Anum Ahmed Pirkani

171625
RF&MW07

ADVANCED RF
MEASUREMENTS
Assignment no. 1
 THE RF SIGNAL CHAIN AND NETWORK
ANALYSIS

RF/ MICOWAVE DESIGN CHALLENGES:

In any microwave system, transmitter and receiver from the core of network.
A basic design architecture of transmitter and receiver module are shown as
under:
Transmitter:

The input data is modulated in order to convert it to a baseband signal. This

input signal can be in the form of bits. The baseband signal is then up-
converted using a mixer and a local oscillator to convert it into a carrier
signal. This signal is now a high frequency signal which is then amplified by
subsequent amplification stages. After achieving the required power, the
signal is transmitter through the antenna.
Receiver:
The input terminal of receiver is antenna. Signal is received through an
antenna being at the front end of receiver system. After antenna, the signal
is forwarded to a low noise amplifier, which amplifies the signals without
amplifying the noise in the signal. After amplification, signal is down-
converted to the baseband frequency again using a mixer and a local
oscillator. This low frequency baseband signal is the demodulated to retrieve
the transmitted data which can be in the form of bits or pulses.
DIGITAL TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER:
In a mobile communication system, for the communication between BTS
digital transmission techniques are required. The digital system is again
composed of a transmitter and a receiver as discussed below.
Digital Transmitter:
The basic topology of a digital transmitter is shown as under:

I and Q signals are formed from input bit stream, which are initially passed
through a low pass filter. After proper filtering, the signals are added up using
a mixer which have an input in the form of IF signals. This low frequency
signal is once again passed through a mixer to up-convert it to the RF
frequency. After passing through the bandpass filter to remove any out of
band signal, the signal at the end is transmitter through the antenna.
Digital Receiver:
In a digital receiver, an RF signal is received at the antenna terminals which
is passed on trough the automatic gain control block. This AGC amplifies the
signal according to the requirement and the input signal received level.
The signal is then demodulated
to form I and Q signals respectively. I and Q signals are passed through a
tunable low pass filter and at the end, the received bit stream is retrieved
from the signal.
APPLICATIONS:
From mobile towers to aerospace and military usage, transmitters and
receivers are used in every communication system. Some of the major
utilization areas are:

IFF (identification of Friend and Foe) system

Weather Radars
Cell towers
Tracking Radars
Cell Tower
Surface searching Radars
Range finding Radars
As the application areas of communication system has increased, so has the
design challenges of both transmitter and receiver. The requirement is to
maximize the efficiency of communication system keeping in consideration
the link budget analysis.

TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
Output Power Sensitivity
Operating Frequency Noise
Pulse Width Dynamic Range
Bandwidth Interference
Noise Frequency
Interference Adjacent Channel Selectivity

COMPONENTS VERIFICATION:
It is necessary to test RF components before using them in any
communication system. This can ensure a distortion less transmission/
reception. It is essential for good matching in order to maximize the power
transfer.
In a linear system, constant amplitude, linear phase and constant group
delay are essential. Whereas, in a nonlinear system, signal harmonics,
intermodulation products, compression and X parameters are important
parameters.

TRANSMISSION LINES AND S PARAMETERS

Theory:
In any system/ device some part of the input signal is reflected at the input
signal whereas, majority portion of the signal is transmitted through the
device which becomes the transmitted signal.
Transmission Line Analysis:
A transmission line can be analyzed for low frequency and high frequency
signals as the performance is highly dependent upon the frequency of signal.
Low Frequency Analysis:

When it comes to low frequency signal, the wavelength

(corresponding to electrical length) is much higher as compared
to the physical length of transmission line.
Power transfer is efficient as the transfer of current is easier
The value of voltage and current is not position dependent.
Therefore, they are constant at all regions of transmission line

High Frequency Analysis:

In a high frequency signal, wavelength (electrical length) is much

smaller as compared to the physical length of transmission line.
For efficient power transfer at high frequency, a properly
matched 50ohm transmission line is required.
Proper matching ensures maximum power transfer and low
reflection. Thereby, minimizing the reflection loss.
The voltage is dependent upon its position in the transmission
line.
Characteristic Impedance Zo
Characteristic impedance determines the ratio between current and voltage
at different points of a transmission line. This impedance is dependent upon
the physical size of transmission and the relative permittivity of medium. It is
mostly real impedance with most systems having a Zo of 50ohm or 75ohm
(minimum losses)

REFLECION AND TRANSMISSION PARAMETERS:

If the incident signal is R and the signal reflected at input port is A while the
signal transmitted at output port is B, then the reflection and transmission
are represented
by:

Refection= reflected signal/ incident signal

= A/R
Transmission= transmitted signal/ incident signal
= B/R

The parameters associated with reflection and transmission are mentioned in

the table below:

Reflection Transmission
VSWR Gain/ Loss
 S parameters (S11, S22) S parameters (S21 S12)
Reflection Coefficient Transmission Coefficient
Impedance/ Admittance Insertion Phase
Return Loss Group Delay

Reflection Coefficient (S11) = Vreflected/ Vincident= ZL-Z0/Z/L+Z0

Return Loss: -20 log (S11)
VSWR: Vmax/ Vmin= 1+S11/1-S11
Conditions:
When ZL=Z0, no reflection at incident port would occur
When ZL=open, all signal would be reflected
When ZL=short, all signal would be reflected at incident port
SMITH CHART:
Smith chart is used to plot multiple parameters including:
Impedances
Admittances
Reflection coefficient
Scattering parameters
Noise figure circles
Constant gain contours
Stability/ instability regions
Impedance matching

DEVICE CHARACTERIZATION:
In system designing, it is very necessary to characterize the devices being
used. This characterization is done by:
H parameters (hybrid):
V1=h11I1+h12V2
I2=h21I1+h22V2

Y parameters (admittance):
I1=Y11V1+y12V2
I2=y21V1+y22V2
 Z parameters (impedance):
V1=z11I1+z12I2
I2=z21I1+z22I2

These parameters perform the following functions:

Gives linear device behavior
Measures voltage and current vs frequency for open and short circuits
Compute device parameters
Predict circuit performance under different source and load conditions

S PARAMETERS:
Easier to obtain at higher frequency
Measures traveling voltage using VNA
S-parameters can be cascaded for multiple stage networks
S-parameter file can be imported in simulation tools

MEASUREMENT:
To measure S parameters for a two port network, following steps are used:
Forward Transmission:

Reverse Transmission:
 S11=reflected signal/ incident signal
= b1/a1 (provided that port incidence at output port is 0 (a2=0))
S21= transmitted signal/ incident signal
= b2/a1 (provided that port incidence at output port is 0 (a2=0))
S22=reflected signal/ incident signal
= b2/a2 (provided that port incidence at input port is 0 (a1=0))
S21= transmitted signal/ incident signal
= b1/a2 (provided that port incidence at input port is 0 (a1=0))

S11: forward reflection coefficient with matching at input port

S22= reverse reflection coefficient with matching at output port
S21: forward transmission coefficient (gain or loss)
S12: reverse transmission coefficient (isolation