Young in Europe KS 05-14-031 en N

Statistical books
Being young in Europe today
2015 edition
Statistical books
2015 edition
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ISBN 978-92-79-43243-9
doi: 10.2785/59267
N Cat: KS-05-14-031-EN-N
Theme: Population and social conditions

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European Union, 2015

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Foreword
Foreword
Investing in children and youth is the key to
making the future prosperous, both economically
and socially. In 2009, the European Union set up
a Youth Strategy (20102018) for more and equal
opportunities for young people in education and
in the labour market, promoting active citizenship,
social inclusion and solidarity. The EU Member
States also agreed to place greater emphasis on
committing to human capital, hence investing in
children from an early age. Quality and inclusive
education systems, early childhood education and
care as well as increased access to better and safer
healthcare for all children are high priorities for the
European Union.
The children and youth statistics play an important
role in evaluating the progress toward these goals.
In order to assist evidence-based policy-making,
Eurostat gathers various statistics related to children
and young people, ranging from demographic data
to health, education, employment, poverty, social inclusion as well as computer and internet usage.
A selection of these statistics are analysed in this publication.
This flagship publication on children and young people, focusing on their concerns and interests, also
illustrates Eurostats efforts to be closer to EU citizens by addressing specific themes that are highly
relevant for the general public. It aims to provide an insight into the past, current and future situation of
our youngest fellow citizens. The objective is to shed the light on what it means to be young in Europe
today, ranging from attending school and participating in sport and leisure activities, to leaving the
parental home and entering the professional life.
I am convinced that the topics covered in this publication are all issues which young people throughout
the EU are concerned about. I therefore feel that it will be particularly appealing to young people, parents
and teachers.
The emphasis in this publication has been placed on the most recent data available, but analyses of
changes over a period of five or ten years have also been presented when relevant. You can find the
content of this publication in a richer online format in Statistics Explained and more detailed data can be
downloaded from the Eurostat website.
This flagship publication is released along with a more interactive and playful dissemination tool. Our
infographic called Young Europeans can be accessed through the Eurostat website. It has been primarily
designed for young people aged 1629 but I encourage all of you to have a look at it, being a really nice
addition to this publication.
I hope you enjoy reading this publication.
Mariana Kotzeva
Deputy Director-General and Chief Editor, Eurostat
Being young in Europe today 3

Abstract
Abstract
Being young in Europe today presents some of Eurostats most interesting data on children and young
people in the European Union. It gives an insight into the past, current and future situation of our
youngest fellow citizens, ranging from attending school and participating in sport and leisure activities,
to leaving the parental home and entering the professional life. Data are presented for the European
Union and its Member States as well as for the EFTA countries.
Being young in Europe today provides an overview of the wealth of information that is available on
Eurostats website and within its online databases.
Editors
Publication team:
Catherine Coyette, Isabelle Fiasse, Annika Johansson, Fabienne Montaigne, Helene Strandell
Eurostat, Unit B4 Dissemination
Contact details
Eurostat
Btiment Joseph Bech
5, rue Alphonse Weicker
L-2721 Luxembourg
LUXEMBOURG
E-mail: estat-user-support@ec.europa.eu
Production
This publication was produced by William Helminger, Alain Mahieu, Bruno Scuve CRI (Luxembourg)
S.A.
For more information please consult

Eurostat website: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat
Statistics Explained: http://ec.eurostat.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained
Acknowledgements
The editors of this pocketbook would like to thank the Eurostat colleagues who were involved in its
preparation.
4 Being young in Europe today

Contents
Contents
Foreword 3
Abstract 4
Contents 5
Executive Summary 9
Introduction 13
1. Demographic trends 17
Introduction 18
Past, present and future demographic developments: children and young people 19
Changes in numbers of children and young people: causes and consequences 30
Conclusions: What consequences from a declining share of
children and young people? 39
Data sources and availability 39
2. Children and young people in family and society 41

Introduction 42
Family composition and household structure 42
Foreign-born children and young people in the EU 54
Subjective wellbeing 57
Young peoples participation in society 62
3. Health 69
Introduction 70
Life expectancy and mortality rates 71
Causes of death 77
Health status 85
Health determinants 93

Contents
4. Education 103
Introduction 104
Childcare attendance and participation in education 105
More skills, more languages increasing your opportunities in the EU 118
Quality of childcare and school life 130
5. Labour market: access and participation 137

Introduction 138
Education and employment patterns 138
School-to-work transition 146
Youth employment 150
Youth unemployment 159
Context 164
6. Living conditions for children 165

Introduction 166
Poverty and social exclusion 166
Conclusions: what does the future hold for child poverty and
social exclusion in the EU? 190
7. Children and young people in the digital world 191

Introduction 192
A digital age divide 192
Information and communications technology skills 199
Youth online: a way of life 202
Conclusions:: what future for young people in the digital world? 208

Contents
Abbreviations and acronyms 209

Geographical aggregates and countries 209
Units of measurement 209
Abbreviations 209

Executive Summary
Executive summary
Executive summary
The EU is growing older Europeans have begun to appear, such as the
widespread trend of delaying the transition into
The European Union (EU) is continuing to age
adulthood. Young people tend indeed to leave the
and the share of children and young people in its
parental home and to get married later than before
population has been decreasing continuously over
in all EU Member States. Also more or more babies
recent years. In 2014, the EU population stood at
in the EU have been born outside marriage.
507 million people, of whom only 169 million (or
33.3%) were children or young people (aged under Although these changes that the EU young
30). Furthermore, the number of elderly people generation has to face, life satisfaction was the
(aged 65 or more) has been exceeding the number highest among the age group 16-24 in 2013, with
of children (aged under 15) since 2004. Although an average score of 7.6 on 10 for this age group at
this ageing phenomenon has been recorded the EU level, while the score was 7.1 for the whole
across the worlds industrialised societies, it has EU population.
impacted the EU population more than others.
Young people are also aware of the importance of
There were however some disparities between
the physical wellbeing a majority of them has
individual EU Member States. Whereas Ireland
been practising some kind of physical activity in
and Cyprus boasted young population shares
the last few years. Despite this, health inequality
at around 40% , other countries such as Italy or
continued to exist in the EU, mainly due to socio-
Germany recorded shares around the 30% mark.
economic differences: people who were less well-
The proportion of children and young people also
off tended to be in poorer health than others.
varied significantly between EU regions. These
proportions are projected to keep decreasing until
Health matters
2050, to afterwards slowly and continuous increase
until 2080 without nevertheless reaching their One of the EUs main objectives is to improve the
actual rate. health inequality situation in Europe, although
the general health situation of the EU citizens
As a consequence, the median age has risen on
has been improving continuously over the years.
average by four months each year over the last two
Todays young people are expected to live longer
decades in the EU. It stood at 35 years in 1990 and
than ever before, the result of a combination of
had grown to 42 years in 2013. This was the result
economic development, better education, rising
of the combination of decreased fertility rates and
living standards, improved life style and greater
increased life expectancy.
access to health services. Infant mortality rates in
the EU have decreased by 90% since 1961.
while its families are evolving and adapting
to changing societies As far as their self-perceived health status is
concerned, the vast majority of young EU citizens
The share of households with children has generally rated it as good or very good. However differences
declined in the EU over the last few years. Single- according to gender and income levels stood out.
person households and couples without children Generally speaking, the young EU population
made up the majority of households in the EU, was not particularly prone to obesity. On the
although the figures varied between EU Member other hand, smoking was still a regular past-time
States. of young people in the EU, although here again,
The EU is a diverse entity, made up of different numbers varied substantially between EU Member
Member States with their own specific cultural States.
and normative characteristics. Yet despite those
differences, features common to all young

Executive summary
and so does education The difficult transition to the labour market

In an ever more competitive world economy, a The general perception of the labour market today
good educational and training system plays an is one of hardship. Many young people in the EU
increasingly important role. Over the last few leaving education in the last few years found it
years, the EU has launched a series of initiatives increasingly difficult to get a job. This may explain
aimed at helping its Member States achieve their why an increasing number of young people have
goals in terms of better education. These range opted to spend more time in education before
from early childcare to university education. entering the labour market. Improved education
seems to be increasingly perceived as providing
Over the years, early childcare has become more
better job opportunities.
and more important to ensure that women can
combine their private and professional lives. Unemployment of young people has indeed turned
Although the availability of early childcare into a major problem in some EU Member States,
facilities has generally improved throughout the especially those that were hardest hit by the
EU, the situation was still very diverse between financial and economic crisis of 2008. However,
Member States. In 2013, half of children under the issue of youth unemployment was a problem
3-year old in the EU were cared for only by their for the entire EU in 2013 20.9% of young people
parents and informal childcare concerned one in aged 2529 in the EU were neither in employment
three children of that age. nor in education and training. The unemployment
rate of young people in the EU has increased in the
The enrolment rates for primary and secondary
past few years, especially since the 2008 financial
education are very high in the EU Member States,
and economic crisis. Although unemployment
but large discrepancies exist between EU Member
rates varied substantially between Member States,
States in enrolment for tertiary education,
the trends were broadly similar. Young people were
especially in order age groups.
also hit by long-term unemployment, especially in
One of the most important assets required to take EU Member States that were particularly affected
advantage of the EU single market is language by the global financial and economic crisis.
skills: the more languages you speak, the more
opportunities you have. Historically, several EU Childrens lives in the EU a mixed picture
Member States have been providing multilingual
Although most children in the EU grew up in
education to their pupils. However, more and
favourable conditions, 3 out of every 10 were at risk
more countries have been catching up in the last
of poverty and social exclusion in 2013. Certain
few years. Broader language skills also make
EU Member States were worse affected than
student mobility a much easier process (which
others. The EU has addressed this issue through
is also simplified through the popular Erasmus
several initiatives including the recommendation
programme). This said language skills are only one
Investing in children: breaking the cycle of
of the three basic skills taken into consideration
disadvantage.
to assess curricular development, the other ones
being maths and science skills. In this context, Out of all the forms of poverty and social inclusion,
the PISA study is used as an assessment tool to monetary poverty was the most widespread
monitor progress across EU Member States and among children in the EU in 2013. It was also on
main results of this study are described in this the increase, especially since the onset of the 2008
publication. global financial and economic crisis.
Looking at tertiary education, an increasing There also appeared to be a clear link between the
amount of young people graduated with a tertiary level of education of the parents and the exposure
degree in 2013 compared to previous years. to poverty or social exclusion of their children: the
Among these graduates, a majority were women higher the level of education, the smaller the risk of
a general trend across the EU. exposure to poverty.

Executive summary
The digital world opportunities and from mobile devices, such as smartphones, at the
challenges expense of computers. The highest proportion of
young people using the internet daily was found
In many ways, the digitalisation process is a two- amongst younger users with a higher level of
sided coin: although it has revolutionised the way formal education.
we live our daily lives, it has also opened up a new
As avid users of digital devices, young people in
rift in society, the so-called digital divide. Access
the EU tended to be more highly ICT skilled than
to the internet is now within anyones reach
the population as a whole. Data on young people
provided they own or have access to a compatible
generally indicated a more diligent use of the
device the skills required to use it to its fullest
internet than the general population on a wide
extent however, are not.
array of activities ranging from online gaming to
The presence of children in an EU household social networking and carrying out civic activities.
seemed to have a positive impact on the access of The challenge for the EU and its Member States is
these households to the internet. In 2014, nearly to combine the social and economic benefits they
9 out of ten young people aged 16-29 in the EU-28 reap from the early take-up of ICT by their young
accessed the internet on a daily basis, which was populations with the safe use of these innovative
substantially more than the average for the whole technologies by the most vulnerable members of
population. The internet was increasingly accessed society.

Introduction
Introduction
About this publication

In late 2013, Eurostat introduced a new type of found on Eurostats website, which contains
publication, the flagship publication, with the subject-specific publications and online databases.
aim of providing statistical analyses related to
important social, economic or environmental
Infographic Young Europeans
phenomena. The goal for these publications was
to address specific themes highly relevant for the To complement this publication on children and
general public and the European Union policy- young people, Eurostat has recently developed an
making. infographic that provides information to young
Being young in Europe today is part of this new internet users in a fun way. The infographic covers
breed of publications and presents some of four main areas: family, work, free time & studies
Eurostats most interesting data on the state of and the internet. The infographic can be accessed
todays young population in the EU. Being young through the homepage of Eurostat's website.
in Europe today does not claim to be an exhaustive
publication, but it gives an overview of the wealth
of information that is available on Eurostats
website and within its online databases. It provides
a balanced set of indicators, with a broad cross-
section of information.
What can you find in this publication?

Being young in Europe today is divided into 7
chapters covering population, family and society,
health, education, access and participation to the
labour market, living conditions and the digital
The European Union (EU) has set up several
world.
initiatives to either provide information about all
Each chapter contains data and background policies that can help strengthen the capacities of
information relating to a very wide range of children and their families or promote dialogue
European statistics. More information can be between the young population and policy-makers.
About initiatives from the European Union

The European Platform for Investing in provides guidance for EU Member States on how to
Children (EPIC) tackle child poverty and social exclusion through
measures such as family support and benefits,
In February 2013, the European Commission(EC) quality childcare and early-childhood education.
adopted the Recommendation Investing in Social investment in individual capacities during
Children breaking the cycle of disadvantage the early years is particularly beneficial for children
as part of the Social Investment Package, which from a disadvantaged background and can provide
proposed a long-term social strategy to support large social returns. They are also a crucial factor in
children and to help mitigate the effects of the breaking cycles of intergenerational transmission
current economic crisis. The Recommendation of poverty.

Introduction
The European Platform for Investing in Children to encourage young people to actively
(EPIC) is an evidence-based online platform that participate in society.
provides information about policies that can
To achieve these objectives it proposes initiatives
help children and their families face the existing
in eight fields of action:
challenges. It also helps EU Member States
implement the Recommendation. EPIC is used to Education and training;
collect and disseminate innovative practices that
Employment & entrepreneurship;
were found to have a positive impact on children
and families in EU Member States. Health & wellbeing;
Participation;
The EU Youth Strategy Voluntary activities;
In 2009, the European Council adopted Resolution Social inclusion;
2009/C 311/01 on a renewed framework for
European cooperation in the youth field (201018), Youth & the world; and
which set the stage for the EU Youth Strategy. Creativity & culture
The Resolution was the outcome of the European
Commissions efforts to promote dialogue between The first 3 years of the EU Youth Strategy (201012)
the EU young population and policy-makers, with were jointly assessed by the European Commission
the aim of increasing active citizenship, foster and the European Council in the EU Youth Report
social integration, and ensure inclusion of the 2012. For the period 201315, three top priorities
young in EU policy development. were put forward:
Employment;
The EU Youth Strategy for 201018 pursues two
overall objectives: Social inclusion (particularly those with fewer
opportunities); and
to provide more and equal opportunities for
Health and wellbeing.
young people in education and in the job
market; and
About Eurostat and the European statistics

Eurostat is the statistical office of the European (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat). Eurostat provides
Union, situated in Luxembourg. Its task is to users with free access to its databases and all of its
provide the EU with statistics at a European level publications in portable document format (PDF)
that enable comparisons between countries and via the internet. The website is updated daily and
regions. Eurostats mission is to be the leading gives access to the latest and most comprehensive
provider of high-quality statistics on Europe. statistical information available on the EU,
its Member States, EFTA countries, as well as
acceding and candidate countries.
Accessing European statistics
The simplest way to access Eurostats broad range
of statistical information is through its website

Introduction
Statistics Explained
Statistics Explained is part of Eurostats website.
It provides easy access to statistical information
concerning the EU. It can also be accessed via an
icon at the right-hand end of the top menu bar
on most Eurostat webpages, or directly at http://
ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained.
Statistics Explained is an online publishing
system about EU statistics which uses MediaWiki
technology and resembles Wikipedia. This wiki-
Eurostat online data codes easy

access to the freshest data
Eurostat online data codes allow easy access to
the most recent data on Eurostats website. In
this publication the online data codes are given
as part of the source below each table and figure.
In the PDF version of this publication, the reader based system presents statistical articles which
is led directly to the freshest data by clicking on together form an encyclopaedia of European
the hyperlinks that form part of each online data statistics, completed by a glossary of the statistical
code. Readers of the paper edition can access the concepts and terms used. In addition, numerous
freshest data by typing a standardised hyperlinks to the latest data and metadata as well as
link into a web browser http://ec.europa. eu/ to further information are provided, making
eurostat/product?code=<data_code>&mode= Statistics Explained a portal for regular and
view where <data_code> is to be replaced by the occasional users alike.
online data code listed under the table or figure in
question. Online data codes lead to either a two- It is possible to search for articles using the Search
or three-dimensional table in the TGM (tables, function on the top-right of the webpage, as to get
graphs, maps) interface or to an open dataset which a PDF version of the article, to print, to bookmark
generally contains more dimensions and longer or forward content easily.
time series using the Data Explorer interface. The content of this flagship publication Being
Online data codes can also be fed into the Search young in Europe today is also available on
function on Eurostats website. The results from Statistics Explained and can be found under the
such a search present related dataset(s) and online publication with the same title.
possibly publication(s) and metadata.
Note that the data on the Eurostats website are
frequently updated and that the description above
presents the situation as of April 2015.

Demographic trends
1 Demographic trends
Introduction
This chapter presents a range of demographic children and young people. It continues with some
statistics for children (defined here as those aged international comparisons, which highlight the
014 years) and young people (defined here as relatively small share of the EUs population that is
those aged 1529 years) across the European accounted for by children and young people when
Union (EU). As Europe continues to age, the compared with many other countries. It then moves
historical triangular age pyramid associated with on to examine a range of demographic phenomena
an expanding population has been reshaped, with that may be linked to the falling share of children
a smaller proportion of children and young people and young people in the EUs population, such as:
and an increased share of elderly persons. the rising median age of the population; the low
level of fertility rates; the increased longevity of
The analysis begins with a set of basic statistics the EUs population; and the potential impact that
that portray the existing demographic structure of these drivers of demographic change could have
the EU-28, focusing on the relative importance of on the EUs population in the coming decades.
EUROPES DEMOGRAPHIC CHALLENGE

Numerous studies have concluded that the EUs population is likely to shrink in the coming decades
as a result of a prolonged period of relatively low fertility rates (assuming no change in migratory
patterns). This falling number of children and young people in the total population could result in
labour market shortages in specific countries / regions and in particular occupations. By contrast, life
expectancy (for both men and women) in the EU continues to rise and the baby-boom generation (1)
is in a transition into retirement. As such, the number and share of the elderly in the total population
continues to increase and this will probably drive demand for a range of specific services catered
to the needs of the (very) old. These two changes at either end of the age spectrum will affect the
structure of the EUs population and could lead to a number of challenges, for example:
how to propagate sustainable economic growth during a period when the number and
proportion of working-age people will decline; a lower number of working-age people could
lead to a reduction in revenue-raising powers, for example, from income tax and social security
contributions;
how to safeguard social welfare models, such as pensions and healthcare, if there are a growing
number of (very) old people who are making increasing demands on these systems.
(1) A baby-boomer generation is a demographic phenomenon describing a period marked by considerably higher than average birth rates within a
certain geographical area. The baby-boomer generation is often used to refer to those people who were born post-World War II, between the years
1946 and 1970 in Europe and the United States.

Demographic trends 1
Past, present and future demographic developments:
children and young people
Figures for 2014 suggest that there were just under accounting for a 15.6% share of the EU-28s
507 million inhabitants in the EU-28. Of these, population and young people for a slightly higher
79 million were children (aged 014), which was share, 17.7%.
10 million fewer than the number of young people The combined share of children and young people
(aged 1529). As such, one third of the EU-28s (those aged 029) in the EUs population fell from
population almost 170 million inhabitants a high of 40.6% in 1994, through 36.1% in 2004, to
were under the age of 30 in 2014, with children 33.3% by 2014 (Table 1).
Table 1: Children and young people in the population, EU-28, 1994, 2004 and 2014 ()
1994 () 2004 2014 ()
population share population share population share

(thousands) (%) (thousands) (%) (thousands) (%)
Children (014 years) 88628 18.6 80724 16.4 79106 15.6
Young people (1529 years) 104574 22.0 97219 19.7 89634 17.7
Children and young people
193202 40.6 177944 36.1 168740 33.3
(029 years)
() Data refer to 1 January of each reference year.
() EU-27 instead of EU-28.
() Provisional data given the non-availability of detailed data for Greece.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_pjangroup)
Just under 170 million children and young The number of elderly people in the EU
people in the EU-28 in 2014 exceeded the number of children for the first
time in 2004
The rate of change in the number of young people
was relatively constant over the period under To give some idea of the speed of demographic
consideration, while the decline in the proportion change, there were 88.6 million children in the
of children slowed somewhat during the period EU-27 in 1994 compared with 68.9 million elderly
200414. persons. Nine years later in 2003 the gap between
the number of children and the number of elderly
As the share of children and young people in the
persons had narrowed considerably to 2 million
EUs population decreased, the relative importance
for the EU-28, with 81.5 million children and
of the elderly ( 65 years old) grew. In 2014, those
79.6 million elderly. By 2004, there were, for the first
aged 65 or more accounted for almost one in five
time ever, as many elderly people as children in the
(18.5%) of the EU-28s population. The proportion
EU-28 (80.7 million). The growth in the number of
of elderly persons in the total population climbed
elderly people continued in the intervening years
at a steady pace from 14.5% of the population in
(while the number of children remained relatively
1994, through 16.4% in 2004 to reach its relative
unchanged) and by 2014 there were 93.9 million
high of 18.5% at the end of the time series. The
people in the EU-28 aged 65 or more, compared
pace of demographic ageing quickened somewhat
with 79.1 million children.
during the period 200414, as the relative share of
the elderly rose at a slightly faster pace than it had
done over the period 19942004.

This rapid acceleration in the share of the elderly women within each five-year age group as a share
was accompanied by an increase in the share of of the total population.
persons aged 3064. People in this age group
accounted for 44.9% of the EU-28s population Reshaping the population pyramid: a
in 1994 rising to 47.5% by 2004 and increasing decreasing share of children and young
further still to reach 48.2 % by 2014; these people
increasing shares may be attributed to the impact
of ageing among the baby-boomer generation, as The two pyramids, for 1994 and 2014, provide
those born in the 1960s accounted for a growing evidence of the ageing of the EUs population: there
share of the EUs working-age population. is a clear bump present in both pyramids, which
Population projections suggest that the share of can be associated with the tail end of the baby-
the working-age population in the total population boomer generation. In 1994, the highest share of
will start to decrease in the coming years, once the population was accounted for by those aged
more of the baby-boomer generation has moved 2529 in other words, children born towards
into retirement. the end of the 1960s. By 2014, this same group had
aged an additional 20 years and moved into the age
Figure 1 presents the EUs age pyramid (a graphical group of persons aged 4549 years old and again
representation of its population structure), with accounted for the highest share of the population
information shown for the proportion of men and among any of the five-year age groups.
Figure 1: Population structure by five-year age groups and sex, 1993 and 2013, EU-28 ()
(% share of total population)
85 + years
8084 years
7579 years
7074 years
6569 years
6064 years
5559 years
5054 years
4549 years
4044 years
3539 years
3034 years
2529 years
2024 years
1519 years
1014 years
59 years
< 5 years
4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Men 2014 Women 2014

Men 1994 Women 1994
() Data refer to 1 January of each reference year. 1993: EU-27 instead of EU-28.

In 2014, the three five-year age groups that together Boys outnumbered girls in the EU
cover the aggregate for children (those aged less
There were more male (than female) children in
than 5, 59 years and 1014 years) accounted
the EU-28 in 2014; boys accounted for 51.3% of the
for the smallest shares of the EU population
population aged 014. This is consistent with the
in terms of 5-year age groups, apart from the
time series for births which shows higher numbers
elderly (see below for more details). And among
of boys being born than girls. There were also more
the young people those aged 1519 were the least
young men (aged 1529) than there were young
represented; they corresponded to a smaller share
women, although the difference across the EU-28
of the EU population than each of the two other
narrowed to 50.9% against 49.1% in 2014.
age categories covering 1529 years (those aged
2024 and 2529). The share of children and young people in the
EUs population was considerably lower than
Figure 1 shows a reduction in the relative share the world average
of children and young people in the total EU
population between 1994 and 2014. Nevertheless, Children and young people (029 years) accounted
the reduction is more important for the two for just over one third (34.4%) of the EU-28
5-year age groups covering 2029 years than for population in 2010, while their share in the world
the youngest age groups. This may be linked to population was considerably higher, at 52.4%
the postponement of childbirth, thereby causing see Tables 2 and 3. Children accounted for 15.7%
a decrease in the number of births which has of the EU-28s population in 2010, which was
subsequently stabilised. nearly 11 percentage points lower than the world
average, while young people represented 18.7% of
The other notable difference between the pyramids the EU-28s population, which was slightly closer
for 1994 and 2014 is the increasing share of the to the world average, 7 percentage points lower.
elderly in the total population. This was particularly The relative importance of children and young
true among the elderly women (defined here as people across the world was influenced, to some
those aged 85 or above), their longevity increasing degree, by relatively high birth rates in Africa and
at a rapid pace over the last two decades. some parts of Asia.
Table 2: Share of children (014 years) in the population, 2000 and 2010 ()
2000 2010 Change, 200010
(%) (%) (percentage points)
EU-28 () 17.3 15.7 1.6
Australia / New Zealand 21.1 19.2 1.9
Brazil 29.6 25.5 4.1
China 25.6 18.1 7.5
India 34.2 30.2 4.0
Japan 14.6 13.3 1.3
Russia 18.2 14.9 3.3
United States 21.3 19.8 1.5
World 30.1 26.6 3.5
() Mid-year population for non-member countries.

() Data refer to 1 January of each reference year. 2000: EU-27.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_pjangroup) and the United Nations, World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision

Table 3: Share of young people (1529 years) in the population, 2000 and 2010 ()
2000 2010 Change, 200010
(%) (%) (percentage points)
EU-28 () 20.4 18.7 1.8
Australia / New Zealand 21.1 21.5 0.3
Brazil 28.2 26.3 2.0
China 25.2 25.5 0.3
India 27.6 27.5 0.1
Japan 20.4 15.9 4.5
Russia 22.9 23.2 0.4
United States 20.9 20.9 0.0
World 25.9 25.8 0.2
() Mid-year population for non-member countries.

() Data refer to 1 January of each reference year. 2000: EU-27.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_pjangroup) and the United Nations, World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision
The relative weight of children and young people in the total population was more substantial for
in the EU-28s population was considerably lower each of the countries shown in Table 2 than for the
than in many of the industrialised and rapidly EU-28.
emerging economies presented in Tables 2 and 3.
For example, children accounted for almost one The global share of young people in the population
third (30.2%) of the total population in India, a declined by a relatively small amount (down by
quarter (25.5%) of the population in Brazil and 0.2 percentage points) over the period 200010. The
one fifth (19.8%) of the population in the United share of young people remained relatively stable in
States. There were however a couple of exceptions: the majority of the countries shown in Table 3, as
as the relative share of children in the Japanese Japan and Brazil were the only countries where
population in both 2000 and 2010 which was lower the share of young people fell faster than it did in
than the EU-28 average, while the same was true the EU-28. Japan was the only country to record
in Russia in 2010. a share of young people in its total population
(15.9%) that was lower than the EU-28 average
Signs that the fall in birth and fertility rates is (18.7%) in 2010.
spreading to other developed and emerging
The information presented in Tables 2 and
economies 3 confirms that the pattern of decreasing birth and
Worldwide, there was a general decline in the fertility rates observed across the EU-28 and Japan
relative share of children in the global population appears to be in the process of establishing itself
between 2000 and 2010. Their share decreased by across a range of other industrialised and emerging
3.5 percentage points, which was a much larger economies. As this is often a relatively new
decline than in the EU-28 (1.6 percentage points). phenomena, the most rapid changes in population
The largest decrease (among those countries structure are apparent among populations of
shown in Table 2) was observed in China, where children, although in the coming years the lower
the share of children in the total population fell number of children will gradually impact upon the
by 7.5 percentage points during the period under number of young people too, as the effect of lower
consideration. With the exceptions of Japan and the birth and fertility rates moves up through each
United States, the decline in the share of children national population pyramid.

Ireland and Cyprus: the most youthful Member Children accounted for more than one in five
States (22.0%) of the Irish population in 2014 the
highest share while France (18.6%) and the
Ireland and Cyprus stood out as the most youthful
United Kingdom (17.6%) recorded the second
nations in the EU-28, as the share of their
and third highest shares. By contrast, children
population aged less than 30 accounted for around
accounted for 13.1% of the German population in
4 out of every 10 people in 2014 (Ireland 40.1% and
2014, while they also represented a relatively small
Cyprus 39.0%). At the other end of the spectrum,
share of the population in Bulgaria (13.7%) and
the share of children and young people was lowest
Italy (13.9%).
in Italy (29.2%) and Germany (30.1%).
Cyprus (22.7%) and Slovakia (20.4%), recorded
the highest proportions of young people in their
respective populations in 2014, while young
people also represented at least one in five of the
total number of inhabitants in Poland and Malta
(both 20.2%). Each of these four countries was
characterised by children accounting for a much
lower share of the total population than young
people, suggesting that the birth rates and fertility
rates of these countries had fallen over the last
15 years. At the other end of the scale, the share of
young people in the total population of Italy fell
Among the EU Member States, Ireland had the to 15.3%, while there were also comparatively low
highest share of children in its population in shares in two other southern EU Member States,
2013. namely Spain (15.6%) and Portugal (16.3%).
Figure 2: Share of children and young people in the population, 1 January 2014
(%)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
Greece (1)
EU-28
Ireland
Cyprus
United Kingdom
France
Sweden
Denmark
Luxembourg
Slovakia
Netherlands
Belgium
Poland
Finland
Malta
Lithuania
Estonia
Romania
Latvia
Croatia
Austria
Hungary
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Bulgaria
Portugal
Spain
Germany
Italy
Iceland
Norway
Liechtenstein
Switzerland
Children (014 years) Young people (1529 years)

() 2013 data.

Children and young people accounted for a total number of inhabitants being aged less than
low share of the population in many eastern 30. The second highest share was also recorded in
German and northern Italian and Spanish a French overseas department, namely, Runion
regions (44.8%), while the Spanish Ciudad Autnoma de
While there was a considerable degree of variation Melilla (44.5%) and two urban conurbations in
in the share of children and young people between the United Kingdom Inner London (43.4%) and
the EU Member States, the differences were even the West Midlands (41.8%) made up the top five
more pronounced across Europes regions. Among in the ranking (Table 4). More generally, those re-
NUTS level 2 regions, Guyane (a French overseas gions which featured near the top of the ranking
department) was the only region in the EU where with the highest shares of children and young peo-
children and young people represented more than ple in their respective populations were often from
half of the population in 2014, some 56.8% of the France, Ireland, the United Kingdom or Belgium.
Table 4: Highest and lowest shares of children and young people (029 years) in the total
population, by NUTS 2 regions, 1 January 2014 ()
(%)
Top 10 regions highest shares
Guyane France 56.8
Runion France 44.8
Ciudad Autnoma de Melilla Spain 44.5
Inner London United Kingdom 43.4
West Midlands United Kingdom 41.8
Ciudad Autnoma de Ceuta Spain 41.3
Rgion de Bruxelles-Capitale / Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest Belgium 40.3
Outer London United Kingdom 40.3
Southern and Eastern Ireland 40.2
Border, Midland and Western Ireland 40.1
Bottom 10 regions lowest shares
Castilla y Len Spain 26.3
Toscana Italy 26.2
Thringen Germany 26.1
Friuli-Venezia Giulia Italy 25.7
Galicia Spain 25.6
Brandenburg Germany 25.3
Sachsen-Anhalt Germany 25.3
Chemnitz Germany 24.7
Liguria Italy 24.2
Principado de Asturias Spain 23.6
() Regions in Greece: 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_r_pjangroup)

By contrast, those regions with the lowest shares of At the other end of the range, the Principado
children and young people in their total number de Asturias (Spain) recorded the lowest share
of inhabitants included the northern Spanish of children (11.0%). In line with the general
Principado de Asturias (23.6%) and the northern patterns observed at a national level, some of the
Italian region of Liguria and (24.2%), as well as the regions with the lowest shares of children were
eastern German regions of Chemnitz, Sachsen- located in Germany: for example, Sachsen-Anhalt
Anhalt and Brandenburg (each within the range (11.3%), Saarland (11.4%), Chemnitz (11.6%) and
of 24.7% to 25.6%). These regions were quite Thringen (11.7%)
representative of a more general pattern, as many
of the regions at the bottom end of the ranking Inner London had the highest share of young
were from Germany, Spain and Italy, and for people
which the share of children and young people was
Map 2 presents a similar set of information to the
less than 27%.
previous map, but this time based on the share of
young people in the regional populations (NUTS
Outside of overseas departments and
2 regions). Inner London had the highest share of
autonomous cities, the two Irish regions
young people (25.7%) in 2014, which can probably
had the highest shares of children in their
be explained not only with its above average birth
respective populations rate, but also with the appeal of this city to younger
Map 1 presents the relative share of children in generations; the presence of numerous higher
the regional populations of NUTS 2 regions in education institutions may also have an impact
2014. Excluding the French overseas departments on the proportion of young adults living in this
of Guyane (33.8%) and Runion (23.9%) as the region. The next highest shares were recorded in
Spanish Ciudad Autnoma de Melilla (23.6%), the French overseas region of Guyane (23.0%) and
the highest shares were recorded for the two Irish in Cyprus (22.7%).They were followed by several
regions of Border, Midland and Western (22.9%) Polish regions and several other metropolitan
and Southern and Eastern (21.7%). There were regions from the United Kingdom, as well as the
four other regions in the EU-28 where children Dutch region of Groningen and the Slovakian
represented more than one fifth of the regional regions of Vchodn Slovensko for which this
population in 2014: Ciudad Autnoma de Ceuta share was more than 21%.
(the second autonomous Spanish city), Guadeloupe
(another French overseas region), the Dutch region
of Flevoland and the mainland French region of
Nord-Pas-de-Calais.

Map 1: Share of children (014 years) in the population, by NUTS 2 regions, 2014 (1)
(%)
(1) 2013 data for Greece.


Map 2: Share of young people (1529 years) in the population, by NUTS 2 regions, 2014 (1)
(%)
(1) 2013 data for Greece.


EUROSTATS POPULATION PROJECTIONS

Population projections gives a picture of what the future population may look like based on a set of
assumptions for fertility and mortality rates as well as for migration.
EUROPOP2013 is a set of population projections produced by Eurostat based on the cohort-
component method. These are essentially what-if scenarios, providing information about the
likely future size and structure of the population at national level, by sex and single-years of age.
EUROPOP 2013 covered the time period from 1 January 2013 to 1 January 2080.
The projections presented in this chapter relate to what is referred to as the main scenario, based
on a set of assumptions relating to future fertility, mortality and net international migration. The
main scenario is one of five main variants (different what-if scenarios) presented by Eurostat. The
other scenarios concern variants for no migration, higher life expectancy, reduced migration and
lower fertility.
By contrast, the share of young people was Figure 3 shows the EU-28 shares of children and
particularly low in the northern half of Italy, young people in the projected population up to
northern Spain and eastern Germany, the lowest and including the year 2080. The share of children
shares were recorded in the Italian regions of is projected to decrease from 15.6% (or 79.2
Liguria and the Spanish Principado de Asturias million children) in 2013 to a relative low 14.6%
(both 12.6%). (or 76.3 million children) by 2035, followed by
a slight increase up to 15.0% (or 78.6 million
The proportion of children and particularly children) in 2050, then the share is projected to
young people in the total population of the remain almost constant until the year 2080.
EU-28 is projected to slightly fall in the coming
decades The projected development of the young people
in the EU-28 population shows a decline in the
According to the main scenario of EUROPOP2013,
first years of the time period followed by a relative
which corresponds to the latest Eurostat population
stability until 2080. From 90.8 million in 2013,
projections round, by 2080 the number of children
representing 17.9% of the total EU-28 population,
and young people in the EU-28 is likely to be
162.2 million, which is 7.8 million less than in 2013. the population aged 1529 is projected to decrease
Although the EU-28 total population is projected to 84.4 million, or 16.3% of the total population,
to keep growing through to 2050, reaching in 2025. A slight increase is projected for the
525.5 million, the share of children and young following decade, 202535, the share of young
people in the total projected population will people reaching 16.6% (or 86.3 million young
decrease from 33.5% in 2013 to 30.8% in 2050. people) in 2035, followed by a slight, plateau-like
Then, from 2050 to 2080, the share of children and decrease, to just over 16% (or 83.5 million young
young people is projected to slowly and continuous people) by 2080.
increase (31.2% in 2080) without nevertheless
reaching its actual rate (33.5% in 2013).

Figure 3: Current and projected shares of children and young people in the population,
EU-28, 201380 ()
(%)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2013
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
2055
2060
2065
2070
2075
2080
Children (014 years) Young people (1529 years)
() Data refer to 1 January of each reference year.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: proj_13npms)
EUROPEAN DEMOGRAPHY FORUM

The EU frequently reviews and adapts its policies in relation to demographic challenges, such as the
ageing population, relatively low birth and fertility rates, atypical family structures and migration.
The European Demography Forum (held every two years since 2006) gives policymakers, stakeholders
and experts from all over Europe the opportunity to share their knowledge and discuss how to
address demographic change. To underpin these debates, the European Commission presents
a biennial European Demography Report; this sets out a range of facts and figures concerning
demographic change and discusses appropriate policy responses.
The fourth forum took place in 2013 and covered, among other issues:
supporting youth opportunities;
improving the worklife balance;
enabling people to be active longer;
successful inclusion of second-generation migrants;
regions in rapid demographic and economic decline and inequalities within regions.
For more information: http://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=10228&langId=en

Changes in numbers of children and young people:

causes and consequences
HOW TO DETERMINE IF A POPULATION IS AGEING?
The ageing or greying of the EUs population can be measured by an analysis of the median age
of its population. The median age of the population is the age that divides a population into two
numerically equal groups; that is, with half the people younger and half older. In other words, if all
of the people in the EU were ranked according to their age, the person standing in the middle of
the line dividing those into two equal groups would have the median age.
Median age the greying of the EUs risen in recent years as a direct consequence of
population two principal factors: a reduction in the share of
children and young people in the total population
Ageing is one of the EUs main demographic (resulting from lower fertility rates and women
challenges which may result in considerable giving birth to fewer children at a later age in life)
political, economic, budgetary and social and a gradual increase in life expectancy that has
challenges. The median age of the EU-28 has led to increased longevity.
Figure 4: Median age of the population, EU-28, 19902013 ()

(years)
45.0
42.5
40.0
37.5
35.0
32.5
0.0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
() 19902000: EU-27.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_pjanind)

The median age of the EU population rose, relatively youthful societies of Ireland (35.5 years)
on average, by almost four months each year and Cyprus (36.5 years), while Slovakia, Poland,
over the last three decades Luxembourg and the United Kingdom were the
only other EU Member States to record median
The median age of the EU-28 population was ages of less than 40 years. By contrast, there was
41.9 years in 2013. It rose at a relatively rapid and a more rapid greying of society in Germany,
consistent pace from 35.2 years in 1990 (for the where the median age was 45.3 years, while Italy
EU-27), as shown in Figure 4. (44.4 years) was the only other EU Member State to
At national level, the median age of the record a median age that was over 43 years.
EU Member States in 2013 was the lowest in the
Figure 5: Median age of the population, 1990 and 2013

(years)
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
EU-28 (1)
Germany
Italy
Bulgaria
Austria
Portugal
Greece
Croatia (2)
Finland
Slovakia
Latvia
Lithuania
Netherlands
Spain
Belgium
Hungary
Denmark
Estonia
Sweden
France (3)
Malta
Romania
Czech Republic
United Kingdom
Luxembourg
Poland
Slovenia
Cyprus
Ireland
Liechtenstein
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
1990 2013
() 1990: EU-27.
() 1990: not available.
() 1991 instead of 1990.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_pjanind)

The median age of the population within each 2.5 years in life expectancy at birth (Figure 6). The
EU Member State rose between 1990 and 2013. This life expectancy of men increased at a somewhat
ageing of the population was particularly stark in faster pace than that of women, rising by 3.0 years
Lithuania, where the median age rose by almost compared with an increase of 2.2 years for women.
10 years over the period under consideration, These increases in life expectancy may be attributed
while there were increases of more than 8 years in to a range of factors, including medical progress
Portugal and Slovenia. By contrast, the median age and different types of health and community care,
of the population rose in Sweden and Luxembourg a general increase in health education, or people
at a relatively slow pace, up by 2.5 and 2.8 years making different lifestyle choices (for example,
respectively between 1990 and 2013 (Figure 5). stopping smoking, reducing alcohol intake,
paying more attention to their diet, or exercising
Life expectancy people are living longer
more) (2). There has also been a gradual change
As noted above, increasing longevity is one of the in workplace occupations, whereby fewer people
principal reasons why there has been an increase (mainly men) are employed in labour-intensive
in the median age of the EUs population. Between activities, for example, agriculture, mining or
2002 and 2012 there was an increase of more than heavy manufacturing industries.
Figure 6: Life expectancy at birth, EU-28, 200212

(years)
84
82
80
78
76
74
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Men Total Women
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_mlexpec)
(2) See Health at a glance 2014 available through http://ec.europa.eu/health/reports/docs/health_glance_2014_highlight_en.pdf, Health at a glance
2011 available at http://www.oecd.org/els/health-systems/49105858.pdf and Sassi, F. (2010), Obesity and the Economics of Prevention Fit not Fat,
OECD Publishing, Paris.

MEASURING FERTILITY
The total fertility rate represents the number of children that would be born to a woman if she were
to live to the end of her childbearing years and bear children in accordance with the current age-
specific fertility rates.
The age-specific fertility rates are, in their turn, computed as the ratio of the number of live births
from women of a given age to the number of women of the same age exposed to childbearing
(usually estimated as the average number of women in that year).
The replacement level represents the average number of live births per woman that would keep
the population level stable and its age structure unchanged (in the absence of migratory flows or
any change in life expectancy). It is generally agreed that the replacement level is about 2.1 children
per woman in developed world economies.
Life expectancy steadily rising in the EU Fertility rates less children are being born
The EUs future population size and age structures Figure 7 shows that while fertility rates in the
will, to some degree, be determined by the pace at EU-28 rose at a modest pace during the period
which life expectancy continues to increase. While 200008, they remained well below the replacement
higher levels of life expectancy and increased level. Having peaked in 2008 at an average of
longevity result in a higher median age across the 1.61 children, the fertility rate subsequently fell
population, at the other end of the age spectrum by a small margin, perhaps reflecting economic
the fertility rate has the potential to provide a hardships and a decline in real incomes in the
counterbalance to the on-going ageing process period following the global financial and economic
this is analysed in more detail in the next section. crisis. In 2012, the EU-28 fertility rate stood at
1.58 children, while the replacement level is
considered to be at 2.1.
Figure 7: Fertility rates, EU-28, 200012 (1)

(number of live births per woman)
2.2 Replacement level =
2.1 live births per woman
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
0.0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
(1) 2000: EU-27.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_find)
(3) Demography Report 2010, EC DG for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion and Eurostat.

The general increase of the fertility rate during Kingdom (1.92 live births per woman) and Sweden
the period 200008 may, in part, be attributed to (1.91 live births per woman). The lowest fertility
a catching-up process, following a postponement rates were registered in Portugal (1.28 live births
of the decision to have children (3); when women per woman), Poland (1.30 live births per woman)
postpone giving birth until later in life, the total and Spain (1.32 live births per woman).
fertility rate first decreases and then subsequently
recovers. Looking at women under 30 years old, their
fertility rate in the EU-28 was 0.76 live births per
Ireland and France: the highest fertility rates woman in 2012, which is slightly less than half of
Among EU Member States, the highest fertility the EU-28 total fertility rate that year (1.58 live
rates in 2012 were recorded in Ireland and France, births). This means that on average in the EU a
both recording rates of 2.01 live births per woman. little less than half (48%) of babies were born to
Figure 8 shows they were followed by the United mothers who were below the age of 30.
Figure 8: Fertility rates, 2002 and 2012


2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
EU-28
Ireland
France
United Kingdom
Sweden
Finland
Belgium
Denmark
Netherlands
Lithuania
Slovenia
Luxembourg
Estonia
Romania
Croatia
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Latvia
Austria
Italy
Malta
Cyprus
Germany
Greece
Slovakia
Hungary
Spain
Poland
Portugal
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
Liechtenstein
2002 2012

Figure 9: Fertility rates by age of mother, 2012

2.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
EU-28
Romania
France
Bulgaria
United Kingdom
Lithuania
Belgium
Finland
Latvia
Estonia
Sweden
Croatia
Slovenia
Denmark
Slovakia
Poland
Ireland
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Malta
Austria
Hungary
Luxembourg
Cyprus
Germany
Portugal
Greece
Italy
Spain
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
Liechtenstein
< 30 years 30 years
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_frate)
Among Member States, Romania, France and

Bulgaria corresponded to the highest fertility rate
for women aged less than 30 (with 1.00 live birth
or more). By contrast, Portugal, Greece, Italy and
Spain recorded the lowest fertility rate for women
aged less than 30 (with 0.60 live births or less).
In Bulgaria and Romania, the fertility rate of
women aged less than 30 corresponded to more
than two thirds (67%) of the national fertility rate
in 2012. By contrast, the fertility rate of women of
that age represented less than 40% of the national
fertility rate in Spain, Ireland and Italy, meaning
than less than 40% of babies in these countries
were born to mothers aged less than 30.
Portugal, Greece, Italy and Spain were the EU

Member States recording in 2012 the lowest
fertility rate for women aged less than 30.

The mean age of women giving birth to their women at the birth of their first child were recorded
first child was over 30 years in Spain and the in Bulgaria (25.6 years) and Romania (25.7 years).
United Kingdom The average age of women when giving birth to
The mean age of women at the birth of their first their first child rose in each of the EU Member
child increased across all EU Member States in States (for which data are available) on the basis
the last three decades. This can be explained of a comparison between 1995 and 2012. This
in particular by a higher proportion of women pattern was particularly pronounced towards the
continuing their studies into higher education, central and eastern part of the EU, the largest
a larger proportion of women entering and increase being recorded in the Czech Republic
remaining in the workforce, as well as changes (4.6 years higher), followed by Hungary (3.9 years).
in traditional family units (less people getting By contrast, the pace of change was generally much
married, getting married later, etc.) (4). slower in other parts of the EU, especially in those
Member States where the average age of giving
Figure 10 provides information on the mean age of birth to a first child was already relatively high.
women at first childbirth. There were only two EU The smallest increase was recorded in Belgium,
Member States where the mean age of women at where the mean age of women at the birth of their
the birth of their first child was above 30 years in first child rose by 0.7 years between 1995 and 2010,
2012: the United Kingdom (30.8 years) and Spain with a slightly larger increase (0.9 years) recorded
(30.3 years). By contrast, the lowest mean ages for in the Netherlands between 1995 and 2012.
Figure 10: Mean age of women at birth of first child, 1995, 2000, 2005 and 2012
(years)
32.5
30.0
27.5
25.0
22.5
0.0
United Kingdom
Spain
Greece
Luxembourg
Ireland (1)
Netherlands
Germany (1)(2)(3)
Sweden (3)
Denmark
Cyprus (3)
Austria
Portugal
Slovenia
Finland
Malta (1)(2)(3)
Belgium (4)
Czech Republic
Croatia (2)(3)
Hungary
Slovakia (3)
Lithuania
Poland
Estonia
Latvia (3)
Romania
Bulgaria
France (3)(5)
Italy (1)(2)(5)
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
1995 2000 2005 2012

() 2010 instead of 2012.
(4) See Why do people postpone parenthood? Reasons and social policy incentives Melinda Mills, Ronald R. Rindfuss, Peter McDonald, Egbert te Velde,
2011, available at http://humupd.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/06/06/humupd.dmr026.full.

Highest fertility rates among several Member of women at the birth of their first child was
States where women gave birth to their first low. Rather, while women in central and eastern
child at a relatively late age EU Member States were more likely to give birth at
There appears to be little evidence to support the a relatively young age, they were also more likely
view that higher fertility rates may be expected to have fewer children, as their total fertility rates
in those EU Member States where the mean age were below the EU-28 average.
Figure 11: Mean age of women at birth of first child and total fertility rate, 2012
Iceland France (3) Ireland

2.0
Sweden
Norway United Kingdom
Belgium (2) Finland
1.8
Total fertility rate
Denmark Netherlands
Lithuania EU-28 ( )1
1.6
Romania Estonia Slovenia Luxembourg
Bulgaria Croatia Switzerland
Malta Austria
Latvia Czech Republic Italy (4)
1.4
Slovakia Hungary Cyprus Germany
Greece Spain
Poland Portugal
1.2
0.0
0 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Mean age of women at birth of first child (years)
() Mean age of women at birth of first child: estimate based on simple average of the EU Member States. The blue lines show the intersection for the
EU-28 average.
() 2010.
() 2006.
() 1997.
By contrast, Figure 11 shows that the only EU The bottom right quadrant of Figure 11 contains
Member States that had fertility rates that most of the southern EU Member States, as well
were close to the replacement level were also as Germany, Austria and Luxembourg. These
characterised by women, on average, giving birth countries were characterised by women giving
to their first child at a later age (above the EU birth to their first child at a relatively late age and
average). This group in the top right quadrant of by relatively low fertility rates.
Figure 11 was composed of EU Member States
from northern and western Europe.

AGE DEPENDENCY RATIOS

The young-age dependency ratio is the ratio of persons aged 014 years divided by the number of
persons conventionally considered to be of working age (1564 years).
The old-age dependency ratio is the ratio of the number of persons conventionally considered to
be economically inactive (those aged 65 or over) divided by the number of persons conventionally
considered to be of working age (1564 years).
Dependency ratios an increasing generation have completed their move into

responsibility for those of working age retirement. As the working-age population
declines and the number of children is likely
Age dependency ratios may be used to analyse the to remain relatively unchanged, population
potential support that may be provided to children projections suggest that the young-age
and to the elderly by those of working age. In dependency ratio will start to rise, while the
2013, the EU-28 young-age dependency ratio was number of elderly people (especially those
23.6%, while the old-age dependency ratio was aged 85 and above) will increase at a rapid pace
27.5%. This difference of almost 4 percentage in the coming decades, such that they will
points is likely to increase in the coming years, account for a considerably larger share of the total
as the proportion of elderly people in the EUs population.
population rises, while the share of children will
Figure 12 shows the development of age
continue to fall before stabilising (as presented
dependency ratios and their projected path from
before).
1990 until 2080, and provides clear picture of the
The size of the working-age population in the challenges that lie ahead on the projected working-
EU-28 will start to fall once the baby-boom age population.
Figure 12: Development and projections of young and old-age dependency ratios, EU-28,
19902080 ()
(%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 2055 2060 2065 2070 2075 2080
Young-age dependency ratio (2) Old-age dependency ratio (3)
() 19902000: EU-27.
() Children (014 years) in relation to the working-age population (1564 years).
() The elderly ( 65 years) in relation to the working-age population (1564 years).
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: demo_pjanind and proj_13ndbims)

Conclusions: What consequences from a declining
share of children and young people?
If we add up the share of young and old-age healthcare systems is likely to pose a challenge,
people who will depend on the working while the overall demand for such services is
population, todays generation of children likely to increase, due to the rising number
are facing an increased burden in relation to of elderly people. As such, policymakers are
supporting the remainder of the population as concerned about how to ensure the long-term
they move into work. For example, maintaining sustainability of public finances in the face of a
welfare systems, pension schemes and public declining share of economically active people.
Data sources and availability

The data presented in this chapter are principally statistics have a wealth of information for this age
drawn from Eurostats population statistics, and breakdown, while they can also provide statistics
more specifically from a range of demography at a more detailed level, for example, by five-year
indicators at a national and regional level age groups (such as less than 5 years, 59 years and
(providing information on the structure of 1014 years).
populations), fertility measures, and population
Eurostat carries out annual collections of
projections (EUROPOP2013).
demography data from national statistical
In this chapter, children are considered as those authorities, including statistics concerning
persons aged 014 years. Although there is no population and vital events, the latter including
clear-cut definition of youth or young people for example live births, deaths, marriages and
since these terms are often used to describe the divorces. These data are used to compute and
transitory phase between childhood and adult disseminate demographic indicators at a country
life, the EUs youth strategy has confirmed that and regional level. Population data refer to the
for statistical purposes the most useful definition situation on 1 January of the reference year and are
is to cover those aged 1529. Demographic generally based on the usual resident population.

Children and young people in
family and society
2 Children and young people in family and society
Introduction
This chapter presents the situation of children The vast majority of the data used in this chapter
and young people in families and society across is derived from Eurostats population statistics,
the European Union (EU). Family structures in and more specifically from a set of demography
the EU Member States vary, reflecting cultural indicators, the EU labour force survey (LFS) and
and normative differences across the EU. The EU statistics on income and living conditions (EU-
general postponement of material and tenure SILC). However, in order to provide a global view
independence by young people indicates a delayed of the main issues such as family composition,
transition to adulthood. This chapter also depicts other data sources, for example, data from the
the subjective wellbeing of young people and United Nations were also used.
households with children as well as the social
and political participation of young people in EU
society.
Family composition and household structure

The share of households with children is Looking at developments since 2005, the share
decreasing in the EU of EU-28 households with children decreased by
Less than one third (30.7%) of all households in the more than 2 percentage points in only eight years
EU-28 had children in 2013 according to data from (from 32.9% in 2005 to 30.7% in 2013), couples
the EU labour force survey. Couples with children with children becoming relatively less frequent.
represented one in five (20.5%) EU households, The share of single adults with children was,
while single adults with children accounted for nevertheless, higher in 2013 than in 2005 (rising
4.3% of the total number of households. Other from 4.0% in 2005 to 4.3% in 2013). Over the same
types of households with children, for example, period, the proportion of couples without children
households where grandparents, parents and and the proportion of single adults without
their children lived together, made up 5.8% of all children rose from 24.0% to 24.8% and from
households. 28.3% to 31.7% respectively.
Figure 1: Private households by household composition, EU-28, 2005 and 2013

(% of private households)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2005 2013
Couple with children Single adult with children Other types of household with children
Couple without children Single adult without children Other types of household without children
Source: Eurostat (online data code: lfst_hhnhtych)

Children and young people in family and society 2
Important variations in household proportion in Ireland. Sweden and Austria
composition between EU Member States followed Germany, with around one quarter
(2526%) of all households with children. Looking
Figure 2 extends the analysis of household
at couples with children, Germany also recorded
composition to the EU Member States, presenting
one of the smallest shares (15.0%), again close to
data for 2013. Ireland recorded the highest share
half of the corresponding proportion in Ireland.
of couples with children (29.0%), followed by
Nevertheless, the EU Member State with the
Cyprus (27.7%). These were also the only two EU
lowest share of couples with children was Croatia
Member States to have more than 40% of their
(11.5%). This very low proportion was
households with children (42.1 % and 40.7 %
counterbalanced by other type of households that
respectively). Ireland moreover registered a high
contained children, for example, multigenerational
proportion of single-parent households (6.8%).
households, which accounted for 14.0% of all
Only three EU Member States, namely Denmark,
households in Croatia. The lowest proportion
the United Kingdom and Lithuania, recorded a
of single-parent households was also recorded
higher proportion of households composed of
in Croatia (1.4%), while the same share was also
single adults with children (8.7%, 7.2% and 7.1%
registered in Finland. Romania and Greece were
respectively).
the only other EU Member States where households
By contrast, the share of households with children composed of single adults with children accounted
was at its lowest level in Germany (21.8%), a for less than 2% of the total number of households
share that was nearly half of the corresponding (both 1.9%).
Figure 2: Private households by household composition, 2013

100
80
60
40
20
0
EU-28
Ireland
Cyprus
Luxembourg
Spain
Malta
Portugal
Poland
Czech Republic
Slovakia
Slovenia
Belgium
Greece
Netherlands
Estonia
Italy
France
Romania
Hungary
United Kingdom
Denmark
Finland
Lithuania
Austria
Sweden
Bulgaria
Latvia
Croatia
Germany
Couple with children Single adult with children Other types of household with children
Couple without children Single adult without children Other types of household without children
Source: Eurostat (online data code : lfst_hhnhtych)

Single persons and couples without children (31.4%) or as couples without children (24.7%).
constitute over 50% of the total households in Indeed, among those countries presented in
the developed world Figure 3, the EU-28 had one of the lowest shares
of one-parent families (4.4%), with the proportion
Couples with children are becoming less common of one-parent families being more than twice the
in many parts of the world, including the EU. EU average in Serbia (12.0%), Russia (11.5%) and
They represented, in 2011, less than 30% of the Canada (10.3%).
total number of households in Canada (29.4%),
the United States (28.6%), Switzerland (26.7%), By contrast, two-parent families still constituted
Norway (22.2%), the Russian Federation (15.9%) the most common type of household composition
and the EU (20.9%) (Figure 3). The traditional in some countries: for example, couples with
nuclear family, composed of a couple with children made up 57.3% of households in Albania,
children, was seen to be in decline in the EU as while childless couples accounted for 17.2% .
a higher proportion of people chose to live alone
Figure 3: Household structure, selected countries, 2011

0 20 40 60 80 100
EU-28
Russia (1)
Norway
Switzerland
United States
Canada
Serbia
Albania
Couple with children One parent family Couple without children Single person Other types of household
() 2010.
Source: UNECE and Eurostat (online data code: lfst_hhnhtych)
Transition to adulthood: young men leave the Among others, the decision of young people to
family home later than young women leave the parental home can be affected by: whether
or not they are in a relationship, whether or not
The transition from childhood to adulthood is
they are studying full-time, their level of financial
characterised by a number of crucial decisions / life
(in)dependence, labour market conditions, living
choices, such as leaving the parental home to study
costs and the cost of housing. Figure 4 indicates
or work, being materially independent, moving in
that in 2013, on average across the whole of the
with a partner or getting married, and the choice of
EU, young people were not inclined to leave the
whether or not to have children. However, the path
parental home until the age of 27 for men and
to independence is not straightforward and young
25 for women. Between 2000 and 2004, there was
people face a range of challenges which may result
a rapid increase in the average age at which young
in some of them returning to the parental home.

people tended to leave the parental home after home increased by six years for boys (from 21 to
which there was little change through to 2013. 27 years old) and by five years for girls (from 20 to
Indeed, the average age for leaving the parental 25 years old) between 200 and 2004.
Figure 4: Estimated mean age of leaving the parental household, by sex, EU-28, 200013 ()
(years)
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Young men Total Young women

() 2000 and 2001: EU-27 instead of EU-28. 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: yth_demo_030)
In northern EU Member States, young people and northern and western Member States, where
leave home in their early twenties while in children were more prone to leave the family to live
southern and eastern EU Member States they on their own (or with others).
tend to leave home in their early thirties In Croatia, Slovakia, Malta and Italy, the mean age
There are significant differences between EU of leaving the parental home was 30 or above in
Member States regarding the norms that apply 2013. Greece, Portugal, Spain, Slovenia, Bulgaria,
to co-residence between the generations (for Romania and Poland followed with a mean age
example, parents living with their adult children). that was higher than 28. By contrast, young
Figure 5 shows that there are substantial disparities people in Sweden, Denmark and Finland left the
between on the one hand, southern and eastern parental home, on average, before the age of 23.
EU Member States where multi-generation The Netherlands and France both recorded a mean
households were a more common phenomenon age of 24 for flying the family nest.

Figure 5: Estimated mean age of leaving the parental household, by sex, 2013
(years)
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Croatia
Slovakia
Malta
Italy
Greece
Portugal
Spain
Slovenia
Bulgaria
Romania
Poland
Cyprus
Hungary
Czech Republic
Luxembourg
Lithuania
Austria
Belgium
Ireland
Estonia
Latvia
United Kingdom
Germany
France
Netherlands
Finland
Denmark
Sweden
Young men Young women Average (young men and women)
Young women moved out of the parental home The largest gender gaps between the average ages
earlier than young men, although there were of women and men leaving the parental home
considerable variations observed between EU were observed in Bulgaria and Romania (four
Member States. In 2013, young women in Sweden years difference), followed by Croatia (three
left the parental home, on average, before the age years difference). By contrast, the smallest gender
of 20, while women also left the parental home at a gaps were recorded for Sweden, Denmark and
relatively young age (2021 years) in Denmark and Luxembourg (a difference of one year or less
Finland. These figures could be contrasted with between the sexes).
the situation in Croatia, where the average age
for women leaving the parental home was nearly Men under the age of 30 tended not to fly
30 years, while young women in Slovakia, Malta the nest in many of the southern EU Member
and Italy were also relatively old when leaving the States
parental home (more than 29 years).
At an EU level, figures show that 71.9% of young
The results for young men were very similar, with men aged 2024 lived with their parents in 2013,
the lowest average age for leaving the parental while the corresponding share was 60.0% for
home recorded in Sweden (20 years old), Denmark young women of the same age (Figure 6). Looking
(22) and Finland (23) and the highest in Croatia at the age group 2529 years, the proportion of
(33 years old), Slovakia, Malta and Italy (all three young men living in the parental home decreased
31 years), Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Slovenia, to 43.0% and the share for young women shrank
Portugal and Spain (all six 30 years). to 28.1%.

A high proportion of young men aged 2529 still their parents, only 16.8% of young women aged
lived in their parents home in Croatia (83.8%), 2024 still lived in their parents home, while
Slovakia (77.7%), Malta (74.8%), Italy and Greece the corresponding share for young men of the
(both 72.9%). By contrast, young men in Sweden, same age was 21.8% . In Denmark and Finland
Denmark and Finland were more likely to leave the pattern was similar, with 21.2% and 21.7% of
the parental home in search of independence (as young women aged 2024 years still living with
only 2.5% , 5.2% and 10.2% of young men aged their parents, while the corresponding rates for
2529 years were still living with their parents young men of the same age were 33.5% and 40.3%
in 2013). Focusing on Sweden, which recorded respectively.
the lowest shares of young people living with
Figure 6: Young people (aged 2029) living in the parental household, by age group and sex,
2013
(% of young people)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Malta
Croatia
Italy
Slovakia
Spain
Portugal
Slovenia
Luxembourg
Romania
Poland
Cyprus
Hungary
Czech Republic
Bulgaria
Belgium
Lithuania
Greece
Ireland
Austria
Estonia
Netherlands
France
Latvia
Germany
United Kingdom
Finland
Denmark
Sweden
Men aged 2024 Women aged 2024 Men aged 2529 Women aged 2529

Important gender discrepancies on age of first men. As such, the average age for getting married a
marriage first time increased by four years for both men and
women between 1992 and 2012.
The age of first marriage has considerably increased
over the two last decades in all of the EU Member Despite these delays before deciding to get
States (Figure 7). A simple average based on those married, the gender gap in the age of first marriage
EU Member States for which national data are remained relatively unchanged in most of the EU
available in 2012 suggests that the average age for Member States. In 2012, it was generally about
women to be wed for the first time was 29 years old, three years difference between the sexes, with
while that for young men was 32 years old. Back the largest gaps observed in Romania (3.8 years),
in 1992 the average age of first marriage had been Greece and Bulgaria (both 3.3 years).
25 years for young women and 28 years for young
Figure 7: Mean age at first marriage, by sex, 1992, 2002 and 2012
(years)
40
35
30
25
20
0
Sweden
Denmark
Spain
Italy (2)
Austria
Ireland (1)(5)
France (2)(7)
Finland
Germany (2)(3)
Luxembourg (2)
Greece
Netherlands (2)
Cyprus (4)
Slovenia
Belgium (1)
Hungary (2)
Malta (2)(5)
Romania
Estonia
Czech Republic
Portugal
Croatia (6)
Slovakia (6)
Latvia (6)
Bulgaria (2)
Lithuania (2)
Poland (6)
United Kingdom (4)(5)(6)
Iceland (2)
Norway
Liechtenstein (5)(6)
Switzerland (3)
1992 Men 1992 Women 2002 Men 2002 Women 2012 Men 2012 Women
() 2010 instead of 2012.

() 2011 instead of 2012.
() 2001 instead of 2002.
() 1992: metropolitan France only.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_nind)

Poland was the EU Member State that reported the a legal basis. Although the difference in relative
youngest average age for women getting married shares was not substantial at an EU level, different
the first time (26.3 years old in 2012). At the other laws and customs across the EU Member States
end of the range was Sweden, where the average have affected how quickly or otherwise alternative
age of women getting married for the first time types of family units have become established.
was 33.3 years old. The pattern across EU Member
Northern EU Member States have higher shares of
States for men was similar to that observed for
young people living in a consensual union without
women, as Poland had the youngest average age for
legal basis (30.7% in Finland, 21.2% in Sweden,
men getting married the first time (28.7 years old)
20.9% in Denmark), as did France (24.6 %),
and Sweden the oldest (35.6 years old).
Estonia (21.8%) and the United Kingdom (20.3%).
New patterns in family units By contrast, in Mediterranean, central and eastern
EU Member States (for example, Cyprus, Malta,
Getting married is not the only way for partners to
Croatia, Italy, Greece, Romania and Poland) a
live together: indeed, living in consensual union a
considerably higher proportion of young people
growing phenomenon across the EU, whether it is
lived together in partnerships that had a legal basis
with or without a legal basis.
(whether or not this was marriage). Hungary was
According to the EU-SILC, in 2013 some 12.2% of atypical, insofar as the proportion of young people
young people aged 1629 years in the EU-28 were living together in a consensual union without a
living in a consensual union without a legal basis, legal basis was almost twice as high as the share
while 10.7% of the same age group were living of those living in partnerships with a legal basis
as married couples or in consensual union with (11.1% compared with 5.8%).
Figure 8: Young people (aged 1629) who are married or in a consensual union (with or without
legal basis), 2013
(% of young people)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Finland
United Kingdom
France
Estonia
Sweden
Denmark
Latvia
Poland
Belgium
Bulgaria
Luxembourg
Cyprus
Romania
Netherlands
Germany
Austria
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Portugal
Malta
Hungary
Ireland
Croatia
Spain
Slovenia
Slovakia
Italy
Greece
Norway
Iceland
Switzerland
Married Consensual union with legal basis Consensual union without legal basis
Source: Eurostat (EU-SILC 2013)

Births outside of marriage are on the increase that do marry tend to do so at a later age. The
in the EU share of children born outside of marriage rose
from 20% in the early 1990s to reach almost 30%
The proportion of live births outside marriage
by 2002, before continuing to increase during the
increased across the EU over recent decades,
most recent decade for which data are available,
reflecting the changing patterns of family
reaching almost 40% by 2011 (Figure 9).
structures. More and more couples decide to
become parents without getting married and those
Figure 9: Live births outside marriage, 1992, 2002 and 2012

(% of live births)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28 (1)(2)(3)
Estonia
Slovenia
Bulgaria
France (1)(4)
Sweden
Belgium(5)
Denmark
United Kingdom(5)
Netherlands
Portugal
Latvia
Hungary
Czech Republic
Austria
Finland
Luxembourg
Spain
Slovakia
Ireland(5)
Germany(5)
Romania(3)
Lithuania
Italy
Malta
Poland
Cyprus
Croatia
Greece
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
Liechtenstein
1992 2002 2012
() 2011 instead of 2012.
() 2011: provisional data.
() 1993 instead of 1992.
() 1992: metropolitan France only.
() 2012: provisional data.
In 15 of the EU Member States the share of births Between 1992 and 2012, the proportion of births
outside marriage was above the EU average: the outside of marriage grew in all EU Member
highest shares in 2012 were recorded in Estonia States. Bulgaria (up 38.9 percentage points),
(58.4%), Slovenia (57.6 %), Bulgaria (57.4 %), Belgium (38.7 percentage points), the Netherlands
Sweden (54.5%), Belgium (52.3%) and Denmark (34.2 percentage points) and the Czech Republic
(50.6%), while there was also a high share in (32.7 percentage points) recorded the largest
France (55.8% in 2011). By contrast, Greece (7.6%), increases, while Denmark (up 4.2 percentage
Croatia (15.4%) and Cyprus (18.6%) recorded points), Sweden and Greece (both 5.0 percentage
the lowest proportions of live births outside of points) registered the smallest gains.
marriage in 2012.

Highest number of live births during
adolescence and early youth in Bulgaria and
Romania
Complementing the analysis of fertility rates and
of the mean age of mothers when having their first
child (as presented in Chapter 1), Figure 10 shows
the fertility rates of women aged less than 30, by
five-year age groups. At an EU level, the fertility
of young women was very low among those aged
1024 years, at 60.9 live births per 1000 women in
2012. For girls aged 1014 years, fertility rates were
considerably lower, at 0.2 live births per 1000 girls,
in other words, there were, on average, just two
live births for every 10000 girls of this age, while
the corresponding rate for girls / women aged
1519 years was 12.6 live births per 1000 girls /
women.
In 2012, more than half of all births occurred
outside of marriage in Estonia, Slovenia,
Bulgaria, Sweden, Belgium and Denmark; the
same was true for France in 2011
Figure 10: Fertility rates for women aged less than 30, by age group, 2012
(live births / 1 000 women)
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
EU-28
Romania
Bulgaria
United Kingdom
Lithuania
Belgium
Finland
Latvia
Sweden
Croatia
Estonia
Slovenia
Slovakia
Poland
Denmark
Ireland
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Malta
Austria
Hungary
Luxembourg
Cyprus
Germany
Portugal
Greece
Italy
Spain
France
1014 years-old 1519 years-old 2024 years-old 2529 years-old
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_frate)

There were considerable differences across EU The number of abortions has gone down
Member States as regards fertility rates during significantly
adolescence and early youth; these differences
The ability of families to plan as to if and when
may reflect, among others, sex education at school
they want to have children is fundamental. Yet,
and attitudes towards discussing these matters
family planning remains a neglected public health
within families. For example, in 2012 the fertility
priority (1) and unmet needs for contraception and
rate for girls below the age of 20 was lower in
advice lead to unintended pregnancies which may
France than the EU-28 average (10.7 live births per
impact upon lives and wellbeing.
1000 girls), while it subsequently increased above
the EU-28 average for young women aged 2024 In 2012, there were about 642000 legally induced
(59.9 live births per 1000 young women) and abortions in the 17 EU Member States for which
peaked at 130.9 live births per 1000 women among data are available. This figure marks a reduction of
those aged 2429 years, which was the highest rate 41% when compared with the 1.1 million abortions
for any of the EU Member States. Besides France, that were registered in 2002.
those EU Member States with the highest fertility
While most pregnancy terminations in 2002 and
rates for women aged 2529 included Belgium
2012 concerned young women aged under 30,
and Lithuania (124.7 and 117.0 live births per
the most recent data suggests that there has been
1000 women respectively).
a decrease in abortions performed on girls aged
By contrast, the fertility rate for girls / women under under 20. For instance, in the United Kingdom
the age of 20 was relatively high in Bulgaria and in 2002 more than 21% of all legal abortions
Romania (44.1 and 39.0 live births per 1000 girls / concerned teenagers (less than 20 years old), a
women aged 1019 years) and these two countries share that had been reduced to 17.1% by 2012.
continued to record the highest fertility rates in the The same development was recorded in Finland,
EU among women aged 2024 years (at over 70 live Germany, Latvia, Slovakia, Sweden, Spain, the
births per 1000 young women). Slovakia, Latvia, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Belgium and Bulgaria
the United Kingdom and Hungary recorded the (Figures 11a and 11b).
highest fertility rates for the girls / women aged
1519 years (at 21.6, 20.3, 19.7 and 19.2 births per
1000 girls / women respectively).
(1) Cf. Choices and planning. Entre Nous No. 79, World Health Organization (see http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/Life-stages/sexual-and-
reproductive-health/publications/entre-nous/entre-nous/choices-and-planning.-entre-nous-no.-79).

Figure 11a: Legally induced abortions among young women, by age group, 2012 ()
(% of legally induced abortions)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
United Kingdom
Finland
Sweden (2)
Belgium (3)
Estonia
Bulgaria
Romania
Hungary
Latvia
Lithuania
Croatia
Slovakia
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Poland
Germany
Spain
< 15 years-old 1519 years-old 2024 years-old 2529 years-old
() Denmark, Ireland, Greece, France, Italy, Austria and Portugal: not available.
() 2010.
() 2011.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_fabort)
Figure 11b: Legally induced abortions among young women, by age group, 2002 ()
(% of legally induced abortions)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
United Kingdom
Finland
Spain
Bulgaria
Belgium
Sweden
Hungary
France
Romania
Latvia
Slovakia
Czech Republic
Denmark
Lithuania
Italy
Slovenia
Greece (2)
Croatia
Germany
< 15 years-old 1519 years-old 2024 years-old 2529 years-old
() Estonia, Ireland, Poland and Portugal: not available.

() Those aged 2029 years-old: no breakdown available.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_fabort)

Foreign-born children and young people in the EU

Citizens from EU Member States have the freedom in an EU-27 Member State (data for Croatia not
of movement within the EUs internal borders. included) and 5.5% of all children born in a non-
Being free to move from one European country member country, resulting in almost one fifth
to another may help promote intercultural (19.2%) of children being born outside the national
understanding and contribute to the creation of territory (Figure 12). Cyprus and Ireland had the
a common European identity. Furthermore, this next highest shares of foreign-born children,
freedom allows EU citizens to work, study and with 7.3% and 5.5% of children born in another
reside in another Member State. EU Member State, and 3.7% and 3.8% in a non-
member country, giving a total of around one
Migration policies within the EU are increasingly
tenth (10.9% and 9.3%) of all children being
concerned with attracting particular migrant
foreign-born. Greece recorded the highest share
profiles, often in an attempt to alleviate specific
of children born outside of the EU (5.9%), while
skills shortages. Selection can be carried out on
its share of children born in another EU Member
the basis of language proficiency, work experience,
State was relatively low (1.3%). By contrast, the
education and age. International immigration,
Czech Republic and Poland recorded the lowest
especially of young people, may be used as a tool to
shares for children being born outside of their
solve specific labour market shortages but also to
national territory (about 1.0% of the total).
have a positive impact on the age structure of the
destination country. However, migration alone will Similarly, the highest share of young people
almost certainly not reverse the ongoing pattern (those aged 1529) born in a foreign country was
of population ageing that is being experienced in also recorded in Luxembourg (39.3%), followed
many parts of the EU. by Cyprus and Ireland (where 28.5% and 21.8%
Migration is influenced by a combination of respectively of all persons aged 1529 were born
economic, political and social factors, global abroad). Figure 13 shows that the majority of these
events, linguistic and / or historical ties, which may foreign-born young people were born in other EU
have a direct impact on the size and composition Member States. The five EU Member States with
of the EUs foreign population. the highest proportions of non-EU foreign-born
young people were registered in Spain (13.3%),
Nearly one in five children and two in five Cyprus and Sweden (both 13.2%), Luxembourg
young people in Luxembourg were born (11.8%) and Greece (11.2%).
outside the country
On the other hand, Poland, Romania, Lithuania,
Looking at the population of children aged less Bulgaria and Slovakia had the lowest shares of
than 15, Luxembourg was the EU Member State young foreign-born persons, as these accounted
where the share of foreign-born children was for approximately 1% of the total population of
highest in 2013, with 13.7% of all children born those aged 1529.

Figure 12: Foreign-born children (aged 014), 2013 ()
(% of all children aged 014)
20
15
10
0
Luxembourg
Cyprus
Ireland
Belgium
Greece
Sweden
Spain
Austria
United Kingdom
Italy
Denmark
Malta
Netherlands
France
Slovenia
Finland
Portugal
Germany
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Estonia
Lithuania
Latvia
Poland
Czech Republic
Born in another EU Member State Born outside the EU
() Croatia: not included.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: migr_pop3ctb)
Figure 13: Foreign-born young people (aged 1529), 2013 ()

(% of all youths aged 1529)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
Luxembourg
Cyprus
Ireland
Spain
Austria
Belgium
Sweden
Greece
United Kingdom
Denmark
Italy
Netherlands
Germany
Malta
Portugal
France
Slovenia
Finland
Czech Republic
Hungary
Estonia
Latvia
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Romania
Poland
Born in another EU Member State Born outside the EU


Figure 14: Share of foreign-born children and young people in the total number of foreign-born
persons, 2013 ()
(% of foreign-born population)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Romania
Ireland
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Finland
Denmark
Greece
United Kingdom
Spain
Malta
Italy
Belgium
Czech Republic
Hungary
Sweden
Austria
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Portugal
Slovakia
France
Germany
Slovenia
Poland
Lithuania
Estonia
Latvia
Children born outside the EU Young people born outside the EU
Children born in another EU Member State Young people born in another EU Member State
Figure 14 focuses on the age structure of the

foreign-born population within each EU Member
State and particularly the share of children and
young people (aged 1529) compared with the
total foreign-born population.
In 2013, Romania had the highest share of children
and young people in its foreign-born population,
as those aged less than 30 accounted for more than
half (54.3%) of the total foreign-born population.
Ireland, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Finland, Denmark,
Greece, the United Kingdom and Spain followed
with shares for children and young people that
were higher than 30% of the total foreign-born
population. Generally speaking, at least one fifth
of the foreign-born population of the EU Member
States consisted of children and young people. The
only exceptions to this rule were the three Baltic
Member States (Latvia, 4.4% ; Estonia, 5.8% ;
In most EU Member States, at least one fifth of Lithuania, 9.6%), Poland (16.8%), Slovenia (16.9%)
the foreign-born population was composed of and Germany (19.6%).
children and young people.

Subjective wellbeing
The level of integration of people in the society can and to facilitate analyses, answers were grouped
be reflected through subjective measures, such as into low, medium and high satisfaction, based
overall life satisfaction or the degree of happiness. on the following thresholds: scores of 05 were
A 2013 EU-SILC ad-hoc module covered these classified as a low level of satisfaction, 68 as
aspects of subjective wellbeing, and provides a medium levels of satisfaction, and 9 and 10 as
range of interesting results for young people and high levels of satisfaction.
EU households with children.
As can be seen in Figure 15, life satisfaction in
2013 was highest in the EU-28 among the youngest
Young people tend to report higher levels of
age group, as 29.7% of young people aged 1624
life satisfaction reported that they were highly satisfied with life
Life satisfaction can be measured on an 11-point (scores of 9 or 10); this high share pushed up the
scale which ranges from 0 (not satisfied at all) to average level of satisfaction among people aged
10 (fully satisfied). In order to aid interpretation 1624 to 7.6 (on a scale of 010).
Figure 15: Life satisfaction, by age group, EU-28, 2013

(left-hand axis:% share of the population by satisfaction level; right-hand axis: mean rating)
100 10
23.7 21.0 18.9 21.7 20.1

29.7
80 8
60 6
56.7 52.5
58.8 56.0
60.1
40 58.0 4
20 2
24.4 22.4 27.4
16.2 20.3
12.3
0 0
1624 years 2534 years 3549 years 5064 years 6574 years 75 years and more
Low level of satisfaction (05) High level of satisfaction (910)

Medium level of satisfaction (68) Mean rating (right-hand axis)

Generally, life satisfaction within the EU for couples (with and without children). Two
population decreased as a function of age, with the adults living with children reported the highest
exception of those aged 6574 (the period in life levels for life satisfaction (7.4). The lowest level of
when most people take their retirement), where life satisfaction, on the other hand, was recorded
satisfaction levels were slightly higher than for for single-person households younger than 65 and
those aged between 50 and 64 (7.0 versus 6.9). for lone parent households (both 6.6).
In most EU Member States, the youngest age Single, elderly women (aged 65 and above) most
group reported the highest overall scores for frequently reported a low level of life satisfaction;
life satisfaction, exceptions being Denmark, almost one third (29.4%) of this sub-population
the Netherlands, Sweden, the United Kingdom, gave their life satisfaction a score of 05. A similar
Switzerland and Norway where people aged 65 and share (29.2%) of lone parent households had a low
above were more satisfied than the young. level of life satisfaction. By contrast, some 28.0%
of people living in a couple with three or more
Life satisfaction is higher among couples with dependent children reported a high level of life
children satisfaction, which could be contrasted with only
15.3% of this sub-population which stated they
Figure 16 shows that life satisfaction for people
had a low level of life satisfaction.
living alone in the EU was below the average level
Figure 16: Life satisfaction, by household type, EU-28, 2013

100 10
13.1 15.0 14.4 18.2 17.4 19.5 23.8 24.4 25.9 28.0
80 8
60 6
60.0 55.8 58.7 52.4 54.5
56.5
55.0 58.1
60.1 56.7
40 4
20 2
27.0 29.2 27.0 29.4 28.2 24.0 21.2 17.6 14.0 15.3
0 0
One male,
younger than 65
Single person, at least

one dependent child
One female,
younger than 65
One female,
aged 65+
One male,
aged 65+
Other
households (1)
children, aged 65+
Two adults without

children, younger than 65
Two adults with one

or two children
Two adults with three

or more children
Two adults without

() Other types of household with and without dependent children.


Similar patterns for meaning of life and with the difference, however, that the meaning of
happiness life was consistently rated at a higher level than
life satisfaction in the EU; in other words, people
The meaning of life is measured here as a feeling
were generally were more positive regarding the
that ones life has a sense and purpose. Results
meaning of life (Figure 17).
for this subjective indicator show an almost
identical pattern to those for life satisfaction,
Figure 17: Meaning of life, by age group, EU-28, 2013

100 10
31.9 28.4 28.1 27.2 29.6 25.9

80 8
60 6
52.8
58.0 58.3 57.5 55.5
40 56.0 4
20 2
21.3
12.1 13.5 13.6 15.3 14.9
0 0

In EU-SILC, happiness is measured by the (1624 years), with 71.5% of this sub-population
following question: How much of the time over the reporting to have been happy all or most of the
past four weeks have you been happy? Although time over the four weeks prior to the survey.
this question was asked on a verbal five-point Happiness then decreased as a function of age
scale and can therefore not be directly compared through to those aged 5064, before rising
with results for life satisfaction, there were similar slightly post-retirement (those aged 6574) and
patterns regarding differences between various age then subsequently falling to its lowest level for
groups and types of household. those aged 75 or more, where more than one sixth
(17.9%) of respondents cited that they were happy
As can be seen in Figure 18, happiness (as for
little or none of the time.
life satisfaction and the meaning of life) was
highest in the EU among the youngest age group

Figure 18: Frequency of being happy during the four weeks prior to the survey, by age group,
EU-28, 2013
(% share of population for each age group)
100
80
55.1 52.6
58.9 58.3
65.8
71.5
60
40
29.4 29.5
28.9 27.4
20 24.8
21.6
15.6 14.2 17.9
9.5 12.2
6.9
0
A little / none of the time Some of the time All / most of the time
Figure 19 illustrates that generally two adult and one or two children were happy all or most of
households (in many cases couples) were the time. At the other end of the scale, women aged
happier than people living on their own and that 65 and above living alone were the most unhappy
households with children were the happiest (with group, as just over one fifth (20.9%) of this sub-
the exception of single parents who reported rather population said that they were happy little or
low happiness levels). Two thirds (66.8%) of people none of the time; they were followed by men aged
living in households with two adults and three 65 and above (19.0%) and women under the age of
children and 65.8% of households with two adults 65 living in single-person households (18.8%).

Figure 19: Frequency of being happy during the four weeks prior to the survey, by household
type, EU-28, 2013
(% share of population for each household type)
100
80
47.5 52.6 49.9 51.3 51.3
56.8 60.8 64.3 65.8 66.8
60
40
31.6 31.3
28.5 30.9 32.3
29.3 26.0
25.0 25.7 24.4
20
20.9 19.0 18.8 17.8 16.5 13.9 13.2 10.8 8.8
8.5
0
One male, aged 65+
One female,
younger than 65
One male,
younger than 65
Single person, at least

one dependent child
Three or more adults with

and without
dependent children
Two adults without

children, aged 65+
Two adults without

children, younger than 65
Two adults with

one or two children
Two adults with three

or more children
One female, aged 65+
A little / none of the time Some of the time All / most of the time

Young peoples participation in society

Social and political participation of young people Figure 20 shows that voting among young people
is considered one means of encouraging a more was particularly high in Malta (76%), Belgium
inclusive and democratic society. The active (73%) and Italy (71%). By contrast, in seven EU
participation of young people in decisions and Member States, less than half of all respondents
actions at local and regional level enhances their aged 1530 had voted. In the United Kingdom
capacity to influence decision-making and allows and Hungary, fewer than two out of every five
them to contribute to building a better society. (38% and 39% respectively) young people that had
been surveyed declared that they had voted in the
Taking active part in democracy previous three years, while in Estonia, Lithuania,
Portugal, Luxembourg and Sweden less than half
The results of Flash Eurobarometer 375, titled
of the young people surveyed had voted (shares
European youth: participation in democratic life,
within the range of 44% to 49%). The fact that
which was conducted in 2013, indicate that over
voting is compulsory in some EU countries could
half (56%) of all people aged 1530 had voted in
have an influence on the results, as could the
an election during the previous three years, while
frequency with which some countries vote and the
44% had not voted, either out of choice (21%) or
last time that there was a general election or local
because they had not yet reached the legal voting
elections prior to the survey being conducted.
age (23%).
Figure 20: Youth (aged 1529) participation in political elections, 2013 ()

(%)
100
80
60
40
20
0
EU-27
Malta
Belgium
Italy
Croatia
Greece
Latvia
France
Finland
Romania
Slovenia
Austria
Spain
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Cyprus
Bulgaria
Denmark
Ireland
Germany
Poland
Slovakia
Luxembourg
Sweden
Lithuania
Portugal
Estonia
Hungary
United Kingdom
Yes No, did not vote in an election No, because you were not old enough to vote
() Respondents were asked: 'During the last three years, did you vote in any political election at the local, regional or national level? If you
were, at that time, not eligible to vote, please say so'.
Source: Flash Eurobarometer 375, 2013

Only 19% of the young people surveyed in the EU variations between EU Member States: the highest
said they would consider standing as a candidate proportions of young people who would consider
in an election, while an overwhelming majority standing in an election as a candidate were found
(79%) said they would not consider such an in Sweden (29%), Latvia (27%) and Romania
option (Figure 21). Within the 19% who were (24%), whereas at the other end of the range, just
considering the idea, only 5% said that they would 8% of respondents in Hungary said that they
certainly stand, while 14% replied that they would would consider standing for election, a share that
probably do so. There were however considerable rose to 10% in Malta and 12% in Greece.
Figure 21: Youth (aged 1529) intentions regarding the possibility of standing as a candidate in
a political election, 2013 ()
(%)
100
80
60
40
20
0
EU-27
Sweden
Latvia
Romania
Bulgaria
Italy
Poland
United Kingdom
Germany
Cyprus
Luxembourg
Ireland
Latvia
Portugal
Slovenia
Spain
Slovakia
Finland
France
Austria
Croatia
Belgium
Estonia
Netherlands
Czech Republic
Denmark
Greece
Malta
Hungary
Yes (certainly and probably) No (certainly and probably) Don't know
() Respondents were asked: 'Would you consider standing as a candidate in a political election at some point in your life?'

Participating in organised activities can potential next most frequent activity was being involved in a
impact young people and stoke their interest in youth club, leisure-time club or any kind of youth
politics or elections (Figure 22). Young respondents organisation (22%). Participation rates for young
in the EU who participated in at least one organised people involved in local organisations aiming to
activity were more likely to consider standing as a improve the local community were lower (at 15%),
candidate in a political election at some point in followed by those active in cultural organisations
their life (23% versus 14% for those who had not (14%) and non-governmental organisations
participate). (12%). Other types of organisation, such as those
The results from Flash Eurobarometer promoting human rights or global development
375 indicate that, despite a majority of respondents (8
%), organisations on climate change and
having participated in organised activities, there environmental issues (7%), as well as political
remained a considerable proportion that had organisations or political parties (5%) were less
never taken part in such an activity (44%). popular.
The most popular organised activities in which Figure 23 shows that young men were more likely
young people participated were those linked to to participate in any type of organisation than
sports clubs. Over one third (35%) of respondents young women 49% of young women stated
across the EU reported having participated in that they had not participated in any organisation
sports club activities within the past year, while the during the year prior to the survey.
Figure 22: Youth (aged 1529) participation in various organisations, 2013 ()

(%)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
None of these
A sports club
A youth club, leisure-time club or any kind
of youth organisation
A local organisation aimed at improving
your local community
A cultural organisation
Any other non-governmental organisation

An organisation promoting human
rights or global development
An organisation active in the domain of
climate change / environmental issues
A political organisation or a political party
Don't know / no answer
() Respondents were asked: 'Have you in the past year participated in any activities of the following organisations?'; multiple responses were allowed.

Figure 23: Youth (aged 1529) participation in various organisations, by sex, EU-27, 2013 ()
(%)
50
40
30
20
10
0
A sports club
None of these
A local organisation
aimed at improving
your local community
A cultural
organisation
Any other
non-governmental
organisation
An organisation promoting
human rights or global
development
A political organisation
or a political party
An organisation active
in the domain of climate
change / environmental issues
A youth club, leisure-time
club or any kind of
youth organisation
Young men Young women
() Respondents were asked: 'Have you in the past year participated in any activities of the following organisations?'; multiple responses were allowed.
Sports and physical activity a sound mind 24 were members of a sports club; although an
in a healthy body additional 6% of this age group were members
of cultural clubs that included physical activities.
A 2013 Special Eurobarometer on Sport and The proportion of people aged 25 to 39 who were
physical activity confirmed that sports clubs members of a sports club fell to 12% . By contrast, a
were the most popular type of organisation that majority of young people were not members of any
young people joined. According to this survey, type of club: 58% of those aged 1524 and 70% of
only 21% of young people in the EU aged 15 to those aged 2539.

Figure 24: Young people's membership of sports clubs or other activity centres, EU-28, 2013 ()
(%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Not a member Sports club Health or Socio-cultural Others Don't know
of any club fitness centre club (2)
1524 years 2539 years
() Respondents were asked: 'Are you a member of any of the following clubs where you participate in sport or recreational physical activity?'; multiple
responses were allowed.
() Clubs that include sport in their activities, for example, employees clubs, youth clubs, school and university-related clubs.
Source: Special Eurobarometer 412, 2013
However, it would appear that a higher proportion where boys / young men tend to regularly exercise
of young people practice sports and physical ac- or play sports considerably more than girls / young
tivities more informally. As illustrated in Figures women (74% versus 55%).
25 and 26, the majority (64%) of young people
exercise and play sports regularly or with some When questioned about their personal motiva-
regularity, mostly outdoors in parks, at home, or tions for deciding whether or not to engage in
on the way between home and school or home sport or physical activity, individual respondents
and work. cited improving their health as the most common
Generally, young men in the EU exercise (play reason for engaging in sport or physical activity.
sports or engage in other physical activity) Other popular reasons cited by young people in-
more than young women. This disparity is par- cluded improving their physical appearance (38%)
ticularly striking among those aged 1524, and having fun (43%).

Figure 25: Young people's frequency of exercising or playing sports, EU-28, 2013 ()
(%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Regularly With some regularity Seldom Never
() Respondents were asked: 'How often do you exercise or play sport?'

Figure 26: Places where young people engage in physical activity, EU-28, 2013 ()
(% of respondents who engage in some form of sport or physical activity)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
In a park, At home On the way At school or At a health At a sports At a sports At work
outdoors between home university or fitness club centre
and school, centre
work or the shops
() Respondents were asked: 'Earlier you said you engage in sport or other physical activity, vigorous or not. Where do you engage in sport or physical
activity?'; multiple responses were allowed.


The data used in this article are primarily derived and excludes those in collective or institutional
from demography data that is collected by households. In order to provide a worldwide
Eurostat on a range of issues related to population comparison for household structures, data from
developments, household structure, non-national the UNECE database have also been utilised.
population stocks, marriages and fertility. Data are
Figures on consensual union (with or without
collected on an annual basis and are supplied to
a legal basis) are derived from EU statistics on
Eurostat by the national statistical authorities of
income and living conditions (EU-SILC). The 2013
the EU Member States.
ad-hoc EU-SILC module on subjective well-being
provided data on life satisfaction, the meaning of
In addition, the EU labour force survey (EU-
life and happiness.
LFS) covers a range of statistics on number,
characteristics and typologies of households. Data from Eurobarometer surveys have been
Under the specific topic Family composition used to depict the situation concerning social
and household structure', the EU-LFS presents and political participation by young people.
statistics on household composition, the number Eurobarometer surveys are opinion surveys which
and size of households, as well as on the estimated address a wide range of topics, for example: EU
age that young people leave the parental home. enlargement, the social situation, health, culture,
The reader should bear in mind that the survey information technology, the environment, the
covers only citizens living in private households euro, or defence issues.

Health
3 Health
Introduction
Health is important for citizens in the European States in their actions aimed at improving public
Union (EU), who expect today to lead long and health, preventing human illness and eliminating
healthy lives, to be protected against illness and sources of danger to physical and mental health.
accident as well as to receive appropriate healthcare
This chapter presents a range of health indicators
services. Health is also a key measure of the quality
on children and young people in the EU. In
of life and a healthy population is the keystone for
order to get a clear picture of the health of
economic growth and prosperity.
the young EU citizens, indicators such as life
Health is clearly a topic of high interest both for expectancy, mortality rates and cause of death are
EU citizens and policy makers. According to the analysed. Indicators on health status and health
EU treaty, one of the EUs roles is to ensure that determinants are also presented, as highly relevant
human health is taken into consideration in all and necessary to establish a health policy based on
of its policies. The EU also supports its Member factual information.
WHAT IS THE HEALTH PROGRAMME ?

The main instrument for implementing the EUs public health strategy is the Health programme,
which contributes to funding projects on health promotion, health security and health information.
In March 2014, the third Multi-annual programme of EU action in the field of health for the period
201420 was adopted (Regulation (EU) No 282/2014). The programme has four overarching
objectives:
Promote health, prevent diseases and foster supportive environments for healthy life styles
taking into account the health in all policies principle.
Protect EU citizens from serious cross-border health threats.
Contribute to innovative, efficient and sustainable health systems.
Facilitate access to better and safer healthcare for EU citizens.
The most important drivers of health inequality important role. These factors include living and
originate in socio-economic differences. Poorer working conditions, diet, physical activity, tobacco
people and those living in poorer areas tend to be use, harmful alcohol consumption, provision
in worse health and die younger than people who and quality of health services, and related public
are better off. Other factors, which are often linked policies including social protection.
to overall economic circumstances, also play an
SOLIDARITY IN HEALTH
A specific EU action on health inequality was set out in the 2009 communication on health
inequalities entitled Solidarity in health. It aims to support EU Member States and stakeholder
action as well as provide support from EU policies in areas such as public health, employment,
social policies, research and regional policy towards addressing health inequalities. The latest
progress report on the implementation of this communication was published in September 2013.

Health 3
Life expectancy and mortality rates
Todays young people are expected to live During the 200212 decade, life expectancy at
longer than ever before birth in the EU-28 increased by 2.6 years, from
77.7 to 80.3 years (2.2 years for females and
The indicator most commonly used to analyse
3.0 years for males).
mortality levels is life expectancy at birth. Life
expectancy at birth in the EU-28 is higher than in Life expectancy is rising in all EU Member States
most regions of the world (1) and is continuing to (Figure 1), although there are major differences
increase, reflecting reductions in mortality rates at between countries. With an average of 82.5 years
all ages. Economic development, better education, in 2012, Spain is the EU Member State where one
rising living standards, improved life style, as well can expect to live the longest. Life expectancy at
as greater access to health services across Europe birth in 2012, was also above 82 years in Italy and
have contributed to this continuous increase. As France. In total 18 EU Member States recorded a
shown in chapter 1, the life expectancy of a new- life expectancy at birth above 80 years. In contrast,
born baby in the EU-28 was 80.3 years (83.1 years Romania, Bulgaria, Latvia and Lithuania reported
for females and 77.5 years for males) in 2012. the lowest life expectancy at birth, below 75 years.
Figure 1: Life expectancy at birth, 2002 and 2012

(years)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Spain
Italy
France
Sweden
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Cyprus
Austria
United Kingdom
Ireland
Malta
Greece
Finland
Portugal
Belgium
Slovenia
Denmark
Czech Republic
Croatia
Poland
Estonia
Slovakia
Hungary
Romania
Bulgaria
Latvia
Lithuania
Iceland
Switzerland
Liechtenstein
Norway
Germany
2002 2012
(1) The EU in the world 2013, a statistical portrait, statistical book, Eurostat.

3 Health
The gender gap in life expectancy also varies EU-28 was 5.6 years in favour of women. In the
between countries, even if the life expectancy at Baltic EU Member States, women are expected
birth for women is always higher than the one for to outlive men by more than 10 years. In 2012
men (Figure 2). Why do women tend to live longer the largest differences in life expectancy at birth
in the EU-28? Both biological and behavioural between the genders were found in Lithuania
factors are likely to have led to the differences in (11.2 years) followed by Estonia (10.1 years) and
life expectancy between men and women. Men Latvia (10.0 years), whereas the smallest were
are more likely to die from lung and prostate found in the Netherlands, the United Kingdom
cancer, tuberculosis, cirrhosis of the liver and and Sweden (all three 3.7 years). However, this
coronary heart disease as well as from injuries, particular gender gap was shrinking: between
whether unintentional or intentional (suicide). 2002 and 2012, the difference between men and
These far outweigh the female mortality rate from women decreased by 0.8 years on average in the
breast cancer and cervical cancer (2). In 2012, EU-28.
the gender gap in life expectancy at birth in the
Figure 2: Gender gap in life expectancy at birth, 2002 and 2012

(years)
12
10
0
EU-28
Lithuania
Estonia
Latvia
Poland
Slovakia
Hungary
Romania
Bulgaria
France
Croatia
Portugal
Slovenia
Czech Republic
Spain
Finland
Greece
Belgium
Austria
Italy
Germany
Luxembourg
Ireland
Cyprus
Malta
Denmark
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Sweden
Liechtenstein
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
2002 2012
(2) Santrock, John (2007). Life Expectancy. A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development (pp. 128132). New York, New York: The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.
World Health Organization (2004). Annex Table 2: Deaths by cause, sex and mortality stratum in WHO regions, estimates for 2002 (PDF). The world
health report 2004 changing history. Retrieved November 1, 2008.

Health 3
WHAT IS THE CRUDE DEATH RATE?
The crude death rate is the ratio of the number of deaths during the year (in general, or due to a
specific cause) to the average population in that year. It is expressed in units of number of deaths
per 100 000 inhabitants and is calculated as the number of deaths recorded in the population for a
given year divided by population in that year and then multiplied by 100 000.
Mortality rates for children and young people Figure 3 illustrates the evolution of the crude
have been declining in the EU death rates for children (aged 014) and young
people (aged 1529), during the 200212 time
The crude death rate for the total EU-28 population
period. Since the number of deaths in a population
has generally been following a downward trend
increases with age, the crude death rates for
over the last decades. Rising living standards,
children and young people was relatively low
improved life styles, better education, as well
compared to the total EU population, while the
as advances in healthcare and medicine have
mortality of young people was slightly higher than
gradually led to the reduction of mortality rates
that of children.
and to the rapid increase of life expectancy at birth
in the EU-28.
Figure 3: Crude death rate of children, young people and total EU-28 population, 200212
(number of deaths per 100 000 inhabitants/children/young people)
1 040 70
1 010 60
Children / Young people

980 50
Total population
950 40
920 30
890 20
860 10
0 0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Children (014) Young people (1529) Total
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: demo_magec and demo_pjan)
In absolute terms, 29043 children and 36918 young the crude death rate for children and young peo-
people died in the EU-28 during 2012, which cor- ple followed a significant downward trend, with
responds to a crude death rate for children and a decline by 28% (from 51 to 37) and 31% (from
young people of 37 and 41 deaths per 100000 in- 58 to 41) respectively.
habitants respectively. Between 2002 and 2012,

3 Health
Analysing the rates by gender, male mortality in 014) and young men (aged 1529) accounted for
the EU-28 exceeds female mortality for children 56% and 74% of the total deaths of children and
and young people (Table 1). In 2012, boys (aged young people respectively.
Table 1: Crude death rates, by sex and age groups, EU-28, 2012
(number of deaths per 100 000 children or young people of each age group)
01 14 59 1014 1519 2024 2529

Total 384.1 17.8 9.4 10.9 28.3 42.7 48.8
Males 416.3 19.8 10.3 13.0 38.9 63.1 71.3
Females 350.3 15.8 8.6 8.7 17.2 21.6 25.8
At country level, Romania (83.7), Bulgaria (81.2), all EU Member States, except Malta, the crude
Latvia (57.8) and Slovakia (55.9) had the highest death rate for children has decreased between
crude death rates for children in 2012, whereas 2002 and 2012. The largest drops were registered in
Luxembourg (19.9), Slovenia (22.0), Finland (26.6) Luxembourg (66%), Portugal (46%), Romania
and Italy (27.1) had the lowest rates (Figure 4). In (43%) and Slovenia (42%).
Figure 4: Crude death rates for children (014 years old), 2002 and 2012
(number of deaths per 100 000 children)
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Romania
Bulgaria
Latvia
Slovakia
Malta
Poland
Lithuania
Hungary
Cyprus
United Kingdom
Belgium
Estonia
Croatia
Ireland
France
Netherlands
Portugal
Austria
Germany
Spain
Czech Republic
Greece
Denmark
Sweden
Italy
Finland
Slovenia
Luxembourg
Liechtenstein
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
2002 2012

Health 3
Looking at the crude death rates for young people, Denmark (45%) and Malta (43%). None of
Spain (26.5), Malta (26.8), the Netherlands (28.2) the EU Member State registered an increase in
and Denmark (28.6) recorded the lowest rates in crude death rate for young people in the decade
2012, while the three Baltic countries (Lithuania preceding 2012.
with 97.8, Estonia with 96.9 and Latvia with
84.7), Romania (66.6), Bulgaria (60.9) and Poland Mortality rates for children and young people of
(60.8) recorded the highest (Figure 5). The largest all ages have fallen significantly in the past years
decreases between 2002 and 2012 were seen in in the EU-28. However, disparities by age group,
Portugal (53%), Spain (49%), Cyprus (47%), gender and country persist.
Figure 5: Crude death rates for young people (1529 years old), 2002 and 2012
(number of deaths per 100 000 young people)
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Lithuania
Estonia
Latvia
Romania
Bulgaria
Poland
Finland
Slovakia
Ireland
Greece
Luxembourg
Czech Republic
Croatia
Hungary
France
Austria
Belgium
Slovenia
Cyprus
Sweden
Portugal
United Kingdom
Germany
Italy
Denmark
Netherlands
Malta
Spain
Liechtenstein
Norway
Switzerland
2002 2012 Iceland
The infant mortality rate represents the ratio of the number of deaths of live-born children aged
less than one year to the number of live births in a given year. The value is expressed per 1 000 live
births.
Since 1961, the infant mortality rate has heath conditions. Scientific advancements in
decreased by 90% in the EU medical treatment, higher quality in the delivery
of healthcare services, as well as better prevention
The infant mortality rate in the EU-28 has decreased of premature deaths, are also mirrored in this
by 90% since 1961 reflecting improvements in significant drop.

3 Health
Figure 6: Infant mortality rate evolution, EU-28, 19612012

(number of deaths per 1 000 live births)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_minfind)
In 2012, around 17 100 children died before 50%. The most significant reductions in infant
reaching one year in the EU-28, resulting in mortality were generally recorded within those
an infant mortality rate of 3.8 deaths per 1000 EU Member States which tended to record higher
live births. In the 19962012 period, the infant levels of infant mortality, compared with the EU
mortality rate in the EU-28 declined by almost average.
Figure 7: Infant mortality rate, 19622012

(number of deaths per 1 000 live births)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Romania
Bulgaria
Latvia
Slovakia
Malta
Hungary
Poland
United Kingdom
Lithuania
Belgium
Netherlands
Estonia
Croatia
Ireland
France (1)
Cyprus
Denmark
Portugal
Germany
Austria
Spain
Greece
Italy
Czech Republic
Sweden
Luxembourg
Finland
Slovenia
Liechtenstein
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
1962 1972 1982 1992 2002 2012
(1) France metropolitan until 2002.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_minfind)

Health 3
At national level, Slovenia appeared to have the highest rates were found in Romania (9.0 deaths
lowest infant mortality rate within the EU-28 in per 1000 live births), Bulgaria (7.8) and Latvia
2012 (1.6 deaths per 1000 live births), while rates (6.3), although all of these EU Member States
of 2.6 deaths per 1000 live births or less were reported sharp declines, down from 23.3, 15.9 and
recorded in Finland, Luxembourg, Sweden and 17.6 deaths per 1000 live births in 1992 for example.
the Czech Republic (Figure 7). In contrast, the
Causes of death
External factors are the main cause of death causes of death for people over the age of 45 appear
for children and young people to be cancer, circulatory and respiratory diseases.
In contrast, most young people generally die due
Causes of death vary substantially according to age to external factors, such as transport accidents,
groups (Figure 8). For instance, the most frequent intentional self-harm, accidental falls and assault.
Figure 8: Causes of death, by age group, EU-28, 2011

(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
01
14
59
1014
1519
2024
2529
3034
3539
4044
4549
5054
5559
6064
6569
7074
7579
8084
>85
Neoplasms Circulatory diseases Respiratory diseases Digestive diseases External causes Other
Source: Eurostat (online data code: hlth_cd_acdr2)
For children aged 14, the most common causes deformations and chromosomal abnormalities
of death are external factors (22 % in 2011). were the next common cause of death, accounting
In particular, 20% of deaths in children aged for 17% of total causes, followed by neoplasms
14 occurred due to accidents (transport accidents, (16%) and diseases of the nervous system and of
falls, drowning and submersion, poisoning and the respiratory system (both 9%).
other external causes). Congenital malformations,

3 Health
Neoplasm is the main cause of death among for those aged 1519 and 18% of deaths for the
children aged 59 (accounting for 28% of total young people in their twenties.
causes for this age group in 2011), followed by
In absolute terms, about 8 800 young people
external causes of death (25%). For children aged
aged 1529 died in 2011 as a result of transport
between 10 and 14 years, external factors are the
accidents in the EU-28. Examining the numbers by
most common cause of death (32% of deaths in
age group and gender (Table 2), young men aged
2011), followed by neoplasms (23%).
2024 were the age group most involved in fatal
In 2011, external causes accounted for 59%, 61% transport accidents. In the same time period, about
and 54% of deaths among young people aged 6 900 young people died due to intentional self-
1519, 2024 and 2529 respectively. The biggest harm, the second most common cause of death for
part of these was caused by transport accidents, young people. Over 5600 of them (or 82%) were
with 28%, 26% and 17% of deaths respectively young men. For all external factors, the number of
in the three 5-year age groups. The second most young victims is higher among men than women,
important cause of death for young people was the especially for those aged 2029.
intentional self-harm, amounting to 15% of deaths
Table 2: External causes of death of young people (1529) by sex and age group, EU-28, 2011
(number of deaths of residents in or outside their home country)
Total Males Females

Total Total Total
1519 2024 2529 1519 2024 2529 1519 2024 2529
(1529) (1529) (1529)
Total external
22654 4979 8771 8904 18543 3836 7266 7441 4111 1143 1505 1463
causes
Transport
8822 2395 3647 2780 7255 1855 3027 2373 1567 540 620 407
accidents
Intentional
6915 1287 2623 3005 5638 966 2180 2492 1277 321 443 513
self-harm
Accidental
drowning and 844 250 315 279 761 219 291 251 83 31 24 28
submersion
Accidental
poisoning by
and exposure 1513 171 510 832 1212 121 403 688 301 50 107 144
to noxious
substances
Assault 759 148 267 344 538 103 189 246 221 45 78 98
Falls 672 142 212 318 565 116 184 265 107 26 28 53
Other
external 3129 586 1197 1346 2574 456 992 1126 555 130 205 220
causes
Source: Eurostat (online data code: hlth_cd_aro)

Health 3
Certain perinatal conditions and congenital at least 50% of infant deaths were caused by
malformations are the most common cause of certain perinatal conditions in 2011. In Cyprus,
infant mortality Portugal and Croatia certain perinatal conditions
accounted for up to 60% of total causes of infant
Looking at the cause of infant deaths, it appears mortality. Congenital malformations are another
that certain conditions originating in the perinatal common cause, found mostly in Greece (49% of
period (3) are the most common cause of death infant deaths), Malta and Ireland (both 44% of
for infants (4) (Figure 9). In 16 EU Member States, infant deaths).
Figure 9: Main causes of infant deaths, 2011

(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Cyprus
Portugal
Croatia
Slovenia
Denmark
Hungary
Czech Republic
Latvia
Italy
United Kingdom
Spain
Netherlands
Poland
Belgium
France
Germany
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Malta
Luxembourg
Estonia
Austria
Finland
Sweden
Slovakia
Greece
Ireland
Romania
Switzerland
Norway
Certain conditions originating in the perinatal period Congenital malformations and chromosomal abnormalities
Diseases of the respiratory system Sudden infant death syndrome
Infectious and parasitic diseases External causes
Source: Eurostat (online data code: hlth_cd_anr)
TRANSPORT, TRAFFIC AND VEHICLE ACCIDENTS

A transport accident is any accident involving a device designed primarily for, or being used at the
time primarily for, conveying persons or goods from one place to another.
A traffic accident is any vehicle accident occurring on the public highway (i.e. originating on,
terminating on, or involving a vehicle partially on the highway).
A vehicle accident is assumed to have occurred on the public highway unless another place is
specified, except in the case of accidents involving only off-road motor vehicles, which are classified
as non-traffic accidents unless the contrary is stated.
Source: WHO International Classification of Death Causes
(3) Conditions include birth trauma, respiratory and cardiovascular disorders, infections specific to the perinatal period, etc.
(4) Children aged between 0 and 1 year.

3 Health
Transport accidents are the leading cause of the EU-28 amounted to 8800 in 2011, meaning
death among young people that on average nearly one in 9000 young people
died as a consequence of a transport accident.
Transport accidents are an important cause of
This corresponds to a decrease in absolute terms
death, especially for young people. Main risk
by 53% compared to 2000 (from 18916 in 2000 to
factors for fatal transport accidents are speed,
8822 in 2011). Looking at age groups, the number
alcohol abuse, exposing vulnerable road users to
of deaths of young people aged 15 to 19 has
motorised traffic, poor visibility and not using
decreased by 57%, while the respective number for
protective equipment (5).
those aged 2024 and 2529 has decreased by 51%
As seen before, the number of deaths of young and 53% respectively (Figure 10).
people aged 1529 from transport accidents in
Figure 10: Number of deaths of children and young people caused by transport accidents, by
age group, EU-28, 200011
8 000
7 000
6 000
5 000
4 000
3 000
2 000
1 000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
014 1519 2024 2529

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: hlth_cd_anr and hlth_cd_aro)
For both children and young people, crude death

rates were higher for boys or young men than for
girls or young women (Figure 11). Differences
are nevertheless more pronounced among young
people than children. The biggest gender gap can
be observed for the age group 2024.
At country level, the lowest crude death rates for
children and young people in 2011 were recorded
in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Denmark, the
Netherlands, Spain, Malta and Hungary (Figure
There were 878 children aged less than 15 12). In contrast, Croatia, Greece, Poland and
who died in transport accidents in 2011 in the Luxembourg recorded high death rates for the age
group 2024.
EU-28. This corresponds to a sharp drop of 62%
compared with the figures of the year 2000
(2 329 children).
(5) Young drivers, the road to safety, OECD and ECMT, 2006.

Health 3
Figure 11: Crude death rates for children and young people from transport accidents, by sex,
EU-28, 2003 and 2011
(number of deaths per 100 000 inhabitants)
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
014 1519 2024 2529
2003 Boys 2011 Boys 2003 Girls 2011 Girls

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: hlth_cd_acdr and hlth_cd_acdr2)
Figure 12: Crude death rates for children and young people from transport accidents, by age
group, 2011
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Belgium
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Denmark
Germany
Estonia
Ireland
Greece
Spain
France
Croatia
Italy
Cyprus
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Hungary
Malta
Netherlands
Austria
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovenia
Slovakia
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
014 1519 2024 2529


3 Health
Injuries following road accidents more whereas in Malta and Slovenia it is around 7%.
frequent among men In general, young men tend to get injured more
frequently following road accidents than young
Car accidents are one of the most prevalent causes
women. The highest gender gap was registered
of death among young people. Injuries following
in Greece (a difference of 5 percentage points).
road accidents can be more or less serious, or even
However in Hungary and Bulgaria no difference
deadly. Figure 13 shows that on average about
between men and women was noted. In Malta, the
2% of young women and 3% of young men aged
gender gap is negative with more young women
1529 had injuries following a car accident in 2008.
than young men having injuries following a car
In Romania and Bulgaria the rate of young people
accident.
with injuries due to a road accident is below 1%,
Figure 13: Injuries following road accidents for young people (aged 1529), by sex, 2008
(%)
8
0
EU (1)
Slovenia
Malta
Greece
Spain
Belgium
Czech Republic
Cyprus
Latvia
Poland
Hungary
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Romania
() This is the population-weighted average computed for the EU Member States for which data were available.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: yth_hlth_050)
Intentional self-harm implies purposely self-inflicted poisoning or injury and (attempted) suicide.
Suicide is the act of deliberately killing oneself. Risk factors for suicide include mental disorder
(such as depression, personality disorder, alcohol dependence or schizophrenia), and some physical
illnesses, such as neurological disorders, cancer, and HIV infection.
Source: WHO International Classification of Death Causes

Health 3
Intentional self-harm remains a challenge in Young people are especially vulnerable to the
northern European countries threat of suicide, as intentional self-harm is the
second most frequent cause of death among young
The most important risk factors for suicidal
people aged 1529.
behaviour are psychological and social in nature.
Social factors may include discrimination (e.g. Crude death rates related to intentional self-harm
bullying at school), social isolation, relationship by children and young people have decreased by
conflicts with family and friends, unemployment 40% and 22% respectively from 2000 to 2011 in the
or poverty. Mental and psychological problems EU. In absolute numbers, the cases of intentional
play a key role in the emergence of suicidal self-harm dropped from 263 to 159 for children
behaviour, with depression and hopelessness being aged 014 and from 8874 to 6915 for young people
associated with nine out of ten cases of suicide. aged 1529 (Figure 14). Some groups are at higher
Drug abuse and alcohol use are also determinants. risk of suicide than others. Young women tend
Almost one quarter of suicides involve alcohol to be substantially less affected by suicide and
abuse. Intentional self-harm may also be the intentional self-harm, with crude death rates being
consequence of severe painful and dissembling four to five times lower than those of young men in
physical illnesses, in combination with social the EU-28 (Figure 15). The 2529 age group seems
isolation. Suicide rates also increase during periods to be the most confronted with intentional self-
of economic recession and unemployment (6). harm, with 3000 cases in 2011.
Figure 14: Number of deaths of children and young people caused by intentional self-harm, by
age group, EU-28, 200011
4 500
4 000
3 500
3 000
2 500
2 000
1 500
1 000
500
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
014 1519 2024 2529
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: hlth_cd_anr and hlth_cd_aro)
(6) Health statistics Atlas on mortality in the European Union, Statistical Book, Eurostat, 2009 edition. http://www.who.int/mental_health/
prevention/suicide/suicideprevent/en/

3 Health
Figure 15: Crude death rates for children and young people from intentional self-harm, by sex,
EU-28, 2003 and 2011
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
014 1519 2024 2529
2003 Boys 2011 Boys 2003 Girls 2011 Girls

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: hlth_cd_acdr and hlth_cd_acdr2)
Looking at EU Member States, Lithuania, Latvia their twenties were also more affected than their
and Finland were the countries with the largest youngest peers in all EU Member States.
crude death rates from intentional self-harm in
Consequently, young men aged 2029 in the
2011 (Figure 16). In contrast, the southern EU
northern EU Member States seem to be the most
Member States (Greece, Spain, Italy, Cyprus and
vulnerable to intentional self-harm.
Portugal) reported the smallest rates. People in
Figure 16: Crude death rates for children and young people from intentional self-harm, by age
group, 2011
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Belgium
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Denmark
Germany
Estonia
Ireland
Greece
Spain
France
Croatia
Italy
Cyprus
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Hungary
Malta
Netherlands
Austria
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovenia
Slovakia
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
014 1519 2024 2529


Health 3
Health status
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines emotional well-being, pain or discomfort, and
health as a state of complete physical, mental overall perception of health from respondents
and social well-being and not merely the absence participating in surveys. This section focuses
of disease or infirmity, which points to its on three key indicators describing the levels and
multidimensional nature. It also implies different distribution of health status: the self-perceived
ways of measuring health, such as collecting health, long-standing illness or health problem
objective data from health care providers or and activity limitation.
more subjective data on physical functioning,
EUROPEAN CORE HEALTH INDICATORS

The European Core Health Indicators (ECHI) project established a list of 88 indicators which focus
on general public health issues and are designed to provide a comprehensive overview on health.
The vast majority of young people perceived self-perceived health status varies to some extent
themselves in good or very good health between EU Member States (Figure 17). The lowest
proportions of young people who declared to be
Generally, young people are in a better health in a very good or good health were registered in
condition and feel healthier than older age groups. Portugal (82%), Latvia, Finland and Denmark
However, this period of life requires special (all three 83%). In Greece and Romania more
attention since health-related behaviour establishes than 97% of young people perceived their health
itself during adolescence and is strongly influenced as being good or very good. Bulgaria, Cyprus and
by social and environmental factors. In 2013, 92% Malta were also on the top of the list with 95% or
of the EUs young population aged 1629 declared more of their young people perceiving themselves
that they were in good or very good health. The in good or very good health.

3 Health
Figure 17: Self-perceived health young people (aged 1629) in good and very good health,
by sex, 2013
(%)
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
EU-28
Greece
Romania
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Malta
Slovakia
Spain
Ireland
Czech Republic
Italy
Hungary
Poland
Lithuania
Belgium
Croatia
Slovenia
Austria
United Kingdom
Germany
Luxembourg
France
Sweden
Estonia
Netherlands
Denmark
Finland
Latvia
Portugal
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
Young men Young women Total (young men and women)
Young men generally declared more often to be in

a very good or good health than young women in
the EU-28 (93% versus 91%) but the gender gap
varied across EU Member States. The Netherlands
recorded the biggest gap (11 percentage points)
in favour of the young men. In Greece, Romania,
Bulgaria, Cyprus, Malta, Slovenia, Finland and
Latvia the share of young women perceiving their
health as being good or very good was however
higher than the one of young men.
Besides the objective health status, the differences
across EU Member States in the self-perceived In nineteen EU Member States, more than 90%
health may relate to general health standards in
of the young Europeans declared themselves in
a country, and to cultural differences, i.e. how
good or very good health in 2013.
people talk about their personal health or how they
disclose their health problems.
population in the first income quintile group
Looking at the relation between self-perceived
perceived their health as good or very good
health status and income situation (Figure 18),
compared with 95% in the fifth quintile group.
a clear trend can be observed in almost all EU
This pattern was observed in all EU Member
Member States: the higher the income, the higher
States. The largest difference between the groups
the probability of young people reporting good or
with highest and lowest income was recorded
very good health.
in Finland (14 percentage points) and Portugal
On average in the EU-28, 89% of the young (13 percentage points). Differences higher than

Health 3
HOUSEHOLD INCOME AND INCOME QUINTILES
The income quintiles are key indicators of the distribution of the (equivalised disposable) income
across the whole population of a given geographical entity.
The total income of a household, after tax and other deductions, which is available for spending
or saving, is divided by the number of household members converted into equivalised adults.
Household members are equivalised or made equivalent by weighting each of them according to
their age, using the so-called modified OECD equivalence scale: the scale gives a weight of 1.0 to
the first adult, 0.5 to any other household member aged 14 and over and 0.3 to each child below
the age of 14.
Income quintiles refer to the position in the frequency distribution. Quintiles divide a distribution
into five parts so that we find 20% of total observations in each quintile group. The quintile cut-off
value is obtained by sorting all observations by income from lowest to highest, and then choosing
the value of income under which 20% (lower limit), 40% (second limit), 60% (third), 80% (fourth)
and 100% (upper limit) of the sample are located. A quintile group refers to the segment between
the cut-off values of two quintiles. The first quintile group includes population with income below
the lower quintile cut-off (20%) and the fifth quintile group includes population with income
greater than fourth quintile (representing 20% of the richest population).
10 percentage points were also observed in differences between the first and the fifth income
Belgium, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Germany quintiles, i.e. below 2 percentage points, were seen
and the United Kingdom. In contrast, small in Greece, Malta, Ireland, Italy and Luxembourg.
Figure 18: Self-perceived health young people in good and very good health, by income
quintile, 2013
(%)
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
EU-28
Greece
Romania
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Malta
Slovakia
Spain
Ireland
Czech Republic
Italy
Hungary
Poland
Belgium
Lithuania
Croatia
Slovenia
Austria
United Kingdom
Germany
Luxembourg
France
Sweden
Estonia
Netherlands
Denmark
Finland
Latvia
Portugal
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
First quintile Fifth quintile Total


3 Health
Long-standing health problems vary In 2013, 12% of the EU-28 young population
according to gender and income level (aged 1629) reported suffering from a chronic
illness or long-standing health problem. The
According to the WHO, long-standing health
lowest prevalence of chronic health problems was
problems or chronic diseases, such as heart disease,
observed in Romania, Bulgaria and Greece (all
stroke, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases and
less than 3%). The highest rate of young people
diabetes, are by far the leading cause of mortality
having chronic health problems was registered
and disability worldwide, representing 60% of all
in Finland, where roughly one out of four young
deaths. Some chronic diseases can be positively
people reported a long-standing health problem
influenced through a healthy life style. Their
(24%). High rates were also observed in Sweden
consequences, such as premature death and
and the Netherlands (both 21%).These differences
disability, could be reduced by an adequate and
between countries could also be related to cultural
timely diagnosis and treatment. Although the
differences in self-perception and in practices for
prevalence of long-standing health problems is
diagnosis, managing and treatment of chronic
lower in young people, the psychological burden
health problems.
may be more serious and it can have important
implications on their social integration.
Figure 19: Young people (aged 1629) suffering from a long-standing illness or health problem,
by sex, 2013
(%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Finland
Sweden
Netherlands
Estonia
United Kingdom
France
Portugal
Denmark
Austria
Germany
Ireland
Belgium
Latvia
Spain
Luxembourg
Slovenia
Cyprus
Hungary
Czech Republic
Poland
Slovakia
Italy
Croatia
Malta
Lithuania
Greece
Bulgaria
Romania
Norway
Iceland
Switzerland

Health 3
Overall there were 11% of young men versus Chronic health problems vary according to the
13% of young women declaring chronic health income level. On average, 14% of the EU young
problems in the EU-28. The biggest gap between population in the first income quintile group
young men and young women was observed in the versus 10% in the fifth income quintile reported
Netherlands, with a difference of 12 percentage a chronic health problem in 2013 (Figure 20). This
points, followed by Denmark (10 percentage pattern is observed in most EU Member States, i.e.
points). In 19 EU Member States, young men all except Spain, Luxembourg, Hungary, Poland,
reported long-standing health problems less often Italy and Greece. The difference was the largest
than young women. In the remaining EU Member in Finland (13 percentage points) followed by
States there were almost no differences between the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Belgium
young men and women or a slightly higher and Lithuania with a difference of more than
proportion of young men declaring a chronic 8 percentage points.
health problem compared to young women. In
Cyprus, Romania and Latvia the difference was
between one and three percentage points in favour
of women.
Figure 20: Young people (aged 1629) suffering from a long-standing illness or health problem,
by income quintile, 2013
(%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Finland
Sweden
Netherlands
Estonia
United Kingdom
France
Portugal
Denmark
Austria
Germany
Ireland
Belgium
Latvia
Spain
Luxembourg
Slovenia
Cyprus
Hungary
Czech Republic
Poland
Slovakia
Italy
Croatia
Malta
Lithuania
Greece
Bulgaria
Romania
Norway
Iceland
Switzerland

3 Health
Limitations in usual activities also vary In 2013, 8% of people aged 16 to 29 living in the
according to gender and income level EU-28 reported health-related long-term (longer
than 6 months) limitations in usual activities. The
People with long-standing health problems can
prevalence of activity limitation was highest in
experience difficulties in accomplishing everyday
Finland (27%) followed by Denmark (19%) and
activities, which affects their quality of life. Data
the Netherlands (16%). The lowest prevalence of
on the degree of limitation in usual activities due
activity limitations was reported in Malta and
to health problems is used as a proxy measure for
Greece (both around 2%) and Lithuania (4%).
disability.
Figure 21: Young people (aged 1629) with some activity limitations, by sex, 2013
(%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Finland
Denmark
Netherlands
Sweden
Austria
Germany
Estonia
United Kingdom
Latvia
Luxembourg
Slovenia
Belgium
Italy
France
Slovakia
Portugal
Ireland
Spain
Poland
Czech Republic
Cyprus
Hungary
Romania
Croatia
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Greece
Malta
Switzerland
Iceland
Norway
Similarly to long-standing health problems, young by Denmark (9 percentage points). Nevertheless, in

women reported limitations in usual activities due 11 EU Member States proportionally more young
to health problems more frequently than young men declared being limited in usual activities due
men, in most EU Member States. As previously, to health problems than young women. In Latvia
the greatest gender gap was observed in the and Lithuania, the difference between young men
Netherlands, where the difference between young and women was about two percentage points.
women and men was 14 percentage points, followed

Health 3
Income level was again a differentiating factor The discrepancies varied considerably across EU
for activity limitations in almost all EU Member Member States. The largest difference between
States. At EU level, 6% of young people among the first and fifth quintile groups was registered
the top income quintile group against 10% young in the Finland (15 percentage points), followed by
people from the bottom quintile group declared Germany (10 percentage points) and the United
some long-standing limitations in usual activities. Kingdom (8 percentage points).
Figure 22: Young people (aged 1629) with some activity limitations, by income quintile, 2013
(%)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Finland
Denmark
Netherlands
Sweden
Austria
Germany
Estonia
United Kingdom
Latvia
Luxembourg
Slovenia
Belgium
Italy
France
Slovakia
Portugal
Ireland
Spain
Poland
Czech Republic
Cyprus
Hungary
Romania
Croatia
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Greece
Malta
Switzerland
Iceland
Norway
Medical needs of young people in the EU-28 However, the situation varied widely between
are not always covered EU Member States. While in Slovenia, Malta,
Austria, Lithuania, Belgium, the Netherlands and
Differences in health status may be partly related
Slovakia almost all young people did not face any
to access to healthcare. At EU level, 4% of young
unmet needs for medical examination in the last
people declared in 2013 having had unmet needs
12 months, more than one in five young people in
for medical examination during the past 12
Sweden declared having experienced unmet needs,
months. For almost half of these, the reasons were
although the reasons were rather different than cost
that the medical services were too expensive, too
or distance of medical services. On the other hand,
far away or that the waiting lists were too long.
more than 3% of young Latvians, Bulgarians and
More than 1% of young people considered that
Greeks faced limited access to medical services for
the medical services were too expensive, and 1%
reasons of cost, and more than 4% of young Finns
wanted to wait and see if problem got better on its
and Estonians because of waiting lists.
own.

3 Health
Figure 23: Unmet needs of young people for medical examination by reasons of barriers of
access, 2013
(%)
100
95
90
85
80
75
EU-28
Slovenia
Malta
Austria
Lithuania
Belgium
Netherlands
Slovakia
Ireland
Cyprus
Portugal
Croatia
United Kingdom
Germany
Luxembourg
Romania
Czech Republic (1)
Italy
Hungary
Greece
Spain
Finland
Estonia
Bulgaria
Poland
France
Denmark
Latvia
Sweden
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
No unmet needs Too expensive Waiting list No time Fear Prefer to wait Other
EUROPEAN HEALTH INTERVIEW SURVEY

Most data on health determinants come from the European Health Interview Survey (EHIS), which
consists of four modules on health status, health care use, health determinants and socio-economic
background variables. The first wave of EHIS (EHIS wave 1) was conducted under a gentlemens
agreement between 2006 and 2009. Only 19 EU Member States took part in this first survey but not
all of them implemented all modules and variables. The second wave (EHIS wave 2, 201315) is held
on the basis of a Commission regulation, which makes the survey compulsory for all EU Member
States.

Health 3
Health determinants
The health status of an individual results from education level) and physical environment. This
a combination of several factors: genetic and section focuses on some health determinants
biological characteristics, personal behaviour, that are linked to life style related behaviours like
socio-economic background (income and obesity, drugs and alcohol consumption.
BODY MASS INDEX EXPLAINED

The body mass index (BMI) is a measure of a persons weight relative to height that correlates fairly
well with body fat. The BMI is accepted as the most useful indicator of obesity in adults when only
weight and height data are available.
BMI is calculated by dividing body weight (in kilograms) by height (in metres) squared.
The following subdivisions are used to categorise the BMI into four categories:
< 18.5: underweight;
18.5 and < 25: normal weight;
25 and < 30: overweight (excluding obesity);
30: obesity.
Obesity increases with age The highest share of obese young people was
registered in Malta (13%); the lowest in Romania
Obesity is a serious public health problem, as it
(2%), Bulgaria, Slovakia and Latvia (all three 3%).
significantly increases the risk of chronic diseases
In the remaining eleven EU Member States having
such as cardiovascular disease, type-2 diabetes,
participated in the EHIS survey, the share of obese
hypertension, coronary-heart diseases and certain
young people varied between 4% and 7%.
cancers. Moreover, obesity is linked to a higher risk
for psychological problems. For society, obesity The share of obese young people increases with
has substantial direct and indirect costs that put age. There is a clear pattern in most EU Member
a strain on national healthcare systems, economic States: the older the age, the higher the share of
productivity and social resources. obese persons will be. The only exceptions were
found in Slovenia, Greece and Bulgaria where the
In 2008, a proportion of 4% of young women and
trend was less uniform for the 1519 and 2024 age
young men aged 15 to 29 were classified as obese
groups.
according to the body mass index (BMI), which
can be a consequence of their dietary habits and
life styles.

3 Health
Figure 24: Obesity amongst young people, by age group, 2008

(%)
25
20
15
10
0
EU (1)
Malta
Hungary
Slovenia
Cyprus
Belgium
Estonia
Greece
Czech Republic
Poland
Spain
France
Austria
Latvia
Bulgaria
Slovakia
Romania
1519 2024 2529
Figure 25: Obesity amongst young people by sex, 2008

(%)
16
14
12
10
0
EU (1)
Malta
Hungary
Cyprus
Slovenia
Spain
Czech Republic
Greece
Poland
Estonia
Austria
Belgium
Slovakia
Latvia
Bulgaria
France
Romania


Health 3
In most EU Member States for which data were are available and reliable, the number of young
available, more young men than young women people who smoke is quite large. However, the
were classified as obese. The largest gender relative number of young smokers varies greatly
differences were observed in Hungary, Cyprus, the between EU Member States. Greece had the
Czech Republic and Greece, where the difference highest proportion of young smokers aged 15 to
between obese young men and women was around 29 with 32%, closely followed by Cyprus 31% and
3 percentage points. In Belgium and France more Austria 30%. The lowest proportions of regular
young women than young men were classified as smokers among young people aged 1529 (around
obese, the difference being 2 percentage points. 19%) were found in Romania and Slovakia.
The number of regular smokers increases with
More than 30% of young people in Greece and
age. An important increase in the rate of regular
Cyprus are daily smokers smokers occurs especially between the 1519 and
The health consequences of regular smoking are 2024 age groups. At EU level, the rate of regular
both immediate (such as addiction to nicotine, smokers aged 2024 is more than double the rate of
respiratory difficulties and diseases) and long-term regular smokers aged 1519. This pattern is present
(such as specific types of cancer and coronary heart to a varying extent in all 13 EU Member States.
diseases). Smoking has been identified as a serious Between the 2024 and 2529 age groups, the
cause of premature illness and death. Although increase in the number of regular smokers slows
the majority of smoking-related deaths occur down in almost all EU Member States. In Austria
among middle-aged and elderly people, smoking and Hungary we can even observe a 3 percentage
behaviour is very often acquired at younger ages. point decrease in the rate of regular smokers.
Among the 13 EU Member States for which data
Figure 26: Young daily smokers by age group, 2008 ()

(%)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
EU (2)
Greece
Cyprus
Bulgaria
Latvia
Spain
Estonia
Slovenia
Austria
Romania
Hungary
Czech Republic
Malta
Slovakia
1519 2024 2529

() Countries with unreliable data were removed from analysis.

3 Health
Among young people aged 1529 in 2008, young smokers, the highest rates were registered in Greece
men were more likely to smoke than young women. (29%) and Austria (28%). The gender gap was the
At EU level, 31% of young men declared themselves most noticeable in Latvia, where the percentage
daily smokers, against 20% of young women. The of young male smokers represented more than
same pattern applied to all EU Member States double of the percentage of young female smokers.
taking part in this survey. The highest proportion In contrast, the share of young male smokers only
of young male smokers was observed in Cyprus slightly exceeds the rate of female smokers in
(42%) and Latvia (40%). Concerning young female Austria (by 3 percentage points).
Figure 27: Young daily smokers, by sex, 2008 ()

(%)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
EU (2)
Cyprus
Latvia
Estonia
Bulgaria
Greece
Hungary
Spain
Austria
Slovenia
Czech Republic
Romania
Malta
Slovakia
() Countries with unreliable data were removed from analysis.
Young men are more likely to use cannabis Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug.
than young women, except in Romania and Data coming from the European Monitoring
Finland Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)
show that cannabis consumption amongst young
The use of illicit drugs or psychoactive substances people aged 1524 varies largely between EU
can not only affect an individuals physical and Member States. The lowest use rate was reported in
mental health, but also their relationships and Romania (1%), followed by Cyprus and Portugal
integration in the society. Especially in young with around 5%. The highest rates were reported
people, who undergo a period of neurological in Denmark and the Czech Republic (both with
development, consumption of illicit substances rates above 23%), closely followed by France and
may have more serious effects since it can impact Spain (21%).
the brain maturation processes.

Health 3
EU DRUGS STRATEGY
In 2012, the European Council endorsed a new EU Drugs Strategy (201320). In addition to the two
traditional aims of reducing both the supply and demand of drugs, the new strategy introduces the
reduction of the health and social risks and harms caused by drugs as a policy objective.
Figure 28: Last year prevalence of cannabis use amongst young people (aged 1524), by sex,
200813
(%)
30
25
20
15
10
0
Denmark (6)
Spain (4)
Czech Republic (5)
Estonia (1)
France (3)
Netherlands (2)(7)
Germany (5)
Ireland (4)
Slovenia (5)
United Kingdom (5)
Croatia (5)
Poland (5)
Belgium (1)
Italy (5)(8)
Slovakia (3)
Bulgaria (5)
Latvia (4)
Austria (1)
Finland (3)
Sweden (5)
Portugal (5)
Cyprus (5)
Romania (3)
Norway (5)
Liechtenstein (5)
Turkey (4)
() 2008.
() 2009.
() 2010.
() 2011.
() 2012.
() 2013.
() The most recent general population survey reported by the Netherlands displays a wide variation in results compared with 2005 which may reflect
methodological differences. The data is provided for information, but given the lack of comparability between surveys, should be treated with
caution.
() The most recent general population survey reported by Italy displays a wide variation in results compared with the previous surveys which may
reflect methodological differences. The data is provided for information, but given the lack of comparability between surveys, should be treated
with caution.
Source: EMCDDA (table GPS-010)

3 Health
Looking at the issue from a gender perspective, it and Estonia, the rate of young men who had
can be noted that in all countries, except Romania used cannabis during the last year was around
and Finland, the rate of drug users was higher 14 percentage points higher than that of young
for young men than for young women. In Spain women.
Table 3: Frequency of marijuana or hashish use during the last 12 months amongst 1516 year-
old students, 2011
(%)
Number of occasions
more than at least
0 12 35 69 1019
20 once
EU () 80 8 4 2 2 4 20
Belgium () 80 7 4 2 2 4 19
Bulgaria 82 8 3 3 2 2 18
Cyprus 93 3 1 1 1 1 7
Czech Republic 70 13 6 3 3 5 30
Germany () 85 7 3 1 1 2 14
Denmark 85 8 3 2 1 1 15
Estonia 83 9 3 2 1 2 17
Greece 93 4 1 1 0 1 7
Spain 78 7 5 2 2 5 21
Finland 91 5 2 1 1 1 10
France 65 10 7 4 5 9 35
Croatia 87 6 2 2 1 2 13
Hungary 85 8 3 1 2 2 16
Ireland 86 6 2 2 1 2 13
Italy 82 7 3 2 2 4 18
Lithuania 84 9 3 1 1 2 16
Latvia 91 4 2 1 1 1 9
Malta 92 4 2 1 1 1 9
Netherlands 77 8 5 2 3 5 23
Poland 81 9 4 2 2 2 19
Portugal 84 6 3 2 2 3 16
Romania 94 3 1 1 0 1 6
Sweden 94 3 1 0 0 1 5
Slovenia 81 8 4 2 2 3 19
Slovakia 81 10 3 2 1 3 19
United Kingdom 79 9 3 2 3 4 21
Iceland 91 4 2 1 1 1 9
Liechtenstein 84 8 4 0 1 3 16
Norway 96 3 1 0 0 0 4
() This is the population-weighted average of the number of occasions, weighted by the population size of each country. As in Belgium and Germany
not all regions participated in the survey, the weighted average was computed with the assumption that these regions were representative of the
respective country.
() Only the region of Flanders participated in the survey.
() Only five Bundeslnder participated in the survey.
Source: ESPAD report 2011

Health 3
Data coming from the 2011 ESPAD (7) report shed involved in risky situations resulting in injuries.
light on the drug consumption behaviour of very For adolescents, alcohol consumption may
young people, namely those aged 1516 (Table 3). facilitate social interaction and influence ones
The highest rate of young people aged 1516 who image among peers. According to the WHO,
had never used cannabis during the year preceding children, adolescents and elderly people are more
the survey were found in Romania and Sweden vulnerable to alcohol-related harm than other age
(94%), while the lowest rate was registered in groups. Furthermore, the early onset of alcohol
France (65%). At the same time, France accounted consumption is associated with increased risk of
for the highest rate of young people who have used alcohol abuse and addiction at later ages.
cannabis on more than 20 occasions during the
last year (9%). As for the rate of young people who Data gathered by the EMCDDA show that in
have used cannabis only once or twice during the all countries for which data were available, the
last year (the so-called experimental users), the majority of young people aged 1524 has consumed
highest proportions were observed in the Czech alcohol during the year preceding the survey. The
Republic (13%), followed by Slovakia and France proportion of those who have consumed alcohol
(both 10%). At the other end of the scale we find ranges from almost 90% in Germany and Estonia,
Cyprus, Romania and Sweden, all with 3% of to slightly below 60% in Portugal and Romania.
experimental users. In general, young men tend to consume more
alcohol than young women. The largest differences
Germany and Estonia have the highest rates between young men and women were recorded
of young people having consumed alcohol in Romania (18 percentage points) and Bulgaria
In many societies, consumption of alcoholic (17 percentage points), followed by Portugal
beverages is a regular feature of social gatherings. (14 percentage points). In some countries, like
However, alcohol is a psychoactive substance with Belgium and Lithuania, the difference between
dependence-producing properties. Depending on young men and women is almost non-existent
the quantity and drinking patterns it can have (below 2 percentage points), whereas in others, like
serious negative consequences on health (such as the Czech Republic and Finland, the proportion of
toxic effects on organs and tissues, intoxication, young women slightly outnumbered that of young
dependency) and increases the chances of being men.
(7) European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs.

3 Health
Figure 29: Last year prevalence of alcohol use amongst young people (aged 1524), by sex
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Germany (7)
Estonia (3)
Hungary (2)
Slovenia (7)
Cyprus (7)
Latvia (6)
Ireland (6)
France (5)
Spain (6)
Greece (1)
Austria (3)
Croatia (7)
Czech Republic (7)
Italy (7)(8)
Belgium (3)
Bulgaria (7)
Finland (5)
Slovakia (5)
Lithuania (7)
Romania (5)
Portugal (7)
Netherlands (4)(9)
Norway (7)
Turkey (6)
() 2004.
() 2007.
() 2008.
() 2009.
() 2010.
() 2011.
() 2012.
() The most recent general population survey reported by Italy displays a wide variation in results compared with the previous surveys which may
reflect methodological differences. The data is provided for information, but given the lack of comparability between surveys, should be treated
with caution.
() The most recent general population survey reported by the Netherlands displays a wide variation in results compared with 2005 which may reflect
methodological differences. The data is provided for information, but given the lack of comparability between surveys, should be treated with
caution.
Source: EMCDDA (table GPS-115)
Alcohol intoxication or drunkenness occurs reveal that on average 40% of 1516-year-old

when the quantity of alcohol consumed leads to students were drunk at least once during the year
the impairment of a persons mental and physical preceding the survey. Approximately half of them
abilities (e.g. stagger when walking, not being able were drunk once or twice, whereas 2% experienced
to speak properly, throwing up or loss of memory). drunkenness on more than 20 occasions.
Data collected through the ESPAD survey (Table4)

Health 3
Table 4: Frequency of being drunk during the last 12 months amongst 1516 year-old students, 2011
(%)
Number of occasions
more than at least
0 12 35 69 1019
20 once
EU () 60 23 9 4 3 2 40
Belgium () 86 12 2 1 0 0 14
Bulgaria 57 27 8 4 3 1 43
Cyprus 77 15 4 2 1 1 23
Czech Republic 50 32 10 4 3 2 50
Germany () 52 29 12 3 2 2 48
Denmark 31 29 18 9 8 5 69
Estonia 59 29 7 3 1 1 41
Greece 70 22 5 2 1 0 30
Spain 53 18 17 5 9 4 47
Finland 53 23 12 6 4 2 47
France 59 24 9 4 3 1 41
Croatia 58 25 9 4 3 2 42
Hungary 51 28 10 5 4 2 49
Ireland 57 21 9 6 4 3 43
Italy 72 18 4 3 1 1 28
Lithuania 57 28 8 4 2 2 43
Latvia 56 29 8 4 2 2 44
Malta 63 22 8 4 2 1 37
Netherlands 64 22 8 4 2 1 36
Poland 68 21 6 3 1 1 32
Portugal 71 18 7 3 2 1 29
Romania 76 16 4 2 1 1 24
Sweden 68 18 7 4 2 1 32
Slovenia 55 28 9 4 2 2 45
Slovakia 50 28 11 5 3 3 50
United Kingdom 52 23 11 7 4 3 48
Iceland 81 12 3 2 1 0 19
Liechtenstein 55 26 10 3 2 4 45
Norway 70 19 7 3 1 0 30
() This is the population-weighted average of the number of occasions, weighted by the population size of each country. As in Belgium and Germany
not all regions participated in the survey, the weighted average was computed with the assumption that these regions were representative of the
respective country.
() Only the region of Flanders participated in the survey.
() Only five Bundeslnder participated in the survey.
Source: ESPAD report 2011
Belgium was the country where alcohol drunk on more than 20 occasions. Similar patterns
consumption in harmful quantities was the least were encountered in Cyprus, Romania and Italy.
spread among 1516-year-old students: 86% of At the other end of the spectrum we find Denmark,
them declared not to have been drunk during the where 70% of the surveyed students declared to
last year, 12% experienced drunkenness on one or have been drunk at least once, 29% on one or two
two occasions and no one declared to have been occasions and 5% on more than 20 occasions.

3 Health

Eurostat provides information on a wide range on healthcare systems, health-related behaviour,
of demographic data, at national and regional diseases and causes of death and a common set of
level on an annual basis, including statistics on EU health indicators, upon which there is EU-wide
the number of deaths by age, by year of birth, agreement regarding definitions, data collection
as well as according to gender, educational and use is in the process of being established within
attainment, legal marital status, citizenship and the framework of the open method of coordination
country of birth. Statistics are also collected for for health issues.
life expectancy, infant mortality and late foetal
The causes and groups of medical causes of death
deaths. The completeness of information depends
chosen have been selected from the summary
on the availability of data reported by the National
list of 86 causes compiled by Eurostat in the
Statistical Institutes (NSIs). A series of mortality
European shortlist 2012, which is based on the
indicators are produced, which may be used to
International Statistical Classification of Diseases
derive a range of information on subjects such as
and Related Health Problems (ICD) developed and
crude death rates by age, gender or educational
maintained by the World Health Organization
attainment.
(WHO). Statistics on causes of death are based on
Health statistics collected during the period up to information derived from death certificates. The
and including reference year 2010 were submitted medical certification of death is an obligation in
by EU Member States to Eurostat on the basis of all EU Member States. All deaths are identified
a gentlemans agreement. Regulation 1338/2008 of by the underlying cause of death, in other words,
the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 the disease or injury which initiated the train of
December 2008 on Community statistics on public morbid events leading directly to death (a definition
health and health and safety at work provides adopted by the World Health Assembly). Although
the legal basis for compiling statistics on: causes definitions are harmonised amongst EU Member
of death; healthcare; health status and health States, the statistics may not be fully comparable
determinants; accidents at work; occupational as classifications may vary when the cause of death
diseases and other work-related health problems. is multiple or difficult to evaluate and because of
Within the context of this regulation, an different notification procedures.
implementing regulation on Community statistics
Health interview surveys (HIS) are the source of
on public health and health and safety at work,
information for describing the health status and
as regards statistics on causes of death (328/2011)
the health-related behaviours of the European
was adopted by the European Parliament and the
population. The European health interview survey
Council on 5 April 2011; it provides a legal basis for
(EHIS) aims at measuring on a harmonised basis
the collection of statistics in each EU Member State
and with a high degree of comparability among
from reference year 2011 onwards and will result
Member States the health status, life style (health
in a broader range of statistics being collected.
determinants) and health care services use of EU
A wide range of comparable statistics, for example, citizens.

Education
4 Education
Introduction
The right to education for children and young information and statistics, and provides advice
people contribute to their overall development and and support for policy reforms.
consequently lays the foundations for later success
in life in terms of employability, social integration, This chapter presents a range of statistics covering
health and wellbeing. Education and training play childrens and young peoples education in the EU,
a crucial role in counteracting the negative effects the main sources of data being the joint UNESCO-
of social disadvantage. The European Union (EU) UIS/OECD/Eurostat (UOE) questionnaires on
therefore wants all children and young people to education statistics, which constitute the core
be able to access and benefit from high-quality database on education. Childcare data, coming
education, care and training. from the EU statistics on income and living
Each EU Member State is responsible for its own conditions (EU-SILC), complement the analysis
education and training systems and the EUs role for the youngest children. Data on outcomes of
consists in coordinating and supporting the actions education collected through the EU labour force
of its Member States as well as addressing common survey (LFS) are also analysed in this chapter in
challenges. The EU offers a forum for exchange terms of educational attainment and early school
of best practices, gathers and disseminates leavers.
STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK FOR EUROPEAN COOPERATION IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING
The strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training up until 2020 (ET2020)
has been drawn up in 2009 with the main aim to support EU Member States in further developing
their educational and training systems. These systems should better provide the means for all citizens
to realise their potentials, as well as ensure sustainable economic prosperity and employability, with
a view to creating a knowledge-based Europe and making lifelong learning a reality for all.
In order to measure progress achieved on these objectives, the framework defines benchmarks for
2020:
at least 95% of children (from 4 to compulsory school age) should participate in early childhood
education;
fewer than 15% of 15-year-olds should be under-skilled in reading, mathematics and science;
fewer than 10% of young people should drop out of education and training;
at least 40% of people aged 3034 should have completed some form of higher education;
at least 15% of adults should participate in lifelong learning;
at least 20% of higher education graduates and 6% of 1834 year-olds with an initial vocational
qualification should have spent some time studying or training abroad;
the share of employed graduates (2034 year-olds having successfully completed upper
secondary or tertiary education) having left education 13 years ago should be at least 82%.

Education 4
Childcare attendance and participation in education
Early childhood education and care (ECEC) can Improvements still need to be made in the
potentially increase children wellbeing, advance availability of childcare services, especially in
childrens rights and ensure that all children have the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland
a fair start in life. A number of studies during the
last decade showed indeed the crucial effect of early Figure 1 shows the proportion of children under
life experiences on cognitive function, education the age of 3 cared for under formal arrangements,
performance and life chances (1). namely in day-care centre, in 2013. The rates are
broken down by the number of hours during
Increasing access to high-quality ECEC is one of the which care is provided (over and under 30 hours
goals of the strategic framework in education and per week).
training (ET2020) that calls for the participation
of at least 95% of children between the age of 4 and In 2013, the EU-28 average was below the Barcelona
compulsory school age by 2020, addressing child target for childcare facilities with 27% of children
poverty and preventing early school leaving, two up to 3 years attending formal childcare (versus
of the headline targets of the Europe 2020 strategy. 33% for the target). Nevertheless, large differences
could be observed across countries. Nine EU
Childcare services for children under the age Member States reached the Barcelona objective,
of 3 are also at the heart of the EU policies. with attendance rates higher than one third in
The Barcelona target defined in 2002 by the Denmark (62 %), Sweden (55 %), Luxembourg
European Council to improve the provision of (47%), Belgium and the Netherlands (both 46%),
childcare in the EU Member States, through an France and Slovenia (both 39%), Portugal (38%)
agreement to remove disincentives to female and Spain (35%). In contrast, the rate of attendance
labour force participation and strive [] to provide in childcare services for children aged less than 3
childcare to at least 33% of children under three years was very low in the Czech Republic (2%),
years of age (2) is still valid today. Slovakia (4%) and Poland (5%).
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL CHILDCARE?
Formal childcare:
Childcare at day-care centre organised/controlled by public or private structure.
Informal childcare:
Childcare by a professional child-minder at childs home or at child-minders home;
Childcare by grandparents, other household members (outside parents), other relatives, friends
or neighbours.
(1) Augustine J.M. et al. (2009): Maternal Education, Early Child Care and the Reproduction of Advantage. Social Forces 2009 September; 88(1): 129
Gamoran A. (1999): Effects of Non-maternal Child Care on Inequality in Cognitive Skills, Institute for Research on Poverty Discussion Paper n118699
Heckman, J.J. (2008): Schools, Skills and Synapses. Economic Enquiry, Vol. 46, N3, July 2008, 289324
Vandell D.L. et al (2010): Do Effects of Early Child Care Extend to Age 15 Years? Results from the NICHD study of early child care and youth
development, Child Development 81(3): 737756
(2) http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/71025.pdf

4 Education
Figure 1: Children up to 3 years of age cared for by formal arrangements by weekly time spent
in care, 2013
(%)
70
60
50
40
Barcelona target
(at least 33 %)
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Denmark
Sweden
Luxembourg
Belgium
Netherlands
France
Slovenia
Portugal
Spain
United Kingdom
Ireland
Germany
Finland
Cyprus
Latvia
Estonia
Italy
Malta
Austria
Greece
Bulgaria
Croatia
Lithuania
Hungary
Romania
Poland
Slovakia
Czech Republic
Norway
Iceland
Switzerland
Children cared for 129 hours a week Children cared for 30 hours a week or over
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_caindformal)
Among countries that have reached the Barcelona lifelong learning and to ensure fair access to later
target, Denmark, Slovenia, Portugal and Sweden learning opportunities. Many countries have
had the highest childcare attendance in 2013 when recognised this by making pre-primary education
taking into account the 30-hours a week threshold almost universal for children by the time they are
(with 60%, 36%, 36% and 34% respectively of 3 or 4 years old (3).
children cared for 30 hours a week or more).
As presented in Figure 3, the ET2020 benchmark
calling for the participation of at least 95% of
Participation in early childhood education
children between the age of 4 and the starting
increasing steadily age of compulsory education was almost achieved
Children who have attended pre-primary education in 2012, with 93.9% of ECEC attendance. The
tend in most countries to perform better in school percentage of children in early education at EU-28
than those who have not, even after accounting for level increased steadily from 2000 to 2012, except
the socio-economic background. Early childhood for a slight drop in 200304, reaching its highest
education helps to build a strong foundation for rate so far in 2012.

Education 4
Compulsory school age is reached by children who are 6 years old in thirteen EU Member States,
while in nine EU Member States compulsory education starts at the age of 5 (Figure 2). Luxembourg
is the only country in the EU-28 where children start compulsory education at the age of 4, whereas
in Sweden, Estonia, Bulgaria, Lithuania and Finland children compulsory education starts at the age
of 7.
Figure 2: Starting age of compulsory education, 201415

(years)
Belgium
the Czech Republic
Greece Denmark
Croatia Germany
Latvia Ireland Bulgaria
4 years
5 years
6 years
7 years
Hungary Spain Estonia
Luxembourg Cyprus France Lithuania
Malta Italy Finland
the Netherlands Austria Sweden
Poland Portugal
the United Kingdom Romania
Slovenia
Slovakia
Source: DG EAC (http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/facts_and_figures/compulsory_education_EN.pdf)
Figure 3: Participants in early education (aged between 4 years and the starting age of
compulsory education), EU-28, 200012
(% of children of the corresponding age group)
96
ET2020 benchmark
(at least 95 %)
94
92
90
88
86
84
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_ipart)

4 Education
At country level (Figure 4) the highest percentages rates of ten EU Member States were consequently
of children in early education were found in 2012 below 90%, with the lowest rates seen in Croatia
in France and Malta (100%), followed by the (71.7%), Finland (75.1%) and Greece (75.2%).
Netherlands (99.6%), Italy (99.2%) and Ireland
(99.1%). In nearly half of the EU Member States There is a trend towards requiring children to
(13 of 28 EU Member States), the participation rate start education at a younger age, with several
was higher than the ET2020 benchmark. Hungary, countries having lowered their school starting ages
Austria, Slovenia, Latvia and Estonia were close recently and others making pre-school attendance
to the target with rates between 90 and 95%. The compulsory.
Figure 4: Participants in early education (aged between 4 years and the starting age of
compulsory education), 2012
(% of children of the corresponding age group)
100 ET2020 benchmark
(at least 95%)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
France
Malta
Netherlands
Italy
Ireland
Denmark
Belgium
Luxembourg
Spain
United Kingdom
Germany
Sweden
Portugal
Hungary
Austria
Slovenia
Latvia
Estonia
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Romania
Lithuania
Poland
Cyprus
Slovakia
Greece
Finland
Croatia
Norway
Iceland
Liechtenstein
Switzerland
Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_ipart)
The number of hours per week that young children Available data shows that on a total of 82% of
attend formal care arrangements (including children from the age of 3 to the minimum
pre-school education, childcare at centre-based compulsory school age who attended formal
services outside school hours and childcare at care in the EU-28 in 2013, 47% attended ECEC
day-care centres) is another important dimension 30 hours a week or more, while 35% did it between
to consider. Indeed, a longer day enables children 1 and 29 hours a week (Figure 5).
to receive more individualised instruction and
to have more time interacting with their peers, EU Member States with the highest share of
as well as enables parents to engage in gainful children between 3 years old and the minimum
employment. compulsory school age cared for by formal

Education 4
arrangement 30 hours a week or more are United Kingdom (both 21%) recorded the lowest
Denmark (91%), Estonia (82%), Slovenia (81%) proportion of children of that age attending formal
and Portugal (80%). In contrast, the Netherlands care 30 hours a week or more.
and Romania (both 15%) as well as Ireland and the
Figure 5: Children from 3 years to minimum compulsory school age cared for by formal
arrangements by weekly time spent in care, 2013
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Belgium
Denmark
Sweden
France
Malta
Estonia
Slovenia
Spain
Italy
Germany
Ireland
Netherlands
Portugal
Hungary
Cyprus
Latvia
Austria
Finland
Bulgaria
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Slovakia
Luxembourg
United Kingdom
Greece
Romania
Croatia
Poland
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
Children cared for 129 hours a week Children cared for 30 hours a week or over
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_caindformal)
Half of the children aged less than 3 years are Looking at children from 3 years to the starting
cared for only by their parents age of compulsory education, the share of children
only cared for by their parents drops substantially
Early childhood education and care arrangements
in the EU-28, to only 10% in 2013. The countries
vary in different countries and families have
with the highest rates of children from 3 to
generally a range of options from which to choose.
compulsory school age cared for only by their
Some parents choose to care for their children
parents were Poland (39%) and Croatia (35%).
themselves without making use of childcare
The lowest rates were found in Belgium, Denmark
services. At EU-28 level, just half (50%) of children
and Sweden (all three 2%), followed by France and
aged less than 3 years were cared for only by
Slovenia (both 4%).
their parents in 2013 (Figure 6). The highest rates
amongst EU Member States were found in Bulgaria
(81%), Slovakia (71%) and Lithuania (70%), while
the lowest rates were found in the Netherlands
(29%), Portugal (30%) and Cyprus (31%).

4 Education
Figure 6: Children cared for only by their parents, by age group, 2013
(% over the population of each age group)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Bulgaria
Slovakia
Lithuania
Finland
Latvia
Croatia
Hungary
Poland
Czech Republic
Germany
Spain
Estonia
Malta
Ireland
Austria
Italy
United Kingdom
Romania
Sweden
France
Belgium
Greece
Luxembourg
Denmark
Slovenia
Cyprus
Portugal
Netherlands
Norway
Iceland
Switzerland
Children aged less than 3 years Children from 3 years to minimum compulsory school age
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_caparents)
Informal childcare concerns 30% of children At country level, the highest rates of children aged
aged less than 3 years less than 3 years attending informal childcare were
found in the Netherlands (54%), Greece (52%),
Some children are cared for by other types of
Cyprus (51%) and Romania (50%). In contrast,
informal childcare meaning they are cared for
the northern EU Member States Denmark
either by a professional child-minder at the
(1%), Sweden and Finland (both 3%) presented
childrens home or at the child-minders home
the lowest rates. As regards children aged from
or cared for by grand-parents, other household
3 to compulsory school age, Romania (63%), the
members (outside parents), relatives, friends or
Netherlands (61%) and Slovenia (52%) had the
neighbours.
highest rates, whereas the lowest were recorded in
As presented in Figure 7, 30% of children aged the same three northern countries Denmark (0%),
less than 3 years were cared for by other types of Sweden and Finland (both 3%).
childcare in the EU-28 in 2013, against 29% of
More data and contextual information on ECEC
children from 3 to compulsory school age.
can be found in the Eurydice Key Data on Early
Informal childcare can although it does not have Childhood Education and Care in Europe 2014
to be combined with formal childcare, meaning report (4). The Education and Training Monitor
that some of the children who are recorded as annual series produced by DG Education and
cared for under informal childcare also attended Culture also provides more detailed information
formal childcare for part of the week. on the progress on the ET2020 benchmarks (5).
(4) http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/key_data_series/166EN.pdf
(5) http://ec.europa.eu/education/tools/et-monitor_en.htm

Education 4
Figure 7: Children cared for by other types of childcare (1 to 30 hours or over), 2013
(% over the population of each age group)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Netherlands
Greece
Cyprus
Romania
Italy
Slovenia
Portugal
Czech Republic
United Kingdom
Austria
Poland
Estonia
Croatia
Luxembourg
Hungary
Malta
France
Slovakia
Belgium
Ireland
Lithuania
Germany
Latvia
Bulgaria
Spain
Finland
Sweden
Denmark
Switzerland
Iceland
Norway
Children aged less than 3 years Children from 3 years to minimum compulsory school age
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_caindother)
Very high enrolment rates in primary and (81.6

%), Latvia (83.6
%) and Bulgaria (85.3 %)
secondary education in most EU Member bottom ranked in enrolment rates for secondary
States education.
The net enrolment rate for primary education was It should be noted that the legal requirements
95% or above in 20 EU Member States in 2012, and concerning the start and end of compulsory
even above 97.5% in 14 EU Member States (namely education influence the level of educational
Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Spain, enrolment, and consequently the national
France, Cyprus, Latvia, the Netherlands, Portugal, enrolment rates in education depends on the
Slovenia, Finland, Sweden and the United national regulation in terms of compulsory
education.
Kingdom). The enrolment rates for secondary
(lower and upper secondary together) education Despite the resource mobilisation campaigns
were a bit lower, but still higher than 95% in and political commitments, the share of children
five EU Member States, on the basis of available attending compulsory education decreased in
data (namely Ireland, Greece, Spain, France and several EU Member States over the last decade.
Lithuania) (Table 1). Nevertheless, the enrolment rates in compulsory
The lowest participation rates in primary education education are still close to 100% in most EU
were registered in Romania (85.8%), Hungary Member States.
(91.3%) and Luxembourg (92.3%), while Malta

4 Education
Table 1: Net enrolment rates in primary and secondary education, EU-28, 2002 and 2012
(%)
Primary education Secondary education

2002 2012 Difference 2002 2012 Difference
Belgium 98.9 98.7 0.1 : : :
Bulgaria 95.4 95.0 0.5 87.6 85.3 2.3
Czech Republic : : : : : :
Denmark 99.9 97.9 2.0 91.1 91.1 0.0
Germany 96.5 97.9 1.5 : : :
Estonia 97.0 94.7 2.3 87.6 90.7 3.0
Ireland 94.9 95.3 0.4 89.7 99.1 9.4
Greece () 96.0 99.8 3.8 85.4 99.2 13.8
Spain 99.9 99.7 0.2 91.7 95.6 4.0
France 98.2 98.2 0.1 91.6 96.7 5.1
Croatia 89.1 89.3 0.3 85.2 93.7 8.4
Italy 98.7 96.4 2.3 90.6 91.3 0.7
Cyprus 95.9 97.9 2.0 91.7 91.8 0.2
Latvia : 97.7 : : 83.6 :
Lithuania 95.4 95.8 0.5 94.7 96.8 2.1
Luxembourg 96.1 92.3 3.8 80.0 85.7 5.7
Hungary 89.2 91.3 2.1 89.0 92.2 3.1
Malta : 95.1 : 73.6 81.6 8.0
Netherlands 99.3 98.4 0.8 90.3 90.2 0.1
Austria : : : : : :
Poland 96.7 96.6 0.0 91.9 90.5 1.4
Portugal 98.5 98.6 0.1 79.3 : :
Romania 92.8 85.8 7.0 : : :
Slovenia 93.8 97.7 3.9 92.6 93.3 0.7
Slovakia : : : : : :
Finland 99.4 98.8 0.6 94.5 92.4 2.2
Sweden 99.5 99.5 0.0 97.4 92.8 4.7
United Kingdom 99.9 99.8 0.1 95.5 94.6 0.8
Iceland 99.5 98.1 1.4 85.0 88.7 3.8
Liechtenstein () 94.5 91.1 3.4 94.0 92.1 1.9
Norway 99.7 99.4 0.3 94.2 94.9 0.7
Switzerland 95.2 93.4 1.8 83.2 81.0 2.1
() 2010 instead of 2012 for secondary education.
() 2003 instead of 2002 for primary and secondary education.
Source: UNESCO-UIS

Education 4
Table 2: Net enrolment rates in primary and secondary education around the world, 2002 and 2012
(%)
Primary education Secondary education

2002 2012 Difference 2002 2012 Difference
World 84.4 89.1 4.7 53.7 64.6 11.0
Australia 94.4 96.8 2.4 87.4 85.3 2.2
Burkina Faso () 36.7 66.4 29.6 8.0 19.7 11.7
Cuba 95.3 96.4 1.1 82.4 86.7 4.3
Ecuador 97.6 95.2 2.5 50.4 74.0 23.6
Ghana () 61.9 81.8 19.9 34.7 51.5 16.8
Indonesia 92.7 92.2 0.5 51.7 76.1 24.4
Israel ()() 97.9 96.7 1.2 99.6 98.1 1.5
Jordan () 95.3 97.1 1.8 83.9 87.9 4.0
Japan 100.0 99.9 0.1 100.0 99.1 0.9
Kazakhstan 91.4 86.0 5.4 89.5 86.3 3.2
Korea, Rep. 99.2 99.1 0.1 94.2 96.0 1.7
Lao PDR 75.0 95.9 20.9 29.9 41.4 11.4
Moldova 91.4 87.9 3.4 78.9 77.9 1.0
Mexico 96.5 96.3 0.2 58.7 67.9 9.2
Mongolia 89.6 97.3 7.8 71.6 83.1 11.5
Mozambique 56.1 86.2 30.1 4.3 17.7 13.5
New Zealand 96.7 98.4 1.7 91.4 97.0 5.5
Oman 84.3 96.3 12.0 73.7 83.6 9.9
Panama 97.1 91.2 5.9 60.6 76.4 15.8
Russian Federation : 96.2 : : : :
El Salvador 86.0 93.4 7.4 48.6 61.6 13.0
Turkey 96.7 94.0 2.7 71.4 82.1 10.7
Ukraine 91.9 97.9 6.0 86.6 85.6 0.9
United States 94.0 91.8 2.2 84.9 86.9 2.0
Venezuela, RB 93.1 92.3 0.8 56.6 74.3 17.7
() For secondary education: 2001 instead of 2002.

() For primary education: 2011 instead of 2012.
Source: UNESCO-UIS

4 Education
The net enrolment rate in primary (respectively secondary) education is the percentage of
children of the primary (respectively secondary) school age who are enrolled in primary (respectively
secondary) education.
Although primary and secondary school Comparing figures from 2002 and 2012, world
enrolment figures remain low in countries enrolment rates in primary (+ 4.7 percentage
around the world, they are on the increase points) and secondary (+11.0 percentage points)
education have increased significantly. At
The enrolment rate at world level for primary country level, on the basis of available data, the
education was 89.1% in 2012 with, using the data biggest increases in enrolment rates in primary
available, Japan (99.9%), the Republic of Korea education were recorded in two African nations:
%) and New Zealand (98.4
(99.1 %) recording Mozambique (+ 30.1 pp) and Burkina Faso
the highest rates. In contrast, Burkina Faso (+29.7pp). The largest decreases in primary
(66.4%), Ghana (81.8%), Kazakhstan (86.0%) and education, on the other hand, were registered in
Mozambique (86.2%) corresponded to the lowest Panama (5.9 pp) and Kazakhstan (5.4 pp). The
rates. largest increases in secondary education enrolment
For secondary education the world enrolment rate rates were found in Indonesia (+24.4 pp) and
was lower than for primary education, at 64.6% in Ecuador (+23.6 pp), while the largest decreases
2012. Japan (99.1%), Israel (98.1%), New Zealand were registered in Kazakhstan (3.2 pp), Australia
(97.0%) and the Republic of Korea (96.0 %) (2.2 pp) and Switzerland (2.1 pp).
however recorded rates above 90%. Mozambique
(17.7%) and Burkina Faso (19.7%) stood at the
other extreme of the range with enrolment rates
below 20%.
PRIMARY ENROLMENT TARGETS IN EDUCATION FOR ALL (EFA) AND IN THE MILLENNIUM
DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGS)
At the turn of the 21st century, the international community reached a consensus and pledged to
achieve universal primary education (UPE) and gender parity. In 2000, the Dakar Framework for
Action and the United Nations Millennium Declaration reaffirmed the notion of education as a
fundamental human right.
EFA Goal 2
The goal is to ensure that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances
and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to, and complete, free and compulsory
primary education of good quality (UNESCO, 2000).
MDG Goal 2
The goal is to ensure that, by the year 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able
to complete a full course of primary schooling (United Nations, 2000).

Education 4
Table 3: Enrolment rates in education, by age group, 2012
(%)
1519 2024 2529 1529
EU-28 85.5 41.1 13.7 44.8
Belgium 93.1 47.5 17.1 51.4
Bulgaria 77.9 38.1 10.7 38.7
Czech Republic 90.2 42.0 11.0 43.9
Denmark 87.4 55.3 30.0 58.8
Germany 89.7 46.3 19.9 49.5
Estonia 89.3 45.0 16.6 46.3
Ireland 93.3 37.3 8.6 43.3
Greece 84.8 41.8 37.7 52.7
Spain 86.4 44.6 14.3 44.5
France 84.1 35.3 6.5 42.0
Croatia 83.4 36.0 7.2 40.3
Italy 82.4 34.0 11.0 40.7
Cyprus 64.1 21.6 7.6 29.2
Latvia 93.5 45.8 11.0 46.1
Lithuania 94.8 56.0 15.6 56.1
Luxembourg 76.6 20.9 5.6 32.8
Hungary 89.5 44.3 12.0 48.0
Malta 66.7 25.2 5.2 30.7
Netherlands 93.3 53.2 17.5 54.5
Austria 79.1 34.1 18.2 42.5
Poland 92.5 54.1 10.5 47.8
Portugal 86.5 38.3 11.7 43.9
Romania 81.0 44.0 8.6 42.4
Slovenia 92.3 56.3 14.9 50.2
Slovakia 85.4 35.6 8.2 39.6
Finland 85.9 52.3 31.6 56.2
Sweden 85.6 43.3 28.8 52.3
United Kingdom 77.2 28.8 10.5 37.7
Iceland 88.4 53.4 28.3 56.9
Norway 86.7 41.7 17.1 48.6
Switzerland 83.8 36.7 14.9 43.2
Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_enrl1tl)
Larger discrepancies between EU Member Member States over 50% of young people attended
States in enrolment in education for young an educational programme. Denmark was the
people than for children, especially in older country with the highest share (59%), followed by
age groups Finland, Lithuania and the Netherlands (around
55% each). The lowest rates were registered in
From the 91.8 million young people aged 1529 Cyprus (29 %), Malta (31 %) and Luxembourg
living in the EU-28 in 2012, approximately 41 (33%), which are all countries where many young
million were enrolled in education. While at EU people study abroad.
level the enrolment rate was 45%, it varied between
about 30% and 60% across countries. In eight EU

4 Education
The enrolment rate decreases with age. On average, from 35% in 2002, to 38% in 2007 and 41% in
85% of the young people aged 1519 are enrolled 2012, the EU enrolment rate for the age group 25
in education. This proportion decreases almost 29 was stable between 2002 and 2007 (both years
by half for young people aged 2024 (41%), while at 11%) growing afterwards to reach 14% in 2012.
only 14% of young people aged 2529 are still in Different patterns can nevertheless be found across
education. EU Member States. Figures 8 and 9 illustrate the
differences in enrolment rates between countries
Over the last 10 years enrolment rates have
and their evolution over time for the 2024 and
generally increased in the EU. While there was a
2529 age groups.
continuous growth between 2002 and 2012 for the
2024 age group, with the EU enrolment rate going
Figure 8: Enrolment rates in education of young people aged 2024, 2002, 2007 and 2012
(%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Slovenia
Lithuania
Denmark
Poland
Netherlands
Finland
Belgium
Germany
Latvia
Estonia
Spain
Hungary
Romania
Sweden
Czech Republic
Greece
Portugal
Bulgaria
Ireland (1)
Croatia (1)
Slovakia
France
Austria
Italy
United Kingdom
Malta
Cyprus
Luxembourg
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
2002 2007 2012 Liechtenstein (1)
() Data missing for 2002.

The first thing to be noted is that there are large be observed in almost all EU Member States. The
differences between EU Member States with regard largest increase was observed in Luxembourg, the
to the participation in education of young people country with the lowest enrolment rate for this age
aged 2024. In 2012, the highest enrolment rates group. Compared to 2007, the percentage of people
were observed in Slovenia and Lithuania (56%), aged 2024 enrolled in education in 2012 was two
while the lowest rates were seen in Luxembourg times higher. A possible explanation for this could
and Cyprus (about 20%), followed by Malta and be the expansion of the University of Luxembourg,
the United Kingdom (with rates below 30%). which was founded in 2003. Important growths
Taking into consideration the evolution between could also be observed in Spain (+ 10 pp), the
2007 and 2012, an increase in enrolment rates can Netherlands, Croatia and Ireland (all three + 8 pp).

Education 4
Figure 9: Enrolment rates in education of young people aged 2529, 2002, 2007 and 2012
(%)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Greece
Finland
Denmark
Sweden
Germany
Austria
Netherlands
Belgium
Estonia
Lithuania
Slovenia
Spain
Hungary
Portugal
Czech Republic
Latvia
Italy
Bulgaria
Poland
United Kingdom
Ireland
Romania
Slovakia
Cyprus
Croatia
France
Luxembourg
Malta
Iceland
Norway
Liechtenstein
Switzerland
2002 2007 2012
For the 2529 age group the disparities between aged 1519 is rather linked to country-specific
EU Member States are even higher. While in legal requirements on compulsory education, the
Malta and Luxembourg only around 5% of people enrolment rate for people aged 2029 is linked
aged 2529 were enrolled in education in 2012, in more to socio-economic criteria, especially the
Greece the enrolment rate of 38% was almost eight employment situation (in many cases, young
times higher. High enrolment rates for this age people stay longer in education as they cannot find
group can also be observed in Finland, Denmark a job).
and Sweden (around 30%). The analysis of the time
trend reveals that in most EU Member States the
proportion of young people aged 2529 enrolled
in education increased between 2007 and 2012.
The highest increase, from 12% in 2007 to 38% in
2012, was registered in Greece. In Luxembourg,
Austria, Germany and the Netherlands, a more
moderate increase, between 4 and 6 percentage
points, occurred.
The disparities between EU Member States result
from a combination of several factors: country
specific organisation of education systems, legal
requirements concerning the end of compulsory While 85% of the boys and girls aged 1519 in
education, accessibility and affordability of non- the EU-28 were enrolled in education in 2012,
compulsory education, and situation on the labour 41% and 14% of young people aged 2024,
market. While the enrolment rate of young people and 2529 respectively, were still in education.

4 Education
More skills, more languages increasing your

opportunities in the EU
The ability to speak foreign languages promotes The share of pupils in primary education (ISCED
the intercultural dialogue in Europe, improves level 1) who learned two or more foreign languages
employability and facilitates the free movement was 4.7% in the EU-28 in 2012. This represents
of workers across the EU. Furthermore, research nearly 2 percentage points more than 5 years
has shown that at individual level, learning before (2.9% in 2007).
foreign languages at an early age in general fosters
the cognitive capacities of children, such as
comprehension, expression, communication and
problem-solving (6).
At the 2002 Barcelona European Council, targets were set for the mastery of basic skills, in
particular by teaching at least two foreign languages from a very early age. Since then,
linguistic diversity has been encouraged throughout the EU, in the form of learning in schools,
universities, adult education centres and company training.
The European Commission adopted in 2008 the Communication Multilingualism: an asset

for Europe and a shared commitment (COM(2008) 566 final), which was followed by a Council
Resolution on a European strategy for multilingualism (2008/C 320/01). Addressing multilingualism
in the broader context of social cohesion and economic prosperity, the Communication urges the
EU Member States to do more in order to achieve the Barcelona objective of enabling the citizens
of the EU to communicate in two languages in addition to their mother tongue.
In 2014, these recommendations were endorsed in the Council Conclusions on multilingualism

and the development of language competences (7) which stated that EU Member States should
assess and monitor progress in developing language competences in the national context. Such
assessment should cover all four language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking. EU Member
States agreed to adopt and improve measures aimed at promoting multilingualism from an early
age and at enhancing the quality and efficiency of language learning and teaching.

Education 4
Figure 10 shows that Luxembourg topped the
list of EU Member States for the percentage of
pupils at ISCED level 1 learning two or more
foreign languages, both in 2007 and 2012 (83.0%
and 83.9% respectively). Greece (31.1%), Estonia
(26.6%) and Croatia (18.4%) also recorded high
shares of ISCED 1 pupils learning two or more
foreign languages in 2012.
Several EU Member States managed to significantly
increase their share of pupils learning two or more
Luxembourgish kids are the most multilingual foreign languages in primary education in the
in the European Union more than 8 out of 5-year period, namely Greece (+ 24.4 pp between
10 in primary school learn two or more foreign 2006 and 2012) as well as Poland and Malta (both
languages. + 12.7 pp between 2007 and 2012).
Figure 10: Percentage of pupils at ISCED level 1 learning two or more foreign languages,
2007 and 2012 ()
(%)
90 36
80 32
70 28
60 24
50 20
40 16
30 12
20 8
10 4
0 0
EU-28
Luxembourg
EU-28
Greece
Estonia
Croatia
Latvia
Poland
Finland
Malta
Sweden
Cyprus
Spain
Slovakia
Italy
Austria
Bulgaria
France
Hungary
Czech Republic
Romania
Lithuania
Slovenia
Portugal
Belgium
Denmark
Ireland
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Iceland
Liechtenstein
Norway
2007 2012
() Data not available for Germany. 2006 instead of 2007 for Greece, Austria and Portugal.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_thfrlan)
(6) Commission Staff Working Paper, 2011

(7) http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/educ/142692.pdf

4 Education
THE ISCED STANDARD
The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) is an instrument suitable for

assembling, compiling and presenting comparable statistics and indicators on education. It
presents standard concepts and definitions and classifications. Applied until 2013, the ISCED 97
classification comprises seven levels of education:
Level 0: Pre-primary education the initial stage of organised instruction; it is school- or centre-
based and is designed for children aged at least three years.
Level 1: Primary education begins between five and seven years of age, is the start of
compulsory education where it exists and generally covers six years of full-time schooling.
Level 2: Lower secondary education continues the basic programmes of the primary level,
although teaching is typically more subject-focused. Usually, the end of this level coincides with
the end of compulsory education.
Level 3: Upper secondary education generally begins at the end of compulsory education.
The entrance age is typically 15 or 16 years. Entrance qualifications (end of compulsory education)
and other minimum entry requirements are usually needed.
Level 4: Post-secondary non-tertiary education between upper secondary and tertiary

education. This level serves to broaden the knowledge of ISCED level 3 graduates.
Level 5: Tertiary education (first stage) entry to these programmes normally requires the
successful completion of ISCED level 3 or 4. This includes tertiary programmes with academic
orientation (type A) which are largely theoretical and tertiary programmes with an occupational
orientation (type B).
Level 6: Tertiary education (second stage) leads to an advanced research qualification (Ph.D.
or doctorate)
Figure 11 reveals significantly higher rates of pupils values exceeding 95%. The lowest figures in 2012
studying two or more foreign languages at ISCED were seen in Hungary (6.0%), Ireland (9.2%) and
level 2 than level 1 across the EU Member States. Austria (9.7%). Poland who recorded one of the
The EU-28 share of pupils in lower secondary lowest percentages in 2007 (8.5%) ranked the in
education learning two or more foreign languages the top 10 in 2012 with 93.4% of pupils in lower
reached 64.8% in 2012. Looking at the evolution secondary education learning two or more foreign
over time, this share grew by nearly 10 percentage languages.
points in the last 5 years (53.9% in 2007).
At country level, the highest figures were
registered in Luxembourg, Italy, Finland, Greece,
Malta and Romania for both 2007 and 2012 with

Education 4
Figure 11: Percentage of pupils at ISCED level 2 learning two or more foreign languages, 2007
and 2012 ()
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Luxembourg
Italy
Finland
Greece
Malta
Romania
Poland
Cyprus
Estonia
Denmark
Lithuania
Portugal
Sweden
Netherlands
Latvia
Slovakia
France
Croatia
Slovenia
Czech Republic
Spain
Belgium
Bulgaria
Austria
Ireland
Hungary
Iceland
Liechtenstein
Norway
2007 2012
() Data not available for the United Kingdom and Germany. 2006 instead of 2007 for Greece, Malta, Estonia, Portugal and Austria. 200607 data not
available for Cyprus, Croatia and Liechtenstein.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_thfrlan)
Learning foreign languages in upper school in 2012, against 42% of pupils enrolled at
secondary schools: different programmes, that level in vocational/prevocational training.
different opportunities In Romania, almost all pupils enrolled in ISCED
level 3 were taught at least two foreign languages
School is the most important place to acquire at school. The situation varied across the other EU
foreign languages, and in many EU Member
Member States. In Luxembourg, Finland, Slovakia,
States the upper secondary education curricula
the Czech Republic, Romania, Slovenia, France
include at least one foreign language. Figure 12
and Estonia more than 9 in 10 pupils enrolled in
depicts the situation of language learning in upper
a general ISCED 3 programme learned at least two
secondary education taking into consideration
foreign languages at school. Learning two or more
the programme orientation: either general or
foreign languages at school remains uncommon
vocational/prevocational.
in only a few countries: Greece (3.5%), the United
At EU-28 level, 51% of pupils enrolled at ISCED Kingdom (4.4%), Portugal (5.3%) and Ireland
level 3 learned at least two foreign languages at (7.6%) with percentages below 10%.

4 Education
Figure 12: Students at ISCED level 3 learning at least two foreign languages at school, 2012 ()
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Luxembourg
Finland
Slovakia
Czech Republic
Romania
Slovenia
France
Estonia
Belgium
Croatia
Latvia
Cyprus
Sweden
Bulgaria
Austria
Poland
Netherlands
Malta
Denmark
Hungary
Lithuania
Italy
Spain
Ireland
Portugal
United Kingdom
Greece
General Vocational and prevocational
() Data not available for Germany.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: yth_educ_040)
Reading, mathematical and science skills: PISA results on low-achievers in reading literacy for
there is room for improvement in most EU 2012 showed large differences between EU Member
Member States States. Estonia, Ireland, Poland and Finland stood
out for their low rates of low-achievers in reading
Competences in reading, mathematics and competence (around 10%). At the other end of
sciences are considered to be basic skills as they the scale we found Bulgaria and Romania with
are key elements for a successful professional and high rates of low-achievers in reading (37.3% and
civic life. Having recognised that they are also 39.4%). In 2012 only seven countries reached the
vital for the full participation in the knowledge EU benchmark of less than 15% (Estonia, Ireland,
society and to ensure the competitiveness of Poland, Finland, the Netherlands, Germany and
modern economies, the Council has adopted an Denmark).
EU-wide benchmark (ET2020 framework)
to reduce the proportion of 15-year-olds
underachieving in these areas of learning, to
less than 15 % by 2020. Data on reading,
mathematics and science achievement of 15-year
old students are collected through the PISA survey.

Education 4
WHAT IS PISA?
PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) is an internationally standardised

assessment, developed by the OECD and conducted in almost all EU Member States but Malta and
Cyprus. It measures the knowledge and skills of 15-year-old students in reading, mathematics and
science. It also collects contextual information on the individual characteristics and socio-economic
background of the students. The PISA scores are divided into six proficiency levels ranging from the
lowest, level 1, to the highest, level 6. Low achievement is defined as performance below level 2.
Nevertheless, overall across the EU there is a steady (a difference of 16 pp), followed by Bulgaria
trend towards improvement in reading skills. In (almost 12 pp). But in three EU Member States
almost all EU Member States the low-achieving (Sweden, Finland and Slovenia) the proportion
rate declined between 2006 and 2012. The most of low-achievers went up in comparison to their
important progress was observed in Romania 2006 level.
Figure 13: Share of 15-year old students below level 2 on the reading scale in PISA, 2006 and 2012
(%)
100
50
45
40
35
30
25
ET2020 benchmark
20 (fewer than 15 %)
15
10
5
0
EU (1)
Bulgaria
Romania
Slovakia
Sweden
Greece
Luxembourg
Lithuania
Slovenia
Hungary
Italy
Austria
France
Portugal
Croatia
Spain
Latvia
Czech Republic
United Kingdom
Belgium
Denmark
Germany
Netherlands
Finland
Poland
Ireland
Estonia
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
Liechtenstein
2006 2012
() The EU figure is the population-weighted average for the Member States for which data were available.
Source: PISA 2012 results: What students know and can do (Volume I, revised edition, February 2014) - OECD 2014, Annex B1, Table
I.4.1b
In PISA, reading literacy is defined as understanding, using and reflecting written texts, in order to
achieve ones goals, to develop ones knowledge and potential and to participate in society.

4 Education
The rates of low-achievers in mathematics vary in 2012. Moreover, taking the time dimension
widely across the 26 EU Member States covered into account, the share of low-achieving students
by the PISA programme. The lowest rates were in mathematics in 2012 remained on average the
found in Estonia (10.5%) and Finland (12.3%) same as in 2006. An important drop in the rates
in 2012, while the highest were in Bulgaria of low-achievers in mathematics (more than
(43.8%) and Romania (40.8%). The situation is 5 percentage points) was nevertheless registered
less encouraging than that for reading literacy. in five EU Member States: Poland, Portugal, Italy,
The rates of low-achievers in mathematics were Bulgaria and Romania. In the other EU Member
below the EU benchmark in only four countries States no significant decrease or even increase in
(Estonia, Finland, Poland and the Netherlands) the proportion of low-achievers occurred.
Figure 14: Share of 15-year old students below level 2 on the mathematics scale in PISA, 2006
and 2012
(%)
55
50
45
40
35
30
ET2020 benchmark
20
15
10
5
0
EU (1)
Bulgaria
Romania
Greece
Croatia
Hungary
Slovakia
Sweden
Lithuania
Portugal
Italy
Luxembourg
Spain
France
United Kingdom
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Latvia
Belgium
Austria
Germany
Ireland
Denmark
Netherlands
Poland
Finland
Estonia
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
2006 2012 Liechtenstein
I.2.1b
With regard to science literacy, the situation is could be observed in two thirds of the EU Member
similar to that of mathematics: the best performers States. The highest reduction took place in Romania
in 2012 were Estonia, Finland and Poland, with (9.6 pp) and Poland (8.0 pp). Significant increases
rates between 5 % and 9 %, while the worst (more than 3 pp difference) only occurred in four
performers were Romania and Bulgaria with low- EU Member States (Hungary, Finland, Sweden and
achieving rates of around 37%. Between 2006 and Slovakia).
2012, a decline in the proportion of low-achievers

Education 4
Figure 15: Share of 15-year old students below level 2 on the science scale in PISA, 2006 and 2012
(%)
55
50
45
40
35
30
ET2020 benchmark
20
15
10
5
0
EU (1)
Romania
Bulgaria
Slovakia
Greece
Sweden
Luxembourg
Portugal
France
Italy
Hungary
Belgium
Croatia
Denmark
Lithuania
Austria
Spain
United Kingdom
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Slovenia
Latvia
Germany
Ireland
Poland
Finland
Estonia
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
Liechtenstein
2006 2012
I.5.1b
Overall, the 2012 results of PISA indicate that Early school leavers: situation improving in
performance in reading, mathematics and science almost all EU Member States, especially for
correlate with each other. EU Members States women
that show certain skill levels in one of the areas
tend to perform similarly in the others. The main Secondary education is an important stage
factor explaining this situation is the general in an individuals personal and professional
organisation of the education system in each EU development. Unfortunately, many young people
Member State. However, other factors such as leave the education system without the skills
socio-economic background, participation in necessary for a successful integration in the labour
early childhood education or migrant status were market.
also found to play a role (8).
WHO IS CONSIDERED AN EARLY SCHOOL LEAVER?
Early leavers from education and training refers to persons aged 1824 with at most lower
secondary education attainment and who are no longer in education or training.
(8) DG EAC: PISA 2012: EU performance and first inferences regarding education and training policies in Europe

4 Education
The Europe 2020 benchmark is to bring the early school leavers. Early school leaving was
proportion of early leavers from education and rare in Croatia, Slovenia, the Czech Republic and
training in the EU down to below 10%. On this Poland, with rates below 6%. The highest rates
basis, the EU Member States have set national were observed in Spain (24%), followed by Malta
targets that reflect their starting position and (21%) and Portugal (19%). A reduction can be
national circumstances. In 2013, 11 EU Member observed in most EU Member States over the last
States had already met or exceeded their national five years and in 2013 the EU-28 average was three
target for this indicator (Figure 16). At EU level, percentage points lower than in 2008 (15%). The
about 12% of young people aged 1824 were largest drop (16 pp) was registered in Portugal.
Figure 16: Early leavers from education and training aged 18 to 24, 2008 and 2013
(%)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Spain
Malta
Portugal
Romania
Italy
Bulgaria
United Kingdom
Hungary
Belgium
Greece
Germany
Latvia
Estonia
France
Finland
Netherlands
Cyprus
Ireland
Denmark
Austria
Sweden
Slovakia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Poland
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Croatia
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
2008 2013 National target
Source: Eurostat (online data code: edat_lfse_14)
On average, more young men (14%) than young etc. plays a key role in a knowledge-based
women (10%) leave school. This trend applies to all society. The Europe 2020 benchmark stipulates
EU Member States except Bulgaria and the Czech that by 2020, at least 40% of the population aged
Republic, where the proportion was slightly higher 3034 should have completed tertiary education.
among young women. The most pronounced This target was transposed into specific national
gender gap was visible in Cyprus, where the rate targets to reflect the specificities of each EU
for men was 11 percentage points higher than that Member States (Figure 18).
for women, closely followed by Portugal, with a
At EU level, over one third (37%) of the population
difference of 9 percentage points (Figure 17).
aged 3034 had completed tertiary education in
2013 (41% of women and 31% of men). In Ireland,
Tertiary education: an increasing number of
Luxembourg, Cyprus and Lithuania, the overall
graduates, especially among women proportion of 3034-year-olds with tertiary
Tertiary education provided by universities educational attainment stood at around 51%. In
and other higher education institutions, such contrast, the figures for Italy and Romania in this
as colleges, seminaries, institutes of technology, age group were around 22%.

0
5
0
10
15
20
25
30
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
(%)
(%)
EU-28 EU-28
Ireland Spain
Luxembourg Portugal
Lithuania Malta
Sweden Italy
Cyprus Romania
United Kingdom Cyprus
Finland United Kingdom
France Estonia
Estonia Latvia

Denmark Belgium

Netherlands Greece
Belgium Hungary
2008
Spain Bulgaria
Latvia Netherlands
Young men
Poland France
2013
Slovenia Germany
Greece Finland
Germany (1) Denmark
Hungary Ireland
Bulgaria Young women Luxembourg
Portugal Poland
National target
Austria (1) Sweden
Slovakia Lithuania
Czech Republic Austria
Malta Slovakia
Figure 17: Early leavers from education and training aged 18 to 24, by sex, 2013
Croatia Czech Republic

Education
Slovenia
Figure 18: People aged 30-34 with tertiary educational attainment, 2008 and 2013
Romania
Italy Croatia
Norway Iceland
Switzerland Norway
Iceland Switzerland
127
4
4 Education
Compared with 2008, there were more people with Student mobility: room for improvement in
a tertiary educational level in 2013 in almost all EU most EU Member States
Member States. The biggest increases were seen in
Latvia (14 pp) and Luxembourg (13 pp). Student mobility is seen as improving young
peoples employability by helping them acquire key
The proportion of women with tertiary educational skills and competences, such as communication in
attainment was higher than that of men in all EU a foreign language, intercultural understanding,
Member States (Figure 19). The gender gap was social and civic participation, entrepreneurship,
widest in Latvia (25 pp), followed by the other two problem-solving skills and creativity in general.
Baltic States, Estonia and Lithuania (both around The EU set a benchmark referring both to mobility
20 pp). The smallest gender difference (around of graduates from higher education and mobility
2 pp) was registered in Germany and Austria. in vocational education and training (VET).
Figure 19: Tertiary educational attainment: difference between women and men aged 3034, 2013
(percentage points)
30
25
20
15
10
-5
-10
EU-28
Latvia
Estonia
Lithuania
Slovenia
Denmark
Bulgaria
Poland
Finland
Sweden
Belgium
Ireland
Cyprus
Portugal
Hungary
Italy
Slovakia
Spain
France
Greece
Croatia
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Malta
United Kingdom
Czech Republic
Romania
Germany
Austria
Norway
Iceland
Switzerland
BENCHMARK ON STUDENT MOBILITY
In November 2011 the Council adopted a dual benchmark at EU level for 2020 on student mobility:
at least 20% of higher education graduates should have had a period of higher education-
related study or training (including work placements) abroad, representing a minimum of 15
ECTS credits or lasting a minimum of three months;
at least 6% of 1834-year-olds with an initial vocational education and training (VET)

qualification should have had an initial VET-related study or training period (including work
placements) abroad lasting a minimum of two weeks.

Education 4
To monitor this benchmark, only partial data (52%), followed by Slovakia (14%), Ireland (13%)
exist: the number of currently enrolled students and Malta (11%). This could be explained by the
who have spent some time in another EU Member fact that students often leave these countries to
State, EEA or candidate country. Figure 20 shows study in neighbouring countries with the same
the percentages of students enrolled in a tertiary language and more diversified tertiary education
education institution in an EU Member State, EEA systems. Students from the United Kingdom (1%)
or candidate country other than their own in 2007 and Spain (2%) had the lowest mobility rates. In
and 2012. Data reflect the mobility of students to most countries, the outward mobility rate has
obtain their degree or diploma but does not include slightly increased over the last five years.
students enrolled in credit mobility programmes.
In 2012 the highest student mobility rates were
registered in Luxembourg (72 %) and Cyprus
Figure 20: Students (ISCED 56) studying in another EU-27, EEA or candidate country as a
percentage of all students in the country, 2007 and 2012
(%)
74
70
66
62
58
54
50
46
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
EU-28
Luxembourg
Cyprus
Slovakia
Ireland
Malta
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
Croatia
Greece
Romania
Portugal
Austria
Germany
Sweden
Czech Republic
Finland
Netherlands
Belgium
Italy
France
Slovenia
Hungary
Denmark
Poland
Spain
United Kingdom
Liechtenstein
Iceland
Norway
2007 2012
Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_thmob)

4 Education
The Erasmus programme, launched in 1987, is a Almost 250000 EU students participated in the
Community action aimed at enhancing student Erasmus programme in 2012/13. This represents
mobility. It enables higher education students less than 1% of all EU students enrolled in tertiary
to study, train or work abroad for a period of at education, but is still a measure of the programmes
least three months as part of their studies. The success. The number of Erasmus students has
programme guarantees that the period spent increased in all EU Member States in the past five
abroad is recognised by their university when they years.
come back, as long as they fulfil previously agreed
requirements.
Quality of childcare and school life

indicator that adequately reflects the quality of
the educational environment and the interaction
between teachers and pupils. However some
indicators can be taken into consideration; those
linked to class sizes or to staff-to-child ratios: the
lower the ratio, the better the quality of school
life can be assumed. More specifically, quality of
school life can be assessed through the study of
Nordic countries provide the most available, multiple indicators such as the school likeness, the
accessible and affordable early childcare pupil-teacher ratio in all levels of education, class
services in the EU. size and negative experiences such as bullying (10).
To that end, smaller pupil-teacher ratios often
High-quality early education and childcare have to be weighed against higher teacher
for young children improves their health and salaries, increased professional development and
promotes their development and learning. While teacher training, greater investment in teaching
child poverty and labour market participation of technology, or more widespread use of assistant
parents are affected by a number of factors, there teachers and other paraprofessionals, whose
is no doubt that high-quality, affordable early- salaries are often considerably lower than those of
years and after-school services are essential both qualified teachers. As larger numbers of children
to the reduction of child poverty and to the labour with special needs are integrated into mainstream
market participation of parents, especially single classes, more use of specialised personnel and
parents (9). support services may limit the resources available
Measuring the quality of formal childcare and for reducing pupil-teacher ratios (11).
education is difficult since there is no single
(9) Barnardos and Start Strong, Towards a Scandinavian childcare system for 012-year-olds in Ireland?, 2012
(10) See chapter 7 Children and young people in the digital world of this publication
(11) OECD, Education at a glance, Paris, 2011

Education 4
The pupil-teacher ratio in pre-primary education at 13 pupils per teacher. This figure nevertheless
(ISCED 0) for 2012 is shown in figure 21. Based hides large disparities among the 21 countries.
on data available, the EU-21 average meaning The lowest ratios in the EU were observed in
the average for the 21 EU Member States which Iceland (5 pupils), Sweden (6 pupils) and Estonia
are also members of the OECD (i.e. the 28 EU (7 pupils) while the highest were recorded in France
Member States except Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, (21 pupils) and the United Kingdom (17 pupils).
Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, and Romania) stood
Figure 21: Ratio of pupils to teaching staff in pre-primary education, 2012 ()()
(calculations based on full-time equivalents)
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-21 (3)
OECD
France
United Kingdom
Belgium
Poland
Portugal
Netherlands
Austria
Czech Republic
Spain
Germany
Slovakia
Italy
Luxembourg
Hungary
Finland
Slovenia
Estonia
Sweden
Iceland
Mexico
Israel
Turkey
Chile
Republic of Korea
Japan
United States
New Zealand
() Includes only general programmes in upper secondary education and public institutions (for Australia, at tertiary-type A and advanced research
programmes only; for Canada, at the tertiary level only; for Ireland, at tertiary level only). Excludes independent private institutions.
() Year of reference is 2011 for non EU countries.
() EU-21: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands,
Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom.
Source: OECD, Education at a Glance, 2013; China: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (World Education Indicators Programme); Saudi
Arabia: UNESCO Institute for Statistics and Observatory on Higher Education; South Africa: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. See Annex 3
for notes (www.oecd.org/edu/eag.htm).

4 Education
Figure 22 presents the pupil-teacher ratio in ISCED (both 21 pupils), France and the Czech Republic
1 and ISCED 2 among the EU-28 Member States (both 19 pupils). The corresponding ratios in
in 2012. In ISCED 1, Luxembourgs ratio stands ISCED 2 vary from 4 to 23 pupils per teacher. The
at 9 pupils per teacher, followed by Lithuania lowest ratios are found in Denmark, Lithuania,
(10 pupils), Hungary, Latvia and Poland (all Latvia, Slovenia, Malta and Belgium (8 pupils or
three 11 pupils). The highest ratios are about less) while the highest are recorded in Luxembourg
twice as much as pupils per teacher and are (23 pupils), the Netherlands and France
found in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands (both 16 pupils).
Figure 22: Ratio of pupils to teachers in ISCED 1 and 2, 2012 ()

(number of full-time-equivalent pupils and students in the specific level of education by the number of
full-time-equivalent teachers at the same level)
25
20
15
10
0
United Kingdom
Netherlands
Czech Republic
France
Romania
Bulgaria
Slovakia
Ireland (2)
Germany
Slovenia
Croatia
Cyprus
Finland
Spain
Estonia
Belgium
Italy (3)
Austria
Portugal
Denmark (3)
Sweden
Malta
Latvia
Poland
Hungary
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Ratio of pupils to teachers in ISCED 1 Ratio of pupils to teachers in ISCED 2
() Data not available for Greece.
() No ISCED 2 data available.
() Definition differs for Italy and Denmark.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_iste)
How does class size vary around EU Member class size may be viewed as an indicator of the
States? quality of the school system. Yet evidence on the
effects of differences in class size upon student
Class size (another indicator provided by countries)
performance is mixed (12).
is a vastly debated topic and an important element
of education policy among EU Member States. As shown in Figure 23, all EU Member States had,
Smaller classes allow teachers to focus more on the on average, more than 15 pupils per class at ISCED
needs of individual pupils and reduce the amount 1 in 2012. Taking into consideration EU Member
of time spent dealing with disruptions. Smaller States with available data, the national average
class sizes may also influence parents when they class size varies widely from about 15 to 25 pupils
select a school for their children. In this respect, per classroom. The lowest figures were found in
(12) OECD, Education at a glance, Paris, 2011

Education 4
Lithuania (15 pupils), Latvia and Luxembourg How much do countries spend on childcare
(both 16 pupils), while the highest were found and education?
in the United Kingdom (25 pupils), Ireland Strong educational performance cannot be
(24 pupils), France and the Netherlands (both expected without sufficient resources invested in
23 pupils).The range at ISCED 2 was similar, childcare and education services to ensure their
varying from 15 pupils per classroom in Latvia, effectiveness. However, increasing budget devoted
16 pupils in Estonia and 19 pupils in Luxembourg to childcare and education does not automatically
and the United Kingdom to 25 pupils per classroom lead to improved education outcomes; the way the
in Spain, Germany and France. resources are used also matter (13).
Figure 23: Average class size at ISCED 1 and 2, 2012 ()

(number of pupils)
30
25
20
15
10
0
United Kingdom
Ireland (2)
France
Netherlands (2)
Spain
Germany
Hungary
Portugal
Bulgaria
Denmark
Malta
Czech Republic
Finland
Romania
Italy
Slovenia
Cyprus
Poland
Austria
Slovakia
Greece
Estonia
Croatia
Latvia
Luxembourg
Lithuania
Average class size at ISCED 1 Average class size at ISCED 2
() No ISCED 1 and ISCED 2 data available for Belgium and Sweden.
() No ISCED 2 data available.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_iste)
PUBLIC EXPENDITURE AND PUBLIC SPENDING
Public expenditure on childcare and early educational services are a public financial support
for families with children participating in formal day care services and pre-school institutions
(including kindergartens and day-care centres, which usually provide an educational content as
well as traditional care for children aged 35 years).
Public spending on childcare support per child relates to the expenditure on childcare divided by
the number of children in that country aged under three, while public spending on pre-school care
and education per child is calculated by dividing public spending on educational institutions by the
number of children enrolled in those programs.
(13) See the Education and Training Monitor 2014 (http://ec.europa.eu/education/library/publications/monitor14_en.pdf)

4 Education
As shown in Figure 24, total public spending on (both 0.3%) and Greece (0.1%) were at the other
childcare and early educational services in 2009 end of the scale, below the OECD average.
stood at over 1% of GDP in Denmark, Sweden
(both 1.4%), the United Kingdom, France and Most countries spend more on pre-primary
Finland (all 1.1%), while the OECD average was school care than childcare. This could partly be a
0.7%. The Slovak Republic (0.4%), Cyprus, Poland reflection of coverage of a larger group of children.
Figure 24: Expenditure on childcare and pre-primary education, 2009

(% GDP)
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
OECD average = 0.7 % (Total)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Denmark
Sweden
United Kingdom
France
Finland
Netherlands
Bulgaria
Romania
Belgium
Hungary
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Spain (1)
Slovenia
Germany
Malta
Ireland
Luxembourg
Czech Republic
Austria
Portugal
Estonia
Slovakia
Poland
Greece
Cyprus
Childcare spending as a % of GDP Pre-primary spending as a % of GDP
() Figures for Spain cannot be disaggregated by educational level.
Source: Social Expenditure database 2013; OECD Education database; Eurostat for non-OECD countries.
Comparison of education expenditure as a and Luxembourg, where primary education

percentage of GDP between the different education corresponded to the highest expenditure.
levels shows that expenditure for the secondary
level of education (ISCED 24) were higher For the combined pre-primary, primary and
(2.23% of GDP) in 2011 than for the primary secondary education in the EU-28 the total
% of GDP) and pre-primary education
(1.19 expenditure amounted on average to 4% of GDP
(0.57% of GDP) at the EU level. This was in 2011, with Malta and Denmark recording the
observed in all EU Member States, except Croatia highest rates, between 6 and 7% of their GDP.

Education 4
Figure 25: Total public expenditure on education as% of GDP, at ISCED 0, 1 and 24, 2011 ()
(% GDP)
7
0
EU-28
Malta
Denmark
Cyprus
Belgium
Sweden
Ireland
United Kingdom
Finland
France
Slovenia
Austria
Portugal
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Latvia
Estonia
Poland
Lithuania
Spain
Hungary
Germany
Italy
Czech Republic
Croatia
Bulgaria
Slovakia
Romania
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
Liechtenstein
United States
Japan
Turkey
Pre-primary education (ISCED 0) Primary education (ISCED 1) Secondary education (ISCED 24)
() Data not available for Greece.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_figdp)

4 Education

The aim of the education statistics is to provide Commission Regulation No 88/2011 regarding
comparable statistics and indicators on key aspects statistics on education and training systems is
of the education systems across Europe. The data the EU legal base covering the above mentioned
cover participation and completion of education data. 2012 was the first year of application
programs by pupils and students, personnel in of the Regulation. The first data provided
education and the cost and type of resources according to that Regulation refers to the school
dedicated to education. academic year 2010/2011 and, as far as data on
education expenditure are concerned, to the
The main sources of annual data are the
financial year 2010. Data for previous years were
joint UNESCO-UIS/OECD/Eurostat (UOE)
reported on a voluntary basis from countries
questionnaires on education statistics, which
(i.e. so-calledgentlemens agreement).
constitute the core database on education. The UOE
data collection is an administrative data collection, Data on formal and Informal childcare are
compiled on the basis of national administrative collected through the EU statistics on income and
sources, reported by Ministries of Education or living conditions (EU-SILC), which is the reference
National Statistical Offices. Countries provide data source for indicators related to income, living
data, coming from administrative records, on the conditions and social inclusion.
basis of commonly agreed definitions. The UOE
On the other hand, statistics on educational
data collection is overseen jointly by the United
attainment and early leavers come from the EU
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Labour Force Survey (LFS), which is another major
Organisation Institute for Statistics (UNESCO-
source for European education statistics. The LFS
UIS), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
is a large sample survey among private households
and Development (OECD), and Eurostat. Data on
which provides detailed annual and quarterly data
regional enrolments and foreign language learning
on employment, unemployment and inactivity.
are collected additionally by Eurostat.

Labour market:
access and participation
5 Labour market: access and participation
Introduction
Youth employment is a key aspect of Europes of young people will be examined. Next, the fo-
prosperity. Young people represent an important cus will be put on the transition from education
source of skills, creativity and dynamism. A better to the labour market by looking into the average
harnessing of these qualities could help Europes age when leaving formal education, the average
economy grow and become more competitive. time elapsed between leaving formal education
However, the youth unemployment rate has been and starting the first job, and the employment
rising steadily over the last few years, turning it rates after leaving education. In the third part, the
into a major concern for the EU. situation of young people on the labour market
will be described by analysing the employment
This chapter looks at the labour situation of young rates, the working arrangements, such as part-time
people from different perspectives. First, the ed- and temporary work contracts, as well as their
ucation and employment patterns characteristic unemployment levels.
The Europe 2020 strategy has dedicated two of its flagship initiatives to improving the
employment situation of young people: Youth on the move which promotes mobility as a means
of learning and increasing employability, and An agenda for new skills and jobs (COM(2010) 682),
which aims to improve employability and employment opportunities for young people.
In order to reduce youth unemployment and to increase the youth employment rate in line with
the goals identified in the Europe 2020 strategy, a set of measures were adopted at EU level:
The Youth employment package, adopted in 2012, includes a set of measures to facilitate school-
to-work transition. The Youth guarantee is one of these measures. It helps to ensure that all
young people aged under 25 get good-quality employment offers, continued education, or an
apprenticeship or traineeship within four months of leaving school or becoming unemployed.
The Youth employment initiative (2013) reinforces and accelerates measures outlined in
the Youth employment package. It supports particularly young people not in education,
employment or training in regions with a youth unemployment rate above 25%.
Education and employment patterns

A gradual change from education to in all EU Member States. In some countries, young
employment people start working much earlier than in others,
e.g. in the shape of summer or student jobs. It is
After the age of 18, compulsory schooling ends in also possible to be in education and to have a job at
all European countries and, as can be seen in the the same time, causing an overlap. Subsequently,
chapter on education, 45% of young people (aged young Europeans may find themselves in a number
1529) were still in education in 2013. In addition, of different situations when it comes to education
the age of 15 (or 16 in Italy, Spain and the United and employment.
Kingdom) marks the beginning of the working age

Labour market: access and participation 5
Employed persons are all persons aged 15 or more who worked at least one hour for pay or profit
during the reference week or were temporarily absent from such work.
Taking both the education (formal and non- in education, 11 % combined education and
formal) and employment situations into employment, whereas only 3.5% were exclusively
consideration, young people can be divided into in employment. The situation for the 2024 age
four broad categories: group differs considerably from the previous one:
the percentage of those exclusively in education
exclusively in education; was reduced by half (34%) and the percentage of
both in education and in employment; those exclusively in employment was nine times
exclusively in employment; and higher (31%). The percentage of those combining
neither in employment nor in education or education and employment has slightly increased
training. by 5 percentage points, from 11% to 16%. In the
2529 age group, the reverse situation for the
Education and employment patterns differ
1519 age group can be observed: the highest
considerably according to the age group
proportion (57%) was exclusively in employment,
While in the 1519 age group the majority of while only 8% were exclusively in education. The
young people were in education, in the other last category neither in employment nor in
two age groups the education and employment education or training represents a special case
patterns changed considerably. In 2013, at EU level, and will be discussed at the end of this section.
78% of young people aged 1519 were exclusively
Figure 1: Employment and education patterns by age group, EU-28, 2013

(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1519 2024 2529
Exclusively in education In education and employment
Exclusively in employment Not in employment, nor in education or training

Considering the 2024 age group, an analysis at (18%). However, a certain proportion of young
country level shows important differences across people also combined education and employment:
EU Member States. Figure 2 presents the education the Netherlands and Denmark stood out for their
and employment patterns, with countries ranked high proportion of young people combining
by decreasing share of young people aged 2024 education and employment (about 42% in both
in education (exclusively or in combination with countries). Combining education and employment
employment). In some countries almost one in was less common in Italy (4%), Hungary, Greece,
two young people were exclusively in education: Croatia, Slovakia and Romania (all with 3%).
Luxembourg (57 %), Croatia (49 %), Slovenia Focusing on the employment situation, a variation
(47%), Greece (46%) and Spain (45%). In others, of 36 percentage points was observed between EU
only about one in five persons was exclusively Member States. The highest proportion of young
in education: Austria (22%), Malta (22%), the people aged 2024 exclusively in employment was
Netherlands (21 %) and the United Kingdom recorded in Malta (54%), followed by Austria (45%)
Figure 2: Education and employment patterns for the age group 2024, 2013
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Denmark
Slovenia
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Sweden
Germany
France
Finland
Estonia
Spain
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Croatia
Poland
Portugal
Greece
Latvia
Slovakia
Belgium
Bulgaria
Hungary
Austria
Italy
Ireland
Romania
Cyprus
United Kingdom
Malta
Iceland
Switzerland
Norway
Exclusively in education In education and employment Exclusively in employment
and the United Kingdom (43%). In three countries In 2013, 70% of young Europeans in this age
the proportions of those exclusively in education group were in employment 10% of them were
was below 20%: Spain, Greece and Slovenia. combining education and employment. In three
EU Member States more than four fifths of young
Particularly for people aged 2529, access to the
people were in employment: Malta (83%), the
labour market is essential for entering independent
Netherlands (82%) and Austria (81%). At the other
life. Figure 3 presents the education and employ-
end of the scale we find Greece and Italy, where
ment patterns where countries are ranked by
approximately one in two people aged 2529 were
decreasing share of young people aged 2529 in
in employment (49% in Greece and 53% in Italy).
employment (exclusively or in combination with
education).

Figure 3: Education and employment patterns for the age group 2529, 2013
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Malta
Netherlands
Austria
United Kingdom
Germany
Sweden
Lithuania
Latvia
Luxembourg
Belgium
France
Finland
Czech Republic
Estonia
Poland
Denmark
Cyprus
Slovenia
Ireland
Hungary
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Croatia
Bulgaria
Spain
Italy
Greece
Switzerland
Iceland
Norway
Combining education and employment still occurs

among people aged 2529, although it differs
considerably from country to country. The highest
proportion of people combining education and
employment was found in the Nordic countries:
35% in Denmark, 29% in Sweden and 28% in
Finland, while the lowest were recorded in Greece
(3%) and Romania (2%). As for the share of people
aged 2529 exclusively in education, the disparities
between EU Member States ranged from 16% in
Denmark to 3% in Lithuania and Malta.
The structure of the educational system is a very
important factor to explain the differences between
countries. Looking at Figures 2 and 3 similar
patterns can be observed in both age groups (20
24 and 2529) in relation to combining education
and employment. Denmark and the Netherlands,
where most study programmes include a
The education and employment situation
traineeship, stood out for their high proportion of young people aged 2024 has changed
of young people in both age groups combining over the last decade: while in 2004 more
education and employment. In countries like were exclusively working than exclusively in
Romania, Greece, Slovakia, Croatia and Hungary education, in 2013 the rate of those exclusively
the percentage of those combining education and in education exceeded the rate of those
employment was below 5% in both age groups. exclusively in employment.

Figure 4: Education and employment patterns of people aged 2024, EU-28, 200413
(%)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
At EU level, the education and employment Young people neither in employment

situation of young people aged 2024 has changed nor in education or training
over the last 10 years. As can be seen in Figure
4, the most important changes occurred in the Potentially any type of education or training
situation of people exclusively in education and (formal or non-formal) should improve skills
exclusively in employment. While in 2004 the and employability. People who are neither in
rate of young people exclusively in employment employment nor in education and training are
exceeded that of young people exclusively in often disconnected from the labour market
education by 10 percentage points, in 2013 the and have a higher risk of not finding a job,
opposite situation occurred: the rate of those which could lead to poverty or social exclusion.
exclusively in education exceeded the rate of those They are monitored through both education and
exclusively in employment by two percentage labour market policies. Reducing the number of
points the latter losing about seven percentage young people who are neither in employment nor
points over the last 10 years. The percentage of in education or training is one of the EUs top
young people aged 2024 in employment strongly priorities.
decreased in countries like Cyprus (24%), Spain
(23%) and Greece (22%) while it was stable or As laid out at the beginning of this chapter, a
even increased in countries such as Germany (7%), higher proportion of the population in the 1524
Poland (5%), Finland and the United Kingdom age group was still studying, while most people in
(both 4%), Lithuania (3%), Austria and Sweden the 2529 age group had already left the education
(both 1%). system. For this reason, the focus for the rest of this
chapter will be on the 1524 and 2529 age groups.
As for the 2529 age group, the education and
employment situation has remained relatively In 2013, 13% of people aged 1524 and 30% of
stable at EU level over the last ten years. Only the people aged 2529 were neither in employment
proportion of those exclusively in employment saw nor in education or training in the EU. The lowest
a small and gradual fall from 62% in 2004 to 57% proportions of people aged 1524 not in
in 2013.

Young people neither in employment nor in education and training (NEETs) are defined as
the percentage of the young population that is both not employed and not involved in further
education and training.
employment, education or training were recorded proportion was again recorded in Greece (42%),
in the Netherlands and Luxembourg (both 5%) followed by Italy (33%) and Bulgaria (32%). The
followed by Denmark and Germany (both 6%), lowest rates were found in Sweden (9%), Austria
while the highest were recorded in Italy, Bulgaria (10%) and Denmark, Luxembourg and the
(both 22%) and Greece (21%). Along with Cyprus Netherlands (all three with 11%).
and Croatia, Greece was one of the three countries
Compared with the situation in 2008, 2013 saw
where the highest increase in the rates of persons
a small reduction (of three percentage points)
not in employment, education or training (nine
in the proportion of people not in employment,
percentage points) was registered between 2008
education or training in four EU Member States:
and 2013 (Figure 5).
Malta, Luxembourg, Germany and Austria. In the
Considering the 2529 age group, the share of other EU Member States the situation worsened.
people not in employment, education or training The highest growth was recorded in Greece (22
stood at 21% in 2013 in the EU (Figure 6). Looking percentage points), followed by Spain and Croatia
at individual EU Member States the highest (12 percentage points).
Figure 5: People aged 1524 not in employment, education or training, 2008 and 2013
(%)
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Italy
Bulgaria
Greece
Cyprus
Croatia
Spain
Romania
Ireland
Hungary
Portugal
Slovakia
United Kingdom
Latvia
Belgium
Poland
Estonia
France (1)
Lithuania
Malta
Finland
Slovenia
Czech Republic
Sweden
Austria
Germany
Denmark
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
2008 2013
() 2013: break in time series.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: yth_empl_150)

Figure 6: People aged 2529 not in employment, education or training, 2008 and 2013
(%)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
EU-28
Greece
Italy
Bulgaria
Spain
Slovakia
Croatia
Hungary
Romania
Cyprus
Ireland
Poland
Portugal
Latvia
Lithuania
Belgium
France (1)
Estonia
Czech Republic
Slovenia
United Kingdom
Finland
Malta
Germany
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Denmark
Austria
Sweden
Norway
Switzerland
Iceland
2008 2013
Figure 7 shows that in the years leading up to the This pattern is found to a varying extent in all
financial and economic crisis, the percentage of EU Member States. In Greece, almost half of
people not in employment, education or training the women (49%) aged 2529 were neither in
rate had been decreasing gradually. However, employment nor in education or training. The
the financial and economic crisis reversed this lowest rates were found in Sweden (10%), the
development 2008 saw a steady increase in both Netherlands (12%), Denmark, Austria (both 13%)
age groups: two percentage points in the 1524 and Luxembourg (14%). The highest gender gap
age group and four percentage points in the 2529 was found in the Czech Republic (20 percentage
group. points), followed by Slovakia (17 percentage
points) whereas in Spain, Croatia, Ireland and the
Young people outside education and
Netherlands the difference between women and
employment are more numerous in the older men was below two percentage points.
age group and among women
A possible reason for the fact that, in general,
In the 2529 age group, gender differences were more women are neither in education nor in
registered in the proportion of persons neither in employment or training could be that, due to
employment nor in education or training (Figure family responsibilities, they are not seeking
8). In 2013, at EU level, 25% of women aged 25 employment and consequently, according to
29 versus 17% of men aged 2529 were neither the definition, inactive on the labour market.
in employment nor in education or training.

Figure 7: Young people not in employment, education or training, by age group, EU-28, 200413
(%)
25
20
15
10
0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
1524 2529
Figure 8: People aged 2529 not in employment, education or training by sex, 2013
(%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Greece
Italy
Bulgaria
Slovakia
Hungary
Poland
Romania
Czech Republic
Spain
Croatia
Estonia
Cyprus
Ireland
Latvia
United Kingdom
France
Portugal
Slovenia
Belgium
Lithuania
Malta
Finland
Germany
Luxembourg
Austria
Denmark
Netherlands
Sweden
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
Men Women

School-to-work transition
An important aspect of the transition from results: high participation in tertiary education
childhood to adulthood is the transition from brings the values up; early school leaving brings
school, i.e. formal education, to working life, the average down.
which can be more or less gradual. Depending
As shown in Figure 9, the level of educational
on the organisation of the education systems,
attainment is an important factor in determining
the situation on the labour market and personal
the age at which people leave the education system.
choice, this transition can have varying lengths
On average, people with at most lower secondary
and can be achieved in several ways: some young
education leave education at the age of 17, people
people switch directly from a life spent exclusively
with upper secondary education at the age of 20,
in education to full employment; while for others
and people with tertiary education at the age of
the change is steadier, combining formal education
24. However, there were important variations
and employment for a certain period.
across EU Member States: whereas in Bulgaria and
Data on the transition from school to work were Romania people with lower secondary attainment
collected in 2009 through the ad-hoc module on left education at the age of 14 (on average), in the
the entry of young people into the labour market Netherlands and Portugal they left close to the age
which supplemented the regular EU Labour Force of 20. The age of leaving formal education of people
Survey (EU-LFS). Two of the indicators on school- with upper secondary attainment varied between
to-work transition, Average age when leaving the age of 18 in Bulgaria and the United Kingdom
formal education and Employment rate after and 22 in Portugal and Denmark (on average).
leaving formal education stem from this data Similarly, the average age when leaving formal
collection, while the third Average length of the education for those with tertiary educational
transition from school to work is taken straight attainment varied between 23 years in the United
from the regular EU-LFS. Kingdom, Malta, France, Cyprus, Greece, Belgium
and Spain to almost 27 years in Austria, Slovenia,
Finland, Germany and Denmark.
Average age when leaving formal
education The differences between EU Member States reflect
the characteristics of the national educational
A first indicator on the school-to-work transition systems in terms of length, organisation or
process is the average age when people leave the educational practices. As such, longer upper
formal education system. In the EU in 2009 the secondary education brings the average up.
average age of those who left formal education in Moreover, the practice of repeating classes brings
the preceding five years was 21. However, there is the average up on one side, but allows higher
some variation between EU Member States: while ISCED level on the other side. The phenomenon
in Malta, Bulgaria and Romania, people exit the of early school leaving (1), which varies across EU
education system between the ages of 19 and 20, countries, also has an influence on the average age
in Denmark, Slovenia and Finland people leave of leaving education: leaving school early is linked
formal education around the age of 23. The overall to lower ISCED level and lower age of leaving
educational attainment explains much of these education.
(1) For more details on early school leavers, see the chapter on education.

Figure 9: Average age when leaving formal education for persons aged 1534 who left within
the last 5 years, by highest education level, 2009
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
Slovenia (1)
EU-27
Denmark
Finland
Netherlands
Germany
Luxembourg
Poland
Portugal
Lithuania
Ireland
Hungary
Belgium
Latvia
Sweden
Cyprus
Greece
Italy
Estonia
Austria
France
Czech Republic
Spain
Slovakia
United Kingdom
Romania
Bulgaria
Malta
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
Pre-primary, primary and lower secondary (ISCED levels 02)
Upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary (ISCED levels 3 and 4)
First and second stage of tertiary (ISCED levels 5 and 6)
Average
() Low reliability for the group ISCED levels 02.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: edat_lfso_09t1)
Average length of the transition from had their first job only 3.5 months after finishing
school to work education.
The level of education is a key factor for a
The period elapsed between leaving formal
successful transition to the labour market
education and the first significant job (i.e. lasting
more than 3 months) is an indicator of the length The level of the highest educational qualification
of the school-to-work transition process. On has an obvious impact on the transition from
average, in 2009, young people in the EU had school to work. In the EU, the average duration of
the first significant job 6.5 months after leaving the transition period to the first significant job was
formal education considering all education five months for people with tertiary qualification
levels (Figure 10). The longest transition period but twice as long for people with lower qualification
between 10 and 13 months was registered (about 10 months), and nearly seven months for
in Greece, Italy and Romania. By contrast, young those with upper secondary qualification.
people in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands

Figure 10: Average time (in months) between leaving formal education and starting the first job
for persons aged 1534 who left within the last five years, by highest education level, 2009 (1)
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-27
Greece
Italy
Romania
Bulgaria (2)
Spain
Cyprus
Slovenia
Poland
France
Latvia
Portugal
Slovakia
Hungary
Belgium
Malta
Finland
Luxembourg
Austria
Denmark
Sweden
Estonia
Ireland
Lithuania (2)
Czech Republic (2)
United Kingdom
Netherlands
Norway
Iceland
Average
() Germany was not considered due to lack of comparable data.

(2) Low reliability for the group ISCED levels 0 -2.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: edat_lfso_09t2)
The discrepancies between EU Member States While in Ireland, Sweden, the United Kingdom
increased considerably when taking the education and the Netherlands the transition period was
level into account. In Greece, the transition period around 6 months, in Slovakia it was 24 months and
for people with tertiary education (12 months) was in Bulgaria 22 months. Another interesting fact
more than double the EU average and four times the was that while in some countries, like Ireland and
duration of the best performing countries (Malta, Portugal, the transition period was almost the same
Estonia, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, for all three education level groups, in others the
Lithuania, and the Czech Republic). The shortest level of education revealed important disparities.
transition period for people with upper secondary In Cyprus and Bulgaria for instance, people with
education was registered in the United Kingdom, upper secondary education needed between 8 and
the Netherlands and Denmark (around 4 months), 9 months more than people with tertiary education
while the longest was registered in Greece and to find a job. In Slovakia, people that had finished
Cyprus (14 months). education with at most a lower secondary degree
needed 18 more months to find a job than people
People with at most lower secondary education had
with upper secondary education.
the longest transition period: 10 months on average.

Employment rates after leaving formal people with tertiary education were found in the
education Netherlands (95%) and Malta (94%), while the
lowest rates were registered in Italy (70%), Spain
At EU level, 73% of young people who left formal (73%) and Greece (74%). The differences between
education in the period 200813 were employed in EU Member States increased with the education
2013 (Figure 11). The highest values were recorded level: the highest employment rates among people
in the Netherlands where 88% of young people with secondary education were again found in the
successfully entered the labour market, followed Netherlands and Malta (around 89%), while the
by Austria (84%), Luxembourg (82%), Cyprus lowest rates were registered in Spain and Romania
and Denmark (both 81%), Slovenia and Germany (both 57%). The largest differences between EU
(both 80%). The lowest employment rates were Member States appeared for the people with at
recorded in Italy (59%) and Spain (60%). most lower secondary education: while in Cyprus,
Portugal, Denmark and the Netherlands, between
The education level is again an important 67% and 70% of young people were employed, in
differentiating factor. While in the EU-27 84% Slovakia and Bulgaria only around 20% of young
of young people with tertiary education were people with lower secondary education were
employed, this rate was almost twice as lower employed in 2009.
(45%) for people with at most lower secondary
education. The highest employment rates among
The employment rate is the percentage of employed persons in relation to the comparable
total population. For the overall employment rate, the comparison is made with the population
of working-age; but employment rates can also be calculated for a particular age group and/or
gender in a specific geographical area.
Figure 11: Employment rates of the population aged 1534 who left education in the last 5
years by highest education level, 2013
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Germany
Austria
Netherlands
Malta
Sweden
Denmark
Luxembourg
United Kingdom
Czech Republic
Finland
Lithuania
Latvia
Belgium
Estonia
Poland
Slovenia
Hungary
Slovakia
France
Ireland
Romania
Portugal
Bulgaria
Cyprus
Spain
Croatia
Italy
Greece
Iceland
Switzerland

Average

Youth employment
The employment rate is an essential indicator for
monitoring the labour market situation. For the
1529 age group it is calculated as the share of
people aged 1529 who are employed in the total
population of this group.
The employment situation of young
people varies according to gender, age and
educational attainment
In 2013, the EU-28 employment rate for persons
aged 1529 stood at 46%. However, an analysis by
age group delivers a more nuanced image of the
labour situation of young people. In 2013, 32% of
young Europeans aged 1524 were employed, while
the employment rate among young Europeans
aged 2529 stood at 71%.
The employment rate in 2013 for young

Characteristics of youth in employment people aged 2529 amounted to 71%, while
Figures 12 and 13 show large differences between the one for those aged 1524 was 32%.
EU Member States for both age groups. In the
1524 age group, the highest employment rates
in 2013 were recorded in the Netherlands (62%), were recorded in Malta (83%), the Netherlands
followed by Austria and Denmark (both with 54%). (82%) and Austria (81%), while the lowest were
The lowest rate (12%) was registered in Greece. In again found in Greece (49%), followed by Italy
the age group 2529, the highest employment rates (53%) and Spain (58%).
Figure 12: Employment rates of people aged 1524, 2008 and 2013
(%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Netherlands (1)
Austria (1)
Denmark
Germany
United Kingdom
Malta
Sweden
Finland
Estonia
Latvia
Ireland
France (1)
Slovenia
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Poland
Belgium
Cyprus
Romania
Portugal
Luxembourg
Bulgaria
Slovakia
Hungary
Spain
Italy
Croatia (1)
Greece
Iceland
Switzerland
Norway
2008 2013

However, between the beginning of the financial (17 percentage points), while in four EU Member
and economic crisis and 2013, there were States (Germany, Hungary, Sweden and Malta)
important developments in the labour situation of it remained almost unchanged (difference below
young people. While in both age groups the overall one percentage point). The labour situation of
employment rate for the EU-28 in 2013 remained people aged 2529 shows even bigger differences
five percentage points below its 2008 level, the EU between EU Member States: while in Greece the
Member States performed differently as regards percentage of those employed decreased by 24
the labour situation of young people. The labour percentage points between 2008 and 2013, in
situation of people aged 1524 deteriorated the Germany and Malta it increased slightly (around
most in Spain (19 percentage points) and Ireland three percentage points).
Figure 13: Employment rates of people aged 2529, 2008 and 2013
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Malta
Netherlands (1)
Austria (1)
United Kingdom
Sweden
Germany
Lithuania
Latvia
Luxembourg
Belgium
Finland
France (1)
Czech Republic
Estonia
Poland
Denmark
Cyprus
Slovenia
Ireland
Hungary
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Croatia (1)
Bulgaria
Spain
Italy
Greece
Switzerland
Iceland
Norway
2008 2013
Figure 14 illustrates the evolution of the women was recorded in the Czech Republic (14
employment rates for the age groups 1524 and percentage points difference), followed by Poland
2529. The employment rates for these two age and Slovakia (12 points).
groups in the EU-28 evolved in a similar fashion: in
Employment rates among young people varied
2008, they peaked at 37% for the age group 1524
considerably according to their level of educational
and at 76% for the age group 2529 and decreased
attainment (Figure 16): the employment rate of
continuously in the following years.
those who had completed a tertiary education
Employment rates were generally lower among was 71% across the EU-28 in 2013, almost three
women (Figure 15). In 2013, the employment rate times higher than the rate of those who had
of young Europeans aged 1529, stood at 49% for attained no more than primary or lower secondary
men and at 43% for women. With a few exceptions qualifications (26%). The EU-28 employment rate
(Ireland and the Netherlands) this pattern was of persons with at most upper secondary or post-
present in every EU Member State albeit in different secondary non-tertiary qualifications stood at
degrees. The highest difference between men and 54%.

Figure 14: Evolution of employment rates by age group, EU-28, 200313

(%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2003 2004 2005 ( ) 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
1524 2529
() Break in time series.

Figure 15: Employment rates of people aged 1529, by sex, 2013

(%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
EU-28
Netherlands
Austria
Denmark
Malta
Germany
United Kingdom
Sweden
Finland
Ireland
Latvia
Estonia
Cyprus
France
Luxembourg
Slovenia
Belgium
Lithuania
Portugal
Czech Republic
Poland
Romania
Hungary
Bulgaria
Spain
Slovakia
Croatia
Italy
Greece
Iceland
Switzerland
Norway


Figure 16: Employment rates of people aged 1529, by highest educational level, 2013
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Netherlands
Malta
Germany
Lithuania
Finland
United Kingdom
Austria
Latvia
Denmark
Estonia
Ireland
Sweden
Hungary
Poland
France
Bulgaria
Slovenia
Belgium
Czech Republic
Luxembourg
Romania
Cyprus
Croatia
Portugal
Slovakia
Spain
Greece
Italy
Iceland
Switzerland
Norway
Temporary and part-time work without work experience are more likely to accept
contracts them. Besides, employers often use temporary work
contracts to assess the capabilities of new recruits
Temporary and part-time work contracts are two before offering them a permanent position.
types of agreement young people come across
As shown in Figure 17, temporary work contracts
when entering the labour market.
were more widespread in the younger age group:
Temporary work contracts are quite common in 2013, 43% of the people aged 1524 and 22%
among young people entering the labour market. of the people aged 2529 were employed under
These types of contract, which often include temporary work contracts in the EU a pattern
seasonal employment, allow employers to adapt to which can be observed in all EU Member States.
demands on the labour market, and young people
Temporary employment includes work under a fixed-term contract, as against permanent work
where there is no end-date. A job may be considered temporary employment (and its holder a
temporary employee) if both employer and employee agree that its end is decided by objective
rules (usually written down in a work contract of limited life). These rules can be a specific date, the
end of a task, or the return of another employee who has been temporarily replaced.
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), part-time employment is defined as
regular employment in which working time is substantially less than normal.

Figure 17: Share of young temporary employees, by age group, 2013

(%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Spain
Poland
Portugal
Slovenia
Croatia
Italy
Netherlands
Sweden
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Denmark
Cyprus
Luxembourg
Hungary
Czech Republic
Belgium
Ireland
Austria
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Malta
United Kingdom
Estonia
Latvia
Romania
Lithuania (1)
Iceland
Switzerland
Norway
1524 2529
() Low reliability.
There are however substantial differences between employment rate among people aged 1524 stood
EU Member States: the rates of young people at 32% in 2013, while it was twice as low for the
(both age groups) working with temporary work 2529 age group (Figure 18). The highest part-time
contracts in 2013 were the highest in Slovenia, employment rates in the 1524 age group were
Poland, Spain and Portugal. Slovenia stood out recorded in the Netherlands (78%) and Denmark
for the high temporary employment rate in the (66%) and the lowest in Croatia and Bulgaria
age group 1524 (74%). At the other end of the (both 6%). A similar situation was encountered
spectrum, Romania and Latvia were amongst the for the 2529 age group: the highest part-time
countries with the lowest temporary employment employment rates were found in the Netherlands
rates in both age groups. In Romania only 6% of (41%) and Denmark (26%) and the lowest in
people aged 1524 and 3% of those aged 2529 Slovakia (3%) and Hungary (5%).
were temporary employees. Country-specific
The percentage of those working part-time has
regulations on temporary work contracts (e.g.
increased over the last ten years in both age groups
maximum duration, renewal possibilities) and
(Figure 19). While between 2003 and 2008, the
differences in national education systems relating
numbers were stagnating, they increased steadily
to traineeships were some of the factors behind
between 2008 and 2013: from 26% to 31% in the
these differences.
age group 1524, and from 12% to 15% in the age
For many young people part-time work is a good group 2529.
method for combining education and employment,
Part-time employment is not always a matter of
but it may also be dictated by family or other
personal choice some people may be working
personal reasons. As is the case for temporary
part-time because they cannot find a full-time job.
work, part-time work is also more widespread in
the younger age group. At EU level, the part-time

Figure 18: Share of part-time employees, by age group, 2013
(%)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Netherlands
Denmark
Sweden
Austria
Spain
Italy
Germany
United Kingdom
Ireland
Cyprus
Belgium
France
Finland
Luxembourg
Portugal
Greece
Slovenia
Romania
Estonia
Czech Republic
Poland
Malta
Latvia
Lithuania (1)
Hungary
Slovakia
Croatia (2)
Bulgaria (1)
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
1524 2529
(1) Low reliability for the age group 2529.
(2) Low reliability for both age groups.
Figure 19: Share of part-time employees in EU-28, by age group, 200313

(%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
1524 2529

From 2007 to 2013, the share of involuntary The prevalence of part-time work contracts differed
part-time employees has generally increased in significantly between men and women (Figure 21).
all EU Member States, although there were a few In 2013 the rate of young women working part-
exceptions (Figure 20). The highest increases were time (31%) was almost twice as high as the rate of
recorded in Spain (34 percentage points), Ireland men (16%) in the EU-28. The highest difference
(30 percentage points), Italy (26 percentage points) between women and men was observed in the
and Greece (20 percentage points). The share of Netherlands and Sweden (24 percentage points).
involuntary part-time workers has decreased in Romania on the other hand had slightly more
several countries as well, most notably in Belgium men working part time than women (a difference
(13 percentage points), Germany (12 percentage of almost two percentage points), the only such
points) and Malta (9 percentage points). occurrence among EU Member States.
Involuntary part-time employment refers to part-time workers who declare working part-time
because they could not find a full-time job.
Figure 20: Involuntary part-time employment as percentage of the total part-time employment
for people aged 1529, 2007 and 2013
(%)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Italy
Romania
Greece
Spain
Cyprus
Portugal
Hungary
Bulgaria
France
Sweden
Ireland
Slovakia
Poland
Croatia
United Kingdom
Latvia
Lithuania
Finland
Luxembourg
Malta
Belgium
Czech Republic
Austria
Germany
Netherlands
Denmark
Slovenia
Estonia
Norway
Iceland
Switzerland
2007(1) 2013(2)
() Low reliability for Bulgaria, Estonia, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Slovakia and Iceland.
() Low reliability for Estonia, France, Croatia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Sweden. Break in time series for France, Croatia, the Netherlands,
Austria and the United Kindgom.

Figure 21: Share of part-time employees aged 1529, by sex, 2013
(%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Netherlands
Denmark
Sweden
United Kingdom
Finland
Italy
Ireland
Spain
Belgium
Austria
Slovenia
Germany
France
Cyprus
Luxembourg
Portugal
Estonia
Greece
Malta
Poland
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Romania
Latvia
Hungary
Slovakia
Croatia (1)
Bulgaria (1)
Norway
Iceland
Switzerland
() Low reliability.
The differences between women and men with education or training (56%) and the impossibility
regard to part-time employment could be related to of finding a full-time job (30%) topped the list
the fact that women dedicate more time to family for the younger age group (1524). The reasons
responsibilities. Figure 22 illustrates that looking for the 2529 age group were slightly different:
after children or adults in need of care was a reason for 40% of them, the main reason were the
for part-time work for 14% of young women impossibility of finding a full-time job, followed
against 1% of men. On the contrary, being in by family or personal responsibilities (24%) and
education or training was a more important reason the participation in education or training (20%)
for men (50%) than for women (36%). (Figure 23).
Looking at the main reasons for part-time
employment by age group, participation in

Figure 22: Main reasons for part-time employment of people aged 1529, by sex, EU-28, 2013
(%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
In education Could not find Looking after Other family or Own illness Other reasons
or training a full-time job children or personal or disability
incapacitated adults responsabilities
Figure 23: Main reasons for part-time employment, by age group, EU-28, 2013
(%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
In education or training Could not find a full-time job Family or personal responsabilities Other reasons
1524 2529
158 Children and young people

Youth unemployment
The unemployment rate of young people has been the 2529 age group were unemployed (Figure
increasing in the years following the financial 24). In all EU Member States the unemployment
and economic crisis, reflecting the difficulties rates were higher in the younger age group.
faced by young people in finding a job. In labour The unemployment situation of young people
market policies, the main indicator for youth varied largely between EU Member States,
unemployment is called the youth unemployment but similar trends in the performance of
rate and refers to the age group 1524. national labour markets could be observed for
both age groups. In both groups, the highest
unemployment rates were recorded in Greece,
Unemployment among young people
Spain and Croatia, while the lowest rates were
In 2013, 23% of the EUs labour force in the registered in Germany, Austria, the Netherlands
1524 age group and 15% of its labour force in and Malta. As such, the unemployment
The youth unemployment rate is the percentage of unemployed young people in the age group
1524 compared to the total labour force in that age group.
The active population, also called labour force, includes both employed and unemployed
people, but not the economically inactive, such as pre-school children, school children, students
and pensioners.
Figure 24: Unemployment rate, by age group, 2013

(%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Greece
Spain
Croatia
Italy
Cyprus
Portugal
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Slovenia
Ireland
Lithuania
Poland
France
Hungary
Latvia
Romania
Belgium
Estonia
Finland
Denmark
Czech Republic
United Kingdom
Luxembourg
Sweden
Germany
Netherlands
Austria
Malta
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
1524 2529

rate in Greece stood at 58% for people aged people, the main indicator for unemployment,
1524 and 44% for people aged 2529. In Spain the unemployment rate, is often complemented by
the unemployment rates stood at 56% and 33% another indicator, the unemployment ratio, which
respectively. The lowest unemployment rates compares the number of unemployed with the
for the 1524 age group were found in Germany total population, and not only the labour force.
(8%) and Austria (9%). For the 2529 age group,
The unemployment ratio, which not only takes
unemployment rates slightly below 7 % were
into account the size of the young labour force,
recorded in Malta, Austria and Germany.
but the young population (active and inactive) as
Since many young people are still studying full time, a whole, provides a more accurate reflection of the
they are not available for work and are considered unemployment situation of young people. Thus, in
as being outside the labour force. Therefore, 2013, the unemployment ratio in the EU-28 stood
when presenting the labour situation of young at 10% for the age group 1524 and at 12% for the
The youth unemployment ratio is the percentage of unemployed young people in the age group
1524 compared to the total population of that age group (employed, unemployed and inactive).
Inactive persons are persons who are not in the labour force (employed or unemployed). The
inactive population can include pre-school children, school children, students, pensioners and
housewives or -men, for example. Provided they are not working at all and either not available or
looking for work; some of these may be of working-age.
Figure 25: Unemployment ratio of young people, by age group, 2013

(%)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Greece
Spain
Portugal
Croatia
Cyprus
Slovakia
Italy
Slovenia
Bulgaria
Ireland
France
Lithuania
Poland
Belgium
Latvia
Hungary
Romania
Estonia
Denmark
Sweden
Finland
Luxembourg
United Kingdom
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Austria
Germany
Malta
Iceland
Switzerland
Norway
1524 2529

Figure 26: Unemployment rate of young people, by age group, EU-28, 200413
(%)
25
20
15
10
0
2004 2005 (1) 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
1524 2529
Figure 27: Unemployment rate of people aged 1529, by highest level of educational
attainment, 2013
(%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Greece
Spain
Croatia
Italy
Portugal
Cyprus
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Ireland
Slovenia
Poland
France
Hungary
Sweden
Lithuania
Belgium
Latvia
Romania
Finland
United Kingdom
Estonia
Czech Republic
Denmark
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Austria
Germany
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
Less than primary, primary and lower secondary (levels 0-2)

Upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary (levels 3 and 4)
Short-cycle tertiary, bachelor or equivalent, master or equivalent and doctoral or equivalent (levels 5-8)
All ISCED 2011 levels

age group 2529 (Figure 25). The unemployment Long-term unemployment among
ratio is by definition always smaller than the young people
unemployment rate.
As shown in Figures 24 and 25, the difference Long-term unemployment is one of the main concerns
was bigger for the age group 1524. Moreover, of policymakers. Apart from its financial and social
although the employment rates were higher for effects on personal life, long-term unemployment
the age group 1524, the unemployment ratios negatively affects social cohesion and, ultimately, may
were higher for the age group 2529. This is due hinder economic growth.
to the fact that more people in the younger age In the EU-28 the percentage of young people
category were in education and thus unavailable who were long-term unemployed has steadily
for work. For the age group 1524, the highest grown after the financial and economic crisis. The
unemployment ratios were found in Spain (21%) same pattern was observed for both age groups
and Greece (17%) and the lowest in Germany and (1524 and 2529): a gradual decrease of nearly
Luxembourg (both 4%). For the age group 2529, 2.5 percentage points was registered between
the highest unemployment ratios were found in 2003 and 2008 followed by a gradual increase of
Greece (37%) and Spain (29%) and the lowest in 4 percentage points between 2008 and 2013 (Figure 28).
Malta, Germany and Austria (all three slightly Long-term unemployment varied considerably
below 6%). across EU Member States (Figure 29). Greece stood
Looking at the evolution of the unemployment out with high long-term unemployment rates in
rates over the last ten years (Figure 26) shows that both age groups: 30% of the active young people
they decreased for both age groups between 2004 aged 1524 and 29% of active young people aged
and the beginning of the financial and economic 2529. High long-term unemployment rates for
crisis. Since the crisis however they have increased the age group 1529 were also recorded in Croatia
steadily, reaching their highest levels for 10 years (25%) and Spain (22%). At the other end of the
in 2013. From 2008 to 2013 the unemployment rate spectrum the long-term unemployment rates
increased by almost 8 percentage points for the for both age groups of young people in Austria,
1524 age group, and by 6 percentage points for Finland, Sweden, the Netherlands, Denmark and
the 2529 age group. Germany were below 2%.
Educational attainment is an important

differentiating factor when assessing the magnitude The long-term unemployment rate is
of unemployment rates. In all EU Member States, defined as the share of unemployed persons
except Romania, it appears that the higher the since 12 months or more in the total number
education level, the lower the unemployment rate. of active persons in the labour market.
Young people, especially those with lower

qualifications, still face difficulties in finding
a job
On average, the unemployment rate of people with
at most lower secondary education (30%) was
almost two times higher than the unemployment
rate of people with tertiary education (Figure 27).

Figure 28: Youth long-term unemployment rate, by age group, EU-28, 200313
(%)
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2003 2004 2005 (1) 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
1524 2529
Figure 29: Long-term unemployment rate, by age group, 2013

(%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28
Greece
Spain
Croatia
Slovakia
Italy
Portugal
Bulgaria
Ireland
Cyprus
Slovenia
Hungary
Poland
Romania
Latvia
France
Belgium
Lithuania (1)
Estonia
Malta (2)
United Kingdom
Czech Republic
Germany
Denmark
Netherlands
Sweden
Finland (1) (2)
Austria (2)
Luxembourg (1)
Switzerland
Norway
1524 2529
() Low reliability for the age group 1524.
() Low reliability for the age group 2529.


The main source of the data presented in this The concepts and definitions used in the EU-LFS
chapter is the EU labour force survey (EU-LFS), follow the guidelines of the International Labour
a large sample survey among private households Organization (ILO).
which provides detailed annual and quarterly data
The data on young people who are neither in
on employment, unemployment and inactivity. The
employment nor in education and training (NEET)
data can be broken down along many dimensions
correspond to the percentage of the population of a
including age, gender, educational attainment, and
given age group and gender not employed and not
distinctions between permanent/temporary and
involved in further education or training.
full-time/part-time employment.
Context
Young people are a priority for the European priorities for action at national and EU level to
Unions social vision, and the current crisis reduce youth unemployment by facilitating the
compounds the need to sustain young human transition from school to work and reducing
capital. In November 2009, the Council of Youth labour market segmentation. Particular focus is
Ministers adopted the EU Youth Strategy for 2010 put on the role of public employment services,
18 which has two overall objectives: promoting the Youth Guarantee scheme to ensure
all young people are in a job, in education or in
to provide more and equal opportunities for
activation, creating a European Vacancy Monitor
young people in education and in the labour
and supporting young entrepreneurs.
market; and
The Education, Youth, Culture and Sport Council
to promote active citizenship and social
meeting of May 2012 concluded that the current
inclusion for all young people.
economic crisis accentuates the importance of
The Open Method of Coordination supports the the education to work transition. Ensuring that
implementation of the strategy which should young people leave education and training with
create favourable conditions for young people to the best possible support to obtain their first job
develop their skills, fulfil their potential, work, and is critical. Young people who face unemployment
actively participate in society. In this framework or a slow transition may experience long-term
youth statistics are an essential tool to support adverse effects in terms of future labour market
evidence-based policy-making in the various success, earnings or family formation. This may
domains covered by the strategy. in turn jeopardise public and private investment
in their education and training, which results in a
The focus on young people was reinforced with the
loss for society as a whole. This is particularly true
adoption in June 2010 of the Europe 2020 strategy
in the context of demographic challenges, which
for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth which
put added pressure on Europes increasingly scarce
includes a number of concrete initiatives to support
young people to integrate quickly and effectively
them in getting jobs and dealing with related
into the labour market. This meeting allowed an
challenges during this crisis. Quality education
EU benchmark to be set for the year 2020 which
and training, successful labour market integration
focuses on the transition from education and
and increased mobility are key to unleashing all
training into the labour market and facilitates
of the young peoples potential and achieving the
policy exchanges under the Education and
Europe 2020 objectives.
Training 2020 (ET2020) framework on measures
Youth on the Move presents a framework of policy to enhance the employability of graduates.

Living conditions
for children
6 Living conditions for children
Introduction
This article presents a range of statistics covering Policymakers agree that children should ideally
childrens (aged 017) living conditions in the grow up in families with sufficient resources to
European Union (EU), the vast majority of the data meet their essential needs, while their future well-
is derived from EU statistics on income and living being is enhanced through ensuring they have
conditions (EU-SILC), a wide-ranging source access to a range of services and opportunities
of information for analysing poverty and social including, among others, early childhood education
exclusion. This article provides, among others: and recreational, sporting and cultural activities.
information relating to the risk of monetary Most EU Member States have a range of policies
poverty among children; details concerning the that aim to tackle child poverty: these tend to
ease with which families with / without children be based around promoting childrens rights,
can afford a range of goods; information on the although there are differences in the balance
housing conditions in which children live; as struck between promoting universal measures and
well as evidence linking a childs risk of poverty targeting support at specific (vulnerable) groups. (1)
and deprivation to their parents labour market
situation and educational attainment.
GIVING CHILDREN A LIFE CHANCE

Many people would argue that a childs opportunities in life should, in an ideal world, not be
pre-determined by the characteristics of the family into which they are born. However, a range
of studies suggest that this is indeed the case and that children growing up in poverty or social
exclusion are less likely to do well at school, enjoy good health, or achieve their full potential later
on in life.
The risk of poverty among children appears to be closely linked to the composition of the household
into which they are born, in particular, the labour market situation and educational attainment of
their parents. Some commentators believe that such a cycle of poverty and social exclusion may
be broken by targeting children in their early years. However, in light of the global financial and
economic crisis, there has been an increase in the risk of poverty among children, which may at
least in part be attributed to austerity measures and decreasing investment in children.
Poverty and social exclusion

Figure 1 shows the proportion of people at risk of poverty or social exclusion up until the onset of
poverty or social exclusion in the EU since 2005, the global financial and economic crisis in 2008.
with information presented for children (aged less However, during the crisis and thereafter there was
than 18 years) and for the whole population. There an increase in the share of the population that was
was some progress made in reducing the risk of at risk of poverty or social exclusion.
(1) See SPC advisory report to the European Commission on tackling and preventing child poverty, promoting child well-being of 27 June 2012
(http://europa.eu/epic/news/2012/20121213_council_conclusions_on_preventing_and_tackling_child_poverty_and_social_exclusion_and_
promoting_childrens_well_being_en.htm)

Living conditions for children 6
Almost 3 out of every 10 children in the EU was (a difference of 34 percentage points over the
at risk of poverty or social exclusion period 200913). By 2013, almost 3 out of every
10 children living in the EU-28 some 27.6%
This was particularly true for children, as the
was living at risk of poverty or social exclusion.
gap between the rate for children and that for the
whole population was wider following the crisis
EU POLICY MEASURES IN RELATION TO POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION AMONG CHILDREN

The European platform against poverty and social exclusion is one of seven flagship initiatives of
the Europe 2020 strategy which advocates not only smart and sustainable but also inclusive
growth. The European Council adopted in June 2010 a headline target for social inclusion,
namely, that by 2020 there should be at least 20 million fewer people in the EU who are at risk
of poverty or social exclusion. This headline indicator measures the number of people affected
by at least one of three forms of poverty: monetary poverty, material deprivation or low work
intensity. To meet the overall target, individual EU Member States have set their own national
targets, these are generally expressed as absolute numbers of people to be lifted out of the
risk of poverty or social exclusion (compared with national levels for 2008). The EU financially
supports such actions through its social investment package and through the EUs funds, in
particular the European Social Fund.
A European Commission Recommendation, Investing in children: breaking the cycle of
disadvantage (2013/112/EU) addresses poverty and social exclusion among children,
promoting childrens well-being. It encourages the EU Member States to go beyond ensuring
childrens material security, by promoting equal opportunities so that all children can achieve
their full potential, providing a focus on children who face an increased risk due to multiple
disadvantages. It stresses the need to develop integrated strategies based on three pillars:
access to adequate resources (for example, providing children with adequate living
standards through a combination of benefits);
access to affordable quality services (for example, reducing inequality by investing in
early childhood education and care, or improving the responsiveness of health systems to
address the needs of disadvantaged children); and
promoting childrens right to participate (for example, supporting the participation of
children in play, recreation, sport and cultural activities).

Children accounted for more than one in five the number of children in a family directly
of those at risk of poverty or social exclusion influences the risk of monetary poverty shown
through statistics, as each child in a family increases
In absolute numbers, a total of 123 million persons
the family size and so reduces average income per
in the EU-28 were at risk of poverty or social
family member. Governments may choose to target
exclusion in 2013; this figure included 26 million
specific types of family units through social transfers
children. As such, children accounted for just over
and allowances (for example, child allowance or tax
one fifth (21%) of the total number of persons in the
credits), often with the goal of encouraging people
EU-28 at risk of poverty or social exclusion in 2013.
to have children. These transfers may balance, to
Households with children are usually financially some degree, the income situations of families
worse off when compared with households without with and without children, with social benefits and
children, as the former face more expenditure taxation likely to mitigate some of the differences.
linked to the cost of bringing up children. Indeed,
Figure 1: People at risk of poverty or social exclusion, EU, 200513 ()

(% of the whole population and% of children)
30.0
27.5
25.0
22.5
20.0
0.0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Whole population Children (<18 years)
() 200509: EU-27. 201013: EU-28. 200506: estimates. 2013: estimates

Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_peps01)
The three conditions of the risk of poverty and

social exclusion
The headline indicator covering the population
at risk of poverty or social exclusion is defined as
the share of the population in at least one of the
following three conditions: i) at risk of poverty,
which means living below the poverty threshold,
ii) in a situation of severe material deprivation, iii)
living in a household with low work intensity.
Monetary poverty was the most widespread

form of poverty or social exclusion among
children affecting almost 11% of children in
the EU-28 in 2013.

DEFINING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION
Persons at risk of poverty are those living in households with an equivalised disposable income
below the risk of poverty threshold, which is set at 60% of the national median equivalised
disposable income (after social transfers). The risk of poverty is a relative measure, which is
conventionally set against a threshold of 60% of the national median equivalised disposable
income this means the poverty threshold varies between countries, as well as over time.
Severe material deprivation concerns those persons whose living conditions are constrained by
a lack of resources and experience of at least four out of nine deprivation items, in other words,
those who cannot afford: i) to pay rent/mortgage or utility bills on time, ii) to keep their home
adequately warm, iii) to face unexpected expenses, iv) to eat meat, fish or a protein equivalent
every second day, v) a one week holiday away from home, vi) a car, vii) a washing machine, viii) a
colour television, or ix) a telephone (including mobile telephones).
People living in households with very low work intensity are those aged 059 who live in
households where the adults aged 1859 worked, on average, less than 20% of their total work
potential during the past year; students are excluded.
Household income is equivalised (or adjusted) so that the incomes of different types of households
can be compared based on the premise that household income is shared and there are some
economies of scale which result from living together. To do so, total household disposable
income is divided by the households size. Eurostat uses the modified OECD equivalence scale
which gives a weight of 1.0 to the first adult, 0.5 to any other household member aged 14 and
over, and 0.3 to each child below the age of 14. The resulting average income figure is allocated
to each member of the household, whether they are an adult or a child.
It is sometimes said that it is impossible to abolish poverty as the poverty line is always moving, and
as income increases so too does the poverty line. However, it is possible for incomes to increase
without affecting the median level of income: for example, a tax break for high wage earners
would increase their disposable income without changing the median, while the introduction
of a new social transfer targeted specifically at the poor could result in some households being
pulled above the poverty threshold without a change in the median level of income.
Figure 2 presents how these three conditions can overlap note that a person can experience
none, one, two or all three of these poverty and / or social exclusion conditions. Outside of the
three circles shown in Figure 2, almost three quarters (72.4%) of the children in the EU-28 did not
experience any form of poverty or exclusion in 2013, while the corresponding share for the whole
population was higher still, at 75.5%.
Among the 26 million children in the EU-28 who were at risk of poverty or social exclusion in 2013,
just below 10 million were simultaneously affected by more than one of these three conditions.
Of these, 3.2 million children were at risk of poverty and severe material deprivation, 3.3 million
were at risk of poverty and living in a household with low work intensity, 1.0 million were both
materially deprived and living in a household with low work intensity, while 2.4 million were
touched by all three conditions (in other words, those simultaneously at risk of poverty, in a
situation of severe material deprivation and living in a household with low work intensity). As
such, the proportion of children in the EU-28 experiencing all three poverty and social exclusion
conditions was 2.6% in 2013 again this was higher than the corresponding average for the
whole population (1.8%).

Figure 2: The three dimensions of poverty an analysis of those at risk of poverty or social
exclusion, EU-28, 2013 ()
Children (<18 years):

neither at risk of poverty,
nor severely materially deprived,
nor living in a household with low work intensity
= 72.4 %
At risk of poverty
10.9 %
3.4 %
3.5 %
2.6 %
Living in a
Severely household
1.0 %
materially with low work
deprived intensity
4.1 % 2.2 %
Whole population:
neither at risk of poverty,
nor severely materially deprived,
nor living in a household with low work intensity
= 75.5 %
At risk of poverty
9.4 %
2.7 %
2.7 %
1.8 %
Living in a
Severely 0.7 % household
materially with low work
deprived intensity
4.3 % 2.7 %
() Estimates.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_pees01)

Monetary poverty was the risk that most the period 200513. The proportion of children
affected children affected by any form of monetary poverty (in other
words, on its own or in combination with other
Figure 3 shows developments over time for the
conditions) rose to just over one in five (20.4%);
proportion of children at risk of poverty or social
this was higher than the proportion of the whole
exclusion; it provides an analysis for the three
EU-28 population (children and adults) that was
conditions described above. Breaking down
affected by any form of monetary poverty (16.6%).
the headline indicator, it is clear that monetary
poverty the proportion of children at risk of Between 2009 and 2013, about half a million
poverty (but not severely materially deprived and additional children in the EU experienced all
not living in a household with low work intensity) three poverty and social exclusion conditions
was the most widespread form of poverty or simultaneously this was likely due, at least in
social exclusion among children, affecting between part, to the effects of the financial and economic
10% and 12% of all children in the EU during crisis.
Figure 3: Children at risk of poverty or social exclusion, EU, 200513 ()

(% of children)
Severely materially deprived Not severely materially deprived

6 12
5 10
4 8
3 6
2 4
1 2
0 0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Severely materially deprived (but not at risk of poverty and not living in a At risk of poverty (but not severely materially deprived and not living in
household with low work intensity) a household with low work intensity)
At risk of poverty and severely materially deprived (but not living in a At risk of poverty and living in a household with low work intensity
household with low work intensity) (but not severely materially deprived)
At risk of poverty, severely materially deprived and living in a household Living in a household with low work intensity
with low work intensity (but not at risk of poverty and not severely materially deprived)
Severely materially deprived and living in a household with low work
intensity (but not at risk of poverty)
() EU-27: 200509. EU-28: 201012. 200506: estimates. 2013: estimates. Note the difference in scales for the two parts of the figure.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_pees01)

The proportion of children suffering from rate at which their incomes rose was slower than
severe material deprivation rose rapidly in the average for the whole population, and as such
2012 then slightly decreased a higher proportion of children fell into relative
poverty. Following the onset of the financial and
Prior to the financial and economic crisis, the economic crisis, the proportion of children that
proportion of children in the EU-28 that were were at risk of monetary poverty started to fall
exclusively facing severe material deprivation or (from 2009) a pattern that continued through
living in households with low work intensity fell, to 2013.
as the EU economy grew, disposable incomes and
employment levels tended to rise, and with more Among EU Member States, where the overall
people in work, the average household had more
risk of poverty was high, the severity of
money to purchase goods and services. With the
poverty among children also tended to be
onset of the crisis, there was a subsequent increase
high
in the proportion of children in the EU-28 that
were living in households with low work intensity As already shown, children (27.6 %) in the
in 2010; this was probably linked to persistently EU-28 were at a greater risk of poverty or social
high unemployment levels and precarious labour exclusion than the average rate for the whole of the
markets. The share of children suffering from population (24.5%) in 2013. Figure 4 shows that
material deprivation (exclusively or in combination a similar pattern existed across the majority of
with other conditions) rose rapidly in 2012, likely the EU Member States, with the gap between the
reflecting a contraction in real wages and living two rates particularly high in Hungary, Romania,
standards. In 2013 the proportion of children Malta, the United Kingdom and Luxembourg,
materially deprived slightly decreased, but not where the risk of poverty or social exclusion for
reaching yet its level prior to the crisis, as shown in children was at least 7 percentage points above
the left-hand part of Figure 3. the national average. By contrast, there were
eight Member States where a lower proportion of
while the share of children at risk of children were at risk of poverty or social exclusion
monetary poverty rose at the onset of the Slovenia, Estonia, Germany, Croatia, Cyprus
financial and economic crisis and abated and the Nordic Member States.
before 2012 In Bulgaria more than half of all children were at
During a period of economic expansion (2005 risk of poverty or social exclusion in 2013, while
08) in the EU, the share of children that were relatively high rates more than 35% of all
exclusively at risk of poverty (but not facing severe children were recorded in Romania, Hungary,
material deprivation or living in a household with Latvia, Greece and Lithuania. By contrast, the
low work intensity) rose. While this may seem a proportion of children at risk of poverty or social
perverse result, it may be explained through an exclusion was much lower in Finland (13.0%),
increasing degree of inequality in relation to the while fewer than one in five children were at risk of
distribution of incomes. Although those at the poverty or social exclusion in Denmark, Sweden,
lower end of the income scale saw their living the Czech Republic, the Netherlands, Slovenia and
standards rise during the period 200508, the Germany.

Figure 4: People at risk of poverty or social exclusion, 2013
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28 (1)
Bulgaria
Romania
Hungary
Latvia
Greece
Lithuania
Ireland (2)
Spain
United Kingdom
Malta
Italy
Portugal
Poland
Croatia
Cyprus
Luxembourg
Slovakia
Austria
Estonia
Belgium
France
Germany
Slovenia
Netherlands
Czech Republic
Sweden
Denmark
Finland
Switzerland
Iceland
Norway
() Estimates.
() 2012 data.
Figure 5 shows that from a relative low of 26.3% The proportion of children at risk of poverty or
in 2009, the proportion of children in the EU-28 at social exclusion was particularly high among
risk of poverty or social exclusion rose to 27.6% by some of the EU Member States that were most
2013; this average conceals considerable variations deeply affected economically by the financial
among the EU Member States. During this period, and economic crisis
which for most Member States can be described as
post-crisis, some EU Member States made progress By contrast, some of the EU Member States where
in reducing their share of vulnerable children in the proportion of children at risk of poverty or
society. The largest reductions in at risk of poverty social exclusion rose at its most rapid pace between
or social exclusion rates for children were recorded 2009 and 2013 were characterised as having been
in Romania ( 3.5 percentage points), Estonia deeply affected by the financial and economic
(2.2 percentage points) and Poland (1.2 points). crisis, for example, Greece and Cyprus. Alongside
Germany, Finland, the Czech Republic and the a contraction in economic activity, these countries
Netherlands were the only other Member States to were also characterised by austerity measures,
report a lower share of children at risk of poverty which probably impacted upon a range of measures
or social exclusion in 2013 than in 2009. and services designed to support children.

Figure 5: Children at risk of poverty or social exclusion, 2009 and 2013

(% of children)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28 (1)
Bulgaria
Romania
Hungary
Latvia
Greece
Lithuania
Ireland (2)
Spain
United Kingdom
Malta
Italy
Portugal
Poland
Croatia (3)
Cyprus
Luxembourg
Slovakia
Austria
Estonia
Belgium
France
Germany
Slovenia
Netherlands
Czech Republic
Sweden
Denmark
Finland
Switzerland
Iceland
Norway
2009 2013
() 2009: EU-27. 2013: estimate.
() 2012 instead of 2013.
World comparison: the poverty situation for used by Eurostat in the EU-SILC and is based
children living in non-member countries is on the square root of the number of household
often less favourable than in the EU members, regardless of age. Figure 6 shows that at
risk of poverty rates for children were particularly
Of the 2.2 billion children in the world, almost high in South Africa, Brazil and Israel, where more
half are thought to live in poverty, one in three than one in three children were living with less
without adequate shelter, one in five without access than 60% of the median level of income.
to safe water. According to UNICEF, an average of
21 000 children across the world died each day in Among those EU Member States shown in Figure
2010 (down from 33 000 in 1990). The main causes 6, at risk of poverty rates for children and the
of death were malnutrition, unsafe drinking whole population were consistently below the rates
water and a lack of access to medical services (for recorded in South Africa, Brazil, Israel, the United
example, vaccines). States or Mexico. The Nordic countries had some
of the lowest at risk of poverty rates for children,
The Luxembourg Income Study Database (LIS) across both EU Member States and the non-
provides income statistics for upper and middle- member countries of Iceland and Norway.
income countries. Note that the equivalence scale
employed for household size is different to that

Figure 6: Relative poverty rates, 2010
(% of the whole population below 60% of median income and% of children)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
South Africa
Brazil (1)
Israel
United States
Mexico
Spain
Italy
Russia
United Kingdom
Greece
Canada
Slovakia
Poland
Japan (2)
Taiwan
Estonia
Germany
Luxembourg
Ireland
Netherlands
Iceland
Slovenia
Finland
Denmark
Norway
() 2011.
() 2008.
Source: LIS Inequality Key Figures
What impact does a parents education PARENTAL EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

and job have on a childs risk of
Intergenerational poverty may be analysed
poverty? in relation to the educational attainment of
a childs parents. The international standard
Many people would argue that the opportunities
classification of education (ISCED 1997) covers
afforded to children as they grow up should not
seven levels of education:
be determined by the characteristics of the family
into which they were born. That said, each child is ISCED 0 pre-primary education;
born with a unique set of genes that may, at least in ISCED 1 primary education;
part, predispose them to certain abilities or levels ISCED 2 lower secondary education;
of health. Furthermore, parents can influence ISCED 3 (upper) secondary education;
the life outcomes for their children, through ISCED 4 post-secondary non-tertiary
nurturing, encouraging aspirations and investing education;
time and money in their education and health, ISCED 5 first stage of tertiary education;
while external social, cultural and economic ISCED 6 second stage of tertiary education.
environments may also play a role in shaping a
childs development. These determinants define
a childs life chances as they mature into adults,
look for work, leave the parental home and start to
establish their own family unit.

More than 1 in 10 households with dependent an increasing share of working families remain
children were affected by in-work poverty in poverty. Furthermore, it is likely that some
parents choose to work a limited number of hours
There is an old saying that work is the surest way
each week in order to balance their professional
to get out of poverty. However, in recent years
and private lives; while for some this may be a
there has been a sharp rise in precarious forms
lifestyle choice, the proportion of people that do
of employment, such as short-term contracts,
so may, at least in part, be linked to the availability
low-pay or part-time work. Low wage growth,
of adequate childcare arrangements for working
households where only one adult is in employment
parents (2).
and households where those in work only have
limited contracts are some of the reasons why
Figure 7: In-work at risk of poverty rate by household type, 2013 ()

(%)
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28 (2)
Romania
Greece
Luxembourg
Poland
Spain
Italy
Portugal
Lithuania
Latvia
United Kingdom
Bulgaria
Malta
Austria
France
Estonia
Germany
Cyprus
Hungary
Slovakia
Croatia
Slovenia
Ireland (3)
Sweden
Belgium
Netherlands
Czech Republic
Finland
Denmark
Switzerland
Iceland
Norway
Households without dependent children Households with dependent children
() The share of persons who are at work and have an equivalised disposable income below the risk of poverty threshold, which is set at 60% of the
national median equivalised disposable income (after social transfers).
() Estimates.
() 2012 instead of 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_iw02)
In-work poverty is defined as the proportion of poverty in 2013, a share that was 3.2 percentage
persons who are at work and have an equivalised points higher than the rate recorded among
disposable income below the risk of poverty households without dependent children. Romania
threshold, which is set at 60% of the national (20.5%) recorded the highest rate of in-work
median equivalised disposable income (after social poverty for households with dependent children,
transfers). Some 10.6% of households in the EU-28 followed by Greece (15.6 %) and Luxembourg
with dependent children faced the risk of in-work (14.3%).
(2) See the publication Gender equality in the workforce: Reconciling work, private and family life in Europe available at: http://ec.europa.eu/justice/
gender-equality/files/documents/140502_gender_equality_workforce_ssr_en.pdf

The in-work at risk of poverty rate was higher One out of four children whose parents had
among households with dependent children no more than a lower secondary level of
(compared with those without children) in the education lived in households characterised
majority of EU Member States. The biggest by low work intensity
differences were recorded in Malta (where the
in-work at risk of poverty rate was 7.7 percentage Figure 8 extends the analysis by looking at the
points higher among households with dependent share of children who live in households with low
children). There were also relatively large work intensity presented for each EU Member
differences in Poland, Luxembourg, Romania, State by the highest level of education attained by
Spain and Lithuania (6 percentage points or more). either parent.
Figure 8: Children living in households with low work intensity by highest education level of
their parents, 2013 ()
(% of children)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28 (2)
Slovakia
Czech Republic
Hungary
Ireland (3)
United Kingdom
Hungary
Sweden
Bulgaria
Croatia
Belgium
Denmark
Lithuania
Germany
Slovenia
Spain
France
Poland
Cyprus
Greece
Latvia
Netherlands
Finland
Estonia
Malta
Austria
Portugal
Italy
Luxembourg
Romania
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
Pre-primary, primary and lower secondary education (levels 02)
Upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education (levels 3 and 4)
First and second stage of tertiary education (levels 5 and 6)
() ISCED 1997. The work intensity of a household is the ratio of the total number of months that all working-age household members have worked
during the income reference year and the total number of months the same household members theoretically could have worked in the same
period. Low work intensity is defined as any ratio below the threshold of 0.20.
() Estimates.
() 2012 instead of 2013..
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_lvhl60)
Over one quarter (26.1%) of all children in the parents remained longer in the education system,
EU-28 whose parents had no more than a lower falling to 9.7% for those whose parents had no more
secondary level of education (ISCED levels 0-2) lived than an upper secondary level of education (ISCED
in a household with low work intensity in 2013. The levels 3 and 4), and to 2.8% for those whose parents
share living in households with low work intensity had a tertiary level of education (ISCED levels
was considerably lower among those children whose 5 and 6).

This pattern was repeated in each of the EU Member in Luxembourg and Romania. By contrast, the
States. Among children whose parents had no proportion of children whose parents had completed
more than a lower secondary level of education, a tertiary level of education and who found them
more two thirds (68.1%) of the children in Slovakia selves living in households with low work intensity
found themselves living in a household with low was considerably lower, with 16 of the Member States
work intensity, a share that fell to less than 10% reporting shares below the EU-28 average of 2.8%.
Figure 9: Children at risk of poverty or social exclusion by highest education level attained by
their parents living in the same household, 2013 ()
(% of children)
100
75
50
25
0
EU-28 (2)
Hungary
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Czech Republic
Romania
United Kingdom
Germany
Croatia
Poland
Latvia
Greece
Sweden
Ireland (3)
France
Belgium
Slovenia
Cyprus
Estonia
Spain
Denmark
Italy
Luxembourg
Malta
Austria
Portugal
Netherlands
Finland
Norway
Switzerland
Iceland
Parents' education: pre-primary, primary and lower secondary (ISCED levels 02)
Parents' education: upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary (ISCED levels 3 and 4)
Parents' education: first and second stage of tertiary (ISCED levels 5 and 6)
() ISCED 1997.
() Estimates.
() 2012 instead of 2013.
Children whose parents had a higher level of children were almost twice as likely to face the
of education were, on average, exposed to a risk of poverty or social exclusion as children
lower risk of poverty or social exclusion whose parents had at most an upper secondary
level of education (32.2%). The risk of poverty or
Almost two thirds (62.2%) of all children in the social exclusion was considerably lower among
EU-28 whose parents had attained no more than those children whose parents had a tertiary level of
a lower secondary level of education were at risk education (10.5%).
of poverty or social exclusion in 2013. This group
(3) J. W. Lynch and G. Kaplan, Socioeconomic position, in Social Epidemiology, L. F. Berkman and I. Kawachi, Eds., pp. 1325, Oxford University Press, New
York, NY, USA, 2000 (http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/51520/Lynch%20J,%20Socioeconomic%20Position,%202000%20
%28chapter%29.pdf;jsessionid=199EBEB4DC1E1CAC694E1E1AC3442304?sequence=1)
(4) See Raise household income to improve childrens educational, health and social outcomes at http://www.lse.ac.uk/newsAndMedia/news/
archives/2013/10/CASEJRFReport.aspx

This pattern was repeated in each of the EU Member measures of poverty, referring to national
States with the risk of poverty or social exclusion poverty thresholds. Material deprivation is a
for children highest among those children born to more absolute measure of poverty and provides a
parents with low levels of educational attainment. useful complement to analyse poverty and social
Even in the Member States where the differences exclusion; for a definition of material deprivation
were at their smallest the Netherlands, Austria, and severe material deprivation, see the box
Finland and Portugal children whose parents titled Defining poverty and social exclusion. The
had a low level of educational attainment were indicators included in this section are defined in
about thirty percentage points more likely to be at relation to the enforced inability to afford a range
risk of poverty or social exclusion than children of goods and services, considered to be desirable
whose parents had a tertiary level of educational or even necessary to lead an adequate life. A
attainment. The level of parental educational number of examples are presented, starting with
attainment had a far greater impact on a childs the proportion of households that are in arrears
risk of poverty or exclusion in the Czech Republic, on regular payments, before moving on to the
Hungary, Slovakia, Romania, Lithuania and (in)ability of households to afford a computer or
Bulgaria, as children whose parents had a low level a range of goods and services that cater for the
of educational attainment had a risk of poverty or specific needs of children.
social exclusion that was more than 70 percentage
points higher. A higher proportion of households with
Children of wealthier and more educated parents
children were in arrears for regular monthly
appear to have a higher chance of succeeding at payments
school, better health (3), and (upon starting work) Figure 10 provides an analysis by EU Member
earn higher incomes, while the converse is true State in relation to the proportion of households
among those born into poorer families (4). This that faced arrears in paying their mortgage or
section has shown that both in-work poverty and rent, utility bills or hire purchase items; in other
parental educational attainment may be closely words, people who could not keep up with the
linked to the risk of poverty or social exclusion. This regular monthly payments that most households
evidence supports the notion of intergenerational face as part of their budget each month. The
transmission of poverty, in other words, a cycle of information presented shows that, on average,
poverty being passed from one generation to the single parent households with dependent children
next among those less fortunate members of society. and households with two adults and three or
more dependent children were more likely to
Material deprivation of children: the face difficulties in making these regular monthly
inability to afford a range of goods and payments than was typical for all households.
services
The majority of the information presented in
this article so far has been focused on relative

Figure 10: Households with arrears (mortgage or rent, utility bills or hire purchase), by selected
type of household, 2013 ()
(%)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28 (2)
Cyprus
Greece
Bulgaria
Romania
Ireland (3)
Croatia
Latvia
Slovenia
Hungary
Poland
Lithuania
Finland
Estonia
France
Portugal
Italy
Malta
Austria
Sweden
Denmark
Belgium
Luxembourg
Spain
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Czech Republic
Germany
Slovakia
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
Single person with dependent children
Two adults with one dependent child
Two adults with two dependent children
Two adults with three or more dependent children
All households
() Figure is ranked on single persons with dependent children.

() Estimates.
() 2012 instead of 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_mdes05)
Almost 12% of all households in the EU-28 had Among the EU Member States, more than half of
arrears (for mortgage or rental payments, utility all single parent households in Cyprus (54.2%) and
bills or hire purchase payments) in 2013. This Greece (52.8%) and about 49% of single parent
figure rose to nearly one in five (18.8%) households households in Bulgaria (49.4 %) and Romania
among those composed of a single parent with (48.6%) had arrears in 2013. The proportion of
dependent children, while households with single parent households in arrears was higher
two adults and dependent children generally than the average for all households in each of the
faced less difficulty in making regular monthly EU Member States. In five Member States, namely
payments. This was particularly the case for two Ireland, Cyprus, Latvia, Romania and Slovenia,
adult households with a single or two dependent the proportion of single person households with
children, as between 12 % and 13 % of such dependent children that faced arrears was even
households faced difficulties with arrears in 2013, more than 17 percentage points (5).
which was almost the same rate as the average for
all households. Those households with a higher
number of dependent children three or more
faced more difficulties (17.4%).
(5) As 2013 data are not yet available for Ireland, 2012 results have been used for this country.

Some 17.4 % of households composed of two the average for all households, while In Romania
adults with three or more dependent children in the difference was 16.8 percentage points. By
the EU-28 faced arrears in 2013. This share rose to contrast, in 16 of the EU Member States the
more than four in five (82.8%) of such households proportion of households composed of two adults
in Bulgaria, while it was just over half (54.4%) with three or more dependent children that faced
in Greece. By contrast, less than one on twenty difficulties in being able to afford a computer was
households composed of two adults and three or lower than the national average for all households.
more dependent children in Luxembourg, the
Some 26.3% of single person households with
Netherlands and the United Kingdom (4.9%) faced
dependent children in 2013 faced difficulties
arrears. In the Netherlands and Luxembourg the
in being able to afford a computer in Romania.
proportion of these households that faced arrears
In excess of one in five (22.2%) single parent
was similar to the rate recorded for all households
households in Bulgaria experienced the same
(5.0% and 5.2% respectively).
difficulty, while corresponding shares were above
one tenth of single parent households in the
Single person households with dependent
United Kingdom, Hungary, Greece, Ireland (6),
children faced greater difficulty in being able Latvia and Portugal. By contrast, single person
to afford a computer households with dependent children in Slovakia,
Just over 1 in 20 households (5.1%) across the EU-28 Croatia, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland and
faced difficulties in being able to afford a computer the Netherlands faced less difficulty in being
in 2013. Among those households where a single able to afford a computer than the average for all
person was living with dependent children, this households. The gap was the widest in Slovakia,
proportion rose to 8.6%. By contrast, households where the proportion of single parent households
composed of two adults with dependent children facing difficulties in being able to afford a
faced less difficulty in being able to afford a computer was 2.5 percentage points lower than
computer (Figure 11). the average for all households, followed by Estonia
where this gap was 2.0 points, Croatia 1.9 points
However, among the EU Member States, those and Lithuania 1.8 points.
households facing the greatest difficulty in being
able to afford a computer were those in Bulgaria Households composed of two adults and no more
and Romania composed of two adults with three than two dependent children often reported
or more dependent children. More than three in less difficulty in being able to afford a computer
five (61.8%) of these households in Bulgaria faced than the average for all households. Indeed, with
an enforced lack of a computer in 2013, a share that the exception of Romania, the proportion of
fell to 39.1% in Romania, which was nevertheless households with two adults and a single or two
more than twice as high as the two next highest dependent children that faced difficulties in being
shares, 16.6% and 16.3%, recorded for Spain and able to afford a computer was consistently lower
Hungary respectively. In Bulgaria, the proportion than one tenth, other than for households with
of households composed of two adults with three two adults and two dependent children in Bulgaria
or more dependent children unable to afford a (12.4%) and Greece (10.5%).
computer was 45.2 percentage points higher than
(6) Data for Ireland is from 2012 instead of 2013.

Figure 11: Households with an enforced lack of a computer, by selected type of household, 2013 ()
(%)
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
EU-28 (2)
Romania
Bulgaria
United Kingdom
Hungary
Greece
Ireland (3)
Latvia
Portugal
Spain
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Lithuania
France
Malta
Poland
Luxembourg
Denmark
Slovenia
Belgium
Croatia
Italy
Germany
Slovakia
Austria
Estonia
Sweden
Finland
Netherlands
Switzerland
Iceland
Norway
Single person with dependent children
Two adults with one dependent child
Two adults with two dependent children
Two adults with three or more dependent children
All households
() Figure is ranked on single persons with dependent children.
() Estimates.
() 2012 instead of 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_mddu03)
A third of all children in Romania were In 2009, a 12.0% share of children (aged 115) in
deprived of having books at home suitable for the EU-27 were deprived of practising a leisure
their age activity such as swimming or playing a musical
instrument as a result of an inability to pay,
An ad-hoc module conducted as part of the 2009 while 7.6 % were deprived of participating in
EU-SILC exercise provides information focused school trips or events that cost money. While
on specific items linked to material deprivation the vast majority (90%95%) of children in the
among children. Note that the coverage of the EU-27 enjoyed a childhood with a wide range of
module referred to children aged 115 years and goods and services, there were disparities across
if one child in the household missed a specific the EU Member States (as shown in Figure 13). For
item then all children within the household were example, while 1 in 20 children in the EU-27 in
considered to be deprived of that particular item. 2009 were deprived of having books at home that
The statistics distinguish between the inability to were suitable for their age, this share rose to one in
afford a good or service and other reasons why three (33.0%) children in Romania, nearly 3 in10
people do not own particular goods or participate (28.9%) children in Bulgaria, and around one in
in particular activities (for example, some eight children in Latvia (12.4%), Hungary (12.5%)
households may choose to live without a car or a and Portugal (12.2%).
television, while some children may not want to
participate in particular leisure activities).

Figure 12: Households ability to purchase selected childrens items, EU-27, 2009 ()
(% of children aged 115 years)
0 10 20 30 40 100
Regular leisure activity (such as swimming, playing an instrument or youth organisations)
Participate in school trips and school events that cost money
Invite friends round to play and eat from time to time
Outdoor leisure equipment (such as bicycle or roller skates)
Some new (not second-hand) clothes
Celebrations on special occasions (such as birthdays, name days or religious events)
Indoor games (such as educational baby toys, building blocks, board games or computer games)
Books at home suitable for their age
One meal with meat, chicken or fish (or vegetarian equivalent) at least once a day
Two pairs of properly fitting shoes (including a pair of all-weather shoes)
Fresh fruit and vegetables once a day
Three meals a day
No, unable to afford No, other reason (for example do not want) Yes, can afford
() Estimates.
Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC ad-hoc module (2009, variables HD100HD210)
Figure 13: Households unable to afford selected childrens items, EU-27, 2009 ()
(% of children aged 115 years)
60 14
12
50
10
40
8
30
6
20
4
10
2
0 0
EU-27 (2)
Romania
Bulgaria
Latvia
Hungary
EU-27 (2)
Portugal
Slovakia
Poland
Lithuania
Greece
Italy
Estonia
Czech Republic
Belgium
Cyprus
Malta
Germany
Austria
France
Spain
Luxembourg
Denmark
Ireland
United Kingdom
Slovenia
Finland
Sweden (3)
Netherlands
Switzerland
Norway
Iceland
Outdoor leisure equipment Indoor games Books at home suitable for their age
() Note the difference in scales for the two parts of the figure. Figure is ranked on the average of the three selected items. Croatia: not available.
() Estimates.
() Unreliable.
Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC ad-hoc module (2009, variables HD150HD170)

Severe material deprivation was slightly lower Netherlands and Poland a lower proportion of
for children (than for the whole population) children faced severe material deprivation in 2013,
in Croatia, Finland, Slovenia, Estonia, the albeit with rates that were only marginally lower
Netherlands and Poland than for the whole population.
The proportion of children in the EU-28 There were 13 EU Member States where the
experiencing severe material deprivation was proportion of children experiencing severe
1.4 percentage points higher than the corresponding material deprivation in 2013 was at least
ratio for the whole population and stood at 11.0% 2 percentage points higher than the national
in 2013. While the share of children experiencing average. The gap was largest in the United
severe material deprivation was generally higher Kingdom, Romania and Hungary; in the latter the
than that for the whole population, this pattern was severe material deprivation rate for children was
not repeated across all of the EU Member States. 8.2 percentage points higher than the average for
Indeed, in Croatia, Finland, Slovenia, Estonia, the the whole population.
Figure 14: Severe material deprivation rate, 2013 ()

50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28 (2)
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Latvia
Greece
Cyprus
Lithuania
Portugal
Croatia
Slovakia
Ireland (2)
United Kingdom
Malta
Poland
Spain
Czech Republic
Estonia
Austria
France
Slovenia
Germany
Belgium
Denmark
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Sweden
Finland
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
Italy

() Material deprivation refers to a state of economic strain, defined as the proportion of the population that cannot afford (rather than choosing not to
purchase) the following items: i) to pay their rent, mortgage or utility bills; ii) to keep their home adequately warm; iii) to face unexpected expenses;
iv) to eat meat or proteins regularly; v) to go on holiday; vi) to buy a television set; vii) to buy a washing machine; viii) to buy a car; ix) to buy a
telephone. Severe material deprivation rate is defined as the enforced inability to pay for at least four of the above-mentioned items.
() Estimates.
() 2012 instead of 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_mddd11)

Figure 15: Severe material deprivation rate for children by highest education level of their
parents, 2013 ()
(% of children)
100
75
50
25
0
EU-28 (2)
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Lithuania
Czech Republic
Latvia
Croatia
Greece
Cyprus
Poland
United Kingdom
Germany
Slovenia
Italy
Ireland (3)
France
Estonia
Sweden
Belgium
Denmark
Malta
Portugal
Austria
Spain
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Finland
Norway
Iceland
Switzerland
Parents' education: pre-primary, primary and lower secondary (ISCED levels 02)
Parents' education: upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary (ISCED levels 3 and 4)
Parents' education: first and second stage of tertiary (ISCED levels 5 and 6)
() Material deprivation refers to a state of economic strain, defined as the proportion of the population that cannot afford (rather than choosing not to
purchase) the following items: i) to pay their rent, mortgage or utility bills; ii) to keep their home adequately warm; iii) to face unexpected expenses;
iv) to eat meat or proteins regularly; v) to go on holiday; vi) to buy a television set; vii) to buy a washing machine; viii) to buy a car; ix) to buy a
telephone. Severe material deprivation rate is defined as the enforced inability to pay for at least four of the above-mentioned items.
() Estimates.
() 2012 instead of 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_mddd60)
Severe material deprivation among children Housing quality and satisfaction

inversely related to parental educational
attainment The cost and quality of housing are key elements
that contribute to overall living standards and
Across the EU-28, severe material deprivation in well-being. Indeed, the risk of poverty is strongly
2013 affected almost one third (30.4%) of children linked to the burden of sustaining a household and
whose parents had attained no more than a is therefore especially difficult for those with low
lower secondary level of educational attainment. qualifications and those in relatively poorly paid
The proportion was considerably lower among jobs.
children whose parents had attained an upper
secondary level of education (12.5%) or a tertiary As such, indicators that measure the quality,
level of education (2.7%). facilities and space available within dwellings may
provide complementary information for assessing
The share of children whose parents had a tertiary the material conditions of different groups within
level of educational attainment experiencing society. Housing quality can be assessed by
severe material deprivation was less than 1% in looking at a range of housing deficiencies, such
2013 in Sweden, Denmark, Finland and the Czech as a lack of sanitary facilities (a bath or shower,
Republic. By contrast, at least three out of every or indoor flushing toilet) and problems in the
four children whose parents had no more than a general condition of the dwelling (a leaking roof,
lower secondary level of educational attainment or a dwelling that is considered to be too dark).
in Slovakia, Bulgaria and Hungary faced severe Note that the statistics presented in this section
material deprivation.

refer to questions that were asked only once for all only three EU Member States where less than three
members of each household surveyed. quarters of the households containing children
were satisfied with their housing conditions in
The vast majority of people in the EU-28 were
2012. The same three Member States also recorded
satisfied with their overall housing conditions
the largest differences in satisfaction rates between
in 2012 (see Figure 16). Among the EU Member
households containing children and the whole
States the highest degrees of satisfaction for
population, as the level of satisfaction among
both the whole population and for households with
households with children was 9.1 percentage points
children (aged less than 18 years) were recorded
lower than for the whole population in Bulgaria,
in the Netherlands and Slovenia, with both rates in
7.3 points lower in Hungary, and 4.5 points lower
excess of 95%.
in Denmark. Indeed, households with children
The lowest levels of satisfaction with housing were generally less inclined to be satisfied with
conditions among households containing children their housing conditions, although this pattern
were recorded in Hungary (72.7 %), Bulgaria was reversed in Portugal, Greece and Croatia.
(70.9%) and Denmark (69.2%). These were the
Figure 16: Overall satisfaction with housing conditions, 2012 ()

(% of households and% of households with children)
100
90
80
70
60
0
EU-28
Netherlands
Slovenia
Sweden
Finland
Cyprus
Belgium
Luxembourg
Portugal
United Kingdom
France
Austria
Croatia
Malta
Germany
Italy
Ireland
Slovakia
Spain
Greece
Czech Republic
Romania
Latvia
Lithuania
Poland
Estonia
Hungary
Bulgaria
Denmark
Norway
Iceland
Switzerland
All households Households with dependent children

() Overall satisfaction is defined as the proportion of the population who were satisfied or very satisfied with their dwelling.
Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC ad-hoc module (2012, variable HC080)
More than one in five households with of space was 22.0% in 2012 (some 7.2 percentage
children complained about a lack of space points higher than the corresponding share for the
whole population); this is perhaps not surprising
A shortage of space is one among a range of reasons
given that many children have to share a bedroom
that may be cited in relation to dissatisfaction
with their siblings.
with a dwelling. The proportion of households
with children in the EU-28 reporting a shortage

Around one third of households with children
in Bulgaria, Romania and Poland reported a
shortage of space in their dwelling in 2012, this
share peaking in Latvia at 36.3%. By contrast, less
than one in five households with children reported
a lack of space in eight of the EU Member States,
with the lowest shares being recorded in the Czech
Republic (15.1%) and the Netherlands (14.8%).
The proportion of households reporting that they
did not have enough space was consistently higher
among those containing children when compared
with the average for the whole population in 2012;
the difference was generally with the range of
510 percentage points, although it was higher in
Latvia, Estonia, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria.
Almost one quarter of all households

with dependent children suffered from The cost and quality of housing are key
overcrowding elements that contribute to overall living
standards and well-being.
To some degree the indicators presented above
may be considered as subjective, insofar as they
are based upon the perception of each respondent.
Figure 17: Population reporting a shortage of space in their dwelling, 2012

(% of households and% of households with children)
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28
Latvia
Bulgaria
Romania
Poland
Estonia
Lithuania
Hungary
Slovenia
Slovakia
Austria
Portugal
United Kingdom
Cyprus
Croatia
Spain
Ireland
Sweden
Greece
Luxembourg
Germany
Finland
France
Belgium
Denmark
Italy
Malta
Czech Republic
Netherlands
Iceland
Norway
Switzerland
All households Households with dependent children

Source: Eurostat, EU-SILC ad-hoc module (2012, variable HC010)

The analysis of housing quality and satisfaction (56.4%); each of these reported overcrowding rates
can be extended and balanced by referring to a for households without dependent children in the
range of objective indicators. Indeed, EU-SILC range of 25%30% (which also marked the highest
provides a measure of overcrowding that is based rates among the EU Member States).
on the number of rooms and the number of people
There were 9 EU Member States in 2013 with
living in a household. In 2013, the overcrowding
overcrowding rates for households with dependent
rate for households with dependent children in
children that were less than 10%; the lowest shares
the EU-28 was 24.8%, which was 15.0 percentage
(less than 4%) were recorded in Cyprus, Belgium
points higher than the corresponding share for
and the Netherlands. The Netherlands and Finland
households without dependent children.
were the only EU Member States to report that their
The highest rates of overcrowding among overcrowding rate for households with dependent
households with dependent children were children was lower than their rate for households
observed in Romania (69.5%), Hungary (65.0%), without dependent children (Figure 18).
Bulgaria (60.8%), Poland (56.9%) and Croatia
Figure 18: Overcrowding rate by household type, 2013 ()

(%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-28 (2)
Romania
Hungary
Bulgaria
Poland
Croatia
Latvia
Slovakia
Lithuania
Italy
Greece
Estonia
Czech Republic
Austria
Slovenia
Portugal
United Kingdom
Sweden
Denmark
France
Germany
Spain
Luxembourg
Finland
Malta
Ireland (3)
Cyprus
Belgium
Netherlands
Iceland
Switzerland
Norway

() The overcrowding rate is defined as the proportion of the population living in an overcrowded household those households which do not have
at their disposal a minimum number of rooms equal to: one room for the household; one room per couple in the household; one room for each
single person aged 18 or more; one room per pair of single people of the same gender between 12 and 17 years of age; one room for each single
person between 12 and 17 years of age and not included in the previous category; one room per pair of children under 12 years of age.
() Estimates.
() 2012 instead of 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_lvho05b)

Severe housing deprivation is defined in relation EU Member States recorded a rate that was above
to insufficient space and poor amenities. In 2013, 20%. By contrast, the severe housing deprivation
the severe housing deprivation rate for households rate was less than 1 % for households with
with dependent children in the EU-28 was 7.6%, dependent children in the Netherlands, Ireland (7)
which was 2.5 times as high as the corresponding and Finland.
rate for households without dependent children
All EU Member States reported severe housing
(2.9%).
deprivation rates for households with dependent
The highest severe housing deprivation rates children higher than those for households without
among households with dependent children dependent children, except the Netherlands
were exhibited by Romania (31.2%), Hungary and Finland for which the rates were similar
(24.8%) and Latvia (23.2%); none of the remaining (Figure 19).
Figure 19: Severe housing deprivation by household type, 2013 ()

(%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
EU-28 (2)
Romania
Hungary
Latvia
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Italy
Poland
Croatia
Slovenia
Greece
Portugal
Estonia
Slovakia
Austria
Czech Republic
United Kingdom
France
Denmark
Spain
Luxembourg
Germany
Cyprus
Malta
Sweden
Belgium
Netherlands
Ireland (3)
Finland
Iceland
Switzerland
Norway

() Housing deprivation is a measure of poor amenities and is calculated by referring to those households with a leaking roof, no bath/shower and no
indoor toilet, or a dwelling considered too dark. Severe housing deprivation rate is defined as the proportion of the population living in a dwelling
which is considered as overcrowded, while also exhibiting at least one of the housing deprivation measures.
() Estimates.
() 2012 instead of 2013.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_mdho06b)
HOUSING
One dimension for assessing the quality of housing conditions is the availability of sufficient space in a
dwelling. The overcrowding rate describes the proportion of people living in an overcrowded dwelling, as
defined by the number of rooms available to the household, the households size, as well as its members ages
and their family situation.
The severe housing deprivation rate is defined as the share of the population living in dwellings which are
considered as being overcrowded, while at the same time having at least one of the following housing
deprivation measures: no bath/shower and no indoor toilet; a leaking roof; or a dwelling considered too dark.
(7) Data for Ireland is from 2012 instead of 2013.

Conclusions: what does the future hold for child

poverty and social exclusion in the EU?
Children that grow up in poverty are more likely the crisis. This has resulted in an increasing share
to suffer from social exclusion and other outcomes of the EUs population suffering from a lack of
in life and are also less likely to develop to their work, monetary poverty and / or social exclusion
full potential in the future. Breaking this cycle of and material deprivation. The impact of the crisis
disadvantage in a childs early years can potentially has been proportionally greater across those
reduce the risk of poverty or social exclusion. households with children.
Although tackling poverty and social exclusion This article has shown that the risk of poverty is
can lead to benefits not only for the individuals more common among children than it is for the
concerned but also for society at large, the current population as a whole. This is particularly the
economic climate of austerity measures has done case when children live in households that are
little to help policymakers face these widespread characterised by the presence of a single parent or
challenges. Furthermore, in recent years there have a low degree of work, while parental educational
been signs that the (re-)distribution of income is attainment also appears to have a marked impact
becoming increasingly unequal while real incomes upon the risk of poverty or social exclusion
have stagnated or even fallen in a number of EU experienced by children.
Member States that were particularly affected by

The data used in this article are primarily derived fruits and vegetables daily; iv) three meals a day;
from EU statistics on income and living conditions v) one meal with meat, chicken, fish or vegetarian
(EU-SILC), established under framework en more equivalent daily; vi) books at home suitable for the
Regulation 1177/2003. EU-SILC is a multi-purpose childrens age; vii) outdoor leisure equipment; viii)
instrument that focuses mainly on income, but also indoor games; ix) a suitable place to do homework;
gathers information on social exclusion, material x) to consult a dentist when needed; xi) to consult
deprivation, housing conditions, labour market a general practitioner (GP) when needed; xii)
participation, education and health. It is carried regular leisure activities (for example sports and
out annually and has a reference population of youth organisations); xiii) celebrations on special
all private households and their current members occasions; xiv) to invite friends round to play and
residing in the territory of EU Member States; eat from time to time; xv) to participate in school
persons living in collective households and in trips and school events that costs money; xvi)
institutions are generally excluded from the target outdoor space in the neighbourhood to play safely;
population. The EU-28 aggregate is a population- xvii) one weeks holiday away from home.
weighted average of individual national figures.
Note that data covering the material deprivation
Children are defined as persons aged less than 18.
of children (as collected for the ad-hoc EU-SILC
In a 2009 EU-SILC module, information was module in 2009) will in the future form part of
collected in relation to child deprivation; this the standard EU-SILC exercise. The European
covered children aged 115 living in households Statistical System (ESS) has agreed to include
which could not afford (an enforced lack) a range of the collection of a wide range of child-specific
goods and services: i) some new (not second-hand) indicators for material deprivation from reference
clothes; ii) two pairs of properly fitting shoes, year 2013 onwards.
including a pair of all-weather shoes; iii) fresh

Children and young people
in the digital world
7 Children and young people in the digital world
Introduction
Information and communication technologies in the home or at friends or relatives houses and
(ICT) affect peoples everyday lives in many at school.
ways, whether in the workplace or educational
By the time young people in the EU leave
establishment, at home or on the move. Mobile
compulsory education most of them have
phones, tablets, netbooks, laptops and computers
regularly made use of computers and the internet
are just some of the devices used frequently often
for a variety of activities. ICTs are used by schools
daily by a large proportion of the population of
and other educational establishments not only to
the European Union (EU), particularly by young
develop ICT skills but also to support the teaching
people.
of traditional subjects such as mathematics or
The use of ICTs is widespread among children foreign languages.
from a very young age as they access technology
A DIGITAL AGENDA FOR EUROPE

In May 2010, the European Commission adopted its Communication concerning A Digital Agenda
for Europe (COM(2010) 245 final), a strategy designed to encourage a flourishing digital economy
by 2020. The Digital Agenda for Europe is one of the seven flagship initiatives under the Europe
2020 strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. It outlines policies and actions aimed
at maximising the benefit of the digital era to all sections of society and economy. The agenda
focuses on seven priority areas for action: creating a digital single market, greater interoperability,
boosting internet trust and security, providing much faster internet access, encouraging investment
in research and development, enhancing digital literacy skills and inclusion, and applying ICT to
address challenges facing society like climate change and the ageing population.
A digital age divide

Looking at access to ICTs at home, four fifths (81%) without dependent children (Figure 1). The gap
of all households in the EU-28 had internet access between households with dependent children and
in 2014; the corresponding share in 2007 (the start those without continued to grow between 2007
of the time series for the EU-28) was 55%. Between and 2009 before stabilising and then narrowing
2007 and 2014 the proportion of households with between 2011 and 2014. Nevertheless, rates of
dependent children that had access to internet internet access continued to increase in 2014
was consistently higher than that for households among both types of households.

Children and young people in the digital world 7
Figure 1: Proportion of households with access to computers and the internet at home, EU-28,
200714 ()
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Access to computers: households with dependent children

Access to internet: households with dependent children
Access to computers: households without dependent children
Access to internet: households without dependent children
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: isoc_ci_in_h and isoc_ci_cm_h)
Households with dependent children more Daily internet use overtook daily computer
likely to have access to a computer and the use among young people in 2012
internet at home
Shorter time series, from 2011 to 2014, are
A broadly similar situation could be observed available for indicators concerning the daily use
for households having access to a computer: of a computer or the internet. This information is
a higher proportion of households in the EU- available for young people (defined here as those
28 with dependent children had access to a aged 1629) and the whole population (Figure 2).
computer than those without. An analysis of In the EU-28 a far higher proportion of young
the gap between households with and without people made use of a computer and the internet
dependent children shows a different development on a daily basis than the rest of the population.
for access to a computer than for internet access. Four out of every five (80%) young people used
The gap between households with dependent a computer on a daily basis in 2014, nearly 20
children and those without narrowed slightly as percentage points higher than among the whole
the share of households with dependent children population (63%). The rate for young people was
with access to computer approached saturation; in 2014 two percentage points lower than in 2013
it appears to have stabilised at just over 90%. In and the same as in 2011, while over this period
2013, the gap nevertheless remained substantial, (201114) the rate of daily computer use among the
as the proportion of households with dependent population as a whole increased by four percentage
children that had a computer was 17 percentage points.
points higher than that for households without
dependent children (92% versus 75%).

Figure 2: Proportion of people who used a computer or the internet on a daily basis,
EU-28, 201114
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
0
2011 2012 2013 2014
Young people (1629): internet Young people (1629): computer
Whole population: internet Whole population: computer
Source: Eurostat (online data codes: isoc_ci_ifp_fu and isoc_ci_cfp_fu)
In comparison, developments in daily internet use

across the EU-28 were more uniform, with the rates
for young people and for the whole population
showing an upward path between 2011 and 2014.
Interestingly, in 2012 the rate of daily internet use
overtook daily computer use among young people,
reflecting the use of the internet on a range of
alternative devices, such as smart phones. The gap
between young people and the whole population
for daily internet use was 22 percentage points in
2014, slightly higher than for daily computer use.
In 2012, for the first time, a higher proportion of
The highest shares of daily computer use young people made daily use of the internet
among young people were recorded in the than of a computer reflecting increased
Baltic countries uptake in the use of a range of alternative
The analysis of daily computer and internet use may devices, such as smart phones.
be extended to the EU Member States, as shown
in Figures 3 and 4, which present data for 2014. In (93%), Latvia (91%), Lithuania (90%), the Czech
23 EU Member States, more than four out of every Republic and Slovenia (both 89%). In contrast, the
five young people (aged 1629) used a computer on lowest proportion of young people making daily
a daily basis. The highest rates of daily computer use of a computer was recorded in Romania (62%),
use among young people were recorded in Estonia followed by Spain (68%).

Poland, Portugal, Lithuania, Greece, Slovenia, the share of the whole population making daily
Bulgaria, Latvia, the Czech Republic, Romania, use of a computer were relatively small (less than
Cyprus, Malta, Croatia all recorded rates for 6 percentage points) in the Netherlands, Sweden,
the daily use of computers among young people the United Kingdom, Finland and Denmark.
that were at least 25 percentage points higher Luxembourg was the only EU Member State where
than for the whole population. In contrast, the the rate among young people was lower than for
disparities between the share of young people and the population as a whole.
Figure 3: Proportion of people who used a computer on a daily basis, 2014

(%)
100
75
50
25
0
EU-28
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Denmark
Malta
Germany
Hungary
Poland
Slovakia
Belgium
Cyprus
Portugal
Finland
Netherlands
Ireland
Croatia
United Kingdom
Greece
Luxembourg
Austria
Sweden
France
Bulgaria
Italy
Spain
Romania
Iceland
Norway
Whole population Young people (1629)
Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_ci_cfp_fu)
Figure 4: Proportion of people who used the internet on a daily basis, 2014
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
EU-28
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
Sweden
Germany
United Kingdom
Latvia
Malta
Belgium
Lithuania
Hungary
Czech Republic
Slovenia
Croatia
Slovakia
Austria
Portugal
Ireland
Spain
Cyprus
Poland
France
Italy
Greece
Bulgaria
Romania
Norway
Iceland

Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_ci_ifp_fu)

while northern and western Europe The highest proportion of daily internet
recorded the highest daily use of the internet users was recorded among those aged
among young people 1619 years and those with a higher level
of formal education
All six EU Member States with the highest rates
(above 80%) of daily internet use among the whole Figure 5 shows the proportion of people making
population in 2014, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, daily use of the internet by age groups and by
Denmark, Finland, Sweden and the United formal educational attainment. It can be seen that
Kingdom, also reported the highest rates of daily a considerably higher proportion of young people
internet use among young people. made daily use of the internet and that the highest
propensity was among those aged 1619. Indeed,
Portugal, Poland, Greece and Lithuania recorded
9 out of every 10 young people aged 1619 in the
the biggest differences in daily use of the internet
EU-28 made daily use of the internet in 2014; this
between young people and the whole population,
share fell to 86% among young people aged 2529.
each recording a gap of at least 33 percentage
points. Despite relatively low average rates of daily Figure 5 also shows that daily internet use rises
internet use (around 60%) across their whole across both the whole population and young people
populations, Lithuania, Latvia, Malta, the Czech as a function of the level of formal education.
Republic and Slovenia each recorded at least 9 out The analysis by education for young people only
of every 10 young people making daily use of the covers those aged 1624 and is only presented for
internet. There were 13 EU Member States where those with a low or medium formal education.
daily use of the internet was at least 90% among The proportion of young people (aged 1624) in
young people, a share that rose to a peak of 95% the EU-28 with a low level of formal education
in Denmark, Estonia and Finland and 96% in making daily use of the internet was 86% in 2014,
Luxembourg and the Netherlands. At the other considerably higher than for all people with a low
end of the scale, Romania and Bulgaria were the level of formal education (42%). Among young
only EU Member States where in 2014, less than people with a medium level of formal education
80% of young people used the internet on a daily this share reached 89%, again considerably higher
basis. than for the whole population (66%).
Figure 5: Proportion of people who used the internet on a daily basis, by age and by formal
education, EU-28, 2014
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
All individuals 1629 1619 2024 2529 All individuals All individuals All individuals
Young people Young people
with no or with medium with high (1624) (1624)
low formal formal formal with low with medium
education education education formal formal
education education
By age By formal education
Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_ci_ifp_fu)

The vast majority of young people used the as a whole, while the reverse was true for use of
internet at home, while about half made use the internet at a place of education. The use of the
of the internet at other peoples houses and internet at home as well as at other peoples houses
about 40% at a place of education was higher among young people than for the
population as a whole, reflecting, at least to some
An analysis of where people in the EU-28 used the degree, the overall higher use of the internet by
internet in 2013 (Figure 6) contains a number of young people. In particular, the use of the internet
expected patterns: for example, the proportion of at other peoples houses was twice as high among
young people (aged 1629) that used the internet young people as among the population as a whole.
at work was below the average for the population
Figure 6: Proportion of people who used the internet in specified places, EU-28, 2013 ()
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
At home At other people's houses At place of education At work

() Question not surveyed in 2014.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_ci_ifp_pu)
BETTER INTERNET FOR OUR CHILDREN

As well as providing opportunities for work, study, leisure activities and social interaction, the
internet contains hazards for all users. The basis of the European Commissions Communication
European Strategy for a Better Internet for Children (COM(2012) 196 final) is to protect children and
to make children and young people more aware of the risks involved with using the internet, while
teaching digital literacy so that children may benefit fully and safely from being online. The strategy,
which was adopted in May 2012, is constructed around four pillars: stimulate quality content online
for young people; step up awareness and empowerment; create a safe environment for children
online; and fight against child sexual abuse and child sexual exploitation.

Figure 7 shows that in 2014 over half (51%) of the a mobile phone to connect to the internet was
population used a mobile device such as a portable 14 percentage points higher (44%) than the use of
computer (includes laptops and tablets) or a a portable computer (30%). For young people, the
handheld device to connect to the internet when difference was even greater, some 30 percentage
away from home or work and this proportion points higher for mobile phones (74%) than for
reached four fifths (80%) of all young people aged portable computers (44%). This pattern reinforces
1629. the information that a higher proportion of
young people in the EU-28 use handheld devices
The use of mobile phones for internet connections
mainly mobile phones to connect to the
away from home or work was considerably higher
internet, rather than portable computers.
than that of portable computers. For the population
as a whole, the proportion of people that used
Figure 7: Proportion of people who used mobile devices to access the internet away from home
or work, EU-28, 2014
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
Total Mobile phone Portable computer (1) Device other than a mobile
phone or portable computer
() Laptop, notebook, netbook or tablet computer.
Nine out of ten young people used a mobile recorded low proportions for mobile internet
device to connect to the internet on the go in usage.
eight EU Member States Generally such devices were used to connect to the
An analysis of the use of portable computers and internet by a higher proportion of young people in
handheld devices to connect to the internet when northern and western EU Member States and by
away from home or work in 2014 shows that these a lower proportion of young people in the eastern
were used by at least 9 out of 10 young people and southern EU Member States. A comparison
aged 1629 in Denmark, Finland, the United between the whole population and young people
Kingdom, Ireland, Sweden, Estonia, Spain and shows that the largest differences (in percentage
the Netherlands (Figure 8) while in Italy, Bulgaria point terms) in the use of such mobile devices to
and Romania the proportion was less than three connect to the internet were recorded in Portugal,
fifths; note that each of these three countries was Lithuania, Latvia, Croatia, Slovenia and Malta, and
characterised by a generally low level of internet the smallest in Sweden, Denmark, Luxembourg
use, so it is perhaps not surprising that they also and the United Kingdom.

Figure 8: Proportion of people who used mobile devices to access the internet away from home
or work, 2014
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
EU-28
Denmark
Finland
United Kingdom
Ireland
Sweden
Estonia
Spain
Netherlands
Austria
Germany
Luxembourg
Malta
France
Belgium
Slovakia
Croatia
Slovenia
Cyprus
Portugal
Latvia
Hungary
Lithuania
Czech Republic
Greece
Poland
Italy
Bulgaria
Romania
Norway
Iceland
Information and communications technology skills

Information and communications technology More technical competences, such as writing
(ICT) skills are regarded as being essential to a computer programme using a specialised
benefit from and contribute to a knowledge-based programming language, were less widespread as
economy and society. The analysis presented here just 19% of young people reported that they had
shows that young people report, on average, a ever carried out such an activity, although this was
higher level of computer skills and internet skills nearly double the 11% recorded for the population
than the population as a whole (1). as a whole (Figure 9).
The most recent information available for internet
The shares of young people reporting
skills (Figure 10) is for 2013. This shows a similar
experience in computer programming and
pattern, with high rates among young people in the
web page design were almost twice the
EU-28 for basic skills such as using a search engine
respective shares for the whole population
(94%) or sending an e-mail with attachments
Nearly nine out of every then young people in the (87%), while more than two thirds of young people
EU-28 reported, in 2014, that they had (at any time posted messages online (72%), just over half used
in the past) performed basic computer tasks such the internet for calling people (53%) and around
as copying or moving files (89%) or duplicating / one third (32%) used peer-to-peer file sharing
moving information (cut, copy and paste) within services. As for computer skills, the proportion
files (87%), while three fifths or more had connected of young people that reported that they had
and installed a device (66%) or used basic formulae carried out these basic internet tasks was around
within a spreadsheet (65%) and over a half (58%) 20 percentage points higher than the average
had compressed files. The proportion of young for the whole population, with the exception of
people that reported having carried out these basic posting messages online where the difference was
computing tasks was around 20 percentage points even greater (34 percentage points).
higher than the average for the whole population.
(1) Note that the digital skills are measured by looking at certain activities carried out prior to the survey, and are not directly tested or observed
through the survey.

Figure 9: Proportion of people who used selected computer skills, EU-28, 2014
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
Copied or moved Used copy/cut Transferred files Connected and Used basic Created electronic Compressed files Installed new or Wrote computer
a file or folder and paste between computer installed formulae to presentations incl. replaced old program using
to duplicate or and other devices new devices (1) combine figures images, sound, operating system specialised
move information in spreadsheet video or charts programming
language
() For example a printer or a modem.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_sk_cskl_i)
Figure 10: Proportion of people who used selected internet skills, EU-28, 2013 ()
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
Used a search engine Sent an email with Posted messages to chat Used the Internet to Used peer-to-peer file Created a web page
to find information attached files rooms, newsgroups or make phone calls sharing for exchanging
an online discussion forum files such as films and music
() Question not surveyed in 2014

Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_sk_iskl_i)

Table 1: Individuals who wrote a computer program using a specialised programming language,
2014
Whole population Young people (1629) Difference
(%) (percentage points)
EU-28 11 19 8
Belgium 9 16 7
Bulgaria 5 10 5
Czech Republic 4 7 3
Denmark 12 19 7
Germany 12 24 12
Estonia 11 24 13
Ireland 8 12 4
Greece 10 15 5
Spain 14 27 13
France 11 20 9
Croatia 11 27 16
Italy 9 17 8
Cyprus 7 13 6
Latvia 5 13 8
Lithuania 9 21 12
Luxembourg 15 20 5
Hungary 6 13 7
Malta 10 24 14
Netherlands 10 16 6
Austria 12 24 12
Poland 6 14 8
Portugal 8 19 11
Romania 4 8 4
Slovenia 8 16 8
Slovakia 7 13 6
Finland 28 38 10
Sweden 22 27 5
United Kingdom 14 21 7
Iceland 18 22 4
Norway 18 21 3
Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_sk_cskl_i)
More technical internet skills were less widespread, specialised programming language ranged, in
with just under one in five (18%) young people 2014, from more than 30% in Finland to less
having created a web page; this was also nearly than 10% in the Czech Republic and Romania.
double the average (10%) for the population as a In Croatia the difference between young people
whole. and the whole population for this particular skill
was the biggest (16 percentage points), followed
A relatively high proportion of Croatias young
by Malta (14 percentage points), Spain and
people had experience in programming Estonia (both 13 percentage points). In contrast,
The proportion of young people who reported in the Czech Republic, Ireland and Romania the
having written a computer programme using a difference was less than 5 percentage points.

Youth online: a way of life

Figures 11 and 12 present a selection of online social the young people and the whole population was
and civic activities performed in the EU-28 by both recorded for sending filled in forms to government
young people (aged 1629) and the population as agencies / public authorities, and for taking part
a whole in 2014 (2013 for few activities). A higher in online consultations or voting to define civic or
proportion of young people performed each of the political issues, for which the proportion for young
selected activities; this was particularly true for people was only 1 percentage point higher than for
social activities. The smallest difference between the overall population.
INSAFE
Insafe is a European network, co-funded by the EU, made up of 31 national awareness centres, in 27
EU Member States, Iceland, Norway, Russia and Serbia. The national centres implement awareness
and educational campaigns, run helplines and work closely with young people to ensure an
evidence-based, multi-stakeholder approach to creating a better internet. The Insafe network aims
to empower children and young people to use the internet, as well as other online and mobile
technologies, positively, safely and effectively. The network calls for shared responsibility for the
protection of the rights and needs of citizens, in particular children and youths, by government,
educators, parents, media, industry and all other relevant actors.
A slightly higher proportion of young people this data refers to those persons who made use
(than the whole population) carried out civic of such a site within the 12-month period prior
activities online to the survey). Some 18% of young people in the
EU-28 posted their opinions on civic or political
Among the online civic activities presented in issues via websites (within the 3-month period
Figure 12, the most common for young persons prior to the survey); this was a higher share than
were related to online interaction with public the average across the whole population (11%),
authorities, most notably obtaining information the 7 percentage point difference being the largest
from websites of public authorities (note that among the six civic activities shown.

while a much higher proportion of young social networking sites for example, Facebook
people (than the whole population) made use or Twitter, by creating a user profile, posting
of social networks messages or making other contributions (82%),
while close to half (47%) of all young people in
The most common online social activities for young the EU-28 uploaded self-created content, such as
people in the EU-28 in 2014 included sending and photos, videos or text to the internet.
receiving e-mails (86 %) and participating on
Figure 11: Proportion of people who used the internet for social activities, EU-28, 2014
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
Sent / received e-mails Participated in social Uploaded self-created Telephoned or Played networked Created websites or blogs
networks (facebook, content to any website made video calls games with
twitter, etc.) (1) to be shared other people

() For example, created a user profile, posted messages or other contributions.
Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_ci_ac_i)
Figure 12: Proportion of people who used the internet for civic activities, EU-28, 2014 ()
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
Interacted with public Obtained information from Downloaded official forms Sent filled forms Posted opinions on Took part in online consultations
authorities (during the public authorities websites (during the last 12 months) (during the last 12 months) civic or political issues or voted to define civic
last 12 months) (during the last 12 months) via websites (2) or political issues (2)(3)

() Respondents carried out the task during the 3-month period prior to the survey (unless otherwise stated).
() 2013.
() Such as urban planning or petitions.

A comparison between the proportion of young

people and the proportion of the whole population
engaged in online social activities shows that the
largest difference between these two groups was
recorded for participation on social networking
sites (36 percentage points), and the smallest for
creating websites or blogs (6 percentage points),
telephoning / making video calls over the internet
(17 percentage points) and for playing network
games (17 percentage points). However, young
people were more than two times as likely (as
the whole population) to use the internet for Cyberbullying is repeated verbal or
multiplayer online gaming. psychological harassment; it is particularly
Figure 13 provides more detailed information prevalent among children and young people
by EU Member State on participation on social and may be spread via e-mail, mobile phones
networking sites in 2014. At least 9 out of 10 young or web services (such as social networks, chat
people in Denmark, Sweden, Portugal, Finland, rooms and instant messaging).
Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary and
the Netherlands used social networking sites, Young people participated more on social
while the majority of EU Member States reported networking sites than the population as a whole.
that between 80% and 90% of young people The average difference across the EU-28 was
participated in these activities. At the other end 36 percentage points in 2014 and the pattern was
of the scale, there were five EU Member States similar in all EU Member States, with the gap
where between 70% and 80% of young people ranging from 45 percentage points in Portugal and
participated on social networking sites, a share the Czech Republic to 27 percentage points in the
that fell to 66% in Romania. United Kingdom.
CYBERBULLYING
One of the issues related to the safety of the internet for children is cyberbullying. Cyberbullying is
regarded as a serious threat with a potentially long-lasting impact. Repeated verbal or psychological
harassment may come from an individual or a group and may involve, for example, mockery, insults,
threats, rumours or gossip. E-mail, mobile phones and web services such as social networks, chat
rooms and instant messaging provide opportunities for cyberbullying. More information is available
from the European platform for investing in children.

Figure 13: Proportion of people who participated on social networking sites (), 2014
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
EU-28
Denmark
Sweden
Portugal
Finland
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Hungary
Netherlands
Estonia
Cyprus
Malta
United Kingdom
Germany
Spain
Slovakia
Belgium
Czech Republic
Ireland
Slovenia
Austria
Croatia
Poland
Greece
France
Bulgaria
Italy
Romania
Iceland
Norway
() For example, created a user profile, posted messages or other contributions to facebook, twitter, etc.
The use of wikis by young people was listen to web radios were the two least commonly
generally higher in northern and western EU undertaken tasks by young people. The difference
Member States between the proportion of young people and
the whole population using internet for travel
The internet is widely regarded as a source of and accommodation services and to find health
information and a selection of other activities information was as low as 5 percentage points. In
related to finding or exchanging information is contrast, the largest gap was recorded for playing
presented in Figure 14, which also covers the use / downloading games, images, films or music,
of the internet for downloading content. Among an activity performed by 67% of young people
the seven selected activities, using the internet compared with 38% of the whole population.
for travel and accommodation services and to
Figure 14: Proportion of people who used the internet for finding information and
downloading content, EU-28, 2014
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
Found information Played / downloaded Read online new sites / Consulted wikis Sought health Used travel and Listened to web radios
about games, images, newspapers / news (to obtain knowledge information (1) accommodation
goods and services films or music magazines on any subject)(1) services

() 2013.

Consulting wikis, such as Wikipedia, was also States. Portugal and Slovenia were the two EU
a popular online activity undertaken in 2013 by Member States where the difference between the
almost two thirds (65%) of young people in the proportion of young people using wikis and the
EU-28. Figure 15 shows how this activity varied average for the whole population was highest,
among the EU Member States, with a generally in both cases just over 30 percentage points; the
higher proportion of young people in northern and smallest differences (9 or 10 percentage points)
western EU Member States making use of wikis were reported for Bulgaria and Ireland.
and a lower proportion in eastern EU Member
Figure 15: Proportion of people who used the internet to consult wikis (to obtain knowledge on
any subject), 2013
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
EU-28
Finland
Luxembourg
Sweden
Denmark
Germany
Netherlands
Austria
France
Slovenia
Spain
Portugal
Estonia
Croatia
Lithuania
Italy
Greece
United Kingdom
Czech Republic
Cyprus
Malta
Poland
Belgium
Slovakia
Hungary
Latvia
Ireland
Romania
Bulgaria
Norway
Iceland
Young people were almost twice as likely to many young people are likely to still be studying
use the internet to look for a job or to submit a and therefore not yet looking to establish such
job application networks.
Online banking and participating in professional For the two remaining activities shown in Figure
networks (such as LinkedIn) are two internet 16, young people in the EU-28 were almost twice
activities used to a similar degree by young people as likely to use the internet to look for a job or
and the whole population (Figure 16). In 2014, to submit a job application (33% compared with
47% of young people used online banking in the 17% for the whole population in 2013), while nearly
EU-28, only 3 percentage points higher than the a quarter (23% in 2014) of young people sold goods
whole population. Online professional networks or services over the internet (for example, by using
were used by only 12% of young people, broadly in online auctions) compared with just under one
line with the 10% share for the whole population fifth (19% in 2014) of the population as a whole.
(2013 data), although it should be noted that

Figure 16: Proportion of people who used the internet for web banking, professional purposes
and selling online, EU-28, 2014
(%)
100
75
50
25
0
Internet banking Job search or sending Selling goods Participating in making an appointment
an application (1) or services professional networks (1) with a practitioner via
a website

() 2013.
The proportion of young people selling goods or in Slovenia. The proportion of young people
services online varied greatly between the EU selling online exceeded the average for the whole
Member States in 2014 (Figure 17). Hardly any population most notably Slovenia, Estonia,
young people made online sales in Cyprus or Malta and the Czech Republic. In contrast, the
Romania, while the proportion remained below proportion of young people selling online was
10% in Greece and Lithuania. In 14 EU Member below the average for the whole population in the
States the proportion exceeded one fifth (20%), United Kingdom.
rising to 40% in Estonia and peaking at 46%
Figure 17: Proportion of people who used the internet to sell goods or services, 2014
(%)
75
50
25
0
EU-28
Slovenia
Estonia
France
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Malta
Germany
Croatia
Finland
Denmark
Czech Republic
Hungary
Belgium
Poland
Luxembourg
Sweden
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Spain
Italy
Portugal
Ireland
Austria
Latvia
Lithuania
Greece
Romania
Cyprus
Iceland
Norway

Conclusions: what future for young people in the

digital world?
Young Europeans spend an increasing amount of to potentially harmful content, which may create
their time consuming digital media. While time dependency, anxiety or aggression.
spent watching television may be falling, their
This chapter has shown that the use of ICTs is
use of online media has grown rapidly, facilitated
widespread among children and young people
through a range of services such as video streams,
and is, in some instances, reaching saturation.
chat rooms, blogs or social media. Although the
Young people generally possess a wider range of
internet can provide a place for young people to
ICT skills (than older generations) and it seems
share their experiences and to exchange their
likely that this pattern will continue for future
views, there are also risks.
generations with young people likely to remain
Some concerns over the use of the internet centre at the forefront of adopting new technologies
on the safety of children and young people and (be these hardware or software / services). The
their behaviour, for example, increasing solitude challenge for policymakers within this domain will
as young people withdraw to a private place to go be to ensure that the social and economic benefits
online. Furthermore, some children and young from exploiting ICTs are delivered in unison with
people may have their privacy violated when they the safe use of digital media, in particular for more
are online or alternatively they may be exposed vulnerable sections of society.

Information and communications children or not in a household. In most EU Member
technology States the surveys are carried out in the second
quarter of each year asking about activities in the
The data presented in this chapter come first quarter of the same year; sometimes questions
from Eurostats survey on Information and (for example, on e-commerce or e-government)
Communications Technology (ICT) usage in are asked about activities during the previous
households and by individuals, which is updated 12 months.
on an annual basis to ensure that the data collected
remain relevant for policy use. The surveys ICT surveys cover those households having at least
reflect modern ICT use while keeping a core part one member in the age group 1674 years old.
relatively stable so that analyses over time can be Households with children are those with at least
made. ICT surveys initially concentrated on access one member aged less than 16. Within this chapter
and internet connectivity issues, but their scope statistics that refer to the whole population cover
has subsequently been extended to cover a variety those aged 1674. Young people is a collective term
of subjects, including for example internet security used to describe those aged 1629; note that this
or the use of social media and cloud services. The age range was unavailable for some of the analysis
results of the survey can be analysed according presented and in these cases the coverage of young
to a range of socioeconomic categories, including people has been modified to those within the age
age, educational differences and whether there are range of 1624.

Abbreviations and acronyms

Geographical aggregates and countries
EU-28 The 28 Member States of the European Union from 1 July
2013 (Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark,
Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Croatia,
Italy,Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Hungary,
Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Poland, Romania,
Slovenia, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden and the United
Kingdom)
EU-27 The 27 Member States of the European Union from 1
January 2007 (Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,
Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain,
France, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Hungary, Malta, the Netherlands, Austria, Poland,
Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Finland, Sweden and the
United Kingdom)
Note that EU aggregates are back-calculated when enough information is available
for example, data relating to the EU-28 aggregate is presented when possible for periods
before Croatia joined the EU in 2013 and before the accession of Bulgaria and Romania
in 2007, as if all 28 Member States had always been members of the EU.
Units of measurement
: No data available
% Percentage
EUR Euro
Abbreviations
BMI Body Mass Index
EEA European Economic Area
EC European Commission
ECEC Early Childhood Education and Care
ECHI European Core Health Indicators
EFA Education For All
EHIS European Health Interview Survey
EMCDDA European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug
Addiction

EPIC European Platform for Investing in Children

ESPAD European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other
Drugs
ESS European Statistical System
ET2020 Strategic framework in Education and Training
EU-LFS EU Labour Force Survey
EU-SILC EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions
GDP Gross Domestic Product
HIS Health Interview Surveys
ICD International Statistical Classification of Diseases and
Related Health Problems
ICT Information and Communication Technologies
ILO International Labour Organization
ISCED International Standard Classification of Education
LIS Luxembourg Income Study Database
MDG Millennium Development Goal
NEET Neither in employment nor in education and training
NSI National Statistical Institute
NUTS Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNESCO-UIS United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization Institute for Statistics
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
UOE UNESCO-UIS/OECD/Eurostat
VET Vocational Education and Training
WHO World Health Organization

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KS-05-14-031-EN-N
Being young in Europe today presents some of
Eurostats most interesting data on children and
young people in the European Union. It provides
an insight into the past, current and future situation
of our youngest fellow citizens, ranging from
attending school and participating in sport and
leisure activities, to leaving the parental home and
entering the professional life. Data are presented
for the European Union and its Member States as
well as for the EFTA countries.
Being young in Europe today provides an overview

of the wealth of information that is available on
Eurostats website and within its online databases.
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat
doi:10.2785/59267

Young in Europe KS 05-14-031 en N

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Statistical books

Being young in Europe today

Being young in Europe today

More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (http://europa.eu).

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2015

Theme: Population and social conditions

European Union, 2015

Printed on elemental chlorine-free bleached paper (ECF)

Being young in Europe today 3

For more information please consult

4 Being young in Europe today

2. Children and young people in family and society 41

Being young in Europe today 5

5. Labour market: access and participation 137

6. Living conditions for children 165

7. Children and young people in the digital world 191

6 Being young in Europe today

Abbreviations and acronyms 209

Being young in Europe today 7

10 Being young in Europe today

and so does education The difficult transition to the labour market

Being young in Europe today 11

12 Being young in Europe today

About this publication

What can you find in this publication?

About initiatives from the European Union

14 Being young in Europe today

About Eurostat and the European statistics

Being young in Europe today 15

Eurostat online data codes easy

16 Being young in Europe today

EUROPES DEMOGRAPHIC CHALLENGE

18 Being young in Europe today

1994 () 2004 2014 ()

population share population share population share

Being young in Europe today 19

Men 2014 Women 2014

20 Being young in Europe today

() Mid-year population for non-member countries.

Being young in Europe today 21

() Mid-year population for non-member countries.

22 Being young in Europe today

Children (014 years) Young people (1529 years)

Being young in Europe today 23

24 Being young in Europe today

Being young in Europe today 25

(1) 2013 data for Greece.

26 Being young in Europe today

(1) 2013 data for Greece.

Being young in Europe today 27

EUROSTATS POPULATION PROJECTIONS

28 Being young in Europe today

EUROPEAN DEMOGRAPHY FORUM

Being young in Europe today 29

Changes in numbers of children and young people:

Figure 4: Median age of the population, EU-28, 19902013 ()

30 Being young in Europe today

Figure 5: Median age of the population, 1990 and 2013

Being young in Europe today 31

Figure 6: Life expectancy at birth, EU-28, 200212

Men Total Women

Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_mlexpec)

32 Being young in Europe today

Figure 7: Fertility rates, EU-28, 200012 (1)