Electronics branch of science and Negative Temperature Coefficient as engineering that deals with the study temperature increases, resistance of the movement and behaviour of decreases electrons and its application Depletion Region region of Types of Elements uncovered positive and negative ions Passive (RLC) not capable of Barrier Potential knee voltage of a generating energy diode Active capable of generating PN Junctions NPN, PNP energy Diode Models (Forward Biased close Types of Materials switch, Reversed Biased open Insulator does not allow flow switch) of current even under pressure Ideal diode model - Consists of 8 valence Practice diode model (with electrons (most) barrier potential) Semiconductor characteristics Complex diode model (with between insulator and internal resistance) conductor Breakdown voltage voltage where - Consists of 4 valence avalanche occurs electrons Clippers diodes to clip away portion Conductor allows generous of input signal w/o distorting the flow of current under pressure remaining parts - Consists of 1-3 valence Clampers diodes and capacitors that electrons (least) shifts input signal to a different level Enery Gap distance between the w/o changing its appearance conduction bond and valence bond Block Diagram of Power Supply Semiconductor Signal > Xformer > Rectifier > Intrinsic made as pure as Filter > Voltage Regulator > Load possible Vpripp N 1 @ absolute zero temp (-273C) Xformer: = Vsec N2 very good insulator @ room temp (27C) vibration Rectifier: @ Half Wave = occurs 0.318(Vsecp) @ net charge: neutral @ Full Wave = Extrinsic made pure by doping 0.636(Vsecp) process (a process of adding Filter: Capacitor Filter, AC Filter impurities to a pure Voltage Regulator: Load semiconductor) Regulation, Line Regulation @ P-type (BIG, boron-indium- Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) gallium) trivalent/acceptor - Linear amplifier atoms - Fast acting switch Majority carriers: holes - Current driven device Minority carriers: free Regions of operation electrons 1. Linear/Active Net charge: Neutral 2. Saturation @ N-type (PAA, phosphorus- 3. Cut-off antimony-arsenic) Terminal Configurations pentavelent/donor atoms 1. Common Emitter (universal Majority carriers: free amp) electons 2. Common Base (voltage amp) 3. Common Collector (current (Op-Amps are voltage amplifier, BJTs amp, impedance matching are current amplifier, FETs are device) transconductance amplifer) DC Biasing application of DC power a. Voltage amplifier to establish a fixed level of current and b. Current amplifier voltage to determine level of c. Transconductance amplifier d. Transimpedance amplifier amplification Classes of Amplifiers a. Fixed Bias a. Class A amount of output signal b. Emitter Stabilized c. Voltage Divider (Exact, flow varies for a full 360 of the Approximate) cycle d. Voltage Feedback b. Class B amount of output signal is e. Miscellaneous Configurations 180 Field Effect Transistor (FET) c. Class AB output signal flows for - Linear amplifier more than 180 but less than 360 - Faster acting switch d. Class C output signal flows less - Voltage driven device than 180 - Unipolar devices e. Class D Types of FET f. Class S Junction FET (JFET) Other Classification of Amplifiers Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET a. Accdg to Frequency Amplified - D-MOSFET - DC amplifier - E-MOSFET - RF amplifier - Video amplifier Shockleys Equation: b. Accdg to Signal Amplified - Small signal amplifier 2 Vgs - Large signal amplifer ( Id=Idss 1 Vp ) c. Accdg to Coupling Method - Resistive-coupled amplifier - Inductive-coupled amplifier Pinch-off conditions where Id = 0A - Direct-coupled amplifier Quiescent Point point that will be Other Amplifier Circuit Configurations employed for amplification of the a. Cascaded amplifier stages of applied signal amplifiers connected in series fashion //ELEC2 b. Cascode amplifier c. Darlington amplifier AMPLIFIERS an electronic circuit that is d. Differential amplifier capable of increasing the signal amplitude e. Push-Pull amplifier two similar w/o altering the signal waveform circuits operating in phase characteristics opposition f. Complementary-symmentry Amplifier Classification amplifier 1. By Function g. Quasi-complementary amplifier a. Voltage amplifier b. Power amplifier OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 2. By Frequency Response a. Audio amplifier 15Hz-20 KHz - One of the most versatile b. RF amplifier (Radio Frequency) and widely used electronic 10K-100,000MHz device. Intended to perform c. Video amplifier 10Hz-6MHz mathematical operation in Types of Amplifiers analog computers @ Open loop produces square - Large # of comparators waveform (squaring circuit) provides fast conversion @ Closed loop time - (-) inverting, for control of of comparators=2n 1 gain - (+) non-inverting, for Summing Amplifiers has two or more reduction of noise inputs, and its output voltage is Mode of Operations proportional to the negative of the - Single Mode algebraic sum of the input voltages - Common Mode (Noise) Digital-to-Analog Conversion (Scaling - Differential Mode (Desired) Adder Apllication) Op-Amp Properties: - An important interference - Voltage between inverting process for converting digital and non-inverting is zero signals to analog (linear) making them equal signals - Current between inverting and non-inverting is zero INTEGRATOR simulates mathematical making them equal integration, basically a summing process that determines the total area under the curve of Design of Op-Amp Circuit fuction - Case 1: Rx is infinite (z is positive) DIFFERENTIATOR simulates mathematical - Case 2: Ry is infinite (z is differentiation, process of determining the negative) instantaneous rate of change of a function - Case 3: Rx and Ry is infinite (z is zero) ACTIVE FILTERS
Z=xy1 - Uses transistors/op-amps combined
with passive RL,RC or RLC circuits COMPARATORS - Active devices produce voltage gain, passive circuits produce frequency - Used to compare the selectivity amplitude of one voltage to Filters circuits that are capable of another passing signals w/ certain selected a. Zero Level Detection determines frequencies while rejecting signals w/ when an input voltage exceeds a other frequencies. This property is certain level called selectivity. b. Non-Zero Level Detection detects Categories of Active Filters (Basic Filter voltages other than zero Response) Hysteresis circuit at the positive Low Pass Fiter Response feedback for noise reduction - Pass Band ( 0 Hz up to critical Schmitt Trigger comparator with frequency, fc) hysteresis - Output voltage is 70.7% of pass band Output Bounding process of limiting voltage the output range High Pass Filter Response Analog-to-Digital Conversion - Attenuates all frequencies below fc and passes all frequencies above fc. (Comparator Application) Band Pass Filter Response - Common interfacing process - Passes all signals between lower and often used when a linear upper frequencies, and rejects all analog system must provide other frequencies that are outside the inputs to a digital system is specified band. A/D conversion - Center frequency pass band is - Widely used in most communication centered, fo systems fo= fc 1 fc 2 - Based on principle of positive feedback (portion of output voltage id - Quality Factor an indication of the fed back to the input w/o phase shift, selectivity of a band pass filter. resulting in a reinforcement of output o Higher Q, narrower BW, better signal) selectivity o BPF are narrowband (Q>10) or Conditions for oscillations wide-band (Q<10) - Phase shift around feedback loop must fo 1 be 0 degrees. Q= or Q= BW DF - Voltage gain around closed feedback loop must equal to 1 (unity) where DF= dampling factor Band Stop Filter Response Oscillators with RC feedback circuits - Also known notch, band-reject, band- (frequency up to 1MHz) elimination 1 Wien-bridge oscillator (most widely - Opposite of band pass filter, as used) frequencies between certain 2 Phase-shift oscillator bandwidth are rejected and outside 3 Twin-T oscillator bandwidth are passed. Butterworth Characteristics Oscillators with LC feedback circuits - Provides very flat amplitude in pass (higher frequency) band 1 Colpitts (BJT as the gain element) - Roll-off rate of 20 dB/decade/pole 2 Clapp - Used when frequency in the pass band 3 Hartley must have same gain 4 Armstrong - Referred as maximally flat response 5 Crystal-Controlled (most stable and accurate type that uses Chebyshev Characteristics piezoelectric crystal in the - Roll-off rate greater than feedback loop to control frequency) 20dB/decade/pole - Characterized by overshoot/ripple in the pass band(depending on # of poles) Non-sinusoidal Oscillator - Less linear phase response than 1 Triangular wave oscillator uses butterworth dual-polarity switched input Bessel Characteristics 2 Square wave relaxation oscillator - Exhibits linear phase characteristics, its operation is based on the meaning phase shift increases linearly charging/discharging of a capacitor with frequency. - No overshoot on the output w/ a pulse input DIGITAL TIMER/CONTROL CIRCUITS - Used for altering pulse waveform w/o distorting the shape of waveform. - Timing (everything in digital circuits) - Clock oscillator (generates square OSCILLATORS wave clock signal)
- Circuits that generate output signal 1 Astable Multivibrator
w/o an input signal - Commonly used as clock oscillator - Used as signal sources - Used to produce an alternating two- - Produces types of outputs/repetitive state square or rectangular output waveforms (sine, square, triangular, waveform sawtooth wave) - Called as free-running multivibrator, because it requires no input signal to 3 Bistable multivibrator start its operation. - A digital control device that can either set or reset 2 Monostable Multivibrator - Two-stable state - When triggered, will generate a - Two inputs, set and reset rectangular pulse of a fixed duration. - A pulse on the set input will flip the - One-stable state circuit into set state, while a pulse on - Will remain in stable state indefinitely the reset input will flop the circuit until a trigger is applied and forces it into its reset state. into its unstable state - Called as one-shot multivibrator