Welding Metallurgy

The study of the effect of welding on the

DBT 204 metallurgical structure of weld joints.

Heat input during welding produces rapid
Technology of Metal Welding I heating, very high temp & rapid cooling.

The heat of the welding
Welding Metallurgy affects the mechanical
properties of the metal,
residual stresses and
corrosion resistance of
metal.

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Azmi Kamardin
2015-2016 S01

Metallurgical Structure Metallurgical Structure

Metallurgy: The study of the influence of the
metallurgical structure of metals on the Grain structure Crystal structure
mechanical, physical & chemical properties of
the metals.

Metallurgical = crystal + grain

Metallurgical structure: Arrangement of atoms in
repeating patterns within a metal.

Crystal structure is preserved in the grain
structure.

Crystal structure changes as metal is heated or
cooled or composition changes.

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Crystal Structure Crystal Structure

A specific arrangement of atoms in an orderly

and repeating 3D pattern.

All metals exhibit a crystal structure. RHOMBOHEDRAL
(TRIGONAL)

14 Bravais structures are possible in nature. TETRAGONAL BC-TETRAGONAL

Most common structure:

BaC-MONOCLINIC

ORTHORHOMBIC MONOCLINIC
FC-TETRAGONAL

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BC-ORTHORHOMBIC BaC-ORTHORHOMBIC

Grain Structure Grain Structure

Metals do not exist as
Crystal grows as

a single crystal atoms are added to

Grain metal developed nucleus to form
as metal solidify from dendrite dendrites.

Cluster molten state.

of nuclei

Solidification of metal
starts with the
Solid
formation of a solid atoms
nucleus added to
nuclei

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Grain Structure Heat Input

Dendrites continue to
Melt base metal & filler metal during welding
grow until the space
Heat input: The amount of heat applied to the
between them is filler metal & base metal surface at the required
completely filled and rate to form a weld pool.
solidification is
Heat input produces rapid heating, very high
Grain with
differing completed
temp & rapid cooling.
crystallographic
Sources: electric arc, burning O2 + acetylene etc
orientation

Controlling heat input is essential  heat input
affects structure & properties of metals.

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Calculating Heat Input Calculating Heat Input

Heat input (joules per inch) = WV x WC x 60 Heat input (joules per inch) = WV x WC x 60
WTS WTS
= 29 x 300 x 60
WV = welding voltage (V) 18
WC = welding current (A)
= 29,000 Joules / in
WTS = welding speed (in/min)

What is the heat input when using SMAW at 29

V, 300 A and a travel speed of 18/min?

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Heating Rate Cooling Rate

The rate of temp change at the weld joint from
The rate of temp change at the weld joint from
room temp to welding temp welding temp to room temp

Influenced by:
Influenced by:
Heat input Heat loss
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity
Preheat & interpass temperatures
Mass of joint area

Preheat: Heating the joint area to predetermined

The max temp achieved must be sufficient to temp in order to slow the cooling rate.
melt the base metal & filler metal
Interpass temperature control: maintaining the
temp range between weld passes.
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Cooling Rate Slow Cooling of Steel

The rate of cooling must be controlled to
maintain toughness of the heat affected zone
(HAZ) - medium carbon & low alloy steels

If critical cooling rate is exceeded  loss of
toughness

Forced cooling: rapid cooling of solidified weld
joint (water cooled)

Increase production rate

Produce abnormal stresses

Most common with stainless steels
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Slow cooling from high temp  Metallurgical
structure changes under thermal equilibrium.

Thermal equilibrium: steady state condition in
which time is available for diffusion of atoms.

Austenite (FCC) transformed into ferrite (BCC) +
iron carbide

Used in heat treatment (annealing)  soft steel
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Rapid Cooling of Steel Weld Regions

Rapid cooling from high temp @ quenching
3 regions 3 structure

Insufficient time for thermal equilibrium structure Weld metal
change  high strength steel HAZ

Tempering: heating to intermediate temp after Base metal
quenching to restore sufficient ductility while
maintaining a stronger & harder steel

To cushion the quenching effect in welding
Preheating
Blanket cooling
Post heating 17 18

Weld Metal Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Completely melted fusion weld
Narrow band of base metal adjacent to the weld

Solidified filler metal joint

Base metal at the boundaries
Properties are affected by heat of welding
 weld interface
Metallurgical structure change at any region
> 732oC (carbon steels) or 315oC (Al alloys)

HAZ maybe weaker & more susceptible to
failure under service loads.

Width of HAZ is proportional to the amount of
heat input.
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Base Metal Effects on Physical Properties

Not structurally altered by exposure to welding
Characteristic responses of metal to forms of

heat energy i.e. heat, light, electricity & magnetism

The boundary between base metal and HAZ
Some significantly influence weldability
depends on:
Not altered by welding
Metallurgical transformation temperature
Welding temperature

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Effects on Physical Properties Melting Point

Physical properties that influence weldability:
The temp at which a metal passes from a solid
Melting point state to a liquid state.

Pure metals possess a specific melting temp.
Thermal expansion

Alloys melt within a temp range.
Specific heat

Solidus: The highest temp at which alloy is
Thermal conductivity completely solid.
Electrical conductivity
Liquidus: The lowest temp at which alloy is
Magnetism completely molten.
Oxidation

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Melting Point Thermal Expansion

A measure of the change in dimension caused

by heating or cooling.

Dimension changes can occur in length, width
and thickness.

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Thermal Expansion Specific Heat

The amount of thermal expansion is expressed
as the coefficient of linear expansion or
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
CTE = L / T
DL = change in length (inch / inch)
DT = change in temp (oF)

Basically the amount of heat required to
increase the temp of a unit mass of substance
by 1 deg.

A way of comparing the amount of heat required
to melt various metals.

Aluminum (low melting temp, high specific heat)
requires almost the same amount of heat to melt
as steel (high melting temp, low specific heat)

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Thermal Conductivity

The rate at which metal transmit heat.

In welding, thermal conductivity provides a
measure for heat input required to compensate
for the heat conducted away from the weld.

Cu is difficult to weld with low-temp heat source
because thermal conductivity of Cu is very high.

Cu is excellent backing for welding because
rapid conduction of heat thru Cu backing
prevents it from sticking to weld metal.
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Magnetism

The ability of a metal to be attracted by a
magnet, or to develop residual magnetism when
placed in a magnetic or electrical field.

Most steels are magnetic & may contain residual
magnetism

Parts may need to be de-magnetized before
welding to prevent arc blow during welding.

Welding arc deflects from its normal path due to
magnetic forces.
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Electrical Conductivity

The rate at which electric current flows through a
metal.

Higher electrical conductivity (EC) easier for
electron to flow

Temp increases  EC decreases

Electrical resistivity (ER): Electrical resistance of
a unit volume of a material

ER = 1 / EC
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Oxidation

Metals form thin oxide layer at room temp.

As temp increases, oxide layer thickens

Metal oxide layer must be removed during
welding to prevent it from interfering with molten
weld.

Flux-coated filler metals & inert gas prevents
oxides from entering the weld area.
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Effects on Mechanical Properties Effects on Mechanical Properties

A property of metal that describes the behavior
Mechanical properties of metals such as:
of metals under applied load. Strength

Welding may alter specific mechanical Ductility
properties of metals, leading to premature failure Malleability
under load.
Toughness

Welders should be familiar with basic terms and
concepts associated with the mechanical Embrittlement
properties of metals. Hardness
Fatique
Creep
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Strength Toughness

Ability of a metal to resist
Ability of a metal to absorb

deformation from applied energy and deform rather
mechanical forces. than crack or fail catastrophically.

The strength of the welded
The rapid cooling rate during
metal should be known welding causes a decrease
 a strong & safe in the toughness of HAZ.
structure can be built.
Impact test is done to make

Likewise, when the strength of sure there is no loss of
the weld is known, a strong weld toughness in the HAZ.
joint can be produced.
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Hardness Embrittlement

Ability of a metal to resist
Complete loss of ductility and toughness as

deformation, indentation or metals fracture when a small load is applied.
scratching.
Embrittlement often

For steel, hardness can be occurs by penetration
used to estimate the of the embrittling
toughness of a weld joint. species into the grains

Ensure effectiveness of of the metal.
preheat, interpass temp
control and post heating.

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Fatigue Fatigue

Failure of a material operating under cyclic load.

Associated with service life of any components
that moves, rotates, vibrates or subjected to
thermal cycling.

All welding introduces stress concentrations into
a weld, reducing fatigue strength.

The effect is highest when the load is applied
transversally to the weld.

Fillet welds are particularly prone to fatigue
failure.

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Fatigue Creep

Slow plastic elongation that occurs during

extended service under load above a specific
temperature.

Structural metals undergo creep at high temp

Creep-resistant alloys are used for high temp
strength in petroleum refining, steam power
generator, etc.

Premature creep failure usually caused by
wrong selection of filler metal or base metal.

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Malleability Mechanical Forces

The ability of a metal to be deformed by
A load is an external

compressive forces without developing defects. mechanical force applied to
a component.

E.g., rolling, pressing or forging.

Stress: internal resistance
of a material to an
externally applied load
(load / area)

Strain: accompanying
change in dimensions when
a load induces stress in a
material.
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Mechanical Forces Mechanical Forces

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Mechanical Forces Welding Stress on Welds

Welding created significant stresses in joint,

resulting in shrinkage stress & residual stresses.

Shrinkage stress: Occur in weld filler metal as it
cools, contracts & solidifies.

Can cause hot cracks
(crater cracking)

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Shrinkage Stress

Hot cracks may occur
due to:
Presence of contaminant
(sulfur in nickel alloys)
Excessive heat input
(copper alloys)
Insufficient weld metal
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Residual Stress Reduction

Intermittent welding
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Residual Stress

Occurs in a joint member after welding is
completed.

Resulted from thermal & mechanical conditions.

Residual stress may cause cold cracking or
distortion.

Cold cracking may be delayed hours or days
after the weld is completed.
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Residual Stress Reduction

Intermittent welding
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Residual Stress Reduction Residual Stress Reduction

Backing bar
Restraining clamps

& fixtures

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Residual Stress Reduction Metallurgical Microstructure

Peening relieves internal stress & help metal
Microstructure: Appearance of the metallurgical
stretch as it cools structure when metals are specially prepared to

Low heat input reveal their features.

Post heating

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Metallurgical Microstructure

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