NLR-CR-2007-961

Safety of ground handling

A.D. Balk
UNCLASSIFIED
Executive summary
Safety of ground handling
Problem area
In the area of commercial aviation,
damage from ground-related
occurrences implies increased
safety risks and economic
consequences for all organizations
involved.
Initiative has been taken to improve
the level of safety at Schiphol
Airport, but there is still room for
improvement in safety management
of ground handling. Elaborating on
this initiative, NLR-ATSI has been
tasked by the Dutch Directoraat-
Generaal Transport en Luchtvaart
to identify safety issues in the
process of ground handling and
explore solutions.
Description of work
The ground handling process is
mapped and data analysis of past
incidents is performed to identify
existing risks of aircraft damage.
An overall (worldwide) dataset is
compared with a dataset of
incidents at Schiphol Airport.
Additionally, the regulatory
framework of ground handling at
Schiphol Airport is reviewed.
UNCLASSIFIED
Nationaal Lucht- en Ruimtevaartlaboratorium
National Aerospace Laboratory NLR
Results and conclusions
The analysis shows a rate of one
ground handling incident with
resulting aircraft damage per 5000
flights. Most incidents occur when
the aircraft is parked and when
interfaces are established between
the aircraft and ground handling
equipment. Unreported damage
poses the highest risk to flight
safety. Report no.
Safe operation during ground NLR-CR-2007-961
handling is a shared responsibility
between operators and airports. Author(s)
Regulations do not require other A.D. Balk
organisations present on the airport
to have an operational safety Report classification
management system or meet UNCLASSIFIED
minimum safety standards.
Date
January 2008
Applicability
The data analysis is applicable to Knowledge area(s)
ground handling worldwide. The Safety & Security
regulatory framework that is
reviewed is only applicable to Descriptor(s)
Schiphol Airport. Ground Handling
Safety
Damage
UNCLASSIFIED Safety of ground handling

Nationaal Lucht- en Ruimtevaartlaboratorium, National Aerospace Laboratory NLR

Anthony Fokkerweg 2, 1059 CM Amsterdam,

P.O. Box 90502, 1006 BM Amsterdam, The Netherlands
UNCLASSIFIED Telephone +31 20 511 31 13, Fax +31 20 511 32 10, Web site: www.nlr.nl
 Nationaal Lucht- en Ruimtevaartlaboratorium
National Aerospace Laboratory NLR

NLR-CR-2007-961

Safety of ground handling

A.D. Balk

No part of this report may be reproduced and/or disclosed, in any form or by any means without the prior
written permission of the owner.

Customer Directoraat-Generaal Transport en Luchtvaart

Contract number ----
Owner Directoraat-Generaal Transport en Luchtvaart
Division NLR Air Transport
Distribution Limited
Classification of title Unclassified
January 2008
Approved by:
Author Reviewer Managing department
NLR-CR-2007-961

Summary

In the area of commercial aviation worldwide, airlines suffer high costs from damage that
results from ground-related occurrences. Apart from the economic consequences, increased
safety risks are also of concern to the organisations involved.
In the past, steps have been taken to improve the level of safety at Schiphol Airport by
identifying the strengths and weaknesses in current policies, processes, procedures and activities
that have an impact on safety at, and around the airport. Safety management of ground handling
is one of the issues that requires attention. The main objective of this assignment is to identify
safety issues in the process of ground handling and explore solutions.

The ground handling process is reviewed and mapped to identify the existing risks of aircraft
damage. To support the data analysis, an overview is established of various actors, their
interfaces and their interdependency in terms of time. The purpose of the data analysis is to
identify ground handling phases and interfaces in which an increased risk of aircraft damage
exists and to investigate causal factors. Data is collected and analysed from past incidents and
accidents and the overall dataset (worldwide) is compared with the dataset of Schiphol Airport.
Additionally, the current regulatory framework and its applicability to ground handling are
reviewed.

The analysis shows a rate of one ground handling incident with resulting aircraft damage per
5000 flights. No significant difference in incident distribution is found between the overall
dataset and the Schiphol Airport dataset. Investigation into incident causes reveals that 61% of
the incidents are caused when an interface is established between the aircraft and ground
handling equipment. Most incidents occur when the aircraft is parked, of which 90% is caused
by actors and 10% by the aircraft itself. Damage is most frequently inflicted by actors that
attach vehicles or equipment to the aircraft passenger- or cargo door. For a certain amount of
cases in which internal damage is found in the aircraft, no cause is specified or found. This kind
of unreported damage poses the highest risk to flight safety, as the damage has either not been
noticed, or otherwise not been reported.

In the current regulatory framework, ground handling safety is a shared responsibility between
operators and airports. Regulations do not require organizations present on the airport to have an
operational safety management system or meet minimum safety standards. Current
developments in mandatory reporting systems may create a good opportunity to identify and
assess actual risk levels in the ground handling process, provided that all applicable information
is forwarded to the National Aviation Authorities for further analysis.

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Contents

1 Introduction 7
1.1 Background 7
1.2 Objective 8
1.3 Scope 8

2 Methodology 9
2.1 Risk identification 9
2.1.1 Ground handling process 9
2.1.2 Data analysis 11
2.2 Regulatory framework 12

3 Results 12
3.1 Risk identification 12
3.1.1 Ground handling process 12
3.1.2 Data analysis 13
3.2 Regulatory framework 25

4 Findings and conclusions 28

References 30

Appendix A Ground handling areas 31

Appendix B Typical handling arrangement 747-400 passenger configuration 32

Appendix C Typical ground handling process 33

Appendix D Analysis results overall dataset 34

Appendix E Analysis results Schiphol Airport dataset 35

Appendix F Comparison of analysis results 36

Appendix G Regulatory framework ground handling process 44

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Abbreviations

AAS Amsterdam Airport Schiphol

ADREP Accident Data REPorting system
ASR Air Safety Reports
ATC Air Traffic Control
CAST Commercial Aviation Safety Team
CICTT CAST/ICAO Common Taxonomy Team
ECCAIRS European Co-ordinated Centre for Aviation Incident Reporting Systems
EC European Commission
EG Europese Gemeenschap
EU European Union
FOD Foreign Object Debris
GCOL Ground Collision
GHO Ground Handling Organization
GPU Ground Power Unit
GSE Ground Service Equipment
IATA International Air Transport Association
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
IVW Inspectie Verkeer en Waterstaat
JAR-OPS Joint Aviation Requirements - Operations
NLR National Aerospace Laboratory NLR
RCL Regeling Certificering Luchtvaartterreinen
RTL Regeling Toezicht Luchtvaart
RFF Rescue and Fire Fighting
SMS Safety Management System
VACS Veiligheids Advies Commissie Schiphol
VDGS Visual Docking Guidance System

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NLR-CR-2007-961

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NLR-CR-2007-961

1 Introduction

1.1 Background
In the area of commercial aviation worldwide, airlines suffer approximately US$ 4.000.000.000
from damage that results from ground-related occurrences. Recently an even higher estimate of
US$ 10.000.000.000 has been indicated by the Flight Safety Foundation. Added to the
economic consequences that result from the damage, increased safety risks are also of concern
to the organisations involved.

Concerns about ground safety have also been addressed by several organisations in the
Netherlands. Advising organisation KplusV has been tasked in 2005 by the
Veiligheidsadviescommissie Schiphol (VACS) to conduct a safety survey of Schiphol Airport.
According [KplusV, 2005] the purpose of the survey is to contribute to a process of continuing
improvement of the level of safety at Schiphol Airport by identifying the strengths and
weaknesses in current policies, processes, procedures and activities that have an impact on
safety at, and around the airport. The survey has been completed and several advices are
included in the final report, which has been issued on August 31st 2005.
In 2006, the VACS has evaluated the follow-up of the advices made by KplusV and has
concluded that not all advices have appropriately been addressed by the several actors involved.
Issues that still need follow-up are included in [VACS, 2006], which has been issued on
December 18th 2006.

Safety management of ground handling is one of the issues that still need follow-up. KplusV
has advised both Dutch Government and the aviation sector present at Schiphol Airport to
develop projects to promote safety awareness in ground handling and incorporate this in safety
management. The following key issues with regard to ground handling at Schiphol Airport have
been identified:
Consolidation of the safety culture;
Consolidation of the safety management system;
Improvement of supervision on safety;
Development and accentuation of requirements to improve safety.

Whereas the aviation sector plays a vital role in consolidation of a safety culture and a safety
management system, the role of Government is essential to make both endure. When the
consolidated safety culture and safety management system is embedded in policies and
standards, a regulatory framework is developed to assure commitment to safety regulations by
all actors involved.

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NLR-CR-2007-961

1.2 Objective
The main objective of this assignment is to identify safety issues in the process of ground
handling and explore solutions.
A further breakdown results in the following underlying objectives:
Identify and assess the safety risks in ground handling; by
o Identifying actors involved in ground handling;
o Investigating the role of the various actors in the accident/incident cause;
Explore solutions to improve ground safety;
Investigate the institutional aspects of ground safety.

1.3 Scope
Starting point in defining the scope of this assignment is to define ground handling. For this
purpose, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) definition is used:
Ground Handling covers the complex series of processes required to separate an aircraft from
its load (passengers, baggage, cargo and mail) on arrival and combine it with its load prior to
departure.

As the assignment focuses on risk identification, the scope is further specified by using the
definition from the CAST/ICAO Common Taxonomy Team (CICTT) for occurrence categories.
CICTT defines ground handling (ramp) as Occurrences during (or as a result of) ground
handling operations. The following usage notes are provided by CICTT:
Includes collisions that occur while servicing, boarding, loading, and deplaning the aircraft.
Includes propeller/rotor/fan blade strikes.
Includes pushback/powerback/towing events.
Includes Jet Blast and Prop/rotor wash ground handling occurrences.
Includes aircraft external preflight configuration errors (examples: improper loading and
improperly secured doors and latches) that lead to subsequent events.
Includes all parking areas (ramp, gate, tiedowns).
Except for powerback events, which are coded here, if a collision occurs while the aircraft
is moving under its own power in the gate, ramp, or tiedown area, code it as a ground
collision (GCOL).

The last bullet (italics) of the CICTT definition is ignored in this assignment, as this would
exclude collisions with ground handling equipment or vehicles when the aircraft is taxiing in,
parking on the aircraft stand, or taxiing out. Another motivation to include ground handling
incidents during taxiing is that responsibilities of ground handling or maintenance organisations
extend to the taxiway (e.g. pushback and removal of the nose gear steering bypass pin). The

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NLR-CR-2007-961

various areas in which ground handling operations take place are shown in Appendix A. It
should be noted that for the purpose of this assignment any de/anti-icing platform is also
considered as aircraft stand.
To set the final scope of the assignment, ground handling occurrences are confined to risks of
aircraft damage. Collisions between vehicles/equipment on taxiway or various areas on the
aircraft stand are not taken into account.

Only normal operations during ground handling are reviewed. Factors complicating ground
handling and possibly increasing risk levels are summarized but not further analyzed.

2 Methodology

This chapter describes the methodology to be used to fulfil the objectives from paragraph 1.2.
Firstly the methodology is described to identify risks during ground handling ( 2.1). Secondly
it is described how the regulatory framework applicable to Schiphol Airport is investigated
( 2.2).

2.1 Risk identification

The first step in the risk identification is a review of the ground handling process. This provides
a reference for the data analysis.

2.1.1 Ground handling process

To identify the existing risks during ground handling, the ground handling process is reviewed
and mapped. The primary purpose is to establish an overview of various actors and their
interfaces during the ground handling process. It also provides an indication about their
interdependency in terms of time. The overview of actors and interfaces is used as basis for the
data analysis.
The overview of various actors and their equipment that are involved during ground handling of
aircraft is compiled from knowledge and literature. After the various actors are defined, their
tasks during ground handling are divided by phase. The (sub) phases as defined by CICTT in
table 1 are considered relevant for the purpose of this assignment.

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NLR-CR-2007-961

Table 1 CICTT phase definitions

Phase CICTT definition

Taxi from runway Begins upon exiting the landing runway and terminates upon arrival at the
gate, ramp, apron, or parking area, when the aircraft ceases to move under
its own power.
Standing Prior to pushback or taxi, or after arrival, at the gate, ramp, or parking area,
while the aircraft is stationary.
Pushback/towing Aircraft is moving in the gate, ramp, or parking area, assisted by a tow
vehicle [tug].
Taxi to runway Commences when the aircraft begins to move under its own power leaving
the gate, ramp, apron, or parking area, and terminates upon reaching the
runway.

To accomplish a more detailed analysis, the phase Taxi from runway is divided into taxi-in and
docking. Docking is defined as the phase when flight crew parks the aircraft on the aircraft stand
marking under guidance of a marshaller or visual docking guidance system (VDGS). This phase
ends when the aircraft ceases to move under its own power.
Also the phase Pushback/towing is divided, in which pushback is defined as aircraft movement
from the gate, ramp, or parking area, assisted by a tow vehicle. Towing is defined as aircraft
movement to the gate, ramp, or parking area, and movements from or to the hangar, assisted by a
tow vehicle. Table 2 contains the phases and their definitions.

Table 2 Customized phase definitions

Phase Definition
Taxi-in Begins upon exiting the landing runway and terminates upon arrival at the gate,
ramp, apron, or parking area, when the flight crew is parking the aircraft on the
aircraft stand marking under guidance of a marshaller or visual docking
guidance system.
Docking Begins when the flight crew parks the aircraft on the aircraft stand marking
under guidance of a marshaller or visual docking guidance system and
terminates when the aircraft ceases to move under its own power.
Standing Prior to pushback or taxi, or after arrival, at the gate, ramp, or parking area,
while the aircraft is stationary.
Pushback Aircraft movement from the gate, ramp, or parking area, assisted by a tow
vehicle.
Towing Aircraft movement to the gate, ramp, or parking area, and movements from or
to the hangar, assisted by a tow vehicle.
Taxi to runway Commences when the aircraft begins to move under its own power leaving the
gate, ramp, apron, or parking area, and terminates upon reaching the runway.

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NLR-CR-2007-961

Only normal operations during ground handling are reviewed, as several complicating factors
may arise during actual ground handling operations, such as the presence of:
Security staff
Cargo specialists (load controllers, dangerous goods specialists, grooms)
Wingwalkers
Police
Ambulance
Rescue and Fire Fighting (RFF)
Aviation/Airport Authorities (IVW, AAS, other parties)

2.1.2 Data analysis

The purpose of the data analysis is to:
Identify phases and interfaces in which an increased risk of aircraft damage exists;
Investigate causal factors.

Data is collected and analysed from past incidents and accidents. Absolute incident numbers, as
well as incident rates are assigned to the various phases and interfaces. The analysis identifies
what interfaces (and thus actors) are most frequently involved in aircraft damage and during
which phase of the ground handling process aircraft damage is most frequently inflicted.

Data sources
The NLR Air Safety Report database is used to provide a dataset of incidents of aircraft damage
inflicted during ground handling. Flight crew report unsafe occurrences they have encountered
during operations by means of an Air Safety Report (ASR). The NLR ASR database is
compiled from several databases from different European and non-European airlines. It contains
data of commercial operations with Western-built aircraft of more than 5.700 kg maximum
take-off weight. A number of parameters/descriptors have been included in the database, e.g.
date of occurrence, aircraft type, flight phase, a narrative and descriptive factors. Especially the
narrative contains relevant information for the review and analysis.

Inclusion criteria overall dataset

Data is collected according to the following criteria:
The incident results in aircraft damage;
The incident takes place in one of the following phases: Taxi-in, Docking, Standing,
Pushback, Towing or Taxi to runway;
Incident data comprises main airports in the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, Far
East and Africa.

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Incidents in which damage is inflicted to helicopters during ground handling are excluded from
the dataset, because they are considered not relevant in the context of this assignment.

The query results in 2841 incidents. Each record of the data sample is reviewed to identify the
phase in which the incident occurs and what interface or actor is involved. The analysis of
causal and contributing factors depends on the quality of the ASRs. Many incidents could not be
analyzed in more detail because reporters did not report any factors, causes, or did not specify
the circumstances in the report.

Inclusion criteria Schiphol Airport dataset

The same methodology is used to compile a specific dataset for Schiphol Airport. This query
results in 378 incidents. The incident distribution in the overall dataset is compared with the
Schiphol Airport dataset. A Chi2 analysis is performed to verify whether there is a significant
difference in the incident distribution between the two datasets.

2.2 Regulatory framework

The current regulatory framework and the applicability to ground handling are reviewed by
means of a literature review of ICAO documents and an internet search.

3 Results

This chapter describes the results of the risk identification ( 3.1) and provides the current
regulatory framework applicable to Schiphol Airport ( 3.2).

3.1 Risk identification

To identify existing risks during ground handling, the various actors involved in the ground
handling process are listed and an analysis is performed on their involvement in aircraft damage
incidents.

3.1.1 Ground handling process

Table 3 describes the actors and equipment involved in ground handling of an aircraft:

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NLR-CR-2007-961

Table 3 Actors and equipment

Actor Equipment
Operator (airline) Aircraft
Airport Jetway, visual docking guidance system, marshaller
Ground Handling Aircraft stairs, conveyor belts, baggage carts, cargo loaders, cargo
Organization (GHO) dollies, Ground Service Equipment (GSE), pushback truck
Maintenance Vehicle, maintenance stairs, maintenance dock, aircraft jacks
Fuel provider Fuel/hydrant trucks
Catering Catering trucks
Cleaning Cleaning trucks
Toilet service Toilet service truck
Potable water service Potable water service truck
De/anti-icing De/anti-icing truck/rig
Note 1: Depending on contract arrangements, several actors may be part of one organisation.

Note 2: Depending on time available, contract arrangements and type of operation, not all actors are necessarily involved

in actual ground handling

A typical handling arrangement and the various actors involved in ground handling of a large
aircraft (Boeing 747-400) are shown in Appendix B. It should be noted that for the purpose of
this assignment any de/anti-icing platform is also considered as ground handling area.

Appendix C shows the ground handling process and the specific activities that are performed by
the actors involved. Also the interdependency of the several activities is shown, as some of them
cannot start before another is completed.

3.1.2 Data analysis

The inclusion criteria provide a specific dataset for ground handling incidents in which damage
is inflicted to the aircraft. A total number of 2841 incidents are filtered from the ASR database,
which covers 14 million flights. This corresponds with a rate of one incident per 5000 flights.

To put aircraft damage during ground handling into perspective in relation to the total number
of incidents (in-flight and ground), the distribution between in-flight incidents and ground
incidents is shown in figure 1.

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NLR-CR-2007-961

Incident distribution

Ground incidents w ith

aircraft damage
In-flight incidents
0.9%
73.5%

Ground incidents w ithout

aircraft damage
25.5%

Figure 1 Incident distribution

26.4% of the total number of incidents is categorized as ground incidents. Of this total, 0.9%
result in aircraft damage.
Hereafter, ground occurrences that resulted in aircraft damage are referred to as ground
incidents.

In the next step the distribution of the ground incidents over the various phases is investigated.
Analysis results for the overall dataset are shown in Appendix D. Results for the Schiphol
Airport dataset are shown in Appendix E.
The Chi2 analysis has been performed to verify whether there is a significant difference between
the incident distribution in the overall- and Schiphol Airport dataset. In order to perform the
analysis, the incidents that occurred at Schiphol Airport are subtracted from the overall dataset,
which results in a comparison between a Schiphol Airport dataset and a rest of the world
dataset. This analysis shows that there is a 96.7% probability that the incident distribution at
Schiphol Airport corresponds with the rest of the world dataset. As no significant differences
are found, analysis results of incident distributions are compared in Appendix F and not in this
chapter.

Figure 2 shows that the majority (84%) of ground incidents is caused when the aircraft is
standing, i.e. when the aircraft is stationary. For Schiphol Airport this percentage is slightly
higher (92%).

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NLR-CR-2007-961

Distribution per phase (overall)

Pushback
7%
Taxi to
Standing
runway
84%
2%

Towing
2%

Taxi-in
1%

Docking
4%

Figure 2 Distribution per phase (overall)

The following interfaces with the aircraft are identified to investigate the role of various actors
in ground incidents:
Jetway
Stairs
Conveyor belt
Baggage truck/cart
Cargo loader
Cargo dolly
GSE (Ground Power Unit (GPU), jet starter, towbar, etc.)
Fuelling/hydrant truck
Catering truck
Cleaning truck
Maintenance equipment (vehicle/stairs/dock/jack)
Toilet service truck
Potable water truck
De/anti-icing truck/rig
Unspecified/other vehicle
Other aircraft (i.e. aircraft aircraft collision)

As a considerable amount of incidents (39%) cannot be categorized in one of the interfaces

mentioned above, these remaining incidents are split into the following groups of other causes:
Foreign Object Debris (FOD)
Jet blast
Environmental (i.e. birdstrikes, weather, collisions with fixed equipment)

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NLR-CR-2007-961

Internal damage during (un)loading

Damage found origin not specified

The tables in Appendix D and E also provide a distinction between the interfaces and other
causes.

Investigation into the major incident causes in the overall dataset reveals that 61% of the
incidents are caused when an interface is established between the aircraft and ground handling
equipment (at least one of the actors is moving). The remaining 39% is inflicted by other causes
on the airport. In the Schiphol Airport dataset this relation is 69% versus 31% respectively.
As the majority of incidents is caused when interfaces between the aircraft and ground handling
equipment are established, the causal factors in the interfaces are investigated first.

Interfaces
To identify the interfaces that most frequently cause aircraft damage, a distinction is made
between self-inflicted damage to the aircraft (i.e. aircraft movement caused the damage) and
damage inflicted to the aircraft by ground vehicles or equipment, or other aircraft (actors).
Figure 3 shows the incident cause per phase from the overall dataset.

Damage inflicted by aircraft

Incident cause per phase (overall) Damage inflicted by actor

1400
1288
1200
Number of incidents

1000

800

600

400
136
200 80.5 63 87
8.5 5.5 12.5 26 6 22 12
0
Taxi-in Docking Standing Pushback Taxi to runway Towing
Phase

Figure 3 Incident cause per phase (overall)

This confirms that the risk of damage is highest when the aircraft is parked, which is expected
due to the numerous activities around the aircraft during this phase. The role of the actors during
the phase Standing is significant and needs further investigation. More subtle is the role of the
aircraft, which causes damage in all phases, even when the aircraft is stationary.

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NLR-CR-2007-961

Figure 4 assigns the incident numbers to the specified interfaces, irrespective of incident cause.

Jetway
Incident distribution per interface (overall) Stairs
Conveyor belt
250 Baggage truck/cart
Cargo loader
Cargo dolly
GSE
Fuel/hydrant truck
200 Catering truck
Cleaning truck
Maintenance equipment
Toilet service truck
Potable water service truck
Number of incidents

150 De/anti-icing truck/rig

Other/unspecified vehicle
Other aircraft

100

50

0
Taxi-in Docking Standing Pushback Taxi to runway Towing
Phase

Figure 4 Incident distribution per interface (overall)

The graph provides an indication about what interfaces are most frequently involved when
damage is inflicted to the aircraft. Top five interfaces are (summed over all phases):
Other/unspecified vehicle (15.3% of total incidents)
Jetway (13.8% of total incidents)
Catering truck (10.8% of total incidents)
Ground Service Equipment (9.9% of total incidents)
Stairs (8.9% of total incidents)

The Schiphol Airport dataset provides some differences in top five interfaces:
Baggage truck/cart (18.0% of incidents at Schiphol Airport)
Catering truck (13.4% of incidents at Schiphol Airport)
Jetway (13.0% of incidents at Schiphol Airport)
Other/unspecified vehicle (10.3% of incidents at Schiphol Airport)
Stairs and conveyor belt (both 9.6% of incidents at Schiphol Airport)

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NLR-CR-2007-961

To enhance the transparency in incident distribution, separate figures are created for each phase,
specifying which interfaces are involved in the incident and whether the incident is caused by
the actor or aircraft. Figure 5 shows the incident distribution during taxi-in.

Incident distribution per phase - Taxi-in (overall)

Other aircraft
4
Actor caused collision

Baggage truck/cart

Other/unspecified vehicle
De/anti-icing truck/rig
3

Fuel/hydrant truck
Cargo loader

GSE
1

1
Aircraft caused collision

Figure 5 Incident distribution per phase Taxi-in (overall)

When compared to the other phases that were reviewed, the number of incidents in which
damage was inflicted to the aircraft is lowest during taxi-in (see Figure 2). This number
corresponds with 0.0027 ground incidents per 1000 flights.
Also a small amount of interfaces is involved (7), which may be caused by the fact that taxi-in
not necessarily takes place in the confined space of the ramp area, making the traffic density
less than when the aircraft is parked on the aircraft stand. Additionally, during taxi-in no
interfaces with any actor in the ground handling process should exist, since the aircraft is taxiing
on its own power and actors have no responsibilities with regard to establishing aircraft
interfaces during taxi-in (see Appendix C).

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Figure 6 shows the incident distribution during docking.

Incident distribution per phase - Docking (overall)

30

25
Actor caused collision

20

De/anti-icing truck/rig
Baggage truck/cart
15

Fuel/hydrant truck

Catering truck

Other/unspecified
Cleaning truck
Conveyor belt

Cargo loader
Jetway

Other aircraft
vehicle
10
Stairs

GSE
0

5
Aircraft caused collision

10

15

20

25

30

Figure 6 Incident distribution per phase Docking (overall)

When the aircraft crosses the aircraft stand clearance line, traffic density likely increases due to
the various actors moving and parking on, or near, the confined area of the aircraft stand. This
increase is also shown in the number of incident causes, as more interfaces (12) are involved
during docking than during taxi-in of the aircraft. However, no interfaces with actors should be
present yet, as the aircraft is still moving on its own power and is parked by the flight crew
either under guidance of a marshaller or a VDGS.
The incident rate of aircraft damage during docking is 0.0078 per 1000 flights and represents
4% of the ground incidents that caused aircraft damage. It is noticed that 87% of the collisions
is caused by movement of the aircraft itself. Primary cause is insufficient clearance during
marshalling. Peaks are noticed for jetway contact and contact with fuel/hydrant trucks.

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Figure 7 shows the incident distribution when the aircraft is stationary on the aircraft stand.

Incident distribution per phase - Standing (overall)

225
200
Actor caused collision

175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0

Potable water service

Cargo dolly

Other aircraft
Fuel/hydrant truck

Cleaning truck

Toilet service truck

De/anti-icing truck/rig
Conveyor belt

Baggage truck/cart

Catering truck

Other/unspecified
GSE
25
Cargo loader
Stairs

Maintenance

vehicle
equipment
Jetway

50
Aircraft caused collision

truck
75

100

125

150

175

200

225

Figure 7 Incident distribution per phase Standing (overall)

When the aircraft is parked on the aircraft stand and is stationary, all actors that have been
identified (16) start servicing the aircraft at some stage. As a result of the high number of actors
in the confined space of the aircraft stand, all defined actors are represented in the incident
causes. Of the total amount of ground incidents with aircraft damage as result, 84% is caused
when the aircraft is stationary, which corresponds with a rate of 0.1714 incidents per 1000
flights.
It is noted that, although the highest number of incidents is caused by actors (90%), still 10% is
caused by the aircraft. The main cause that accounts for these 10% is that the aircraft settles
during fuelling, passenger (dis)embarkation and (un)loading. Although the aircraft is stationary,
it may still move in the vertical pane when mass is added or removed. When required clearances
with the aircraft doors or fuselage are not kept, settling of the aircraft may cause aircraft
damage.
Specific interfaces that make the aircraft vulnerable for damage caused by settling can be
identified. Damage to aircraft exits (doors) is caused when the aircraft settles on the jetway or
stairs. Damage to the fuselage is inflicted when the aircraft settles on ground handling
equipment that is positioned underneath the aircraft fuselage (maintenance equipment and
GSE). Also in some occasions (cargo) doors are opened without sufficient clearance with the
jetway, ground vehicles or equipment.

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When the actor other/unspecified vehicle is excluded, 5 of the top 6 interfaces attach vehicles
or equipment to the aircraft passenger or cargo doors. The remaining interface in the top 6 is the
interface with baggage trucks/carts. The Schiphol Airport dataset shows a similar pattern,
although baggage trucks and carts most frequently inflict damage to the aircraft.
A high number of damages inflicted by catering trucks is noticed, but it should be taken into
consideration that even smaller commercial aircraft are serviced with two catering trucks at
once, thereby increasing the traffic density on the aircraft stand. The same applies to cargo
loaders and baggage trucks/carts.

Figure 8 shows the incident distribution during the pushback.

Incident distribution per phase - Pushback (overall)

60

50
Actor caused collision

40

30

20

10

0
Stairs

Maintenance
Cargo loader

Fuel/hydrant truck
Baggage truck/cart

De/anti-icing truck/rig
equipment

Toilet service truck

Catering truck

Other/unspecified
10
GSE
Aircraft caused collision

Jetway

vehicle

Other aircraft
20

30

40

50

60

Figure 8 Incident distribution per phase Pushback (overall)

Of the total amount of ground incidents with aircraft damage as result, 7% is caused during the
pushback, which corresponds with a rate of 0.0134 incidents per 1000 flights. Although the
causes are more or less evenly spread between aircraft (42%) and actors (58%), it should be
noticed that the aircraft is not moved by its own power, but by a pushback truck. Therefore,
most damage caused by the aircraft is in fact caused by incorrect manoeuvring of the pushback
truck. For example, the jetway or toilet service truck may still be attached to the aircraft when
the pushback is started. Underlying causes may be miscommunication, impaired vision or
insufficient clearance from other actors vehicles or equipment.

21
NLR-CR-2007-961

A total amount of 12 interfaces are involved with regard to aircraft damage during the pushback,
but peaks are shown for interfaces with GSE and other/unspecified vehicles. Many incidents
relate to failing towbars with resulting aircraft damage, or to collisions with the pushback truck
due to incorrect use of the aircraft parking brake. The interfaces of the aircraft with the towbar
and pushback truck should be the only existing interfaces during the pushback.
Pushback operations consist of a complex set of procedures, responsibilities and moving
hardware interfaces (aircraft towbar pushback truck). Additionally, staff of several
organizations is involved (flight crew, GHO, maintenance). Complicating factors, such as a
slippery ramp surface or impaired vision may result in an uncontrolled pushback and an
increased risk of collision.

Figure 9 shows the incident distribution during taxi to runway.

Incident distribution per phase - Taxi to runway (overall)

10
Actor caused collision

De/anti-icing truck/rig

Other/unspecified

Other aircraft
Fuel/hydrant truck

vehicle
GSE
Jetway

Stairs

0
Aircraft caused collision

10

Figure 9 Incident distribution per phase Taxi to runway (overall)

The incident rate of aircraft damage during taxi to runway is 0.0042 per 1000 flights and
represents 2% of the ground incidents that cause aircraft damage. It is noticed that 81% of the
collisions is caused by movement of the aircraft itself. No interfaces with other vehicles or
equipment should exist during taxi to runway.
When compared to the taxi-in phase, it is noticed that the same amount of interfaces (7) are
involved in incident causes, of which 5 cause damage in both phases. The major difference in
the remaining 2 interfaces is that during taxi to runway, damage to jetways and stairs is only

22
NLR-CR-2007-961

caused by the aircraft itself, whereas these 2 interfaces are not represented as incident cause
during taxi-in.

Figure 10 shows the incident distribution during towing.

Incident distribution per phase - Towing (overall)

15

GSE
Actor caused collision

10

Other/unspecified
Baggage truck/cart

vehicle
Conveyor belt

Catering truck

Other aircraft
5
Jetway

Stairs

0
Aircraft caused collision

10

15

Figure 10 Incident distribution per phase Towing (overall)

Of the total amount of ground incidents with aircraft damage as result, 2% is caused when the
aircraft is being towed. This corresponds with a rate of 0.0035 incidents per 1000 flights.
Similar as during pushback operations, it should be noticed that the aircraft is not moved on its
own power, but by a tow truck. A total number of 8 interfaces are identified as incident causes.
Of the incidents, 65% is caused by the aircraft, whereas the other 35% is primarily caused by
GSE. As already has been noticed during the pushback phase, many incidents relate to failing
towbars with resulting aircraft damage.

Other
Striking numbers in the other causes of aircraft damage are the incidents in which damage is
found but its origin not specified (27% of total incidents), and damage that is caused during
(un)loading (7% of total incidents). The Schiphol Airport dataset provides more or less similar
results of 20% and 9% respectively.
Reasons for the high number of damages for which its origin has not been specified may be that:

23
NLR-CR-2007-961

The original report was provided without sufficient details to specify the origin of the
damage; or
The damage was found by another party, which implies that the original damage had not
been noticed or reported.

Damage to the aircraft interior caused during (un)loading may have several causes:
Pallets were built-up outside contours;
Shifting cargo/baggage; or
Rough cargo/baggage handling.
It should be noted that when damage is found inside the cargo holds or main cargo deck before
(un)loading, the original damage may not have been noticed or reported by the personnel
responsible for loading the previous flight(s).

24
NLR-CR-2007-961

3.2 Regulatory framework

With regard to the ground handling process an international regulatory framework exists, but
this has particularly been developed for operators and airports.
Table 4 describes the regulation framework applicable to the ground handling process and
which interfaces are affected by the regulations.

Table 4 Regulatory framework ground handling

Actor Regulation Description Related interfaces

Operator JAR-OPS 1.035 Quality system All

Accident prevention and flight safety

JAR-OPS 1.037 All
programme

JAR-OPS 1.120 Endangering safety All

General rules for Air Operator

JAR-OPS 1.175 All
Certification

JAR-OPS 1.205 Competence of Operations personnel All

JAR-OPS 1.210 Establishment of procedures All

Refuelling/defuelling with passengers Fuel provider, Airport, GHO,

JAR-OPS 1.305
embarking, on board or disembarking Catering, Cleaning (clear areas)

JAR-OPS 1.307 Refuelling/defuelling with wide-cut fuel Fuel provider

JAR-OPS 1.308 Pushback and towing GHO, Maintenance, Airport

Ice and other contaminants ground

JAR-OPS 1.345 De/anti-icing, Airport
procedures

JAR-OPS subpart J Mass and balance GHO

JAR-OPS 1.1040 General rules for Operations Manuals All

Operations Manual structure and

JAR-OPS 1.1045 All
contents

JAR-OPS subpart R Transport of Dangerous Goods by air GHO

JAR-OPS subpart S Security All

Volume 1 Aerodrome design and

Airport ICAO Annex 14 All
operations
Regeling Certificering
RCL All
Luchthaventerreinen

25
NLR-CR-2007-961

Safe operation during ground handling is desired by all organizations involved. However, from
a regulatory point of view, safe operation is a shared responsibility of only two of the actors: the
operators and the airport.

Operators are partially responsible for safe operation during ground handling, since JAR-OPS 1
requires that procedures for ground staff have to be established, ground staff have to be trained
and that no person endangers the aircraft or occupants. The operator also has to appoint a
nominated postholder who is responsible for management and supervision of ground operations.
The operators quality system should assure compliance with, and adequacy of, procedures
required to ensure safe operational practices. Some procedures are more specifically described,
like fuelling, pushback/towing, de/anti-icing and loading of the aircraft. Means to monitor safe
operational practices are the by JAR-OPS 1 required accident prevention and flight safety
programme, and the occurrence reporting system.
As the aircraft is the focal point of all ground handling activities, the operator is involved in all
interfaces with ground handling vehicles and equipment. JAR-OPS 1 has to be used as basic
principle for developing specified procedures for ground handling activities, which have to be
embedded in contract arrangements with the contracted parties. Contract arrangements should
also include arrangements for (recurrent) training of ground handling staff.

The airport is also partially responsible for safe operations during ground handling, as it has to
comply with regulations set out in ICAO Annex 14. Although ICAO Annex 14 primarily
concerns airport facilities, some operating procedures are included with regard to driving on the
apron. An overlap with JAR-OPS 1 regulations is noticed in procedures for fuelling with
passengers on board.
ICAO Annex 14 paragraph 1.4 requires that as per 27th November 2003, States shall certify
aerodromes used for international operations in accordance with the specifications contained in
the Annex, as well as other relevant ICAO specifications through an appropriate regulatory
framework. The Dutch Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat has adopted this regulation in the
Regeling certificering luchtvaartterreinen (RCL), which states that aerodromes should have an
operational Safety Management System (SMS) as per 25th November 2005. Based on the
Regeling Toezicht Luchtvaart (RTL), certification of aerodromes is currently done on a
voluntary basis. Schiphol Airport has initially been certified in accordance with RCL in 2004
and on 4th July 2007 the certificate has been extended for another three years.
RCL applies only to the airport proprietor, so it requires that internal company processes are
established in such a way that they assure safe operations. It states that airports are not
responsible for safe operations of other organizations present on the airport. However, airports
are authorized by means of the Algemeen Luchthavenreglement to enforce additional

26
NLR-CR-2007-961

requirements with regard to discipline and safety. Non-adherence to the Algemeen

Luchthavenreglement by organizations present on the airport is an offence and sanctions may be
imposed on the organization that commits the offence. Compliance with regulations should be
included in contract arrangements with contracted parties.
The regulatory framework and contract arrangements applicable to the ground handling process
are shown in Appendix G.

Regulations on security and occurrence reporting enclose all organizations in the aviation
sector, i.e.:
EC 2320/2002 (Common rules in the field of civil aviation security);
Richtlijn 2003/42/EG (Melding van voorvallen in de burgerluchtvaart).

Although not directly related to the ground handling process, security regulations may influence
ground handling activities. On-board security checks may have to be performed, which have to
be accommodated in the ground handling process. To make the turnaround time as short as
possible, certain security tasks may be assigned to other organizations like cleaning- or ground
handling staff.
The objective of Richtlijn 2003/42/EG is to contribute to safety improvement in the aviation
industry by collecting, storing, protecting and distributing safety information. The Richtlijn
requires operators, airports, maintenance companies, Air Traffic Control (ATC) and ground
handling organizations to report occurrences that could affect flight safety to the National
Aviation Authorities. Organizations that provide catering, cleaning, toilet service and potable
water service are not specifically mentioned, but according the Algemeen Luchthavenreglement
these organizations should report such occurrences to the airport proprietor. Required reporting
of occurrences by all actors involved in ground handling may improve safety awareness and
provide a basis for safety improvement.
It is, however, noticed that several options to report occurrences are present for organizations
involved in ground handling. Since operators at Schiphol Airport manage their own occurrence
reporting system, contract arrangements with other parties may include a clause which requires
that occurrences are reported to the operator. Organizations present at Schiphol Airport have to
adhere to the Algemeen Luchthavenreglement, which already contains a clause which requires
that occurrences are reported to the Airport Authorities. Apart from these two reporting lines,
there is always the option for organizations to report directly to the National Aviation
Authorities. The various reporting lines may lead to scattered information present at either the
operator, Airport Authorities or National Aviation Authorities. Additionally, several (different)
reporting filters may be applied by operators or airports before occurrences are reported to the
National Aviation Authorities. When no clear reporting standards on what to report are

27
NLR-CR-2007-961

established and agreed upon by all actors involved, valuable information is denied to the
National Aviation Authorities, which have the means and authority to implement measures to
improve safety.

4 Findings and conclusions

The analysis shows a rate of one ground handling incident with resulting aircraft damage per
5000 flights. Most incidents occur when the aircraft is parked.

Except from the fact that no incidents during the taxi-in phase are reported in the Schiphol
Airport dataset, no specific differences in incident distribution between the overall dataset and
the Schiphol Airport dataset is found.

Investigation into the major incident causes in the overall dataset reveals that 61% of the
incidents are caused when an interface is established between the aircraft and ground handling
equipment. The remaining 39% is inflicted by other causes on the airport. In the Schiphol
Airport dataset this relation is 69% versus 31% respectively.

Of the incidents when the aircraft is parked, 90% is caused by actors and 10% by the aircraft
itself. Damage is most frequently inflicted by actors that attach vehicles or equipment to the
aircraft passenger- or cargo doors. High incident rates for catering trucks, baggage trucks/carts
and cargo loaders may be explained by the fact that these actors usually service the aircraft with
more vehicles at a time.

During pushback and towing, ground service equipment causes most frequently damage to the
aircraft. This is probably caused by the several interfaces (aircraft towbar pushback truck)
and organizations (operator GHO maintenance) involved.

In 27% of the aircraft damage incidents the origin is not specified. This is either caused by the
fact that the original report contains insufficient information, or that the cause of the damage has
not been found. Another 7% of the incidents consists of internal damage found on, or inflicted
to the aircraft. For a number of incidents included in this percentage, the damage cause is not
specified or found. This kind of unreported damage (over one-third of the incidents) poses the
highest risk to flight safety, as the damage has either not been noticed, or otherwise not been
reported.

28
NLR-CR-2007-961

In the current regulatory framework, ground handling safety is a shared responsibility between
operators and the airport. JAR-OPS 1 requires operators to establish a quality system, accident
prevention and flight safety programme, and an occurrence reporting system. ICAO Annex 14
requires airports to establish a safety management system. Regulations do not require other
organizations present on the airport to have an operational safety management system or meet
minimum (safety) standards like IATA recommended industry standards.

Richtlijn 2003/42/EG provides a good opportunity to identify and assess actual risk levels in the
ground handling process. However, there are various reporting lines, which may lead to
scattered information present at either the operator, Airport Authorities or National Aviation
Authorities. Additionally, several reporting filters may be applied by operators or airports
before occurrences are reported to the National Aviation Authorities. When no clear reporting
standards on what to report are established and agreed upon by all actors involved, valuable
information is denied to the National Aviation Authorities, with which safety at the airport
could have been improved.

29
NLR-CR-2007-961

References

A/CAP/Veiligheid, Geluid en Milieu, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. Zakboek Veiligheid

Airside. Uitgave februari 2001.

ICAO Annex 14 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation. Aerodromes, Volume 1,

Aerodrome design and operations. Fourth edition, July 2004.

ICAO Doc 9137 AN/898 Airport Services Manual part 8, Airport Operational Services. First
edition, 1983.

ICAO Doc 9774 AN/969 Manual on Certification of Aerodromes. First edition, 2001.

ICAO Doc 9859 AN/460 Safety Management Manual (SMM). First edition, 2006.

Leemans, M.J.P., Poolman, M.R., Mussche, M.C., Ramsay-Acona, C., White, P.D., Chen, R.K.,
2005. Eindrapport Veiligheidsonderzoek Schiphol 2005. R-04-08-070, KplusV.

Van der Geest, P.J., Dees, U.G., 2005. Kennisbasis voor een internationale vergelijking van de
veiligheid van Schiphol. NLR-CR-2005-517, NLR Amsterdam.

Veiligheidsadviescommissie Schiphol, 2006. Follow-up Veiligheidsonderzoek Schiphol 2006.

VACS /06.06.08.

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NLR-CR-2007-961

Appendix A Ground handling areas

Legend:
1) Taxiway
2) Aircraft stand
3) Aircraft stand marking
4) Aircraft stand clearance line
5) Aircraft clearance line
6) Movement area jetway
7) Fuel hydrant pit
8) Parking space ground handling equipment with height restriction
9) Parking space ground handling equipment
10) Access/exit
11) Jetway

Source: Adapted from Zakboek Veiligheid Airside, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol

31
NLR-CR-2007-961

Appendix B Typical handling arrangement 747-400 passenger

configuration

Source: www.boeing.com

32
NLR-CR-2007-961

Appendix C Typical ground handling process

33
NLR-CR-2007-961

Appendix D Analysis results overall dataset

Phase = Taxi to
Taxi-in Docking Standing Pushback Towing
Interfaces sum runway Plower Pmean Pupper
Aircraft causes collision to:
Jetway 87 25 42 12 5 3 2.46E-02 3.06E-02 3.76E-02
Stairs 30 5 20 2 3 7.14E-03 1.06E-02 1.50E-02
Conveyor belt 13 7 5 1 2.44E-03 4.58E-03 7.81E-03
Baggage truck/cart 12 5 4 2 1 2.18E-03 4.22E-03 7.37E-03
Cargo loader 19 2 16 1 4.03E-03 6.69E-03 1.04E-02
Cargo dolly 1 1 8.91E-06 3.52E-04 1.96E-03
GSE 34 1.5 6.5 11 11 2 2 8.30E-03 1.20E-02 1.67E-02
Fuel/hydrant truck 19 1.5 13.5 1 2 1 4.03E-03 6.69E-03 1.04E-02
Catering truck 18 7 4 6 1 3.76E-03 6.34E-03 9.99E-03
Cleaning truck 2 1 1 8.53E-05 7.04E-04 2.54E-03
Maintenance equipment 32 27 1 1 3 7.72E-03 1.13E-02 1.59E-02
Toilet service truck 5 1 4 5.72E-04 1.76E-03 4.10E-03
Potable water truck 0 none 0.00E+00 1.30E-03
De/anti-icing truck/rig 8 1 2 5 1.22E-03 2.82E-03 5.54E-03
Unspecified/other vehicle 23 4 5 3 6 2 3 5.14E-03 8.10E-03 1.21E-02
Other aircraft 33 1.5 3.5 16 7 5 8.01E-03 1.16E-02 1.63E-02

Total 336 8.5 80.5 136 63 26 22 1.07E-01 1.18E-01 1.31E-01

Aircraft collision is caused by:
Jetway 154 5 147 2 4.62E-02 5.42E-02 6.32E-02
Stairs 126 2 122 2 3.71E-02 4.44E-02 5.26E-02
Conveyor belt 107 107 3.10E-02 3.77E-02 4.53E-02
Baggage truck/cart 141 1 1 138 1 4.19E-02 4.96E-02 5.83E-02
Cargo loader 126 0.5 0.5 125 3.71E-02 4.44E-02 5.26E-02
Cargo dolly 7 7 9.91E-04 2.46E-03 5.07E-03
GSE 139 0.5 0.5 75 51 1 11 4.13E-02 4.89E-02 5.75E-02
Fuel/hydrant truck 47 45 2 1.22E-02 1.65E-02 2.19E-02
Catering truck 170 3 167 5.14E-02 5.98E-02 6.92E-02
Cleaning truck 10 10 1.69E-03 3.52E-03 6.46E-03
Maintenance equipment 55 55 1.46E-02 1.94E-02 2.51E-02
Toilet service truck 29 29 6.85E-03 1.02E-02 1.46E-02
Potable water truck 7 7 9.91E-04 2.46E-03 5.07E-03
De/anti-icing truck/rig 22 0.5 0.5 18 1 2 4.86E-03 7.74E-03 1.17E-02
Unspecified/other vehicle 244 218 24 1 1 7.58E-02 8.59E-02 9.68E-02
Other aircraft 27 3 18 4 2 6.27E-03 9.50E-03 1.38E-02

Total 1411 5.5 12.5 1288 87 6 12 4.78E-01 4.97E-01 5.15E-01

Total all interfaces 1747 14 93 1424 150 32 34 5.97E-01 6.15E-01 6.33E-01

Other
FOD 43 4.5 4.5 22 6 6 1.10E-02 1.51E-02 2.03E-02
Jet blast 26 3.5 1.5 17 4 5.99E-03 9.15E-03 1.34E-02
Environmental 66 8.5 5.5 33 4 9 6 1.80E-02 2.32E-02 2.95E-02
Internal damage during (un)loading 198 198 6.06E-02 6.97E-02 7.97E-02
Damage found - origin not specified 761 7.5 4.5 705 27 8 9 2.52E-01 2.68E-01 2.85E-01

Total other 1094 24 16 975 37 27 15 3.67E-01 3.85E-01 4.03E-01

Total ground damage incidents 2841 38 109 2399 187 59 49 9.99E-01 1.00E+00 none
Plower 9.48E-03 3.16E-02 8.31E-01 5.70E-02 1.58E-02 1.28E-02
Pmean 1.34E-02 3.84E-02 8.44E-01 6.58E-02 2.08E-02 1.72E-02
Pupper 1.83E-02 4.61E-02 8.58E-01 7.56E-02 2.67E-02 2.27E-02

Pmean = Probability of incident occurring as part of the total number of ground damage incidents
Plower = Probability reliability lower limit
Pupper = Probability reliability upper limit

34
NLR-CR-2007-961

Appendix E Analysis results Schiphol Airport dataset

Phase = Taxi to
Taxi-in Docking Standing Pushback Towing
Interfaces sum runway Plower Pmean Pupper
Aircraft causes collision to:
Jetway 10 3 7 1.28E-02 2.65E-02 0.00E+00
Stairs 6 1 4 1 5.85E-03 1.59E-02 0.00E+00
Conveyor belt 0 none 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
Baggage truck/cart 1 1 6.70E-05 2.65E-03 0.00E+00
Cargo loader 2 2 6.41E-04 5.29E-03 0.00E+00
Cargo dolly 0 none 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
GSE 4 1 3 2.89E-03 1.06E-02 0.00E+00
Fuel/hydrant truck 0 none 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
Catering truck 1 1 6.70E-05 2.65E-03 0.00E+00
Cleaning truck 0 none 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
Maintenance equipment 8 7 1 9.18E-03 2.12E-02 0.00E+00
Toilet service truck 1 1 6.70E-05 2.65E-03 0.00E+00
Potable water truck 0 none 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
De/anti-icing truck/rig 0 none 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
Unspecified/other vehicle 3 1 2 1.64E-03 7.94E-03 0.00E+00
Other aircraft 2 2 6.41E-04 5.29E-03 0.00E+00

Total 38 0 6 26 4 0 2 7.21E-02 1.01E-01 0.00E+00

Aircraft collision is caused by:
Jetway 24 24 4.11E-02 6.35E-02 0.00E+00
Stairs 19 19 3.05E-02 5.03E-02 0.00E+00
Conveyor belt 25 25 4.33E-02 6.61E-02 0.00E+00
Baggage truck/cart 46 46 9.05E-02 1.22E-01 0.00E+00
Cargo loader 22 22 3.68E-02 5.82E-02 0.00E+00
Cargo dolly 1 1 6.70E-05 2.65E-03 0.00E+00
GSE 11 8 1 1 1 1.46E-02 2.91E-02 0.00E+00
Fuel/hydrant truck 1 1 6.70E-05 2.65E-03 0.00E+00
Catering truck 34 34 6.31E-02 8.99E-02 0.00E+00
Cleaning truck 5 5 4.31E-03 1.32E-02 0.00E+00
Maintenance equipment 2 2 6.41E-04 5.29E-03 0.00E+00
Toilet service truck 1 1 6.70E-05 2.65E-03 0.00E+00
Potable water truck 2 2 6.41E-04 5.29E-03 0.00E+00
De/anti-icing truck/rig 5 4 1 4.31E-03 1.32E-02 0.00E+00
Unspecified/other vehicle 24 20 3 1 4.11E-02 6.35E-02 0.00E+00
Other aircraft 1 1 6.70E-05 2.65E-03 0.00E+00

Total 223 0 0 215 5 1 2 5.38E-01 5.90E-01 0.00E+00

Total all interfaces 261 0 6 241 9 1 4 6.41E-01 6.90E-01 0.00E+00

Other
FOD 1 1 6.70E-05 2.65E-03 0.00E+00
Jet blast 2 1 1 6.41E-04 5.29E-03 0.00E+00
Environmental 4 2 2 2.89E-03 1.06E-02 0.00E+00
Internal damage during (un)loading 33 33 6.09E-02 8.73E-02 0.00E+00
Damage found - origin not specified 77 72 4 1 1.64E-01 2.04E-01 0.00E+00

Total other 117 1 1 108 4 1 2 2.63E-01 3.10E-01 0.00E+00

Total ground damage incidents 378 1 7 349 13 2 6 9.90E-01 1.00E+00 none

Plower 6.70E-05 7.48E-03 8.92E-01 1.84E-02 6.41E-04 5.85E-03
Pmean 2.26E-03 1.85E-02 9.23E-01 3.44E-02 5.29E-03 1.59E-02
Pupper 1.46E-02 3.78E-02 9.48E-01 5.81E-02 1.90E-02 3.42E-02

Pmean = Probability of incident occurring as part of the total number of ground damage incidents
Plower = Probability reliability lower limit
Pupper = Probability reliability upper limit

35
NLR-CR-2007-961

Appendix F Comparison of analysis results

1. Comparison distribution by phase

Distribution per phase (overall) Distribution per phase (Schiphol)

Pushback
Pushback
7%
3%
Taxi to Standing
Standing Taxi to
runway 92%
84% runway
2%
1%
Towing
Towing
2%
2%
Taxi-in
Taxi-in
1%
0%
Docking
Docking
4%
2%

2. Comparison incident cause by phase

Damage inflicted by aircraft
Incident cause per phase (overall)
Damage inflicted by actor

1400
1288
1200
Number of incidents

1000

800

600

400
136
200 80.5 63 87
8.5 5.5 12.5 26 6 22 12
0
Taxi-in Docking Standing Pushback Taxi to runway Towing
Phase

Damage inflicted by aircraft

Incident cause per phase (Schiphol) Damage inflicted by actor

250
215
200
Number of incidents

150

100

50 26

0 0 6 0 4 5 0 1 2 2
0
Taxi-in Docking Standing Pushback Taxi to runway Towing
Phase

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NLR-CR-2007-961

3. Comparison incident distribution per interface

Jetway
Incident distribution per interface (overall) Stairs
Conveyor belt
250 Baggage truck/cart
Cargo loader
Cargo dolly
GSE
Fuel/hydrant truck
200 Catering truck
Cleaning truck
Maintenance equipment
Toilet service truck
Potable water service truck
Number of incidents

150 De/anti-icing truck/rig

Other/unspecified vehicle
Other aircraft

100

50

0
Taxi-in Docking Standing Pushback Taxi to runway Towing
Phase

Jetway
Incident distribution per interface (Schiphol) Stairs
50 Conveyor belt
Baggage truck/cart
Cargo loader
45
Cargo dolly
GSE
40 Fuel/hydrant truck
Catering truck
Cleaning truck
35 Maintenance equipment
Toilet service truck
Number of incidents

30 Potable water service truck

De/anti-icing truck/rig
Other/unspecified vehicle
25 Other aircraft

20

15

10

0
Taxi-in Docking Standing Pushback Taxi to runway Towing
Phase

37
 Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision

0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
2
3
4
5

5
4
3
2
1
0
5
4
3
2
1
0
NLR-CR-2007-961

Baggage truck/cart Baggage truck/cart

Cargo loader Cargo loader

GSE GSE

38
Fuel/hydrant truck Fuel/hydrant truck
4. Comparison incident distribution per phase Taxi-in

De/anti-icing truck/rig De/anti-icing truck/rig

Incident distribution per phase - Taxi-in (overall)

Incident distribution per phase - Taxi-in (Schiphol)

Other/unspecified vehicle Other/unspecified vehicle

Other aircraft Other aircraft

 Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision

0
5
10
15
20
25
30

30
25
20
15
10
5
0

0
5
10
15
20
25
30

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
NLR-CR-2007-961

Jetway Jetway

Stairs Stairs

Conveyor belt Conveyor belt

Baggage truck/cart Baggage truck/cart

Cargo loader Cargo loader

GSE GSE

39
Fuel/hydrant truck Fuel/hydrant truck
5. Comparison incident distribution per phase Docking

Catering truck Catering truck

Incident distribution per phase - Docking (overall)

Incident distribution per phase - Docking (Schiphol)

Cleaning truck Cleaning truck

De/anti-icing truck/rig De/anti-icing truck/rig

Other/unspecified Other/unspecified
vehicle vehicle

Other aircraft Other aircraft

 Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision

225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0

0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
NLR-CR-2007-961

Jetway Jetway

Stairs Stairs

Conveyor belt Conveyor belt

Baggage truck/cart Baggage truck/cart

Cargo loader Cargo loader

Cargo dolly Cargo dolly

GSE GSE
6. Incident distribution per phase Standing

40
Fuel/hydrant truck Fuel/hydrant truck

Catering truck Catering truck

Cleaning truck Cleaning truck

Maintenance Maintenance
equipment equipment
Incident distribution per phase - Standing (overall)

Incident distribution per phase - Standing (Schiphol)

Toilet service truck Toilet service truck

Potable water service Potable water service

truck truck

De/anti-icing truck/rig De/anti-icing truck/rig

Other/unspecified Other/unspecified
vehicle vehicle

Other aircraft Other aircraft

 Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
NLR-CR-2007-961

Jetway Jetway

Stairs Stairs

Baggage truck/cart Baggage truck/cart

Cargo loader Cargo loader

GSE GSE
7. Incident distribution per phase Pushback

Fuel/hydrant truck Fuel/hydrant truck

41
Catering truck Catering truck

Maintenance Maintenance
equipment equipment
Incident distribution per phase - Pushback (overall)

Incident distribution per phase - Pushback (Schiphol)

Toilet service truck Toilet service truck

De/anti-icing truck/rig De/anti-icing truck/rig

Other/unspecified Other/unspecified
vehicle vehicle

Other aircraft Other aircraft

 Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision

10
5
0

10
5
0
0
5
10

0
5
10
NLR-CR-2007-961

Jetway Jetway

Stairs Stairs

GSE GSE

42
8. Incident distribution per phase Taxi to runway

Fuel/hydrant truck Fuel/hydrant truck

De/anti-icing truck/rig De/anti-icing truck/rig

Incident distribution per phase - Taxi to runway (overall)

Incident distribution per phase - Taxi to runway (Schiphol)

Other/unspecified Other/unspecified
vehicle vehicle

Other aircraft Other aircraft

 Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision Aircraft caused collision Actor caused collision

15
10
5
0
0
5
10
15
15
10
5
0
0
5
10
15
NLR-CR-2007-961

Jetway Jetway

Stairs Stairs

Conveyor belt Conveyor belt

9. Incident distribution per phase Towing

Baggage truck/cart Baggage truck/cart

43
GSE GSE

Catering truck Catering truck

Incident distribution per phase - Towing (overall)

Incident distribution per phase - Towing (Schiphol)

Other/unspecified Other/unspecified
vehicle vehicle

Other aircraft Other aircraft

NLR-CR-2007-961

Appendix G Regulatory framework ground handling process

Ground handing process

Operator
JAR-OPS 1

Amsterdam ICAO
Airport RCL
Schiphol Algemeen
Luchthavenreglement

Ground Handling Organization

Maintenance

Fuel provider

Catering

Cleaning

Toilet service

Potable water service

De/anti-icing

= Contract arrangements

44