Avometers
and the
BBC
see page 8
ELECTRICAL
TESTER
How to diagnose
faulty cables, even
if youve tried
everything!
Friedrich Enkert
Europe/CIS Sales Director
While power cables sometimes fail soon after
being put into service into service e.g. caused by
bad workmanship, failure is usually associated
with ageing of the insulation in a cable that
has been in service for a long period and with
the associated cable joints. The fact that many
of these cables are underground present real
challenges to identify, locate and repair.
Megger acquires SebaKMT
In June 2012, Megger acquired SebaKMT, the world
leader in cable test equipment to add to its existing
expertise. While Megger launched the first dc insulation
resistance tester in the 19th century and also has a
range of earth ground testers and TDRs, it was a
predecessor company to SebaKMT that brought out the
first cable fault location equipment in the early 1950s.
A main aim of the acquisition is to offer customers a
better range of solutions than either company could
do on its own. Clearly, sharing the technologies of the
two companies will provide significant benefits for the
future.
Diagnostic testing
Its clear that there is a need for diagnostic
testing that will provide reliable information
about the insulation condition of a cable and
its susceptibility to failure. In theory, such
testing would best be carried out at power
frequency in order to replicate, as accurately
as possible, the normal working conditions of
the cable.
In practice, however, this approach is
problematic. Cables present a highly capacitive
load to the test set, which means that if
testing is carried out at power frequency, a
large amount of reactive power is required to
charge the cable. To meet this requirement, a
test set necessarily has to be physically large,
heavy and expensive. For this reason, power
Useful transients
Allen Joyce
HV and Cable Fault Location Product Manager
www.megger.com
Can you be Transforming
immune the rail
from noise? network
see page 2 see page 3
Published by Megger
October 2012
The industrys recognised information tool
frequency testing of cables is not commonly
used.
An alternative is dc testing, using an insulation
test set that typically operates at 1 or 5 kV.
Such test sets are small, convenient and
inexpensive, and when they are used to carry
out tests of suitable duration, typically a
minute, this is a particularly useful form of
testing as it is non-destructive and provides a
first-line insight into the condition of the cable
insulation.
It has to be said however, that
dc testing at these modest voltages,
while it provides a guide to the
presence or absence of serious
faults, it is less useful in providing
information about general degradation
and ageing of insulation. In addition,
this form of testing does not model
the cables normal working conditions
and does not, therefore, replicate
the stress distribution in the insulation
when the cable is operating at
power frequency.
Detection of insulation failures at
higher voltages may require high-
voltage tests, often at two or three
times the working voltage of the cable. There Trouble with trees? VLF could be the answer.
is however a serious concern that high-voltage
dc testing can unnecessarily damage the cable
under test. In particular, polarisation of the These problems and concerns led to the Types of very low frequency (VLF) test
insulation may course flashovers later when development of yet another approach to cable sets
the cable is going back to service testing the use of ac at very low frequency Commercially available VLF cable test sets can
The water tree problem, a problem many (VLF). Commonly, the frequency used is be divided into two categories: those that use
of the early cable types 0.1 Hz. At such a low frequency, the capacitive a test waveform that is sinusoidal, and those
Water trees start as minute inclusions of water reactance of even a long cable is relatively that use a cosine-rectangular waveform. The
vapour within the insulation at the production low, so the charging current is manageable advantage usually claimed for testing with
or installation phase, and grow into tree-like even for a conveniently small test set. sinusoidal technology is that it lends itself
structures. Water trees in themselves do not to being combined with other insulation
cause immediate cable failure, but the danger Because the test is carried out with alternating evaluation techniques, such as tan delta
is that a water tree may continue to develop current, the cable is not subject to a unipolar measurement and partial discharge (PD)
until the field stress in the remaining insulation applied voltage for long periods, so no polari- diagnostics.
is to high and an electrical tree is started. This sation will take place and the cable will not be
can lead to electrical leakage and failure of the damaged after putting back into operation. continue on page 2
cable insulation.
milliseconds. This in turn produces two waves ways to decouple and analyse these transients
Applying a sudden change in current also travelling in opposite directions. These waves including range-dependant arc reflection,
known as a transient can be useful in testing are reflected back at the cable ends so that differential arc reflection and impulse current
cables. Using an impulse generator (thumper) they then travel toward each other again in the emission. With the right TDR (time domain
and arc reflection filter, several methods of high direction of the cable fault. The waves are reflectometer) equipment, you will be able to
voltage fault prelocation are possible. If you unable to pass the fault because of the short identify breakdowns hundreds of kilometres
trigger a breakdown at the cable fault, you can circuit, so they are reflected back again as with away.
create a low-resistance short circuit for a few the arc reflection method. There are various
Megger ELECTRICAL TESTER October 2012 1

The industrys recognised information tool
Contents
Megger acquires SebaKMT ................ 1
Fredrich Enkert, Europe/CIS Sales Director
Useful transients................................ 1
Allen Joyce, HV and Cable Fault Location
Product Manager
Living with noise .................................2
Clive Pink, Product Manager
Putting PV to the test ........................ 2
Simon Wood, UK Wholesale and Distribution
Sales Manager
Never take a transformer for granted! 3
Tony Wills, Technical Support Group
The secrets of the seasons on the
earth ....................................................4
Paul Swinerd, Product Portfolio Manager
Sharing protective relay know how
in the Deep South................................4
Kathleen Wolf-Davis, Product Marketing Specialist
Please dont blow my TV up this
Saturday!..............................................4
Alan Purton, Applications Engineer
A bridge to the future..........................5
Matz Ohlen, Director of Transformer Testing
The new middle way for CB testing ....5
Nils Wckln, Product Manager
In Orlando - but not for the mouse! .. 6
Elsa Cantu, Marketing Communications Manager,
Megger Dallas
Add leverage to your relay test
investment ...........................................6
Simanand Ghandi, Applications Engineer
Hannover fair reveals an electrifying
future for Megger! ...............................6
Georg Halfar, Marketing Communications Manager,
Megger Germany
The fastest way to test CATV cable
faults ....................................................7
Bryan Phillips, Business Unit Development Manager
Ask Jowett - Grounding and the
weather part 3 ................................... 8
Jeff Jowett, Application Engineer
Never go without your AVO! ................8
Peter Ashman, Maintenance Department
Q&A ................................................... 8
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Editor Nick Hilditch.
T +44 (0)1304 502232
E nick.hilditch@megger.com
www.megger.com
Megger Limited
Archcliffe Road Dover Kent CT17 9EN
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E electricaltester@megger.com
www.megger.com
2 Megger ELECTRICAL TESTER October 2012
While this is true, it is important to remember
that testing is being carried out at a frequency
that typically differs by a factor of 500 or 600
from the normal operating frequency of
the cable. The PD results may not, therefore,
reflect those that would be obtained if the
tests were carried out at power frequency.
Water treeing although can be better identified
at these lower frequencies, therefore the tan-
Delta diagnosis on cables is usually performed
at 0.1Hz.
Cosine-rectangular test sets are much less
power consuming than their sinusoidal
counterparts.
The cosine-rectangular waveform looks, at
first glance, almost like a square wave. Closer
examination, however, shows that the rising
and falling edges of the waveform very closely
match the rising and falling edges of a sine
wave with a frequency of around 50 Hz. This
means that the stresses generated in the cable
insulation by VLF cosine-rectangular testing
are close to those it will experience in normal
power frequency operation. This wave shape
is recommended by DIN VDE standards, the
HD620 and 621 harmonisation documents
and IEEE400 standard. It allows tests to be
performed on loads with higher capacitance
that is, longer cables than a sinusoidal test
set would allow.
This article has largely concentrated on
insulation testing as an aid to determining
how likely a cable is to fail, for the very good
Living with noise
Testers with high noise immunity performance can be enhanced with
shielded test leads
As used in the electrical and electronics
sectors, the term noise is something of a
misnomer after all, you cant hear it!
Electrical noise, which is more properly
called electromagnetic interference or EMI,
can be just as problematic as its acoustic
counterpart. If for example, significant levels
of EMI are present when measurements are
being made on electrical systems, the readings
reason that preventing or at least predicting
faults is always preferable to reacting after
they have happened. However, cable faults
do occur, and when they do the emphasis
changes to locating them as quickly as
possible, which can be difficult if the cable is
buried underground.
Logical approach to cable fault location
The key to speedy fault location is to adopt
a logical approach. After the cable has been
isolated and made safe, the first step is
prelocation to find the approximate location
of the fault.
First, it is advisable to check the insulation
resistance between all conductors and the
cable sheath, typically using a k range on
an insulation tester or a multimeter. This
determines whether it is a high resistance or
low resistance fault, information that is useful
in deciding the pre-location technique to be
used. Using a k range rather than an
insulation test avoids conditioning the fault
and altering its nature, which could make
prelocation more difficult.
The next stage is to use a time-domain
reflectometer (TDR). This, again, will not
condition the fault but, for open- or short-
circuit faults, it will be able to show the
distance to the fault. This is sometimes called
pulse echo low-voltage prelocation.
If the fault is of a higher resistance, alternative
methods need to be used. These are often
obtained may be inaccurate or may fluctuate
erratically.
This can be a particular problem when
carrying out high voltage insulation testing in
environments like electrical substations, where
high levels of EMI are frequently present.
Instrument manufacturers are, of course,
aware of this and they make efforts to design
ELECTRICAL
TESTER
called arc-reflection methods and involve
using a surge generator to apply a high-
energy, high-voltage charge to the cable in
addition to the pulse echo signal. This generates
an arc at the site of the fault effectively making
a temporary short circuit that can be seen by
a TDR. Available techniques include arc-
reflection, impulse current and voltage decay.
Finally, pinpointing can be used to identify
the exact fault location. The most common
method relies on detecting the acoustic and
electromagnetic signals emitted at the fault
location when the cable is impulse tested by a
surge generator (thumper).
Cable testing to both predict and then deal
with faults is a vital concern for all those
involved with the distribution of electrical
energy. A wide range of test techniques and
test equipment are available to allow this
concern to be effectively addressed, but cable
testing can, nevertheless, be a challenging
task.
For this reason, a resource thats as important
as the test equipment itself is access to
expertise that will help with selecting the best
equipment for the job, and using it in such a
way that it delivers the best results. There are
very few suppliers that can offer equipment
and in-depth expertise that covers the whole
gamut of cable test requirements but, following
its recent acquisition of SebaKMT, Megger can
do exactly that.
Clive Pink
Product Manager
their products so that the effects of EMI are
minimised. Not all manufacturers are, how-
ever, equally successful in achieving this.
So how is it possible to decide which
instruments offer the best noise immunity?
The answer is to look closely at the
instrument specification. If this includes no
information or only unquantified statements
about EMI/noise immunity, this should ring
a warning bell after all, if the performance
is good, the manufacturer will want potential
purchasers to know about it!
Its also worth noting that, although instruments
sold in the EU must comply with the EMC
requirements of IEC 61326-1, compliance with
this standard is not always enough. This is
because, in extreme environments like HV
substations, the levels of EMI are frequently
far in excess of those that the standard
prescribes.
Ideally, the instrument data sheet should
include a figure for noise immunity expressed
in milliamps, as this is definitive and easy to
interpret. If, for example using DC insulation
resistance tester, the noise current rejection
quoted is 2 mA, this means that the instrument
will give reliable and accurate results provided
that the noise current induced in the test circuit
at is 2 mA or less.
For general use, instruments with a noise
immunity of 2 mA will prove satisfactory in
most cases, although it is worth noting that
the latest HV DC insulation testers now offer
3 mA noise immunity, and cost no more than
their less capable predecessors.
For instruments that will be regularly used
in substations and similarly demanding
environments, even higher noise immunity is
desirable. Megger has responded to this need
by producing high noise immunity versions of
its latest HV DC insulation testers, which it
offers in its S1 range. These units offer a 4 mA
noise immunity rating, which is one of the
highest ratings currently available in this class
instrument.
www.megger.com
 ELECTRICAL
The industrys recognised information tool TESTER

Never take a transformer

for granted! Tony Wills
Technical Support Group

Power transformers play a key role in every

electrified rail network and unexpected
transformer failures can cause severe and
protracted disruption to rail services. Thats
why routine diagnostic testing of power
transformers is so important, especially as
many of the power transformers in Britains
rail networks have been in service for decades.

Theres simply no getting away from the fact

that like people, transformers deteriorate
with age. The problem is that with power
transformers, unlike people, most signs of
deterioration are invisible. An old transformer
may appear to be working well, right up to
the instant it fails catastrophically and without
warning. And, while age is the most common
cause of failures, it is by no means the only
one. Even new transformers can be damaged
internally while being delivered and installed,
and any transformer can suffer invisible
damage as the result of a short circuit or
prolonged overload.

Before considering what can be done to

minimise transformer failures, lets consider
their consequences. The immediate effect is
loss of supply capacity. In most cases, back-
up capacity will be available, but the failure
leaves the system critically weakened a
second failure could easily lead to a complete
loss of supplies with the potential for massive
and costly disruption to rail travel.

So lets hope theres a replacement transformer

in stock because the lead time on a new
unit is likely to be months or even years.
Then theres the cost of replacing the failed
transformer. With todays record copper
and steel prices on world markets, new
transformers are eye-wateringly expensive.
And we havent even considered the
consequential costs, such as the financial
penalties and loss of profit when trains dont
run.

It is possible to guard against unexpected

transformer failures; the key is regular testing.
But what type of testing? There are many
The FRAX 101 Sweep Frequency Response Analyzer (SFRA) detects potential mechanical
conventional tests for power transformers and
and electrical problems that other methods are unable to detect.
they are all useful in appropriate applications.
However building up a reasonably complete
picture of transformer condition with these
or, in some cases, comparisons between insulation accelerates the ageing process and, excessive moisture in the solid insulation, the
tests is time consuming and during most of the
windings in the same transformer. SFRA tests in addition, it can cause bubbles between transformer can be dried out.
tests the transformer will be out of service.
can detect problems that would otherwise windings that lead to sudden catastrophic
require multiple tests with various kinds of failures. Should the transformer show more general
Fortunately, there are two innovative tests
test equipment, as well as problems that deterioration due to ageing, it may be possible
sweep frequency response analysis (SFRA)
cannot be detected at all by other tests. In the To establish the moisture content in the to transfer it to less arduous duty and even if
and frequency domain spectroscopy (FDS)
latest SFRA test sets, built-in analytical tools transformer, frequency domain spectroscopy no remedial action is possible, knowing that a
that between them provide dependable
simplify comparisons between curves and the (FDS) is used. Like SFRA, this involves transformer is at risk of failure at least allows
information about the presence and often the
identification of faults. measuring transformer characteristics over contingency plans to be made.
location of transformer faults.
a range of frequencies. This time, however,
SFRA tests do not, however, give an accurate its the dielectric properties of the insulation Naturally, there will be those who have concerns
Electrically, a transformer can be considered
indication of the presence of contaminants in (capacitance, loss and power factor) that are about the cost of buying the instruments needed
as multiple capacitances, inductances and
particular water in the transformer insulation. measured. These are, in essence, the same for SFRA and FDS testing and the cost of
resistances. It is in effect, a complex circuit
Standard tests are available for assessing the dielectric tests that are often carried out at carrying out the tests. When considering costs
that produces a unique fingerprint when test
moisture content of transformer oil, but this power frequency. Unlike spot-frequency it is useful to think about the costs relating to
signals are injected over a range of frequencies
is not the whole story. In fact, it is usual for testing, however, FDS can distinguish between a transformer failure. It then becomes readily
and the results plotted as a curve. The SFRA
more of the moisture in a transformer to be a transformer that is dry but has bad oil, and apparent that if the test regime eliminates just
test for transformers makes comparisons
held in solid insulation such as paper than one that is wet but has good oil. FDS testing one failure, the instruments are paid for along
between measured curves to detect variations
in the oil. Also, moisture moves between can be performed at any temperature, and the with the testing for months if not years.
that may be indicative of mechanical or
solid insulants and the oil in a way that is test is completed quickly.
electrical problems with the transformer.
influenced by many factors including, in In conclusion, never take a power transformer
Ideally, SFRA tests are used to capture
particular, temperature. As weve seen, regular SFRA and FDS testing for granted, especially an old one! It may be
reference curves when the transformer is
provide dependable information on transformer just fine or it may be on the point of failure.
new or known to be in good condition.
Measuring moisture in the oil many not, condition, but what can be done if the news Time will tell, of course, but far better to allow
These curves can then be used as the basis
therefore, provide dependable information is bad? The answer depends on the type of testing to tell, thereby avoiding a lot of
for future comparisons. However it is also
about moisture in the solid insulation. problem found but if the oil has high moisture unnecessary inconvenience and cost.
possible to use type-based comparisons
This is important, as moisture in the solid content, it can be reconditioned. If there is
between transformers with the same design

www.megger.com Megger ELECTRICAL TESTER October 2012 3


The industrys recognised information tool
The secrets of the
seasons on the earth
Paul Swinerd
Product Portfolio Manager
Earth ground testing might seem like a relatively
simple task, yet the variability of temperature
and the seasons add an extra complication to
what might otherwise be routine testing.
Effect of temperature on earth resistivity
Not much information has been collected on
the effects of temperature. Two facts lead to
the logical conclusion that an increase in
temperature will decrease resistivity:
n Water present in soil mostly determines the
resistivity
n An increase in temperature markedly
decreases the resistivity of water.
The results shown in Table 1 confirm this.
Temperature
C F Resistivity (Ohm-cm)
20 68 7,200
10 50 9,900
0 32 (water) 13,800
0 32 (ice) 30,000
-5 23 79,000
-15 14 330,000
*For sandy loam; 15.2% moisture
Table 1: Effect of temperature on earth resistivity*
When water in the soil freezes, the resistivity
jumps appreciably; ice has a high resistivity. The
resistivity continues to increase as temperatures
go below freezing.
Seasonal variations in earth resistivity
Temperature, moisture, and salt content all have
an effect on earth resistivity. It makes sense that
the resistivity of soil will vary considerably at
different times of year. This is particularly true
in locations where there are more extremes
of temperature, rainfall, dry spells, and other
seasonal variations.
Earth resistivity is a very variable quantity. If you
want to know what the value is at a given
location, at a given time of year, the only safe
way is to measure it. When you use this value
for survey work, the change in the value, caused
by changes in the nature of the sub-soil, is the
important thing; from the variations in resistivity
you can obtain useful survey results.
The other main reason for measuring earth
resistivity is to design earth-electrode systems for
electrical power systems, lightning arresters, and
so on. The measured resistivity values are used
in standard engineering formulas that calculate
factors like number and depth of rods necessary
to achieve a required ground resistance, thus
reducing the amount of trial and error in the
installation of an effective ground. Earth
resistance varies directly with earth resistivity
and it is helpful to know what factors affect
resistivity.
The curves of Fig. 1 illustrate several worthwhile
points. They show the expected change in earth
resistance (due to resistivity changes) over a
1-1/2 year period; they also show that the deeper
electrode gives a more stable and lower value.
The moisture content and temperature of the
soil become more stable at greater distances
below the earths surface, therefore, the earth
electrode should reach a deep enough level to
provide:
Fig. 1: Seasonal variation of earth resistance with an
electrode of 3/4 pipe in stony clay soil. Depth of electrode
in earth is 3 ft for Curve 1 and 10 ft for Curve 2.
n Permanent moisture content (relatively
speaking).
n Constant temperature (below frost line,
relatively speaking).
This short article only covers the absolute basics
of earth ground testing in different weather
conditions. For more information on earth
ground testing, ask for Meggers free 80 page
book Getting down to earth by emailing us at
ElectricalTester@megger.com
Please dont blow my TV
up this Saturday!
Alan Purton
Applications Engineer
While working for ESKOM South Africa, one
of the most interesting jobs I was involved
with was investigating why around 25
television sets belonging to farmers needed
repairing every week after the farmers had been
watching their favourite sport, rugby, which
was televised every Saturday afternoon.
The problems started soon after television was
introduced to South Africa in 1977. At first we
at ESKOM were not too concerned about why
the farmers were having problems. Eventually
the farming community sent an official
complaint to the Chairman of ESKOM, together
with copies of bills from the local television
repair shop.
Some sets had been repaired more than 15
times, with costs that were the equivalent of
two new television sets. The farmers had
initially thought that this was normal, having
only just installed these new-fangled televisions!
The upshot was that a colleague and I were
tasked to visit the area and find out why
the sets were failing so regularly. We took
monitoring devices to try and locate the
source of the problem, but our visits were
made in the middle of the week and the
results were not very enlightening.
Apart from a few harmonics just above normal,
there was no major sign of disturbance to
the supply at the farm we visited. The farm
owner, however, stressed that the sets only
blew up on Saturdays never at any other
time of the week so we had little choice but
to make arrangements for a return visit on a
Saturday.
Arriving at around 11 am, we set up our
equipment and started recording, but still
nothing very exciting was evident. The farmer
was nevertheless insistent that when the rugby
started, his television would blow up, so we
carried on monitoring and, sure enough,
at around 2 pm, we started to see dramatic
changes.
The harmonic content of the supply, which
had been steady at around 3 or 4%, was
increasing first to 8%, then to 15%, 25% and
33%, until, after around 20 minutes, it reached
ELECTRICAL
TESTER
another 20 minutes, everything was back to
normal except that the farmers television
had blown up yet again.
We devoted some considerable thought and
effort to working out what was happening.
The farms were fed from small pole-mounted
11 kV/0.38 kV transformers which were, in
turn, fed from the local 33 kV/11 kV network.
The same local 33 kV/11 kV network, in fact,
that supplied traction current to the nearby
railway, which had recently been electrified.
Locomotives on the railway, which transports
iron ore from the Northern Cape to Saldahna
Bay north of Cape Town, operated in sets
of three, presenting a total load of around
25 MVA. Their traction motor control used a
twelve-pole thyristor switching system that
generated high levels of 11th harmonic, and
this was at the root of the problem.
On Saturday afternoons, an iron ore train
some 1 km long, being pushed and pulled
by three large locomotives passed the supply
tee that fed the farms having problems with
their televisions. Now, when similar trains
passed in the week, the loading from farm
pumps, dryers and household appliances was
sufficient to absorb most of the harmonics so,
even if the televisions were switched on, they
would survive.
But Saturdays were different! The whole of
South Africa came to a stop to watch the
national sport of rugby, so the only loads
on the supply on a Saturday afternoon were
the fridges cooling the beer and, of course,
the televisions. As the train passed that tee,
there was nothing to damp the harmonics and
it was boom time for the television power
supplies! Of course, this problem had been
present for years but, until television was
introduced, the loads were robust enough to
survive.
The outcome was that ESKOM agreed to
compensate the farmers for their costs and,
more importantly, they built an additional
5 km of overhead line to couple the farmers
11 kV network to a new clean supply point.

Sharing protective relay know-how 44%, at which point the power supply on one
of our own harmonic recorders failed. Then

in the Deep South

the harmonics started to die away and, after

Kathleen Wolf-Davis
Product Marketing Specialist
At Georgia Techs 66th Annual Protective
Relaying Conference, which was held in
Atlanta in April as part of the universitys
Power System Conferences series, Meggers
James Ariza presented a headline paper,
Lessons Learned From First Multivendor
400 kV Transmission Line Protection Scheme
Using Optical CTs and IEC 61850-9-2 Process
Bus Protection Relays, to a packed
conference session. Ariza wrote the paper in
conjunction with Carlos Melendez and Nicolas
Juarez at Comisin Federal de Electricidad
(CFE), the Mexican state-owned electric
utility, and Rodolfo Colon at Instituto de
Investigaciones Elctricas (IIE).
The paper examined a multi-vendor transmission
protection scheme for a 400 kV line using
optical current transformers (CTs) and sample
values. The CTs and connecting system were
installed inside a CFE substation to protect
the 150-mile line linking the Manuel Moreno
Torres and El Juile substations in the southern
region. The scheme incorporates 12 optical
CTs, 8 merging units, 6 digital relays, 2 GPS
IRIG B clocks, 2 managed Ethernet switches
and 2 digital recorders for sampled values.
The project, run by Instituto de Investigaciones
Elctricas (CFEs research arm), included the
active participation of Alstom, Arteche, ABB,
SEL, GE, Megger, Omicron and Universidad
Politecnica de Chiapas. The participants faced
a number of challenges, including no previous
project references with multivendor optical
CTs and sample values; a risk of testing on a
real line instead of in the lab; issues with testing
procedures and lack of testing options for
optical CTs, relays, merging units and Ethernet
switches; varying procedures and standards.
The paper explained how these challenges
were addressed and how success was
ultimately achieved. With the success of this
scheme, CFE plans to expand the project,
Here is what a 44% harmonic looks like. Note the peak voltage that the diodes in the television
James noted in his presentation, which was
power supply had to deal with no wonder they went pop with such regularity.
enthusiastically received by the audience,
and which prompted lively discussion at its
conclusion.

4 Megger ELECTRICAL TESTER October 2012 www.megger.com


The industrys recognised information tool
A bridge to the future
Matz Ohlen
Director of Transformer Testing
Transformer manufacturers, test laboratories,
power utilities and many others have a regular
requirement to accurately measure capacitance
and dissipation factor at high voltages. These
tests are performed as part of the quality control
procedure when new materials are investigated,
for final test of instrument transformers and
for general testing of electrical insulation and
equipment.
The approach traditionally adopted for carrying
out tests of this type is to use a capacitance
bridge in conjunction with a separate standard
capacitor and test voltage source. In earlier
times Schering bridges were used for loss
measurements and later-on automatic balancing
bridges. While this method is satisfactory,
at least in some applications, it can be time
consuming and it has limitations.
Alternatives to the traditional bridge for
capacitance and dissipation factor measurement
are now becoming available and these
innovative instruments, of which the new
Megger CDAX605 is a leading example,
offer important benefits. The new design for
dissipation factor and capacitance measurement
also compares the test specimen against a
standard capacitor but it does not need bridge
balancing.
Instead, the current signals from the standard
capacitor and test specimen are simultaneously
measured and capacitance and dissipation
factor are calculated. With the use of
sophisticated internal calibration procedures,
accuracy down to 0.005% is reached for
dissipation factor/phase angle and 0.03% for
capacitance measurements.
The TM1700 provides reliable and accurate
test results
HV circuit breakers are the key safety
components in every power transmission
and distribution system. No one can afford to
take a chance on whether they will operate
correctly when called upon to do so testing
is essential. But when it comes to buying
circuit breaker test equipment, what are the
options?
There are low-end instruments that offer
excellent value for money in simple
applications, and there are high-end
instruments that offer superb performance
and versatility but are undeniably a major
investment. So what about the middle ground?
Mid-range circuit breaker analysers are, in
www.megger.com
The absolute current and voltage levels are
measured with an accuracy of 0.5%.
A disadvantage of traditional bridge methods
is that they can only measure and compare
capacitive or inductive currents in-phase. The
new technique in CDAX605 can measure
0-360 phase and can therefore compare
signals that are phase-shifted. As an example,
for ratio measurements it is possible to use
a standard capacitor to measure the HV test
voltage and reference resistor on the LV
side of the transformer. This is a significant
advantage since calibrated standard capacitors
are typically only available in the 100 pF
to 10000 pF range which may give a very
low test current for high ratio devices like
capacitive coupled voltage transformers
(CCVT).
Like traditional bridges, these novel
instruments are designed for use with an
external voltage source and reference
capacitor. This means that most prospective
users will already have the necessary
additional equipment needed to form a
complete dissipation factor and capacitance
measurement system. And more importantly,
this approach makes the instruments
particularly versatile users are free to select
voltage sources and standard capacitors
or resistors to meet their own specific
requirements.
In addition, they work with almost any value
of reference capacitor or resistor value, and
offer an automatic testing process that always
give direct readings of capacitance, dissipation
factor, inductance and ratio.
THE NEW MIDDLE WAY FOR
CB TESTING
themselves nothing new but in recent times,
there has been a growing feeling that the
available models while perfectly adequately
specified when they were first introduced no
longer measure up to the increasingly complex
requirements of todays circuit breaker users.
This gap in the market has now been
addressed with a new generation of circuit
breaker analysers that offer enhanced
functionality at prices substantially less than
those of the high-end instruments. Lets
examine what these groundbreaking mid-
range instruments have to offer.
Since safety is always of paramount
importance, a key feature is support for
DualGround testing. This allows tests to be
performed with both sides of the breaker
grounded, which ensures that dangerous
voltages from adjacent equipment can never
be induced into the breaker under test.
Another important feature of these instruments
is active interference suppression, which
minimises the effect of capacitively coupled
interference current in the test object, making
it possible to make accurate measurements,
including measurements of PIR values, even in
electrically noisy environments.
Advances have also been made in the
functionality of the control units of these
instruments allowing independent control
pulse generation for each phase, which makes
it possible to simulate the sequence of a one-
phase ground fault.
The control units also make provision for
automatically measuring the control voltage,
ELECTRICAL
TESTER
Unlike conventional
bridges, there is no
balancing to perform,
and all calculations are
automatic.
In achieving
convenience, the new
instruments make no
sacrifices in the areas of
versatility or accuracy.
The instruments can
accommodate all
standard test
configurations,
including UST-R, UST-B,
UST-RB, GST-GND,
GSTg-R, GSTg-B and
GSTg-RB, with three
measurement inputs,
and they offer a wide
measurement range,
typically covering
capacitance from 0 to
100 F and dissipation
factor from 0 to 10, as
well as phase angle
measurement from 0 to CDAX605 can measure phase shifted signals
360. Measurement accuracy
equals that of the best bridges.
With the new instruments, HV measurements
Designed to be used with an external PC, of capacitance and dissipation factor can now
the instruments are supplied with soft-ware be quickly and conveniently performed.
that provides a convenient and intuitive user
interface and has integrated data logging The instruments deliver results that are at least
facilities. The CDAX605 also supports LabView as accurate as those obtained with a traditional
and C# communication interfaces that further bridge, and they are much more versatile.
enhance its versatility.
They are, you might say a bridge to the future!
Nils Wckln
Product Manager
in line with IEC 62271-100, and for measuring It has only been possible here to mention a
the coil current in each phase separately. It few of the features that are now available in
is worth noting that many older instruments mid-range circuit breaker test sets. There are
measure only the total current for all three many others including, for example, provision
phases. Unfortunately, this measurement is for connecting transducers so that CB motion
essentially worthless. can be measured directly and facilities for
easily adding vibration monitoring and analysis
Another important feature for the new functions.
mid-range CB test sets is provision for
comprehensive first-trip testing with the aid If you are thinking about buying new circuit
of accessory clamp-on CTs, whether the breaker test equipment in the near future, or if
breaker has a single operating mechanism youre finding that your existing CB test kit no
common to all three phases, or a separate longer really meets your requirements, it will
operating mechanism for each phase. These be well worth your while to take a look at the
invaluable facilities make it possible to analyse data sheets for the new generation mid-range
the coil current signature, which is the most instruments, of which the products in Meggers
important part of the first-trip test. They also new range are excellent examples.
allow the contact opening time of a CB to be
measured, together with the synchronisation
of the opening times for the three phases,
without taking it out of service.
Careful attention has also been given to the
user interface, with the best of currently
available instruments incorporating colour
touch screen displays, and software wizards
that take much of the complexity out of tasks
like the production of custom test templates.
The screens can also show test results
graphically making them much easier to
interpret, a process that is further aided by the
provision of magnify and compare functions
for the traces displayed.
Comprehensive help is also offered, including
on-screen display of the connection diagrams
that show exactly how the test leads need to
be connected for the test chosen.
Megger ELECTRICAL TESTER October 2012 5

The industrys recognised information tool
IN ORLANDO
but not for the
mouse!
Elsa Cantu
Marketing Communications Manager,
Megger, Dallas
Power industry experts from around the world
converged on Orlando, Florida in May not to
visit that traditional tourist draw, the House of
Mouse otherwise known as Disney World
but to attend the IEEE Power & Energy
Society (PES) Transmission and Distribution
Conference and Exhibition. Alongside a host
of informative presentations, specialists from a
variety of companies demonstrated all sorts of
products, services and skills over the three-day
event.
The theme of IEEE PES T&D 2012 conference
was making innovation work for tomorrow.
Innovation traditionally hinges on every cog in
the innovation wheel working correctly and in
tandem. Analysis and testing of some of those
cogs in the power-system wheel, especially
overcurrent relays and transformer insulation,
are part of the innovation process.
To support the theme, Megger Sweden AB
presented the paper Analysis of the
Transformer Insulation XY Model as part
of the paper session sponsored by the IEEE
Transformers Committee. The paper was
authored by Peter Werelius, Jialu Cheng and
Matz Ohlen, all of whom are transformer test
specialists with the company.
Megger solves real problems,
for real engineers
freeing up time for Peters
downhill skiing.
DELTA4000
DELTA4000 is a light weight and rugged 12 kV AC
insulation diagnostic system which provides accurate
and repeatable Tan Delta / Power factor measurements
in demanding and extreme conditions. New test
techniques include intelligent temperature correction
to eliminate inaccurate correction tables and automatic
voltage dependence detection to identify insulation
problems which need investigation.
For your free Megger guide to transformer
testing, visit www.megger.com/freetime
MEGGER_Delta4000_Skiing_A5.indd 1
6 Megger ELECTRICAL TESTER October 2012
The session, designated by the IEEE as a
series of hot topic papers, covered subjects
ranging from efficiency cost barriers to solar
storm-created geomagnetic issues to trans-
former insulation analysis. It was hailed as
one of the most interesting sessions at the
show perhaps so interesting that it would
distract from Disney itself!
The Megger paper dealt specifically with
dielectric frequency response (DFR), some-
times referred to as frequency domain
spectroscopy (FDS). Two decades of proven
results with DFR has led to using that data
alongside mathematical modelling. In this
instance, the two come together to analyse
properties for oil-paper insulation, specifically
related to moisture concentration in solid
insulation.
The authors of this paper explored both the
accuracy and limitations of the XY model and
compared it to Finite Element Models (FEM).
Additionally, they took a look at the hump
issue in field measurement that is outside the
XY models descriptors. They reached a handful
of conclusions at the end of their analysis,
including how FEM simulations can be used
to understand the influence of contamination
layers on DFR measurement.
The IEEE is the worlds largest professional
association dedicated to advancing
technological innovation and excellence for
the benefit of humanity. The IEEE and its
members inspire a global community through
the Institutes highly cited publications,
conferences, technology standards, and
professional and educational activities. The
IEEE biennial PES T&D conference remains
one of the most respected, well-attended U.S.
shows in the power industry. The next
conference is scheduled for 2014.
WWW.MEGGER.COM/FREETIME
31/05/2012 17:12
ELECTRICAL
TESTER
Add leverage to your relay test
investment
The PAM420 is specifically designed for
measurements on electrical power systems.
While test equipment for relay protection
schemes is now more cost effective than ever,
theres no denying that it still represents a
substantial investment. To get the best possible
return on that investment, its important to
squeeze the last drop of functionality from the
equipment, but what users sometimes dont
realise is that modestly priced accessories can
help them do exactly that. Lets take a look at
some of these.
Single-phase instruments are invariably the
most affordable of relay test sets and they
can, of course, be used to test three-phase
relays, albeit with some limitations. However, the
biggest problem is that when testing three-
phase relays with a single-phase test set there
are many connections that have to be made
and changed during the test. This is both
inconvenient and time consuming.
The solution is a phase selector switch accessory.
This is connected between the test set and the
relay, and allows the user to easily select the
phase to be tested. Well-designed switches
Hanover fair reveals an electrifying future for Megger!
Georg Halfar
Marketing Communications Manager,
Megger Germany
Many people would say that the Hanover Fair
is the most important industrial trade fair in
the world. Anyone who has spent a day or
more at the fair and visited some of its 27
vast halls each of which is larger than an
Airbus A380 hangar will fully understand
this claim. Present this year were the worlds
most important industrial companies, and they
offered a fantastic live view into the world of
the future.
This year, the main overall focus at Hanover
was the supply of electrical energy. For example,
VW was showing electric cars with a futuristic
design, which are recharged via Smart Home
electrical systems from Somfy. These systems
can be controlled from a smart phone, using a
new app developed by Hager, and can generate
energy as well as using it.
Schneider Electric was showing iPads configured
so that they could be used to monitor the
complete electricity supply network of a small
town, while Siemens was presenting high-
voltage switchgear and power transformers
designed to fit into the base of wind turbine
towers.
Technologies for tomorrows energy supply
were seen everywhere at the fair, and it was
very apparent that this is likely to be an
energy supply scenario, led by Germanys
Energiewende, that doesnt depend on
nuclear power or on power from fossil fuel
sources.
handle both the current and voltage sources,
and allow either single-phase or phase-to-
phase testing to be selected. Some types
even provide additional functionality, such as
provision for creating variable phase shift at
reduced test voltage amplitude.
Another useful way to extend the functionality
of a low-cost single-phase test set is to work
with supplementary current and voltage
sources. With some instruments, even a simple
variable ac voltage source is useful to ease and
speed the testing of directional protection, while
more sophisticated accessories that provide
multiple outputs offer other invaluable
options, including the ability to test differential
relays, when used with the appropriate
instruments.
In addition, some current/voltage sources can
provide an ac current/voltage output together
with one fully rectified dc output and one half-
wave rectified dc output, allowing them to be
used as an aid to harmonic restraint testing.
While the accessories described up to this
point are designed to directly increase the
versatility of the test set itself, it is also worth
bearing in mind that using a separate instrument
in conjunction with the test set can also yield
big benefits.
One example is a phase angle meter which,
in addition to its applications in relation to
protective relay testing, is also invaluable for
making comparative tests in substations and
verifying the phase angle deviation on power
transformers. Another potentially useful accessory
is a timer that can be used to control the time
for which current is applied in primary injection
tests, or to allow multiple timing cycles to be
monitored simultaneously.
Modern protective relay test sets are inherently
versatile, but as weve seen, their versatility
can be further extended with relatively
inexpensive optional accessories. And that has
to be good news, as it provides a convenient
way of getting an even better return on your
investment in test equipment.
The keyword Energiewende has, for the last
year, had a very high profile in German
politics and in the countrys media. It means
energy revolution and it denotes the complete
renunciation of energy from fossil fuel and
nuclear sources in favour of renewable
energy. It was introduced by Angela Merkel in
the wake of the nuclear disaster at Fukushima.
The Energiewende is one of the biggest
technological challenges ever taken on by
modern industrial nation, as it requires the
restructuring and expansion of every part of
the energy supply system, including generation,
the distribution network and even smart
homes. Instead of the todays system, which
has relatively few energy supply points fed
by huge power stations, tomorrows system
will have thousands or supply points fed from
mini power plants, and will need to transport
energy over long distances from the North
Sea to the Alps, for example with minimum
losses.
It may seem to be an almost insignificant
contribution in so vast a plan, but Megger
test and measurement equipment is ideal for
use in these new systems. And the company
couldnt find a better marketing executive
anywhere in the world than Angela Merkel!
For Megger, the Energiewende offers literally
electrifying prospects in Germany. At Hanover
Fair, it was possible to take a look at this
brave new world in colour and in 3D!
Overall, it was a place where Megger, with its
world-leading innovations, was very much at
home among its peers.
www.megger.com

The industrys recognised information tool
The fastest way to
find CATV cable
faults!
Time domain reflectometers (TDRs) have been
used on cable television (CATV) systems for
decades, but even now their use is nothing
like as widespread as it deserves to be. TDRs
are, after all, indisputably the most efficient
and most effective way of locating cable faults
in CATV networks.
In fact, with todays CATV systems, TDRs are
more useful than ever, as the high bandwidth
of modern electronics allows the TDR to see
small faults that are otherwise hard to locate,
but nevertheless significantly degrade the
CATV signals. In short, there are lot of good
reasons for CATV engineers to use TDRs, but
unfortunately many potential users have
rather negative ideas about these invaluable
instruments.
TDRs are, for example, generally considered
to be expensive items. Even more significantly,
they are widely perceived as being difficult to
set up and use, and produce results that are
hard to interpret. The truth is that all of these
criticisms may have been valid a decade or so
ago, but none applies to the latest generation
of instruments.
The best of modern TDRs for CATV applications
are compact handheld instruments that are not
only relatively inexpensive, but are also very
easy to work with, even for inexperienced
users, thanks to features like straightforward
set up, trace hold, and excellent near-end
performance.
The principle of operation of TDRs is simple,
but it is worth reviewing it briefly. The instrument
launches a short electrical pulse into the cable
under test. The pulse travels down the cable
and, when it reaches a change in the structure,
part of the energy in the pulse is reflected
back along the cable toward the TDR. This
change can be a fault, a joint in the cable or
some other condition which can affect the
transmission of signals. By measuring the
time difference between when the pulse is
launched and when the energy reflected by
the fault reaches the instrument, the TDR
indicates the distance to the fault. For this to
be accurate, the velocity factor of the cable
under test needs to be known although there
are simple techniques to calculate this with
your TDR.
In practice, with modern instruments the
reflected signals are shown as a trace on a
graphical display, with the vertical axis showing
the amount of energy reflected and the
horizontal axis representing the time, and
therefore distance from the instrument, at
which the reflection took place.
So much for the principle of operation but, as
always, the practicalities are a little more
complicated. For a start, the time that reflected
energy takes to return to the TDR is very small,
as the pulses in the cable travel at close to the
speed of light, which is about one metre in
three nanoseconds. This means that if theres a
fault at, say, two metres from the point where
the TDR is connected to the CATV cable, the
reflected energy will arrive in not much more
than 12 ns!
The TDR, however, cannot detect reflected
energy until after the launch pulse has
finished, which means that to detect faults
close to the point of connection usually
called near-end faults the launch pulse needs
to be very short. This is important, as the vast
www.megger.com
ELECTRICAL
TESTER
Bryan Phillips
Business Unit Development Manager,
Megger Instruments Limited
majority of CATV cable faults occur close to
junction boxes and distribution panels, which
is exactly where the TDR is most likely to be
connected.
While older instruments struggled with these
near end faults, the best modern TDRs can
use launch pulses as short as 2 ns, allowing
them to reliably locate faults within a metre of
the point of connection. They also have data
acquisition rates as high as 500 MHz, which
means that they can offer trace resolutions of
1 ns allowing them to discriminate between
faults that are as close together as 300 mm or
so, the exact distance depending on the
characteristics of the cable.
Setting up the TDR so that it gave reliable
results was another bugbear with older
instruments, but even the most basic models
of today make the task easy. With entry-level
instruments, the characteristic impedance of
the cable needs to be set manually, but this is
unlikely to be a problem in CATV installations,
as the cable characteristics are usually known.
As has already been mentioned, it is also
necessary to set the velocity factor for the
cable but, once again, this very likely to be
known for the type of cable in use. If for some
reason the velocity factor is not known, it can
either be found in the cable manufacturers
data, or measured using a spare piece of cable
of known length.
Finally, the pulse width, gain and range of
the TDR need to be set, but the best TDR
suppliers have made this process very straight-
forward by providing the option for pulse
width and gain to be adjusted automatically
when the range is selected. In practice,
therefore, all the user has to do is select the
appropriate distance range for the fault under
investigation typically 10 m, 25 m, 100 m,
250 m, 1 km, 2.5 km or 5 km.
Of course, a good instrument will have
provision for manually overriding these
automatic settings, to allow more experienced
users to fine-tune operation when investigating
unusually obscure faults, but for most users in
most circumstances, the automatic settings are
perfectly satisfactory.
Interpreting test results is another area that
was seen as problematic with older TDRs,
but once again modern instruments have
successfully addressed this issue. They have
large clear displays with excellent resolution
and, very importantly, a trace hold function.
This means that the trace can be retained on
the screen as long as the user requires,
allowing it to be closely inspected and
analysed. This was once the sole domain of
high end instruments with memory functions
but modern techniques to freeze frame allows TDR1000/3 being field trialed on a recent visit to Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam
quick and easy, detailed examination.
Modern TDRs are now so easy to work with ensure that connection to a live circuit will not is also very useful. Instruments with an IP54
that users require very little training to achieve result in damage to the instrument or injury to rating, for example, are unaffected by exposure
good results and to save a huge amount of the user. to a little rain although, of course, outdoor
time in locating faults on CATV installations. testing in wet weather is never recommended!
There are, however, two further factors that The second factor is that, if its to give long For those who install and maintain cable
need to be taken into account by those reliable service, the TDR must be robustly television systems, a modern TDR is an
considering the purchase of a TDR. constructed. Sooner or later, all instruments are indispensible tool that will not only dramatically
dropped, and they invariably spend at least reduce the amount of frustration and stress
The first is that CATV networks are in the part of their lives being rattled about in the involved with finding cable faults, but will
main powered systems and, careful as the user back of vehicle. Robust construction is, there- also save time and money, enabling its owner
might be to avoid connecting the TDR to a fore, important and, as its by no means quickly recoup the relatively modest outlay
live cable, mistakes can and do happen. The unusual for CATV testing to be performed involved in purchasing the instrument.
TDR must, therefore, incorporate protection to out of doors, a good ingress protection rating
Megger ELECTRICAL TESTER October 2012 7

The industrys recognised information tool
Q&A
Q: What is tan testing and how is it different
from insulation power factor testing?
A: When an ac voltage is applied to a test
object, the phase difference between the
voltage and resulting current, in degrees, is
the phase angle, and is usually designated
(phi). The cosine of this angle (cos ) is the
power factor, and this is what is measured in
an insulation power factor test. For perfect
insulation, would be exactly 90, and cos
would be 0. In reality, no insulator is per-
fect so is less than 90 and cos is greater
than zero. The value of cos is an indicator
of insulation condition. It is also possible to
work with the dielectric loss angle, , which is
equal to (90 - ). Test sets that work on this
Jeff Jowett
Applications Engineer
The first two parts of this article examined
various weather-related factors that influence
ground resistance testing, including moisture,
temperature and the influence of freezing. In
this final part, we look at the importance of
know-how in ground testing, why a well-
planned test regime may require working in
adverse weather conditions, and the criteria
that affect the selection of test equipment for
use in such conditions.
Knowledge is the most effective tool for all
types of field work, and it becomes that much
more valuable in applications where variables
are as large and uncontrollable as they are in
ground testing. Assess the site and recent
conditions in order to make an educated
decision as to where test results may fall on
the min/max cycle, then proceed accordingly.
At the least, arrangements should be made
to retest at a suspected worst time. If a
maintenance schedule is to be established,
be judicious about the interval. For most
electrical maintenance, a regular schedule,
for instance annually or semi-annually, is the
order of the day. But be careful not to apply
this practice to ground maintenance. Testing at
regular intervals will result in readings being
taken under the same general weather conditions
year in and year out. If these are optimal
times of year, a false sense of security can
develop. Instead, test at irregular intervals, like
5, 7, or 11 months, so that all times of year
and all weather conditions will be evaluated.
A worst case will be recognized and if
necessary the grid can be expanded or
improved so that there will be no unpleasant
surprises.
Testing around the calendar may result in the
disagreeable necessity of working in snow.
When you have to put food on the table in
the wintertime, you have to think of these
things, says Burt Brooks of Power Quality
& Ground Testing LLC. It may seem counter-
intuitive, but in frigid climes, snow can
provide an advantage. First, the test rods must
be driven through the frost layer. The ground
tester must establish a minimum amount of
current through the soil in order to meet its
measurement parameters and to sense the
voltage drop across the measured resistance.
Modern testers include indicators that will
warn the operator if these parameters are not
being met. Additional measures must then be
taken, such as driving deeper rods, to bring
the test setup within specifications. Pouring
hot water provides only a marginal temporary
8 Megger ELECTRICAL TESTER October 2012
This time we are looking at some of the questions that are most frequently asked about
insulation power factor/dissipation factor (tan ) testing. The answers given here are necessarily
short, but much more detailed information can be found in the publication DELTA 4000 Reference
Manual Applications Guide which is available as a free download from the Megger website.
basis present the result as the tangent of the
dielectric loss angle that is, tan . The power
factor and tan tests are essentially the same,
and good instruments will display either tan
or power factor. It is worth noting that, for
small values of , tan is almost equal to cos
, so in many cases, the two tests will deliver
the same numerical result.
Q: Why is tan /power factor testing useful?
A: With modern test equipment, these tests are
relatively easy to carry out and they provide
dependable information about the condition
of insulation. As insulation problems are one
of the most common causes of failure in
electrical equipment, this information is an
invaluable aid for preventative maintenance.
Examples of the conditions that can be detected
with tan /power factor testing are chemical
Grounding
and the
weather
Part 3
advantage, and can backfire by freezing solid
around the probe and making it near impossible
to remove. But once an adequate setup is
accomplished, Brooks advises, testing under
snow is just as reliable as at any other time.
Where snow actually can afford an advantage
is when it falls early in the season, before the
first major frost. Snow may then thermally
insulate the ground and limit frost penetration
to more workable depths, say 6-8 inches. If
snow has been plowed or drifted away, frost
penetrates deeper and test results may be
rendered less consistent. Testing under snow
can actually be more reliable. Just shovel
away an area large enough to drive the test
rods.
The final consideration is that of the test
instrumentation itself. No one is likely to want
to perform a ground test in a driving rain,
and lightning conditions, even if miles away,
are to be avoided because of the risk to the
operator. Dangerous voltages developing on
the power lines can be transmitted through
the grounding system and will appear at the
terminals of a tester if a test is in progress.
But aside from these extreme circumstances,
ground testing can be performed on moist
or rainy days, or the sudden appearance of a
shower need not send the operator scurrying.
The determining factor here is the IP rating of
the instrument. This rating should be available
in the instruments specifications and is
commonly referred to as Ingress Protection. IP
ratings were established by the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in Stand-
ard #529, and provide a means of evaluating
the effectiveness of an instruments casework
in keeping out dirt and moisture. The IP
rating consists of two numbers and in both
cases, the higher the better. The first number
indicates how well the instrument is sealed
against particle invasion, with 6 being dust
tight. Quarries and mines are particularly bad
environments in this regard, while a steady
wind in a dusty environment can also pose a
hazard to the instrument. The second number
refers to moisture ingress, with 8 the highest
rating, continuous immersion. Since ground
tests are not performed under water, this
would be overkill. But note the IP rating and
obtain an instrument that is adequate to the
rigors of the field.
Armed with knowledge and a good instrument,
the skilled technician will be a match for any-
thing the weather can deal.
Sources of information:
A Simple Guide to Earth Testing and Getting Down
to Earth both published by Megger.
Power Quality & Ground Testing LLC, Newton, MA
ELECTRICAL
TESTER
Q: Why is temperature compensation needed,
and what is the best approach to providing
this compensation?
A: The test results are most useful when
compared either with the results from
previous tests, or with manufacturers data.
However, the results are influenced by
temperature, which means that comparisons
deterioration of insulation due to ageing and
are only valid for tests carried out at the same
temperature; contamination of insulation by
temperature. The ideal approach would be to
water, carbon deposits, dirty oil and other
standardise on a specific test temperature
chemicals; and severe current leakage through
20 C is usually suggested but in practice
cracks and over insulator surfaces.
this is often not possible, and compensation
must be used. In the past, this has usually
Q: What is voltage dependence in tan /
meant using compensation tables, but these
power factor testing, and why is it important?
are at best averages, and their use is not
A: With an ideal insulator, tan /power factor
conducive to accuracy. Test sets are now
would remain the same for a wide range of
available, however, that provide automatic
test voltages. With old or deteriorated insulation,
intelligent temperature compensation (ITC),
however, the results vary as the voltage varies.
by making use of the fact that a tan /power
When such voltage dependence is detected, it
factor measurement made at a certain temperature
is advisable to carry out additional tests, such
and frequency corresponds to the same
as tip-up tests, to more accurately assess the
measurement made at a different temperature
insulation condition. The latest tan /power
and frequency. ITC provides much more
factor test sets automatically detect voltage
accurate and dependable results than using
dependence, and trigger an alarm to alert the
compensation tables.
user that further testing is recommended.
Peter Ashman
Peter has worked in Meggers maintenance team for a number of years.
The origin of this story was a chance conversation with a neighbour and fellow
Dover UK resident, Alex Elliott.
NEVER GO WITHOUT YOUR
AVO!
As the accompanying photograph
of a youthful Alex Elliott shows, the
one thing you always wanted to be
sure you had with you when you
made a service call in the late 1930s
was your trusty Avometer! Alex, who
recently sent this photograph to
Electrical Tester, was just 14 when it
was taken in 1938, and was working
for Wycombe Electrical Supplies in
High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire,
England.
He recalls that the company was the
main distributor in the area for the
prestigious HMV and Marconiphone
ranges of radios and that for servicing
these, an Avometer was literally
indispensible. In fact, the HMV and
Marconiphone service sheets of the
era not only specified that an
Avometer should be used for testing,
but even detailed which of the
meters ranges was to be used for
each individual test!
Alex Elliott with his AVO Model 8
Alex also recalls that the owner of Wycombe
Electrical Supplies saw great possibilities for
television, which was very much in its infancy BBC television transmitter at Alexandra Palace
at the time. however, reception was somewhat hit and
miss.
He had a Baird mechanical receiver with a
rotating scanning disc, with which he received In any event, it wasnt poor reception that
the pioneering BBC TV broadcasts that started spoiled the plans of Wycombe Electrical
in August 1932. These broadcasts used just Supplies to profit from television, but the
30 scanning lines per picture a far cry from coming of the Second World War. BBC
the 1080 lines of a modern HD receiver but television broadcasts were terminated
nevertheless created huge interest because of abruptly on 1st September 1939, ostensibly so
their novelty. that aircraft could not use the signals from
Alexandra Palace transmitter as a direction
In 1935, the BBC ceased broadcasts on the finding aid.
Baird 30-line standard, replacing them in 1936
by high definition broadcasts that alternated The last programme transmitted was a Mickey
between the new Baird 240-line standard and Mouse cartoon, and when the BBC television
the Marconi-EMI 405-line standard in black- service resumed on 7th June 1946, this same
and-white only, of course! cartoon was also the first programme to be
transmitted. Who said that repeats were a
With a keen eye for future profits from modern phenomenon? By this time, Alex had
selling and maintaining television equipment, a new career in precision engineering, but he
Alexs employer set up a showroom for still has happy memories of the days when
demonstrating HMV televisions that worked the only instruments needed for electronic
with this new service. Since High Wycombe servicing were a signal generator and, of
was outside the official service area for the course, that indispensible Avometer.
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