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Journalof AccountingResearch
Vol. 29 No. 2 Autumn1991
Printedin U.S.A.
1. Introduction
This study tests whether firms that would benefit from import relief
(e.g., tariff increases and quota reductions) attempt to decreaseearnings
throughearnings managementduringimport relief investigations by the
United States InternationalTrade Commission (ITC). The import relief
determination made by the ITC is based on several factors that are
specified in the federal trade acts, including the profitability of the
industry. Explicit use of accounting numbers in import relief regulation
providesincentives for managersto manageearnings in orderto increase
the likelihood of obtaining import relief and/or increase the amount of
relief granted.
While studies of earnings managementtypically examine situations in
which all contracting parties have incentives to "perfectly"monitor
(adjust)accounting numbers for such manipulation,import relief inves-
tigations provide a specific motive for earnings managementthat is not
* University of Chicago. I am especially indebted to my dissertation committee, John
Bound, Michael Bradley (cochairman), Michael Maher (cochairman), and Thomas Stober
for their assistance and to others who have provided helpful comments, notably an
anonymous referee, Victor Bernard, Dean Crawford, Linda DeAngelo, Bruce Ikawa, William
Kinney, Richard Leftwich, Robert Lipe, Peter Wilson, David Wright, and workshop
participants at Carnegie-Mellon University, Northwestern University, Ohio State Univer-
sity, University of Arizona, University of Chicago, University of Iowa, University of North
Carolina, University of Rochester, Washington University, and Wharton School. I am also
indebted to Richard Laulor from the United States International Trade Commission (ITC)
for his help in obtaining information about the import relief investigation process at the
ITC. This paper has been funded by the Institute of Professional Accounting at the
University of Chicago and dissertation fellowships from the Arthur Andersen & Co.
Foundation and the University of Michigan Dykstra Fund.
193
Copyright?, Journalof AccountingResearch1991
194 JOURNAL OF ACCOUNTING RESEARCH, AUTUMN 1991
3. HypothesisDevelopment
3.1 EARNINGS MANAGEMENT HYPOTHESIS
is precededby a preliminaryinvestigationin which the ITC has 45 days after the petition
is filed to determine whether there is a reasonableindicationthat the industry is being
injuredby imports.If the ITC's preliminaryinvestigationresults in a negative determina-
tion, the case is terminated.
22 In most cases, the ITC completes its investigation in the same year the petition is
filed, but in some cases the petition is filed late in the year and the investigationis then
completedin the followingyear.None of the firms in this studywas part of an investigation
EARNINGS MANAGEMENT DURING INVESTIGATIONS 203
a future import relief investigation but is unlikely that they would
anticipate it prior to year -1; thus, they would have no import-relief-
related incentive to manage earnings during periods prior to year -1.
The ITC does not formally request information for year 0 (except, in
some cases, for the most recent quarter),but there is evidence that this
informationenters the ITC's decision process either through the public
hearings or by voluntary submission of the data.23Interviews with the
ITC commissionersand commissioners'aides (see n. 9) and statements
made by commissioners in their injury opinions provide evidence that
they place greater reliance on results for years -1 and 0 than on prior
years. The commissionersare looking for a downwardtrend in financial
performanceor a drastic decline in the most recent periods, providing
greaterincentives for managersto decreasereportedearningsin the most
recent periods.24
3.3 LIMITATIONS
The empirical tests might not support the earnings management
hypothesis for several reasons. First, managers may believe the ITC
adjusts for their discretionaryaccounting choices, reducingtheir incen-
tives to use accountingchoices to manageearnings.Interviewsconducted
at the ITC indicate that the ITC does not adjust for accounting choices,
and most of the informationthat the ITC uses in its injurydetermination
is publicly available;therefore, managers should be aware of the ITC's
practices. Second, financial performanceof the affected firms may be so
bad that managers do not need to use accounting choices to manage
earnings. If the amount of injury found by the ITC impacts the amount
of relief granted, then firms will still have an incentive to manage
earnings. Third, managers may rely on cost allocations rather than
accrualsto manageearnings for the productline investigatedby the ITC.
Cost allocations can be used by managersto shift revenues and expenses
betweenthe productline being investigatedby the ITC and other product
lines. Finally, the power of the tests may not be sufficient to detect
in whichthe ITC did not formallyrequestinformationforthe yearprecedingthe completion
of the investigation.
23 For example, data through June 30, 1980 were formallycollected by the ITC in the
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210 JENNIFER J. JONES
where:
TAit= total accrualsin year t for firm i;
- 1 for firm i;
AREVit = revenues in year t less revenues in year t
PPEit = gross property,plant, and equipment in year t for firm i;
Ait-1 = total assets in year t -1 for firm i;
sit= error term in year t for firm i;
i=1,...,Nfirmindex(N= 23);
t = 1, ... , Ti, year index for the years included in the estimation
period for firm i (Ti ranges between 14 and 32 years).
In orderto provide a longer time series of observations,the definition
of total accruals used in tests of the earnings management hypothesis
reportedin this section has been modified from that used in section 4.
The total accrualsmeasureused in this section is not adjustedfor current
maturities of long-term debt and income taxes payable because several
earlyobservationsare missing from the Compustattapes.29Excludingthe
adjustment for current maturities of long-term debt and income taxes
payableincreasesthe averagenumberof observationsfor each firm from
12.9 to 25.2.3?
In equation (2), gross property, plant, and equipment and change in
revenues are included in the expectations model to control for changes
in nondiscretionaryaccruals caused by changing conditions. Total ac-
cruals (TA) includes changes in working capital accounts, such as ac-
counts receivable,inventory and accounts payable, that depend to some
extent on changes in revenues. Revenues are used to control for the
economicenvironmentof the firm because they are an objectivemeasure
29 The composition of total accruals (TAJ) used in section 5 is as follows: TA, = [ ACurrent
Assetst (4) - ACash, (1)] - [ACurrent Liabilities, (5)] - Depreciation and Amortization
Expenset (14), where the change (A) is computed between time t and time t - 1; Compustat
data item numbers are indicated parenthetically. The descriptive statistics for changes in
accruals, earnings, and cash flows using this modified definition of total accruals for years
-1, 0, and +1 are very similar to those presented in table 3, although some of the significance
levels are somewhat lower.
30 Since regression equation (2) is used to estimate "normal" accruals, levels of total
accruals rather than the changes in total accruals are used in this equation. In addition to
being conceptually superior, the use of total accruals makes estimation of the expectations
model more amenable. Unlike other time-series processes which need to be differenced in
order to obtain stationarity, total accruals tends to be a white noise process. The average
first-order autocorrelation for total accruals (TA) is 0.075, whereas it is -0.498 for changes
in total accruals (ATA). Autocorrelations for the accruals measure used in section 4 (i.e.,
total accruals adjusted for current maturities of long-term debt and income taxes payable)
are similar, with an average of -0.076 for total accruals and -0.505 for changes in total
accruals.
includedto control for the portion of total accrualsrelated to nondiscre-
tionary depreciation expense. Gross property, plant, and equipment is
included in the expectations model rather than changes in this account
because total depreciation expense (versus the change in depreciation
expense) is included in the total accruals measure.32All variables in the
accrualsexpectations model are scaled by lagged assets to reduce heter-
oscedasticity. As described in Kmenta [1986], a weighted least squares
approach to estimating a regression equation with a heteroscedastic
disturbanceterm (i.e., the unscaled regressionequation) can be obtained
by dividing both sides of the regression equation by an estimate of the
variance of the disturbance term (i.e., resulting in a scaled regression
equation). In this case, lagged assets (Ai,-1) are assumed to be positively
associated with the variance of the disturbanceterm.33
Ordinaryleast squares is used to obtain estimates aj, b1i,and b2i of ai,
fli, and f2i, respectively.This model assumes the relation between non-
discretionaryaccruals and the explanatory variables is stationary. The
predictionerroris defined as:
uip= TAiplAip-,
3
- (ai[l/Aip-] + bji[AREVip1Aip-j]+ b2j(PPE3p)AiP-l]
where p = year index for years included in the prediction period. The
predictionerror,uip,representsthe level of discretionaryaccrualsat time
p. The model is estimated using the longest time series of observations
availableprior to year -1 for each firm. The use of a long time series of
observations improves estimation efficiency but also increases the like-
lihood of structuralchange occurringduringthe estimation period.
Table 4 provides descriptive statistics for the multiple regressions
estimated over all available observations through year -2. The average
residual first-orderautocorrelationis -0.171. The Durbin-Watsontwo-
tailed test statistics indicate that the first-order autocorrelationis not
significant at the .05 level for 17 of 23 firms and is inconclusive for the
31Reported revenues may be affected to some extent by managers' attempts to decrease
reported earnings. For example, managers may postpone the shipment of merchandise
during import relief investigation years in order to postpone recognition of revenue until
the following year.
32 Some support for the choice of these variables can be found in a study by Kaplan
[1979].
33 The need for scaling was assessed by correlating the squared residuals obtained from
the unscaled expectations model (i.e., equation (2) without scaling) with squared lagged
assets. The resulting correlation of 0.643 indicates that the error term from the unscaled
expectations model is highly correlated with lagged assets. Other scaling factors have been
used to reduce heteroscedasticity, for example, Lipe [1986] deflated earnings components
by the Consumers Price Index and Rayburn [1986] scaled earnings components by the
market value of equity.
EARNINGS MANAGEMENT DURING INVESTIGATIONS 213
TABLE 4
Descriptive Statistics for the Multiple Regression Equations for Total Accruals'
(Estimated over years prior to year -1)
3 The variance for the prediction error is derived by Theil [1971, pp. 122-23] as the
following:E[upu,'] = o2[Cip + I], where Ci, equals [X,(X'X)-'Xp'] in which X is the
matrix of independentvariables for the estimation period and Xp,is the matrix for the
predictionperiod.The standarderrorfrom the estimation period, a, providesan unbiased
estimate of a. I is the identity matrix.
36 In orderto apply significancetests based on the Z statistic, the predictionerrorsmust
FirmNumber
Year _lb Year0 Year+1
1 0.534 -0.369 -0.519
2 -1.218 -0.921 -1.806
3 -0.623 -0.812 0.546
4 -0.514 -0.502 0.012
5 0.097 -0.041 0.067
6 -0.114 -0.515 -0.426
7 -0.211 0.293 -1.552
8 -0.128 0.293 -0.609
9 -0.115 -0.414 0.603
10 1.641 -1.397 -2.055
11 -0.795 0.331 -0.738
12 0.117 -0.749 0.781
13 0.894 -1.890 -0.976
14 0.224 -2.004 -0.783
15 -0.203 -0.218 0.171
16 0.405 -0.622 0.181
17 0.328 -0.339 -0.062
18 -0.772 -1.479 1.795
19 -0.216 -0.548 -0.483
20 1.006 -0.248 0.165
21 -1.805 -0.222 0.252
22 0.089 -2.318 -0.534
23 -0.501 -2.794 -0.234
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218 JENNIFER J. JONES
" When the analysis is based on the accruals measure from section 4, discretionary
accrualsare also significantlynegativein year 0 but the significancelevels are substantially
lower (t-statistic of -2.275 with a significancelevel of 0.011 when 1984 is treated as year
0, and -2.249 with a significancelevel of 0.012 when 1985 is treated as year 0). The Z
statistics are negative and insignificant for year -1 and positive and insignificant for
year +1.
38 When 1985 is treated as year 0 for the footwear industry, the Z statistic for year 0
increasesin absolute magnitudeto -3.802 with a significancelevel less than 0.0001. This
result is consistent with the notion that the footwearindustrytook additionalsteps during
the secondinvestigation(1985) to decreasereportedearnings.Since the Z statistic is based
on time-seriesregressionsthat control for the effect of changingrevenueson accruals,the
decreasesin accrualsreportedin table 3 do not appearto be caused entirely by decreases
in revenues.
39 When 1985 is treated as year 0 for the footwearindustry,the Z statistic decreasesin
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EARNINGS MANAGEMENT DURING INVESTIGATIONS 221
had on the Z statistic. If firm 23 (an auto company) or the entire auto
industry is excluded from the analysis, the resulting Z statistics are
negative and significant at the 0.002 and 0.005 levels, respectively.If the
footwear industry is omitted from the sample because a second investi-
gation was conducted in this industry in 1985 (year +1 in table 5), the
absolute magnitude of the Z statistic increases (-3.771) for year 0 and
decreases (-0.562) for year +1.
5.4 ALTERNATIVE TESTS
Table 8 presents results for two alternative tests. As discussed in
section 3, managers may have greater incentives to manage earnings if
they are petitioners or if the ITC investigation is being conductedunder
the general escape clause. The Z statistic for the petitioning firms for
year 0 (-2.833) is smaller in absolute magnitude than for the entire
sample.The lower Z statistic may be due to a smaller sample size. Thus,
the average Vis (Va) are comparedto the entire sample rather than the
Z statistics. In year 0, V, is greater in absolute magnitude for the
petitioners (-0.800) than it is for the entire sample (-0.760), indicating
TABLE 8
AlternativeTests of the EarningsManagementHypothesis
ZvDPt AverageVip
Year -1b Year0 Year +1 Year -1 Year0 Year +1
All companies, see table 5
(n = 23) .................. -0.372 -3.459 -1.228 -0.082 -0.760 -0.270
Include only petitioners
(n = 14) .................. -0.264 -2.833 -1.097 -0.074 -0.800 -0.310
Include only escape clause
cases (n = 18) ............. -0.788 -2.772 - -1.058 -0.196 -0.690 -0.263
The Zvpstatistic is calculatedas Zi'j V,, [EN, (T, - 3)(Ti - 5)]- , where T, is the numberof years
in the estimationperiod. Vi,,is computedas ui,,/(si(l + C-')), whereCii,= [X,(X'X)-'X,'] in which X
is the matrix of independentvariablesfor the estimation period,Xp is the matrix for the prediction
period,uipis the predictionerror,p is the predictionyear,and si is the standarderrorfromestimatesof
the followingregressionmodel:
= aj[11/Ajt_]
TAj,1Aj,_j + 3,j[AREVat/Ajt_,]
+ 32i[PPEit/Ait-.] + fit,
where:
TAit= total accrualsin year t for firm i;
AREVit= revenuesin year t less revenuesin year t - 1 for firm i;
PPEit= grossproperty,plant, and equipmentin year t for firm i;
Ait-1= total assets in year t - 1 for firm i;
Ej,= errorterm in year t for firm i;
i= 1, . . , 23 firm index;
t = 1, . . ., Ti,year index for the years includedin the estimationperiodfor firm i.
The compositionof total accruals (TAt) is as follows: TAt = [ACurrentAssetst (4) - ACash,(1)] -
[ACurrentLiabilities,(5)] - Depreciationand AmortizationExpense, (14), where the change (A) is
computedbetweentime t and time t - 1; Compustatdata item numbersare indicatedparenthetically.
The regressionequationsare estimatedover all availableyearspriorto year -1.
b Year0 is the yearthe ITC completedits investigation.In this table,year0 for the footwearindustry
is 1984.
cThe numberof observationsincludedin the Z statistics is n.
222 JENNIFER J. JONES
where:
usfp= averagestandardizedpredictionerrorfor portfoliof at time p;
ufp= averageprediction errorfor portfoliof at time p;
af = estimated standarddeviation of the portfoliof residuals;
f = portfolio (industry);
p = time period.
A t-statistic is computed to test whether the average prediction errors
are different from zero as follows:
Tp= usp/[S/(n_)1/2] (7)
where:
usp = averageof usfpacross all portfolios f at time p;
S = estimated standarddeivation of lisp, (S = 1);
nf = numberof portfolios.
decision. The injury must be shown to have been caused by foreign imports.
224 JENNIFER J. JONES
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EARNINGS MANAGEMENT DURING INVESTIGATIONS 225
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226 JENNIFER J. JONES
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EARNINGS MANAGEMENT DURING INVESTIGATIONS 227
APPENDIX B
InformationCollectedin the Producer'sQuestionnairefor ITC Final
Investigations
A. Practical Annual Capacity43
B. Production
C. End-of-PeriodInventories
D. Purchases
1. Imports
2. Other Purchases
E. Shipments
1. Intracompanyand IntercompanyTransfers
2. Domestic Shipments
3. Export Shipments
4. Amounts Made to End Users and Distributors
F. Employmentand Wages
G. Income-and-Lossand Other Financial Information
1. Methods of Allocation
2. Income from Operations
3. List of Unusual or NonrecurringExpenses
4. Asset Valuation:OriginalCost and Book Value
5. CapitalExpenditures
6. Capital and Investment-Actual and potential negative effects of
imports on firm's growth, investment, and ability to raise capital
7. Research and Development Expenses
H. Prices
L Competitionfrom Imports-Price Suppression/Depression
J. Competitionfrom Imports-Lost Sales
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DOBSON,J. M. Two Centuriesof Tariffs: The Backgroundand Emergenceof the U.S.
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43 Companiesmust report all informationby establishment, and if 85% or less of the
establishmentis devoted to the product line in question, the informationmust also be
providedby productline. An establishmentis defined by the ITC as "eachfacility in the
United States in which product A is produced,including auxiliary facilities operated in
conjunctionwith (whetheror not physicallyseparatefrom) such productionfacilities."For
preliminaryinvestigations,less detailedinformationis collectedin parts B, C, D, E, and G
of the questionnaire.This informationwas obtained from a sample copy of a Producer's
Questionnaireprovidedby the ITC.
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UNITED STATES CONGRESS (93d). TradeAct of 1974, Public Law 93-618,January3, 1975.
UNITED STATES CONGRESS (96th). Trade Agreements Act of 1979, Public Law 96-39,
July 26, 1979.
UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL TRADE COMMISSION. InvestigationNumberTA-201-32,
Publicationno. 905, August 1978.
InvestigationNumberTA-201-44,Publicationno. 1110, December1980.
InvestigationNumberTA-201-55,Publicationno. 1717, August 1985.
Annual Report,Publicationno. 1847,December1985.