EG2101

Midsummer Examinations 2016

DO NOT OPEN THE QUESTION PAPER UNTIL INSTRUCTED TO DO SO BY

THE CHIEF INVIGILATOR
Department
Engineering
Module Code
EG2101
Module Title
Materials 1: Materials Processing
Exam Duration (in words)
TWO AND A HALF HOURS
CHECK YOU HAVE THE CORRECT QUESTION PAPER
Number of Pages
16
Number of Questions
6
Instructions to Candidates
Answers are expected to four questions you must answer ONE question from Section A.
Answers to only four questions will be marked. Attempted solutions which you do not wish to submit
should be crossed out. If you do attempt more than four questions, and do not identify which four you
want to be marked, only the first four in the answer book will be marked. For each question, the
distribution of marks out of 20 is indicated in brackets.
This exam must be sat at the same time as EG2401.

FOR THIS EXAM YOU ARE ALLOWED TO USE THE FOLLOWING:

Calculators
Permitted calculators are the Casio FX83 and FX85 models An
Engineering Data Book (Calvert and Farrar)
Are students permitted to bring their own Books/Statues/Notes?
No Additional Stationery
Yes Graph paper

SECTION A You must answer ONLY ONE question

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1. Question One [20 marks total] Fracture

a) Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the characteristics of brittle and ductile
fractures. For each type of fracture, you should cover:

The mechanism and relative rate of crack propagation

The role of plasticity in fracture
The types of material (in terms of strength) that typically fracture in this
manner

[6 marks]

b) A car manufacturer intends to switch from steel to aluminium body panels to

reduce the mass of their cars. Samples of an aluminium alloy (AA6063) are
obtained for fracture toughness testing. The dimensions of each sample are
given in Figure Q1 where: W = 50 mm, t = 7 mm.

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t
a

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Figure 1 - Edge-crack in a fracture toughness specimen.

Question 1, part b) continues on the next page.

The stress intensity is given by: K=Y a
The geometry factor (Y) for an edge-crack in a finite width plate can be
determined from empirical data provided in Table Q1.

Table Q1 - Geometry factors for an edge-crack (of length a) in a finite width plate (of
width W).

a/W Y
0.0 1.12
0.2 1.37
0.4 2.11
0.5 2.83

The manufacturers data claims that the fracture toughness (Kc) of the alloy is
28.6 MN m-3/2 and the yield strength (y) is 290 MPa.

i) Determine the crack size below which the plate will fail by yielding rather
than fast fracture, if the manufacturers data is accurate. Assume an
appropriate value of Y to perform your calculation.
[2 marks]

ii) If a 5 mm crack is introduced into each sample, determine the applied load
(F) that would cause fracture to occur, if the manufacturers claimed fracture
toughness is accurate. Determine an appropriate value of Y to perform your
calculation.
[4 marks]

iii) Following a number of tests, the mean load required for fracture is F
determined to be 57.4 kN. Therefore, what is the real fracture toughness of
the material if a 5 mm crack was present in each sample prior to testing?
[4 marks]

c) Some types of aluminium alloy can be strengthened by precipitation hardening.

Briefly describe and explain the effect that hard precipitates may have on the
fracture behaviour of the material.
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[4 marks]

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2. Question Two [20 marks total] Fatigue

a) Fatigue involves the incremental growth of cracks in materials that are

subjected to cyclic loading.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, how a crack grows during a single (fully
reversed, tension-compression) loading cycle. Ensure that you identify during
which parts of the loading cycle crack extension does and does not occur.
[6 marks]

b) In a chemical processing plant, cylindrical pipes are used for the transfer of
chemicals from one processing system to another. During the transfer, which
happens once per minute (1440 times per day), the pipes becomes pressurised
to 3.5 MPa (gauge) by a chemical fluid.

The pipes have a radius (to the centre of the outer wall) of 350 mm with a wall-
thickness of 10 mm. They can therefore can be considered as a thin-walled
pressure vessel that is constructed from a stainless steel: E = 196 GPa, TS =
400 MPa, Kc = 60 MPa m1/2

A pressure sensor, which is used to monitor the vessel, is embedded into the
stainless steel wall through a tight fitting circular hole that has a radius of 1
mm. The manufacturing and assembly process has been known to cause small
cracks to appear at the edge of this fitting. The minimum size of crack that can
be detected by non-destructive testing has a length of 0.1 mm.

The stress intensity range is given by: K =Y a

da m
Steady-state fatigue life can be described by Paris Law: =A ( K )
dN
Pr
Hoop stresses in a thin-walled pressure vessel can be calculated by: hoop =
t

Question 2, part b) continues on the next page.

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Assuming that the stress range is constant, that Y does not vary with crack
length and ignoring the effect of the non-zero mean stress, determine:

i) The critical crack length due to the maximum hoop stress experienced by
the pipes. The geometry factor (Y) can be determined from empirical data
provided in Table Q2.
[6 marks]

Table Q2 - Geometry factors for a single crack (of length a) from a circular hole (of
radius R).

a/R Y
0.0 3.36
0.1 2.73
0.2 2.30
0.4 1.86
0.6 1.64
0.8 1.47
1.0 1.37
1.5 1.18
0.71

ii) The predicted fatigue life of the component, in terms of the number of
pressurisation cycles to failure, assuming the presence of a crack of 0.1 mm
initial length at the pressure sensor fitting. The Paris Law constants are: A =
2.6 x 10-12 and m = 2.3
[6 marks]

c) Figure Q2 illustrates Whler, or stress-cycle (S-N), curves that are used as

design tools to identify the likely fatigue life of a material under a known stress
amplitude.

Often, only a single S-N curve is plotted for each material. Briefly explain what
this line describes and, therefore, the limitations in using S-N curves for the
accurate prediction of fatigue lives.
[2 marks]

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Figure Q2 can be found on the next page.

Figure Q2 - Whler (S-N) curves for two characteristic materials.

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SECTION B You must answer ONLY THREE questions

3. Question Three [20 marks total] Steels

Figure Q3.1 is a time-temperature transformation (TTT) diagram for a 0.55 wt.%

C steel. If you answer this question, ensure that you put your
candidate number on the working copy of Figure Q3.1 and attach it to
your answer booklet.
Figure Q3.2 shows the Fe-C phase diagram which you will need.

a) Label the working copy of the TTT diagram (Figure Q3.1) with the different
structures expected. Label and describe the meaning of the lines on the
diagram. Draw in the Martensitic transformation which begins at 340 C and
is complete by 100 C. Draw in the Austenite transformation line at the
correct temperature. You do not have to label the phase diagram.
[4 marks]

This year marks the 100th anniversary of the Battle of the Somme in northern
France. The action at High Wood on 14th July saw one of the last cavalry
charges of WWI by the 20th Deccan Horse of the 2nd Indian Division. Troops
were armed with the 1908 pattern cavalry sabre which was made from 1055
steel. The contents of 1055 steel are given in Table Q3 with the balance being
Fe.

Table Q3

Elemental
content / wt.%

C M S P
n

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10 0 0 0. 0
55 . . 0 .
5 7 5 0
5 5 4

The swords were made from 0.55 wt.% carbon steel bar slow cooled in air
from >1000 C. The sword blades were then forged. After forging the swords
underwent a heat treatment and then quenched in oil. They were then
tempered before final grinding and finishing.

Question 3, part a) continues on the next page.

i. Draw a cooling curve on the diagram to describe a slow cool in air. Draw
and label a diagram of the microstructure produced. Accurately describe
the phases present in the microstructure. [2 marks]

ii. Describe the forging process and the effect that this has on the steel
microstructure. Give a suitable temperature for the forging process and
explain your reasoning. [2 marks]

iii. Draw and label a picture of the microstructure during the second heat
treatment after forging. Draw a cooling curve on the diagram to
describe a rapid quench in oil from a suitable temperature. Draw an
accurate picture of the microstructure after quenching. Accurately
describe the phases present. [2 marks]

iv. Describe the tempering process. Draw a picture of the microstructure

produced. Accurately describe the phases present. [2 marks]

v. Compare and contrast the relative mechanical properties of the slow

cooled steel, the quenched steel and the tempered steel. [3 marks]

vi. Where does the water quenched steel structure appear on the phase
diagram?
[1 marks]

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b) In the Game of Thrones television series and books by George R R Martin

the White Walkers are fantastical faerie creatures capable of reducing the
temperature of steel to <100 K causing normal carbon steel swords to
become brittle and shatter. Valyrian steel can be used successfully to injure or
kill white walkers without shattering. It also maintains its edge over many
years and these weapons are heirlooms of wealthy households. The ability to
make Valyrian steel has been lost. However, it can be re-forged. This implies
a structural and/or compositional reason for its exceptional low temperature
performance and ability to hold an edge rather than magic.
Suggest a composition and structure of a steel that would account for this
behaviour and describe how it does so.
[4 marks]

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Figure Q3.1. Time-Temperature Transformation Curve for 0.55 wt.% C

steel.

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Figure Q3.2. Fe-C phase diagram.

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4. Question Four [20 marks total] Strengthening

mechanisms
The Cu-Zn phase diagram is given in figure Q4
a) The influence of grain size on the yield strength of a Cu-20Zn brass is shown
in Table Q3.1.

Table Q4.1 Variation of yield stress,

y with grain diameter, d for Cu-
20Zn brass
d /mm y /MPa
1.00 30
0.111 55
0.0275 85
0.0123 127
0.00704 160
0.00444 190

i. Plot a suitable graph and describe the relationship between grain size
and yield strength with a suitable equation. [2 marks]

ii. From your graph, calculate values for 0 (resistance of the lattice to
dislocation motion) and k y (the strengthening coefficient). Hence
calculate the stress at a grain size of 50 m. [3 marks]

iii. Describe with the aid of suitable diagrams how the strengthening
mechanism displayed in Table Q4.1 works. [3 marks]

iv. Give two methods by which the different grain sizes might be attained.
[2 marks]

Question 4 continues on the next page.

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b) Table Q4.2 contains yield stress data for annealed Cu-Zn bar of variable Zn
content. The annealed bars were 10 mm diameter and 40mm in length.
They had an average grain diameter of 0.035 mm. The bars were drawn out
through a series of dies to make a wire of 1 mm diameter.

Table Q4.2 Variation of yield stress, y with Zn content for annealed bar
and wire
Zn / wt.% y -annealed bar y -wire /MPa
/MPa
0 69 142
5 88 212
15 102 267
25 112 302
35 120 303
43 142 276

i. For the annealed bar, plot a suitable graph and describe the relationship
between Zn content and yield strength with a suitable equation. Plot
the data for the wire on the same graph. [3 marks]

ii. Describe, with the aid of diagrams, how the primary strengthening
mechanism for the annealed bar works. [2 marks]

iii. Describe, with the aid of diagrams and a suitable equation, the primary
strengthening mechanism in the wire [2 marks]

iv. Calculate the degree of cold work in the drawn wires. [1 mark]

v. Give reasons for the change in behaviour at higher Zn content. [2

marks]

You may find the following equations (that continue on the next page) useful. The
symbols have the usual meanings described in the lecture notes.
A 0 A d
%CW=
A0( )
y =Gb
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1
2
y = 0 +k y d

3
=Gb c 2

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Figure Q4 Cu-Zn Phase diagram

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5. Question Five [20 marks total] Aluminium alloys

The Al-Cu phase diagram is shown in Figure Q5.

a) Indicate the phases that are present in each of the two phase regions on the
working copy of Figure Q5. If you answer this question, ensure that you
put your candidate number on the working copy of Figure Q5 and
attach it to your answer booklet.
[3 marks]
b) Indicate the liquidus, solidus, maximum solubility lines and the eutectic point.
Identify the eutectic temperature and composition.
[3 marks]
c) Al2014 alloy contains 4.5 wt.%Cu and is widely used in high strength structural
components. A sample of Al2014 is cooled slowly from 750 C. At what
temperature does solid start to form and what is the composition of that solid?
[2 marks]
d) The alloy is then slowly cooled to 600 C. Use the lever rule to calculate the
fraction of the two phases at this temperature. What are the compositions of
the two phases? Sketch and label a diagram of the microstructure.
[4 marks]
e) The alloy is now cooled slowly to 550 C and allowed to equilibrate. It is then
quenched rapidly to room temperature. The sample is then heated to at 150 C
and tensile tests performed at intervals to determine the yield stress, y .
The results of these tensile tests are reported in Table Q5.

Question 5, part e) continues on the next page.

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Table Q5

Time / Yield stress

hours y / MPa

0 185

3 150

10 290

30 290

100 440

1000 150

i) Plot a suitable graph on the graph paper provided to show how the yield
stress varies with time.
[2 marks]
ii) Describe the microstructural changes which occur during the heat
treatment. Account for the variations in strength with annealing time
and indicate which, if any, strengthening mechanisms are contributing.
Pure aluminium has a yield stress of ~10 MPa.
[6 marks]

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Figure Q5 Al-Cu Phase Diagram

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6. Question Six [20 marks total] Ceramics

The equilibrium pseudo phase diagram for silica, SiO2 and alumina Al2O3 is shown
in Figure Q6.

a) Many ceramic components are made by sintering of powders. Describe the

sintering process. Your answer should include a description of the driving force
for the process.

[6 marks]

b) How might the addition of 4 wt.% SiO2 to pure Al2O3 affect the sintering process
compared to pure Al2O3. How would you expect this addition to affect the final
properties of the sintered product?
[2 marks]

c) Explain why ceramics are intrinsically brittle on an atomic scale and on a

microscale. For the latter you should refer to your answer in part a)
[4 marks]

d) You are an engineer working for the Special Circumstances Division of the
Department of Agriculture. With world population increasing there is demand
for more and better pesticides. An organophosphorus compound
[(CH3)2CHO]CH3P(O)F is produced in a large pressure vessel by reaction of
isopropyl alcohol with methyl phosphonyl difluoride. A bi-product of the
reaction is the highly corrosive HF. The products of the reaction are vented at
high pressure via a thin walled alumina tube of 30 mm outside diameter, 3 mm
wall thickness and 500 mm length.

The strength of the ceramic was determined by loading cylindrical specimens in

tension. Each specimen was 8 mm in diameter and 60 mm long. 50% of the
specimens broke at stresses equal to or less than 90 MPa. The Weibull modulus
of the ceramic, m, was found to be 11.

Determine the maximum pressure that can be withstood within the alumina
tube if the probability of failure must not exceed 0.01%

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You may assume that failure is caused only by the hoop stress in the wall
[8 Marks]

Supporting information for Question 6, part d) is found on

the next page.
The hoop stress for a thin walled tube is given by:
Pr
h= where P is the internal pressure, r the radius, and t is the wall
t
thickness.
When a brittle solid of volume V0 is subjected to a uniform tensile stress (), the
probability of survival, PS (V0), is given by;
m

Ps ( V 0 )=e

[ ]
0

where 0 and m are constants determined by materials properties. For a volume

V of the same materials, the probability of survival, PS (V) is given by:
m

Ps ( V )=e

[ ]
V
V0 0

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Figure Q6 The equilibrium pseudo phase diagram for silica, SiO2 and
alumina Al2O3

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END OF PAPER

WORKING COPIES OF DIAGRAMS FOLLOW ON THE

NEXT SHEET

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BLANK PAGE

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FIGURE Q3.1. Time-Temperature Transformation

Curve for 0.55 wt.% C steel.

Candidate
number:

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FIGURE Q5 Al-Cu Phase Diagram

Candidate
number:

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