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3/4/2017 BALUCHISTANi.Geography,HistoryEthnographyEncyclopaediaIranica

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BALUCHISTANi.Geography,Historyand
Ethnography

BALUCHISTAN

i.Geography,History,andEthnography

Thisarticleisdividedintothefollowingsections:1.introductoryreviewofproblemsinthehistoryand
ethnographyoftheBaluch,i.e.,thepresentdayinhabitantsofBaluchistan2.geography3.theoriginsofthe
Bal,i.e.,thepeoplewhobroughtthenameintothearea4.theearlyhistoryoftheareabetweenIranandIndia
(Baluchistan)5.theeastwardmigrationsoftheBal6.theestablishmentofthekhanateinKalat7.the
autonomouskhanate,166618398.theperiodofBritishdominance,183919479.theBaluchinPakistan,Iran,
andAfghanistansince194710.thediaspora11.ethnography.[Note:placenamesinPakistanhavenotbeen
transliterated.]

1.Introduction.

ThetotalnumberofBaluchinBaluchistan(inAfghanistan,Iran,andPakistan),theArabstatesofthePersian
Gulf,andelsewhereinAsiaandAfricaisvariouslyestimatedatbetweenthreeandfivemillion.Theirhistoryup
tothetimewhentheyweredrawnintoWesterncolonialhistoryinthe19thcenturyispoorlyknown.Acopious
literaturehasbeenproducedonthemsincethen,especiallyinEnglish,butalsoinPersianandseveralother
Europeanandregionallanguages.Butsofartherehasbeennoattempttosynthesizeandinterpretallthe
availablematerial(FIGURE16,FIGURE17).

BaluchistanisgenerallyunderstoodbytheBaluchandtheirneighborstocompriseanareaofoverhalfamillion
squarekilometersinthesoutheasternpartoftheIranianplateau,southofthecentraldesertsandtheHelmand
river,andinthearidcoastallowlandsbetweentheIranianplateauandtheGulfofOman.Itsboundariesare
vagueandnotconsistentwithmodernprovincialboundaries.Itappearstohavebeendividedthroughouthistory
betweenIranian(highland)andIndian(lowland)spheresofinfluence,andsince1870ithasbeenformally
dividedamongAfghanistan,Iran,andIndia(laterPakistan).ItisunclearwhenthenameBaluchistancameinto
generaluse.Itmaydateonlyfromthe12th/18thcenturywhenNarKhanIofKalatduringhislongreigninthe
secondhalfofthe12th/18thcenturybecamethefirstindigenousrulertoestablishautonomouscontrolovera
largepartofthearea.

TheoriginsoftheBalandoftheirnamearesimilarlyunclear.Theyappeartohavelivedinthenorthwestern
partofthearea(southeastofKermn)atthetimeoftheArabconquest.Buttheiractivitiesmayevenatthattime
haveextendedaconsiderabledistancetotheeast.Theyappeartohavemigratedfarthereast,andbeyond
Makrn,beginningaroundthetimeofthearrivaloftheSaljuqsinKermninthe5th/11thcentury,and
continuingintermittentlyforthenextfivecenturies,uptothespreadofSafavidpowerinthe10th/16thcentury,
withmajormovementsprobablyinthe6th/12thand9th/15thcenturies.

HowandwhentheBalarrivedintheregionofKermnisunknown.Theirclaim(intheirepicpoetrysee
baluchistaniii)tobeArabswhomigratedfromAleppoafterfightingatKarbalcannotbetakenatfacevalue.
ThevariousinconclusivetheoriesconcerningtheiroriginsarereviewedbyDames(1904,pp.716).

ThescantyevidenceforthembetweentheArabconquestandthearrivaloftheSaljuqsisalsodifficultto
evaluate,partlybecauseoftheauthorscharacteristicurbanprejudiceagainstnomadictribes.Butitsuggeststhat
theynumberedinthetensofthousandsatmostthattheywerepastoralists,herdingsheepandgoatsandthat,

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likeotherMiddleEasternpastoralists,theywerehighlymobile,ifnotentirelynomadic,livingintribal
communities(inthesensethattheyconstruedtheirsocialrelationsaccordingtogenealogicalpatrilineal
criteria)andthattheywerepoorlyintegratedintothesettledpolity,whichtheycontinuallyharassed.

Intermsofgeneralculturalvaluesandworldview,theBaluchinrecenttimesresembleneighboringMuslim
tribalpopulationsinboththehistoricalandtheethnographicrecords.WhathasemergedasdistinctivelyBaluch,
besidethelanguage,Baluchi,isthestructureoftheirsocialandpoliticalrelations.Butthisstructureismore
likelytobeaproductoftheirrecentpluralistexperienceinBaluchistanthanaheritageoftheirearlierhistory.(It
hasnotyetbeenchangedsignificantlybytheirincorporationintomodernstatestructures.)Baluchidentityin
BaluchistanhasbeencloselytiedtotheuseoftheBaluchilanguageinintertribalrelations.ModernBaluchihas
aclearpedigree,withanumberofgrammaticalfeaturesandvocabularyoftheNorthwestIraniantype(see
baluchistaniii).ButBaluchethnicitytodaycannotbesoclearlydefined.Ontheonehand,manycommunities
generallyrecognizedasBaluchbythemselvesandbyothersareofalienoriginandhavebeenassimilatedover
thelastfourcenturies.Ontheotherhand,thereisnoevidencethatalltheconsiderablenumberofscattered
communitiesknownasBaluchinotherpartsofIran,Afghanistan,andSovietTurkmenistan(mostofwhichare
notpresentlyBaluchispeaking)areinfacthistoricallyrelated,or,iftheyarerelated,thattheyseparatedfrom
eachotherinBaluchistan.

WithinBaluchistanthepopulationisnotethnicallyhomogeneous.Somecommunitiesareidentified(by
themselvesandothers)asBal(see10below),withtheimplicationthattheyaredescendedfromthosewho
enteredtheareaasBalwhileothers,thoughconsideredmembersofBaluchsocietynowandidentifyingas
Baluchinrelationtotheoutsideworld,areknownwithinBaluchsocietybyothertribal(e.g.,Nowrvn,
Gk,Brakzay)andsubethnic(e.g.,Brahui,Dehwr,olm,Jagl,Md)designations,withtheimplication
thattheyhaveadoptedBaluchidentityrelativelyrecentlybutnotthattheyareforthatreasoninanyway
outsiders.SomeoftheseBaluchpredatethearrivaloftheBal.Others(e.g.,theBrakzay,q.v.,whoareof
recentAfghanorigin)postdatethem.Therearealsoremnantsofwhatwere(underautonomousBaluchrule,as
wellasundertheBritish,16661947)largernonMuslimcommunities,mostlyHindu,Sikh,Ismaili,orBahai
traders,whoarenotconsideredBaluch.TheBaluchilanguagewasthelanguageofinterethnicaswellas
intertribalrelations.AlthoughparticipationinBaluchiintercoursegenerallyseemstohaveledtoassimilation,
beingMuslimappearstohavebeenanecessaryprecondition.However,theBaluchintheMakrnwhobecame
ekr(Zikri)inthe10/16thcenturydidnotforthatreasonceasetobeBaluch.TheBaluchgenerallyclaimthat
allBaluchareHanafiteMuslims,although,apartfromtheekrs(whoareknownbutrarelydiscussed),there
aresomesmallShiitecommunitiesonthenorthwesternfringesofIranianBaluchistan,afactwhichisunknown
farthereast.

ThevastterritoryofgreaterBaluchistanhasbeendividedhistoricallyintoanumberofareas,amongwhich
Makrn(inthesouth),Saradd(inthenorthwest),andtheareaknownearlierasTrnthatincludesthemodern
townsofKalatandKhuzdar(Qodr/Qozdrintheeast),havebeenthemostsignificant.StrongerIranianand
Indianpoliticalcenterstothewest,north,andeast(particularly,Kermn,Sstn,Qandahr,Delhi,Karachi),and
eventhesultanofOmantothesouth,haveintermittentlyclaimedsuzeraintyoverpartsoftheseareas,and
consideredthemastheirlegitimatehinterland.TheideaofoneBaluchcommunityinapoliticallyunified
BaluchistanmayhaveoriginatedinNarKhanssuccessesinthe12th/18thcentury.Hissuccessorswereunable
tomaintaincontrolofthepartoftheareaheclaimedtoruleaskhan,letalonecontinuetopursuewhatappearto
havebeenhisambitionstoincorporatealltheBaluchintoonenation.Butthepolicyofindirectrulepursuedby
theBritish,whobegantoencroachintheareaduringthefollowinggeneration,andmaintainedthekhan
irrespectiveofinternalprocessesthatwouldeitherhavedestroyedortransformedthekhanate,keptalivethe
ideaofaunifiedBaluchistanagainstconsiderableoddsatleastuptothebordersthattheBritishnegotiated
withtheQajargovernmentinIran,andtheAfghangovernmentinKabulinthesecondhalfofthe13th/19th
century.By1947,theideaofBaluchistanwastoofirmlyestablishedtobesupersededortranscendedbythenew
conceptofPakistan.ThepoliticalactivitiesoftheBaluchinPakistan(whoconstituteprobablytwothirdsofthe
totalBaluchpopulation)reinforceandconfirmBaluchidentityinIran,Afghanistan,andelsewhere.

TheBalappeartohavebecomeculturallydominantintheareainthelatemedievalperiod,alongwiththe
spreadofBaluchiasalinguafrancathoughthedetailsandcausesofeachprocessareunclear.Itwasnotuntil

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muchlaterthatthemajorityofthepopulationoftheareacametoidentifythemselvesasBaluch,probablyasa
resultpartlyofthesuccessofNarKhanspolicies,andpartlybecauseofthelaterBritishadministrative
classification.TheassimilationofalmostthewholepopulationtoBaluchidentityandthedominanceofBaluchi
(atleastforpublic,politicalpurposes)isdifficulttoexplain,sincethetribesmenwhoestablishedthekhanateof
Kalat(andthereforealsothepoliticalautonomyandidentityofthearea)inthemid11th/17thcenturyspokenot
Baluchi,butBrahui,andconductedtheiradministrationinPersianbymeansofabureaucracyrecruitedamong
theDehwr,whowereTajikpeasants.ImmigrantBaluchispeakers(Bal)wereprobablynotnumerically
dominantexceptinnonagriculturalpartsofthearea.

Baluchistanremainsapalimpsestofculturalandlinguisticdiscontinuities.Althoughtheexistingliteratureis
muchgreaterthanforothercomparabletribalareasoftheIranianworld,theunderlyingheterogeneityraisesa
numberofproblemsforanysystematicaccountofBaluchistanandtheBaluch.Theseproblemscannotyetbe
definitivelytreated.Farmorehistoricalandethnographicresearchisneeded.Whatfollowsisonlyapreliminary
synthesis.

2.Geography.

Baluchistanhasreceivedrelativelylittleattentionfromgeographers.Apartfromtheinitialdescriptionsprovided
byscholarslikeVredenbergfortheGazetteers,andbyHarrisonfortheAdmiraltyHandbook(Persia),Snead
workedalongtheMakrncoastin195960,andVitaFinziworkedinwesternMakrninthemid1970sboth
geomorphologistsandScholz,aculturalgeographer,conductedshortstudiesfromQuetta.Thestandardwork
onthegeographyofAfghanistan(Humlum)devotesafewpagestotheBaluchareasinthesouthwestofthe
country.ThefollowingdescriptionisbasedmainlyontheGazetteersandtheauthorsfieldnotes.

ThroughoutmostofBaluchistanthetopographyisextremelybrokenandmountainous,varyinginaltitudefrom
1,5002,000m(thesteppeontheedgeoftheIranianplateau,atthebaseofmountains)toover3,500minthe
northandnortheastandtosealevelonthecoastalplain.InthepartthatisnowsouthwesternAfghanistan,and
hereandthereinthe500kmwidezonebetweentheAfghanborderwithPakistanandthecoast,thelandopens
outintovastexpansesoffeaturelesssemidesertanddesert.Temperaturesarecontinentalinthehighlandswith
bitterlycoldwintersandextremediurnalandseasonalrangesthelowlandsandcoastalareasaresubtropical.
Extremesofsummerheat(withhighhumidityduringthemonsoon)occuratlowaltitudesawayfromthecoast
intheKacchiSibiplainandthelargerMakrnvalleys.Highwindsarealsoregularlyrecorded,relatedtothe
wellknownbdesadobstrzphenomenoninSstn.

Rainfallvariesmainlyaccordingtoaltitude.ThoughrareinsummerontheIranianplateau,itmaycomeatany
season,butmayfailaltogetherforseveralyearsinsuccession,especiallyattheloweraltitudes.Thehighlands
andhighmountainsintheeastandnortheastreceiveupto400mm,evenmoreinplacesontheeastern
escarpment.Mostoftherestseesanaverageof100mmorlessthoughaveragesaremisleadingbecauseof
wideannualfluctuations.Rainfallsmostlyinwinter(assnowathighaltitudes).Themonsoonbringssummer
humidityandoccasionallysignificantraintothecoastandlowlands.Forexample,in1964itrainedheavily
everydayfortwoweeksinAugustoveralargeareaofMakrn(seebelow,onba).Sometimessuchweather
edgesuptheescarpmentsandmarginallyaffectstheIranianplateau.Summerraincanbetorrentialandinthe
mountainsflashfloodsmaycausesensationaldamage.Heavyrainturnsthecoastalplainintoamorassofclayey
mud,impassibleforhuman,animal,ormotorizedtrafficuntilitdriesout,possiblyasmuchasaweek.Inthe
southernmountainssomeriversflowcontinuouslyforstretcheselsewhereoccasionalpoolsoftenlasttillthe
nextflood.IntheNahangandSarbzriverssomeofthedeeperpoolscontaincrocodiles.(Gamegenerallyhas
becomescarceexceptforibexinthehighermountains,andtheubiquitouspartridgeandsmallergamebirds,
suchaschikara,sisi,pigeon,andsomesandgrouseandquail.Wildsheep,deer,blackbear,wildpig,wolf,
jackal,hyena,fox,andporcupinealsooccur.)Hereandtherepoolsprovideatrickleofwatertoirrigatea
nomadsgardenplot.Waterisnowhereabundantor(withfewexceptions)perennial,butinthemountainssoilis
thelimitingfactorforagriculture.Onthecoastalplainontheotherhand,thesoilisoftengoodbutthereisno
waterexceptfromrainorrunoff,andtheportshavenoreliablewatersupply.

ThehistoryofsettlementinBaluchistanisreflectedinitstoponymy.Placenamesfallintothreecategories:
NamesthatareofBaluchiorigin,orhavebeenBaluchized,areusedformostminornaturalfeatures:rivers,
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streams,rocks,mountainsoldsettlementsandmajornaturalfeaturestendtohavepreBaluchnamesandnew
settlements,datingfromthemiddleofthelastcenturyinIran,andthemiddleofthiscenturyinPakistan
generallyhavePersianorUrdunames.UrbansettlementinBaluchistantodayisalltheresultofPersianand
Pakistaniadministrativeand(morerecently)developmentactivity.TheBaluchhaveneverdevelopedanurban
wayoflife,andthoughmanynowliveintowns,thetownsareessentiallynonBaluch(IranianorPakistani)in
character.MostofthemajorBaluchagriculturalsettlements,however,havedevelopedonthesitesofpreBaluch
towns,knownfromthetimeofpremedievalprosperity,thatwasbasedoninvestmentinagriculture,aswellas
trade.Sincethemedievalperiod,bothbeforeandsincetheBaluchbecamedominant,uptothebeginningof
moderndevelopment,agriculturalsettlementhasbeendependentontheprotectionofrulerswholivedinforts.
Afewtradersclusteredaroundtheforts.ButtheculturalcenterofgravityofBaluchlifewasamongthenomads
whocontrolledthevastareasbetweenthesettlements.

WithinthegeographicalandculturaldiversityofBaluchistananumberofdistrictshaveemergedhistorically,
eachwithitsowndistinctivegeographicalfeatures.StartingfromtheIranianplateauinthenorth,thefollowing
arethesignificantnaturalandculturaldivisionsofBaluchistan(themodernadministrativedivisionsarealmost
identical):theSaradd,theMkd(Makl)depression,theMkddrainageareofSarvnPanjgur,the
northeasthighlandsofQuetta,Pishin,Zhob,Loralai,andSibi,theMariBugtihills,theeasternhighlandsof
SarawanJahlawan,theJzMrndepression,Makrn,theKacchiSibilowlands,andthecoastalplain
includingLasBelaandDatr.

SaraddappearstohavecomeintouseinthemedievalperiodforthesouthernborderlandsofSstn.Itisa
highplateau,averaging1,5002,000minaltitudeanddominatedbythetwovolcanomassifs,KheTaftn
(4,042m)andKheBazmn(3,489m).Althoughitisnowthoughtofascoterminouswiththeahrestnof
Zhedn,itshistoricalboundarieswerenotstrictlydefinedandusageofthetermvariedaccordingtofluctuation
intherelativestrengthoflocalrulers:ItwassometimesconsideredtoextendintothenortheasternpartoftheJz
MrndepressionandintotheMkddrainageofSarvn,andwestwardthroughsouthernNmrzand
HelmandprovincesandChagaiandevenintoKharan.Itischaracterizedbycoldwintersandmoderate
summers,withprecipitationconcentratedinthewinters,assnowonthehigherground.Therearelargeareasof
sandoneithersideoftheborderwithAfghanistan.Apartfromthegeneralsteppevegetation,therearerelict
standsofwildalmondandpistachioontheplains,especiallybetween(also,Bal.Vt)andGot
(Gwat),andjuniperinthemountains.Theareaischaracterizedbyisolatedhillsanddepressionsthatfunction
asinternaldrainagebasins.Thelargerdepressions,hmn,aregenerallysalinethesmallerones,navr,insome
casescontainsweetwater.Tracesofoldbands(q.v.)areevidentontheplainsouthwestofTaftnandelsewhere.
Theonlysignificantagriculturalsettlementofanyantiquityis,whichliestothesouthofTaftn.Afewold
villagesnestleatthefootofthemountain,mainlyontheeasternside.ThemostnotableareLdzandSangn.
dependsuponirrigationfromqants,whichthoughprobablyancientwereredevelopedbyentrepreneurs
fromYazdunderReShah.TherearealsoafewqantsacrosstheborderinChagai.

SincethemedievalperiodtheSaraddhasbeendividedamonganumberoftribes.Themostimportantarethe
Esmlzay(renamedahbaunderReShah),MrBalzay,Rg,YrMoammadzay(renamedhnavz
underReShah),Gamdzay,Nr,andGrg.AcrossthemodernbordersinAfghanistanandPakistanthe
majortribesareSanjarn,JamlalDn,Bdn,Moammadasan,andtheBrahuispeakingMengal.Some
tenthousandoutoftheestimatedninetythousandBaluchinAfghanistan,especiallytheNr,Rg,Sanjarn,
andGrgtribes,arecloselyrelatedtothegroupsacrosstheborderinIranandPakistan.MostAfghanBaluch
arepresentlyrefugeesintheneighboringpartofPakistan.

ThehmnoftheMkdriverliesonthesouthwesternsideofalargedepressionofsome15,000squaremiles
that,althoughgeographicallyanextensionoftheSaradd,hasgenerallybeencontrolledseparatelyfromafort
onitsnortheasternside,knownasKharan.IntheBritishperiodKharanwasaseparateprincipalityunderKalat.
EarlierithadbeendependentonQandahr.Itismostlydesertandincludesalargeareaofsanddunesonthe
southernside.ItisboundedonthenorthbytherangeofRaskohwhichdividesitfromChagai,andonthesouth
bytheSiahanrangewhichseparatesitfromPanjgurandMakrn.Thereisalargeareaofthicktamariskforest
downstreamfromtheseatoftheprincipality(KharanKalat)onariverthatwasoncedammedandsupports
annualcultivation.OnthewesternsideoftheMkdhmnthereisalargeareaofratherpoorqualitydate

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palmswhichhavebeenimportantintheecologyofsomeoftheSaraddtribestothewestinIran.Anumberof
massivestonedams,nowknowninthearcheologicalliteratureasgabarbands,appeartohavesupported
terracedfieldsinthehillsborderingthemaindepression(Stein,pp.7,1534,14547Raikes,1965).Thistype
ofengineeringcontinuestobepracticedonasmallscalethroughoutBaluchistan(andinotherpartsof
Afghanistan,Iran,andPakistanseebelowandbyr).Itwasprobablymoreimportantinearlierperiods.

TherulingtribeinKharanaretheNowrvn,whoclaimPersianorigin.OtherimportanttribesaretheRan,
Moammadasan,andtheBrahuispeakingSsolandSamalr.

SouthofKheTaftntheplateaudropsawaytobelow1,000malongthecourseoftheMkdriverandits
tributaries,formingthedistrictsofSarvnandPanjgur,beforeitturnsbacknorthintoKharan.Presentlythe
rivercarrieswateronlyafterrain.Theecologyistransitionalwithelementsfromboththetemperateplateauand
thesubtropicalsouth.Wherethemaintributariesjoin,theriverflowsthroughadeeplyerodedgravelplainand
peneplain,completelybarrenexceptforclumpsofp(Nanorrhopsritchiana)intheoccasionalwadis.Khe
Berg,anarrow2,500mridgewhichruns150kmnorthwesttosoutheast,dividesSarvnfromtheJzMrn
depression.Magas(renamedZbolunderReShah)atover1,200mbelowthesouthernendofKheBerg
growsthebestqualitydatesontheIraniansideoftheborder.Eastofittwolongparallelvalleyscontaintheold
agriculturalsettlementsofPaskh,SrnandSbinthefirst,andGot,astn(themoderntownofSarvn),
andDezak(renamedDvarpanhunderReShah)inthesecond.Otheroldsettlementsliefartherdownstream
andinthemountainsoneitherside:Kallagn,Esfandak,Khak,Nhk,Jlq,Kant,Hd,r,Afn,
rafn.Bampot,whichisoneofthemajorareasofmountainnomadismandpband(bbandseebelow)
farming,liestothesouthoftheMkd.Bothdistrictsdependuponqantsandsettledpopulationshave
probablypredominatedovernomadsthroughoutthehistoricalperiod.Alargeproportionofthecultivatorsof
SarvnandSbSrnareDehwr.OthertribesincludetheBrakzay,mostrecentlythedominantgroup,their
predecessorsinpowertheBozorgzda(ofwhomonebranch,theMrMordzay,heldthefortsinSb,Srn,
Paskh,Kant,Gat,Hakwhileanotherbranch,NematAllh,controlledJlqandDezak),Nowrvn(in
Nhk,Khak,Esfandak),ebzda(whoaresayyeds),Malekzda,Lor,Ntzay,Seph(whoformedthe
militiaoftheBozorgzda),Arbb(whoaresmallholders),BaltribesknownasShbor,karbor,Abdolzay,
rzay,Dorrazay(inBampotandHd),Kord(inMagas)theBalinSalhkohandtheneighboring
mountainsareskn,Pork,SpdaktheahrinrafnareRasandWatkr.

InPanjgur,whichinmanywaysisamirrorimageofSarvnacrosstheborderinPakistan,settlementismore
restricted.TheRanhasacourseofover150milesbutfromNgatthenortheasternendofthevalleydownto
theconfluencewiththeMkdclosetotheIranianborder(althoughtherearelargeareasoffloodfarming)it
supportsirrigation(eitherdirectlyorbyqant)onlyaroundPanjguritself.Remainsofadamdatingfromthe
preBalperiodwerestillvisibleahundredyearsagoataplacecalledBonestnbelowPanjgur.Sarvnhas
beenmostcloselyassociatedwiththeSaraddandBampr.Panjgurhasgenerallybeenmostcloselyassociated
withKechandthereforeconsideredpartofMakrn,buttheinfluenceofMakrnhasalwaysbeendisputedby
Kharan,whichhasmanagedtoremaindominantintheborderareainEsfandakandKhak.

ThedistrictsofZhob,Loralai,Pishin,Quettainthenortheastarebasedonrivervalleysthatdrainoutofthe
mountainsaroundQuetta,whichincludetwopeaksover3,400m.Untiltwohundredyearsagotheyhadbeen
morecloselyrelatedtoQandahrthanKalat,andtheybecamepartofBaluchistanasaresultofthepolitical
relationshipbetweenKalatandQandahr,asituationthatwaslaterreinforcedbyBritishborderinterests.Except
forLoralaithesedistrictswereneversettledbyBalandtheirpopulationremainsmainlyPashtun,
unassimilatedtoBaluchidentity.Althoughtheyenjoyrelativelyhighrainfalltheyremainedmainlypastoral
untiltherecentcommercialdevelopmentoffruitgrowing.Importantareasofforestsurviveinthemountains,
especiallyjuniper(Juniperusexcelsus)between2,0003,000mandwildolive(Oleacuspidata).Major
earthquakeswererecordedin1888,1892,1900,1902(GazetteerV,pp.3031),andagainthe1936.Themajor
PashtuntribesaretheKka,Tarn,Pan,Acakzay.TheBaluchtribesinLoralaiaretheBuzdr,Lgarand
n.InQuettaPishinthereareonlyfewBaluchpastoralists,mostlyRind(GazetteerV,p.77).Thereare
nowmigrantsfrommanyBaluchtribesinthevicinityofQuetta.

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SouthofQuettaatongueofhighlandandmountainextendsalmosttothecoast,dividingthelowerIndusvalley
fromMakrn.ThemainriversaretheHingol,Porali,Baddo,andHab.ThiswasthemedievalTrn,andas
SarawanandJahlawanithasprovidedthecenterstageofBaluchhistory.Sarawanisliterallytheaboveland
andJahlawanisthe(be)lowland(JahlawanbecomesJhalawaninPakistaniUrdunomenclature),buttheterms
derivenotfromthetopographybutfromthetwodivisionsofthelargelyBrahuispeakingconfederationliving
there.KalatistheseatofSarawanandKhuzdarofJahlawan.NalandWadareotherimportanttribalcenters.The
1936earthquakedestroyedtheAmadzayfort(Mr)inKalataswellasthecityofQuetta(Baluch,1975,p.
121).AlthoughthesedistrictshaveslightlyhigherrainfallthanmostofBaluchistansouthandwestofQuetta,
theyweremainlypastoralandnomadicuntiltherecentextensionintothemofthenationalpowergrid,which
encouragedinvestmentinwellsandpumpsandsettledagricultureandledtoneglectofthetraditionalqantand
bandtechnology(seebelow).PastoraltranshumancetothelowlandsofKacchionthewest,whichwasthebasis
ofthepoliticalpreeminenceofthearea,remainsimportant.ThemajortribesaretheRasn,ahvn,
Bangalzay,Lhr,Langaw,Rostamzay,Mengal,Bzenj,Kambarn(Qambarn),Mrwar,Gorgnr,Niat,
Ssol,edrn,Zrakzay,andtheZhr(ofwhichonlythelastisBaluchispeaking).

EastofSarawanandJahlawantheterraindropsalmosttosealevelwithinsome20km.Thisisthepiedmont
plainofKacchi(thenorthernpartofitbelongstothedistrictofSibithatextendsupthevalleysintothehigh
mountainseastofQuetta).Kacchiisabout2,000km2,slopingfromanelevationofabout150matSibiinthe
northto50matJacobabadinthesouth.SincetheintroductionofacanalfromtheIndusinthe1930sthe
southernparthasbecomethemostproductiveagriculturalpartofBaluchistan.Themajorityoftheyearround
populationareJats.CultivationinKacchidependsonharnessingthefloodsthatarriveinJulyandAugustfrom
themonsoononthehillsthereislessthan100mmofrainontheplain.ThemainriversaretheBolanandthe
Nari.SeasonalriverdischargeontotheagriculturallandofSibi,Kacchi,LasBela,Bh,andBamprwas
traditionallymanagedinthesameway(thoughonasmallerscalethan)thedischargeoftheHelmandintothe
deltalandsofSstn.(TheannualrebuildingofthebarragesinSstnisdescribedinTate,1909,pp.224226.)It
wasthemostimportanteventoftheyear,usingallavailablelabor.Cropsincludesorghum,pulses,andsesame.
Thereisanebforeachvillage,appointedbythekhan.TheJatsconstructhugeembankmentsacrossthedry
riverbedstocatchanddivertthetorrentialfloods.Asthefieldsareflooded,theybreakonedamandletthewater
rushdowntothenext.TheNarihasmorethanfifteensuchdams.Mostofthemrequirerepairorreconstruction
duringwinter,forwhichthelaborisprovidedbythenomads.Nomadsalsoprovidethelaborforharvesting.The
traditionalorganizationhasbeenmodifiedrecentlybyadministrativechanges(N.Swidler,p.102).Themajor
tribesaretheRind,Magas,Dumbk,Omrn,Buld,sa,Jt,Kbr,Mugr,Dnr,lgr,Mar,and
Bg.

SouthofLoralaianisolatedareaofhillcountryextendssouthwardtothebanksoftheIndus,boundedonthe
eastbythesouthernendoftheSulaimanrange.ThesearetheMariBugtihills,calledafterthetribesthathave
controlledthemwithaconsiderabledegreeofautonomyintothemodernperiod.Theyconsistchieflyofnarrow
parallelridgesofcloselypackedhills,whichformthegradualdescentfromtheSulaimanplateauintotheplains,
intersectedbynumerousravinesandgenerallybarrenandinhospitable.Buthereandtherearegoodpatchesof
grazing,andafewvalleyswhichhavebeenbroughtundercultivation.TheMararethelargestBaluchtribeand
wereestimatedat60,000(Pehrson,p.2).TheyareBaluchispeakingandidentifystronglyasBaluch,claimingto
bedescendedfromabranchoftheRindtribe.ButtheyspeakadistinctdialectofBaluchi,andhavealways
jealouslyguardedtheirautonomyfromthelargerBaluchpolity,especiallyasrepresentedbyKalat.Intheir
politicalorganizationtheydisplayfeaturesthatarereminiscentoftheirPashtunneighbors,suchastribal
councils.

TothenorthwestthehistoricalboundarybetweenBaluchistanandKermnisavaguenomanslandintheJz
Mrndepression.TheJzMrnisalargehmn,about300kmlongand70,000km2inarea,intowhichthe
BamprriverdrainsfromtheeastandtheHallrdfromthewest.AlowrangeseparatesitfromNarmrand
theDateLttothenorth.Alargeareaofdunesimpedescommunicationonthesoutheastside,andthereisa
thicklywoodedarea,mainlytamarisk,alongthebanksoftheBamprriverbelowBampr.Mostoftherest,
exceptforavaryingamountofshallowwaterinthecenter,isflatdesert,withhighsummertemperatures,butan
opengatewaytoKermninthewinter.Thereisascoreofrichagriculturalvillagesaroundrnahr(previously
Fahraj,BaluchiPahra)andBampr(ofwhichthelargestisAptar)dependingpartlyonqantsandpartlyona
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damaboveBampr,whichisthesiteofthelargestfortinwesternBaluchistan.Theagriculturalpopulationis
mainlylowstatustribesmenandglms.100kmwestofBampr,onthenortheastedgeofthecentral
depression,isthecenteroftheBmertribe,whobreedthebestfastridingcamels.Theyengageinasmall
amountofcultivationbasedonshallowwellsfromwhichtheyraisethewaterbymeansoflongcounterbalanced
poles(Arabicdf).

SouthoftheJzMrnandSarvntheMakrnmountainsextendina150220kmwidezonefromBakerd
inthewesttoMashkaiinJahlawanintheeast.Thereisanumberofparalleleastwestrangesandvalleysthat
resemblestepsfromtheIranianplateaudowntothecoast.Theyareruggedanddifficulttotraverse,thoughthe
peaksrarelyexceed2,000m.ThemostimportantriversaretheJgn,Gabrg,Sad,Rp,Sarbz,Kech,and
itstributaryNahang.Thewesternriverscutthroughthemountainsindeepgorges,ofwhichSarbzisthemost
spectacular.IntheeastthemajorriveristheKech,whichruns150kmduewestbetweentworangesbefore
joiningtheNahangandturningsouththroughagaptothesea.Rainfallisscantyandirregular,andsummer
temperaturesarehigh,butthemonsoonbringshumidityandoccasionalrainthatreducesthetemperatureand
resuscitatesthevegetation.TheMakrnmountainsarethehomeofBalnomadicpastoralists.Natural
vegetationissparse,andtheydividetheirtimebetweentheiranimals(mainlygoats)andtheirpband.Where
valleysopenoutandcontainsoilbutnowater,abandisbuiltroundaterraceofgoodalluvialsoiltocatch
occasionalrain,orwaterchanneledfromtheriverafterflood.Thefewpermanentsettlementsareriverineand
small.Mostaresituatedinthesweepofabendorwhereariverissuesontodesertplains.Themaincentersare
Bent,Fannj,Geh(renamedNkahrunderReShah),QareQand,Bog,Rsk,mp,andLr,Espaka,
Mand,andTump.Thereareover50villagesoneithersideofalonggorgeintheSarbzriver,andanalmost
continuousstringofoasesliningthebanksoftheKechriverwithfieldsanddateplantationsirrigatedfromboth
krzandcuts(Bal.kawrjkawrisBaluchiforriver)takingofffromlargepoolsintheriverbed.Tumpand
Mandenjoysimilarconditions.Kolwaisan80milenaturalcontinuationoftheKechvalleytotheeastseparated
byanalmostimperceptiblewatershed.ItcontainsbyfarthegreatestdrycropareaoftheMakrn.TheDasht
valleycarriestheunitedKechNahangthroughthecoastalrangetothesea,irrigatingimportantagriculturalland
oneitherside.TheBuledavalleynorthofTurbathassomeagriculture,asdosomespringirrigatedareasinthe
ZamuranhillsnorthoftheNahangriver.Otherwise,apartfromParomandBalgattarwhicharesalineflats,
Makrnsupportsonlypastoralism.Thecropsinthemountainsarericeanddates,thoughawiderangeoffruits
andvegetablesaregrowninsmallquantities,andmangoesdeservespecialmention.Datesareparexcellencethe
cropoftheMakrn109cultivated(nasab)varietiesarelistedintheMakrnGazetteer,apartfromwild(kur)
varieties.PisthemosttypicalofallMakrnplants.Itgrowsonrockygroundupto1,000m,andprovidesa
faminefood,aswellasfiber.ThemaintribesoftheMakrnmountainsaretheGk,Buld,Ht,Bzenj,
Nowrvn,Mrwr,Rind,Ras,Lnd,Kattawr,Knagzay,Mullzay,rn,Mubrak,Lr,hurn,
Jagl,Sardrzay.ThernholdGeh,Fannj,andBenttheMubrak,whoareabranchofthern,hold
mpandLr.TheBuldheldfortsinRsk,QareQand,Bog,andHtandtheirwarriorztwastheBar.
KatrandBprarenonBaluchmerchants.ThecultivatorsinMakrnaremostlylandless.

Thecoastalplainvariesinwidthfromalmostzerotoasmuchas100kminDatrandmoreinLasBela.It
containsnoreliablesuppliesoffreshwater,butsupportsconsiderableforestandwoodlandofProsopis,
Zyziphus,andAcaciaspp.Thecoastlineisdeeplyindentedwithbays,whichprovidegoodanchoragesfor
hbahr(formerlyTs,alittletothenorthofit)andGwadar,amongotherports.Inthewesttheplainismostly
lowandswampyorsandy,butfarthereasttherearehillsnearthecoastandheadlands.Baresandstonehas
weatheredintofantasticshapes.Attheirseawardbasesomeofthemhavedeterioratedintobadlandsandare
difficulttotraverse.Themainrivers,whichonlyflowafterheavyrain,passbetweenthesandstonemassifs,
providingtheonlypassagesinland.Alineofmudvolcanoesextendsalongthecoast,ofwhichthelargest,
Napag(10milesnorthofRasTank/RasTang),hasaconebuiltupto50mbyconstanteruptionsofgreenish
mud(Persia,p.141).ThereareextensivemangroveswampsintersectedbycreeksintheGwatarbayandthe
riverstothewest.Theriverscontainquicksands.ThesoilinDatrandBela,likeKacchiandsomepartsof
MakrnsuchasParomandalongtheDashtriver,hasunusualmoistureretainingcapability.Afteronegoodrain
itwillholdwaterlongenoughtoobtainacropofsorghum.DatrreliedontheKjkawrandBhonthe
Mazankawr(thecontinuationoftheSarbzriver)forirrigation.Butaboutahundredyearsagobothofthese
riverscutbacksothatexceptinexceptionalfloodsthewaterwasoutofreachoftheagriculturalland.Inboth
DatrandLasBeladamswerebuiltseasonallyfromearthandtrees,asinKacchi.Smallfishingcommunities
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ofMdlivehereandthereonthebeach.ScatteredalongtheplainaremobilevillagesandcampsofBalwho
aremainlypastoral,butpracticealittlecultivationafterrain.Allthesepopulationshavetraditionallydepended
onrainandrainfilledpondsastheonlysourceofwater.

3.TheoriginsoftheBaluch.

Theearliestextantsource(ahristnhrnahr,aPahlavitextwritteninthe2nd/8thcentury,though
probablyrepresentingapreIslamiccompilationseeMarkwart,ProvincialCapitals,pp.5,15,7476)liststhe
Balasoneofsevenautonomousmountaincommunities(kfyr).Arabicwritersinthe3rd/9thand4th/10th
centuries(especiallyEbnordbeh,Masd,Ear,Moqaddas)mentionthem,usuallyasBal,in
associationwithothertribalpopulationsintheareabetweenKermn,Khorasan,Sstn,andMakrn.Allthese
tribes(ofwhichonlytheBalsurviveinname)werefearedbythesettledpopulation.Thesourcesalsoadd
somedetail,buttheimplicationsareunclear.TheBalappeartohavehadaseparatedistrictofKermn,but
theyalsolivedintwodistrictsofSstn(Ear)andappearedinatractsomedistancetotheeastofFahraj(the
easternborderofKermn),probablymodernKharan(rn)orChagai(Ebnordbeh).Earalsorecords
themaspeaceful,thoughMoqaddasclaimstheyweremoretroublesomethantheK,withwhomtheyare
oftenpaired(forreferencesseeDames,1904b,pp.2633,whoalsoprovidesamoredetaileddiscussion).

TheBalaregenerallyconsideredtohavearrivedinKermnfromthenorth(e.g.,Dames,1904b,pp.2930).
Theevidenceforthisassumptiondependsontwoarguments:theclassificationofBaluchiasaNorthwest
IranianlanguageandthefactthatinFerdowsshnma(composedatthebeginningofthe4th/10thcentury
onthebasisofearlierworksnowlost)theyarementionedinconjunctionwithGln.AccordingtoFerdows
(see,e.g.,Dehod,s.v.Bal)theSasaniankingsArdarandosrowIAnravnfoughttheBalandthe
BalfoughtforseveralotherSasaniankings.IthasalsobeenarguedthattheBallefttracesoftheirlanguage
intheoasesofthecentraldesertsoftheIranianplateauastheymigratedsouth(Minorsky,1957Frye,1961).
Someofthisevidence(e.g.,placenames),ifpertinent,couldbetheresultoflaterraidingactivitiesonthepartof
smallnumbersofBaluchispeakers.(Suchactivitieshavebeenrecordedaslateasthe13th/19thandearly
14th/20thcenturies.)Thereisnootherevidencethatcouldbeusedeithertodateortocorroboratethetheoryofa
southwardmigrationbytheBal.

ItisclearthatthedesertareaseastandsoutheastofKermnhavebeengenerallyinsecurethroughoutmuchof
thehistoricalperiod.TheearlyMuslimwriterswerepreoccupiedwiththeunpredictabilityofpopulationsnot
controlledbythegovernment,andbythedangertotravelers.Theirdescriptionstelluslittlemoreaboutthe
populationsoftheseareasthanwemightexpect.Theykeptflocksandlivedingoathairtents.Theirnative
languagewasnotPersian.Theyseemtohavebeenconcentratedinthemorefertilemountainssoutheastof
Kermnandtohaveplunderedintermittentlyonthedesertroutestothenorthandnortheast.

Thesituationwithregardtothesecurityoftravelapparentlydeteriorated,becausein361/97172theBuyid
AodalDawla(q.v.)considereditworthwhiletoconductacampaignagainstthem.TheBalweredefeated,
buttheycontinuedtobetroublesomeundertheGhaznavidsandtheSaljuqs.WhentheyrobbedMamds
ambassadorinthedesertnorthofKermnbetweenabasandab,Mamdsenthisson,Masd,against
them(Dames,1904b,pp.3233).AlthoughtheeastwardmigrationoftheBalappearstohaveintensifiedsoon
afterthis,therearestillBalineasternKermnprovince.

Itisimportanttonotethatthesourcesdonotmentionanyleaders.ItislikelythattheBalatthisperiodwerea
seriesoftribalcommunitiesnotsharinganyfeelingsofcommonethnicity.Infact,thenameBal(Bal)
appearstohavebeenanameusedbythesettled(andespeciallytheurban)populationforanumberofoutlaw
tribalgroupsoveraverylargearea.Theetymologyisunclear,asisthatofK(alsowrittenasKfe,Kfor
arabizedQof),anamegenerallytakentorefertoacomparableneighboringtribalcommunityintheearly
Islamicperiod.ThecommonpairingofKwithBalinFerdows(see,e.g.,Dehod,s.vv.)suggestsakind
ofrhymingcombinationorevenduplication,suchasiscommoninPersianandhistoricallyrelatedlanguages
(cf.tromr).TheBalmayhaveenteredthehistoricalrecordasthesettledwritersgenericnomads.Because
ofthesignificanceoftheiractivitiesatthisperiodtheywouldgraduallyhavebecomerecognizedasthenomads
parexcellenceinthisparticularpartoftheIslamicworld.Itispossible,forexample,thatBal,alongwithK,
weretermsappliedtoparticularpopulationswhichwerebeyondthecontrolofsettledgovernmentsthatthese
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populationscametoaccepttheappellationandtoseethemselvesintheculturaltermsofthelarger,more
organizedsocietythatwasestablishedinthemajoragriculturalterritoriesbuttheyremained,thenasnow,a
congeriesoftribalcommunitiesofvariousorigins.ThereisalsoethnographicevidencetosuggestthatBal,
irrespectiveofitsetymology,maybeappliedtonomadicgroupsbythesettledpopulationasageneric
appellationinotherpartsofeasternandsouthernIran.Theothertribalpopulationsrecordedinsoutheastern
KermnintheearlyIslamicperiod,whichdidnotsurviveinname,mayhaveassimilatedtotheBaluchidentity.
AnimportantfeatureofthehistoryoftheBaluchuptothe14th/20thcenturyhasbeentheirabilitytoassimilate
numerousanddiverseelements.TheirhistorymayhavebegunintheareaeastandsoutheastofKermnaround
thetimeoftheArabconquestandtheirethnogenesismayhavebeenaproductoftheinsecurityofavastdesert
areawhichthegovernmentsoftheperioddidnotcaretocontroldespitetheirneedforsecurecommunications
acrossit.Itmustberemembered,however,thatsuchatheoryoftheoriginoftheBaluchleavesopenthe
questionofhowandwhenthelanguagespreadtobecomethelinguafranca(thoughnotthemothertongue)ofall
assimilatedBaluch.

4.Theearlyhistoryofthearea.

ThroughoutitshistorytheareabetweenIranandIndiahasbeenstronglyaffectedbyinfluencesfromthemore
fertileareassurroundingit,particularlyKermn,Sstn,Qandahr,Punjab,Sind,andOman.Seatraffic
connectedittotheIndianOceanandthePersianGulf.Littlehistoricalresearchhasyetbeenfocusedonit,and
therelevantsynthesessofaravailablederivecoincidentallyfromthepursuitofanswerstoquestionsarising
fromprimaryinterestsinthecivilizationstotheeastandwest.

WhatisnowBaluchistanhaslonginterestedscholarsasthehinterlandofthesettledsocietiesoftheIndusvalley,
theIranianplateau,andMesopotamia.Anumberofimportantarcheologicalsiteshaveyieldedevidenceof
humanoccupationextendingbacktothefourthmillennium(seebaluchistanii).Archeologistsandphilologists
havesoughtevidenceofoverlandconnectionsbetweentheearlycivilizationsoftheIndusvalleyand
Mesopotamia.Between3000and2000b.c.SumerianandAkkadianrecordsindicatetraderelationsbetweenthe
TigrisEuphratesvalleyandplacescalledDilmun,Makan,andMelukhkha,which,thoughtheirexactlocation
hasbeenamatterfordebate,wereobviouslysituateddownthePersianGulfandbeyond.Makanisgenerally
assumedtoberelatedtoMakrnwhichinlaterhistoricalperiodsisthenameofthesouthernhalfofthearea,the
coast,anditshinterland(Eilers,Hansman).WhetherornotMakanalwaysincludedthisarea,intheearlyperiods
thenameseemstohaveappliedmainlytothesouthernshoresoftheGulfofOman.Thisconnectionis
significant,sinceithascontinuedintothepresent(thoughinmorerecenttimesthecloserelationshipbetween
thepopulationsofwhatarenowBaluchistanandOmanhasbeenreducedbytheapparatusofmodernnation
states).

Fromthemid1stmillenniumonwardtheareawasdividedintonamedprovincesofthePersianempires.Maka
andZrankaappearintheinscriptionsofDariusatBsotnandPersepolis.Makahereiscertainlymodern
Makrn(thesouthernhalfofBaluchistan),andZranka(NPers.Zarang),theZarangaiofHerodotus,Drangiane
ofArrian,etc.,wasSstn,whichappearsthenandlatertohaveincludedmostofthenorthernpartsofthearea
andsometimeseventohaveextendedintoMakrn.MorespecificinformationisprovidedbyGreekauthorswho
begantobeinterestedinthePersianGulfasaresultofthePersianwars(Herodotus,3.93).Alexanders
expeditionsbeyondthePersianempirelateinthe4thcenturygeneratedmoredetailedwriting.Thiswasfurther
encouragedbycommercialinterestinthesourcesofvariousluxurycommodities,mainlyspicesanddyestuffs,
whichwerealreadyreachingtheeasternMediterraneanfromtheIndianOcean.

TheprovinceAlexandertraversedonhisreturntoIranfromIndiawasnamedGedrosia.Theexperienceofhis
armyandfleetgivenbyArrianisinterestingbecauseitsuggeststhat(contrarytotheassessmentsofmodern
ecologists)thenaturalconditionsofBaluchistanhavenotchangedsignificantlyoverthepast2,300years.There
wereportsinSonmianiBay,northwestofmodernKarachi,andatGwadar(Badara)andTs(Tesaearlier
Talmena).Populationwasgenerallysparse,partlyIndian,includingtheArbiesandOreitae,partlyIranian,
includingtheMyci(assumedtoberelatedtoMaka).Waterandprovisionsweredifficulttofindwithoutgood
guides.Intheinlandvalleysagriculturewasfacilitatedbysophisticatedengineeringofsmallscaleirrigation,
basedmainlyontheyieldfromsummerrains.ThemostfertileareawastheKechvalley,whichwasdensely
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settled.AhighwaytotheIndusranfromthecapitalPura,probablymodernBampr,whichisthelargestareaof
fertilewateredland,thoughitcouldhavebeeninKech,thenextlargest,orpossiblyeveninoneofthenarrower
rivervalleys,suchastheSarbz.Indians,bothHinduandBuddhist,livedinPurathroughitbothlandandsea
tradecouldpassontothearterialroutetoKermn.

AlexanderfoundedanAlexandriaattheprincipalsettlementoftheOreitaeinmodernLasBela.Ashe
proceededwestwardhewasforcedtostrikeinlandbythedifficultyofthecoastalterrain.BetweenBelaand
Pasniwastheworststretchofthewholeexpedition.Apartfromintolerableheatandlackoffood,water,and
firewood,atonepointaflashfloodsweptawaymostofthewomenandchildrenfollowingthearmyandallthe
royalequipmentandthesurvivingtransportanimals.FromPasnitheyproceededalongtheflatcoastalplainto
Gwadar,theninlandtoPura.TheexperienceofthefleetunderNearchoswassimilar.Thedailysearchforfood
andwaterrarelyproducedmorethanfishmealanddates,sometimesnothing.Alongthebeachtheyfound
communitiesofIchthyophagi(fisheaters),hairypeoplewithwoodenspearswhocaughtfishintheshallows
withpalmbarknetsandatethemrawordriedtheminthesunandgroundthemintomeal,worefishskins,and
builthutsofshellsandbonesofstrandedwhales(Arrian,Anabasis2126,Indica2333).

ThenextsignificantinformationcomesfromtheSasanianperiod,whentheareawasonceagainintegratedinto
aprovincialadministration.AkingofMakrnpaidhomagetoNarseh(sonoftheSasanianprI)atNarsehs
accession,whoduringthereignofhisfatherborethehonorific(?)titleofkingofSakastn,Tristn,andHind
uptotheshoreofthesea,andlaterBahrmssoniscalledKingofSakasinthePaikuliinscription,which
suggeststhatitwasanotinsignificantprovince(Skjrv,III/2,pp.1011).prInamedfouradministrative
entitieswithintheareaTugrn(laterTrn,andpresentlySarawanorKalat),Pradn(probablymodern
Kharan),andHind(presumablySind,orthelandwateredbytheIndus),aswellasMakrnasappendagesof
Sakastn(Sstn).TheeasternboundaryoftheSasanianprovinceofKermnwassetattheportofTsonthe
coast,andat*Pohlpahraj(Fahraj),modernrnahr,justbeyondBampratthefarsideoftheirrigableareaof
theJzMrndepression.BeyondthatthekingdomofMakrnstretchedalongthecoasttotheportofDaibulat
themouthoftheIndus.ThekingdomofPradnstretchedeastwardfromBamprtoTrn.Thekingdomof
TugrnprobablyextendedfromKzknn(modernKalat)andtheBolanpass(thatconnectedWalishtan,modern
Quetta,withtheSibiandKacchilowlands)throughtheBudahahdistrictandthePabandKirtharrangestoa
vagueborderwithMakrnandHindnearDaibul.Itappearstohavebeenwellpopulatedbypeoplewhospokea
nonIranianlanguage,possiblyBrahuiastoday.ThemaintownwascalledBauterna(modernKhuzdar).(For
referencesandmoredetaileddiscussionseeBrunner,pp.77277Chaumont,pp.13037.)

TowardtheendofthecaliphateofOmar,MakrnwasinvadedbytheArabs(23/644),whofounditas
unattractiveasmostoutsidersappeartohavedonebothbeforeandsince.Afterdefeatingthelocalrulerand
marchingalmosttotheIndus,theyreportedbacktoOmarthatitwasanunattractiveregion,withtheresultthat
OmarorderedthattheArabsshouldnotcrosstheIndus.Asimilarsentimentisattributedtoanother
commander:thatthewaterinMakrnwasscanty,thedatespoorinqualitythatasmallarmywouldbe
swallowedupinthedesertsandalargeonewoulddieofhunger(Bosworth,1968,pp.125).

AftertheArabconquestmostoftheareasoonreturnedtoitsmorecharacteristicconditionofinternalautonomy
underalienhegemony.Inparticularitcontinuedtoserveasarefugeforpeoplewhohadbeendisplacedfromthe
morefertileconditionsofIranandIndia.Especially,inthenextfewcenturies,sinceSstnwasamajorcenterof
Kharijitesentiment,manyKharijitesfoundtheirwayintoMakrn(Bosworth,1968,pp.3741).

Intheearly5th/11thcenturytheGhaznavidempireestablishedapatternwhichhascontinuedintomorerecent
history.ThegeopoliticalinterestsoftheGhaznavids,centeredtothenortheastofthearea,complementedthe
declineofSstn,andbroughtQodr(Khuzdar),andthroughitmuchofMakrn,intodependencyonQandahr.
Sincethen,althoughthegovernmentsofthewesternplateau(modernIran)continued(untiltheestablishmentof
ZhednastheadministrativecapitaloftheIranianprovinceofBaluchistanunderReShah)toseeMakrnas
anextensionofKermn,governmentsontheeasternplateau(modernAfghanistan)haveseenitasasouthward
extensionfromQandahr.

Overthenextthreecenturies,whenfirsttheSaljuqsandthentheMongolsruledinIran,Iranianinfluencedid
notextendveryfarbeyondKermn,andMakrnbecamerelativelyautonomousagain.Inthe7th/13thcentury
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MarcoPolocallsitKesmacoran(KechMakrn),suggestingthattheagriculturalsettlementsalongtheKech
riverwerethemostflourishingpartofthearea.Foodwasabundantandgood(hementionsthefullrangeof
staples:riceandwheat,meatandmilk).Kechhaditsownruler(malek),andthepeople,whoincludednon
Muslimsandlivedbycommerceasmuchasagriculture,tradingbothoverlandandbyseainalldirections,
spokealanguagePolodidnotrecognize.ItisalsoworthnotingthatheidentifiedthekingdomofKesmacoranas
thelastinIndia,ratherthanthefirstinIran(II,pp.40103).DuringthisperiodBalmigrationintensifiedand
theareabegantotakeonthecharacterofBaluchistan,absorbingasuccessionofimmigrantgroups,ofwhichthe
Balwereneitherthefirstnorthelast.Butthehistoryoftheareacannotbeunderstoodasarefugeareaor
backwater.ItisaborderlandbetweenIndiaandIranandabridgebetweentheIranianplateauandtheArabian
peninsula.PoliticalandeconomicinfluencesfrombothIran(includingwhatlaterbecameAfghanistan)and
Indiacontinuallyaffectedthepoliticaleconomy,andlocalleadershavegenerallylookedinbothdirectionsfor
potentialsourcesofexternalsupportintheirinternalconflicts.

5.TheeastwardmigrationsoftheBal.

AlthoughmanyBalmovedintoandthroughMakrnstartinginthe5th/11thcentury,otherswereprobably
alreadypresentinthegeneralareaeastofKermn.Evidenceforthemigrationissparse.Therearetwomajor
types:thecorpusoftraditionalBaluchipoetryandlaterMughalhistories.

ThepoemsclaimthattheBalaredescendedfromMramza(MrisaBaluchititleforleaders,Arabicamr),
theuncleoftheProphetthattheyfoughtwiththesonsofAlatKarbal,whencetheymigratedtoBaluchistan.
Therearetwopossibleinterpretationsofthisepichistory.First,tribalpopulationsintheMuslimworldhave
typicallytracedtheirgenealogiesbacktothetimeoftheProphetasawayoflegitimizingtheirIslamintheir
owntribal(i.e.,genealogical)terms.Second,thereareanumberofwaysinwhichArabgroupscouldhavefound
theirwayintotheheterogeneoustribalpopulationthateventuallyassimilatedBaluchidentityeastofKermn,
whetherornottheirforebearshadfoughtatKarbal.SomeoftheoriginalArabinvadersmayhaveremainedin
thearea,andthereisevidenceofmigrationacrossthePersianGulffromArabiaintotheKermnregioninthe
earlycenturiesofIslam.

ThepoemstellofarrivalinSstnandofthehospitalityofakingnamedamsalDn.Aruler(malek)bythat
nameclaimingdescentfromtheSaffaridsisknowntohavediedin559/1164.Afteratimeanotherrulercalled
BadralDn(ofwhomwehavenoindependentrecord,unlesshewasaGhurid)persecutedthemanddrovethem
out.Littleelseofanysignificanceisidentifiable,excepttheoccasionalplacenameinMakrn(seediscussionin
Dames,1904b,pp.3536).Itseemslikelythatthissortofeastwardprogresswasdeterminedbytheusethat
variousminorrulersmayhavehadforamercenaryforce.

ThefirstrecordofmovementintoSindisfromthe78th/1314thcenturies.ThemaindivisionsoftheBal
tribesdescribedinthepoemspresumablyreflecteventsduringthisperiod.AccordingtothepoemsaMrJall
KhanwhowasleaderofalltheBalleftfoursons,Rind,Lr,Ht,andKra,andadaughternamedJt,
whomarriedhisnephewMord.Thesefivebecametheeponymousfoundersofthefivemaintribesofthe
poems,theRind,Lr,Ht,KraandJt.Thepoemstelloffortyfourtribes(calledtumanorblak),of
whichfortywereBal,andfourwereserviletribesdependentonthem.Otherimportantnamesthathave
survivedtothepresentareDrak,Mazr,Dumbk,Khs.TheHtseemtohavebeenintheareaearlierthan
theothers.ItmaybesignificantthatsomenamesarederivedfromknownplacenamesinBaluchistan.Manyof
theprominenttribesoftodayarenotmentionedinthepoems,suchasBg,Buld,Buzdr,Kasrn,Lgar,
Lund,Mar.Sincethesetribeswereprobablythereinthe9th/15thcentury,theabsenceoftheirnamesinthe
poemssuggeststhateithertheyarelaterbranchesoftheoldtribes,ortheywerenotthenBalandhavebeen
assimilatedsince.

Inthe9th/15thcenturyanotherwavecarriedtheBalintosouthernPunjab.ThiswastheperiodofMrkar
(kor)Rind,thegreatestofBaluchistanheroes.SomegroupsfromtheRindtribemigratedfromSibitoPunjab,
andspreadupthevalleysoftheChenab,Ravi,andSatlejrivers.Meanwhile,theDda(probablyaSindhitribe
assimilatedduringtheprevious200years)andHtmoveduptheIndusandtheJhelam.Bbor,thefirstMughal
emperor,foundBalinPunjabin925/1519.Hehiredthem,asdidhissuccessor,Homyn.Thefirstactual
settlementofBalinPunjabappearstohavebeenmadeinthereignofShahosayninMultan874908/1469
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701502,whogavethemajgr(probablyinreturnformilitaryservice)anactwhichattractedmoreBal
intothearea.InPunjabmanyBalturnedtosettledagricultureinthe10th/16thcentury.(Thereferencesfor
thisperiodarelistedanddiscussedinmoredetailbyDames,1904b,pp.3443.)

AlthoughlargenumbersofBalmovedintotheIndusvalley,therehasneverbeenanyquestionofmovingthe
boundariesofBaluchistaneastwardtoincorporatethem.Balwhosettledinthelowlands,withtheexception
ofKacchi,tendedtoassimilatelinguisticallywiththesurroundingpopulation,andlosetheirtieswithkininthe
highlands,thoughmany(wecannotknowwhatproportion)haveretainedtheirBalidentity.

6.EventsleadingtotheestablishmentoftheBaluchkhanateofKalat.The10th/16thcenturysawtheriseof
SafavidpowerinIranandofMughalpowerinIndia,andthearrivalofEuropeanshipsintheSeaofOmanand
thePersianGulf.Theinterestsandconflictsofthesethreeoutsidepowerscouldnotfailtoaffecttheinternal
politicsoftheBalandothercommunitiesthatlaybetweenthem.Themajoreventsthatformthebasisof
Baluchiepicpoetry,rememberedasthewarsbetweentheRindandLrtribes,occurredduringthisperiodand
wereobviouslyconditionedbytheopportunitiesandincentivesaffordedbythelargergeopoliticalcontext.

TheSafavidsreestablishedsomeIraniancontrolinMakrn,mainlyfromBampr,Dezak,andSstn(Rhrborn,
pp.12,74,8283).In1515,ShahEsml(whohadnonavy)wasforcedtoacceptthePortugueseoccupationof
Hormoz,andconcludedatreatywiththeadmiral,AlfonsodeAlbuquerque(q.v.),ontermsthatincludedthe
provisionthatthePortuguesewouldassisttheshahinsuppressingarevoltinMakrn.However,this
collaboration,whichwouldhavebeenthefirstofitstypewithaEuropeanforceinthearea,provedabortive
becauseofAlbuquerquesdeath.In1581,forreasonsthatareunclear,thePortuguesedestroyedtheportsof
GwadarandTs,(Lorimer,I/1A,pp.78).

TheDutcharrivedinHormozatthebeginningofthe11th/17thcenturyandtheBritishappearedsoonafterward.
In1613SirRobertSherley,whostoppedatGwadaronhiswaytoIsfahanasambassador,wasnearlykilled
whenagroupofBaluchmadeasurpriseattackonhisship.ButafterwardhewrotetotheEastIndiaCompany
(establishedin1600)inLondonrecommendingthattheysetupafactoryinGwadar,becauseitwas
autonomous,tributarytoIran,safefromthePortuguese,andpromisedtherichesttrafficintheworld.In1650
aBaluchguarddefendedMuscat(Masqa)onbehalfofthePortuguese(thoughtheImamofMuscatoustedthe
PortugueselaterinthesameyearseeLorimer,I/1A,p.39).AlltheEuropeansreadilytookonvariousgroupsof
Baluchasguardsandmercenaries.TheBaluchdidnotdisplayanysolidarityinrelationtothesenonMuslim
aliens.Baluchandforeignercooperatedorfought,accordingtolocalinterestsandanimosities.

Atthistimetheoverlandtrafficwasstilltaxedbytheruler(malek)ofKech,whoalsocontrolledGwadar,and
accordingtoPietrodellaVallewasonfriendlytermswiththePersiangovernment.Butaround1029/1620Kech
wastakenoverbytheBuldtribe,whoappeartohavebeenfollowersoftheekr(Zikri)heresy(see11below:
ethnography),anddominatedthewholeofMakrnuptoJskuntil1740(Lorimer,1/2,pp.215051).

TheprevalenceofheresyinMakrnduringthisperiodmayhaveseparateditmorethanusualfromtheeventsof
thehighlands.QandahrandtheQuettaPishinareatothenorthchangedhandsbetweentheSafavidsand
Mughalsmorethanonce,butalthoughtheSafavidseventuallyretainedQandahrandclaimedthehighlands
downtoKalat(Rhrborn,p.13),theMughalinfluencewasmoresignificantinthehistoryoftheBaluch.
HomynisreputedtohavegivenShal(Quetta)andMastungtoaBaluchnamedLawangKhan(GazetteerV,p.
34).AMrQambarn(Kambarn)usedMughalsupporttodriveouttheJatsfromtheJahlawandistricttothe
south,thoughhisson,MrOmar,wasconfrontedwiththeArnsofQandahr.WhenBbortookQandahr
(1522),ShahBgArnhadmovedtoSind,andMrOmarseizedanopportunitytotakeKalat.Hewasdriven
outandkilledbyRindandLrBalfromMakrn,whoincludedthefigurescelebratedintheheroicballads,
MrayhakRind,hissonMrkarRind,andMrGwahrmLr.ButtheBaluchdidnotstaytheymoved
ontoKacchi,leavingMrkarsfatherinlaw,MrMand,inKalat.Mrkarappearstohaveremainedin
theareaofSibiandtheBolanPass.In1556shortlybeforehediedheissaidtohaveacknowledgedthe
suzeraintyoftheMughals.InKalatMandwassoonoverpoweredbyBrahuitribesmenunderMrBijjar,the
sonofOmar.AfterMrBijjar,KalatwasagaintakenbytheMughals,thoughtheynevermanagedtocontrolthe
surroundingtribes.ButwiththelossofQandahrtheMughalholdonthehighlandsweakenedandtheBrahui
underMrEbrhmKhanMrwrmanagedtoregainKalat.MrEbrhmdeclinedtorule,andthekhanatewas
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offeredtoMrasan,hisbrotherinlaw.MrasanwasthefirstkhanoftheBal.ThetermBaluch(asused
inthisarticle)appliestoparticipantsinthepolitythatdevelopedunderhisruleandthatofhissuccessors.

Mrasandiedwithoutissueshortlyafteraccedingtothetitle,thegovernmentpassedtoMrAmadKhan
Qambarn,whobecametheeponymousfounderoftheAmadzaydynastyoftheStateofKalat(Ratuch,pp.
6975Rooman,pp.2829).

7.TheAmadzaykhanateofKalatuptotheintrusionofBritishpower(16661839).

ThemajorfactorsinthehistoryofKalatinthisperiod(beforetheencroachmentoftheBritishandthe
reawakeningofPersianinterestinthearea)weretheexpansionofKalatterritoryundertheearlykhans,the
effectsofNderShahsactivitieswithregardtoIndia,andthePersianGulfthepowerofNderShahs
successorinQandahr,AmadShahAbdlthedeclineofthekhanateafterthedeathofMrNarKhanIin
1795theambitionsofMoammadShahQjr,andthedevelopmentofBritishinterest.Theuplandsandthe
lowlandscontinuedtohavedistinctpoliticalhistories,thoughthesuccessofNarKhanIinthesecondhalfof
the12th/18thcenturyintegratedthemtosomeextentforthedurationofhisreign.Fromthisperiodonwardthe
historyoftheareahasbeenseeninrelativelyexclusivetermsasthehistoryofBaluchistan(thoughitsexact
boundarieswereoftenvague).Outsideinterestinthearea,suchasthatofOman(inGwadar)andofAfghanistan
(inPashtunistan),havebeenseenasintrusive.However,adeeperhistoricalperspectivemakesitclearthatup
untilthisperiodtheareawasneitheranexclusivenoranintegratedpoliticalorculturalunitratheritformedpart
ofalargerareathatincludedQandahrandSstntothenorthandOmantothesouth,andlaybetweenthe
politicalpolesofIranandIndia.WithinKalatthehighlandsandlowlandswereonlylooselyrelated:The
lowlandswerecloselyrelatedtoOman,andthehighlandswereanextensionofQandahr.Thesubsequent
historyoftheareaiseasiertofollowwhenseenintheselargergeopoliticalterms.(Thissectionisbasedonthe
moredetaileddiscussionsinBaluch,Lockhart,Rooman,theGazetteers,andtheauthorsunpublished
ethnohistoricalresearch.)

ContinuityofauthorityinKalatdatesfromtheaccessionofMrAmadQambarnin1666.MrAmadruled
forthirtyyearsandbecameanallyoftheMughalemperorAwrangzbAlamgrI.Hespenthislifefightingthe
BrzayAfghanstothenorthandtheKalhorarulersofSindtothesouthinordertopreserveandexpandhis
territory.HefinallysucceededincontrollingbothSibiandtheQuettaPishinarea.Buthisson,MrMerb
KhanI,wasstillobligedtofighttheKalhoras.Hedefeatedthemin1695,thoughhediedinthebattle.Mr
SamandarKhan,Merbsbrotherssonandsuccessor,continuedtokeeptheKalhorafamilyincheckandalso
defeatedamilitaryexpeditionfromIranunderahmsbBg,whoplannedtoannexwesternBaluchistantoIran.
SamandarwasrewardedfortheseservicesbytheMughalswiththeportofKarachiandothergifts.

Theacquisitionofpowerbyalocalleader,whowasabletoestablishtheframeworkfordynasticsuccessionin
Kalat,transformedthepoliticaleconomyofthearea,andsetthesceneforthelaterdevelopmentofBaluch
society.DuringthetwocenturiesuptothetimewhentheBritishtookovertheaffairsofKalatthegeneral
patternofthekhansexternalrelationswasaccommodationwiththepoliticalpowerinQandahrandinDelhi,
hostilitieswithSind,anddisorderinrelationswithKermn.BaluchtribesinwesternMakrnandtheSaradd
oftenraidedintoIranespeciallyduringthereignofShahSultanosayn,thelastSafavidmonarch1105
35/16941722(Lorimer,I/2,p.2152).In1721theBritishandDutchfactoriesatBandareAbbs(q.v.)were
attackedbyaforceoffourthousandBaluchonhorseback,who(apparentlyencouragedbytheAfghaninvasion
ofPersia)overrantheprovinceofKermnandraidedwestwardintoLorestn.

TheriseoftheelzayunderMrWaysinQandahrearlyinthe12th/18thcenturychangedthepoliticalclimate
inBaluchistan.QuettaandPishinwerereattachedtoQandahrin1709.MrAmadKhanII,thesonofMr
MerbKhan,whoseprofligacydispleasedtheBaluchsardars,waskilledbyhisyoungerbrotherMrAbd
AllhKhanwhothensucceededhim.AbdAllah(r.171434),whowasknownasQah(h)rKhan,wasoneof
thestrongerAmadzayrulers,andremainedrelativelyfreetopursuehismilitaryandpoliticalambitionsduring
theperiodimmediatelyprecedingNderShahsappearanceatQandahr.HemanagedtoconquerKacchiinthe
south,HarandandDajilinthenortheast,Panjgur,Kech,andevenBandareAbbstothewest,andShorawakin
thenorthwest.ThelastbroughthimintomoredirectconflictwithShahosaynalj(r.172538)ofQandahr,

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whojoinedforceswiththeKalhorasinSindinanattempttodefeathim.Theyweresuccessful,andthekhan
triedtopunishtheKalhorasagain,butwasdefeatedandkilledinKacchi.

ThoughtheAmadzaysalliancewiththeMughalshadservedthemwell,theirenforcedaccommodationwith
thehighlandpowerofNderShahandhissuccessorinQandahr,AmadShahAbdl,servedthemevenbetter.
TheconflictbetweenNderShahandtheMughalsallowedtheAmadzaytoestablishthemselvestothepoint
wheretheBritishwouldlaterdecidetorulethroughthem,despitetheirdecliningabilities.

Inconcentratinghisattentiononthesouth,MrAbdAllhKhanhadservedtheMughalstoowellandincurred
thewrathofNderShah.NderhadnamedAbdAllhhisgovernorofBaluchistanandrequiredhimtomove
againsttheAbdlsinQandahrfromthesouth,whilehe,Nder,movedinfromthewest.Owingtohis
entanglementwiththeKalhoras,whichledtohisdeathinbattle,AbdAllhhadfailedtorespond.Before
NderwasabletopunishKalat,AbdAllhsson,MrMoabbatKhan,wasfoundunsatisfactorybytheBaluch
sardars,andreplacedbyhisbrotherMrAhltzKhan.However,thesardarssoonfoundMrAhltznobetterand
reinstatedMoabbat(thoughAhltzseemstohaveretainedsomepoweramongtheDehwrinMastung).Nder
sentPrMoammad,thebeglarbegofHerat,againstKalat.In1149/1736,ratherthanfight,bothMoabbatand
AhltzwenttoQandahrandsubmittedtoNderShah,whotooktheelder,Moabbat,intohisserviceand
appointedhimgovernorofBaluchistanincludingMakrn.NderalsogavethemthelowlandplainsofKacchi
(thenruledbytheKalhorasofSind)asbloodcompensationforthedeathofMrAbdAllhKhan.Asaresult
thekhanatenowcontrolledbothhighlandandlowlandgrazingandmorelandforcultivationthroughoutthe
year.Theirresourcebasewasgreatlyincreasedandthestagewassetforfurtherinternalpoliticaldevelopment.

FollowingtheassassinationofNderShahin1160/1747,AmadShahAbdl,laterknownasDorrn,whowas
heirtoNderShahsparamountcyoverKalat,deposedMoabbatandputinhisplaceanotheryoungerbrother,
MrNarKhan,whowithhismotherhadbeenahostageinNderscampsince1737.Narwashistoricallythe
mostsignificantoftheAmadzayrulers.Heruledfornearlyhalfacentury,andestablishedtheorganizationof
thestateofKalatfortheremainderofitsexistence.Hewastheonlykhanwhosuccessfullytranscendedtribal
loyalties.

OfthelandthathadaccruedtothestateofKalatuptothistimehalfwasreservedfortheAmadzayascrown
landandtheotherhalfwasdividedamongthetribesthatmadeupthefightingforcefromSarawanand
Jahlawan.Thekhanallocatedlandtothetribesintwocategories:gmlandsandjgrlands.Gmlandswere
allocatedaccordingtothenumberoffightingmensuppliedbyeachtribe,withthestipulationthatthelandbe
usedtoraisecropstosupportthefightingforceinthefield.Sinceitwascommunalpropertyofeachtribe,it
couldnotbealienated.Onetwelfthoftheincomewasgatheredbytheleaderofeachtribeandsubmittedtothe
khanasrevenue.Unlikethejgrthislandcouldbeconfiscatedbythekhanifthetribefailedinitsobligations.
Itisinterestingtonotethatthiscommunaltenureoriginatedwiththekhanandwasnotgeneratedbythetribal
communityitself,asisoftenassumed.ThekhanscrownlandswereworkedbyDehwr,whereasthetribesused
Jatcultivators.

Narsetaboutbuildinghisfightingforceinthreeregiments:theSarawanregiment,theJahlawanregiment,
andaspecialregimentdirectlyunderhisowncommand.HechoseonetribeeachfromSarawanandJahlawan
(whichmayhavelaidthebasisofthelaterrankingofthetribes)toleadandtoberesponsibleforrecruitment
fromtheirrespectiveareas.Healsoformedabureaucracy,bycreatingofficesofgovernment:awazrwasgiven
chargeofinternalandforeignaffairsawaklwasmaderesponsibleforthecollectionoftributeandblood
compensation,andtherevenuefromcrownlandsadrawasputinchargeoftheorganizationoftheDehwar
cultivatorsoncrownlands,andworkedthroughBrahuinebs(deputies).Finally,ah()qs(afterNders
ekqswasgivendirectionofdarbrsandtheseatingarrangementforleadersaccordingtotheirrank.Beside
theseofficers,hecreatedtwocouncils.Membershipinoneofthecouncils(majlesemoebn)wasbyhisown
nomination,andprimarilyfromamonghisclosekinsmen,butitalsoincludedthetwoleadersofthetribesof
SarawanandJahlawan.Thesecondwasacouncilofsardars(majlesemowarat).Membersofthefirstcouncil,
ortheirrepresentatives,hadtoremainatKalatcontinuouslyalongwithonetwelfththenumberofsoldiersraised
byeachtribe(gmpakar).Judicialpowerswerevestedinthesardarswhoweresubjecttoguidancebyqs
(judges)accordingtothereligiouslaw(ara),exceptthatlocalcustomtookprecedenceinmattersofadultery

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andmurder.ThewrittenlanguageforstatebusinesswasPersian,andbureaucraticpositionswererecruitedfrom
thePersianspeakingDehwrpeasantcommunity.

QuettahadcomeunderNderShahwhenhetookQandahr,andheassignedittoNarandhismotherduring
thetimethatMrMoabbatKhanheldKalat.AmadShahissaidtohavefinallygivenittoKalatafterreceiving
assistancefromNarinacampaignineasternIranin1751asakindofl(lit.presentofashawl)forhis
mother,BbMaryam.ButPishinremainedundertheDorrns.

KalatwasstillsubordinatetotheAbdlcourtofQandahr.Thetreatybetweenthemcalledforanannual
paymentofRs2,000fromKalattoQandahr,andtheprovisionandmaintenanceof1,000soldiersinQandahr.
AnapparentactofinsubordinationonthepartofNar,whofailedtorespondwhensummonedtoQandahr,led
tothenegotiationofanewtreatyafterAmadShahAbdlfailedtodefeathimoutright.

BecauseAmadShahneededNarssupportelsewhere,thenewtreatywasmoreequal.Thekhanatenolonger
paidtributeormaintainedaforceatQandahr.Instead,KalatprovidedafightingforceonlywhentheAfghans
foughtoutsidetheirkingdom,andthenthekhanwouldbeprovidedwithmoneyandammunition.Thenew
treatywassealedbyapledgeofloyaltytoQandahrandthemarriageofthekhansniecetoAmadShah
Abdlsson.InthesettlementwithQandahrthefinalaccommodationwasthattheshahgaveNarthetitleof
beglarbegwhilethekhanrecognizedhimassuzerain.

WiththesecurityandfreedomofactionaffordedbythenewtreatywithQandahrandtheresultingstabilization
ofthenorthernandeasternborder,NarwasabletomoveagainsttheneighboringterritoriesofKharan,
Makrn,andLasBela.TheGk(whohadbecomedominantinMakrnin1740)andmostoftheBuldwere
ekr.Narmadenineexpeditionsagainstthem.Thestrugglewasended,apparentlybefore1778,bya
compromiseunderwhichtherevenuesofthecountryweredividedequallybetweentheGkleadersandthe
khan,withthedirectadministrationremaininginthehandsoftheGk,whoweredividedintotwobranches,a
seniorbranchinPanjgurandajunioroneinKechandGwadar.

Narledsometwentyfivemilitaryexpeditionsduringhisrule.BesidetheGkinMakrn,hefoughtagainst
LasBela,Kharan,theMar,andtheBaluchTlprfamilythathadsucceededtheKalhorasinSind.Allthese
acceptedhissuzerainty.HealsofoughtwiththeSikhsofPunjabandwithAlMardnKhanofTnandabas
ineasternIran.Attheendofhisrulehisauthorityextendedoveranareanotverydifferentfromthelater
PakistaniprovinceofBaluchistan,thoughitdidnotextendsofartothenorthornortheast,andonlythecentral
partsweredirectlyadministered.

Meanwhile,thecourseofeventsintheMakrnlowlandshadbeenchangedbyactivitiesinOmanandbythe
interestNderShahhadtakeninthePersianGulfalthoughNdersofficerswereincompetentandcorruptand
weredefeatedbytheGk.TheimamofOmancontinuedapractice,possiblyoriginatedbythePortuguese,of
recruitingBaluchfromMakrnintohisservice.AtleastoneexclusivelyBaluchcommunityontheOmanicoast
todaydatesfromthisperiod.In1740Amadb.Sad,governorofSohar,conductedacoupandfoundedthel
BSaddynasty.Beingamerchantandshipowner,hewasunabletorelyontribalconnectionsandwasobliged
torecruitBaluchandAfricanslavesasmercenaries.In1784apretendertothegovernmentofOman,named
SayyedSolnb.Amad,soughtrefugeinMakrn.AccordingtolocaltraditionsSolncamefirsttoZik,a
fortifiedvillageoftheMrwrtribeinKolwa,andthence,havingbeenjoinedbyDdKarmMrwr,
proceededtoKharan,wherehiscausewasespousedbyMrJahngr,aNowrwnleader.Thegroupthenpaid
theirrespectstoMrNarKhanatKalat.Naratfirstseemstohaveundertakentohelpthesupplicantto
establishhimselfinOman,butintheendonlygavehimGwadar.AtthetimeGwadarhaddeclinedinprosperity
andwasaninsignificantfishingvillage.ThereisnorecordofNarsintention.Heappearstohavegivenno
thoughttotheinterestsoftheGk.LaterOmanclaimedthatthegiftwasintendedtobeinperpetuitywhich
laterkhansdeniedbutweregenerallyunabletocontest.ThesituationwascontestedbytheGks,whoargued
thatNarcouldalienateonlyhisownhalfoftherevenue,notthehalfthatbelongedtothem.Until1792,when
SolnfinallybecamerulerofOman,heappearstohavemadeGwadarabaseforexpeditionsagainsttheOmani
coast.AfterestablishinghimselfinOmanhemadeGwadaradependencyandsentarepresentativewithtroops
tooccupyitandbuildafort.Hethensentaforcetohbahr,which(withtheaidoftheIsmailimerchant
community)enteredtheharborunderthepretextoffishing,andthentookthetownbysurprise.hbahrhad
beenunderaBuld,namedafMoammad,whopaidaquarterofhisrevenuetoMrSobn,theJaglruler
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beenunderaBuld,namedafMoammad,whopaidaquarterofhisrevenuetoMrSobn,theJaglruler
atBahu,thoughhehadforsometimealsopaidanotherquartertoOman.hbahrseemstohavebeenlostto
OmanonthedeathofSolnin1804,buttohavebeenrecoveredagainafterashortinterval.Itsrevenuein1809
wasRs5,000peryear,whichstillwententirelytotheSultanofOman.LittlemoreisknownofGwadarand
hbahruntiltheencroachmentoftheBritishattractedtheinterestofthePersiangovernmentinthe1860s,
exceptthatitrapidlyovertooktheneighboringports,PasniandJiwanri,inprosperity.Therulersofthemajor
MakrnsettlementswereincontinuouscontactwithOmanwithregardtothestatusandsecurityoftheports.

MrNarKhanwasastrictMuslim.HeprotectedtheHindutradersinhisterritory,andfeltanobligationto
combattheheresyoftheekrs(Zikris)inMakrn.Thehalfcenturyofpoliticalstabilityheprovidedhad
significanteconomicresults.Bothagricultureandtradeincreased.SomesectionsoftheNrinKharan,
Chagai,andsouthernSstnturnedtoagriculture.ButafterNarsdeaththedeclinewasrapid.Hewas
succeededbyhiseldestson,Mamd,whowasstillaminoragedseven.Almostimmediatelytheinfluenceof
KalatceasedtobefeltinMakrnandtheareabecamedividedamongthelocalleaders.Thecircumstancesofthe
successionareunclear.ButitappearsthatitwasdisputedbyagrandsonofMoabbat,calledBahrm.Bahrm
tookKarachi,butwasdefeatedbytheregentactinginthenameofMamd,withassistancefromShahZamn,
therulerofQandahr.

Whenhecameofage,Mamdprovedinadequatetothetaskofrebuildinghisfathersstate.Seeinghislackof
aptitudefortheposition,theperipheralterritoriesallreassertedtheirindependence.In1810HenryPottinger,
oneofthefirstEnglishtravelerstovisitBaluchistan,foundthesardarsactingindependently.Mamdsson,Mr
MerbKhanII,stoppedthedeclineforawhile.HeregainedKech,buthadtroublewithhisministers,which
causedhimlossesinthenorthandeast.

ForthisperiodimmediatelyprecedingBritishinterventioninthearea,thereisforthefirsttimesomerelatively
detailedeconomicdata.Thekhanhadcrownlandsinmostoftheprovincesofthestate,butmostoftherevenue
wasconsumedbytheagentswhocollectedit.MostofhisincomewasdrawnfromKacchi,whichwasthemost
productiveofhisprovinces.HisrevenuefromthissourcewasestimatedatRs300,000perannum.Kalathad
earlier(asKzknn)beenanimportantentreptformerchandisefromKhorasan,Qandahr,Kabul,andIndia,
butbythe1820sitstradewasinsignificant(Waaltyer,II,p.528Masson,II,pp.12223).Theentireincomeof
Baluchistananditsdependenciesin1810wasestimatedatnomorethanRs200,000(Schefer,p.7).jAbd
alNab(whoaccordingtoLeechundertookasecretreconnaissanceofMakrnin1838)traveledpartoftheway
fromMastungtowardPanjgurwiththekhanshqs,whowasonhiswaytocollecttherevenuewithabody
of300horse,foot,andcamelry.Therevenueislaterstatedtobe2,000Kashanirupees,plusaproportionofthe
crop.ThesametravelerreportedthatatKharan,whichwasindependentofKalatandunderthesuzeraintyof
Qandahr,therewerefiveorsixironsmiths,oneHindutrader,manycarpenters,andsixtyweavers.AtDezakin
thewesthefoundatleast1,000cottonweaversandfabricsexportedinalldirections,andahundredHindu
traders.HecontinuestogivefiguresformanyofthesettlementsoftheSaraddandtheMakrn,withmany
interestingpoliticalandeconomicdetailsandaccountsofhisadventures.Beyondtheauthorityofthekhanof
KalatandthesultanofOmantheterritorymostofwhatisnowBaluchistanwithinIranwasgenerally
dividedintominiaturerepublicsbasedonfortsintheagriculturalsettlements.Pottingerin1810foundthat
PersianauthoritywasheldincontemptbytherulerofBampr.ThePersianclaimtothewholeofBaluchistanup
toIndiahadcontinuedsincetheAchaemenids,thoughinthemedievalperiodonlyNderShahAfrsoughtto
enforceit.ItwasfinallytheactivityoftherebelliousqKhan(q.v.)between1838and1844thatled
MoammadShahQjrtosendforcesintothearea.

DuringthesameperiodtheeasternpartofBaluchistanappearstohavehadmoretrade.WearetoldthatBelahad
about300houses,onethirdoccupiedbyHindus.WadinJahlawanwasasmalltown,comprisingtwogroupsof
mudhousesabout100yardsapart,thewesterngroupcontainingabout50housesmainlyinhabitedbyHindu
traders,theeasterngroupcontaining2530housesofMuslimsincludingsardarsoftheMengaltribe,sand
WalMoammad.Nal,theseatoftheBzenjtribe,15milestothewest,wasroughlythesamesizebuthada
fort.Khuzdarhadaruinedfortandseveralsmallhamletsof23houseseach,perhaps60housesaltogether,only
threeofHindus,thoughtherehadformerlybeen30.Kalatitselfhadasmanyas800houses,manyinhabitedby
Hindus,andtwooutlyingsettlementsinhabitedbytheBbtribeofAfghansinexile(Masson,II,pp.12123).

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Earlyinthe19thcenturytheBritishinIndiabegantotakeamoreseriousinterestintheinteriorbecauseoftheir
concernabouttheirnorthwesternfrontier.In1809,whenthefirstEnglishman,aCaptainGrant,setoutto
explorewhetheraEuropeanarmymightenterIndiafromthatdirection,theBritishresidentinMuscat(Captain
Seton)advisedhimthatthewholeareawasunsettled.Gwat(a)r,whereGrantlanded,belongedtoMrSobn,a
JaglleaderwhoruledfromDatrandBhandwasthestrongestrulerinMakrn(Lorimer,I/2,p.2154).
Fromtherehemarchedtohbahr,thentoNigwar,thecoastalplaintotheeastofhbahr,wherehemetMr
Sobnandwaswellreceived.AttheendofFebruaryhereachedQareQand,wherehefoundanindependent
ruler,ShaikhSamandar.HewaitedthereforMoammadKhan,therulerofGeh(nowNkahr),underwhose
protectionhewastotravelintotheinterior.GehwassecondonlytoKechinlocalpower.FromGehhemarched
toBampr.TherulerinBamprwasunreliable,andGrantreturnedtoQareQand,Geh,andhbahr,and
thenalongthecoasttoJsk,andontoBandareAbbs.Grantreportedthathisjourneywaspossibleonly
becauseofthelettersofintroductionhecarriedfromtheBritishresidentinMuscattoMrSobn.Grantalso
carriedlettersofcreditfromMuscat,andtherewasplentyoftradebetweenMuscatandhbahr.Hetraveled
inEuropeanclothesandfoundeveryonemorecivilandhospitablethantheyhadbeenrepresented.Like
Pottinger,hefoundnoPersianinfluenceinMakrn.

In1839thefailureofaBritishdiplomaticmissiontoKabulandthearrivalthereofaRussianenvoyledtothe
BritishviceroysdecisiontoinvadeAfghanistanandreinstallShahojinKabul(seeangloafganwars,i).In
ordertoensuresafepassageofthearmytoQandahr,itwasnecessarytocontrolBaluchistan.Leech,thefirst
Englishmanformallydispatchedtoconcludeanagreementwiththekhan,failed.LaterSirAlexanderBurnes
wassentandanagreementwasarrivedatinMarch,1839,whichguaranteedthesovereigntyandbordersof
KalatandmadethekhanresponsibleforthesafepassageandprovisioningoftheBritishtroopsinreturnforRs
15,000inadditiontothecostofprovisions(Aitchison,XI,p.209).Thisagreementmarkedtheendofthe
autonomyofBaluchistan.

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(BrianSpooner)

OriginallyPublished:December15,1988

LastUpdated:July15,2010

Thisarticleisavailableinprint.
Vol.III,Fasc.6,pp.598632

BALUCHISTANi.Geography,HistoryandEthnography
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Sectionsinthisentry
1.BALUCHISTAN
2.BALUCHISTANi.Geography,HistoryandEthnography
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3/4/2017 BALUCHISTANi.Geography,HistoryEthnographyEncyclopaediaIranica

3.BALUCHISTANi.Geography,HistoryandEthnography(cont.)
4.BALUCHISTANii.Archeology
5.BALUCHISTANiii.BaluchiLanguageandLiterature
6.BALUCHISTANiiia.BaluchiPoetry
7.BALUCHISTANiv.MusicofBaluchistan
8.BALUCHISTANv.BaluchCarpets

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