AE BOARD EXAM REVIEWER

AGRICULTURAL
BUILDING AND
INFRASTRUCTUR
E
by

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio

Department of Agricultural Engineering and Environmental
Management
College of Agriculture
Central Philipppine University
Iloilo City

TGIM Review Center

Institute of Agricultural Engineering
Arellano University
Taft Avenue, Manila
2004
OUTLINE

Units of Conversion
Introduction

UNIT OF CONVERSION

1 mi = 5280 ft 1 ha = 2.47 acre

1 in = 2.54 cm 1 ha = 10,000 m2
1m = 3.28 ft 1 cal = 4.189 J
1 mi = 1.609 km 1 kwhr = 3.6 MJ
1 lb m = 0.45359 kg 1 hp = 746 W
1 kg = 2.2 lb 1 BTU/sec = 1055 W
1 BTU = 1055 Joule 1 ton refrigeration= 3.52 kW
1 lb f = 4.4482 kN 1 atm = 101.3 kPa
1 ton = 1000 kg 1 psi = 0.0703 kg/cm2
1 gal = 3.784 liters 1 km/hr = 0.2778 m/s
1 barrel = 4 bags of 96 lbs portland cement
= 3.76 cubic foot
1 bag of = 1 cubic foot
cement
1 kg = 0.001102 ton
lb = 0.453 kg

Chapter I - INTRODUCTION
Definition of Terms
1. Concrete mixture of cement, sand, gravel, and other inert materials, and water to harden to
form of the shape and dimension of the desired structures.
2. Cement is a powder that when mixed with water can be a good binder for sand or gravel
into a hard solid mass.
3. Mortar it is a mixture of cement, sand, and water used for laying bricks or masonry; It is too
weak to be used as materials for building.
4. Mixing Water should be clean and free from injurious amount of oil, acids, alkali, organic
materials, or other deleterious substances.
5. Aggregates a materials held together by the paste formed of cement and water.
6. Fine aggregates - crushed stone, sand, crushed gravel with 5 mm diameter and below.
7. Coarse aggregate crushed stone, crushed gravel or gravel with diameter above 5 mm.
8. Concrete Beam structural member of reinforced concrete placed horizontally over openings
to carry load.
9. Concrete Column a vertical structural member made of reinforced or unreinforced concrete.
10. Concrete Block a solid or hollow blocks\ of precast concrete.
11. Concrete Slab a flat, reinforced concrete structural member, relatively suitable in length and
width but shallow in depth used for floors, roofs, and bridged deck.
12. Refractory Cement concrete with high silica content and used for heat insulator for furnaces
and other heat generating device.
13. Masonry is name for walls, pillars, arches, and other structures by laying bricks, stone
blocks, and other stone like materials such as hallow blocks.
14. Steel it is wide used reiforcing materials\ for almost all types of concrete construction. It is
an excellent partner of concrete in resisting both tension and compression load and hundred
times stronger in tensile strength.
15. Stirrups the structural reinforcing member that holds or binds together the main
reinforcement of a beam or girder to a designed position.
16. Wood a fibrous substance which composed the trunk and branches of the tree that lies
between the pith and the bark.
17. Lumber wood after it is sawed or sliced into boards, planks, timber, etc.
18. Rough Lumber unplaned or undressed lumber
19. Surfaced or Dressed lumber planed lumber having at least one smooth side.
20. S2S ; S4S dressed lumber wherein the number connotes the number of smooth sides.
21. Slab - the kind of rough lumber which is cut tangent to the annual rings running the full
length of the log and containing at least one flat surface.
22. Timber a wide piece of lumber five inches or 13 cm or larger in its smallest dimension
23. Plank- is a wide piece of lumber from 4 to 13 cm thick
24. Board a piece of lumber less than 4 cm thick with at least 10 cm wide.
25. Flitch a thick piece of lumber
26. Fine grained annual rings are small the grain or marking which separates the adjacent rings
27. Coarse grain large grain
28. Straight Grained when the direction of the fibers are near parallel with the side and edges of
the board.
29. Crooked or Cross-Grained when a lumber is taken from a crooked tree.
 30. Exogenous trees are most preferred in building construction which grows larger by addition
of layer on the surface each year.
31. Paint a mixture of a pigment and vehicle such as oil or water that together form a liquid or
paste that can be applied to a surface to provide an adherent coating that imparts color to and
often protects the surface.
32. Paint Remover a liquid paste formulation used to remove paint, varnish, enamel, or laquer.
33. Baluster a post which supports a handrails and encloses the open sections of a stairway.
34. Landing a level stage in a shaft at which cages are laoded and discharged
35. Riser a board placed vertically beneath the tread of a step in stair case.
36. Rise - is the height of a flight of stairs from landing to landing.
37. Run the horizontal distance from the first to the last riser of stair flight

Types of Cement
1. Ordinary portland cement
2. Rapid hardening portland cement specificed when high early strength is required
3. Portland blast furnace - to resist chemical attack
4. Low heat poratland cement reduce heat of hydration
5. Portland pozzolan slow hardening conrete
6. High alumina cement

Main Composition of Cement

1. Lime - 60 to 65% - lime putty or hydrated lime
2. Silica - 18 to 25% - refractory material
3. Alumina - 3 to 8% - good property for setting to high strength in 24 hours
4. Iron oxide - 0.5 to 5% - used to join iron or steel surfaces
5. Magnesia - 2 to 5 % - magnesium oxychloride cement
6. Sulfur trioxide - 1 to 5% - for connecting iron parts

Classes of Concrete Mixture

Class Proportion Cement Sand Concrete
AA 1:2:3 10.50 0.42. 0.84
A 1:2:4 7.84 0.44 0.88
B 1:2.5:5 6.48 0.44 0.88
C 1:3:6 5.48 0.44 0.88
D 1:3.5:7 5.00 0.45 0.90
Using 94 lbs portland cement per cubic meter of concrete

Class A for beams, slabs columns, all members subjected to bending

Class B members not reinforced for bending stress
Class C for footing not under water

Types of Construction
Types of Construction Proportion
Side walk 4 in thick 1:2:4
Floor slab 4 in thick 1:2:4
Wall 1:2.5:5
Footing 1:2.5:5
Post 1:2.5:5
Machinery foundation 1:3:6
Top dressing on wearing surface 1:2
Water Roofing 1:2
Note: keep all concrete wet for 7 days and protect from sun

Approximate Time of Curing Concrete Before Removal of Form

Arch Center 14 to 21 days
Centering Under Beams 14 days
Floor Slabs 3 to 10 days
Walls 7 to 14 days
Columns, Sides of Beams, and Girders 3 to 10 days

Classifications of Masonry Materials

1. Blocks
2. Bricks
3. Tiles

Rules of Thumb
1. 12.5 CHB per square meter area of the wall
2. CHB mixture one bag of cement per 10 parts of sand
3. CHB laid per bag of cement are:
4 x 8 x 16 - 55 to 60 pieces
6 x 8 x 16 - 30 to 36 pieces
8 x 8 x 16 - 25 to 30 pieces
4. Plaster volume 0.012 m3 per m2
 Tooled finish - 1/8 bags ; 0.0107 cubic meter / m2
Plaster finish - bag ; 0.0213 cubic meter / m2

Volume of Concrete per CHB

4 x 8 x 16 0.001 cubic m
6 x 8 x 16 0.003 cubic m
8 x 8 x 16 0.004 cub m

Mortar joint requirement per CHB = 0.0008 m3/CHB

Cell volume per hollow block
Plaster volume per CHB
= 0.003 for 4 in (4 cells).
= 0.004 for 6 in. (4 cells)
= 0.008 for 8 in (4 cells)
= 0.001 for single face
= 0.002 for double face

Plaster Cement/Lime, and Sand

Class Mixing Proportion Cement Lime Sand
(bags) (bags) (m3)
A 1:2 8.5 8.5 0.9
B 1:3 5.5 5.5 0.9
C 1:4 4.5 4.5 0.9

Quantity of Cement and Sand for Mortar and Plaster Mixture per Cubic Meter
Class Mixture Cement 50 kg bags Sand cubic meter
A 1:2 14.5 1
B 1:3 9.5 1
C 1:4 7.0 1
D 1:5 6.0 1

Reinforcement Steel Bar

Spacing of vertical and horizontal reinforcement bars

- 0.40 meters, 0.6 meters, 0.8 meters
- 2 layers, 3 layers, 4 layers

Required Length of Vertical and Horizontal Reinforcement Bar per Square meter of Wall
0.4 meter spacing - 2.93
0.6 meter spacing - 2.13
0.8 meter spacing - 1.60
every 2 layers - 3.30
every 3 layers - 2.15
every 4 layers - 1.72

Rules of Thumb
1. 20 kg of no. 16 GI tie wire per ton of reinforcement bar
2. 35 kg of no. 16 GI tie wire per roll

Corrugated Roofing
1. 10 and 12 inches end lap and 2 inches edge lap

Painting
1. First coating - 1 gal per 20 square meters
2. Second coating - 1 gal per 25 square meters
3. Pain thinner 2 gals per 20 gals of paint
4. Linseed oil 1 gal per 20 gals of paint
Some Rough Estimates
- 100 board foot per cubic meter form lumber
- Cement - 10 bags per cubic meter of plaster
- Steel Reinforcement - 100 to 130 kilogram per cubic meter of concrete
- Roof framing 14 board foot per square meter roof area
- Ceiling framing 7 board foot per square meter roof area
- Nails 20 kg per 1000 board foot
- Studding 2 x 3 per 4 board foot/square meter
- Siding 10.7 board foot per square meter
- Flooring 10.8 board foot per square meter
- Floor joist 2 x 6 15 board foot per square meter
- Ceiling joist 2 x 2 4 board foot per square meters
- Purlins 2 x 4 4.4 board foot per square meter
- GI sheet 32 x 8 0.7238 pcs per square meters
- Roof nails 2.1/2 0.082 kg per square meters
- Roof cement 0.042887 gal per square meters
- Straps 3 x 6 0.0452377 sht per square meters
 - Rivets 3/8 x - 0.0069 kg per square meters
- GI washer - 0.15888 kg per square meters
- One metric ton of asphalt concrete covers 8 square of pavement: 0.05 m thick or
0.43 cubic meter of asphalt concrete

Determination of Board Foot and Linear Foot

1 Board Foot = in x ft x ft / 144
2. Linear foot = length in inches / 12 inches
Wood Surfaces
1. Face
2. Edge
3. End

Standard Sizes of Construction Materials

Wood
a. plywood 1/8, , , 3/8, etc 4 x 8
b. lumber length: 6 ft, 8 ft, 10 ft, 12 ft
Plain Metal Sheet
a. Galvanized iron
b. Black iron
c. Galvalume
d. Stainless steel
e. Sizes are given in gauge (16 to 30) gauge = no. of piece per in thick pile
f. Dimension: 4 x 8; 3 x 6
g. Corrugated sheet ( 6 ft, 8, 10, 12, 14)
h. Pipe size in inches diameter based on the nominal schedule 40; thickness in
schedule; the higher the schedule the thicker the pipe is
Nail, Bolt, and Rivets
a. Nail is bought in Hardwares in terms of kilo (common, finishing, box, u-nail, etc)
b. Bolt sizes are given in terms of the diameter and the length of the bolt below the
head to the tip (coarse and fine thread)
c. Carriage bolt and log screw are commonly used for housing construction
d. Tex screws are commonly used to fasten roof materials for steel frame housing
construction.
e. Screws are fixed to concrete wall by means of a tox.
Bars
a. C-purlins are commonly used material for roof construction and wall studs for
cement fiber board materials. Size in terms of width and height. Thickness of
metals should also be specified. Standard length is 20 ft.
b. bars commonly used are made of mild steel; angle, flat, RSB, plain round bar,
square, etc. Standard length is 20 ft

Different Kinds of Boards

1. plywood; ordinary, marine standard size is 4 x 8
2. pressed board: lawanit standard thickness in, laminated glue, etc
3. fiber cement board hardiflex standard thickness in

Chapter II AGRICULTURAL STRUCTURES

Definition of Terms
A. Lairage for Swine, Small and Large Animals
1. lairage any premise or yard used for the confinement of animals awaiting to be
slaughtered which include unloading ramp, pens and detention pens
2. small animals refers to sheep, goat, and deer
3. large animals refers to cattle and carabao
4. detention pen separate compartment in the lairage used to confine sick or
suspected animals
5. loose type animals are free to move in a pen while awaiting to be slaughtered
6. tie-up type pugnacious animals are tied within the pen while awaiting to be
slaughtered
7. slaughterhouse building or place used for killing of animals where the flesh is
intended for human consumption
B. Slaughterhouse for Swine, Small and Large Animals
1. stunning pen compartment which is suitable for confining only one animal at a
time while it is being stunned and which is so constructed as to confine, without
discomfort, to prevent any substantial movement of the animal forward, backward or
sideway
2. stunning renders an animal insensible before it is killed
3. pithing insertion of a rod or coiled wire through the hole in the skull
of cattle made by the captive blot to destroy the brain and spinal cord
to prevent reflex muscular action and possible injury to operatives
4. sticking severance of the major blood vessels in the neck or immediately anterior to
the heart by means of a knife and stuck shall be constructed accordingly.
5. bleeding remove as much blood from the carcass as possible before further
handling
 6. scalding lowering of animal into steam to prepare skin for dehairing
7. dehairing removal of the hair of the carcass
8. gambrelling suspending the carcass for particular operation
9. singeing cleaning the carcass by burning the hair
10. evisceration process of removing the internal organs in the abdominal and thoracic
cavities
11. dressing preparation of carcass after evisceration, ready for storage or sale
12. splitting dividing carcass into parts
13. carcass all parts including viscera of slaughtered cattle, sheep, goats or swine that
may be used for human consumption
14. meat edible part of the muscle of cattle, sheep, goats or swine
15. offal part of internal organs of a slaughtered animal
16. green offal digestive tract of ruminants such as the stomach, or the intestines which
still contain fecal matter
17. black offal digestive tract of swine such as the stomach, or the intestines which still
contain fecal matter
18. detained meat meat requiring further examination as declared by a veterinary
inspector after veterinary examination
19. condemned meat meat which is unfit for human consumption as declared by a
veterinary inspector after veterinary examination
20. gut and tripe black or green offal
C. Warehouse for Bagged Storage of Grains
1. warehouse building used for storing paddy or rice and other grains in bags
2. bag storage storing of paddy or corn kernels in bags usually made of jute (gunny)
or polyethylene and normally accommodates 44-45 kilos
3. palay paddy; rough rice; unhulled grain or Oryza sativa L., that is grain with the
hull/husk enclosing the grain
4. fumigation process of using chemicals to control insects in grains in a form of
fumes
5. moisture content amount of moisture in the grain expressed as percentage of the
total weight of the sample, wet basis
6. dunnage pallet; tarima; wooden frames used on concrete floors for stacking bags
to prevent direct contact between the grains and the floor
7. aeration moving of air through stored grains at low airflow rates (generally
between 0.07-0.28 cubic meter per minute per ton) for purposes other than drying, to
maintain or improve it quality
D. Housing for Goat and Sheep
1. buck mature male goat
2. doe mature female goat that has kidded
3. dry doe doe without milk
4. kid young goat under six months old of either sex
5. ewe mature female sheep that has already lambed
6. lamb sheep under six months of age
7. ram mature male sheep
E. Cattle Feedlot
1. feedlot area with its physical facilities used for cattle fattening
2. bull breeding male of any age
3. calf young male or female under one year of age
4. cow mature female that has already calved
5. heifer female between two to three years of age which has not given birth
F. Cattle Ranch
1. corral enclosure for confining and handling livestock
2. holding pen pen for confining animals from the pasture
3. crowding pen pen used to funnel cattle into the working chute
4. working chute chute leading the cattle from the crowding pen to the holding
chute/squeeze
5. holding chute squeeze; use to restrain animals
6. loading chute chute used to load cattle from working chute or crowding pen to a
vehicle
G. Housing for Dairy Cattle
1. loose housing animals are free to move between resting, feeding and watering areas
2. yearling one to two-year-old cattle of either six
3. parturition act of giving birth
H. Carabao Feedlot
1. feedlot area with its physical facilities used for carabao fattening
2. caracow mature female that has already calved
3. caraheifer female carabao below two years of age which has not yet calved
I. Biogas Plant
1. biogas plant plant used to process animal wastes or manure to produce biogas and
2. sludge consisting of an inlet/mixing tank, digester, gas chamber and outlet/ sludge
tank
3. biogas mixture of gas (composed of 50 to 70 percent methane and 30 to 40 carbon
dioxide) produced by methanogenic bacteria
4. integrated plant biogas plant where the digester and gas chamber from one unit
5. split-type plant digester and gas chamber form separate units
 6. multi-digester plant plant with series of digester
7. floating type plant consisting of digester and a moving, floating gasholder that
either float directly in the fermenting slurry or in a separate water jacket
8. fixed type closed digester with an immovable, rigid gas chamber and a
displacement pit
9. balloon type plant consisting of a heat-sealed plastic or rubber bag (balloon),
combining digester and gasholder
10. inlet pipe- serves as conveyor of the manure-water mixture or slurry from the mixing
tank to the digester
11. slurry- mixture of manure and water
12. collecting tank- holding tank; chamber where manure and water are collected, stored
and separated from heavy and non-biodegradable materials before feeding them into
the digester
13. digester biodigester; bio-reactor; anaerobic reactor; any water and air tight
container designed for the process of anaerobic microbiological degradation of
organic matter into which the slurry is introduced for digestion and methanization
14. methanization digestion; various processes that take place among the methanogens,
non-methanogens and substrates fed into the digester as inputs
15. methanogens anaerobic bacteria that act upon organic materials and in the process,
produce biogas
16. gas chamber space inside or outside the digester for the collection and storage of
biogas
17. stirrer mixer; agitator; mechanical device inside the digester used to stir the slurry
18. outlet pipe serves as conveyor where the effluent or the slurry is forced out
19. effluent residue that comes out at the outlet after the substrate is digested/processed
inside the digester
20. loading rate amount of slurry fed per unit volume of digester capacity per day
21. backfill layer of compacted soil and gravel to support the digester wall
22. retention time average period that a given quantity of slurry is retained in the
digester for digestion
23. mesophilic temperature rage temperature range of 20C 40C where mesophilic
bacteria operates
24. gas production rate amount of biogas produced per day per cubic meter of slurry
25. substrate organic material used to produce biogas
26. scum layer of floating material (mainly fibrous) on the slurry
27. sludge settled portion or precipitate of the slurry; a mud-like, semi-solid mass
28. freeboard difference in height between the digester wall and the filling line
29. filling line level of slurry when the digesters is at full load
30. gasholder retainer cantilever beam that holds the gasholder/movable cover in
position at the desired biogas pressure
J. Greenhouses
1. greenhouse structure that provide a reliable enclosure within which an environment
favorable to plant growth can be attained
2. ridge and furrow greenhouse gutter connected; method of greenhouse construction
where modular roof units are connected at the eave by a common gutter
3. cooling removal of heat from the interior of the greenhouse
4. heating addition of heat to the interior of the greenhouse from any energy source
including the sun
5. shading prevents excess solar radiation in the greenhouse
6. ventilation process of exchanging air inside the greenhouse with outside air to
control temperature, humidity, oxygen or carbon dioxide levels
7. mechanical ventilation ventilation of greenhouse using fans
8. natural ventilation ventilation of greenhouse which occurs through controlled
openings due to natural pressure variations inside and outside the greenhouse

Farm Strucutre - a major field of study that includes the design, development, construction and
maintenance of silos and its components, farm roads and bridges, farm machinery sheds, farm houses, farm
products storage/warehouse, buildings and structures for: poultry, livestock production and processing,
agricultural processing, kiln drying and lumber treatment structures, farm equipment, farm supplies and
other structures such as self-feeders, soil and water conservation structures, etc.

Farmstead is an area where farm houses are located and considered as the center of farm enterprise

Features of Ideal Farmstead

1. Located near the center of the farm or middle of the long side near the road or highway.
2. The site should have favorable elevation with good drainage.
3. Near to an electric power line.
4. Near the mail delivery route and water supply.

Classifications of Farm Structures

1. Movable or fixed - movable buildings are small, lightweight, and constructed with skids so that
it can be moved around the farm. Fixed buildings are anchored to piers or foundations attached to poles set
in the ground.
 2. Pre-fabricated or on-the-site construction - pre-fabricated buildings are built from units that are
constructed in a factory. A number of units of sidewall panels, roofs, etc. for example are assembled on the
farm to erect the building. On-the-site construction is where the cutting, fitting and erecting are done on the
farm.

Factors Need to Consider in Designing Farm Strucutre

1. Location - it should have an access to a public highway without the expense of maintaining an
extensive private roadway
2. Site Drainage - the soil should be sufficiently well drained to provide suitable foundation for
the construction. Slopes and location of the buildings should be such that the drainage from
barn yards, feed lots or septic tank will not contaminate the water supply.
3. Distance Between Buildings - as the distance between buildings is increased, the travel
required in the performance of the chores is increased and the amount of cropland used for the
farmstead becomes greater. Distance between buildings should not be too far yet not near
enough to allow some area between buildings as a means of reducing fire hazard. A distance
of 75 ft or 29 m is usually adequate.
4. Windbreaks - natural features of the topography should be used to shelter the farmstead from
heavier winds. If such protection is not available, trees or shrubs should be planted.

Farm Building Plan - farm buildings should be constructed from plans or drawings to ensure careful
planning before construction starts. Planning is essential for economic selection of materials and for
efficiency in construction.
Components:
1. Stress Sheet - a line diagram showing the arrangement of structural members, dimensions,
loading, design stress, cross-section required for each member of the structure.
2. Design Drawing - usually contains five (5) sheets and the arrangement are as follows:
a. page 1 - location, vicinity and perspective
b. page 2 - elevation, i.e., front, rear, right, left, longitudinal and cross-sections
c. page 3 - floor plan, foundation lay-out and details, i.e., trusses, columns and beams
d. page 4 - electrical lay-out, specification and voltage analysis
e. page 5 - plumbing lay-out and specifications
3. Shop Drawings - components fabricated off-site
4. Specifications - amplify and reinforce the information conveyed by the drawing. Contain
details concerning the type and quality of materials and equipment to be used and the method and quality of
work to be done at the site.

Chapter III - PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

1. Strength of Materials this has to do with response to the stresses and strains created when it is
loaded.
2. Durability - materials are considered durable if they remain their strength and other properties over
a considerable period of time. Resistance to decay is an important test for durability of wood.
Durability of wood can be increased by preservative treatment. Wood exposed to decay hazards
may be preserved by impregnating it with a substance toxic to the fungi and other organisms that
cause decay (ex. Creosote, Zinc, Chloride, Sodium Fluoride, Copper Sulfate, Solignum).
3. Hardness, Toughness, Resilience, Wear Resistance
Hardness is the resistance to indentation.
Toughness is the capacity of a material to resist fracture under impact loading
Resilience is the quality of absorbing impact loads without passing the elastic limit.
Wear resistance is the resistance of the material against impairment resulting from use.
4. Workability - is a characteristic of materials which measures the ease with which it can be worked
or shaped. Workability of steel for construction on farms can be increased by prefabrication at the
factory to minimize the need for special tools at the site.
5. Resistance to Corrosion - is the degree to which a material resists chemical combination with other
materials with which it comes in contact
6. Thermal Characteristics - resistance to heat transfer
7. Dimensional Changes - dimensional changes in materials frequently are quite destructive; many
service faults can be traced to dimensional changes. Dimensional changes on metals, concrete,
and masonry results primarily from temperature variations. On wood, temperature variation is
minimal but large portion is observed due to change in moisture content.
8. Imperviousness - is the resistance of the material to the passage of liquid through capillary or
hygroscope action. Sheet metal, asphalt, impregnated felts, cement asbestos sheets, slate and tile
are sufficiently impervious materials.
9. Ease of Cleaning - is important for materials for surfacing walls, floors, ceilings, counter tops, etc.
it is usually associated with high density of surface and hardness. Dense surfaces resist
penetration of dirt into the pores of the materials. Numerous joints or cracks in a surface make
cleaning difficult.
10. Appearance - embodies color, texture, form and line. These elements are to a large extent
subjective qualities.
11. Acoustical Properties - it is the property of the material to reduce noise level
Chapter IV - CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND REQUIREMENTS

1. Wood - commonly construction materials, at the same time, it is probably the most difficult to
classify, select and use correctly.

Growth Defects of Wood (Compression, Decay, Shake, Molds and Staining Fungi, Pitch, Mineral Streak,
Knots

Preparation of Lumber
Lumber can be prepared by:
a. Seasoning - air drying from 35 to 55 percent moisture to below 19 percent or to its equilibrium
moisture content.
b. Kiln Drying - exposing the lumber to elevated temperature of 70 to 120F for 4 to 10 days.

Classification of Lumber
Lumber is classified as:
a. Rough Lumber - unfinished or freshly processed from the sawmill.
b. Finished Lumber - lumber that has been run-through a planer or dressed.

Designation of Dressed Lumber

S1S - surfaced one side
S2S - surfaced on two sides
S1E - surfaced on one edge
S2E - surfaced on two edge
S1S1E - surfaced on one side and one edge
S2S1E - surfaced on two sides and one edge
S4S - surfaced on four sides

Classification of Lumber Grades

1. Hardwood Grades - are based on the amount of usable lumber in each piece of a standard
length, from 4 to 16 ft. The hardwood is inspected on the poorest side of the piece, and the grade is based
on the appearance of this side.
2. Softwood Grades - this grade is further classified into: yard, structural, and factory or shop.
a. Yard - includes material less than 5 in. thick and is used for general building
purposes. It is used for framing in residences and other light construction.
b. Structural - this includes pieces of 2 in. or more in thickness and is graded according
to the actual working stress resisted by the entire piece of lumber, working stresses
vary with location and number of knots, checks, and splits, direction of grain, and
presence of wane.
c.. factory and Shop -this finish lumber used for sash, doors, and trim, graded according
to the umber of smaller pieces that can be obtained from each piece of lumber.
Other Types of Lumber
1. Glued-Laminated Lumber - lumbers that are joined together by a glue to form a bigger size of
timber with the desired size and shape
2. Plywood - is a glue laminated wood product engineered to make a thin sheet of wood 1/10 to
1/4 in. in thickness
3. Pressed Board - is made of any vegetable mineral, or synthetic fiber mixed with binder and
pressed into a flat sheet
4. Particle Board - is a panel made of wood fibers bonded with urea type resins and pressed
under high temperature.
5. hardboard - is a panel which are made of wood chips that have been exploded, leaving
cellulose fibers and lignin

Wood Measure
Board foot is a measure of the volume of wood having a dimension of 1 in. thick, 12 in. wide, and 12 in.
long. This can be computed using the formula:

1 board foot = [thickness (in.) x width (in.) x length (in.)] / 144

Concrete - a combination of cement, and coarse and fine aggregates and water. Basically it is composed of
cement, aggregates and water which have been mixed together, deposited, and permitted to solidify.

Cement - widely known as portland cement, it is a mixture of limestone and clay materials which are
thoroughly mixed then burned in a kiln to form a fairly inert clinker. The inert clinker when finely ground,
reacts with water through a process of hydration and in short period acquires a "set" as cement.
Types
a. Ordinary Portland Cement - this cement is the most common. It is generally resistant to
alkalis, mineral oils, greases, however, it is subject to damage from sulphates and acids.
b. Rapid-Hardening Portland Cement - this should be used when speed is desirable. It has a
cost differential over OPC at about 12 percent.
 c. Sulphate-resistant Portland Cement -this should be used for foundations in sulphate bearing
soils.
d. Extra-Rapid-Hardening Portland Cement - this cement includes an admixture (calcium
chloride) which accelerates its hydration at early ages.
f. High Alumina cement - this cement is chemically completely different from portland
cement and it must never be mixed accidentally with

Quality of cement is affected by materials and methods of manufacture.

a. degree of whiteness - controlled by careful selection of raw materials.

b. Shortening of time of setting - finer grinding and by using clay materials high in aluminates.
c. Addition of the following:
small quantity of gypsum - retards the set
small quantity of cad - accelerates the set

Portland cement usually is manufactured to meet the specifications of the society for testing
materials in the locality. Standard portland cement acquires nearly its full strength in about 28 days while
high-early-strength cement reaches a comparable strength in about 5 days. The bags of cement shall be
stored after delivery in dry conditions with adequate ventilation and separate from other materials and any
cement damaged by moisture shall be removed immediately from the site.

Aggregates

Aggregates are sand and coarse materials that the cement binds together.

Fine aggregate (sand) shall consist of clean, well graded coarse sand mainly passing 5 mm (1/4
in.) mesh test sieve. Sand shall be allowed to drain before use and shall be stored on inert ground.

Coarse aggregate (gravel/broken stones) shall consist of natural gravel, crushed gravel or stone,
well graded from the nominal maximum size of 20 mm (or retained on a 1/4 in. screen) to produce, without
the use of excessive water, a dense but workable concrete. Aggregate should be durable, chemically stable
and should be free from organic matters that are water soluble or likely to react with air or moisture
(iron/alkali compounds). Gravel shall be allowed to drain before use and shall be stored separate from sand
on inert ground.

Fine and coarse aggregate constitute about 75 to 80 percent of the ultimate mass of concrete. They
are joined together into a solid body by the solidification of a paste made of cement and water.

Water

There are two important things to be considered with respect to mixing water.

Quality: It should be clean and free from oil, acid, alkali, vegetable or organic matter or other deleterious
substance in suspension or in solution taken direct from the main supply or from wells if tested in
accordance with product standard.

Quantity: The minimum needed to give sufficient plasticity to make the concrete workable. Excess water
produces a soupy mix in which segregation of aggregate and cement paste takes place; that is, the coarse
aggregate "settles out", leaving the portion of the mix without adequate cement paste.

Operations in the Production of Concrete

1. Batching the materials

2. Mixing
3. Handling and transporting
4. Placing
5. Finishing
6. Curing

Suggested Proportions for Different Types of Mixtures

a. Coarse Concrete - for foundations unless otherwise stated

cement 1 cu. m.
fine aggregate (damp) 3 cu. m.
coarse aggregate 5 cu. m.

Nominally described as 1:3:6 mix with 210 kg/m3 of cement with 40 mm maximum size of
aggregate and a sand content to total aggregate of 35 percent, and with a high work-ability to give 10
MN/m2 at 28 days.
 b. Normal Concrete - for floor slabs, roads, yards, etc.

cement 1 cu. m.
fine aggregate (damp) 2.5 cu. m.
coarse aggregate 4 cu. m.

Nominally described as 1:2:4 mix with 300 kg/m3 of cement with 20 mm maximum size of
aggregate and a sand content to total aggregates of 35 percent , and without the use of excessive water to
give medium workability and to give 22.5 MN/m2 at 28 days.
c. Fine Concrete

cement 1 cu. m.
fine aggregate (damp) 1.5 cu. m.
coarse aggregate 2 cu. m.

Nominally described as 1:2:2 mix with 525 kg/m3 of cement with 10 mm maximum size of
aggregate and a sand content to total aggregate of 40 percent, and with minimum use of water to give
workability and to give 30 MN/m2 at 28 days.

Time of Mixing

Mix thoroughly the dry aggregates and cement and then add water. Tests indicate that concrete
mixed for two minutes after addition of water is 20 to 35 percent stronger than concrete mixed for only 15
seconds. It must be poured within 45 minutes after mixing.

Placing of Concrete

If placed on earth; earth should be moistened sufficiently to prevent it from robbing the concrete
of its water.

If placed over an old concrete: should be cleaned thoroughly preferably with high pressure air and
water jet and steel brush. Surface should be wet but there should be no standing water.

In placing concrete in deep forms, a tremie should be used to limit the free fall to not over 3 or 4 ft
in order to prevent segregation. A tremie is a pipe made of lightweight metal, having adjustable lengths and
attached to the bottom of a hopper into which the concrete is deposited.

After the concrete is placed, it should be compacted by hand puddling or mechanical vibrator to
eliminate voids.

Curing Concrete

Concrete must be cured with adequate moisture and at a favorable temperature. Curing should
prevent the loss of initial moisture, or it should replace the moisture that does evaporate. Keep the surface
wet or apply curing compounds. Curing compounds may be applied by brushes or pressure sprayers.
Concrete should be placed at a

temperature not less than 40F or more than 80F.

-<40 - reduces rate of setting

->80 - reduces ultimate strength

Standard cement should be kept damp for 7 days.

Quantity of Aggregates

Quantity of concrete aggregates can be determined by using the Absolute Volume Method. This
method determines the actual volume of the solid particles (without voids) only. The following formula
should be considered:

Weight of loose material x Density

Absolute Volume = ----------------------------------------------------
Specific gravity x unit weight of water

Basic data on the density and specific gravity of these aggregates are as follows:

Materials Density Sp. Garvity

Cement 418 N/bag 3.10
Sand 17,250 N/m3 2.65
 Gravel 16,000 N/m3 2.70
Water 9.8 N/Li 1.0

Setting Out and Laying Concrete Foundations

Foundations have to support the total weight of a building, including their own weight, and
transmit this to the ground without uneven settlement occurring. The ground must be capable of bearing
the weight, with added safety margin, and the foundations must be deep enough to avoid frost damage.

Since the stability of the building depends on the strength of the foundations, control is exercised
through the building regulations over depths, widths, thickness, reinforcements and the subsoil pressures,
and the quality of materials to be used.

The prepared base for any foundation has to be inspected by the local authority, who require 24
hours notice before the placing of any concrete.

Common Types of Foundations

a. Slab Foundations - for garages, room extensions, conservatories and garden buildings. It is
used to provide a slab or raft foundation, which may also be reinforced and thickened at the edges to
support the walls. A slab 6-inches (15.24 cm) thick is normally sufficient but the thickness has to be
approved by the local authority.
Figure 3-1 shows the simple procedure for setting and laying slab foundation.

b. Strip Foundations - these consist of continuous lengths of concrete of prescribed width, depth,
and thickness, placed centrally under each wall to be supported. If not centrally placed, special calculations
are necessary. In some cases strip foundations may be reinforced with steel mesh or bars. Figure 3-2
shows the simple procedure for setting and laying strip foundation.

c. Pile and Beam Foundations - for buildings on clay subsoil, pile and beam foundations are an
alternative to deep strip foundations. They provide continuing stability even where there is a risk of
seasonal soil movement. The foundation consist of reinforced-concrete beams supported concrete piles set
in the ground. The piles may be prefabricated, but for small buildings it is easier to bore the holes and fill
them with concrete.

Before the start of construction or before laying out of the building foundation, we also need to
consider the following important activities:

a. See to it that the building permit is secured.

b. Relocate the boundaries of the construction site.
c. Clear the site of any existing structures, trees, and other elements that will obstruct the
construction work.
d. Construct and allocate a space for laborers, quarters, construction office, bodega for materials
and working tools, and temporary waste disposal.
e. Apply for temporary connections for electric and water supply.

In laying out the foundations, we need also to further consider the following steps:

1. Construct a temporary fence around the construction site.

2. Order the construction materials that are sufficient for the working force to accomplish in a
working period.
3. Verify the measurement in the plan if the distances indicated are from:
a. center to center
b. center to outer
c. outer to outer
4. Fix the batter board to its horizontal position with the aid of a level instrument.
5. Verify the instrument on the batter board.
6. After establishing the reference point and the line of the footing, transfer the intersecting points
of the string on the ground by the aid of a plumb bob.

Forms and Placing

a. Forms must be constructed to conform to the desired shape and be strongly braced to resist the
high lateral pressure of the concrete. Bracing is an especially difficult problem with battered sections
subject to uplift pressures. Forms must be tight to prevent the cement paste from leaking away and they
must be left in place until the concrete has acquired sufficient strength to be self-supporting or until the
danger that edges will be broken in removing the forms has been eliminated.

b. Reinforcement steel should be accurately located and firmly held by suitable supports or ties so
that it will not be displaced when the concrete is poured.
III. MASONRY MATERIALS

They include all small-dimension units of the type bonded together with cement or lime mortar.
Some examples are clay tile, concrete, haydite, cinder block, brick, gypsum block. These materials are
used primarily for wall construction. Most masonry units are not good insulating materials, even though
the walls have considerable thickness.

Mortar materials should be of adequate strength and durability and workmanship should be of
good quality. Materials generally used includes portland cement, lime, and sand. Common properties of
mix are as follows:

a. High Strength - (28-day compressive stress, 2500 psi) portland cement,

hydrated lime, sand 1:1/4:3

b. Moderate Strength - (600 psi) cement, lime, sand 1:2

c. low Strength - (200 psi) cement, lime, sand 1:2:9

For greatest strength and durability, the masonry units should be full bedded; that is, the horizontal
joints should be smooth, rather than furrowed, and the vertical joints should be well filled. The joints in
wall faces that are to be covered may be finished roughly by cutting off the excess mortar with the trowel.
Joints in wall faces that will be visible should be more carefully finished.

Types of Masonry Units

1. Bricks

Brick is less common in farm construction than are many other masonry materials. The chief
reason probably being its high cost. The nominal dimensions of brick have recently been standardized as 2-
1/16 in. thick, 3-1/2 in. wide, and 7-1/2 in. long.

Common types of bricks include:

a. Common Brick - is ordinary brick used for walls and piers, backup for terra cotta, and other
purposes that do not require a special color texture or shape.
b. Face Brick - especially manufactured for use as a facing material: particularly care is taken to
assure good color and surface texture, regularity in shape and dimension, and other characteristics that may
contribute to a desired architectural effect.
c. Glazed Brick - has a smooth glossy surface achieved in manufacture by firing at a high
temperature after coating the unfired units with compounds that will fuse to provide a hard impervious
surface. Glazed brick are load-bearing units that will withstand rough service and are especially suited for
walls requiring frequent washing and cleaning or that are frequently wet.
d. Fire Brick - are special brick composed of clay, silica, flint, and feldspar. They have a high
fusing point and are suitable for furnace or fireplace linings.

To reduce costs and increase insulating value, brick sometimes is combined with wood framing to
forma brick-veneer wall.

2. Cement - Aggregate Units

These masonry units are composed of portland cement and aggregate. Th e aggregate for load-
bearing units usually is broken stone or gravel; for light-weight units intended for exterior load-bearing
walls of small buildings and for interior partition walls, the aggregate may be relatively light cellular
material, such as cinders, blast-furnace slag, or haydite.

3. Structural Clay Tile

These units, like brick, are molded of clay and fired in a kiln. They differ in that they are larger in
overall dimension and are cellular units consisting of thin exterior walls divided into open-end cells by
interior partitions 3/4 to 1 in. thick. They are cheaper to lay than brick and have greater insulating value
owing to the cellular form.

4. Gypsum Tile

Gypsum tile consist of solid or cellular blocks cast in molds. The materials are water, finely
ground calcined gypsum, and a small admixture of fibrous materials such as wood chips. They are
employed as partition tile for non-bearing walls, or the cellular blocks may be split and used as furring tile.
Gypsum sometimes is cast in the form of short plank for roof decking. Gypsum units to not withstand
moisture well and consequently are not suitable for exteriors; if installed as roof plank, they require a good
roof covering.
5. Stone

Stone, though readily available in suitable form as a native material in many parts of the country,
is no longer widely used as a farm-building material except as a concrete aggregate. Two of its principal
disadvantages are its high labor requirement for wall construction and its poor insulating qualities.

Bonding Masonry Work

Bond in a masonry wall is, in a sense, a "crossply" that binds the different wall units together. In a
wall of single unit thickness, such as concrete block wall, the only bonding required is staggering the
vertical joints between blocks. This pattern then furnishes a bond at the wall corners by providing in each
face a header and stretcher block in providing in each face a header and stretcher block in alternate courses.
Bond at right angles to the face of the wall is required in walls having a thickness greater than a single unit.
The arrangement of masonry units to obtain bond also furnishes pattern and texture to the wall surface, and
for this reason the type of bond frequently is chosen from architectural as well as structural effect. Table 3 -
1 gives an approximate idea of tile quantities per unit area.

IV. SURFACING MATERIALS

Wall Coverings

1. Insulating Boards

Insulating boards consist of rigid sheets of fibrous material (usually fibers of cane, wood, or
reprocessed paper). The most usual size is 4 ft by 8 ft and nominal thickness of 1/2 to 1 in. Smaller units
are available in the form of wall or ceiling tile. They are good insulating materials and many have good
acoustical properties (they are effective in reducing the level of room noise but are not especially effective
in reducing sound transmission through partition walls). Sheet impregnated with asphalt can be obtained
for locations where moisture conditions are severe. Tiles are available in colours and finish suitable for
interior work.

2. Gypsum Wall Board

This material is widely used in so-called "dry-built" construction as a substitute for plaster inside
finish. It consist of a thin sheet of gypsum covered on each side with a layer of paper, which usually is
finished smooth for painting. The customary size of the finish boards is 4 ft by 8 ft.

Table 1. An Estimate of Tile Quantity (Adapted from: A - Z Guide to Improvements)

3. Plywood

Can be used as a concrete form materials and interior wall paneling or cabinets. The wood species
most widely employed is Douglas fir, although for inside finish walls the finish ply may consist of wood
such as walnut, or mahogany especially selected for appearance. Exterior siding or sheathing, concrete
form material, and similar applications require exterior-grade plywood, of which there are two-types:
water-resistant and water-proof. The waterproof grade will stand prolonged exposure to severe moisture
conditions; the water-resistant grade, if exposed to moisture, must be painted or otherwise protected to
prevent separation of the plies.

The most common size of plywood panels for construction work is 4 ft x 8 ft. The large panels,
when applied to standard wall framing, produce a rigid structural wall panel. With special framing
methods, plywood is used in the fabrication of floor panels in which the plywood acts as a stressed skin.

4. Metal Sheets

Copper and steel and, more recently, aluminum are the sheet metals used for farm structures.
Copper is employed only for such purposes as roof flashing or termite shields. Aluminum has recently
become available in the form of corrugated and V - crimp sheets for siding and roofing, or sheets flat to
simulate wood siding. Steel sheets are sometimes used flat for siding but more often are corrugated or V -
crimp for both siding and roofing. To prevent early destruction by corrosion, steel sheets exposed to
moisture must be coated with zinc (2 oz/ft2 is the standard coating), paint, or asphalt.

Roofing Materials

1. Wood Shingles

Wood shingles are cut in lengths of 16, 18, and 24 in. For best quality the shingles should be
edge-grain to reduce the tendency to curl. They are tapered with a butt thickness of about 1/2 in., and of
random widths ranging from 2-1/2 to 16 in. Wood shingles should not be laid on roofs that slope less than
6 in. in 12.
2. Cement - Asbestos Roofing

One type of cement - asbestos roofing is the corrugated sheet, which is applied like corrugated
metal sheets. But this material is commonly used in the form of shingles.

The shingles for Dutch lap are approximately 16 in. x 16 in. square and 3/16 to 1/4 in. thick. They
are laid with 1/4 to 1/3 side lap, the greater lap being preferred for the best quality of roof.

In the rectangular (or American) shingle the most common size is 8 in. x 16 in.; the usual thickness
is 3/16 in., 1/4 in., or 5/16 in. Side joints are staggered one-half the width of the shingle.

Hexagonal shingles generally are 16 in. x 16 in. square and 3/16 in. thick. They are laid with a
greater weather exposure than the other types and are held in place by nails and storm anchors.

3. Bituminous Roofing

Sheet-Metal Roofing. Steel, aluminum, and copper are the sheet metals with which farm buildings
are roofed. Because of its high cost, copper is used only for flashing and only in the highest grade of work.
Steel sheets, both corrugated and flat, are employed extensively.

The particular advantages of metal sheets are light weight, fire resistance, and durability (steel
roofs are durable if galvanized; after a number of years' service, additional protection of painting is
necessary). However, sheet-metal roofs do not provide good heat-insulating qualities.

Sheet metal should not be applied to roof slope less than 2-1/2 to 3 in./ft. The ends of the sheets
should be lapped 6 in. Corrugated sheets should be side-lapped 1-1/2 to 2 corrugations and flat sheets
should be laid with flat or standing soldered seams, or side-lapped with a V - crimp joint.

4. Flashing

Prevents leakage at all points where the continuity of the roofing surface is broken. In the highest-
quality corrugation, flashing sheets are of lead weighing not less than 3 lb/ft2 or of copper weighing a
minimum of 16 oz./ft2. Gage 24 to 26 galvanized iron is employed for fairly permanent work.

Flooring

1. Wood

Wood blocks placed with the grain vertical sometimes are employed where traffic is heavy, as in
the warehouse. The material most frequently used is creosoted yellow pine. The blocks may be 2 to 4 in.
thick; they are generally set in bed of tar, asphalt, or cement mortar and the joints are filled with asphalt or
tar.
Tongue and groove planks may serve in mill-type construction where floor joists are spaced and
the flooring is subjected to considerable beam action as well as acting as a wearing surface.

2. Concrete

Concrete for flooring should be proportioned and replaced so as placed so as to obtain a dense,
hard surface, free of laitance.

Procedures:

a. Laying a one-course floor in which the concrete is poured and finished to the final grade in a
single operation.
b. Laying a base course and finishing it rough to a grade about 1 in. below the final level. The
topping course 1 to 2, may be placed either while the base is still plastic or after the base has hardened.

A colored finish may be obtained by incorporating appropriate pigments in the topping course.

3. Terrazo

Concrete floors sometimes are topped with a special mix and finish to produce a terrazo floor.
This material consists of a topping course about 1 in. thick consisting of cement, sand, and marble chips.
The topping is mixed almost dry and compacted by rolling. After it has exposes the aggregate and gives the
floor its characteristic appearance.

4. Stone

A stone floor is expensive to lay and, unless the stone is cut and finished, is likely to be uneven
and difficult to clean. These characteristics limit the use of stone for flooring to such locations as exterior
terraces. Naturally flat stone, sometimes of irregular outline, may be laid on earth with open joints or on
pavement; otherwise, stone has little application as a flooring material in farm buildings.

Changes of Level

It should be flat unless effluent or water has to be drained from the surface. Changes in the level
of vehicular areas should be avoided, though ramps can be formed. Ramps should not be steeper than 1:5,
for preference, it should be greater than 1:8 to 1:10.

If with steps, for tractors it should by <500 mm; for pigs/sheeps 100 - 150 mm; for cows <200
mm. Tread should be about one third the animal length when there is more than one step. Example, for
cattle = 700 - 800 mm. Edge should be rounded; pedestrians 100 - 200 mm.

Surface Finishes

Ramping is necessary in order to get reasonable compaction.

1. Broom Finish - need to be regular and light, thus forming an attractive non slip surface.

a. stiff broom finish - using wire broom or stiff brush. Example: for cattle areas
b. soft broom finish - for floors

2. Float Finish - gives a smoother and more regular surface. They are harder to form and therefore,
restricted normally to small, special areas.

a. wood float finish - for grain and potato storage (even if the area is large)
b. steel float finish - gives a very smooth and slippery surface, and particularly dangerous when
wet. Used for surfaces requiring maximum hygiene or for walling vendors.

3. Exposed Aggregates

4. Indented Finish - for areas where liquids have to be drained quickly.