SCIENCE-3RD YEAR-1st TERM

CHEMISTRY: THE CENTRAL SCIENCE

-Areas of Study
-Organic Chemistry
-The study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives
-Inorganic Chemistry
-The study of all chemicals other than hydrocarbons
-Biochemistry
-The study of processes that take place in organisms
-Analytical Chemistry
-The area of study that focuses on the composition of matter
-Physical Chemistry
-The area that deals with the mechanism, the rate, the energy transfer that
occurs when matter undergoes change
-Environmental Chemistry
-The study of the sources, reactions, transport, effects of technology thereon

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
-Systematic and organized approach to achieve knowledge
-Process of answering questions about the world
-Make observations (Record,
organize) Hypothesis Generalization Communicate

OBSERVATION, INFERENCE, AND HYPOTHESIS

-Observation
-Use 5 senses
-Consider conditions
-Organize accumulated data and observations into an organized data

MEASUREMENTS
-Consists of a number and unit
-Fundamental units
-Time (second, s) -amount of substance, count (mole, mol)
-Length (meter, m) -Luminous intensity (candela, cd)
-Mass (kilogram, kg)
-Electric current (ampere, A)
-Temperature (Kelvin, K)

-Precision: Hits the same spot

-Accuracy: Hits the right spot

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MATTER
-The stuff that objects are made of
-Anything that occupies space and has mass
-States: Solid, liquid, gas, plasma
-Properties: Physical (Extensive or Intensive), Chemical
 -Properties: How it looks, feels, smells, sounds, what it does, others (brittle,
malleable, ductile, flexible, miscible, soluble, elastic, viscous, thermal)
-Physical vs Chemical Property
-Physical: Characteristics that can be observed w/o altering the identity of
the substance
-Chemical: Characteristics that can be observed by altering the identity of
the substance
-Changes: Physical, Chemical
-Physical: The same substance remains after the change
-Chemical: A new substance results after the change

*Plasma-> Gas: Recombination

Gas->Plasma: Ionization
Gas->Liquid: Condensation
Liquid->Gas: Vaporization
Solid->Gas: Sublimation
Gas->Solid: Deposition
Solid->Liquid: Melting
Liquid->Solid: Freezing
Evidences of Chemical Change:
-Color change
-Evolution of gas
-Formation of precipitate
-Absorption of heat (Endothermic)
-Emission of heat (Exothermic)
-Composition of Matter
-Pure substance (Element, Compound), Mixture
-Pure substance
-Matter that has a fixed composition of matter
-Element
-A substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical
means
-It is composed of only 1 kind of atom
-Compound
-A substance composed of two or more elements united chemically in
definite proportions
-Mixtures
-Mechenically combined substances
-Properties are retained
-Phase
-A physical state with distinct boundaries and uniform properties
-Homogeneous
-Solution
-Uniform, one phase
-Heterogeneous
-Not uniform, 2 or more phases
-Suspension
-Heterogeneous mixture of large particles (>1000mm)
-These particles are visible and will settle out on standing

-Colloids (Milk, Fog, Jello)

 -A heterogeneous mixture containing particles ranging from 1mm to
1000mm
-The particles are spread evenly throughout the dispersion medium
-Distinguished by Tyndall Effect, Brownian Movement
-Coarse
-Solid mixtures

ATOM
-Greeks Model of the Atom
-Democritus concluded that matter is
a) too small to be seen
b) indivisible (hard, permanent)
c) differ from each other in form, size, shape
d) smallest piece of matter is the atomos
-a means not
tomos means cut
(not cuttable)
-Aristotle
-Reposed that everything was made of 4 elements (water, fire, wind and
earth)
-Daltons Postulates
1) Each element is composed of tiny particles called ATOMS
2) Atoms of the same element are identical but differ from atoms of other
elements
3) Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in any chemical reaction
4) A given compound has the same relative number and kinds of atoms
-Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier)
-The total mass of substances does not change during a chemical reaction
-Law of Definite Composition (Proust)
-No matter what its source, a particular compound is composed of the same
elements in the same parts per mass
-Law of Multiple Proportion (Dalton)
-If 2 elements combine to form 2 or more different compounds, then a
simple ratio exists between the 2 masses of one element that can combine
with a fixed mass of the other.
-Particles Have an Electrical Charge
-JJ Thomson
-He imagined that ATOMS looked like pieces of raisin bread a structure in
which clumps of small, negatively charged electrons (the raisins) were
scattered inside a smear of positive charges
-The Cathode Ray Tube
1. Deflection towards the (+)
2. Deflection was great
-Charge-to-mass ratio: 1x76X10^11 Coloumb/kg=e/m

-Millikans Oil Drop Expt

-Charge oil drop was always a multiple of 1.6x10^-19 Coulombs, the charge
of a single electron
-Mass of an electron
-Serendipity of Becquerel
-Radiation since the effect radiated out from the uranium salt
 -Kinds:
1) Alpha (+) least penetrating
2) Beta (-)
3) Gamma (0) most penetrating
-Marie and Pierre Curie (Radium)
-Alpha particle
-Ideal probe to penetrate the atom
-Result of expt
-Several alpha particle passed through undeflected
-Some slightly deflected
-A few bounced back
-Analysis
-Atom is mostly empty space
-Rutherford-Chadwick Model
-Atom is mostly empty space with one nucleus
-Nucleus contains neutron and proton
-Neutron
-Same mass as proton, found in nucleus
-Element
-Element symbol w/ mass number on top and atomic number on the bottom
-Atomic #- no. of protons
-Mass #-no of protons and neutrons

ISOTOPIC ABUNDANCE
-(Percentage of Isotope A x A's Mass number) + (Percentage of Isotope B x B's
Mass number) = Avg. Mass no. of Element
-Percentage is in decimal form and all percentages must add up to 100%
There can be more than 2.

Light
*Matter-electrical natureAtom-electrical nature
Structure-Protons, Electrons, Neutrons
*Matter-interaction w/lightAtom
Structure-Bohr: Electron cloud
-Models of Light
Before 1900: Light is a wave
After 1900: Light is a particle
Today: Light is a wave and particle
-Wave
A disturbance that is transmitted through a *MEDIUM (a material that
carries the wave)
*have particles that move back and forth but dont travel along with the light
(or sound or water)
-Light Wave
Disturbance of electromagnetic field
Because EM fields permeate space; light can travel at a certain speed
c(speed of light)=3.00x10^8 m/s
-Its Wave Nature
Light Wave
o Disturbance in electromagnetic field
 o Crests: High points
o Troughs: Low Points
Wavelength ()
o Distance between corresponding points of two adjacent crests or
troughs
o Units: angstrom, nanometer, meter
Frequency (v)
o No. of wavelengths passing through a point in one second
o Units: Hertz (Hz), megahertz, kilohertz, waves/s, s^-1 (per s)
Amplitude
o Height of origin (middle of light wave) to the crest/troughs
* is inversely proportional to v (c=v)
-The Visible Spectrum
Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
Red: longest, Violet: shortest
Radio, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, gamma rays
-Proof of its Wave Nature
It exhibits diffraction or the slight bending of light as it passes around the
edge of an object)
It exhibits interference patterns or the effect produced by the
combination of two waves
In-phase=BRIGHTER
Out-of-phase=NONE

-Its Particle Nature

Photon
o Carries energy
o Tiny particles of energy
o Piece of energy or QUANTUM (In 1905 by MAX PLANCK)
*high frequency=high energy, low frequency=low energy
*E=hv (h=6.6626x10^-34 J*s
*High wavelengths=low energy, low frequency
*E=hc/
-Proof of its Particle Nature
It exhibits the PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Electronic Structure
1 Position of electron: a certain distance from the nucleus
2 Why not drawn from the nucleus?
-Discrete Spectrum
Emission Spectrum (black bg w/ colored lines)
Absorption Spectrum (continuous spectrum bg w/ black lines)
-BOHRS CONTRIBUTION
1 There are certain definite ORBITS in which an electron can travel around
a nucleus w/o radiating energy
 2 Under normal conditions, the electron within the atom occupy the lowest
energy (ground state)
3 Atoms absorb E
4 The electron moves to a higher level (excited state)
5 The electron cannot remain in the excited state for long
6 The electron moves back to a lower energy level
7 The loss of energy corresponds to a certain energy is registered in the
spectrum
-De Broglie
All objects have waves
The greater the mass, the shorter the wavelength
The lesser the mass, the longer the wavelength
Matter waves: Energy particle has a wave associated with it, but only if
the mass is small do effects become noticeable
=h/mv
-EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE
Electrons were reflected as if they were waves
-MODERN INSTRUMENT
Electron Microscope
-Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle: It is impossible to know the precise location and
momentum of an electron at the same time
-Schrodinger
Mathematical Equations
Provide info about an electrons location in an atom
-Electron Cloud Model
1 No definite path
2 No definite position
3 Position of electron-only a possibility
4 Electrons are in 3D regions called ORBITALS
Periodic Table
1913-Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley (1887-1915)
o Concept of atomic number (Z)
o Worked w/Ernest Rutherford
o Correlated the no. of protonsatomic no.
o How?
Diff. MatalBombarded with e-Frequency of x-raysAmt. of +
chargeNo. of p+Atomic Number (Z)
o The correct pattern is according to atomic number
Why was Mendeleevs periodic table still valid even if his pattern is
incorrect
o Atomic mass increases as atomic number increases
The Periodic Law
o Basis of the periodic table
Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, such
that their properties (physical and chemical) show a periodic
pattern
o The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers
-Parts
Rows-Periods (1-7)
Columns-Groups/Families
o Old System
IAVIIIA; 1A8A
IBVIIIB; 1B8B
o IUPAC System
1-18
Group #-Name of the Family
o IA-Alkali Metals (s block)
o IIA-Alkaline Metals (s block)
o IIIA-Boron Family (p block)
o IVA-Carbon Family (p block)
o VA-Nitrogen Family (p block)
o VIA-Chalcogens (p block)
o VII-Halogens (p block)
o VIII-Noble Gases/Inert Gases (p block)
o IB-VIIIB-Outer Transition Metals (d block)
o Bottom 2 rows-Inner Transition Metals (f block)
Lanthanide Series (1st row)
Actimide Series (2nd row)
Metals [1A (Except H)2A, 1B-8B, Some of 3A-8A)
Non-metals (Some of 3A)
Metalloids (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te)

Quantum Number
1 Principal Quantum Number (n)
Orbit or E level
o 1,2,3,4
2 Orbital Quantum Number (Angular, azimuthal) (l)
Shape of orbital
0=s 1=p 2=d 3=f

3 Magnetic Quantum Number (m1)

Orientation of orbital
s=0
p= -1 0 1
d= -2 -1 0 1 2
f= -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
4 Spin Quantum or ms)
3d= 3 2 -2 1/2
3d^6= 3 2 -2 -1/2
3d^2= 3 2 -1 1/2

Ionization Energy
Energy needed to remove an electron
Decreases from top to bottom in Periodic Table due to increased energy
levels
From left to right, IE increases because of greater nuclear charge
Electronegativity
Ability/tendency to attract electrons
From top to bottom, EN decreases because of the lower nuclear charge
(^ energy level)
From left to right, EN increases because of the higher nuclear charge