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1.1 Introduction
Artificial Neural Networks are relatively crude electronic models based
on the neural structure of the brain. The brain basically learns from
experience. It is natural proof that some problems that are beyond the
scope of current computers are indeed solvable by small energy efficient
packages. This brain modelling also promises a less technical way to
develop machine solutions. This new approach to computing also provides
a more graceful degradation during system overload than its more
traditional counterparts.
On the other hand, if there is plenty of data and the problem is poorly
understood to derive an
approximate model, then neural network technology is a good choice. This
operating procedure should be contrasted with the traditional engineering
design, made of exhaustive subsystem specifications and
intercommunication protocols. In artificial neural networks, the designer
chooses the network topology, the performance function, the learning
rule, and the criterion to stop the training phase, but the system
automatically adjusts the parameters. So, it is difficult to bring a priori
information into the design, and when the system does not work properly
it is also hard to incrementally refine the solution. But ANN-based
solutions are extremely efficient in terms of development time and
resources, and in many difficult problems artificial neural networks provide
performance that is difficult to match with other technologies. Denker 10
years ago said that "artificial neural networks are the second best way to
implement a solution" motivated by the simplicity of their design and
because of their universality, only shadowed by the traditional design
obtained by studying the physics of the problem. At present, artificial
neural networks are emerging as the technology of choice for many
applications, such as pattern recognition, prediction, system identification,
and control.
1.5 What are (everyday) computer systems good at... .....and not
so good at
Advantages:
A neural network can perform tasks that a linear program cannot.
When an element of the neural network fails, it can continue without
any problem by
their parallel nature.
A neural network learns and does not need to be reprogrammed.
It can be implemented in any application.
It can be implemented without any problem.
Disadvantages:
The neural network needs training to operate.
The architecture of a neural network is different from the architecture of microprocessors
therefore needs to be emulated.
Requires high processing time for large neural networks.
Within humans there are many variations on this basic type of neuron,
further complicating
man's attempts at electrically replicating the process of thinking. Yet, all
natural neurons have the same four basic components. These components
are known by their biological names dendrites , soma, axon, and
synapses. Dendrites are hair-like extensions of the soma which act like
input channels. These input channels receive their input through the
synapses of other neurons. The soma then processes these incoming
signals over time. The soma then turns that processed value into an
output, which is sent out to other neurons through the axon and the
synapses.
Recent experimental data has provided further evidence that biological
neurons are structurally more complex than the simplistic explanation
above. They are significantly more complex than the existing artificial
neurons that are built into today's artificial neural networks. As biology
provides a better understanding of neurons, and as technology advances,
network designers can continue to improve their systems by building upon
man's understanding of the biological brain.
But currently, the goal of artificial neural networks is not the grandiose
recreation of the brain. On the contrary, neural network researchers are
seeking an understanding of nature's capabilities for which people can
engineer solutions to problems that have not been solved by traditional
computing.
To do this, the basic unit of neural networks, the artificial neurons,
simulates the four basic
functions of natural neurons. Figure 2.2.2 shows a fundamental
representation of an artificial
neuron.
INTRODUCTION
Antenna is an essential part of any wireless communication system. It is used to transmit
information in the form of electromagnetic wave that propagates through free space.
Microstrip patch antenna is a widely used type of antenna. Microstrip patch antenna is
popular because of its compact size and ease of fabrication. Microstrip antenna [1] is a single
layer design consisting four parts i.e. patch, substrate, ground plane and feeding part. Once
the frequency is given, characteristics of the antenna such as radiation pattern, input
impedance are fixed, thats why it is classified as single element resonant antenna. Patch is
located on one side of a thin non conducting substrate. It is basically a very thin (t<< where
is the free space wavelength) radiating metal strip or an array of strips. Same metal is also
located on the other side of substrate that is called ground plane. The material normally used
to make the patch is a thin copper foil plated with corrosion resistive metal. Thickness of the
substrate is usually 0.01 to 0.05 of free space wavelength. It provides proper spacing between
patch and ground plane, and mechanical support to the antenna as well. To reduce the size of
antenna high value of dielectric constant is used. Insertion loss of the substrate should be low
(typically less than 0.005). These substrate materials are classified into 3 categories as
follows:
1:- Substrate materials with relative dielectric constant in the range of 1.0 to 2.0 such as air,
polystyrene foam, or dielectric honeycomb.
2:- Substrate materials with relative dielectric constant in the range of 2.0 to 4.0 such as
fiberglass or reinforced Teflon.
3:- Substrate materials with relative dielectric constant in the range of 4 to 10 such as
ceramic, quartz, or alumina.
Small size, low profile and light weight are main attractive features of microstrip antenna. It
is compatible with both planer as well as nonplaner surfaces. It requires very little volume
and is very cheap in manufacturing using printed circuit technology.
Low efficiency and narrow bandwidth are some prominent drawbacks of microstrip antenna.
It is not apt for high power application as it has low RF power due to small separation
between patch and ground plane.
Types of patch
Choosing the geometry of the patch is an important consideration in designing microstrip
antenna. Specific characteristics can be obtained by choosing the right geometry for the
patch. Rectangular, square and circle are generally used as patch because of their ease of
analysis.
Choosing the right substrate material is also important as it should be compatible with the
environmental conditions of operating. Substrate material thickness has an significant impact
on the characteristics like resonant frequency and bandwidth of the antenna. Bandwidth is
increased by increasing the thickness of the substrate.
FEED TECHNIQUES
Feeding is the process of providing power to the patch that it radiates in the form of
electromagnetic wave. There are various methods of feeding the microstrip antenna. These
methods are classified into two categories. 1:- Contacting methods 2:- Non contacting
methods.
In contacting methods a contacting element such as microstrip line is used to feed RF power
directly to the patch. In non contacting method electromagnetic field coupling is used to feed
RF power to the radiating element. Four most popular methods are microstrip line feed,
coaxial probe feed (both contacting) and aperture coupling, proximity coupling (non
contacting) [3] [4].
Coaxial Feed
In this method a coaxial line is used for feeding purpose. The inner conductor is etched to
radiating patch and outer conductor is etched to the ground plane. The coaxial line passes
through the substrate. This is also a widely used feed technique for microstrip patch antennas.
This method is also known as probe feed method.
Feed can be placed at any position inside the patch thus impedance matching becomes much
easier. Spurious radiation is avoided in this method which was the drawback of microstrip
feed line method and it is very easy to fabricate as well. Disadvantages of this method are
that it provides narrow bandwidth and is very difficult to model.
A hole has to be drilled through the substrate for coaxial line as a result the connector
protrudes outside the ground plane. Thus for thick substrate this structure becomes non
planer. More thickness of the substrate causes one more problem that the input impedance
becomes more inductive which can cause impedance matching problem.
Broad bandwidth is achieved only by thick dielectric substrate but for thick dielectric
substrate both the contact methods suffer some disadvantages. This problem is avoided by
introducing non contact methods of feeding.
by the ground plane. Patch is etched on the top of the upper substrate and the feed line at the
bottom of lower substrate. This structure is the most difficult of the four to fabricate because
of layered structure.
Energy of the microstrip feed line is coupled to the patch through a slot on the ground plane.
Generally the bottom substrate is a high dielectric material and the top substrate is
comparatively low dielectric substrate and thicker than the bottom substrate. The amount of
coupling is determined by the shape, size and the location of the aperture.
Spurious radiation is minimized in this feeding method as the ground plane separates the
patch and the microstrip feed line. Layered structure increases the thickness of antenna. Feed
line width, slot size and position are used to optimize the design. This feed technique also
provides narrow bandwidth.