Trackers

Fig 5 Solar modules mounted on solar trackers

Solar trackers increase the amount of energy produced per module at a cost of mechanical
complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the Sun and tilt or rotate the
modules as needed for maximum exposure to the light.

(iv) Fixed Racks

Fixed racks hold modules stationary as the sun moves across the sky. The fixed rack sets
the angle at which the module is held. Tilt angles equivalent to an installation's latitude are
common. Most of these fixed racks are set on poles above ground.

6.2.10 Solar Panel Maintenance

Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20 percent range, is reduced by dust,
grime, pollen, and other particulates that accumulate on the solar panel. "A dirty solar panel can
reduce its power capabilities by up to 30 percent in high dust/pollen or desert areas", says
Seamus Curran, associate professor of physics at the University of Houston and director of the
Institute for NanoEnergy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and assembly of
nanostructures.
 For non-self-cleaning solar arrays, regular cleaning from a professional window washing
company or by individuals can be performed on a regular schedule. According to A1 The Clear
Choice, a California based company that performs commercial solar panel cleaning services,
"Solar panels are similar to the windows in your car, home or business. They get dirty from rain,
dust, pollen, soot, smog, auto emissions, chimney ashes, bird droppings, leaves and other
environmental debris. This dirt and debris blocks sunlight from being absorbed into the panels,
decreasing their efficiency. The result is less energy for use in your business or for sale to your
utility company.

6.3 BATTERY

6.3.1 Introduction

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that

convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Each cell contains a positive terminal,
or cathode, and a negative terminal, or anode. Electrolytes allow ions to move between the
electrodes and terminals, which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode
materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Secondary(rechargeable batteries) can be
discharged and recharged multiple times; the original composition of the electrodes can be
restored by reverse current. Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used
to power hearing aids and wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby
power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

6.3.2 Principle of Operation

Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery consists of some
number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-cells connected in series by a conductive
electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative
electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell
includes electrolyte and the positive electrode to which cations (positively charged ions)
migrate. Redox reactions power the battery. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the
cathode during charging, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode during
discharge. The electrodes do not touch each other, but are electrically connected by
the electrolyte. Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to
flow between half-cells, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.

Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive
electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the

difference between the emfs of its half-cells. Thus, if the electrodes have emfs and , then

the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction
potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as

the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is
neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell.
Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in
magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage.

An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal
voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored
a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joules of work. In
actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge and the open circuit voltage also
decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting
graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal
arrangement employed.

The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the
chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinccarbon cells have different
chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have
different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. [17] The high electrochemical
potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or
more.

6.3.3 Categories and Types of Battery

Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms.

Primary batteries irreversibly transform chemical energy to electrical energy. When

the supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily restored to the battery.
Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions
reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, approximately restoring their
original composition.

Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to
operation by replacing the electrodes. Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due
to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal corrosion.

(i) Primary Batteries

Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly. These
are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used only
intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and
communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable
primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible
and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend
against attempting recharging primary cells.

In general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable
batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75
).Common types of disposable batteries include zinccarbon batteries and alkaline batteries.

(ii) Secondary Batteries

Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must be

charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the discharged state.
Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical
reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called
chargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the leadacid battery. This technology contains
liquid electrolyte in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area
be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging.
The leadacid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its low
manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common where its capacity (over
approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and handling issues. A common application
is the modern car battery, which can, in general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.

The sealed valve regulated leadacid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive
industry as a replacement for the leadacid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an
immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf
life. VRLA batteries immobilize the electrolyte. The two types are:

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass
matting.

Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are
useful in applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order of
increasing power density and cost) include nickelcadmium (NiCd), nickelzinc (NiZn), nickel
metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest share of the
dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher
capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment.

Recent developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL,

which allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector, nanoball batteries that allow for
a discharge rate about 100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-of-
charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. Low self-
discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.

6.3.4 Battery cell types

 Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical
processes and designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and
voltaic piles.

(i) Wet Cell

A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid
covers all internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to the
air. Wet cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool
for electrochemistry. They can be built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for
demonstrations of how electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as
a concentration cell is important in understanding corrosion.

Wet cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells (rechargeable).

Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniel cell were built as open-top glass jar
wet cells. Other primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid
cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells.
Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for switchgear,
telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel
cells have been used instead. These applications commonly use leadacid or nickel
cadmium cells.

(ii) Dry Cell

A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow.
Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation without spilling, as it contains no free
liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells were
typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful
handling to avoid spillage. Leadacid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the
dry cell until the development of the gel battery.

A common dry cell is the zinccarbon battery, sometimes called the dry Leclanch cell,
with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use the
same zincmanganese dioxide combination).
 A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form of a cylindrical pot, with
a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form
of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon
cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide,
the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs, the ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc
chloride.

(iii) Molten Salt

Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as
electrolyte. They operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.

(iv) Reserve

A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a
long period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding
electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to work. For example, a battery for
an electronic artillery fuze might be activated by the impact of firing a gun: The acceleration
breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve
batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage
(years). A water-activated battery for oceanographic instruments or military applications
becomes activated on immersion in water.

6.3.5 Battery Cell Performance

A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime
due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature.

(i) Capacity and Discharge

A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the rated voltage.
The more electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A small cell has less
capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry, although they develop the same open-circuit
voltage. Capacity is measured in units such as amp-hour (Ah).
 The rated capacity of a battery is usually expressed as the product of 20 hours multiplied
by the current that a new battery can consistently supply for 20 hours at 68 F (20 C), while
remaining above a specified terminal voltage per cell. For example, a battery rated at 100 Ah
can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at room temperature.

The fraction of the stored charge that a battery can deliver depends on multiple factors,
including battery chemistry, the rate at which the charge is delivered (current), the required
terminal voltage, the storage period, ambient temperature and other factors.

The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity. The relationship between current,
discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a typical range of
current values) by Peukert's law:

where

is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.

is the current drawn from battery (A).
is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.
is a constant around 1.3.

Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of the
capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible side reactions that consume
charge carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as internal self-discharge.
Further, when batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur, reducing capacity for
subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity is lost and the battery
stops producing power.

Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte
cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging at a low rate delivers
more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate.

Installing batteries with varying Ah ratings does not affect device operation (although it
may affect the operation interval) rated for a specific voltage unless load limits are exceeded.
High-drain loads such as digital cameras can reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline
batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2000 mAh for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not
sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.

(ii) C Rate

The C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being discharged. It is defined as
the discharge current divided by the theoretical current draw under which the battery would
deliver its rated capacity in one hour. A 1C discharge rate would deliver the battery's rated
capacity in 1 hour. A 2C discharge rate means it will discharge twice as fast (30 minutes). A 1C
discharge rate on a 1.6 Ah battery means a discharge current of 1.6 A. A 2C rate would mean a
discharge current of 3.2 A. Standards for rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity over a
4 hour, 8 hour or longer discharge time. Because of internal resistance loss and the chemical
processes inside the cells, a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated capacity in only one hour.
Types intended for special purposes, such as in a computer uninterruptible power supply, may be
rated by manufacturers for discharge periods much less than one hour.

6.3.6 Physical Component Changes

The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge
and discharge cycle, active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume; further
limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged.

Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be
charged before first use. Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have
only 15% discharge in a year.

Some deterioration occurs on each chargedischarge cycle. Degradation usually occurs

because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material detaches from
the electrodes.

Low-capacity NiMH batteries (17002000 mAh) can be charged some 1,000 times,
whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2500 mAh) last about 500 cycles. NiCd batteries
tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond
usable values.
(i) Charge/Discharge Speed

Fast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.

(ii) Overcharging

If a charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is likely,
damaging it.

(iii) Memory Effect

NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity
called "memory effect". The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although
similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.

6.4 REGULATOR

6.4.1 Introduction

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A

voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative
feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components.
Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.

Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power

supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the
output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed
at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent
of how much power is drawn from the line.

6.4.2 Electronic Voltage Regulator

 A simple voltage regulator can be made from a resistor in series with a diode (or series of
diodes). Due to the logarithmic shape of diode V-I curves, the voltage across the diode changes
only slightly due to changes in current drawn or changes in the input. When precise voltage
control and efficiency are not important, this design may work fine.

Feedback voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some fixed
reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element in such
a way as to reduce the voltage error. This forms a negative feedback control loop; increasing
the open-loop gain tends to increase regulation accuracy but reduce stability. (Stability is
avoidance of oscillation, or ringing, during step changes.) There will also be a trade-off between
stability and the speed of the response to changes.

If the output voltage is too low (perhaps due to input voltage reducing or load current
increasing), the regulation element is commanded, up to a point, to produce a higher output
voltageby dropping less of the input voltage (for linear series regulators and buck switching
regulators), or to draw input current for longer periods (boost-type switching regulators); if the
output voltage is too high, the regulation element will normally be commanded to produce a
lower voltage. However, many regulators have over-current protection, so that they will entirely
stop sourcing current (or limit the current in some way) if the output current is too high, and
some regulators may also shut down if the input voltage is outside a given range

6.4.3 Electromechanical Regulator

Fig 6 Electromechanical Regulator

 In electromechanical regulators, voltage regulation is easily accomplished by coiling the
sensing wire to make an electromagnet. The magnetic field produced by the current attracts a
moving ferrous core held back under spring tension or gravitational pull. As voltage increases, so
does the current, strengthening the magnetic field produced by the coil and pulling the core
towards the field. The magnet is physically connected to a mechanical power switch, which
opens as the magnet moves into the field. As voltage decreases, so does the current, releasing
spring tension or the weight of the core and causing it to retract. This closes the switch and
allows the power to flow once more.

If the mechanical regulator design is sensitive to small voltage fluctuations, the motion of
the solenoid core can be used to move a selector switch across a range of resistances or
transformer windings to gradually step the output voltage up or down, or to rotate the position of
a moving-coil AC regulator.

Early automobile generators and alternators had a mechanical voltage regulator using
one, two, or three relays and various resistors to stabilize the generator's output at slightly more
than 6 or 12 V, independent of the engine's rpm or the varying load on the vehicle's electrical
system. Essentially, the relay(s) employed pulse width modulation to regulate the output of the
generator, controlling the field current reaching the generator (or alternator) and in this way
controlling the output voltage produced.

The regulators used for DC generators (but not alternators) also disconnect the generator
when it was not producing electricity, thereby preventing the battery from discharging back into
the generator and attempting to run it as a motor. The rectifier diodes in an alternator
automatically perform this function so that a specific relay is not required; this appreciably
simplified the regulator design.

More modern designs now use solid state technology (transistors) to perform the same
function that the relays perform in electromechanical regulators

6.4.4 Automatic Voltage Regulator

 To control the output of generators (as seen in ships and power stations, or on oil rigs,
greenhouses and emergency power systems) automatic voltage regulators are used. This is an
active system. While the basic principle is the same, the system itself is more complex. An
automatic voltage regulator (or AVR for short) consist of several components such as diodes,
capacitors, resistors and potentiometers or even microcontrollers, all placed on a circuit board.
This is then mounted near the generator and connected with several wires to measure and adjust
the generator.

How an AVR works: In the first place the AVR monitors the output voltage and controls
the input voltage for the exciter of the generator. By increasing or decreasing the generator
control voltage, the output voltage of the generator increases or decreases accordingly. The AVR
calculates how much voltage has to be sent to the exciter numerous times a second, therefore
stabilizing the output voltage to a predetermined setpoint. When two or more generators are
powering the same system (parallel operation) the AVR receives information from more
generators to match all output.

6.4.5 AC Voltage Stabilizer

(i) Coil-rotation AC Voltage Regulator

Fig 7 Rotating coil AC voltage regulator

This is an older type of regulator used in the 1920s that uses the principle of a fixed-
position field coil and a second field coil that can be rotated on an axis in parallel with the fixed
coil, similar to a variocoupler.
 When the movable coil is positioned perpendicular to the fixed coil, the magnetic forces
acting on the movable coil balance each other out and voltage output is unchanged. Rotating the
coil in one direction or the other away from the center position will increase or decrease voltage
in the secondary movable coil.

This type of regulator can be automated via a servo control mechanism to advance the
movable coil position in order to provide voltage increase or decrease. A braking mechanism or
high ratio gearing is used to hold the rotating coil in place against the powerful magnetic forces
acting on the moving coil.

(ii) Electromechanical

Electromechanical regulators called voltage stabilizers or tap-changers have also been

used to regulate the voltage on AC power distribution lines. These regulators operate by using
a servomechanism to select the appropriate tap on an autotransformer with multiple taps, or by
moving the wiper on a continuously variable auto transformer. If the output voltage is not in the
acceptable range, the servomechanism switches the tap, changing the turns ratio of the
transformer, to move the secondary voltage into the acceptable region. The controls provide
a dead band wherein the controller will not act, preventing the controller from constantly
adjusting the voltage ("hunting") as it varies by an acceptably small amount.

(iii) PWM Static Voltage Regulator

This is the latest technology of voltage regulation to provide real-time control of voltage
fluctuation, sag, surge and also to control other power quality issues such as spikes & EMI/RFI
electrical noises. This uses an IGBT regulator engine generating PWM AC voltage at high
switching frequency. This AC PWM wave is superimposed on the main incoming wave through
a buck-boost transformer, to provide precisely regulated AC voltage. The regulation in this
technology is instantaneous, thus making it suitable for electronic machines which need precise
regulated power.
6.4.6 DC Voltage Stabilizer

Many simple DC power supplies regulate the voltage using either series or shunt
regulators, but most apply a voltage reference using a shunt regulator such as a Zener diode,
avalanche breakdown diode, or voltage regulator tube. Each of these devices begins conducting
at a specified voltage and will conduct as much current as required to hold its terminal voltage to
that specified voltage by diverting excess current from a non-ideal power source to ground, often
through a relatively low-value resistor to dissipate the excess energy. The power supply is
designed to only supply a maximum amount of current that is within the safe operating capability
of the shunt regulating device.

If the stabilizer must provide more power, the shunt regulator output is only used to
provide the standard voltage reference for the electronic device, known as the voltage stabilizer.
The voltage stabilizer is the electronic device, able to deliver much larger currents on demand.

6.4.7 Active Regulator

Active regulators employ at least one active (amplifying) component such as a transistor or
operational amplifier. Shunt regulators are often (but not always) passive and simple, but always
inefficient because they (essentially) dump the excess current not needed by the load. When
more power must be supplied, more sophisticated circuits are used. In general, these active
regulators can be divided into several classes:

Linear series regulators

Switching regulators
SCR regulators

(i) Linear Regulators

Linear regulators are based on devices that operate in their linear region (in contrast, a
switching regulator is based on a device forced to act as an on/off switch). In the past, one or
more vacuum tubes were commonly used as the variable resistance. Modern designs use one or
more transistors instead, perhaps within an Integrated Circuit. Linear designs have the advantage
of very "clean" output with little noise introduced into their DC output, but are most often much
less efficient and unable to step-up or invert the input voltage like switched supplies. All linear
regulators require a higher input than the output. If the input voltage approaches the desired
output voltage, the regulator will "drop out".

The input to output voltage differential at which this occurs is known as the regulator's
drop-out voltage. Low-dropout regulators, or LDOs, allow an input voltage that can be much
lower, i.e. they waste less energy than conventional linear regulators. Entire linear regulators are
available as integrated circuits. These chips come in either fixed or adjustable voltage types.

(ii) Switching Regulators

Switching regulators rapidly switch a series device on and off. The duty cycle of the
switch sets how much charge is transferred to the load. This is controlled by a similar feedback
mechanism as in a linear regulator. Because the series element is either fully conducting, or
switched off, it dissipates almost no power; this is what gives the switching design its efficiency.
Switching regulators are also able to generate output voltages which are higher than the input, or
of opposite polarity something not possible with a linear design.

Like linear regulators, nearly complete switching regulators are also available as
integrated circuits. Unlike linear regulators, these usually require one external component: an
inductor that acts as the energy storage element.

(iii) SCR Regulators

Regulators powered from AC power circuits can use silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs)
as the series device. Whenever the output voltage is below the desired value, the SCR is
triggered, allowing electricity to flow into the load until the AC mains voltage passes through
zero (ending the half cycle). SCR regulators have the advantages of being both very efficient and
very simple, but because they cannot terminate an on-going half cycle of conduction, they are
not capable of very accurate voltage regulation in response to rapidly changing loads. An
alternative is the SCR shunt regulator which uses the regulator output as a trigger, both series and
shunt designs are noisy, but powerful, as the device has a low on resistance.

(iv) Combination (Hybrid) Regulators

Many power supplies use more than one regulating method in series. For example, the
output from a switching regulator can be further regulated by a linear regulator. The switching
regulator accepts a wide range of input voltages and efficiently generates a (somewhat noisy)
voltage slightly above the ultimately desired output. That is followed by a linear regulator that
generates exactly the desired voltage and eliminates nearly all the noise generated by the
switching regulator. Other designs may use an SCR regulator as the "pre-regulator", followed by
another type of regulator. An efficient way of creating a variable-voltage, accurate output power
supply is to combine a multi-tapped transformer with an adjustable linear post-regulator.

6.5 HALL EFFECT SENSOR

6.5.1 Introduction

A Hall Effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to
a magnetic field. Hall Effect sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed
detection, and current sensing applications. In its simplest form, the sensor operates as
an analog transducer, directly returning a voltage. With a known magnetic field, its distance from
the Hall plate can be determined. Using groups of sensors, the relative position of the magnet can
be deduced.

Frequently, a Hall sensor is combined with circuitry that allows the device to act in a
digital (on/off) mode, and may be called a switch in this configuration. Commonly seen in
industrial applications such as the pictured pneumatic cylinder, they are also used in consumer
equipment; for example some computer printers use them to detect missing paper and open
covers. When high reliability is required, they are used in keyboards.

Hall sensors are commonly used to time the speed of wheels and shafts, such as
for internal combustion engine ignition timing, tachometers and anti-lock braking systems. They
are used in brushless DC electric motors to detect the position of the permanent magnet. In the
pictured wheel with two equally spaced magnets, the voltage from the sensor will peak twice for
each revolution. This arrangement is commonly used to regulate the speed of disk drives.

6.5.2 Hall probe

A Hall probe contains an indium compound semiconductor crystal such as indium

antimonide, mounted on an aluminum backing plate, and encapsulated in the probe head. The
plane of the crystal is perpendicular to the probe handle. Connecting leads from the crystal are
brought down through the handle to the circuit box.

When the Hall probe is held so that the magnetic field lines are passing at right angles
through the sensor of the probe, the meter gives a reading of the value of magnetic flux density
(B). A current is passed through the crystal which, when placed in a magnetic field has a "Hall
effect" voltage developed across it. The Hall effect is seen when a conductor is passed through a
uniform magnetic field. The natural electron drift of the charge carriers causes the magnetic field
to apply a Lorentz force (the force exerted on a charged particle in an electromagnetic field) to
these charge carriers. The result is what is seen as a charge separation, with a buildup of either
positive or negative charges on the bottom or on the top of the plate. The crystal measures 5 mm
square. The probe handle, being made of a non-ferrous material, has no disturbing effect on the
field. A Hall probe should be calibrated against a known value of magnetic field strength. For
a solenoid the Hall probe is placed in the center.

6.5.3 Working principle

When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the
particles and the beam is deflected from its straight path. The flowing electron through a
conductor is known as beam of charged carriers. When a conductor is placed in a magnetic field
vertical to the way of the electrons, they will be deflected from its straight movement. As a
consequence, one plane of the conductor will be negative portion and the contrary side becomes
positive one. This paralleled voltage is called Hall Voltage.

When the force on the charged particles from the electric field balances the force
produced by magnetic field, the separation of them will stop. If the current is not changing, then
the Hall voltage is a measure of the magnetic flux density. Basically, there are two kinds of Hall
Effect Sensors. One is linear which means the output of voltage linearly depend on magnetic flux
density; while the other is called threshold which means there will be a sharp decrease of output
voltage at each magnetic flux density.

Fig 8 Commonly used circuit symbol

6.5.4 Signal processing and interface

Hall Effect sensors are linear transducers. As a result such sensors require a linear circuit
for processing of the sensor's output signal. Such a linear circuit:

provides a constant driving current to the sensors

amplifies the output signal

In some cases the linear circuit may cancel the offset voltage of Hall effect sensors.
Moreover, AC modulation of the driving current may also reduce the influence of this offset
voltage. Hall Effect sensors with linear transducers are commonly integrated with digital
electronics. This enables advanced corrections of the sensor's characteristics (e.g. temperature
coefficient corrections) and digital interfacing to microprocessor systems. In some solutions
of IC Hall effect sensors a DSP is used. The simplest digital processing circuit is an
electronic comparator enabling switch on/off operation, which is useful in industrial automation
applications. The Hall Effect sensor interfaces may include input diagnostics, fault protection for
transient conditions, and short/open circuit detection. It may also provide and monitor the current
to the Hall Effect sensor itself. There are precision IC products available to handle these features.

6.5.5 Advantage

A Hall Effect sensor may operate as an electronic switch.

Such a switch costs less than a mechanical switch and is much more reliable.
It can be operated up to 100 kHz.
It does not suffer from contact bounce because a solid state switch with hysteresis is
used rather than a mechanical contact.
It will not be affected by environmental contaminants since the sensor is in a sealed
package. Therefore it can be used under severe conditions.

In the case of linear sensor (for the magnetic field strength measurements), a Hall effect sensor:

can measure a wide range of magnetic fields

is available that can measure either North or South pole magnetic fields
can be flat

6.5.6 Disadvantage

Hall Effect sensors provide much lower measuring accuracy than fluxgate
magnetometers or magneto resistance based sensors. Moreover, Hall Effect sensors drift
significantly, requiring compensation.

6.5.6 Application
(i) Position Sensing

Sensing the presence of magnetic object (connected with the position sensing) is the most
common industrial application of Hall Effect sensors, especially these operating in the switch
mode (on/off mode). The Hall Effect sensors are also used in the brushless DC motor to sense the
position of the rotor and to switch the transistor in the right sequence.

(ii) DC current transformers

Hall Effect sensors may be utilized for contactless measurements of DC current in current
transformers. In such a case the Hall Effect sensor is mounted in the gap in magnetic core around
the current conductor. As a result, the DC magnetic flux can be measured, and the DC current in
the conductor can be calculated.

(iii) Automotive fuel level indicator

The Hall sensor is used in some automotive fuel level Indicators. The main principle of
operation of such indicator is position sensing of a floating element.
This can either be done by using a vertical float magnet or a rotating lever sensor.

In a vertical float system a permanent magnet is mounted on the surface of a floating

object. The current carrying conductor is fixed on the top of the tank lining up with
the magnet. When the level of fuel rises, an increasing magnetic field is applied on
the current resulting in higher Hall voltage. As the fuel level decreases, the Hall
voltage will also decrease. The fuel level is indicated and displayed by proper signal
condition of Hall voltage.
In a rotating lever sensor a diametrically magnetized ring magnet rotates about a
linear hall sensor. The sensor only measures the perpendicular (vertical) component
of the field. The strength of the field measured correlates directly to the angle of the
lever and thus the level of the fuel tank.

6.6 RELAY

6.6.1 Introduction
 A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
mechanically operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state
relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with
complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits
must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as
amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another
circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform
logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric
motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with
no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with
calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect
electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are
performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

6.6.2 Basic Design and Operation

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core,
an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature,
and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to
the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by
a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this
condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open.
Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in
the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the
circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit
board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
activates the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes or
breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts
was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched
off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its
relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage
application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise
generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive
relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting
of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubbercircuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed
to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to
the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum pull
on the armature during the AC cycle.

Fig 9 Simple electromechanical relay.

6.7 DC MOTOR

6.7.1 Introduction
 A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts direct current electrical
power into mechanical power. The most common types rely on the forces produced by magnetic
fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or
electronic; to periodically change the direction of current flow in part of the motor. Most types
produce rotary motion; a linear motor directly produces force and motion in a straight line.

DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from direct-
current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor can have is speed controlled over a
wide range, using a variable supply voltage or by changing the strength of current in its field
windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can
operate on direct current but is a lightweight motor used for portable power tools and appliances.
Larger DC motors are used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives for
steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made replacement of DC motors with AC
motors possible in many applications.

6.7.2 Principle of DC Motor

This DC or direct current motor works on the principal, when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque and has a tendency to move. This
is known as motoring action. If the direction of current in the wire is reversed, the direction of
rotation also reverses. When magnetic field and electric field interact they produce a mechanical
force, and based on that the working principle of dc motor established. The direction of rotation
of a this motor is given by Flemings left hand rule, which states that if the index finger, middle
finger and thumb of your left hand are extended mutually perpendicular to each other and if the
index finger represents the direction of magnetic field, middle finger indicates the direction of
current, then the thumb represents the direction in which force is experienced by the shaft of
the dc motor.
 Fig 10 principle of DC motor

6.7.3 Electromagnetic Motor

A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic field aligned
with the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the magnetic field produced by the
coil can be changed with the direction and magnitude of the current flowing through it.

A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an armature with one
more windings of insulated wire wrapped around a soft iron core that concentrates the magnetic
field. The windings usually have multiple turns around the core, and in large motors there can be
several parallel current paths. The ends of the wire winding are connected to a commutator. The
commutator allows each armature coil to be energized in turn and connects the rotating coils with
the external power supply through brushes.

The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's wrapped around
dictate the strength of the electromagnetic field created. The sequence of turning a particular coil
on or off dictates what direction the effective electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on
and off coils in sequence a rotating magnetic field can be created. These rotating magnetic fields
interact with the magnetic fields of the magnets (permanent or electromagnets) in the stationary
part of the motor (stator) to create a force on the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC
motor designs the stator fields use electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allow
greater control over the motor.

At high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air. Different
number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are connected provide different inherent
speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by changing
the voltage applied to the armature. The introduction of variable resistance in the armature circuit
or field circuit allowed speed control. Modern DC motors are often controlled by power
electronics systems which adjust the voltage by "chopping" the DC current into on and off cycles
which have an effective lower voltage.

Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often
used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. The DC motor was the
mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric and diesel-electric locomotives, street-
cars/trams and diesel electric drilling rigs for many years. The introduction of DC motors and
an electrical grid system to run machinery starting in the 1870s started a new second Industrial
Revolution. DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive
power for the first electric vehicles and today's hybrid cars and electric cars as well as driving a
host of cordless tools. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk
drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. Large DC motors with
separately excited fields were generally used with winder drives for mine hoists, for high torque
as well as smooth speed control using thyristor drives. These are now replaced with large AC
motors with variable frequency drives.

If external power is applied to a DC motor it acts as a DC generator, a dynamo. This

feature is used to slow down and recharge batteries on hybrid car and electric cars or to return
electricity back to the electric grid used on a street car or electric powered train line when they
slow down. This process is called regenerative braking on hybrid and electric cars. In diesel
electric locomotives they also use their DC motors as generators to slow down but dissipate the
energy in resistor stacks. Newer designs are adding large battery packs to recapture some of this
energy.

6.7.4 Brush

The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the
motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets (permanent or electromagnets), and
rotating electrical magnets.
 Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple
control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high intensity
uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the carbon brushes and springs which carry the
electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are
necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings
of the rotor inside the motor. Brushes consist of conductors.

6.7.5 Brushless

Typical brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and stationary
electrical current/coil magnets on the motor housing for the stator, but the symmetrical opposite
is also possible. A motor controller converts DC to AC. This design is simpler than that of
brushed motors because it eliminates the complication of transferring power from outside the
motor to the spinning rotor. Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no
maintenance, and high efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated
motor speed controllers. Some such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as "synchronous
motors" although they have no external power supply to be synchronized with, as would be the
case with normal AC synchronous motors.

6.7.6 Uncommutated

Other types of DC motors require no commutation.

Homopolar motor A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis of
rotation and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to the magnetic field.
The name homopolar refers to the absence of polarity change.
Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits them to very low
voltages. This has restricted the practical application of this type of motor.
Ball bearing motor A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that consists of
two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted on a common
conductive shaft, and the outer races connected to a high current, low voltage power
supply. An alternative construction fits the outer races inside a metal tube, while the
inner races are mounted on a shaft with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on
 an insulating rod). This method has the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel.
The direction of rotation is determined by the initial spin which is usually required to
get it going.
6.7.7 Permanent Magnet Stator

A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs to
provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque.
Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve
commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM
fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the
field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings.
Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings
were more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well
as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.

To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets
made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy.
With their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive
with all optimally designed singly fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature
motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles
(to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that
magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.

6.7.8 Wound Stator

There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor possible for
DC electric motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound (various blends of series and
shunt/parallel) and each has unique speed/torque characteristics appropriate for different loading
torque profiles/signatures.
 Fig 11 Types of wound stator

6.7.9 Series Connection

A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with
a common D.C. power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of load torque
and armature current; current is common to both the stator and rotor yielding current squared
(I^2) behavior. A series motor has very high starting torque and is commonly used for starting
high inertia loads, such as trains, elevators or hoists. This speed/torque characteristic is useful in
applications such as dragline excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly when unloaded
but slowly when carrying a heavy load.

With no mechanical load on the series motor, the current is low, the counter-EMF
produced by the field winding is weak, and so the armature must turn faster to produce sufficient
counter-EMF to balance the supply voltage. The motor can be damaged by over speed. This is
called a runaway condition.

Series motors called "universal motors" can be used on alternating current. Since the
armature voltage and the field direction reverse at (substantially) the same time, torque continues
to be produced in the same direction. Since the speed is not related to the line frequency,
universal motors can develop higher-than-synchronous speeds, making them lighter than
induction motors of the same rated mechanical output. This is a valuable characteristic for hand-
held power tools. Universal motors for commercial utility are usually of small capacity, not more
than about 1 kW output. However, much larger universal motors were used for electric
locomotives, fed by special low-frequency traction power networks to avoid problems with
commutation under heavy and varying loads.

(i) Shunt Connection

 A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt with a
common D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed regulation even as the load
varies, but does not have the starting torque of a series DC motor. It is typically used for
industrial, adjustable speed applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines.

(ii) Compound Connection

A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt and a series
combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series DC motor. This motor is used
when both a high starting torque and good speed regulation is needed. The motor can be
connected in two arrangements: cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors
connect the series field to aid the shunt field, which provides higher starting torque but less speed
regulation. Differential compound DC motors have good speed regulation and are typically
operated at constant speed.

6.9 BASIC ENGINE PARTS:

6.9.1 Introduction

The core of the engine is the cylinder, with the piston moving up and down inside the
cylinder. The engine described above has one cylinder. That is typical of most lawn mowers, but
most cars have more than one cylinder (four, six and eight cylinders are common). In a multi-
cylinder engine, the cylinders usually are arranged in one of three ways: inline, V or flat (also
known as horizontally opposed or boxer), as shown in the following figures.

Different configurations have different advantages and disadvantages in terms of

smoothness, manufacturing cost and shape characteristics. These advantages and disadvantages
make them more suitable for certain vehicles.

Almost all cars currently use what is called a four-stroke combustion cycle to convert gasoline
into motion. The four-stroke approach is also known as the Otto cycle, They are:
 Intake stroke
Compression stroke
Combustion stroke
Exhaust stroke

Fig 12 Parts of Engine

You can see in the figure that a device called a piston replaces the potato in the potato
cannon. The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod. As the crankshaft
revolves, it has the effect of "resetting the cannon." Here's what happens as the engine goes
through its cycle:

The piston starts at the top, the intake valve opens, and the piston moves down to let
the engine take in a cylinder-full of air and gasoline. This is the intake stroke. Only
the tiniest drop of gasoline needs to be mixed into the air for this to work.
Then the piston moves back up to compress this fuel/air mixture. Compression makes
the explosion more powerful.
When the piston reaches the top of its stroke, the spark plug emits a spark to ignite the
gasoline. The gasoline charge in the cylinder explodes, driving the piston down.
Once the piston hits the bottom of its stroke, the exhaust valve opens and
the exhaust leaves the cylinder to go out the tailpipe.
 Now the engine is ready for the next cycle, so it intakes another charge of air and gas.

Notice that the motion that comes out of an internal combustion engine is rotational,
while the motion produced by potato cannon is linear (straight line). In an engine the linear
motion of the pistons is converted into rotational motion by the crankshaft. The rotational motion
is nice because we plan to turn (rotate) the car's wheels with it anyway.
6.9.2 Basic parts of Engine

(i) Spark plug

The spark plug supplies the spark that ignites the air/fuel mixture so that combustion can
occur. The spark must happen at just the right moment for things to work properly.
A spark plug is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to the
combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by an
electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within the engine. A spark plug has a metal
threaded shell, electrically isolated from a central electrode by a porcelain insulator. The central
electrode, which may contain a resistor, is connected by a heavily insulated wire to the output
terminal of an ignition coil or magneto. The spark plugs metal shell is screwed into the engine's
cylinder head and thus electrically grounded. The central electrode protrudes through the
porcelain insulator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark gaps between the
inner end of the central electrode and usually one or more protuberances or structures attached to
the inner end of the threaded shell and designated the side, earth, or ground electrode(s).

Spark plugs may also be used for other purposes; in Saab Direct Ignition when they are
not firing, spark plugs are used to measure ionization in the cylinders - this ionic current
measurement is used to replace the ordinary cam phase sensor, knock sensor and misfire
measurement function. Spark plugs may also be used in other applications such as furnaces
wherein a combustible fuel/air mixture must be ignited. In this case, they are sometimes referred
to as flame igniters.
 (a) Operation:

Fig 13 Operation of spark plug

Components of a typical, four stroke cycle, DOHC piston engine.

(E) Exhaust camshaft

(I) Intake camshaft

(S) Spark plug

(V) Valves

(P) Piston

(R) Connecting rod

(C) Crankshaft

(W) Water jacket for coolant flow

 The plug is connected to the high voltage generated by an ignition coil or magneto. As the
electrons flow from the coil, a voltage difference develops between the central electrode and side
electrode. No current can flow because the fuel and air in the gap is an insulator, but as the
voltage rises further, it begins to change the structure of the gases between the electrodes. Once
the voltage exceeds the dielectric strength of the gases, the gases become ionized. The ionized
gas becomes a conductor and allows electrons to flow across the gap. Spark plugs usually require
voltage of 12,00025,000 volts or more to 'fire' properly, although it can go up to 45,000 volts.
They supply higher current during the discharge process resulting in a hotter and longer-duration
spark.

As the current of electrons surges across the gap, it raises the temperature of the spark
channel to 60,000 K. The intense heat in the spark channel causes the ionized gas to expand very
quickly, like a small explosion. This is the 'click' heard when observing a spark, similar to
lightning and thunder.

The heat and pressure force the gases to react with each other, and at the end of the spark event
there should be a small ball of fire in the spark gap as the gases burn on their own. The size of
this fireball or kernel depends on the exact composition of the mixture between the electrodes
and the level of combustion chamber turbulence at the time of the spark. A small kernel will
make the engine run as though the ignition timing was retarded, and a large one as though the
timing was advanced.

(b) Spark plug construction

A spark plug is composed of a shell, insulator and the central conductor. It passes through
the wall of the combustion chamber and therefore must also seal the combustion chamber against
high pressures and temperatures without deteriorating over long periods of time and extended
use.

Spark plugs are specified by size, either thread or nut (often referred to asEuro), sealing
type (taper or crush washer), and spark gap. Common thread (nut) sizes in Europe are 10 mm
(16 mm), 14 mm (21 mm; sometimes, 16 mm), and 18 mm (24 mm, sometimes, 21 mm).
 (c)Parts of the plug

(i) Terminal

The top of the spark plug contains a terminal to connect to the ignition system. The exact
terminal construction varies depending on the use of the spark plug. Most passenger car spark
plug wires snap onto the terminal of the plug, but some wires have eyelet connectors which are
fastened onto the plug under a nut. Plugs which are used for these applications often have the end
of the terminal serve a double purpose as the nut on a thin threaded shaft so that they can be used
for either type of connection.

(ii) Insulator

The main part of the insulator is typically made from sintered alumina, a very hard
ceramic material with high dielectric strength, printed with the manufacturer's name and
identifying marks, then glazed to improve resistance to surface spark tracking. Its major function
is to provide mechanical support and electrical insulation for the central electrode, while also
providing an extended spark path for flashover protection. This extended portion, particularly in
engines with deeply recessed plugs, helps extend the terminal above the cylinder head so as to
make it more readily accessible.

(iii) Ribs

By lengthening the surface between the high voltage terminal and the grounded metal
case of the spark plug, the physical shape of the ribs functions to improve the electrical
insulation and prevent electrical energy from leaking along the insulator surface from the
terminal to the metal case. The disrupted and longer path makes the electricity encounter more
resistance along the surface of the spark plug even in the presence of dirt and moisture. Some
spark plugs are manufactured without ribs; improvements in the dielectric strength of the
insulator make them less important.
 (iv) Insulator tip

On modern (post 1930s) spark plugs, the tip of the insulator protruding into the
combustion chamber is the same sintered aluminium oxide (alumina) ceramic as the upper
portion, merely unglazed. It is designed to withstand 650 C (1,200 F) and 60 kV.

The dimensions of the insulator and the metal conductor core determine the heat range of
the plug. Short insulators are usually "cooler" plugs, while "hotter" plugs are made with a
lengthened path to the metal body, though this also depends on the thermally conductive metal
core.Older spark plugs, particularly in aircraft, used an insulator made of stacked layers of mica,
compressed by tension in the centre electrode.

(v) Seals

Because the spark plug also seals the combustion chamber or the engine when installed,
seals are required to ensure there is no leakage from the combustion chamber. The internal seals
of modern plugs are made of compressed glass/metal powder, but old style seals were typically
made by the use of a multi-layer braze. The external seal is usually a crush washer, but some
manufacturers use the cheaper method of a taper interface and simple compression to attempt
sealing.

(vi) Metal case

The metal case (or the jacket, as many people call it) of the spark plug withstands the
torque of tightening the plug, serves to remove heat from the insulator and pass it on to the
cylinder head, and acts as the ground for the sparks passing through the central electrode to the
side electrode. Spark plug threads are cold rolled to prevent thermal cycle fatigue. Also, a marine
spark plug's shell is double-dipped, zinc-chromate coated metal.
 (vii) Central electrode

Fig 14 Central and lateral electrodes

The central electrode is connected to the terminal through an internal wire and commonly
a ceramic series resistance to reduce emission of RF noise from the sparking. The tip can be
made of a combination of copper, nickel-iron, chromium, or noble metals. In the late 1970s, the
development of engines reached a stage where the heat range of conventional spark plugs with
solid nickel alloy centre electrodes was unable to cope with their demands. A plug that was cold
enough to cope with the demands of high speed driving would not be able to burn off the carbon
deposits caused by stopstart urban conditions, and would foul in these conditions, making the
engine misfire. Similarly, a plug that was hot enough to run smoothly in town could melt when
called upon to cope with extended high speed running on motorways. The answer to this
problem, devised by the spark plug manufacturers, was to use a different material and design for
the centre electrode that would be able to carry the heat of combustion away from the tip more
effectively than a solid nickel alloy could. Copper was the material chosen for the task and a
method for manufacturing the copper-cored centre electrode.

The central electrode is usually the one designed to eject the electrons (the cathode, i.e.
negative polarity) because it is the hottest (normally) part of the plug; it is easier to emit
electrons from a hot surface, because of the same physical laws that increase emissions of vapor
from hot surfaces (see thermionic emission). In addition, electrons are emitted where the
electrical field strength is greatest; this is from wherever the radius of curvature of the surface is
smallest, from a sharp point or edge rather than a flat surface (see corona discharge). It would be
easiest to pull electrons from a pointed electrode but a pointed electrode would erode after only a
few seconds. Instead, the electrons emit from the sharp edges of the end of the electrode; as these
edges erode, the spark becomes weaker and less reliable.

At one time it was common to remove the spark plugs, clean deposits off the ends either
manually or with specialized sandblasting equipment and file the end of the electrode to restore
the sharp edges, but this practice has become less frequent for two reasons:

1. cleaning with tools such as a wire brush leaves traces of metal on the insulator which can
provide a weak conduction path and thus weaken the spark (increasing emissions)

2. plugs are so cheap relative to labor cost, economics dictate replacement, particularly with
modern long-life plugs.

The development of noble metal high temperature electrodes (using metals such as
yttrium, iridium, tungsten, or palladium, as well as the relatively high value platinum, silver or
gold) allows the use of a smaller center wire, which has sharper edges but will not melt or
corrode away. These materials are used because of their high melting points and durability, not
because of their electrical conductivity (which is irrelevant in series with the plug resistor or
wires). The smaller electrode also absorbs less heat from the spark and initial flame energy. At
one point, Firestone marketed plugs with polonium in the tip, under the (questionable) theory
that the radioactivity would ionize the air in the gap, easing spark formation.

(ii) Valves
 The intake and exhaust valves open at the proper time to let in air and fuel and to let out
exhaust. Note that both valves are closed during compression and combustion so that the
combustion chamber is sealed.

6.9.3 Engine with overhead camshaft

An overhead-cam (OHC) engine needs fewer parts to operate the valves. The cams act
directly on bucket tappets or on short levers - known as fingers - which in turn act directly on the
valve stems. The system dispenses with the extra weight and mechanical complexity of pushrods
and rocker arms.

A long chain is frequently used to drive the camshaft from a sprocket on the crankshaft,
but such a long chain tends to 'whip'. The problem is overcome in some designs by fitting
intermediate sprockets and two shorter drive chains, kept under tension. Another method uses a
non-stretch oil-resistant, toothed rubber drive belt which engages with toothed sprockets on the
camshaft and crankshaft.

The valve which allows mixture into the cylinder is the inlet valve; the one through
which the spent gases escape is the exhaust valve. They are designed to open and close at precise
moments, to allow the engine to run efficiently at all speeds. The operation is controlled by pear-
shaped lobes, called cams, on a rotating shaft, the camshaft, driven by a chain, a belt, or a set of
gears from the crankshaft.

Where the camshaft is mounted in the engine block, small metal cylinders tappets sit in
channels above each cam, and from the tappets metal pushrod extend up into the cylinder head.
The top of each pushrod meets a rocker arm which bears against the stem of a valve, which is
held in a raised (closed) position by a strong coiled spring the valve spring. As the pushrod rises
on the cam it pivots the rocker arm, which pushes the valve down (open) against the pressure of
its spring. As the cam lobe rotates further, the valve spring acts to close the valve. This is called
an overhead-valve (OHV) system.

Some engines have no pushrods; the valves are operated more directly by single or
double camshafts in the cylinder head itself the overhead-cam system.
 Fig 15 Overhead camshaft

6.9.4 Camshaft with pushrods

The overhead valve system (OHV) system, operated by pushrods, has the crankshaft
adjacent and parallel to the crankshaft in the cylinder block. As the crankshaft rotates, each valve
is opened by means of a tappet, pushrod and rocker arm. The valve is closed by spring pressure.
The camshaft drive-chain sprocket has twice as many teeth as the crankshaft sprocket, so that the
camshaft rotates at half engine speed.

As there are fewer moving parts between the camshaft and the valve, the overhead-cam
(OHC) method is more efficient and produces more power for a given engine capacity than an
engine with pushrods, because it can operate at higher speeds. With either system, there must be
some free play in the operating gear, so that the valve can still close completely when parts have
expanded through heat.A pre-set gap tappet clearance is essential between the valve stem and the
rocker arm or cam, to allow for expansion. Tappet clearances vary widely on different cars, and
faulty adjustment can have serious effects.

If the gap is too large, the valves open late and close early, reducing power and increasing
engine noise. Too small a clearance prevents the valves from closing properly, with a consequent
loss of compression. Some engines have self-adjusting tappets, which are hydraulically operated
by the engine oil pressure.
 Fig 16 Camshaft with pushrod

6.9.5 Piston

A piston is a cylindrical piece of metal that moves up and down inside the cylinder. A
piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and
pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component that is
contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to
transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or
connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to
the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines,
the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall.

(i) Trunk pistons

Trunk pistons are long, relative to their diameter. They act both as a piston and as a
cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for part of its rotation, there is also a side
force that reacts along the side of the piston against the cylinder wall. A longer piston helps to
support this.

Trunk pistons have been a common design of piston since the early days of the
reciprocating internal combustion engine. They were used for both petrol and diesel engines,
although high speed engines have now adopted the lighter weight slipper piston.
 A characteristic of most trunk pistons, particularly for diesel engines, is that they have a
groove for an oil ring below the gudgeon pin, not just the rings between the gudgeon pin and
crown. The name 'trunk piston' derives from the 'trunk engine', an early design of marine steam
engine. To make these more compact, they avoided the steam engine's usual piston rod and
separate crosshead and were instead the first engine design to place the gudgeon pin directly
within the piston. Otherwise these trunk engine pistons bore little resemblance to the trunk
piston: they were of extremely large diameter and were double-acting. Their 'trunk' was a narrow
cylinder placed mounted in the centre of this piston.

(ii) Crosshead pistons

Large slow-speed Diesel engines may require additional support for the side forces on the
piston. These engines typically use crosshead pistons. The main piston has a large piston rod
extending downwards from the piston to what is effectively a second smaller-diameter piston.
The main piston is responsible for gas sealing and carries the piston rings. The smaller piston is
purely a mechanical guide. It runs within a small cylinder as a trunk guide and also carries the
gudgeon pin.Because of the additional weight of these pistons, they are not used for high-speed
engines.

(iii) Slipper pistons

Fig 17 Slipper piston

A slipper piston is a piston for a petrol engine that has been reduced in size and weight as
much as possible. In the extreme case, they are reduced to the piston crown, support for the
piston rings, and just enough of the piston skirt remaining to leave two lands so as to stop the
piston rocking in the bore. The sides of the piston skirt around the gudgeon pin are reduced away
from the cylinder wall. The purpose is mostly to reduce the reciprocating mass, thus making it
easier to balance the engine and so permit high speeds. A secondary benefit may be some
reduction in friction with the cylinder wall, however as most of this is due to the parts of the
piston that are left behind, the benefit is minor.

(iv) Deflector pistons

Fig 18 Two-stroke deflector piston

Deflector pistons are used in two-stroke engines with crankcase compression, where the
gas flow within the cylinder must be carefully directed in order to provide efficient scavenging.
With cross scavenging, the transfer (inlet to the cylinder) and exhaust ports are on directly facing
sides of the cylinder wall. To prevent the incoming mixture passing straight across from one port
to the other, the piston has a raised rib on its crown. This is intended to deflect the incoming
mixture upwards, around the combustion chamber. Much effort, and many different designs of
piston crown, went into developing improved scavenging. The crowns developed from a simple
rib to a large asymmetric bulge, usually with a steep face on the inlet side and a gentle curve on
the exhaust. Despite this, cross scavenging was never as effective as hoped. Most engines today
use Schnuerle porting instead. This places a pair of transfer ports in the sides of the cylinder and
encourages gas flow to rotate around a vertical axis, rather than a horizontal axis.

6.9.6 Internal combustion engines

 An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the expanding
combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts
downwards through the connecting rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached
to the piston by a swiveling gudgeon pin (US: wrist pin). This pin is mounted within the piston:
unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead (except big two stroke engines).

The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, but free to move in the
connecting rod. A few designs use a 'fully floating' design that is loose in both components. All
pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder
wall, usually by circlips.

Gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of narrow iron
rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston, just below the crown. The rings are split at a point
in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of
ring are used: the upper rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing; lower rings have narrow
edges and a U-shaped profile, to act as oil scrapers. There are many proprietary and detail design
features associated with piston rings.

Pistons are cast from aluminum alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing
pistons may be forged instead. Early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits
for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive
engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and
Hiduminium, specifically for use as pistons.

A few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all internal
combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US submarine Pompano
was fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H.O.R. double-acting two-stroke diesel
engine. Although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine was not
repeated.

6.9.7 Steam engines

 Steam engines are usually double-acting (i.e. steam pressure acts alternately on each side
of the piston) and the admission and release of steam is controlled by slide valves, piston valves
or poppet valves. Consequently, steam engine pistons are nearly always comparatively thin discs:
their diameter is several times their thickness. (One exception is the trunk engine piston, shaped
more like those in a modern internal-combustion engine.)

(i) Piston rings

Piston rings provide a sliding seal between the outer edge of the piston and the inner edge
of the cylinder. The rings serve two purposes:

They prevent the fuel/air mixture and exhaust in the combustion chamber from leaking into
the sump during compression and combustion.
They keep oil in the sump from leaking into the combustion area, where it would be burned
and lost.

Most cars that "burn oil" and have to have a quart added every 1,000 miles are burning it
because the engine is old and the rings no longer seal things properly.

(ii) Connecting rod

The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It can rotate at both ends so that
its angle can change as the piston moves and the crankshaft rotates.
(iii) Crankshaft

The crankshaft turns the piston's up and down motion into circular motion just like a
crank on a jack-in-the-box does.
(iv) Sump

The sump surrounds the crankshaft. It contains some amount of oil, which collects in the
bottom of the sump (the oil pan).
 CHAPTER VIII

SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

7.1 EMBEDDEB C

7.1.1 Introduction

Embedded C is a set of language extensions for the C Programming language by the C

Standards committee to address commonality issues that exist between C extensions for
different embedded systems. Historically, embedded C programming requires nonstandard
extensions to the C language in order to support exotic features such as fixed-point arithmetic,
multiple distinct memory banks, and basic I/O operations.
 In 2008, the C Standards Committee extended the C language to address these issues by
providing a common standard for all implementations to adhere to. It includes a number of
features not available in normal C, such as, fixed-point arithmetic, named address spaces, and
basic I/O hardware addressing.

Embedded C uses most of the syntax and semantics of standard C, e.g., main() function,
variable definition, datatype declaration, conditional statements (if, switch, case), loops (while,
for), functions, arrays and strings, structures and union, bit operations, macros, etc.

7.1.2 Necessity

During infancy years of microprocessor based systems, programs were developed using
assemblers and fused into the EPROMs. There used to be no mechanism to find what the
program was doing. LEDs, switches, etc. were used to check for correct execution of the
program. Some very fortunate developers had In-circuit Simulators (ICEs), but they were too
costly and were not quite reliable as well. As time progressed, use of microprocessor-specific
assembly-only as the programming language reduced and embedded systems moved onto C as
the embedded programming language of choice. C is the most widely used programming
language for embedded processors/controllers. Assembly is also used but mainly to implement
those portions of the code where very high timing accuracy, code size efficiency, etc. are prime
requirements.

As assembly language programs are specific to a processor, assembly language didnt

offer portability across systems. To overcome this disadvantage, several high level languages,
including C, came up. Some other languages like PLM, Modula-2, Pascal, etc. also came but
couldnt find wide acceptance. Amongst those, C got wide acceptance for not only embedded
systems, but also for desktop applications. Even though C might have lost its sheen as
mainstream language for general purpose applications, it still is having a strong-hold in
embedded programming. Due to the wide acceptance of C in the embedded systems, various
kinds of support tools like compilers & cross-compilers, ICE, etc. came up and all this facilitated
development of embedded systems using C. Assembly language seems to be an obvious choice
for programming embedded devices. However, use of assembly language is restricted to
developing efficient codes in terms of size and speed. Also, assembly codes lead to higher
software development costs and code portability is not there. Developing small codes are not
much of a problem, but large programs/projects become increasingly difficult to manage in
assembly language. Finding good assembly programmers has also become difficult nowadays.
Hence high level languages are preferred for embedded systems programming.

7.1.3 Advantage

It is small and reasonably simpler to learn, understand, program and debug.

Compared to assembly language, C code written is more reliable and scalable, more
portable between different platform.
C compilers are available for almost all embedded devices in use today, and there is a
large pool of experienced C programmers.
Unlike assembly, C has advantage of processor-independence and is not specific to
any particular microprocessor/microcontroller or any system. This makes it
convenient for a user to develop programs that can run on most of the systems.
As C combines functionality of assembly language and features of high level
languages, C is treated as a middle-level computer language or high level assembly
language.
It is fairly efficient.
It supports access to I/O and provides ease of management of large embedded
projects.
Java is also used in many embedded systems but Java programs require the Java
Virtual Machine (JVM), which consumes a lot of resources. Hence it is not used for
smaller embedded devices.
7.2 PROGRAM CODE

#include <16F877A.h>

#device adc=8

#FUSES NOWDT //No Watch Dog Timer

#FUSES HS //High speed Osc (> 4mhz for PCM/PCH) (>10mhz for PCD)
#FUSES NOBROWNOUT //No brownout reset

#FUSES NOLVP //No low voltage prgming, B3(PIC16) or B5(PIC18) used for I/O

#use delay(clock=20000000)

#include "lcd_Driver.c"

int value; int speed;

void main()

lcd_init();

printf(lcd_putc,"\fHYBRID VEHICLE \n SYSTEM ");

delay_ms(3000);

setup_adc_ports(ALL_ANALOG);

setup_adc(ADC_CLOCK_INTERNAL);

while(TRUE)

set_adc_channel(0);

delay_ms(100);

value = read_adc();

speed = (value/3 );

lcd_gotoxy(1,1);
 printf(lcd_putc," SPEED = %02u KMPH ",speed);

delay_ms(300);

if(speed <= 35)

lcd_gotoxy(1,2);

printf(lcd_putc," FUEL MODE ");

delay_ms(100);

output_low(pin_b7);

output_high(pin_b6);

output_low(pin_b0);

else

lcd_gotoxy(1,2);

printf(lcd_putc," EV MODE ");

delay_ms(100);

output_high(pin_b7);

output_low(pin_b6);

output_high(pin_b0);

//TODO: User Code

}
 CHAPTER VIII

8.1 CONCLUSION

Renewable energy is the new trend of the times. Thus a hybrid power vehicle system
using hybrid engine which is the combination of gasoline and electricity is designed which is
very useful nowadays to save petroleum and also make use of renewable energy source to drive
vehicles. Additionally a hub setup is provided which is used for automatic mode change of the
vehicle from fuel system to battery system based on the speed limits of the DC motor of the
vehicle is also proposed in this module design. And a solar panel is used to charge the battery
system of the vehicle.
 CHAPTER IX

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