Units and Dimensions and Errors in

Measurement 1

Units, Dimensions and Errors in

Measurement
1.1 Physical Quantity.
A quantity which can be measured and by which various physical happenings can be
explained and expressed in form of laws is called a physical quantity.
1.2 Types of Physical Quantity.
(1) Ratio (Numerical value only)
Example : Relative density, Strain, Refractive index, Dielectric constant etc.
(2) Scalar (Magnitude (Numerical Value & Unit only))
Example : Mass, Length, Time, Charge, Current, Work, Energy etc.
(3) Vector (Magnitude and Direction)
Example : Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Torque etc.
1.3 Magnitude of Physical Quantity.
Magnitude of physical quantity = Numerical value Unit
P nu
It means for a given physical quantity.
(1) As the unit will change, numerical value will also change n1u1 n2u2

gm 103 kg
Example : Densityof Water 1
cm3 m3
1
(2) Larger the Unit smaller will be the numerical value as n
u
Example : size of atom = 1 1010 metre
1.4 Fundamental Derived and Practical Units.
(1) Units of mass, length, time, temperature, current, luminous intensity and amount of
substance are called fundamental, absolute or base unit.
(2) Units which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units are called derived units.
Example : Unit of velocity (m/s), Unit of force (kg m/s2) etc.
2 Units and Dimensions and Errors in
Measurement
(3) Apart from fundamental and derived units we also sometimes come across practical unit.
These may be of fundamental or derived quantities e.g. Light year is a practical (fundamental)
unit of distance while horse power is a practical (derived) unit of power.
(4) Practical units of length : (i) 1 Fermi = 1015 m (ii) 1 X-Ray unit = 1013 m (iii) 1 = 1010
m
(iv) 1 micron = 106 m, (v) 1 Astronomical unit = 1.491011 m (vi) 1 Light Year = 9.46
1015 m
(vii) 1 Parsec = 3.26 ly
(5) Practical Units of Mass : (i) 1 Chandrashekhar unit = 1.4 times the mass of sun = 2.8
1030 kg
(ii) 1 metric tonne = 1000 kg (iii) 1 Quintal = 100 kg (D) 1 amu = 1.67 1027 kg
(6) Practical units of time : (i) 1 Century = 100 Years (ii) 1 Lunar Month = 27.3 days (iii) 1
Shake = 108 sec
1.5 Standards of Length, Mass and Time.
(1) Length : The metre is the distance containing 1650763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of
the radiation corresponding to organised light of krypton-86
or
th
1
Meter is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in part
299,792,458
of a second.
(2) Mass : Kilogram is the mass of platinum-iridium cylinder stored in a special vault in the
international bureau of standards in Sevres, France.
1
1 atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as th the mass of carbon-12 isotope.
12
1 amu = 1.67 1027 kg
(3) Time : 1 Second is defined as the time interval of 9192631770 vibrations of radiation in
cesium-133 atom.
1.6 System of Unit.
(1) C.G.S. System : Length (centimetre), Mass (gram), Time (second)
(2) M.K.S. System : Length (metre), Mass (kilogram), Time (second)
(3) F.P.S. System : Length (foot), Mass (pound), Time (second)
(4) S.I. System : Length (metre), Mass (kilogram), Time (second), Electric current
(ampere), Temperature (kelvin), Amount of Substance (mole),
Luminous intensity (candela)

Note : For plane angle radian and for solid angle steradian are used as
supplementary unit.
1.7 Dimensions and Dimension Formulae.
The powers to which fundamental quantities must be raised in order to express the given
physical quantity are called its dimensions.
Example: Force = mass acceleration
 Units and Dimensions and Errors in
Measurement 3
mass velocity mass length/tim e
= mass length (time)2
time time
Hence, the dimensions of force are 1 in mass (M), 1 in length (L) and 2 in time (T).
Thus, dimensional formula for force is, [MLT2].
1.8 Important Dimensions of Complete Physics.
Mechanics
S. N. Quantity Unit Dimension
(1) Velocity or speed (v) m/s [M0L1T 1]
(2) Acceleration (a) m/s2 [M0LT 2]
(3) Momentum (P) kg-m/s [M1L1T 1]
(4) Impulse (I) Newton-sec or kg-m/s [M1L1T 1]
(5) Force (F) Newton [M1L1T 2]
(6) Pressure (P) Pascal [M1L1T 2]
(7) Kinetic energy (EK) Joule [M1L2T 2]
(8) Power (P) Watt or Joule/s [M1L2T 3]
(9) Density (d) kg/m3 [M1L-3T 0]
(10) Angular displacement () Radian (rad.) [M0L0T 0]
(11) Angular velocity () Radian/sec [M0L0T 1]
(12) Angular acceleration () Radian/sec2 [M0L0T 2]
(13) Moment of inertia (I) kg-m2 [M1L2T0]
(14) Torque () Newton-meter [M1L2T 2]
(15) Angular momentum (L) Joule-sec [M1L2T 1]
Force constant or spring
(16) Newton/m [M1L0T 2]
constant (k)
(17) Gravitational constant (G) N-m2/kg2 [M-1L3T 2]
Intensity of gravitational field
(18) N/kg [M0L1T 2]
(Eg)
(19) Gravitational potential (Vg) Joule/kg [M0L2T 2]
(20) Surface tension (T) N/m or Joule/m2 [M1L0T 2]
(21) Velocity gradient (Vg) Second1 [M0L0T 1]
(22) Coefficient of viscosity () kg/m-s [M1L-1T 1]
(23) Stress N/m2 [M0L-1T 2]
(24) Strain No unit [M0L0T 0]
(25) Modulus of elasticity (E) N/m2 [M1L1T 2]
(26) Poisson Ratio () No unit [M0L0T 0]
(27) Time period (T) Second [M0L0T1]
(28) Frequency (n) Hz [M0L0T 1]
4 Units and Dimensions and Errors in
Measurement
Heat
S. N. Quantity Unit Dimension
(1) Temperature (T) Kelvin [M0L0T0 1]
(2) Heat (Q) Joule [ML2T2]
(3) Specific Heat (c) Joule/kg-k [M0L2T-2-1]
(4) Thermal capacity Joule/K [M1L2T 2 1]
(5) Latent heat (L) Joule/kg [M0L2T 2]
(6) Gas constant (R) Joule/mol-K [M1L2T21]
(7) Boltzmann constant (k) Joule/K [M1L2T2 1]
Coefficient of thermal
(8) Joule/m-s-K [M1L1T3 1]
conductivity (K)
(9) Stefan's constant () Watt/m2-K4 [M1L0T34]
(10) Wien's constant (b) Meter-K [M0L1To1]
(11) Planck's constant (h) Joule-s [M1L2T1]
Coefficient of Linear Expansion
(12) Kelvin1 [1]
()
(13) Mechanical eq. of Heat (J) Joule/Calorie [M0L0T0]
(14) Vander walls constant (a) Newton-m4 [ML5T2]
(15) Vander walls constant (b) m3 [M0L3T0]

Electricity

S. N. Quantity Unit Dimension

(1) Electric charge (q) Coulomb [M0L0T1A1]
(2) Electric current (I) Ampere [M0L0T0A1]
(3) Capacitance (C) Coulomb/volt or Farad [M1L2T4A2]
Coulomb2
(4) Permittivity of free space () 2
[M1L3T4A2]
Newton- meter
(5) Dielectric constant (K) Unitless [M0L0T0]
(6) Resistance (R) Volt/meter or ohm [M1L2T3A2]
Resistivity or Specific
(7) Ohm-meter [M1L3T3A2]
resistance ()
volt second
Coefficient of Self-induction or henery or ohm-
(8) ampere [M1L2T2A2]
(L)
second
(9) Magnetic flux () Volt-second or weber [M1L2T2A1]
(10) Magnetic induction (B) newton Joule [M1L0T2A1]
ampere meterampere meter2

volt second weber

2
or 2 or
meter meter
 Units and Dimensions and Errors in
Measurement 5
S. N. Quantity Unit Dimension
tesla
(11) Magnetic Intensity (H) ampere/meter [M0L1T0A1]
(12) Magnetic Dipole Moment (M) Ampere-meter2 [M0L2T0A1]
Newton
Joule
2
ampere or ampere2
meteror
Permeability of Free Space
(13) Volt second Ohm second [M1L1T2A2]
(0) or or
ampere meter meter
henery
meter
(14) Surface charge density () 2
Coulombmetre [M0L2T1A1]
(15) Electric dipole moment (p) Coulomb meter [M0L1T1A1]
(16) Conductance (G) (1/R) ohm1 [M1L2T3A2]
(17) Conductivity () (1/) ohm1meter1 [M1L3T3A2]
(18) Current density (J) Ampere/m2 M0L2T0A1
(19) Intensity of electric field (E) Volt/meter, Newton/coulomb M1L1T 3A1
(20) Electric potential (V) Joule/coulomb M1L2T3A1
(21) Rydberg constant (R) m1 M0L1T0

9. Quantities Having Same Dimensions.

S. N. Dimensio
Quantity
n
Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity, velocity gradient and
(1) [M0L0T1]
decay constant
Work, internal energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, torque,
(2) [M1L2T2]
moment of force
Pressure, stress, Youngs modulus, bulk modulus, modulus of rigidity,
(3) [M1L1T2]
energy density
(4) [M1L1T1] Momentum, impulse
0 1 2
(5) [M L T ] Acceleration due to gravity, gravitational field intensity
1 1 2
(6) [M L T ] Thrust, force, weight, energy gradient
1 2 1
(7) [M L T ] Angular momentum and Plancks constant
1 0 2
(8) [M L T ] Surface tension, Surface energy (energy per unit area)
Strain, refractive index, relative density, angle, solid angle, distance
(9) [M0L0T0] gradient, relative permittivity (dielectric constant), relative
permeability etc.
(10) [M0L2T2] Latent heat and gravitational potential
(11) [M0L2T21] Thermal capacity, gas constant, Boltzmann constant and entropy
l g, m k, R g, where l = length
(12) [M0L0T1]
g = acceleration due to gravity, m = mass, k = spring constant
6 Units and Dimensions and Errors in
Measurement
(13) [M0L0T1] L/R, LC, RC where L = inductance, R = resistance, C = capacitance
V2 q2
I 2Rt, t, VIt, qV, LI 2, , CV 2 where I = current, t = time, q =
(14) [ML2T2] R C
charge,
L = inductance, C = capacitance, R = resistance

1.10 Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity.

According to this principle, the various term in given equation or sub-expression separated
by symbols of equality, plus or minus must be dimensionally same because only similar physical
quantities can be added or subtracted. For the same reason two different physical quantities can
not be equated, added or subtracted.
Thus a velocity can not be added to a force and mass cannot be added to time.
B
Example : X A (D E)
C
B
According to this principle in the given equation dimensions of A, and D E must be
C
same as that of X.
a
Example : P 2 V b RT
V
Dimension of [P ] must be equal to [(a / V 2 )] and dimension of [V] must be equal to [b]
and the dimension of [PV] must be equal to the dimension of [RT] .
1.11 Application of Dimensional Analysis.
(1) To find the unit of a given physical quantity : Writing the definition or formula for
the physical quantity we find its dimensions. Now by replacing M , L and T by the
fundamental units of the required system we get the unit of physical quantity Example : Impulse
= Force Time
[I ] mass acc. time [M ] [LT 2
] [T ] [MLT 1
]

So its unit in MKS system will be kg m/ s2

(2) Writing any formula or equation incorporating the given physical constant and then
substituting the dimensional formulae of all other quantities, we can find the dimension of
required constant or coefficient.
Gm1m2 [F ][r 2] [MLT 2][L2]
Example : (i) Universal gravitational constant (G) : F G
r2 [m1][m2] [M 2]
[M 1L3T 2 ]

[E] [ML 2T 2 ]
(ii) Planck constant (h) : E h h [ML2 T 1 ]
[ ] 1
[T ]
(3) To convert a physical quantity from one system to the other : This based on the
fact that magnitude of a physical quantity remains the same, whatever be the system of its
measurement i.e. Q n1u1 n2u2 where u1 and u2 are the two units of measurement of the
quantity Q and n1, n2 are their respective numerical values.
 Units and Dimensions and Errors in
Measurement 7
a b c
M L T
or n2 n1 1 1 1
M 2 L 2 T2
where M1, L1, T1 and M2, L2, T2 are the fundamental units of mass length and time in
respective unit system and a, b and c are the dimension of quantity mass length & time
respectively.
Example : 1 Newton = 1kg m/s2 but 1 kg = 103 gm and 1 m = 102 cm
(103 gm)(102 cm) 105 gm cm
So 1 Newton
s2 s2
(4) To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation : If the
dimensions of each term on both sides are same the equation is dimensionally correct, otherwise
not. A dimensionally correct equation may or may not be physically correct.
mv2
Example : (i) F ; Dimensionally [MLT 2
] [M ][LT 1
] /[L]2 [MLT 2
] / ML1T 2 . As
r2
the dimension of both sides are not same i.e. this formula is not correct dimensionally, so can
never be physically.
1 2
(ii) s ut at ; Dimensionally [L] [LT 1 ][T ] [LT 2
][T 2 ] [L] [L] [L]
2
As the dimensions of each term on both sides are same, so this equation is dimensionally
correct.
(5) To derive new relations : If one know the dependency of a physical quantity on other
quantities and if the dependency is of the product type, then by using the dimensional analysis
method relation between the quantities can be derived.
Example: When mass is converted into energy, let the energy produced depends on the
mass (m), speed of light (c) and Planck constant (h) i.e. E mc h or E Kmx c y hz , where K is a
dimensionless constant.
By substituting the dimension of E, m, c and h
[ML2T 2 ] [M ] x [LT 1 y
] [ML2T 1 ]z

[ML2T 2 ] [M x 2 Ly 2z T y z ]

Equating the exponent of similar quantities x = 1, y = 2 and z = 0

So the required physical relation E mc2
12. Limitations of Dimensional Analysis.
Although dimensional analysis is very useful it cannot lead us too far as,
(1) If dimensions are given, physical quantity may not be unique as many physical quantities
have same dimensions. For example if the dimensional formula of a physical quantity is
[ML2T 2] , it may be work or energy or torque.
(2) Numerical constant having no dimension [K] such as (1/2), 1 or 2 etc. cannot be
deduced by the methods of dimensions.
(3) The method of dimensions can not be used to derive relations other than product of
power functions. For example,
8 Units and Dimensions and Errors in
Measurement
s ut (1 / 2)at2 or y a sint cannot be derived by using this theory. However, the
dimensional correctness of these can be checked.
(4) The method of dimensions cannot be applied to derive formula if in mechanics a physical
quantity depends on more than 3 physical quantities as then there will be less number (= 3) of
equations than the unknowns (> 3). However still we can check correctness of the given
equation dimensionally. For example T 2 1 mgl can not be derived by theory of dimensions
but its dimensional correctness can be checked.
(5) Even if a physical quantity depends on 3 physical quantities, out of which two have same
dimensions, the formula cannot be derived by theory of dimensions, e.g., formula for the
frequency of a tuning fork f (d / L2 )v cannot be derived by theory of dimensions but can be
checked

1.13 Significant Figures.

In the measured value of a physical quantity, the digits about the correctness of which we
are sure plus the last digit which is doubtful, are called the significant figures. Number of
significant figures in a physical quantity depends upon the least count of the instrument used for
its measurement.
(1) Common rules for counting significant figures : Following are some of the common rules
for counting significant figures in a given expression:
Rule 1. All non zero digits are significant.
Example : x 1234 has four significant figures. Again x 189 has only three significant
digits.
Rule 2. All zeros occurring between two non zero digits are significant.
Example : x 1007 has four significant figures. Again x 1.0809 has five significant figures.
Rule 3. In a number less than one, all zeros to the right of decimal point and to the left of a
non zero digit are not significant.
Example : x 0.0084 has only two significant digits. Again, x 1.0084 has five significant
figures. This is on account of rule 2.
Rule 4. All zeros on the right of the last non zero digit in the decimal part are significant.
Example : x 0.00800 has three significant figures 8, 0, 0. The zeros before 8 are not
significant again 1.00 has three significant figures.
Rule 5. All zeros on the right of the non zero digit are not significant.
Example : x 1000 has only one significant figure. Again x 378000 has three significant
figures.
Rule 6. All zeros on the right of the last non zero digit become significant, when they come
from a measurement.
Example : Suppose distance between two stations is measured to be 3050 m. It has four
significant figures. The same distance can be expressed as 3.050 km or 3.050 105 cm. In all
these expressions, number of significant figures continues to be four. Thus we conclude that
change in the units of measurement of a quantity does not change the number of significant
figures. By changing the position of the decimal point, the number of significant digits in the
results does not change. Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement,
greater is the accuracy of the measurement. The reverse is also true.
(2) Rounding off : While rounding off measurements, we use the following rules by
convention:
 Units and Dimensions and Errors in
Measurement 9
Rule 1. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
Example : x 7.82 is rounded off to 7.8, again x 3.94 is rounded off to 3.9.
Rule 2. If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one.
Example : x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9, again x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8.
Rule 3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding digit is
raised by one.
Example : x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, again x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8.
Rule 4. If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then preceding digit is left unchanged,
if it is even.
Example : x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding off, again x = 12.650 becomes 12.6 on
rounding off.
Rule 5. If digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by
one, if it is odd.
Example : x = 3.750 is rounded off to 3.8. again x = 16.150 is rounded off to 16.2.
(3) Significant figure in calculation :
(i) Addition and subtraction : In addition and subtraction the following points should be
remembered :
(a) Every quantity should be changed into same unit.
(b) If a quantity is expressed in the power of 10, then all the quantities should be changed
into power of 10.
(c) The result obtained after addition or subtraction, the number of figure should be equal to
that of least, after decimal point.
(ii) Multiplication and division
(a) The number of significant figures will be same if any number is multiplied by a constant.
(b) The product or division of two significant figures, will contain the significant figures equal
to that of least.
1.14. Order of Magnitude.
In scientific notation the numbers are expressed as, Number M 10x . Where M is a
number lies between 1 and 10 and x is integer. Order of magnitude of quantity is the power of 10
required to represent the quantity. For determining this power, the value of the quantity has to
be rounded off. While rounding off, we ignore the last digit which is less than 5. If the last digit is
5 or more than five, the preceding digit is increased by one. For example,
(1) Speed of light in vacuum 3 108 ms1 108 m / s (ignoring 3 < 5)
(2) Mass of electron 9.1 1031kg 1030kg (as 9.1 > 5).
1.15 Error.
(1) Absolute error in measurement = measured value actual value
a a ao
(2) If the measurement of any physical quantity is performed with the help of an instrument,
then the maximum possible error in their measurement is equal to the least count of that
instrument.
10 Units and Dimensions and Errors in
Measurement
absolute
errorin measuremen
t a
(3) The fractional error = =
realvalue ao
absolute
errorin measuremen
t a
(4) Percentage error = 100= 100
actualvalue a0
(5) If the measurement of any physical quantity is performed by taking observation many
times, then the error in measurement is inversely proportional to the square root of the number
of observations.
(6) Combination of errors :
(i) If x = a + b, then the maximum possible absolute error in measurement of X will be
x a b
(ii) If x = a b, then the maximum possible absolute error in measurement of X will be
x a b
a x a b
(iii) If x = then the maximum possible fractional error will be
b x a b
x a
(iv) If x = nn then the maximum possible fractional error will be n
x a
anbm x a b c
(v) If x p
then the maximum possible fractional error will be n m p
c x a b c
x 1 a
(vi) If x = loge a then the maximum possible fractional error will be
x x a
Note : In an experiment, the quantity which have maximum power must be
measured most carefully. Because its contribution to error is maximum.
a
Any measured quantity is expressed as a a or a 100; where a = true value,
a
a = absolute error.