f-

Fundamentals of Noise
and Vibration Analysis
for Engineers
Second edition

M. P. Norton
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Western Australia

and

D. G. Karczub
S.Y.T. Engineering Consultants, Perth, Western Australia

"""'d CAMBRIDGE
~~: UNIVERSITY PRESS
s

Contents

Preface page xv
Acknowledgements xvii
Introductory comments xviii

1 Mechanical vibrations: a review of some fundamentals

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Introductory wave motion concepts - an elastic continuum viewpoint 3
1.3 Introductory multiple, discrete, mass-spring-damper oscillator concepts -
a macroscopic viewpoint 8
1.4 Introductory concepts on natural frequencies, modes of vibration, forced
vibrations and resonance 10
1.5 The dynamics of a single oscillator - a convenient model 12
1.5.1 Undamped free vibrations 12
1.5.2 Energy concepts 15
1.5.3 Free vibrations with viscous damping 16
1.5.4 Forced vibrations: some general comments 21
1.5.5 Forced vibrations with harmonic excitation 22
1.5.6 Equivalent viscous-damping concepts - damping in real systems 30
1.5.7 Forced vibrations with periodic excitation 32
1.5.8 Forced vibrations with transient excitation 33
1.6 Forced vibrations with random excitation 37
1.6.1 Probability functions 38
1.6.2 Correlation functions 39
1.6.3 Spectral density functions 41
1.6.4 Input-output relationships for linear systems 42
1.6.5 The special case of broadband excitation of a single oscillator 50
1.6.6 A note on frequency response functions and transfer functions 52
1.7 Energy and power flow relationships 52

vii
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1.8 Multiple oscillators - a review of some general procedures 56
1.8.1 A simple two-degree-of-freedom system 56
1.8.2 A simple three-degree-of-freedom system 59
1.8.3 Forced vibrations of multiple oscillators 60
1.9 Continuous systems - a review of wave-types in strings, bars and plates 64
1.9.1 The vibrating string 64
1.9.2 Quasi -longitudinal vibrations of rods and bars 72
1.9.3 Transmission and reflection of quasi-longitudinal waves 77
1.9.4 Transverse bending vibrations of beams 79
1.9.5 A general discussion on wave-types in structures 84
1.9.6 Mode summation procedures 85
1.9.7 The response of continuous systems to random loads 91
1.9.8 Bending waves in plates 94
1.10 Relationships for the analysis of dynamic stress in beams 96
1.10.1 Dynamic stress response for flexural vibration of a thin beam 96
1.10.2 Far-field relationships between dynamic stress and structural
vibration levels 100
1.10.3 Generalised relationships for the prediction of maximum
dynamic stress 102
1.10.4 Properties of th~ non-dimensional correlation ratio 103
1.10.5 Estimates of dynamic stress based on static stress and
displacement 104
1.10.6 Mean-square estimates for single-mode vibration 105
1.10.7 Relationships for a base-excited cantilever with tip mass 106
1.11 Relationships for the analysis of dynamic strain in plates 108
1.11.1 Dynamic strain response for flexural vibration of a constrained
rectangular plate 109
1.11.2 Far-field relationships between dynamic stress and structural
vibration levels 112
1.11.3 Generalised relationships for the prediction of maximum
dynamic stress 113
1.12 Relationships for the analysis of dynamic strain in cylindrical shells 113
1.12.1 Dynamic response of cylindrical shells 114
1.12.2 Propagating and evanescent wave components 117
1.12.3 Dynamic strain concentration factors 119
1.12.4 Correlations between dynamic strain and velocity spatial
maxima 119
~~~ In
Nomenclature 123
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contents
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m

2 Sound waves: a review of some fundamentals 128

2.1 Introduction 128

2.2 The homogeneous acoustic wave equation - a classical analysis 131
2.2.1 Conservation of mass 134
2.2.2 Conservation of momentum 136
2.2.3 The thermodynamic equation of state 139
2.2.4 The linearised acoustic wave equation 140
2.2.5 The acoustic velocity potential 141
2.2.6 The propagation of plane sound waves 143
2.2.7 Sound intensity, energy density and sound power 144
2.3 Fundamental acoustic source models 146
2.3.1 Monopoles - simple spherical sound waves 147
2.3.2 Dipoles 151
2.3.3 Monopoles near a rigid, reflecting, ground plane 155
2.3.4 Sound radiation from a vibrating piston mounted in a rigid baffle 157
2.3.5 Quadrupoles -lateral and longitudinal 162
2.3.6 Cylindrical line sound sources 164
2.4 The inhomogeneous acoustic wave equation - aerodynamic sound 165
2.4.1 The inhomogeneous wave equ8tion 167
2.4.2 Lighthill's acoustic analogy 174
2.4.3 The effects of the presence of solid bodies in the flow 177
2.4.4 The Powell-Howe theory of vortex sound 180
2.5 Flow duct acoustics 183
References 187
Nomenclature 188

3 Interactions between sound waves and solid structures 193

3.1 Introduction 193

3.2 Fundamentals of fluid-structure interactions 194
3.3 Sound radiation from an infinite plate - wave/boundary matching
concepts 197
3.4 Introductory radiation ratio concepts 203
3.5 Sound radiation from free bending waves in finite plate-type structures 207
3.6 Sound radiation from regions in proximity to discontinuities - point and
line force excitations 216
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3.7 Radiation ratios of finite structural elements 221
3.8 Some specific engineering-type applications of the reciprocity principle 227
3.9 Sound transmission through panels and partitions 230
3.9.1 Sound transmission through single panels 232
3.9.2 Sound transmission through double-leaf panels 241
3.10 The effects of fluid loading on vibrating structures 244
3.11 Impact noise 247
References 249
Nomenclature 250

4 Noise and vibration measurement and control procedures 254

4. I Introduction 254
4.2 Noise and vibration measurement units - levels, decibels and spectra 256
4.2.1 Objective noise measurement scales 256
4.2.2 Subjective noise measurement scales 257
4.2.3 Vibration measurement scales 259
4.2.4 Addition and subtraction of decibels 261
4.2.5 Frequency analysis bandwidths 263
4.3 Noise and vibration measurement instrumentation 267
4.3.1 Noise measurement instrumentation 267
4.3.2 Vibration measurement instrumentation 270
4.4 Relationships for the measurement of free-field sound propagation 273
4.5 The directional charactelistics of sound sources 278
4.6 Sound power models - constant power and constant volume sources 279
4.7 The measurement of sound power 282
4.7.1 Free-field techniques 282
4.7.2 Reverberant-field techniques 283
4.7.3 Semi-reverberant-field techniques 287
4.7.4 Sound intensity techniques 290
4.8 Some general comments on industrial noise and vibration control 294
4.8.1 Basic sources of industrial noise and vibration 294
4.8.2 Basic industrial noise and vibration control methods 295
4.8.3 The economic factor 299
4.9 Sound transmission from one room to another 301
4.10 Acoustic enclosures 304
4.11 Acoustic barriers 308
4.12 Sound-absorbing materials 313
4.l3 Vibration control procedures 320

. Contents
~ ------------------------------------------------------------
4.13.1 Low frequency vibration isolation - single-degree-of-freedom
systems 322
4.13.2 Low frequency vibration isolation - multiple-degree-of-freedom
systems 325
4.13.3 Vibration iso lation in the audio-frequency range 327
4.13.4 Vibration isolation materials 330
4.13.5 Dynamic absorption 332
4.13.6 Damping materials 334
References 335
Nomenclature 336

5 The analysis of noise and vibration signals 342 I

I
11

5.1 Introduction 342

5.2 Deterministic and random signals 344
5.3 Fundamental signal analysis techniques 347
5.3.1 Signal magnitude analysis 347
5.3.2 Time domain analysis 351
5.3.3 Frequency domain analysis 352
5.3.4 Dual signal analysis 355
5.4 Analogue signal analysis 365
5.5 Digital signal analysis 366
5.6 Statistical errors associated with signal analysis 370
5.6.1 Random and bias errors 370
5.6.2 Aliasing 372
5.6.3 Windowing 374
5.7 Measurement noise errors associated with signal analysis 377
References 380
Nomenclature 380

6 Statistical energy analysis of noise and vibration 383

6.1 Introduction 383

6.2 The basic concepts of statistical energy analysis 384
6.3 Energy flow relationships 387
6.3.1 Basic energy flow concepts 388
6.3.2 Some general comments 389
6.3.3 The two subsystem model 391
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6.3.4 In-situ estimation procedures 393

6.3.5 Multiple subsystems 395
6.4 Modal densities 397
6.4.1 Modal densities of structural elements 397
6.4.2 Modal densities of acoustic volumes 400
6.4.3 Modal density measurement techniques 401
6.5 Internal loss factors 407
6.5.1 Loss factors of structural elements 408
6.5.2 Acoustic radiation loss factors 410
6.5.3 Internal loss factor measurement techniques 412
6.6 Coupling loss factors 417
6.6.1 Structure-structure coupling loss factors 417
6.6.2 Structure-acoustic volume coupling loss factors 419
6.6.3 Acoustic volume-acoustic volume coupling loss factors 420
6.6.4 Coupling loss factor measurement techniques 421
6.7 Examples of the application of S.E.A. to coupled systems 423
6.7.1 A beam-plate-room volume coupled system 424
6.7.2 Two rooms coupled by a partition 427
6.8 Non-conservative coupling - coupling damping 430
6.9 The estimation of sound radiation from coupled structures using total
loss factor concepts 431
6.10 Relationships between dynamic stress and strain and structural vibration
levels 433
References 435
Nomenclature 437

7 Pipe flow noise and vibration: a case study 441

7.1Introduction 441
7.2General descliption of the effects of flow disturbances on pipeline noise
and vibration 443
7.3 The sound field inside a cylindrical shell 446
7.4 Response of a cylindrical shell to internal flow 451
7.4.1 General fonnalism of the vibrational response and sound
radiation 451
7.4.2 Natural frequencies of cylindrical shells 454
7.4.3 The internal wall pressure field 455
7.4.4 The joint acceptance function 458
7.4.5 Radiation ratios 460
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7.5 Coincidence - vibrational response and sound radiation due to higher
order acoustic modes 461
7.6 Other pipe flow noise sources 467
7.7 Prediction of vibrational response and sound radiation charactelistics 471
7.8 Some general design guidelines 477
7.9 A vibration damper for the reduction of pipe flow noise and vibration 479
References 481
Nomenclature 483

8 Noise and vibration as a diagnostic tool 488

8.1 Introduction 488

8.2 Some general comments on noise and vibration as a diagnostic tool 489
8.3 Review of available signal analysis techniques 493
8.3.1 Conventional magnitude and time domain analysis techniques 494
8.3.2 Conventional frequency domain analysis techniques 501
8.3.3 Cepstrum analysis techniques 503
8.3.4 Sound intensity analysis techniques 504
8.3.5 Other advanced signal analysis techniques 507
8.3.6 New techniques in condition monitoring 511
8.4 Source identification and fault detection from noise and vibration
signals 513
8.4.1 Gears 514
8.4.2 Rotors and shafts 516
8.4.3 Bearings 518
8.4.4 Fans and blowers 523
8.4.5 Furnaces and burners 525
8.4.6 Punch presses 527
8.4.7 Pumps 528
8.4.8 Electrical equipment 530
8.4.9 Source ranking in complex machinery 532
8.4.10 Structural components 536
8.4.11 Vibration severity guides 539
8.5 Some specific test cases 541
8.5.1 Cabin noise source identification on a load-haul-dump vehicle 541
8.5.2 Noise and vibration source identification on a large induction
motor 547
8.5.3 Identification of rolling-contact bearing damage 550
8.5.4 Flow-induced noise and vibration associated with a gas pipeline 554

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8.5.5 Flow-induced noise and vibration associated with a racing

sloop (yacht) 557
8.6 Performance monitoring 557
8.7 Integrated condition monitoring design concepts 559
References 562
Nomenclature 563

Problems 566
Appendix I: Relevant engineering noise and vibration control journals 599
Appendix 2: Typical sound transmission loss values and sound absorption
coefficients for some common building materials 600
Appendix 3: Units and conversion factors 603
Appendix 4: Physical properties of some common substances 605

Answers to problems 607

Index 621
r
1 J

Index

absorption coefficients 283-4, 313-15 vibrating pistons in a rigid baffle 157--62, 195-7
for typical materials 321, 602 directivity factor 158-9
see also sound-absorbing materials and techniques radiation impedance 160
accelerometers 270-3 radiation reactance 161
placing of 491 radiation resistance 160-1
acoustic barriers 308-12 see also directional characteristics of sound sources;
insertion loss 309, 311-12 inhomogeneous acoustic wave equation
Fresnel diffraction 309-11 acoustic velocity potential 141-2
acoustic cut-off frequency, higher order modes 441, dipoles 152-3
443,445-6,447-50 monopoles 147-8, 155-6
acoustic enclosures 304-8 plane waves 143
air-gap leakages 307-8 acoustic wave equation 140
close fitting 304, 308 derivation 133-43
enclosure resonances 307-8 one-dimensional 143
design guidelines 298-9 velocity potential 142 I
flanking transmission 307 see also homogeneous acoustic wave equation;
insertion loss 307 inhomogeneous acoustic wave equation i.
large fitting 304-7 acoustically slow/fast modes
sound radiation 305 acoustically slow (subsonic) 211, 226
acoustic impedance see impedance acoustically fast (supersonic) 211, 226
acoustic modes, higher-order 445-6,447-50 critical frequency 199,210-13
acoustic radiation damping 410, 411, 537 sound radiation principles 197-200
see also internal loss factors aerodynamic sound see inhomogeneous wave
acoustic radiation reactance 161 equation,
see also impedance air absorption 285
acoustic radiation resistance 160-1 air springs, as vibration isolators 331
see also impedance aliasing problems 372-3
acoustic source models 146-65 amplitude resonance 26-7
cylindrical line sound sources 164-5 see also resonance
dipoles - two monopoles in close proximity analogue filter characteristics 365--6
151-5 analogue signal analysers/analysis 365--6
aerodynamic sound 173,174,179 anechoic chambers 282
finite-plate sound radiation 214-15, 223-4 apparent mass 28
monopoles - spherical sound source 147-51 auto-correlation functions 39-40,42,43,351-2
aerodynamic sound 167, 173, 174, 179 see also correlation
far-field/near-field 148-50 auto-spectral density functions 41-2, 45, 49,352,
source strength 148 367-8
specific acoustic impedance of spherical waves see also spectral density
148-9 A-weighting 258-9, 266-7
monopoles near a rigid, reflecting, ground plane
155-7 baffled piston 157-62, 195-7
power doubling effects 156-7,280 bandwidth 366, 370-2, 376-7
quadrupoles 162-4 filter 371
sound power source models frequency analysis 263-7
constant power 279-81 half-power 27,51
constant pressure 280-81 mean-square 51,105--6
constant volume 279-81 signal analysis 370-2

621
622 Index
~

barriers, acoustic 308-12 combustion noise/roar 296,525-7

bars and rods see rods and bars, quasi-longitudinal compensation costs for hearing damage 300-1
vibrations complex modulus of elasticity 75, 83
baseband auto-spectra 501-2 complex stiffness 31
beams, dynamic stress analysis see dynamic complex wavenumber 75,83
stress/strain compression~l (longitudinal) waves 4-5, 72-5
beams, response of continuous systems to random condenser mIcrophones 267, 268-9 270
loads 91-4 condition monitoring 488-9, 490, 492
beams, transverse bending vibrations 79-84 online condition monitoring 560-2
bending wave velocity 81 safety monitoring 560
boundary conditions 82 system design considerations 559-62
damping 83-4 see also performance monitoring
drive-point mechanical impedance 83 constant percentage bandwidth 264
equation of motion 79-80 continuous monitoring see condition monitorin a
Euler beam equation 80 continuous systems 64-95 "
group velocity 81 control methods for industrial noise and vibration
travelling wave solution 81, 97-8 295-9
see also dynamic stress/strain conversion factors and units 603-4
bearing faults/defects detection 494-6, 514, 518-23, convolution integral 33, 36, 46
550-1 correlation
cepstrum analysis technique 522-3, 548-50 coefficients 39-40
crest factor detection 522 functions 39-41, 374
envelope power spectrum analysis 523 see also auto-correlation functions; cross-
kurtosis technique 522 correlation functions
rolling-contact bearings 519-23, 550-1 correlation ratios 103-4
sliding-contact bearings 519 coulomb (dry-friction) damping 31
spectral analysis technique 522 see also damping
vibration severity guides/standards/limits coupling loss factors 387, 391, 417-23
539-41 acoustic volume-acoustic volume 420
bending waves coupled system examples 423-30
definition 4-7 measurement techniques 421-3
forced 213 structure-acoustic volume 419-20
in beams 81-6, 96-100 structure-structure 417-9
in pipes 226--7, 461 crest factors 496, 522
in plates 94-5,109-12,198-200,207-16 critical frequency
wave velocity 6--7,81, 198 infinite plate 199
bias error problems 370-2 finite plates 210-12, 216--21
blocked pressures 196 radiation ratio 222, 225
blower noise 523-5 panels and partitions 231, 232-41
boundary layer pressure fluctuation studies 447 see also acoustically slow/fast modes; coincidence
broadband excitation of a single oscillator 50-1 critical viscous-damping coefficient 20
burners, combustion noise 525-7 see also damping
B-weighting 258-9, 266-7 criticality and failure mode analYSis 488-9
cross-correlation functions 40, 355, 357
cavitation 529-30 see also correlation
centrifugal pumps 528-30, 559 cross-spectral density functions 49,358-9,379-80,
cepstrum analysis 353-6 459,508
for bearing fault detection 522-3, 548-50, 551-2 see also spectral density
complex cepstrum 355-6, 503-4 cut-off frequencies 441, 443, 445-6, 447-50
power cepstrum 353-4, 503-4 cylindrical line sound sources 164-5
characteristic mechanical impedance see impedance cylindrical shells, dynamic strain analysis see
coefficients dynamic stress/strain
absorption 283-4, 313, 315, 321, 602 C-weighting 258-9, 266--7
reflecti on 313-14
transmission 232, 284, 308 damping 30-32
coherence 362-4, 378-9, 509, 536 basic concepts 2, 8-10
coherent output power 362, 379 and complex stiffness 31,75, 83
coincidence coulomb (dry-friction) damping 31
cylindrical shells 461-7, 473-4, 477, 554-7 coupling 430-1
definition 7 critical damping 20-1
double leaf panels 243 damped natural frequency 19,20-1
panels 232-41 damping materials 334-5
see also critical frequency damping ratio 25
623 Index
~
decay time 21
effects on dynamic absorbers 333
with forced vibrations of multiple oscillators 62--4
generalised 85--6
hysteretic (structural) 30, 92
with low frequency vibration 323--4
structural components testing 537
structural loss factor 31, 53, 75, 83, 92, 408
viscoelastic damping 334-5
viscous damping
equivalent viscous damping concept 30-2
of free vibrations 16-21
see also internal loss factors, acoustic radiation
damping
decibels
addition and subtraction 261-3
noise/sound levels 222, 256
vibration levels 260-1
degrees-of-freedom 2-3, 56-60
deterministic and random signals 22, 344-7
diagnostics using noise and vibration analysis
488-565
see also diagnostic tools
diagnostic tools 493-513
cepstrum analysis 503--4
condition monitoring 488-9, 492
crest factor measurement 496
discrete wavelet transforms (DWTs) 512
envelope power spectrum analysis 507-8
frequency domain analysis 501-3
frequency response (transfer) functions 509
fuzzy logic 512
kurtosis 500
magnitude domain analysis 494-501
neural networks 512
peak signal measurement 494
phase-averaged time histories 496
probability density distributions of noise levels
497-8
propagation path identification 507-9
short time Fourier transfomls (STFTs) 512
sound intensity analysis 504-7
sound intensity mapping 505
sound source ranking 504, 532-6
temporal wavefolID recovery 510-11"
time domain analysis 494-501
waterfall plots 50 I
see also signal analysis techniques and functions
diffuse (reverberant) sound fields 283-7
digital signal analysis 366-70
dipoles see acoustic source models
Dirac delta function 34
direct field 283, 286
directional characteristics of sound sources 278-9
directivity factor and directivity index 278-9
vibrating pistons in a rigid baffle 158-9
discrete Fourier transforms (DFTs) 366-9
discrete wavelet transforms (DWTs), as a diagnostic
tool 512
dispersion curves, in cylindrical shells 117-18,
450
dispersion relationships 7, 463-65
dual signal analysis 355--64
ducts see flow duct acoustics
Duhamel convolution integral 89-90
D-weighting 258-9, 266-7
dynamic absorption/absorbers 332--4
dynamic load factor 90
dynamic stiffness (force/displacement) 28
dynamic stress/strain
beams 96-108
base-excited cantilever with tip mass 106-8
dynamic stress and fatigue 96
estimates based on static stress and displacement
104-5
mean-square estimates for single-mode vibration
105-6
non-dimensional correlation ratio 103--4
prediction of maximum dynamic stress from
velocity 102-3
relationships between dynamic stress and
velocity 100--4
evanescent wave effects and dynamic stress
concentration 98-100
spatial distributions of vibration and dynamic
stress 97-1 00
strain-<iisplacement relation 96-7
cylindrical shells 113-21,433-5
dynamic bending strain 114-15
dynamic su"ain concentration 119, 120
relationships between dynamic strain and
velocity 119-21
shell vibration dynamic response 114-17
spatial distributions of dynamic strain 115-16,
119
travelling wave equations 114
plates 108-13
evanescent waves 109-11, 113
dynamic bending strain 109-12
dynamic strain concentration 110-1
relationship between dynamic strain and velocity
112-13
travelling wave solution 109
in statistical energy analysis 433-5
economic factors in noise and vibration control
299-301
damage limitation 299
hearing damage compensation 300-1
eddy current probes 270
eigenfunctions 86
eigenvalues, mode summation procedures 86-7
eigenvectors 58
elasticity 1-3
electrical equipment, noise and vibration sources
530-2
enclosures see acoustic enclosures
energy concepts
energy and power flow 52--6
energy flow relationships 387-97
oscillatory motion 15-16
potential and kinetic energy 15-16,52
see also statistical energy analysis (SEA)
energy density 146,285,304
energy spectral density functions 352-3
envelope power spectra analysis 507-8, 552-4
-
624 Index

equivalent viscous damping 30-2

see also damping
basic principles 2, 10-12,21-2
harmonic excitation 22-9
errors in signal analysis 370-7 impulse response functions 33-6
aliasing 372-3 linear systems; input-output relationships 42 4
bandwidth considerations 370-1 multiple oscillators 60-4 ' 6-9
bias errors 370-2 periodic excitation 32-3
measurement noise errors 377-80 random excitation 37-52
normalised random errors 371-2 single oscillator 12-15
random errors 370-2 transient excitation 33-6
windowing 374-7 Fourier series expansion 32
Euler beam equation 80-1 Fourier transforms 41-9, 352-3, 366-70
Euler-Bernoulli beam theory 96 free vibrations 2, 16-21
evanescent waves free-field sound propagation 273-8
beams 81, 98-100 line sources (cylindrical and semi-cylindrical)
cylindrical shells 117-9 275-7
plates 109-11, 113 plane sources 277-8
see also far-field; near-field point ~ources (spherical and hemi-spherical) 274-5
frequencIes, natural see natural frequencies
fan and blower noise 523-5 frequency analysis bandwidths 263-7, 370-2
far-field frequency domain analysis 342-4, 352-5
acoustics 148-50,207 for fault prediction 489-90, 491,501-3
vibration 98-101,109-10,112, 113,119-21 frequency response functions (transfer functions) 28
see also evanescent waves; near field 47-9,50-2,358-62 '
fast Fourier transforms (FFTs) 42, 352, 366 as a diagnostic tool 509
fault detection, prediction and source identification Fresnel diffraction theory, acoustic barriers 309-10
513-41 furnaces and burners, combustion noise 525-7
about sources of industrial noise and vibration fuzzy logic, as a diagnostic tool 512
294-5,513-14
bearings 494-9, 514, 518-23, 539-41, 548-50 gas pipeline flow induced noise and vibration 554-7
with condition monitoring 488-9 see also pipe flow noise and vibration
electrical equipment 530-2 gas turbines
gears 514-16 bearing vibration limits 540
hydraulic pumps 528-30 performance monitoring 558-9
rotors 514, 516-18 Gaussian distributions 350
shafts 516-18 gear noise and vibration 514-6
structural components 536-9 generalised damping 85-6
vibration severity guides 539-41 generalised force 85-6
see also diagnostic tools generalised mass 85-6
finite Fourier transform 367 generalised stiffness 85-6
finite plate-type structures, sound radiation from free Green's function
bending waves 207-16 aerodynamic sound 170-2
acoustically excited 208 for structure interactions 194-7
analysis using Rayleigh's equation 207 grilles in ducted flows 469
edge and corner radiation 211, 214-16 group velocity 7, 81
flow resistance (porous materials) 315 Gumble distributions 350
forced vibration 212-14
mechanically excited 208 Hankel function 225
modal density 214 hearing damage compensation costs 300-1
wavenumber diagrams 209-13 Heckl's relationships 454-5
flow duct acoustics 183-7 Helmholtz cavity resonator 182, 316-19
area discontinuity 185 homogeneous acoustic wave equation 129, 131-46
reactive silencers, acoustic performance 186-7 general solution 143
side-branch elements 185-6 Iinearised acoustic wave equation 140-1
outlet radiation impedance 187 human body as a system of damped springs 9-10
transmission matrix modelling conventions 184-5 hydraulic pumps see pumps, noise and vibration
flow-induced sound 165-7,441-6,467-71 hysteretic damping 30, 92
see also pipe flow noise and vibration; Strouhal see also structural loss factor; damping
number; transmission loss
fluid loading on vibrating structures 244-7 impact noise 247-9
fluid-structure interactions 194-7 acceleration/deceleration noise 247-8, 249
forced vibrations radiated noise energy 248
arbitrary, non-periodic, forcing function 36 ringing noise 247,249
as input-output system 21-3 impact testing 358-9
r~ _1"_de_X_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
impedance
I acoustic 144, 148-50
acoustic radiation 159-62, 195-7,244-7
characteristic (wave) impedance
acoustic 144
mechanical 73, 78
drive point 67,83, 160,195,218,220,235
mechanical 28-9, 73, 78, 160, 195,235
moment 419
impedance tube, absorption coefficient measurement
313,314
impulse excitation spectra, structural components
537-9
impulse response functions 33-6, 47,357-8,
362
induction motor noise and vibration 547-50
bearing vibration acceleration 547-9
cepstrum analysis 548-50
industrial noise and vibration sources 294-6
industrial noise and vibration control techniques
295-9
inertance (acceleration/force) 28
inertia base, in vibration isolation 331-2
infinite plates, sound radiation wave!boundary
matching concepts 197-203
radiation efficiency concept 199
radiation ratio 199
wave!boundary matching condition 201-2
wavenumber concepts 200
inhomogeneous acoustic wave equation (aerodynamic
sound) 129, 165-82
basic concepts 165-7
general solution 169-71
Green'sfunction 170-2
Helmholtz cavity resonator 182
Lighthill's acoustic analogy 165-7, 174-7,
178, 179
monopoles, dipoles, quadrupoles 167-80
Powell-Howe theory of vortex sound 167, 180-2
dissipation of sound concept 181
retardation time concept 168
solid bodies in the flow 177-80
solutions for simple sources 167-74
see also homogeneous acoustic wave equation; pipe
flow noise and vibration " microphones 267-70
input-output relationships 46-9
insertion loss 186-7,306,309,311-12
intensity (sound) see sound intensity
internal loss factors and SEA 387, 407-17
acoustic radiation loss factor 409, 410-11
amplitude tracking 416-17
band-averaged internal loss factors 414-15
envelope decay measuring technique 412
half-power bandwidth measuring technique 412
measurement techniques 412-17
random noise burst reverberation decay measuring
technique 412, 414, 416
steady-state energy flow measuring technique
412-14
structural loss factors 408-10
for some common materials 410
inverse filtering 5 I 0
inverse Fourier transform 353, 367
jet noise 177-82, 468
jet nozzle noise 130-2
joint acceptance function 452, 458-60
journals on noise and vibration 599
kinetic energy 52
Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral 194,200
kurtosis 500
for bearing fault detection 522
lag window functions 374-6
Lagrangian of a system 52
LighthiII's acoustic analogy 165-7, 174-7, 178, 179
linear systems; input-output relationships 42-9
and the convolution integral 46
linearised acoustic wave equation 140-1
logarithms, use of 222
longitudinal (compressional) waves 4,72-5
loss factors see internal loss factors and SEA
loudness level (phon) 258
loudness scale (sone) 258
lumped-parameter models 12
machines
noise and vibration control methods 129-31,298
vibration severity guides/standards 539-41
see also bearing faults/defects detection
magnification factor 27
magnitude analysis 494-501
mass law equation 237-8
material handling equipment, noise and vibration
control methods 298
Maxwell distributions 350
mean-square response 49, 50-1, 105-6
measurement noise errors 377-80
measurement of sound and vibration see signal
analysis techniques and functions; sound
intensity; sound measurement; sound power;
vibration measurement
mechanical impedance see impedance
mechanical compliance 28
mechanical inel1ance 28
mechanical reactance 28
mechanical resistance 28
ceramic microphones 268
condenser microphones 267, 268-70
free-field, pressure and random incidence 268-9
dynamic microphones 267-8
see also sound measurement
mobility (velocity/force) 28, 328-30, 401
modal density 214, 387, 397-407
acoustic volumes 400
definition 214
honeycomb structures 399-400
mass and stiffness corrections 404-7
measurement techniques 401-7
plates 2 I 4, 398
point mobility technique 401-3
structural components/elements 397-400, 537
thin-walled cylindrical shells 398-9
uniform bars in longitudinal vibration 398
see also statistical energy analysis
 4
626 Index
IIIIII!IIIIIIII

modal frequency response function of a cylinder 452 panel absorbers see partitions and panels
mode pruticipation factor 90 particle velocity 4,67, 142, 143,148
mode shapes/eigenvectors 58, 70-1, 537 particular integral 25
mode summation procedures 85-91 partitions and panels 230-44
damping 90 sound transmission
Duhamel convolution integnil 89-90 frequency range aspects 231, 232-3, 237-9
eigenvalues 86-7 single panels 232-41
generalised co-ordinates of modes 85-6 double-leaf panels 241-4
modes of vibration 10-12 between rooms 301-3
modelling sound sources see acoustic source models; panel absorbers 317-20
sound power typical TL valves 600-1
monitoring see condition monitoring; performance pascals (sound pressure level) 256
monitoring performance monitoring 488-9, 557-9
mono poles see acoustic source models centrifugal pumps 559
multiple oscillators 56-64 gas turbines 558-9
effects of damping 62-4 see also condition monitoring
forced vibrations 60-4 periodic excitation 32-3
see also degrees-of-freedom phase-averaged linear spectra 503
phase-averaged signals 496
natural frequencies phase resonance see resonance
concept 10-12 phase velocity 6, 65
fluid-loaded structures 246 phon (loudness level) 258
multiple oscillators 56, 60, 61 physical properties of common substances 605-6
plates 208, 213 gases 606
rods and bars 77 liquids 606
single oscillator 14 solids 605
strings 71 pipe flow noise and vibration 441-87
structural components 537 bends, effects of 456-7
transverse beam vibration 82-3 boundary layer pressure fluctuation studies 447
near-field cavity resonances 471
acoustics 148-50,207 complete coincidence 462-6
vibration 98-101, 102-3, 109-11 external sound radiation 454, 472
see also evanescent waves; far-field general discussion 443-6
neural networks, as a diagnostic tool 512 coincidence 461-7, 473-4, 477
noise measurement see sound measurement a coincidence damper 479-81
noise reduction 303, 429 principal wavenumber coincidences 464
noise source ranking cut-off frequencies 444, 448-50
as a diagnostic tool 504, 532-6 design guidelines 477-9
selectively wrapping/unwrapping parts of machines diffusers and spoilers (splitter plates) 468
533 dispersion curves 450
surface intensity measurement techniques 534-5 flow spoilers 468
surface velocity measurement techniques 533 grille noise 469
vibration intensity measurement techniques 536 internal acoustic modes 449
normal modes 85-90 internal wall pressure field 455
normalised random errors 371-2 jets 468
joint acceptance function 458-60
octave frequency bands 264 modal frequency response function of a cylinder
online condition monitoring 560-2 452
see also condition monitoring; performance shell natural frequencies 454-5
monitoring prediction of vibration and sound radiation 471-6
orthogonality 86-8 radiation ratios 460-1
oscillators response of a cylindrical shell to internal flow
damped 16-21 451-61
multiple 56-64 internal sound field 446-50
single 12-15,50-1 Strouhal number 444,468-71,477-8
undamped 12-15 vibration damper 479-81
oscillatory motion valve noise 469-71
basic concept 1-3 vOltex shedding 468, 470, 471, 477
complex quantities 14-15 wavenumber coincidence 462-5
energy concepts 15-16 see also cylindIjcal shells, dynamic stress/strain;
see also damping; degrees-of-freedom; forced transmission loss; coincidence
vibrations; vibration; waves/wave motion pipes see cylindrical shells; dynamic stress/strain;
overdamped motion 20 pipe flow noise and vibration

-
r
'627 Index
~ ------------------------------------------------------------
piston in a rigid baffle 157-62, 195-7 spherical sound source 205-6, 223
plane waves 7, 143-4 structural components 537
plateau method 240-1 random signals 22-3, 344-7
plate-type structures, bending waves in 94-5, 109-12 random error problems 370-2
plates, dynamic strain analysis see dynamic random excitation 37-52
stress/strain random loads on beams see beams, response of
plates, sound radiation from see finite plate-type continuous systems to random loads
structures, sound radiation from; infinite random noise burst reverberation decay measuring
plates, sound technique 412, 414, 416
radiation wave!boundary matching concepts ranking see noise source ranking
point mobility technique, and modal density 401-3 ray acoustics 133
porous and fibrous materials, absorption by 313, 316 Rayleigh integral 195
potential energy 15-16,52, 145-6 reactive power 54-5
Powell-Howe theory of vortex sound 167, 180-2 real (resistive) power 54-5
power concepts receptance (displacement/force) 28
energy and power flow 52-6 reciprocity principle
instantaneous power 29 basic concept 227-8
power dissipation 388-9 quiet and loud machines example 228-30
real and reactive power 54-5 with SEA 391
structural loss factor 53 vibrating piston example 195
time-averaged power 29, 54 reflection coefficient, sound 313-14
see also sound measurement; sound power; resolution bandwidth 370-1
statistical energy analysis resonance
power flow measurement 360 acoustic enclosures 307-8
power injection measuring technique 422 amplitude 26-7
power (sound) see sound power concept 2, 12
power spectrum see mean-square response; spectral phase resonance 25-6
density functions retardation time, aerodynamic sound 168, 178
probability density functions 38-9,348,497-9 reverberant (diffuse) sound fields 283-7
probability distribution function 348 reverberation radius 3 19
probability of exceedance 496, 500 reverberation time 286, 315
propagation path identification, as a diagnostic tool reverberation room absorption coefficient
507-9 measurement 313, 315, 316
propagation of plane sound waves 143-4 rods and bars, quasi-longitudinal vibrations 72-7
pulse response functions 33-6 boundary conditions 74, 76
see also impulse response functions damping 75
pumps, noise and vibration 528-30 longitudinal displacement of a bar element 72-3
bearing vibration limits 540 wave impedance (characteristic mechanical
cavitation 529-30 impedance) 73
hydraulic forces 528 and wave velocity 74
recirculation 530 wavenumber 75
rolling-contact bearing damage 550-4
quadrupoles see 162-4 auto-spectrum of vibration examination 550-1
quality factor 27,452 envelope power spectrum of vibration 55 1-4
quasi-longitudinal vibrations 72-9 room constant 286
room to room sound transmission 301-3
radian frequency 5 rotor and shaft vibration 514, 516-18
radiated sound
estimation using total loss factor concept 431-3 Sabine absorption coefficient 286
see also acoustic source models safety monitoring 560
radiation impedance, resistance and reactance 159-62 sample record 38
radiation ratios SEA see statistical energy analysis
basic concepts 199,203-6,216,221-2 semi-reverberant-field sound measurement techniques
compact bodies 222 287-9
cylinders 225-6, 460-1 shaft and rotor vibration 514, 516-18
definition 203-4 shells see cylindrical shells, dynamic stress/strain
dipole-type sound sources 223-4 short time Fourier transforms (STFTs), as a diagnostic
finite structural elements 221-7 tool 512
infinite flat plate 204-5 signal analysis as a diagnostic tool see diagnostic tools
monopole-type sources 223 signal analysis techniques and functions 342-82
pipes 226-7 analogue signal analysers/analysis 365-6
plates 224-5 auto-correlation functions 351-2
radiation ratio curves 222-3 auto-spectral density functions 352
-.
628 Index
-----.
-------------------------------------
signal analysis (cont.) panel absorbers 317-20
cepstrum analysis 353-6 porous an~ fibrous materials 313, 316
coherence functions 362-4, 378-9 reverberauon room measurements 283-7 313 3
cross-correlation functions 40, 355, 357, 379-80 space absorbers 319 ' , 15
cross-spectral density functions 358-60 sound energy density 145-6
deterministic and random signals 344-7 sound intensity 144-5,279
digital signal analysers/analysis 366-70 analysis as a diagnostic tool 504-7
direct Fourier transforms (DFTs) 366-9 cylindrical line sources 165
dual signal analysis 355-64 dipoles 153, 179
fast Fourier transforms (FFTs) 352, 366 mapping 505
forward Fourier transform 353-5, 367 measurement techniques 290-4
frequency domain analysis 342-4, 352-5 noise source identification 504-6
frequency response functions (transfer functions) piston in an infinite rigid baffle 158
28,47-9,52,358-62 plane waves 144-5
Gaussian distributions 350 quadrupoles 179
Gumble distributions 350 sound power measurement techniques
impulse response functions 357-8, 362 290-4
inverse Fourier transform 353, 367 spherical waves (monopoles) 149, 156, 179
lag windows 374-6 sound measurement 256-9, 282-94
magnitude analysis 347-50 anechoic chambers 282
MaxweII distributions 350 free-field techniques 282
power cepstrum 353-4 measurement instrumentation see microphones
power flow techniques 360 measurement errors 377-80
probability density functions 348-9, 499 objective scales 256-7
probability distribution function 38-9, 348, 497-8 decibels 256
spectral analysis 342-3, 374 sound power 256-7
statistical error problems 370-7 sound pressure levels 256
time domain analysis 342-4, 351-2 reverberant (diffuse) sound fields 283-7
WeibuII distributions 350 semi-reverberant-field techniques 287-9
see also diagnostics using noise and vibration sound intensity measurement 290-4
analysis; diagnostic tools; errors in signal closely spaced sound pressure microphones
analysis; sound 292-3
measurement; sound power; statistical energy dual channel signal analysers 293
analysis (SEA) sound level meters 269-70
skewness 350 subjective scales 257-9
solid bodies in the flow (effects of) 177-80 loudness level (phon) 258
solid structures, interactions with sound waves loudness scale (sone) 258
193-253 subjective response of humans 258
see also discontinuities, sound radiation in close weighted networks 258-9
proximity to; finite plate-type structures, sound see also decibels; frequency analysis bandwidths;
radiation from; infinite plates, sound radiation sound power; vibration measurement
wave!boundary matching concepts sound power 146,273-9
sone 258 dipoles 153-4
sound industrial noise sources 294-5
definition of 128 lateral quadrupoles 162
directional characteristics 158, 278-9 line force excitation (drive-line) 219
energy density 146,285,304 longitudinal quadrupoles 163-4
pressure 143-4, 148-9, 158 models - constant power and volume sources
radiation from an infinite plate 197-203 279-82
radiation from free bending waves in finite piston in an infinite rigid baffle 162
plate-type structures 207-16 plane waves 146
spherical waves 147-51 point force excitation (drive-point) 218
speed of 141 spherical waves (monopoles) 149, 156
see also homogeneous wave equation; measurement
inhomogeneous wave equation; plane waves; free-field techniques 282
sound intensity; reverberant-field techniques 283-7
sound measurement; sound power semi-reverberant-field techniques 287-9
sound-absorbing materials and techniques 313-21 sound intensity techniques 290-4
absorption coefficients for typical materials 321, see also acoustic source models
602 sound pressure levels 273-8
Helmholtz resonators 316-19 pascals (units) 256
impedance tube measurements 313,314 sound reduction index 232
measurement techniques 313-16 sound source ranking see noise source ranking
629 Index
~

sound sources/radiation/propagation acoustic radiation loss factors 410-11

industrial noise sources 294---{) assumptions and procedures 387-8, 390
pressure level/power/intensity relationships basic concepts 384-7
and directivity factors and indices 278-9 coupled oscillators and energy flow 388-90
from large plane surface sources 277-8 dynamic stress/strain/structural vibration
from line sources 275-7 relationships 433-5
from point sources 274-5 energy flow concepts 388-9
see also acoustic source models; sound energy flow relationships 387-97
measurement heat energy flow/vibration analogy 384---{)
sound strength 148 ill-situ estimation procedures 393-5
sound transmission modal density 387
between rooms 301-3 multiple subsystems 395-7
panels and partitions 230-44 non-conservative coupling/coupling damping
transmission coefficient 232,290, 475---{) 430-1
typical TL values 600-1 pipeline system example 386-7
sound transmission coefficients see transmission power dissipation concepts 388-9, 391
coefficients of materials characterising structural component SEA
sound wave fundamentals parameters using noise and vibration signals
aerodynamic sound 128-9 537
basic concepts 4, 128-31 structural loss factors 408-10
jet nozzle noise 130-2 three-subsystem model 427-30
speed of sound 141 total loss factor concept for estimation of sound
structure-borne sound 128 radiated 431-3
wave equations, homogeneous and inhomogeneous two subsystem model 391-3
129 wave transmission analysis 417
see also homogeneous acoustic wave equation; see also coupling loss factors; energy concepts;
inhomogeneous acoustic wave equation; internal loss factors and SEA; modal density
acoustic wave equation; statistical errors with signal analysis see errors with
sound waves in solid structures see solid structures, signal analysis
interactions with sOI,md waves steady-state energy flow measuring technique 412-14
sources of noise and vibration see fault detection, steel pipelines see dynamic stress/strain; pipe flow
prediction and source identification noise and vibration; statistical energy analysis
space absorbers 319 stiffness
space averaging 16, 424-7 complex 31
spectral analysis 342-3 partitions and panels 233-4
for bearing fault detection 522 springs 8
spectral density functions 41-2, 45, 49,352-3,360-4, strings, vibration in 64-72
367-8,374,453,459 boundary considerations 66
spectral window functions 375 complete general equation of the wave motion 65
spectrum see spectral density functions drive-point mechanical impedance 69-70
speed of sound 141 equation of motion in the lateral direction 65
spoilers 468, 469 evaluation of complex constants 68-9
spring theory standing and travelling waves 10-12
damping 8-9 wavenumber concept 67
energy concepts 15 Strouhal number 444
human body as a system of damped springs 9-10 diffusers 468
mass/spring system 14 grilles 469
mass/spring/damper models 9-10 jets 468
with harmonic excitation 22 and pipework design 477-8
modelling 8-9 spoilers 468, 469
potential energy 15-16 turbulent mixing 470
spring stiffness 8 vortex shedding 471
springs, metal, as vibration isolators 330-1 structural loss factor 31,53,75,83,92,408-10
standard deviation 39 for some common materials 410
standards see also damping
bearing vibration limits (CDA/MS/NVSH 107) 540 structural damping 2, 30
machinery vibration severity (ISO 2372, VDI 2056, see also damping
BS 4675) 539 structure-borne sound 193-249
standing waves 4, 11 definition of 128, 194
standing wave ratio 313 fluid-structure interactions 194-201
statistical energy analysis (SEA) 383-440 radiation ratios from structural elements 221-7
applications to coupled systems 423-30 wave!boundary matching concepts 197-201
about SEA 383-4 see also sound transmission

..
 Q

630 Index
iIIIIIIIIIIIIII

subjective noise measurement 257-9 free vibrations with viscous damping 16-21
synchronous time-averaged signals 496 gas pipeline flow induced. noise and vibration
554-7
temporal waveform recovery, as a diagnostic tool industrial vibration sources 294-5
510-11 magnification factor 27
test cases modes of vibration 10
cabin noise on a load-haul-dump vehicle 541-7 quality factor 27
gas pipeline flow induced noise and vibration 554-7 steady-state solutions 25
induction motor noise and vibration 547-50 undamped free vibrations 12-15
racing sloop (yacht) flow induced noise and see also dynamic stress/strain; fluid loading on
vibration 557 vibrating structures; forced vibration; strings
rolling-contact bearing damage 550-4 vibration in; vibration measurement '
three-degree-of-freedom system 59-60 vibration control with machines and engines 320-35
time-averaging 53 audio frequency range - vibration isolators
time-averaged power 29, 54 327-32
time domain analysis 342-4, 351-2 basic principles 320-2
for fault diagnosis 494-50 I dynamic absorption/absorbers 332-4
time record averaging 377 isolation efficiency 324
transfer functions (frequency response functions) 28, low frequency isolation - multiple-degree-of_
47-9,52,358-62 freedom 325-7
transient excitation 33-6 low frequency isolation - sing1e-degree-of-freedom
transmissibility of vibration 323, 329-30 322-5
transmission coefficient 232,290,475-6 damping 323-4
see also transmission loss, sound transmission transmissibility 323
transmission loss see also damping
between rooms 303, 427-30 vibration intensity measurement techniques 536
panels and partitions 232, 235-8 vibration isolators 327-32
pipe walls 471-6 air springs!bags 331
see also transmission coefficient; sound cork pads 330
transmission felt pads 330
transmission matrix modelling conventions fibrous glass pads 330
(acoustics) 184-6 inertia blocks 331-2
travelling waves 10-12 metal springs 331
travelling wave equations (solutions to the equation rubber 330
of motion) vibration measurement 259-61
beams, bending 81 choosing displacement, velocity or acceleration
beams, longitudinal 74 259-60
cylindrical shells I 14 decibel notation 260-3
one-dimensional sound waves 143 frequency considerations 259-60
one-dimensional sound waves with mean flow 183 vibration transducers
plate bending 109 accelerometers 270-3
string 65-8 eddy current probes 270
turbulent mixing, Strouhal number 470 moving element velocity pick-ups 270
turbulence 130-1, 178,442-5,455 vibration severity guides 539-41
two-degree-of-freedom system 56-9 viscoelastic damping 334-5
viscous damping
undamped free vibration 12-5 critical viscous-damping coefficient 18
underdamped motion 19-21 free vibrations 16-21
units and conversion factors 603-4 in real systems 30-2, 452
unit impulse 33-6 see also damping
volume velocity 148, 185
valve noise 469-70, 478-9 vortex shedding 468, 470, 471
variance 39 vOl1ex sound 167, 180-2
velocity see group velocity; particle velocity; phase
velocity; volume velocity waterfall plots 501
vector theory, with acoustic velocity potential 141-2 wave acoustics 131, 133
velocity potential 147 wave!boundary matching concepts 197-201
vibration wave equation
amplitude resonance 26-7 acoustic 140
basics concepts 1-3 bending waves in beams (Euler beam equation)
as complex quantities 14-15,28-9 79-80
damping ratio 25 bending waves in plates 95
forced and free 2 rods and bars 73
 r
! 631
~
Index

vibration string 64-5 propagation 64-7

see also homogeneous acoustic wave equation; propagation in solids 134
inhomogeneous acoustic wave equation Rayleigh waves 84
wave impedance (characteristic mechanical sound waves 4
impedance) 73, 78 standing waves 4, 11-12
wave transmission analysis 417 transmission and reflection 77-9
wave-mode duality concept I, 10-12,70 travelling waves 10-12
wa~enumber velocity 5-6, 65, 74, 80
acoustic 200, 448,462-3, 454-5 wave-mode duality concept I
axial pipe 448, 462-3, 460 wavelength 6
bending 80-1, 95, 200 wave types in structures 84
circumferential pipe 454-5, 462-3, 460 see also bending waves; compressional
concept 5-6, 200 (longitudinal) waves; group velocity;
continuous systems 67, 75 impedance; phase velocity;
diagrams 209-10 quasi-longitudinal vibrations
vectors 210 wavenumber transform approach 217
wavenumber curves, cylindrical shells Weibull distributions 350
117-18 weighted noise levels
see also dispersion curves, in cylindrical shells; basic concept 258-9
dispersion relationships industrial sources 295-6
waves tables 266-7
basic concepts 3-7 windowing 374-7
compressional waves 4-5
dispersive/non-dispersive waves 7 zoom (passband) auto-spectral density 501-2