A

AA Similarity: Angle-angle similarity. When two triangles have corresponding angles

that are congruent as shown below, the triangles are similar.

AAS Congruence/ SAA Congruence: Angle-angle-side congruence. When two

triangles have corresponding angles and sides that are congruent as shown below,
the triangles are congruent.
Abscissa: The first coordinate in an ordered pair. For the point (8, 2) the abscissa is
8.
Absolutely Convergent: Describes a series that converges when all terms are
replaced by their absolute values. To see if a series converges absolutely, replace
any subtraction in the series with addition. If the new series converges, then the
original series converges absolutely.
Absolute Maximum, Absolute Max/ Global Maximum, Global Max: The highest point
over the entire domain of a function or relation.
Absolute Value: Absolute value makes a negative number positive. Positive numbers
and 0 are left unchanged.
Absolute Value of a Complex Number/ Modulus of a Complex Number: The distance
between a complex number and the origin on the complex plane.

Absolute Convergence/ Absolutely Convergent: Describes a series that converges

when all terms are replaced by their absolute values. To see if a series converges
absolutely, replace any subtraction in the series with addition. If the new series
converges, then the original series converges absolutely.
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity over time. For motion along the number
line, acceleration is a scalar. For motion on a plane or through space, acceleration is
a vector.
Accuracy: How close an approximation is to an actual value.

Acute Angle: An angle that has measure less than 90.

Acute Triangle: A triangle for which all interior angles are acute.
Addition Rule: Sum Rule for Probability: A method for finding the probability that
either or both of two events occurs.

Additive Inverse of a Matrix: The matrix obtained by changing the sign of every
matrix element. The additive inverse of matrix A is written A.
Note: The sum of a matrix and its additive inverse is the zero matrix.
Additive Inverse of a Number: The opposite of a number. For example, the additive
inverse of 12 is 12. The additive inverse of 3 is 3. Formally, the additive inverse of
x is x.

Note: The sum of a number and its additive inverse is 0.

Additive Inverse of a Number: The opposite of a number. For example, the additive
inverse of 12 is 12. The additive inverse of 3 is 3. Formally, the additive inverse of
x is x.
Note: The sum of a number and its additive inverse is 0.
Additive Property of Equality: The formal name for the property of equality that
allows one to add the same quantity to both sides of an equation. This, along with
the multiplicative property of equality, is one of the most commonly used properties
for solving equations.
Adjacent Angles: Two angles in a plane which share a common vertex and a
common side but do not overlap. Angles 1 and 2 below are adjacent angles.

Adjoint: The matrix formed by taking the transpose of the cofactor matrix of a given
original matrix.
Affine Transformation: A transformation which involves any combination of
translations, reflections, stretches, shrinks, or rotations.

Aleph Null: The symbol 0 (aleph with a subscript of 0). Refers to the cardinality of a
countably infinite set.

Algebra: The mathematics of working with variables.

Algebraic Numbers: Real numbers that can occur as roots of polynomial equations
that have integer coefficients.

Algorithm: A set of instructions used to solve a problem or obtain a desired result.

Alternate Exterior Angles: Alternate exterior angles are congruent. Formally,

alternate exterior angles are defined as two exterior angles on opposite sides of a
transversal which lie on different parallel lines.
Alternate Interior Angles: Alternate interior angles are congruent. Formally,
alternate interior angles are two interior angles which lie on different parallel lines
and on opposite sides of a transversal.
Alternating Series: A series which alternates between positive and negative terms.
Alternating Series Remainder: A quantity that measures how accurately the nth
partial sum of an alternating series estimates the sum of the series.

Altitude: The shortest distance between the base of a geometric figure and its top,
whether that top is an opposite vertex, an apex, or another base.

Altitude of a Cone: The distance from the apex of a cone to the base. Formally, the
shortest line segment between the apex of a cone and the (possibly extended)
base. Altitude also refers to the length of this segment.

Altitude of a Cylinder: The distance between the bases of a cylinder. Formally, the
shortest line segment between the (possibly extended) bases. Altitude also refers to
the length of this segment.
Altitude of a Parallelogram: The distance between opposite sides of a parallelogram.
Formally, the shortest line segment between opposite sides. Altitude also refers to
the length of this segment.
Altitude of a Prism: The distance between the two bases of a prism. Formally, the
shortest line segment between the (possibly extended) bases. Altitude also refers to
the length of this segment.
Altitude of a Pyramid: The distance from the apex to the base of a pyramid.
Formally, the shortest line segment between the apex of a pyramid and the
(possibly extended) base. Altitude also refers to the length of this segment.

Altitude of a Trapezoid: The distance between the two bases of a trapezoid.

Formally, the shortest line segment between the bases. Altitude also refers to the
length of this segment.
Altitude of a Triangle: The distance between a vertex of a triangle and the opposite
side. Formally, the shortest line segment between a vertex of a triangle and the
(possibly extended) opposite side. Altitude also refers to the length of this segment.

Amplitude: Half the difference between the minimum and maximum values of the
range. Only periodic functions with a bounded range have an amplitude. Essentially,
amplitude is the radius of the range.
Analytic Geometry: The study of geometric figures using the coordinate plane or
coordinates in space.
Analytic Methods: The use of algebraic and/or numeric methods as the main
technique for solving a math problem. The instructions "solve using analytic
methods" and "solve analytically" usually mean that no calculator is allowed.
Angle: Two rays sharing a common endpoint. Angles are typically measured in
degrees or radians.
Angle Bisector: A line or ray that divides an angle in half. For polygons, an angle
bisector is a line that bisects an interior angle.

Angle of Depression: The angle below horizontal that an observer must look to see
an object that is lower than the observer.
Note: The angle of depression is congruent to the angle of elevation (this assumes
the object is close enough to the observer so that the horizontals for the observer
and the object are effectively parallel; this would not be the case for an astronaut in
orbit around the earth observing an object on the ground).

Angle of Inclination of a Line: The angle between a line and the x-axis. This angle is
always between 0 and 180, and is measured counterclockwise from the part of
the x-axis to the right of the line.
Annulus: The region between two concentric circles which have different radii.

Antiderivative of a Function: A function that has a given function as its derivative.

Antipodal Points: Two points directly opposite each other on a sphere. That is, two
points on opposite ends of a sphere's diameter.
Note: For a sphere, antipodal means the same thing as diametrically opposed.

Apex: The vertex at the tip of a cone or pyramid.

Apothem: The line segment from the center of a regular polygon to the midpoint of
a side, or the length of this segment. Same as the inradius; that is, the radius of a
regular polygon's inscribed circle.
Approximation by Differentials: A method for approximating the value of a function
near a known value. The method uses the tangent line at the known value of the
function to approximate the function's graph.

Arc Length of a Curve: The length of a curve or line. The length of an arc can be
found by one of the formulas below for any differentiable curve defined by
rectangular, polar, or parametric equations.

Arc of a Circle: A connected section of the circumference of a circle.

Area under a Curve: The area between the graph of y = f(x) and the x-axis is given
by the definite integral below. This formula gives a positive result for a graph above
the x-axis, and a negative result for a graph below the x-axis.

Area of a Convex Polygon: The coordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), . . . , (xn, yn)
of a convex polygon are arranged in the "determinant" below. The coordinates must
be taken in counterclockwise order around the polygon, beginning and ending at the
same point.
Area of a Kite: The area of a kite is half the product of the diagonals.

Area of a Parallelogram: The formula is given below.

Note: This formula works for the area of a rhombus as well, since a rhombus is a
special kind of parallelogram.
Area of a Rhombus: Formulas are given below.
Note that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular (as is the case with all
kites).
Area under a Curve: The area between the graph of y = f(x) and the x-axis is given
by the definite integral below. This formula gives a positive result for a graph above
the x-axis, and a negative result for a graph below the x-axis.
Area Using Parametric Equations: The area between the x-axis and the graph of x =
x(t), y = y(t) and the x-axis is given by the definite integral below. This formula
gives a positive result for a graph above the x-axis, and a negative result for a
graph below the x-axis.
Area Using Polar Coordinates: The area between the graph of r = r() and the origin
and also between the rays = and = is given by the formula below (assuming
).
Argand Plane: The coordinate plane used to graph complex numbers. The x-axis is
called the real axis and the y-axis is called the imaginary axis. The complex number
x + yi is graphed as the point (x, y).
Argument of a Complex Number: The angle describing the direction of a complex
number on the complex plane. The argument is measured in radians as an angle in
standard position. For a complex number in polar form r(cos + isin ) the
argument is .
Argument of a Function: The variable, term or expression on which a function
operates. For example, the argument of is x, the argument of sin(2A) is 2A, and the
argument of e x 5 is x 5. The argument of f(x) is x.
Argument of a Vector: angle describing the direction of a vector. The argument is
measured as an angle in standard position.
Arithmetic: Calculations involving numbers. This typically involves the basic
operations addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponents. Some
people also consider roots, logarithms, calculations modulo n, and other more
sophisticated operations to be arithmetic as well.
Arithmetic Mean: The most commonly used type of average. To find the arithmetic
mean of a set of n numbers, add the numbers in the set and divide the sum by n.

Arithmetic Sequence: A sequence such as 1, 5, 9, 13, 17 or 12, 7, 2, 3, 8, 13, 18

which has a constant difference between terms. The first term is a1, the common
difference is d, and the number of terms is n.

Arithmetic Series: A series such as 3 + 7 + 11 + 15 + + 99 or 10 + 20 + 30 +

+ 1000 which has a constant difference between terms. The first term is a1, the
common difference is d, and the number of terms is n. The sum of an arithmetic
series is found by multiplying the number of terms times the average of the first
and last terms.
Arm of an Angle : Either of the two rays making up an angle.

Arm of a Right Triangle: Either of the sides in a right triangle opposite an acute
angle. The legs are the two shorter sides of the triangle.

ASA Congruence/ Angle-side-angle congruence: When two triangles have

corresponding angles and sides that are congruent as shown below, the triangles
themselves are congruent.
Associative Operation: Any operation for which (ab)c = a(bc) for all values
of a, b, and c. Addition and multiplication are both associative. Subtraction and
division are not. For example, (3 + 4) + 5 = 3 + (4 + 5) but (3 4) 5 3 (4 5).

Asymptote: A line or curve that the graph of a relation approaches more and more
closely the further the graph is followed.

Augmented Matrix: A matrix form of a linear system of equations obtained from the
coefficient matrix as shown below. It is created by adding an additional column for
the constants on the right of the equal signs. The new column is set apart by a
vertical line.
Average: This almost always refers to the arithmetic mean. In general, however, the
average could be any single number that represents the center of a set of values.

Average Rate of Change: The change in the value of a quantity divided by the
elapsed time. For a function, this is the change in the y-value divided by the change
in the x-value for two distinct points on the graph.
Average Value of a Function: The average height of the graph of a function. For y =
f(x) over the domain [a, b], the formula for average value is given below.

Axes: Plural of axis.

Axiom: A statement accepted as true without proof. An axiom should be so simple
and direct that it is unquestionably true.
Axis of a Cylinder: The line formed by the centers of the bases of a cylinder.

Axis of Rotation: A line about which a plane figure is rotated in three dimensional
space to create a solid or surface.
Axis of Symmetry: A line of symmetry for a graph. The two sides of a graph on
either side of the axis of symmetry look like mirror images of each other.
Axis of Symmetry of a Parabola: line passing through the focus and vertex of a
parabola. The axis of symmetry is perpendicular to the directrix.
Absolute zero: lowest possible temperature at which gas would have a zero volume.
Absorption spectrum: spectrum of electromagnetic radiation absorbed by matter
when radiation of all frequencies is passed through it.
Acceleration: change in velocity divided by time interval over which it occurred.

Accuracy: closeness of a measurement to the standard value of that quantity.

Achromatic lens: lens for which all light colors have the same focal length.

Action-reaction forces: pair of forces involved in an interaction that are equal in

magnitude and opposition in direction.

Activity: number of decays per second of a radioactive substance.

Adhesion: force of attraction between two unlike materials.

Air resistance: force of air on objects moving through it.

Alpha decay: process in which a nucleus emits an alpha particle.

Alpha particle: positively- charged particles consisting of two protons and two
neutrons emitted by radioactive materials.

Ammeter: device to measure electrical current.

Amorphous solid: solids that have no long- range order; no crystal structure.

Ampere: unit of electric current; one ampere is the flow of one coulomb of charge
per second.
Amplitude: in any periodic motion, the maximum displacement from equilibrium.

Angle of incidence: angle between direction of motion of waves and a line

perpendicular to surface the waves are striking.

Angle of reflection: angle between direction of motion of waves and a line

perpendicular to surface the waves are reflected from.

Angle of refraction: angle between direction of motion of waves and a line

perpendicular to surface the waves have been refracted from.

Angular momentum: quantity of rotational motion. For a rotating object, product of

moment of inertia and angular velocity.

Annihilation: process in which a particle and its antiparticle are converted into
energy.
Antenna: device used to receive or transmit electromagnetic waves.

Antineutrino: subatomic particle with no charge or mass emitted in beta decay.

Antinode: point of maximum displacement of two superimposed waves.

Archimedes principle: object immersed in a fluid has an upward force equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

Artificial radioactivity: radioactive isotope not found in nature.

Atomic mass unit: unit of mass equal to 1/12 the atomic mass of carbon- 12
nucleus.
Atomic number: number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.

Average acceleration: acceleration measured over a finite time interval

Average velocity: velocity measured over a finite time interval.

B
Back-Substitution: The process of solving a linear system of equations that has been
transformed into row-echelon form or reduced row-echelon form. The
last equation is solved first, then the next-to-last, etc.

Base: In plane geometry or solid geometry, the bottom of a figure. If the top
is parallel to the bottom (as in a trapezoid or prism), both the top and bottom are
called bases.

Base in an Exponential Expression: a in the expression ax. For example, 2 is the

base in 23. Similar to the base of a logarithm.

Base of an Isosceles Triangle: The side that is not a leg. That is, the non-
congruent side of the triangle.

Base of a Trapezoid: Either of the two parallel sides of a trapezoid.

Base of a Triangle: The side of a triangle which is perpendicular to the altitude.

Bearing: Two similar ways of indicating direction. On the left below is a kind of
bearing which uses compass points. The bearing S34E means the direction is 34
away from due south directed towards the east. The other way, on the right below,
measures the angle clockwise from due north.

Bernoulli Trials: An experiment in which a single action, such as flipping a coin, is

repeated identically over and over. The possible results of the action are classified
as "success" or "failure". The binomial probability formula is used to
find probabilities for Bernoulli trials.

Iff if and only if/ Biconditional: A way of writing two conditionals at once: both a
conditional and its converse.

Binomial: A polynomial with two terms which are not like terms. The following are all
binomials: 2x 3, 3x5 +8x4, and 2ab 6a2b5.

Binomial Coefficients: Numbers written in any of the ways shown below. Each
notation is read aloud "n choose r."

Binomial Probability Formula: A probability formula for Bernoulli trials. The

probability of achieving exactly k successes in n trials is shown below.

Binomial Theorem: A method for distributing powers of binomials as shown below.

Bisect: Cut into two congruent halves.

Bisector: A line segment, line, or plane that divides a geometric figure into two
congruent halves.

Boundary Value Problem/BVP: A differential equation or partial differential equation

accompanied by conditions for the value of the function but with no conditions for
the value of any derivatives.

Note: Boundary value problem is often abbreviated BVP.

Bounded Function: A function with a range that is a bounded set. The range must
have both an upper bound and a lower bound.

Bounded Sequence: A sequence with terms that have an upper bound and a lower
bound.

Bounded Set of Geometric Points: A figure or a set of points in a plane or in space

that can be enclosed in a finite rectangle or box.

Bounded Set of Numbers: A set of numbers with both an upper bound and a lower
bound.

Bounds of Integration/Limits of Integration: For the definite integral , the bounds (or
limits) of integration are a and b.

Box-and-Whisker Plot: A visual display of the five number summary. The box-and-
whisker plot is a simplified boxplot taught to beginners . It does not show outliers.
The whiskers extending all the way to the minimum and maximum values
regardless of how far out they may be.

Boxplot Modified Boxplot: A data display that shows the five-number summary. The
whiskers, stretching outward from the first quartile and third quartile as shown
below, are no longer than 1.5 times the interquartile range (IQR). Outliers beyond
that are marked separately.

Note: Beginners are sometimes taught to draw box-and-whisker plots, which do not
show outliers. Modified boxplot is a name sometimes used for boxplots to
distinguish them from box-and-whisker plots.

Braces Set Braces: The symbols { and } which are used to indicate sets.

Brachistochrone: A cycloid hanging downwards.

Brackets: The symbols [ and ].

Back-EMF: potential difference a cross a conductor caused by change in magnetic

flux.

Band theory: theory explaining electrical conduction in solids.

Baryon: subatomic particle composed of three quarks. Interacts with the strong
nuclear force.

Battery: device that converts chemical to electrical energy consisting of two

dissimilar conductors and an electrolyte.

Beat: slow oscillation in amplitude of a complex wave

Bernoullis principle: when a fixed quantity of fluid flows, the pressure is decreased
when the flow velocity increases.

Beta decay: radioactive decay process in which an electron or positron and neutrino
is emitted from a nucleus.

Beta particle: high speed electron emitted by a radioactive nucleus in beta decay.

Binding energy: negative of the amount of energy needed to separate a nucleus

into individual nucleons.

Boiling point: temperature at which a substance, under normal atmospheric

pressure, changes from a liquid to a vapor state.

Breeder reactor: nuclear reactor that converts non-fissionable nuclei to fissionable

nuclei while producing energy.

Bubble chamber: instrument containing superheated liquid in which the path of

ionizing particles is made visible as trails of tiny bubbles.

Buoyant force: upward force on an object immersed in fluid.

Calculus: The branch of mathematics dealing with limits, derivatives, definite

integrals, indefinite integrals, and power series.

Cardinal Numbers: The numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . as well as some types of infinity.

Cardinal numbers are used to describe the number of elements in either finite or
infinite sets.

Cardinality of a Set: The number of elements in a set., whether the set is finite or
infinite.

Note: Not all infinite sets have the same cardinality.

Cardioid: A curve that is somewhat heart shaped. A cardioid can be drawn by

tracing the path of a point on a circle as the circle rolls around a fixed circle of the
same radius. The equation is usually written in polar coordinates.

Note: A cardioid is a special case of the limaon family of curves.

Cartesian Form / Rectangular Form: A function (or relation) written using (x, y) or (x,
y, z) coordinates.

Coordinate Plane/Cartesian Plane: The plane formed by a horizontal axis and a

vertical axis, often labeled the x-axis and y-axis, respectively.

Catenary: The curve naturally formed by a slack rope or wire hanging between two
fixed points. A catenary is NOT a parabola, even though it looks like one.

Note: The graph of the hyperbolic cosine function is a catenary.

Cavalieris Principle: A method, with formula given below, of finding the volume of
any solid for which cross-sections by parallel planes have equal areas. This includes,
but is not limited to, cylinders and prisms.

Ceiling Function/Least Integer Function: A step function of x which is the least

integer greater than or equal to x. The ceiling function of x is usually written .
Sometimes this function is written with reversed floor function brackets , and other
times it is written with reversed boldface brackets ]x[ or reversed plain brackets ]x[.

Center of Mass Formula: The coordinates of the center of mass of a plane figure are
given by the formulas below. The formulas only apply for figures of uniform
(constant) density.

Center of Rotation: In a rotation, the point that does not move. The rest of the plane
rotates around this one fixed point.

Centers of a Triangle: The main centers of a triangle are listed in the table below
along with selected properties.

Central Angle: An angle in a circle with vertex at the circle's center.

Centroid: For a triangle, this is the point at which the three medians intersect. In
general, the centroid is the center of mass of a figure of uniform (constant) density.

Centroid Formula: The coordinates of the centroid of a triangle are found by

averaging the x- and y-coordinates of the vertices. This method will also find the
centroid (center of mass) of any set of points on the x-y plane.

Ceva's Theorem: A theorem relating the way three concurrent cevians of a triangle
divide the triangle's three sides.

Cevian: A line segment, ray, or line that extends from a vertex of a triangle to the
opposite side (which may be extended). Medians, altitudes, and angle bisectors are
all examples of cevians.

Chain Rule: A method for finding the derivative of a composition of functions.

Change of Base Formula: A formula that allows you to rewrite a logarithm in terms
of logs written with another base. This is especially helpful when using a calculator
to evaluate a log to any base other than 10 or e.
Check a Solution/ Verify a Solution: The process of making sure a solution is correct
by making sure it satisfies any and all equations and/or inequalities in a problem.

Chord: A line segment on the interior of a circle. A chord has both endpoints on the
circle.

Circle: The locus of all points that are a fixed distance from a given point.

Circle Trig Definitions: A set of definitions of the six trig functions: sine, cosine,
tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent.

Circular Cone: A cone which has a circle as base.

Circular Cylinder: A cylinder with a circles as bases.

Circular Functions/ Trig Functions: The six functions sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant,
secant, and cotangent. These functions can be defined several different ways.
These include SOHCAHTOA definitions, circle definitions (below), and unit circle
definitions.

Circumcenter: The center of a circumcircle. For any circumscribable polygon, the

circumcenter is found at the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of
the sides.

Circumcircle/Circumscribed Circle: A circle that passes through all vertices of a

plane figure and contains the entire figure in its interior.

Note: All triangles have circumcircles and so do all regular polygons. Most other
polygons do not.

Circumference: A complete circular arc. Circumference also means the distance

around the the outside of a circle.

Circumscribable: Describes a plane figure that has a circumcircle.

Circumscribed: Surrounded by a circle that is as small as possible.

Cis: A complex-valued function made from sine and cosine with definition cis =
cos + isin .

Clockwise: The direction that the hands of a clock move.

Closed Interval: An interval that contains its endpoints

Coefficient: The number multiplied times a product of variables or powers of

variables in a term. For example, 123 is the coefficient in the term 123x3y.

Coefficient Matrix: The matrix formed by the coefficients in a linear system of

equations.
Cofactor: The determinant obtained by deleting the row and column of a given
element of a matrix or determinant. The cofactor is preceded by a + or sign
depending whether the element is in a + or position.

Cofactor Matrix/Matrix of Cofactors: A matrix with elements that are the cofactors,
term-by-term, of a given square matrix.

Co-function Identities: Trig identities showing the relationship between sine and
cosine, tangent and cotangent, and secant and cosecant. The value of a trig
function of an angle equals the value of the cofunction of the complement of the
angle.

Coincident: Identical, one superimposed on the other. That is, two or more
geometric figures that share all points. For example, two coincident lines would look
like one line since one is on top of the other.

Collinear: Lying on the same line

Column of a Matrix: A vertical set of numbers in a matrix.

Combination: A selection of objects from a collection. Order is irrelevant.

Combination Formula: A formula for the number of possible combinations of r

objects from a set of n objects. This is written in any of the ways shown below.

Combinatorics: The mathematics of counting, especially counting how many

elements are in very large sets.

Common Logarithm: The logarithm base 10 of a number. That is, the power of 10
necessary to equal a given number. The common logarithm of x is written log x.

Common Ratio: For a geometric sequence or geometric series, the common ratio is
the ratio of a term to the previous term. This ratio is usually indicated by the
variable r.

Commutative Operation: Any operation for which ab = ba for all values of a

and b. Addition and multiplication are both commutative. Subtraction, division, and
composition of functions are not.

Comparison Test: A convergence test which compares the series under

consideration to a known series. Essentially, the test determines whether a series is
"better" than a "good" series or "worse" than a "bad" series. The "good" or "bad"
series is often a p-series.

Compatible Matrices: Two matrices with dimensions arranged so that they may be
multiplied. The number of columns of the first matrix must equal the number of
rows of the second.

Complement of an Angle: The complement of an acute angle A is the angle 90 A.

For example, the complement of 20 is 70.
Complement of an Event: The opposite of an event. That is, the set of all outcomes
of an experiment that are not included in an event. The complement of event A is
written AC and is often read aloud as "not A"

Complement of a Set: The elements not contained in a given set. The complement
of set A is indicated by AC.

Complementary Angles: Two acute angles that add up to 90. For example, 40 and
50 are complementary. In the diagram below, angles 1 and 2 are complementary.

Complex Conjugate: The complex conjugate of a + bi is a bi, and similarly the

complex conjugate of a bi is a + bi. This consists of changing the sign of the
imaginary part of a complex number. The real part is left unchanged. Complex
conjugates are indicated using a horizontal line over the number or variable.

Note: Complex conjugates are similar to, but not the same as, conjugates.

Compound Fraction/Complex Fraction: A fraction which has, as part of its numerator

and/or denominator, at least one other fraction.

Complex Number Formulas: Algebra rules and formulas for complex numbers are
listed below.

Complex Numbers: Numbers like 3 2i or that can be written as the sum or

difference of a real number and an imaginary number. Complex numbers are
indicated by the symbol .

Note: All real numbers and all pure imaginary numbers are complex. Sometimes,
however, mathematicians use the phrase complex numbers to refer strictly to
numbers which have both nonzero real parts and nonzero imaginary parts.

Complex Plane/Argand Plane: The coordinate plane used to graph complex

numbers. The x-axis is called the real axis and the y-axis is called the imaginary
axis. The complex number x + yi is graphed as the point (x, y).

Composite: Built from more than one thing.

Composite Number: A positive integer that has factors other than just 1 and the
number itself. For example, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, etc. are all composite numbers. The
number 1 is not composite.

Composition: Combining two functions by substituting one function's formula in

place of each x in the other function's formula. The composition of functions f and g
is written f g, and is read aloud "f composed with g." The formula for f g is
written (f g)(x). This is read aloud "f composed with g of x."

Note: Composition is not commutative. That is, (f g)(x) is usually different from (g
f)(x). The example below illustrates this.
Compound Inequality: Two or more inequalities taken together. Often this refers to a
connected chain of inequalities, such as 3 < x < 5. Formally, a compound inequality
is a conjunction of two or more inequalities.

Compound Interest: A method of computing interest in which interest is computed

from the up-to-date balance. That is, interest is earned on the interest and not just
on original balance.

Continuously Compounded Interest: Interest that is, hypothetically, computed and

added to the balance of an account every instant. This is not actually possible, but
continuous compounding is well-defined nevertheless as the upper bound of
"regular" compound interest. The formula, given below, is sometimes called the
shampoo formula (Pert).

Note: This same formula can be used for exponential growth and exponential decay

Compression/Contraction: A transformation in which a figure grows smaller.

Compressions may be with respect to a point (compression of a geometric figure) or
with respect to the axis of a graph (compression of a graph).

Note: Some high school textbooks erroneously use the word dilation to refer to all
transformations in which the figure changes size, whether the figure becomes larger
or smaller. Compression (or contraction) refers to transformations in which the
figure becomes smaller. Dilation properly refers only to transformations in which the
figure grows larger. Unfortunately the English language has no word that refers
collectively to both stretching and shrinking.

Compression of a Geometric Figure/Contraction of a Geometric Figure: A

transformation in which all distances are shortened by a common factor. This is
done by contracting all points toward some fixed point P.

Note: The common factor is less than 1 for a contraction. When the common factor
is greater than 1 the transformation is called a dilation.

Compute: To figure out or evaluate. For example, "compute 2 + 3" means to figure
out that the answer is 5.

Concave/Non-Convex: A shape or solid which has an indentation or "cave". Formally,

a geometric figure is concave if there is at least one line segment connecting
interior points which passes outside of the figure.

Concave Down: A graph or part of a graph which looks like an upside-down bowl or
part of an upside-down bowl.

Concave Up: A graph or part of a graph which looks like a right-side up bowl or part
of an right-side up bowl.

Concentric: Similar geometric figures that share a common center.

Conclusion: The part of a conditional statement after then.

Concurrent: Lines or curves that all intersect at a single point.

Conditional: An "If . . . then . . ." statement. For example, "If it is raining, then the
grass is wet."

Conditional Convergence: Describes a series that converges but does not converge
absolutely. That is, a convergent series that will become a divergent series if all
negative terms are made positive.

Conditional Equation: An equation that is true for some value(s) of the variable(s)
and not true for others.

Conditional Inequality: An inequality that is true for some value(s) of the variable(s)
and not true for others.

Conditional Probability: A probability that is computed based on the assumption that

some event has already occurred. The probability of event B given that event A has
occurred is written P(B|A).

Cone: A three dimensional figure with a single base tapering to an apex. The base
can be any simple closed curve. Often the word cone refers to a right circular cone.

Cone Angle: The angle remaining in a sheet of paper after a sector has been cut out
so that the paper can be rolled into a right circular cone.

Congruent: Exactly equal in size and shape. Congruent sides or segments have the
exact same length. Congruent angles have the exact same measure. For any set of
congruent geometric figures, corresponding sides, angles, faces, etc. are congruent.

Note: Congruent segments, sides, and angles are often marked.

Conic Sections: The family of curves including circles, ellipses, parabolas, and
hyperbolas. All of these geometric figures may be obtained by the intersection a
double cone with a plane, hence the name conic section. All conic sections have
equations of the form Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.

Conjecture: An educated guess.

Conjugates: The result of writing sum of two terms as a difference or vice-versa.

Note: Conjugates are similar to, but not the same as, complex conjugates.

Conjugate Pair Theorem: An assertion about the complex zeros of any polynomial
which has real numbers as coefficients.

Conjunction: A statement which connects two words or statements using the word
and. For example, "peas and carrots" is a conjunction.

Consecutive Interior Angles: In the figure below, angles 4 and 6 are consecutive
interior angles. So are angles 3 and 5. Consecutive interior angles are
supplementary. Formally, consecutive interior angles may be defined as two interior
angles lying on the same side of the transversal cutting across two parallel lines.

Consistent System of Equations: A system of equations that has at least one

solution.

Constant: As a noun, a term or expression with no variables. Also, a term or

expression for which any variables cancel out.

Constant Function: A function of the form y = constant or f(x) = constant, such as y

= 2.

Constant Term: The term in a simplified algebraic expression or equation which

contains no variable(s). If there is no such term, the constant term is 0.

Continued Sum/ Sigma Notation: A notation using the Greek letter sigma () that
allows a long sum to be written compactly.

Continuous: Describes a connected set of numbers, such as an interval.

Continuously Compounded Interest: Interest that is, hypothetically, computed and

added to the balance of an account every instant. This is not actually possible, but
continuous compounding is well-defined nevertheless as the upper bound of
"regular" compound interest. The formula, given below, is sometimes called the
shampoo formula (Pert).

Note: This same formula can be used for exponential growth and exponential decay.

Continuous Function: A function with a connected graph.

Continuously Differentiable Function: A function which has a derivative that is itself

a continuous function.

Contrapositive: Switching the hypothesis and conclusion of a conditional statement

and negating both. For example, the contrapositive of "If it is raining then the grass
is wet" is "If the grass is not wet then it is not raining."

Note: As in the example, the contrapositive of any true proposition is also true.

Contraction/ Compression: A transformation in which a figure grows smaller.

Compressions may be with respect to a point (compression of a geometric figure) or
with respect to the axis of a graph (compression of a graph).

Note: Some high school textbooks erroneously use the word dilation to refer to all
transformations in which the figure changes size, whether the figure becomes larger
or smaller. Compression (or contraction) refers to transformations in which the
figure becomes smaller. Dilation properly refers only to transformations in which the
figure grows larger. Unfortunately the English language has no word that refers
collectively to both stretching and shrinking.
Contraction of a Geometric Figure/ Compression of a Geometric Figure: A
transformation in which all distances are shortened by a common factor. This is
done by contracting all points toward some fixed point P.

Note: The common factor is less than 1 for a contraction. When the common factor
is greater than 1 the transformation is called a dilation.

Converge: To approach a finite limit. There are convergent limits, convergent series,
convergent sequences, and convergent improper integrals.

Convergent Absolutely / Convergence Absolute: Describes a series that converges

when all terms are replaced by their absolute values. To see if a series converges
absolutely, replace any subtraction in the series with addition. If the new series
converges, then the original series converges absolutely.

Note: Any series that converges absolutely is itself convergent.

Convergent Sequence: A sequence with a limit that is a real number. For example,
the sequence 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, . . . has limit 2, so the sequence converges
to 2. On the other hand, the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . has a limit of infinity ().
This is not a real number, so the sequence does not converge. It is a divergent
sequence.

Convergent Series: An infinite series for which the sequence of partial sums
converges. For example, the sequence of partial sums of the series 0.9 + 0.09 +
0.009 + 0.0009 + is 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, .... This sequence converges to 1,
so the series 0.9 + 0.09 + 0.009 + 0.0009 + is convergent.

Converse: Switching the hypothesis and conclusion of a conditional statement.

Convex: A geometric figure with no indentations. Formally, a geometric figure is

convex if every line segment connecting interior points is entirely contained within
the figure's interior.

Coordinate Geometry/ Analytic Geometry: The study of geometric figures using the
coordinate plane or coordinates in space. Formulas from analytic geometry include
the distance formula, midpoint formula, point of division formula, centroid formula,
area of a convex polygon.

Coordinate Plane/ Cartesian Plane: The plane formed by a horizontal axis and a
vertical axis, often labeled the x-axis and y-axis, respectively.

Coordinates/Ordered Pair/Ordered Triple/n-tuple: On the coordinate plane, the pair of

numbers giving the location of a point (ordered pair). In three-dimensional
coordinates, the triple of numbers giving the location of a point (ordered triple). In
n-dimensional space, a sequence of n numbers written in parentheses.

Coplanar: Lying in the same plane. For example, any set of three points in space are
coplanar.
Corollary: A special case of a more general theorem which is worth noting
separately. For example, the Pythagorean theorem is a corollary of the law of
cosines.

Correlation: The degree to which two variables are associated. For example, height
and weight have a moderately strong positive correlation.

Correlation Coefficient: A number that is a measure of the strength and direction of

the correlation between two variables. Correlation coefficients are expressed using
the variable r, where r is between 1 and 1, inclusive. The closer r is to 1 or 1, the
less scattered the points are and the stronger the relationship. Only data points with
a scatterplot which is a perfectly straight line can have r = 1 or r = 1. When r < 0
the data have a negative association, and when r > 0 the data have a positive
association.

Corresponding: Two features that are situated the same way in different objects.

Cosine/cos: The trig function cosine, which is written cos . For acute angles, cos
can be found by the SOHCAHTOA definition, shown below on the left. The circle
definition, a generalization of SOHCAHTOA, is shown below on the right. f(x) = cos x
is a periodic function with period 2.

Cotangent/ cot/ctg

The trig function cotangent, written cot . cot equals or . For acute angles, cot
can be found by the SOHCAHTOA definition, shown below on the left. The circle
definition, a generalization of SOHCAHTOA, is shown below on the right. f(x) = cot x
is a periodic function with period .

cot-1/ctg-1/Cot-1/Ctg-1/arccot/arcctg/ArccotArcctg

The inverse function of cotangent.

Co-terminal Angles: Angles which, drawn in standard position, share a terminal side.
For example, 60, -300, and 780 are all co-terminal.

Countable: Describes the cardinality of a countably infinite set. Aleph null (0) is the
symbol for this.

Countably Infinite: Describes a set which contains the same number of elements as
the set of natural numbers. Formally, a countably infinite set can have its elements
put into one-to-one correspondence with the set of natural numbers.

Note: The symbol aleph null (0) stands for the cardinality of a countably infinite
set.

Counterclockwise/Anticlockwise: Opposite the direction that the hands of a clock

move.

Counterexample: An example which disproves a proposition. For example, the prime

number 2 is a counterexample to the statement "All prime numbers are odd."
Counting Numbers/ Natural Numbers: The numbers used for counting. That is, the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

CPCFC: "Corresponding parts of congruent figures are congruent." A theorem stating

that if two figures are congruent, then so are all corresponding parts.

CPCTC: "Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent." A theorem

stating that if two triangles are congruent, then so are all corresponding parts.

Cramers Rule: A method for solving a linear system of equations using

determinants. Cramers rule may only be used when the system is square and the
coefficient matrix is invertible.

Critical Number/ Critical Value: The x-value of a critical point.

Critical Point: A point (x, y) on the graph of a function at which the derivative is
either 0 or undefined. A critical point will often be a minimum or maximum, but it
may be neither.

Note: Finding critical points is an important step in the process of curve sketching.

Cross Product: A way of multiplying two vectors, written u v, in which the product
is another vector. The cross product of two vectors results in a vector which is
orthogonal to both the vectors being multiplied. The magnitude of the cross product
of two vectors is found by the formula |u v| = |u| |v| sin , where is the smaller
angle between the vectors.

Note: Cross products are not commutative. That is, u v v u. The vectors u v
and v u have the same magnitude but point in opposite directions.

Cube/Regular Hexahedron: A regular polyhedron for which all faces are squares.

Note: It is one of the five platonic solids.

Cube Root: A number that must be multiplied times itself three times to equal a
given number. The cube root of x is written or x^1/3.

Cubic Polynomial: A polynomial of degree 3. For example, x3 - 1, 4a3 - 100a2 + a -

6, and m2n + mn2 are all cubic polynomials.

Curly d: The symbol used in the notation for partial derivatives.

Curve: A word used to indicate any path, whether actually curved or straight, closed
or open. A curve can be on a plane or in three-dimensional space (or n-dimensional
space, for that matter). Lines, circles, arcs, parabolas, polygons, and helixes are all
types of curves.

Note: Typically curves are thought of as the set of all geometric figures that can be
parametrized using a single parameter. This is not in fact accurate, but it is a useful
way to conceptualize curves. The exceptions to this rule require some cleverness, or
at least some exposure to space-filling curves.
Curve Sketching: The process of using the first derivative and second derivative to
graph a function or relation. As a result the coordinates of all discontinuities,
extrema, and inflection points can be accurately plotted.

Cusp: A sharp point on a curve.

Note: Cusps are points at which functions and relations are not differentiable.

Cycloid: The path traced by a point on a wheel as the wheel rolls, without slipping,
along a flat surface. The standard parametrization is x = a(t sin t), y = a(1 cos t),
where a is the radius of the wheel.

Note: Cycloids are periodic functions.

Cylinder: A three-dimensional geometric figure with parallel congruent bases. The

bases can be shaped like any closed plane figure (not necessarily a circle) and must
be oriented identically.

Note: The word cylinder often refers to a right circular cylinder.

Cylindrical Shell Method/ Shell Method: A technique for finding the volume of a solid
of revolution.

Calorimeter: device that isolates objects to measure temperature changes do to

heat flow.

Candela: unit of luminous intensity.

Capacitance: ratio of charge stored per increase in potential difference.

Capacitor: electrical device used to store charge and energy in the electrical field.

Capillary action: rise of liquid in narrow tube due to surface tension.

Carnot efficiency: ideal efficiency of heat engine or refrigerator working between

two constant
temperatures.

Centripetal force: force that causes centripetal acceleration.

Chain reaction: nuclear reaction in which neutrons are produced that can cause
further reactions.

Charged: object that has an unbalance of positive and negative electrical charges.

Charging by conduction: process of charging by touching neutral object to a

charged object.

Charging by induction: process of charging by bringing neutral object near charged

object, then
removing part of resulting separated charge.
Chromatic aberration: variation in focal length of lens with wavelength of light.

Circular motion: motion with constant radius of curvature caused by acceleration

being perpendicular
to velocity.

Clock reading: time between event and a reference time, usually zero.

Closed, isolated system: collection of objects such that neither matter nor energy
can enter or leave
the collection.

Closed-pipe resonator: cylindrical tube with one end closed and a sound source at
other end.

Coefficient of friction: ratio of frictional force and the normal force between two
forces.

Coefficient of linear expansion: change in length divided by original length and by

temperature change.

Coefficient of volume expansion: change in volume divided by original volume and

by temperature
change.

Coherent waves: waves in which all are in step; are in phase.

Cohesive force: attractive force between similar substances.

Complementary color: two colors that, when added, produce white light. Two
pigments, that when combined, produce black.

Compound machine: machine consisting of two or more simple machines.

Compton Effect: interaction of photons, usually X rays, with electrons in matter

resulting in increased
wavelength of X rays and kinetic energy of electrons.

Concave lens: lens thinner in center than edges; a diverging lens.

Concave mirror: converging mirror, one with center of curvature on reflecting side
of mirror.

Conduction band: energies of charge carries in a solid such that the carries are free
to move.

Conductor: materials through which charged particles move readily; or heat flow
readily.
Conserved properties: property that is the same before and after an interaction.

Consonance: two or more sounds that, when heard together, sound pleasant.

Constant acceleration: acceleration that does not change in time.

Constant velocity: velocity that does not change in time.

Constructive interference: superposition of waves resulting in a combined wave

with amplitude larger than the component waves.

Convection: heat transfer by means of motion of fluid.

Conventional current: motion of positive electrical current.

Converging lens: lens that causes light rays to converge; usually a convex lens.

Convex lens: lens that is thicker in the center than at edges.

Convex mirror: diverging mirror. Center of curvature is on side opposite reflecting

side of mirror.

Cosine: the ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse.

Coulomb: unit of electrical charge. Charge caused by flow of one ampere for one
second.

Crest of wave: high point of wave motion.

Critical angle: minimum angle of incidence that produces total internal reflection.

Crystal lattice: structure of solid consisting of regular arrangment of atoms.

D
De Moivres Theorem: A formula useful for finding powers and roots of complex
numbers.

Decagon: A polygon with ten sides.

Deciles: The 10th and 90th percentiles of a set of data.

Decreasing Function: A function with a graph that moves downward as it is followed

from left to right.

Definite Integral: An integral which is evaluated over an interval. A definite integral

is written. Definite integrals are used to find the area between the graph of a
function and the x-axis. There are many other applications.

Degenerate: An example of a definition that stretches the definition to an absurd

degree.
A degenerate triangle is the "triangle" formed by three collinear points. It doesnt
look like a triangle, it looks like a line segment.

A parabola may be thought of as a degenerate ellipse with one vertex at an

infinitely distant point.

Degenerate examples can be used to test the general applicability of formulas or

concepts. Many of the formulas developed for triangles (such as area formulas)
apply to degenerate triangles as well.

Degenerate Conic Sections: Plane figures that can be obtained by the intersection of
a double cone with a plane passing through the apex. These include a point, a line,
and intersecting lines. Like other conic sections, all degenerate conic sections have
equations of the form Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.

Degree: A unit of angle measure equal to of a complete revolution. There are 360
degrees in a circle. Degrees are indicated by the symbol, so 35 means 35
degrees.

Degree of a Polynomial: The highest degree of any term in the polynomial.

Degree of a Term: For a term with one variable, the degree is the variable's
exponent. With more than one variable, the degree is the sum of the exponents of
the variables.

Del Operator: The symbol , which stands for the "vector"

Deleted Neighborhood: The proper name for a set such as {x: 0 < |x a| < }.
Deleted neighborhoods are encountered in the study of limits. It is the set of all
numbers less than units away from a, omitting the number a itself.

Denominator: The bottom part of a fraction. For , the denominator is 5.

Dependent Variable: A variable that depends on one or more other variables. For
equations such as y = 3x 2, the dependent variable is y. The value of y depends
on the value chosen for x. Usually the dependent variable is isolated on one side of
an equation. Formally, a dependent variable is a variable in an expression, equation,
or function that has its value determined by the choice of value(s) of other
variable(s).

Derivative: A function which gives the slope of a curve; that is, the slope of the line
tangent to a function. The derivative of a function f at a point x is commonly written
f '(x). For example, if f(x) = x3 then f '(x) = 3x2. The slope of the tangent line when
x = 5 is f '(x) = 352 = 75.

Derivative of a Power Series: The derivative of a function defined by a power series

can be found by differentiating the series term-by-term.

Descartes' Rule of Signs: A method for determining the maximum number of

positive zeros for a polynomial.
Determinant: A single number obtained from a matrix that reveals a variety of the
matrix's properties. Determinants of small matrices are written and evaluated as
shown below. Determinants may also be found using expansion by cofactors.

Note: Although a determinant looks like an absolute value it is not. The determinant
of a matrix may be negative or positive.

Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix which has zeros everywhere other than the main
diagonal. Entries on the main diagonal may be any number, including 0.

Diagonal of a Polygon: A line segment connecting non-adjacent vertices of a

polygon.

Note: An n-gon has diagonals.

Diameter of a Circle or Sphere: A line segment between two points on the circle or
sphere which passes through the center. The word diameter is also also refers to the
length of this line segment.

Diametrically Opposed: Two points directly opposite each other on a circle or

sphere. More formally, two points are diametrically opposed if they are on opposite
ends of a diameter.

Difference: The result of =subtracting two numbers or expressions.

Difference Quotient: For a function f, the formula

This formula computes the slope of the secant line through two points on the graph
of f. These are the points with x-coordinates x and x + h. The difference quotient is
used in the definition the derivative.

Differentiable: A curve that is smooth and contains no discontinuities or cusps.

Formally, a curve is differentiable at all values of the domain variable(s) for which
the derivative exists.

Differential: An tiny or infinitesimal change in the value of a variable. Differentials

are commonly written in the form dx or dy.

Differential Equation: An equation showing a relationship between a function and its

derivative(s). For example, is a differential equation with solutions y = Cex.

Differentiation: The process of finding a derivative.

Digit: Any of the symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 used to write numbers. For

example, the digits in the number 361 are 3, 6, and 1.

Dihedral Angle: An angle formed by intersecting planes.

Dilation: A transformation in which a figure grows larger. Dilations may be with

respect to a point (dilation of a geometric figure) or with respect to the axis of a
graph (dilation of a graph).
Note: Some high school textbooks erroneously use the word dilation to refer to all
transformations in which the figure changes size, whether the figure becomes larger
or smaller. Unfortunately the English language has no word that refers collectively
to both stretching and shrinking.

Dilation of a Geometric Figure: A transformation in which all distances are

lengthened by a common factor. This is done by stretching all points away from
some fixed point P.

Dilation of a Graph/ Stretch: A transformation in which all distances on the

coordinate plane are lengthened by multiplying either all x-coordinates (horizontal
dilation) or all y-coordinates (vertical dilation) by a common factor greater than 1.

Note: When the common factor is less than 1 the transformation is called a
compression.

Dimensions: On the most basic level, this term refers to the measurements
describing the size of an object. For example, length and width are the dimensions
of a rectangle.

Dimensions of a Matrix: The number of rows and columns of a matrix, written in the
form rowscolumns. The matrix below has 2 rows and 3 columns, so its dimensions
are 23. This is read aloud, "two by three."

Direct Proportion/Direct Variation/Directly Proportional: A relationship between two

variables in which one is a constant multiple of the other. In particular, when one
variable changes the other changes in proportion to the first.

Directrices of an Ellipse: Two parallel lines on the outside of an ellipse perpendicular

to the major axis. Directrices can be used to define an ellipse. Formally, an ellipse is
the locus of points such that the ratio of the distance to the nearer focus to the
distance to the nearer directrix equals a constant that is less than one. This
constant is the eccentricity.

Directrices of a Hyperbola: Two parallel lines which are perpendicular to the major
axis of a hyperbola. The directrices are between the two parts of a hyperbola and
can be used to define it as follows: A hyperbola is the locus of points such that the
ratio of the distance to the nearer focus to the distance to the nearer directrix
equals a constant that is greater than one. This constant is the eccentricity.

Directrix of a Parabola: A line perpendicular to the axis of symmetry used in the

definition of a parabola. A parabola is defined as follows: For a given point, called
the focus, and a given line not through the focus, called the directrix, a parabola is
the locus of points such that the distance to the focus equals the distance to the
directrix.

Discontinuity: A point at which the graph of a relation or function is not connected.

Discontinuities can be classified as either removable or essential. There are several
kinds of essential discontinuities, one of which is the step discontinuity.

Discontinuous Function: A function with a graph that is not connected.

Discrete: A set with elements that are disconnected. The set of integers is discrete.
The set of real numbers is not discrete; it is continuous.

Discriminant of a Quadratic: The number D = b2 4ac determined from the

coefficients of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. The discriminant reveals what type of
roots the equation has.

Disjoint Events/ Mutually Exclusive: Events that have no outcomes in common.

Disjoint Sets/Non-Overlapping Sets: Two or more sets which have no elements in

common. For example, the sets A = {a,b,c} and B = {d,e,f} are disjoint.

Disjunction: A statement which connects two other statements using the word or.

Disk: The union of a circle and its interior.

Disk Method: A technique for finding the volume of a solid of revolution. This
method is a specific case of volume by parallel cross-sections.

Distance Formula: The formula is the distance between points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).

Distance from a Point to a Line: The length of the shortest segment from a given
point to a given line. A formula is given below.

Distinct: Different. Not identical.

Distribute/Expand: To multiply out the parts of an expression. Distributing is the

opposite of factoring.

Distributing Rules: Algebra rules for distributing expressions. See factoring rules as
well.

Diverge: To fail to approach a finite limit. There are divergent limits, divergent
series, divergent sequences, and divergent improper integrals.

Divergent Sequence: A sequence that does not converge. For example, the
sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ... diverges since its limit is infinity (). The limit of a
convergent sequence must be a real number.

Divergent Series: A series that does not converge. For example, the series 1 + 2 + 3
+ 4 + 5 + diverges. Its sequence of partial sums 1, 1 + 2, 1 + 2 + 3 , 1 + 2 + 3 +
4 , 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5, ... diverges.

Dodecagon: A polygon with 12 sides.

Domain: The set of values of the independent variable(s) for which a function or
relation is defined. Typically, this is the set of x-values that give rise to real y-values.

Domain of Definition/Natural Domain: Alternate terms for domain used to make it

clear that the domain being referred to is not a restricted domain.
Dot Product: In two dimensions, (ai + bj)(ci + dj) = ac + bd. In three dimensions,
(ai + bj + ck)(di + ej + fk) = ad + be + cf. In either case, u v = |u| |v| cos ,
where is the angle between the vectors.

Double Angle Identities/Double Number Identities: Trig identities that show how to
find the sine, cosine, or tangent of twice a given angle.

Double Cone: A geometric figure made up of two right circular cones placed apex to
apex as shown below. Typically a double cone is considered to extend infinitely far in
both directions, especially when working with conic sections and degenerate conic
sections.

Double Angle Identities/Double Number Identities: Trig identities that show how to
find the sine, cosine, or tangent of twice a given angle.

Double Root: A root of a polynomial equation with multiplicity 2. Also refers to a zero
of a polynomial function with multiplicity 2.

Doubling Time: For a substance growing exponentially, the time it takes for the
amount of the substance to double.

De Broglie wavelength: length of de Broglie wave of particle; Plancks constant

divided by momentum of particle.

Decibel: unit of sound level.

Dependent variable: variable that responds to change in manipulated variable.

Derived units: unit of quantity that consists of combination of fundamental units.

Destructive interference: superposition of waves resulting in a combined wave with

zero amplitude.

Diffraction: bending of waves around object in their path.

Diffraction grating: material containing many parallel lines very closely spaced that
produces a light spectrum by interference.

Diffuse reflection: reflection of light into many directions by rough object.

Dimensional analysis: checking a derived equation by making sure dimensions are

the same on both sides.

Diode: electrical device permitting only one way current flow.

Dispersion of light: variation with wavelength of speed of light through matter

resulting in separation of light into spectrum.

Displacement: change in position. A vector quantity.

Dissonance: two or more sounds that, when together, sound unpleasant.

Distance: separation between two points. A scalar quantity.

Diverging lens: lens that causes light rays to spread apart or diverge; usually a
concave lens.

Dopants: small quantities of material added to semiconductor to increase electrical

conduction.

Doppler shift: change in wavelength due to relative motion of source and detector.

Dynamics: study of motion of particles acted on by forces.

Eccentricity of a Conic Section: A number that indicates how drawn out or

attenuated a conic section is. Eccentricity is represented by the letter e (no relation
to e = 2.718...). For horizontal ellipses and hyperbolas, eccentricity . For vertical
ellipses and hyperbolas, eccentricity . Here, c = the distance from the center to a
focus, a = the horizontal distance from the center to the vertex, and b = the vertical
distance from the center to the vertex.

Echelon Form of a Matrix/ Row-Echelon Form of a Matrix: A matrix form used when
solving linear systems of equations.

Edge of a Polyhedron: One of the line segments making up the framework of a

polyhedron. The edges are where the faces intersect each other.

Element of a Matrix: One of the entries in a matrix. The address of an element is

given by listing the row number then the column number.

Element of a Set: A number, letter, point, line, or any other object contained in a
set.

Ellipse: A conic section which is essentially a stretched circle.

Ellipsoid: A sphere-like surface for which all cross-sections are ellipses.

Elliptic Geometry/Riemannian Geometry: A non-Euclidean geometry in which there

are no parallel lines. This geometry is usually thought of as taking place on the
surface of a sphere. The "lines" are great circles, and the "points" are pairs of
diametrically opposed points. As a result, all "lines" intersect.

Empty Set/Null Set: The set with no elements. The empty set can be written or {}.

End Behavior: The appearance of a graph as it is followed farther and farther in

either direction. For polynomials, the end behavior is indicated by drawing the
positions of the arms of the graph, which may be pointed up or down. Other graphs
may also have end behavior indicated in terms of the arms, or in terms of
asymptotes or limits.
Equation: A mathematical sentence built from expressions using one or more equal
signs (=).

Equation of a Line: The various common forms for the equation of a line are listed
below. In all forms, slope is represented by m, the x-intercept by a, and the y-
intercept by b.

Equiangular Triangle: A triangle with three congruent angles.

Equidistant: Equally distant. For example, any two points on a circle are equidistant
from the center.

Equilateral Triangle: A triangle with three congruent sides.

Equivalence Properties of Equality: The reflexive, symmetric, and transitive

properties that are satisfied by the = symbol.

Equivalence Relation: Any relation that satisfies the reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive properties. For example, modular equivalence is an equivalence relation.
So is cardinality of a set.

Equivalent Systems of Equations: Systems of equations that have the same solution
set.

Essential Discontinuity: Any discontinuity that is not removable. That is, a place
where a graph is not connected and cannot be made connected simply by filling in a
single point. Step discontinuities and vertical asymptotes are two types of essential
discontinuities.

Euclidean Geometry: The main area of study in high school geometry. This is the
geometry of axioms, theorems, and two-column proofs. It includes the study of
points, lines, triangles, quadrilaterals, other polygons, circles, spheres, prisms,
pyramids, cones, cylinders, etc.

Euler Line: The line segment that passes through a triangles orthocenter, centroid,
and circumcenter. These three points are collinear for any triangle. In addition, the
distance from the orthocenter to the centroid is twice the distance from the
circumcenter to the centroid.

Euler's Formula: ei + 1 = 0. This remarkable equation combines e, i, (pi), 1, and

0, which are arguably the five fundamental numbers of mathematics. It also
includes addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and composition, four of the
fundamental operations of mathematics.

Euler's Formula (Polyhedra): This formula is true for all convex polyhedra as well as
many types of concave polyhedra.

Evaluate: To figure out or compute. For example, "evaluate " means to figure out
that the expression simplifies to 17.
Even Function: A function with a graph that is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
A function is even if and only if f(x) = f(x).

Even Number: An integer that is a multiple of 2. The even numbers are { . . . , 4,

2, 0, 2, 4, 6, . . . }.

Event: A set of possible outcomes resulting from a particular experiment. For

example, a possible event when a single six-sided die is rolled is {5, 6}. That is, the
roll could be a 5 or a 6.

Exact Values of Trig Functions: Certain angles have trig values that may be
computed exactly. Of these, the angles listed below are some of the angles most
commonly used in math classes.

Exclusive: Excluding the endpoints of an interval. For example, "the interval from 1
to 2, exclusive" means the open interval written either (1, 2).

Exclusive or: A disjunction for which either statement may be true but not both.

Expansion by Cofactors: A method for evaluating determinants. Expansion by

cofactors involves following any row or column of a determinant and multiplying
each element of the row or column by its cofactor. The sum of these products
equals the value of the determinant.

Expected Value: A quantity equal to the average result of an experiment after a

large number of trials. For example, if a fair 6-sided die is rolled, the expected value
of the number rolled is 3.5. This is a correct interpretation even though it is
impossible to roll a 3.5 on a 6-sided die. This sort of thing often occurs with
expected values.

Experiment: In the study of probability, the name given to any controlled,

repeatable process. For example, the following are all experiments: tossing a coin,
rolling a die, or selecting a ball from a bag.

Explicit Differentiation: The process of finding the derivative of an explicit function.

For example, the explicit function y = x2 7x + 1 has derivative y' = 2x 7.

Explicit Function: A function in which the dependent variable can be written

explicitly in terms of the independent variable.

Exponent: x in the expression ax. For example, 3 is the exponent in 23.

Exponent Rules: Algebra rules and formulas for exponents are listed below.

Exponential Decay: A model for decay of a quantity for which the rate of decay is
directly proportional to the amount present. The equation for the model is A = A0bt
(where 0 < b < 1 ) or A = A0ekt (where k is a negative number representing the
rate of decay). In both formulas A0 is the original amount present at time t = 0.
Exponential Function/ Exponential Model: A function of the form y = abx where a >
0 and either 0 < b < 1 or b > 1. The variables do not have to be x and y. For
example, A = 3.2(1.02)t is an exponential function.

Exponential Growth: A model for growth of a quantity for which the rate of growth is
directly proportional to the amount present. The equation for the model is A = A0bt
(where b > 1 ) or A = A0ekt (where k is a positive number representing the rate of
growth). In both formulas A0 is the original amount present at time t = 0.

Exponentiation: The use of exponents.

Expression: Any mathematical calculation or formula combining numbers and/or

variables using sums, differences, products, quotients (including fractions),
exponents, roots, logarithms, trig functions, parentheses, brackets, functions, or
other mathematical operations. Expressions may not contain the equal sign (=) or
any type of inequality.

Exterior Angle of a Polygon: An angle between one side of a polygon and the
extension of an adjacent side.

Extraneous Solution: A solution of a simplified version of an equation that does not

satisfy the original equation. Watch out for extraneous solutions when solving
equations with a variable in the denominator of a rational expression, with a
variable in the argument of a logarithm, or a variable as the radicand in an nth root
when n is an even number.

Extreme Value Theorem: A theorem which guarantees the existence of an absolute

max and an absolute min for any continuous function over a closed interval.

Extreme Values of a Polynomial: The graph of a polynomial of degree n has at most

n 1 extreme values (minima and/or maxima). The total number of extreme values
could be n 1 or n 3 or n 5 etc.

Extremum: An extreme value of a function. In other words, the minima and maxima
of a function. Extrema may be either relative (local) or absolute (global).

Effective current: DC current that would produce the same heating effects.

Effective voltage: DC potential difference that would produce the same heating
effects.

Efficiency: ratio of output work to input work.

Effort force: force extended on a machine.

Elastic collision: interaction between two objects in which the total energy is the
same before and after the interaction.

Elasticity: ability of object to original shape after deforming forces are removed.
Electrical charge pump: device, often a battery or generator, that increase potential
of electrical charge.

Electrical circuit: continuous path through which electrical charges can flow.

Electrical current: flow of charged particles.

Electrical field: property of space around a charged object that causes forces on
other charged objects.

Electric field lines: lines representing the direction of electric field.

Electric field strength: ratio of force exerted by field on a tiny test charge to that
change.

Electric generator: device converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Electric potential: ratio of electric potential energy to charge.

Electric potential difference: difference in electric potential between two points.

Electric potential energy: energy of a charged body in an electrical field.

Electromagnet: device that uses an electric current to produce a concentrated

magnetic field.

Electromagnetic force: one of fundamental forces due to electric charges, both

static and moving.
Electromagnetic induction: production of electric field or current due to change in
magnetic flux.

Electromagnetic radiation: energy carried by electromagnetic waves throughout

space.

Electromagnetic waves: wave consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields

that move at speed of light through space.

Electromotive force: potential difference produced by electromagnetic induction.

Electron: subatomic particle of small mass and negative charge found in every
atom.

Electron cloud: region of high probability of finding an electron around an atom.

Electron diffraction: effects on electrons due to wave-like interference of electrons

with matter.

Electron gas model: description of current flow through conductors.

Electroscope: device to detect electric charges.

Electrostatics: study of properties and results of electric charges at rest.

Electroweak force: unification of electromagnetic and weak forces.

Elementary charge: magnitude of the charge of an electron. 1.602 *10^ -19

Emission spectrum: spectrum produced by radiation from excited atoms.

Energy: non-material property capable of causing changes in matter.

Energy levels: amounts of energy an electron in an atom may have.

Entropy: measure of disorder in a system; ratio of heat added to temperature.

Equilibrant force: force needed to bring an object into transitional equilibrium.

Equilibrium: condition in which net force is equal to zero. Condition in which net
torque on object is zero.

Equivalent resistance: single resistance that could replace several resistors.

Evaporation: change from liquid to vapor state.

Excited state: energy level of atom higher than ground state.

External forces: forces exerted from outside a system.

Extrinsic semiconductor: semiconductor in which conduction is primarily the result

of added impurities.

Face of a Polyhedron: One of the flat surfaces making up a polyhedron.

Note: The faces of a polyhedron are all polygons.

Factor of an Integer: Any integer which divides evenly into a given integer. For
example, 8 is a factor of 24.

Factor of a Polynomial/ Factorization of a Polynomial: A factor of polynomial P(x) is

any polynomial which divides evenly into P(x). For example, x + 2 is a factor of the
polynomial x2 4.

The factorization of a polynomial is its representation as a product its factors. For

example, the factorization of x2 4 is (x 2)(x + 2).

Factor Theorem: The theorem that establishes the connection between the zeros
and factors of a polynomial

Factor Tree: A structure used to find the prime factorization of a positive integer.
Factorial: The product of a given integer and all smaller positive integers. The
factorial of n is written n! and is read aloud "n factorial".

Falling Bodies: A formula used to model the vertical motion of an object that is
dropped, thrown straight up, or thrown straight down.

Fibonacci sequence: The sequence of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, . . . for

which the next term is found by adding the previous two terms. This sequence is
encountered in many settings, from population models to botany.

Finite: Describes a set which does not have an infinite number of elements. That is,
a set which can have its elements counted using natural numbers.

Formally, a set is finite if its cardinality is a natural number.

Foci of a Hyperbola: Two fixed points located inside each curve of a hyperbola that
are used in the curve's formal definition. A hyperbola is defined as follows: For two
given points, the foci, a hyperbola is the locus of points such that the difference
between the distance to each focus is constant.

Focus (conic section): A special point used to construct and define a conic section. A
parabola has one focus. An ellipse has two, and so does a hyperbola. A circle can be
thought of as having one focus at its center.

Focus of a Parabola: The focus of a parabola is a fixed point on the interior of a

parabola used in the formal definition of the curve.

FOIL Method: A technique for distributing two binomials. The letters FOIL stand for
First, Outer, Inner, Last. First means multiply the terms which occur first in each
binomial. Then Outer means multiply the outermost terms in the product. Inner
means multiply the innermost two terms. Last means multiply the terms which
occur last in each binomial. Then simplify the products and combine any like terms
which may occur.

Formula: An expression used to calculate a desired result, such as a formula to find

volume or a formula to count combinations. Formulas can also be equations
involving numbers and/or variables, such as Euler's formula.

Fractal: A figure that is self-similar. That is, no matter how far you zoom in on the
figure, the portion you look at is similar to the original figure. The Koch edge, below,
is a fractal.

Fraction: A ratio of numbers or variables. Fractions may not have denominator 0.

Fraction Rules: Algebra rules for combining fractions. These rules apply for both
proper fractions and improper fractions. They apply for all rational expressions as
well.

Fractional Equation: An equation which has a rational expression on one or both

sides of the equal sign. Sometimes rational equations have extraneous solution.
Fractional Exponents: The use of rational numbers as exponents. A rational
exponent represents both an integer exponent and an nth root. The root is found in
the denominator (like a tree, the root is at the bottom), and the integer exponent is
found in the numerator.

First Derivative: Same as the derivative. We say first derivative instead of just
derivative whenever there may be confusion between the first derivative and the
second derivative (or the nth derivative).

First Derivative Test: A method for determining whether an inflection point is a

minimum, maximum, or neither.

First Order Differential Equation: An ordinary differential equation of order 1. That is,
a differential equation in which the highest derivative is a first derivative. For
example, y' + xy = 1 is a first order differential equation.

First Quartile: For a set of data, a number for which 25% of the data is less than that
number. The first quartile is the same as the median of the data which are less than
the overall median. Same as the 25th percentile.

Five Number Summary: For a set of data, the minimum, first quartile, median, third
quartile, and maximum.

Note: A boxplot is a visual display of the five-number summary.

Fixed

Constant: Not changing or moving.

Flip: A transformation in which a geometric figure is reflected across a line, creating

a mirror image. That line is called the axis of reflection.

Floor Function: A step function of x which is the greatest integer less than or equal
to x. The floor function is written a number of different ways: with special brackets
or , or by using either boldface brackets [x] or plain brackets [x].

Factor-label method: dimensional analysis.

Farad: unit of capacitance. One coulomb per volt.

Ferromagnetic materials: materials in which large internal magnetic fields are

generated by cooperative action of electrons.

First harmonic: in music, the fundamental frequency.

First law of thermodynamics: change in internal or thermal energy is equal to heat

added and work done on system. Same as law of conservation of energy.

Fluid: material that flows, i.e. liquids, gases, and plasmas.

Focal length: distance from the focal point to the center of a lens or vertex of a
mirror.

Focal point: location at which rays parallel to the optical axis of an ideal mirror or
lens converge to a point.

Forbidden gap: energy values that electrons in a semiconductor or insulator may

not have.

Force: agent that results in accelerating or deforming an object.

Frame of reference: coordinate system used to define motion.

Fraunhofer lines: absorption lines in the suns spectrum due to gases in the solar
atmosphere.

Frequency: number of occurrences per unit time.

Friction: force opposing relative motion of two objects are in contact.

Fundamental particles: those particles( i.e. quarks and leptons) of which all
materials are composed.

Fundamental tone: lowest frequency sound produced by a musical instrument.

Fundamental units: set of units on which a measurement system is based( i.e.

meter, second, kilogram, ampere, candela).

Fuse: metal safety device in an electric circuit that melts to stop current flow when
current is too large.

Fusion: combination of two nuclei into one with release of energy.

Gauss-Jordan Elimination: A method of solving a linear system of equations. This is

done by transforming the system's augmented matrix into reduced row-echelon
form by means of row operations.

Gaussian Elimination: A method of solving a linear system of equations. This is done

by transforming the system's augmented matrix into row-echelon form by means of
row operations. Then the system is solved by back-substitution.

Gaussian Integer: A complex number of the form a + bi for which both a and b are
integers. For example, 2 + 3i, 8 7i, 5, and 12i are all Gaussian integers.

Greatest Common Factor: The largest integer that divides evenly into each of a
given set of numbers. Often abbreviated GCF or gcf. For example, 6 is the gcf of 30
and 18. Sometimes GCF is written using parentheses: (30, 18) = 6.
General Form for the Equation of a Line: Ax + By = C, where A > 0 and, if possible,
A, B, and C are relatively prime integers. The standard form is used in some algebra
classes for practice in manipulating equations. Otherwise it is used far less often
than other forms for the equation of a line.

Geometric Figure: Any point, line, segment, ray, angle, polygon, curve, region,
plane, surface, solid, etc. Formally, a geometric figure is any set of points on a plane
or in space.

Geometric Mean: A kind of average. To find the geometric mean of a set of n

numbers, multiply the numbers and then take the nth root of the product.

Geometric Sequence/ Geometric Progression: A sequence such as 2, 6, 18, 54, 162

or which has a constant ratio between terms. The first term is a1, the common ratio
is r, and the

Geometric Series: A series such as 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + 162 or which has a constant

ratio between terms. The first term is a1, the common ratio is r, and the number of
terms is n.

Geometric Solid: The collective term for all bounded three-dimensional geometric
figures. This includes polyhedra, pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres,
ellipsoids, etc.

Geometry: The study of geometric figures in two dimensions (plane geometry) and
three dimensions (solid geometry). It includes the study of points, lines, triangles,
quadrilaterals, other polygons, circles, spheres, prisms, pyramids, cones, cylinders,
and polyhedra. Geometry typically includes the study of axioms, theorems, and two-
column proofs.

Greatest Lower Bound of a Set: GLB. The greatest of all lower bounds of a set of
numbers. For example, the greatest lower bound of (5, 7) is 5. The greatest lower
bound of the interval [5, 7] is also 5.

Glide: A transformation in which a graph or geometric figure is picked up and moved

to another location without any change in size or orientation.

Glide Reflection: The transformation that is a combination of a reflection and a

translation.

Global Maximum, Global Max: The highest point over the entire domain of a function
or relation.

Global Minimum, Global Min: The lowest point over the entire domain of a function
or relation.

Golden Ratio: The number, or about 1.61803. The Golden Mean arises in many
settings, particularly in connection with the Fibonacci sequence.

Note: The reciprocal of the Golden Mean is about 0.61803, so the Golden Mean
equals its reciprocal plus one. It is also a root of x2 x 1 = 0.
Golden Rectangle: A rectangle which has its ratio of length to width equal to the
Golden Mean. This is supposedly the rectangle which is most pleasing to the eye.

Golden Spiral: A spiral that can be drawn in a golden rectangle as shown below. The
figure forming the structure for the spiral is made up entirely of squares and golden
rectangles.

Googol: The number 10100. This number can be written as a 1 followed by 100
zeros.

Googolplex: The number 10googol, or 1 followed by a googol number of zeros. This

is reputed to be the largest number with a name.

Graph of an Equation or Inequality: if there is only one variable, the graph is on a

number line. If there are two variables, the graph is on the coordinate plane. If there
are three variables, the graph is in three-dimensional coordinates. In general, for n
variables, the graph is in n dimensions.

Graphic Methods: The use of graphs and/or pictures as the main technique for
solving a math problem. When a problem is solved graphically, it is common to use
a graphing calculator.

Gravity: The force which pulls masses towards each other. In high school math, we
see this most often as the force which pulls objects downwards.

Note: The force of gravity between two objects is jointly proportional to the mass of
each object and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their
centers of mass.

Great Circle: A circle on the surface of the sphere that shares its center with the
center of the sphere. An arc of such a circle is often called a great circle, even
though it is not a full circle.

Greatest Integer Function: A step function of x which is the greatest integer less
than or equal to x. The floor function is written a number of different ways: with
special brackets or , or by using either boldface brackets [x] or plain brackets [x].

Greatest Lower Bound of a Set: The greatest of all lower bounds of a set of numbers.
For example, the greatest lower bound of (5, 7) is 5. The greatest lower bound of
the interval [5, 7] is also 5.

Galvanometer: device used to measure very small currents.

Gamma decay: process by which a nucleus emits a gamma ray.

Gamma particle: high energy photon emitted by a radioactive nucleus.

Gas: state of matter that expands to fill container.

Geiger-Mueller tube: device used to detect radiation using its ability to ionize
matter.
General theory of relativity: explanation of gravity and accelerated motion invented
by Einstein.

Gluon: carrier of strong nuclear force.

Grand unified theories: theories being developed that unify the stronger and
electroweak forces into one force.

Gravitational field: distortion of space due to the presence of mass.

Gravitational force: attraction between two objects due to their mass.

Gravitational mass: ratio of gravitational force to objects acceleration.

Gravitational potential energy: change of energy of object when moved in a

gravitational field.

Graviton: particle that carries the gravitational force. Not yet observed.

Ground state: lowest energy level of an electron in an atom.

Grounding: process of connecting a charged object to Earth to remove objects

unbalanced charge.

Half Number Identities: Trig identities that show how to find the sine, cosine, or
tangent of half a given angle.

Half-Open Interval: An interval that contains one endpoint but not the other.

Half-Life: For a substance decaying exponentially, the amount of time it takes for
the amount of the substance to diminish by half.

Half Number Identities: Trig identities that show how to find the sine, cosine, or
tangent of half a given angle.

Half-Open Interval: An interval that contains one endpoint but not the other.

Harmonic Mean: A kind of average. To find the harmonic mean of a set of n

numbers, add the reciprocals of the numbers in the set, divide the sum by n, then
take the reciprocal of the result.

Helix: A curve shaped like a spring. A helix can be made by coiling a wire around the
outside of a right circular cylinder.

Heptagon: A polygon with seven sides. Some authors also use the name septagon
instead of heptagon.
Heron's Formula: A formula for the area of a triangle used when the lengths of all
three sides are known.

Hexagon: A polygon with six sides.

Hexahedron: Any polyhedron with six faces, all of which are quadrilaterals.

Note: A regular hexahedron is a cube.

Higher Derivative: Any derivative beyond the first derivative. That is, the second,
third, fourth, fifth etc. derivatives.

HL Congruence: Hypotenuse-leg congruence. When two right triangles have

corresponding sides that are congruent as shown below, the triangles are
congruent.

HL Similarity: Hypotenuse-leg similarity. When two right triangles have

corresponding sides with identical ratios as shown below, the triangles are similar.

Hole: A hole in a graph. That is, a discontinuity that can be "repaired" by filling in a
single point. In other words, a removable discontinuity is a point at which a graph is
not connected but can be made connected by filling in a single point.

Homogeneous System of Equations: A system, usually a linear system, in which

every constant term is zero.

Horizontal: Perfectly flat and level. For example, the horizon is horizontal. So is the
floor.

Horizontal Compression: A shrink in which a plane figure is distorted horizontally.

Horizontal Dilation: A stretch in which a plane figure is distorted horizontally.

Hyperbola: A conic section that can be thought of as an inside-out ellipse.

Horizontal Line Test: A test use to determine if a function is one-to-one. If a

horizontal line intersects a function's graph more than once, then the function is not
one-to-one.

Horizontal Reflection: A reflection in which a plane figure flips over horizontally.

Note: A horizontal reflection has a vertical axis of reflection.

Horizontal Translation: A shift in which a plane figure moves horizontally.

Hyperbola: A conic section that can be thought of as an inside-out ellipse.

Hyperbolic Geometry: A non-Euclidean geometry with the following property: Given

a line m and a point P not on m, there are infinitely many lines passing through P
which are parallel to m. Hyperbolic geometry may be thought of as plane geometry
on a surface shaped like the bell of a trumpet.
Hyperbolic Trigonometry: A variation of trigonometry. Hyperbolic trig functions are
defined using ex and ex. The six hyperbolic trig functions relate to each other in
ways that are similar to conventional trig functions. Hyperbolic trig plays an
important role when trig functions have imaginary or complex arguments.

Hyperbolic Trigonometry: A variation of trigonometry. Hyperbolic trig functions are

defined using ex and ex. The six hyperbolic trig functions relate to each other in
ways that are similar to conventional trig functions. Hyperbolic trig plays an
important role when trig functions have imaginary or complex arguments.

Hypotenuse: The side of a right triangle opposite the right angle.

Note: The hypotenuse is the longest side of a right triangle.

Hypothesis: The part of a conditional after If and before then. In the conditional "If a
line is horizontal, then the line has slope 0" the hypothesis is "a line is horizontal".

Half-life: length of time for half of a sample of radioactive material to decay.

Harmonics: frequencies produced by musical instrument that are multiples of

fundamental tone.

Heat: quantity of energy transferred from one object to another because of a

difference in
temperature.

Heat engine: device that converts thermal energy to mechanical energy.

Heat of fusion: quantity of energy needed to change a unit mass of a substance

from solid to liquid state at the melting point.

Heat of vaporization: quantity of energy needed to change a unit mass of a

substance from liquid to gaseous state at the boiling point.

Heavy water: deuterium oxide used mainly in CANDU nuclear reactors.

Heisenberg uncertainty principle: the more accurately one determines the position
of a particle, the less accurately the momentum can be known, and vice versa.

Hertz: unit of frequency equal to one event or cycle per second.

Hole: absence of an electron in a semiconductor.

Hookes law: deformation of an object is proportional to force causing it.

Huygens wavelets: model of spreading of waves in which each point on wavefront

is source of circular
or spherical waves.
Hydraulic system: machines using fluids to transmit energy.

Hyperbola: mathematical curve that describes an inverse relationship between two

variables.

Hypotenuse: side opposite the right angle in a triangle.

Icosahedron: A polyhedron with 20 faces. A regular icosahedron has faces that are
all equilateral triangles.

Identity (Equation or Inequality): An equation which is true regardless of what

values are substituted for any variables (if there are any variables at all).

Identity Function: The function f(x) = x. More generally, an identity function is one
which does not change the domain values at all.

Identity Matrix: A square matrix which has a 1 for each element on the main
diagonal and 0 for all other elements.

Identity of an Operation: The quantity which, when combined with another quantity
using an operation, leaves the quantity unchanged.

If and only if/ Biconditional: A way of writing two conditionals at once: both a
conditional and its converse.

Image of a Transformation: The result of a transformation. In the example below, the

transformation is a rotation and a dilation.

Imaginary Numbers: Complex numbers with no real part, such as 5i.

Imaginary Part: The coefficient of i in a complex number. For a complex number a +

bi, the imaginary part is b.

Implicit Differentiation: A method for finding the derivative of an implicitly defined

function or relation.

Implicit Function or Relation: A function or relation in which the dependent variable

is not isolated on one side of the equation. For example, the equation x2 + xy y2
= 1 represents an implicit relation.

Impossible Event: An event which has zero probability of occurring.

Improper Fraction: A fraction which has a larger numerator than denominator. For
example, is an improper fraction.

Improper Integral: A definite integral for which the integrand has a discontinuity
between the bounds of integration, or which has and/or as a bound. Improper
integrals are evaluated using limits as shown below. If the limit exists and is finite,
we say the integral converges. If the limit does not exist or is infinite, we say the
integral diverges.

Improper Rational Expression: A rational expression in which the degree of the

numerator polynomial is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator
polynomial.

Incenter: The center a polygons inscribed circle. The incenter is located at the point
of intersection of the polygon's angle bisectors.

Inscribed Circle/ Incircle: The largest possible circle that can be drawn interior to a
plane figure. For a polygon, a circle is not actually inscribed unless each side of the
polygon is tangent to the circle.

Inclusive: Including the endpoints of an interval. For example, "the interval from 1 to
2, inclusive" means the closed interval written [1, 2].

Inclusive or: A disjunction for which either or both statements may be true.

Inconsistent System of Equations: A system of equations which has no solutions.

Increasing Function: A function with a graph that goes up as it is followed from left
to right. For example, any line with a positive slope is increasing.

Indefinite Integral: The family of functions that have a given function as a common
derivative. The indefinite integral of f(x) is written f(x) dx.

Independent Events: Events for which the probability of any one event occurring is
unaffected by the occurrence or non-occurrence of any of the other events.
Formally, A and B are independent if and only if P(A|B) = P(A).

Independent Variable: A variable in an equation that may have its value freely
chosen without considering values of any other variable. For equations such as y =
3x 2, the independent variable is x. The variable y is not independent since it
depends on the number chosen for x.

Indeterminate Expression: An undefined expression which can have a value if

arrived at as a limit.

Indirect Proof: Proving a conjecture by assuming that the conjecture is false. If this
assumption leads to a contradiction, the original conjecture must have been true.
This technique employs the logical method known as modus tolens.

Induction: A method for proving a proposition that is valid for infinitely many
different values of a variable. For example, it can be used to prove the formula 1 +
2+3+4+...+n=.

Inequality

Definition 1: Any of the symbols <, >, , or .

Definition 2: A mathematical sentence built from expressions using one or more of
the symbols <, >, , or .

Infinite: Describes a set which is not finite. Formally, a set is infinite if it can be
placed in one-to-one correspondence with a proper subset of itself.

Infinite Geometric Series: An infinite series that is geometric. An infinite geometric

series converges if its common ratio r satisfies 1 < r < 1. Otherwise it diverges.

Infinite Limit: A limit that has an infinite result (either or ), or a limit taken as
the variable approaches (infinity) or (minus infinity). The limit can be one-
sided.

Infinite Series: A series that has no last term, such as . The sum of an infinite series
is defined as the limit of the sequence of partial sums.

Infinitesimal: A hypothetical number that is larger than zero but smaller than any
positive real number. Although the existence of such numbers makes no sense in
the real number system, many worthwhile results can be obtained by overlooking
this obstacle.

Infinity: A "number" which indicates a quantity, size, or magnitude that is larger

than any real number. The number infinity is written as a sideways eight: .
Negative infinity is written .

Inflection Point: A point at which a curve changes from concave up to concave

down, or vice-versa.

Initial Side of an Angle: The ray where measurement of an angle starts.

Initial Value Problem: IVP. A differential equation or partial differential equation

accompanied by conditions for the value of the function and possibly its derivatives
at one particular point in the domain.

Inner Product/ Scalar Product: The general name for a vector product resulting in a
scalar. The dot product is a simple example.

Inradius: The radius of a plane figure's inscribed circle. For a regular polygon, this is
the same as the apothem.

Inscribed Angle in a Circle: An angle in a circle with vertex on the circle itself.

Inscribed Circle/ Incircle: The largest possible circle that can be drawn interior to a
plane figure. For a polygon, a circle is not actually inscribed unless each side of the
polygon is tangent to the circle.

Instantaneous Acceleration: The rate at which an object's instantaneous velocity is

changing at a particular moment. This is found by taking the derivative of the
velocity function.
Instantaneous Rate of Change: The rate of change at a particular moment. Same as
the value of the derivative at a particular point.

For a function, the instantaneous rate of change at a point is the same as the slope
of the tangent line. That is, it's the slope of a curve.

Instantaneous Velocity: The rate at which an object is moving at a particular

moment. Same as the derivative of the function describing the position of the object
at a particular time.

Integers: All positive and negative whole numbers (including zero). That is, the set
{... , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}. Integers are indicated by either or J.

Integrable Function: A function for which the definite integral exists. Piecewise
continuous functions are integrable, and so are many functions that are not
piecewise continuous.

Integral: As a noun, it means the integral of a function.

Integration Methods: The basic methods are listed below. Other more advanced
and/or specialized methods exist as well.

Integral of a Function: The result of either a definite integral or an indefinite integral.

Integral of a Power Series: The indefinite integral of a function defined by a power

series can be found by integrating the series term-by-term.

Integral Test: A convergence test used for positive series which with decreasing
terms.

Integral Test Remainder: For a series that converges by the integral test, this is a
quantity that measures how accurately the nth partial sum estimates the overall
sum.

Integrand: The function being integrated in either a definite or indefinite integral.

Integration: The process of finding an integral, either a definite integral or an

indefinite integral.

Integration by Parts: A formula used to integrate the product of two functions.

Integration by Substitution: An integration method that essentially involves using

the chain rule in reverse.

Integration Methods: The basic methods are listed below. Other more advanced
and/or specialized methods exist as well.

Interest: The process by which an amount of money increases over time. With
interest, a fixed percentage of the money is added at regular time intervals.

Interior: The points enclosed by a geometric figure.

Interior Angle: An angle on the interior of a plane figure.

Intermediate Value Theorem: IVT. A theorem verifying that the graph of a

continuous function is connected.

Interquartile Range: IQR. The difference between the first quartile and third quartile
of a set of data. This is one way to describe the spread of a set of data.

Intersection of Sets: The elements two or more sets have in common. Intersection is
indicated by the (cap) symbol.

Interval: The set of all real numbers between two given numbers. The two numbers
on the ends are the endpoints. The endpoints might or might not be included in the
interval depending whether the interval is open, closed, or half-open (same as half-
closed).

Interval Notation: A notation for representing an interval as a pair of numbers. The

numbers are the endpoints of the interval. Parentheses and/or brackets are used to
show whether the endpoints are excluded or included.

Interval of Convergence: For a power series in one variable, the set of values of the
variable for which the series converges. The interval of convergence may be as
small as a single point or as large as the set of all real numbers.

Invariant: A word describing of a property which can not be changed by a given

transformation.

Inverse of an Operation: The quantity which cancels out the a given quantity. There
are different kinds of inverses for different operations.

Inverse Function: The function obtained by switching the x- and y-variables in a

function. The inverse of function f is written f -1.

Inverse of a Conditional: Negating both the hypothesis and conclusion of a

conditional statement. For example, the inverse of "If it is raining then the grass is
wet" is "If it is not raining then the grass is not wet".

Inverse of a Matrix: For a square matrix A, the inverse is written A-1. When A is
multiplied by A-1 the result is the identity matrix I. Non-square matrices do not have
inverses.

Inversely Proportional: A relationship between two variables in which the product is

a constant. When one variable increases the other decreases in proportion so that
the product is unchanged.

Inverse Trig: The study of the inverses of the six trig functions.

Inverse Trig Functions: The six functions sin-1, cos-1, tan-1, csc-1, sec-1, and cot-1.
These are also written arcsin, arccos, arctan, arccsc, arcsec, and arccot.
Invertible Matrix: A square matrix which has an inverse. A matrix is nonsingular if
and only if its determinant does not equal zero.

Irrational Numbers: Real numbers that are not rational. Irrational numbers include
numbers such as , , , , e, etc.

Isometry: A transformation that is invariant with respect to distance. That is, the
distance between any two points in the pre-image must be the same as the
distance between the images of the two points.

Isosceles Trapezoid: A trapezoid with base angles that are the same. Consequently,
the legs will be congruent to each other as well.

Isosceles Triangle: A triangle with two sides that are the same length. Formally, an
isosceles triangle is a triangle with at least two congruent sides.

Iterative Process: An algorithm which involves repeated use of the same formula or
steps. Typically, the process begins with a starting value which is plugged into the
formula. The result is then taken as the new starting point which is then plugged
into the formula again. The process continues to repeat.

Ideal mechanical advantage: in simple machine, the ratio of effort distance to

resistance distance.

Illuminance: rate at which electromagnetic wave energy falls on a surface.

Illuminated object: object on which light falls.

Image: reproduction of object formed with lenses or mirrors.

Impulse: product of force and time interval over which it acts.

Impulse-momentum theorem: impulse given to an object is equal to its change in

momentum.

Incandescent body: object that emits light because of its high temperature.

Incident wave: wave that strikes a boundary where it is either reflected or

refracted.

Incoherent light: light consisting of waves that are not in step.

Independent variable: variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment.

Index of refraction: ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to its speed in a material.

Inelastic collision: collision in which some of the kinetic energy is changed into
another form.

Inertia: tendency of object not to change its motion.

Inertial mass: ratio of net force exerted on object to its acceleration.

Initial velocity: velocity of object at time t=0.

Instantaneous acceleration: acceleration at a specific time; slope of tangent to

velocity- time graph.

Instantaneous position: position of an object at specific time.

Instantaneous velocity: slope of the tangent to position- time graph.

Insulator: material through which the flow of electrical charge carriers or heat is
greatly reduced.
Interference fringes: pattern of dark and light bands from interference of light
waves.

Interference of waves: displacements of two or more waves, producing either large

or smaller waves.

Internal forces: forces between objects within a system.

Intrinsic semiconductor: semiconductor in which conduction is by charges due to

host material, not impurities.

Inverse relationship: mathematical relationship between two variables, x and y,

summarized by the equation xy=k, where k is a constant.

Ionizing radiation: particles or waves that can remove electrons from atoms,
molecules, or atoms in a
solid.

Isolated system: a collection of objects not acted upon by external forces into which
energy neither
enters nor leaves.

Isotope: atomic nuclei having same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.